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[ [ "Extermination camp" ], [ "Introduction", "Nazi Germany used six '''extermination camps''' (), also called '''death camps''' (), or '''killing centers''' (), in Central Europe during World War II to systematically murder over 2.7 million peoplemostly Jewsin the Holocaust.", "The victims of death camps were primarily murdered by gassing, either in permanent installations constructed for this specific purpose, or by means of gas vans.", "The six extermination camps were Chełmno, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, Majdanek and Auschwitz-Birkenau.", "Extermination through labour was also used at the Auschwitz and Majdanek death camps.", "Millions were also murdered in concentration camps, in the Aktion T4, or directly on site.The idea of mass extermination with the use of stationary facilities, to which the victims were taken by train, was the result of earlier Nazi experimentation with chemically manufactured poison gas during the secretive Aktion T4 euthanasia programme against hospital patients with mental and physical disabilities.", "The technology was adapted, expanded, and applied in wartime to unsuspecting victims of many ethnic and national groups; the Jews were the primary target, accounting for over 90 percent of extermination camp victims.", "The genocide of the Jews of Europe was Nazi Germany's \"Final Solution to the Jewish question\"." ], [ "Background", "After the invasion of Poland in September 1939, the secret Aktion T4 euthanasia programmethe systematic murder of German, Austrian and Polish hospital patients with mental or physical disabilities authorized by Hitlerwas initiated by the ''SS'' in order to eliminate \"life unworthy of life\" (), a Nazi designation for people who they considered to have no right to life.", "In 1941, the experience gained in the secretive killing of these hospital patients led to the creation of extermination camps for the implementation of the Final Solution.", "By then, the Jews were already confined to new ghettos and interned in Nazi concentration camps along with other targeted groups, including Roma, and the Soviet POWs.", "The Nazi's so-called \"Final Solution of the Jewish Question\", based on the systematic murder of Europe's Jews by gassing, began during Operation Reinhard, after the June 1941 onset of the Nazi–Soviet war.", "The adoption of the gassing technology by Nazi Germany was preceded by a wave of hands-on killings carried out by the SS , who followed the army during Operation Barbarossa on the Eastern Front.The camps designed specifically for the mass gassings of Jews were established in the months following the Wannsee Conference chaired by Reinhard Heydrich in January 1942 in which the principle was made clear that the Jews of Europe were to be exterminated.", "Responsibility for the logistics was to be handled by the programme administrator, Adolf Eichmann.On 13 October 1941, the SS and Police Leader Odilo Globocnik stationed in Lublin received an oral order from Heinrich Himmleranticipating the fall of Moscowto start immediate construction work on the killing centre at Bełżec in the General Government territory of occupied Poland.", "Notably, the order preceded the Wannsee Conference by three months, but the gassings at Chełmno north of Łódź using gas vans began already in December, under Herbert Lange.", "The camp at Bełżec was operational by March 1942, with leadership brought in from Germany under the guise of (OT).", "By mid-1942, two more death camps had been built on Polish lands for Operation Reinhard: Sobibór (ready in May 1942) under the command of Franz Stangl, and Treblinka (operational by July 1942) under Irmfried Eberl from T4, the only doctor to have served in such a capacity.", "Auschwitz concentration camp was fitted with brand new gas chambers in March 1942.Majdanek had them built in September." ], [ "Definition", "Members of the burned the bodies of victims in the fire pits at Auschwitz II-Birkenau, when the crematoria were overloaded.", "(August 1944)The Nazis distinguished between extermination and concentration camps.", "The terms ''extermination camp'' () and ''death camp'' () were interchangeable in the Nazi system, each referring to camps whose primary function was genocide.", "Six camps meet this definition, though extermination of people happened at every sort of concentration camp or transit camp; the use of the term extermination camp with its exclusive purpose is carried over from Nazi terminology.", "The six camps were Chełmno, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, Majdanek and Auschwitz (also called Auschwitz-Birkenau).Death camps were designed specifically for the systematic killing of people delivered en masse by the Holocaust trains.", "Deportees were normally murdered within a few hours of arrival at Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka.", "The Reinhard extermination camps were under Globocnik's direct command; each of them was run by 20 to 35 men from the branch of the , augmented by about one hundred Trawnikisauxiliaries mostly from Soviet Ukraine, and up to one thousand slave labourers each.", "The Jewish men, women and children were delivered from the ghettos for \"special treatment\" in an atmosphere of terror by uniformed police battalions from both Orpo and Schupo.Death camps differed from concentration camps located in Germany proper, such as Bergen-Belsen, Oranienburg, Ravensbrück, and Sachsenhausen, which were prison camps set up prior to World War II for people defined as 'undesirable'.", "From March 1936, all Nazi concentration camps were managed by the (the Skull Units, SS-TV), who operated extermination camps from 1941 as well.", "An SS anatomist, Johann Kremer, after witnessing the gassing of victims at Birkenau, wrote in his diary on 2 September 1942: \"Dante's Inferno seems to me almost a comedy compared to this.", "They don't call Auschwitz the camp of annihilation for nothing!\"", "The distinction was evident during the Nuremberg trials, when Dieter Wisliceny (a deputy to Adolf Eichmann) was asked to name the camps, and he identified Auschwitz and Majdanek as such.", "Then, when asked, \"How do you classify the camps Mauthausen, Dachau, and Buchenwald?", "\", he replied, \"They were normal concentration camps, from the point of view of the department of Eichmann.", "\"Murders were not limited to these camps.", "Sites for the \"Holocaust by Bullets\" are marked on the map of The Holocaust in Occupied Poland by white skulls (without the black background), where people were lined up next to a ravine and shot by soldiers with rifles.", "Sites included Bronna Góra, Ponary, Rumbula and others.Mass deportations: the pan-European routes to the extermination campsIrrespective of round-ups for extermination camps, the Nazis abducted millions of foreigners for slave labour in other types of camps, which provided perfect cover for the extermination programme.", "Prisoners represented about a quarter of the total workforce of the Reich, with mortality rates exceeding 75 percent due to starvation, disease, exhaustion, executions, and physical brutality." ], [ "History", "In the early years of World War II, the Jews were primarily sent to forced labour camps and ghettoised, but from 1942 onward they were deported to the extermination camps under the guise of \"resettlement\".", "For political and logistical reasons, the most infamous Nazi German killing factories were built in occupied Poland, where most of the intended victims lived; Poland had the greatest Jewish population in Nazi-controlled Europe.", "On top of that, the new death camps outside of Germany's prewar borders could be kept secret from the German civil populace.=== Pure extermination camps ===Jewish children during deportation to the Chełmno extermination campDuring the initial phase of the Final Solution, gas vans producing poisonous exhaust fumes were developed in the occupied Soviet Union (USSR) and at the Chełmno extermination camp in occupied Poland, before being used elsewhere.", "The killing method was based on experience gained by the SS during the secretive programme of involuntary euthanasia.", "There were two types of death chambers operating during the Holocaust.Unlike at Auschwitz, where cyanide-based Zyklon B was used to exterminate trainloads of prisoners under the guise of \"relocation\", the camps at Treblinka, Bełżec, and Sobibór, built during Operation Reinhard (October 1941November 1943), used lethal exhaust fumes produced by large internal combustion engines.", "The three killing centres of were constructed predominantly for the extermination of Poland's Jews trapped in the Nazi ghettos.", "At first, the victims' bodies were buried with the use of crawler excavators, but they were later exhumed and incinerated in open-air pyres to hide the evidence of genocide in what became known as .The six camps considered to be purely for extermination were Chełmno extermination camp, Bełżec extermination camp, Sobibor extermination camp, Treblinka extermination camp, Majdanek extermination camp and Auschwitz extermination camp (also called Auschwitz-Birkenau).Whereas the Auschwitz II (Auschwitz–Birkenau) and Majdanek camps were parts of a labor camp complex, the Chełmno and Operation Reinhard death camps (that is, Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka) were built exclusively for the rapid extermination of entire communities of people (primarily Jews) within hours of their arrival.", "All were constructed near branch lines that linked to the Polish railway system, with staff members transferring between locations.", "These camps had almost identical design: they were several hundred metres in length and width, and were equipped with only minimal staff housing and support installations not meant for the victims crammed into the railway transports.", "The Nazis deceived the victims upon their arrival, telling them that they were at a temporary transit stop, and would soon continue to German (work camps) farther to the east.", "Selected able-bodied prisoners delivered to the death camps were not immediately killed, but instead were pressed into labor units called to help with the extermination process by removing corpses from the gas chambers and burning them.=== Concentration and extermination camps ===March to the gas chambers, one of Sonderkommando photographs taken secretly at rightAt the camps of Operation Reinhard, including Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka, trainloads of prisoners were murdered immediately after arrival in gas chambers designed exclusively for that purpose.", "The mass killing facilities were developed at about the same time inside the Auschwitz II-Birkenau subcamp of a forced labour complex, and at the Majdanek concentration camp.", "In most other camps prisoners were selected for slave labor first; they were kept alive on starvation rations and made available to work as required.", "Auschwitz, Majdanek, and Jasenovac were retrofitted with Zyklon B gas chambers and crematoria buildings as the time went on, remaining operational until war's end in 1945." ], [ "Extermination procedure", "Carpathian Ruthenian Jews arrive at Auschwitz–Birkenau, May 1944.Without being registered to the camp system, most were killed in gas chambers hours after arriving.", "(Photograph from the Auschwitz Album)Heinrich Himmler visited the outskirts of Minsk in 1941 to witness a mass shooting.", "He was told by the commanding officer there that the shootings were proving psychologically damaging to those being asked to pull the triggers.", "Thus, Himmler concluded that another method of mass killing was required.", "Auschwitz Commandant Rudolf Höss claimed in his memoir that many were \"unable to endure wading through blood any longer\" and went mad or killed themselves, but he gives no specific numbers to support this claim.The Nazis had first used gassing with carbon monoxide cylinders to murder 70,000 disabled people in Germany in what they called a 'euthanasia programme' to disguise that mass murder was taking place.", "Despite the lethal effects of carbon monoxide, this was seen as unsuitable for use in the East due to the cost of transporting the carbon monoxide in cylinders.Each extermination camp operated differently, yet each had designs for quick and efficient industrialized killing.", "While Höss was away on an official journey in late August 1941 his deputy, Karl Fritzsch, tested out an idea.", "At Auschwitz clothes infested with lice were treated with crystallised prussic acid.", "The crystals were made to order by the IG Farben chemicals company for which the brand name was Zyklon B.", "Once released from their container, Zyklon B crystals in the air released a lethal cyanide gas.", "Fritzsch tried out the effect of Zyklon B on Soviet POWs, who were locked up in cells in the basement of the bunker for this experiment.", "Höss on his return was briefed and impressed with the results and this became the camp strategy for extermination as it was also to be at Majdanek.", "Besides gassing, the camp guards continued killing prisoners via mass shooting, starvation, torture, etc.=== Gassings ===SS Kurt Gerstein of the Institute for Hygiene of the , told a Swedish diplomat during the war, about life in a death camp.", "He recounted that on 19 August 1942, he arrived at Bełżec extermination camp (which was equipped with carbon monoxide gas chambers) and was shown the unloading of 45 train cars filled with 6,700 Jews, many already dead.", "The rest were marched naked to the gas chambers, where:March of new arrivals along the SS barracks at Birkenau toward the gas chambers near crematoria II and III, 27 May 1944.", "(Photograph from the Auschwitz Album)Auschwitz Camp Commandant Rudolf Höss reported that the first time Zyklon B pellets were used on the Jews, many suspected they were to be killeddespite having been deceived into believing they were to be deloused and then returned to the camp.", "As a result, the Nazis identified and isolated \"difficult individuals\" who might alert the prisoners, and removed them from the masslest they incite revolt among the deceived majority of prisoners en route to the gas chambers.", "The \"difficult\" prisoners were led to a site out of view to be killed off discreetly.According to Höss, enslaved prisoners, euphemistically called (Special Detachment), assisted in the process of extermination; they encouraged the Jews to undress and accompanied them into the gas chambers which were outfitted to appear as shower rooms (with nonworking water nozzles, and tile walls); and remained with the victims until just before the chamber door closed.", "To psychologically maintain the \"calming effect\" of the delousing deception, an SS man stood at the door until the end.", "The talked to the victims about life in the camp to pacify the suspicious ones, and hurried them inside; to that effect, they also assisted the aged and the very young in undressing.", "Many young mothers hid their infants beneath their piled clothes fearing that the delousing \"disinfectant\" might harm them.", "Camp Commandant Höss reported that the \"men of the Special Detachment were particularly on the look-out for this\", and encouraged the women to take their children into the \"shower room\".", "Likewise, the comforted older children who might cry \"because of the strangeness of being undressed in this fashion\".Yet, not every prisoner was deceived by such tactics; Commandant Höss spoke of Jews \"who either guessed, or knew, what awaited them, nevertheless ... they found the courage to joke with the children, to encourage them, despite the mortal terror visible in their own eyes\".", "Some women would suddenly \"give the most terrible shrieks while undressing, or tear their hair, or scream like maniacs\"; these prisoners were taken away for execution by shooting.", "In such circumstances, others, meaning to save themselves at the gas chamber's threshold, betrayed the identities and \"revealed the addresses of those members of their race still in hiding\".Once the door of the filled gas chamber was sealed, pellets of Zyklon B were dropped through special holes in the roof.", "Regulations required that the Camp Commandant supervise the preparations, the gassing (through a peephole), and the aftermath looting of the corpses.", "Commandant Höss reported that the gassed victims \"showed no signs of convulsion\"; the Auschwitz camp physicians attributed that to the \"paralyzing effect on the lungs\" of the Zyklon B gas, which killed ''before'' the victim began suffering convulsions.", "The corpses were additionally found half-squatting, their skin discolored pink with red and green spots, with some foaming at the mouth or bleeding from their ears, exacerbated by the crowding in gas chambers.As a matter of political training, some high-ranked Nazi Party leaders and SS officers were sent to Auschwitz–Birkenau to witness the gassings.", "As the Auschwitz Camp Commandant Rudolf Höss justified the extermination by explaining the need for \"the iron determination with which we must carry out Hitler's orders\".=== Corpse disposal ===After the gassings, the removed the corpses from the gas chambers, then extracted any gold teeth.", "Initially, the victims were buried in mass graves, but were later cremated during in all camps of Operation Reinhard.The was responsible for burning the corpses in the pits, stoking the fires, draining surplus body fat and turning over the \"mountain of burning corpses ... so that the draft might fan the flames\", wrote Commandant Höss in his memoir while in the Polish custody.", "He was impressed by the diligence of prisoners from the so-called Special Detachment who carried out their duties despite their being well aware that they, too, would meet exactly the same fate in the end.", "At the Lazaret killing station they held the sick so they would never see the gun while being shot.", "They did it \"in such a matter-of-course manner that they might, themselves, have been the exterminators\", wrote Höss.", "He further said that the men ate and smoked \"even when engaged in the grisly job of burning corpses which had been lying for some time in mass graves.\"", "They occasionally encountered the corpse of a relative, or saw them entering the gas chambers.", "According to Höss, they were obviously shaken by this but \"it never led to any incident\".", "He mentioned the case of a who found the body of his wife, yet continued to drag corpses along \"as though nothing had happened\".At Auschwitz, the corpses were incinerated in crematoria and the ashes either buried, scattered, or dumped in the river.", "At Sobibór, Treblinka, Bełżec, and Chełmno, the corpses were incinerated on pyres.", "The efficiency of industrialised murder at Auschwitz-Birkenau led to the construction of three buildings with crematoria designed by specialists from the firm J.", "A. Topf & Söhne.", "They burned bodies 24 hours a day, and yet the death rate was at times so high that corpses also needed to be burned in open-air pits." ], [ "Victims", "The estimated total number of people who were murdered in the six Nazi extermination camps is 2.7 million, according to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.", "Camp Estimated deaths Operational Occupied territory Current country of location Primary means for mass killings 1,100,000 May 1940 – January 1945 Province of Upper Silesia Poland Zyklon B gas chambers Treblinka 800,000 23 July 1942 – 19 October 1943 General Government district Poland Carbon monoxide gas chambers Bełżec 600,000 17 March 1942 – end of June 1943 Poland Carbon monoxide gas chambers Chełmno 320,000 8 December 1941 – March 1943,June 1944 – 18 January 1945 District of Reichsgau Wartheland Poland Carbon monoxide vans Sobibór 250,000 16 May 1942 – 17 October 1943 General Government district Poland Carbon monoxide gas chambers Majdanek at least 80,000 1 October 1941 – 22 July 1944 Poland Zyklon B gas chambers" ], [ "Dismantling and attempted concealment", "Former slave laborers stand next to a bone crushing machine at the Janowska concentration camp (photo taken in August 1944, after camp's liberation)The Nazis attempted to either partially or completely dismantle the extermination camps in order to hide any evidence that people had been murdered there.", "This was an attempt to conceal not only the extermination process but also the buried remains.", "As a result of the secretive , the camps were dismantled by commandos of condemned prisoners, their records were destroyed, and the mass graves were dug up.", "Some extermination camps that remained uncleared of evidence were liberated by Soviet troops, who followed different standards of documentation and openness than the Western allies did.Nonetheless Majdanek was captured nearly intact due to the rapid advance of the Soviet Red Army during Operation Bagration." ], [ "Commemoration", "In the post-war period the government of the People's Republic of Poland created monuments at the extermination camp sites.", "These early monuments mentioned no ethnic, religious, or national particulars of the Nazi victims.", "The extermination camps sites have been accessible to everyone in recent decades.", "They are popular destinations for visitors from all over the world, especially the most infamous Nazi death camp, Auschwitz near the town of Oświęcim.", "In the early 1990s, the Jewish Holocaust organisations debated with the Polish Catholic groups about \"What religious symbols of martyrdom are appropriate as memorials in a Nazi death camp such as Auschwitz?\"", "The Jews opposed the placement of Christian memorials such as the Auschwitz cross near Auschwitz I where mostly Poles were killed.", "The Jewish victims of the Holocaust were mostly killed at Auschwitz II Birkenau.The March of the Living is organized in Poland annually since 1988.Marchers come from countries as diverse as Estonia, New Zealand, Panama, and Turkey.=== The camps and Holocaust denial ===Documentary evidence: A consignment note for delivering prisoners () to Sobibór in November 1943Holocaust deniers or negationists are people and organizations who assert that the Holocaust did not occur, or that it did not occur in the historically recognized manner and extent.", "Holocaust deniers claim that the extermination camps were actually transit camps from which Jews were deported farther east.", "However, these theories are disproven by surviving German documents, which show that Jews were sent to the camps to be murdered.Extermination camp research is difficult because of extensive attempts by the SS and Nazi regime to conceal the existence of the extermination camps.", "The existence of the extermination camps is firmly established by testimonies of camp survivors and Final Solution perpetrators, material evidence (the remaining camps, etc.", "), Nazi photographs and films of the killings, and camp administration records.=== Awareness ===In 2017 a Körber Foundation survey found that 40 percent of 14-year-olds in Germany did not know what Auschwitz was.", "A 2018 survey organized in the United States by the Claims Conference, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, and others found that 66 percent of the American millennials who were surveyed (and 41 percent of all U.S. adults) did not know what Auschwitz was.", "In 2019, a survey of 1,100 Canadians found that 49 percent of them could not name any of the Nazi camps which were located in German-occupied Europe." ], [ "See also", "* German camps in occupied Poland during World War II* List of Nazi extermination camps and euthanasia centers* \"Polish death camp\" controversy* Topf and Sons* War crimes in occupied Poland during World War II" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " The Holocaust History Project, Quick Facts on the Holocaust.", "Essays, Documents, Reproductions.", "Retrieved 15 September 2015.", "* Holocaust and concentration camps information* The Holocaust Education & Archive Research Team* Official U.S. National Archive Footage of Nazi camps* Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka.", "Holocaust Denial and Operation Reinhard." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Enterprise" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Enterprise''' (or the archaic spelling '''Enterprize''') may refer to:" ], [ "Business and economics", "=== Brands and enterprises ===* Enterprise GP Holdings, an energy holding company* Enterprise plc, a UK civil engineering and maintenance company* Enterprise Products, a natural gas and crude oil pipeline company* Enterprise Records, a record label* Enterprise Rent-A-Car, a car rental Provider*Enterprise Holdings, the parent company=== General === Business, economic activity done by a businessperson* Big business, larger corporation commonly called \"enterprise\" in business jargon (excluding small and medium-sized businesses)* Company, a legal entity practicing a business activity* Enterprises in the Soviet Union, the analog of \"company\" in the former socialist state* Enterprise architecture, a strategic management discipline within an organization* Enterprise Capital Fund, a type of venture capital in the UK* Entrepreneurship, the practice of starting new organizations, particularly new businesses* Social enterprise, an organization that applies commercial strategies to improve well-beingUnited Kingdom enterprise law, the regulation of businesses and public sector bodies within the economic constitution=== Organizations === Enterprize Canada, a student-run entrepreneurial competition and conference* Enterprise for High School Students, a non-profit organization" ], [ "Computing", "* Enterprise (computer), a 1980s UK 8-bit home computer, also known as ''Flan'' and ''Elan''* Enterprise resource planning (ERP), integrated management of core business processes or the technology supporting such management* Enterprise software, business-oriented computer applications* Enterprise storage, for large businesses* Windows Enterprise, an edition of several versions of Microsoft Windows" ], [ "Entertainment and media", "=== Television ===* ''Star Trek: Enterprise'', also ''Enterprise'', a 2001-2005 television series** ''Enterprise'' (soundtrack), a 2002 soundtrack album from the first season of the series* ''Enterprice'' (British TV series), a 2018 television series=== Fictional entities ======= Star Trek vessels ====* Starship ''Enterprise'', a list, timeline and brief description of starships in the fictional history of ''Star Trek'' ''Enterprise'' (NX-01), the main setting of ''Star Trek: Enterprise'' USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701), from the original ''Star Trek'' television series and several ''Star Trek'' films USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-A),from the fourth, fifth and sixth ''Star Trek'' films USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-B), from the film ''Star Trek: Generations'' USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-C), from the ''Star Trek: Next Generation'' episode \"Yesterday's Enterprise\" USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-D), from ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'' USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-E), from the films ''Star Trek: First Contact'', ''Star Trek: Insurrection'', and ''Star Trek: Nemesis'' USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-F), a non-player ship in the ''Star Trek Online'' video game** USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-J), from the ''Star Trek: Enterprise'' episode \"Azati Prime\"==== Other fictional vessels ====* ''Enterprise'', an airship in the game ''Final Fantasy IV''* ''Enterprise'', an airship in the game Final Fantasy XIV* ''Enterprise'', the title ship in the 1959–1961 television series ''Riverboat''* ''Enterprise'', a starship in H. Beam Piper's novel ''Space Viking''=== Newspapers ==='''Australia'''* ''The Enterprise'' (Katoomba), in Katoomba, New South Wales (1913)'''United States'''* ''Bastrop Daily Enterprise'', in Louisiana* ''Chico Enterprise-Record'', in Chico, California* ''High Point Enterprise'', in North Carolina* ''The Beaumont Enterprise'', in Texas* ''The Enterprise'' (Brockton), in Brockton, Massachusetts* ''The Enterprise'' (Omaha), in Nebraska (1893–1914)* ''Malheur Enterprise'', in Malheur County, Oregon* ''The Press-Enterprise'', in Riverside, California (1885–1983)" ], [ "Places", "=== Canada ===* Enterprise, Northwest Territories, a hamlet* Enterprise, a hamlet in the township of Stone Mills, Ontario* Rural Municipality of Enterprise No.", "142, Saskatchewan=== United States ===* Enterprise, Alabama, a city* Enterprise, California (disambiguation)* Enterprise, Florida, an unincorporated community* Enterprise, Indiana, an unincorporated community* Enterprise, Iowa, an unincorporated community* Enterprise, Kansas, a city* Enterprise, Louisiana, an unincorporated community* Enterprise, Minnesota, an abandoned townsite* Enterprise, Clarke County, Mississippi, a town* Enterprise, Union County, Mississippi, an unincorporated community* Enterprise, Linn County, Missouri, an unincorporated community* Enterprise, McDonald County, Missouri, a ghost town* Enterprise, Shelby County, Missouri, an unincorporated community* Enterprise, Nevada, a census-designated place* Enterprise, Ohio (disambiguation)* Enterprise, Oklahoma, a census-designated place* Enterprise, Oregon, a city* Enterprise, Utah, a city* Enterprise, Morgan County, Utah, a census-designated place* Enterprise, West Virginia, a census-designated place in Harrison County* Enterprise, Wirt County, West Virginia, an unincorporated community* Enterprise (community), Wisconsin, an unincorporated community* Enterprise, Wisconsin, a town* Enterprise Rancheria in California* Enterprise Township, Michigan* Enterprise Township, Jackson County, Minnesota* Enterprise Township, Valley County, Nebraska=== Other places ===* Enterprise, Guyana, a village* Enterprise, Trinidad and Tobago* Enterprise Rupes, an escarpment on Mercury" ], [ "Vehicles", "=== Aircraft ===* ''Enterprise'' (balloon), a gas-inflated aerial reconnaissance balloon used by the Union Army during the American Civil War* ''Enterprise'', a US Navy L-class blimp* ''Enterprise'', an Armstrong Whitworth Ensign plane=== Spacecraft ===* IXS ''Enterprise'', a NASA conceptual interstellar ship* Space Shuttle ''Enterprise''* VSS ''Enterprise'', the inaugural vessel of the Virgin Galactic suborbital tourism fleet=== Trains ===* Enterprise (train service), between Belfast and Dublin* ''Enterprise'' (Via Rail train), a former service between Montreal and Toronto* Enterprise, an LNER Class A1/A3 locomotive=== Watercraft ======= United States Navy ships ====(Chronological)* , a Continental Navy sloop captured from the British, burned to prevent recapture in 1777* , a schooner that fired the first shots in the First Barbary War* , a schooner, stationed primarily in South America to patrol and protect commerce* , a steam-powered sloop-of-war used for surveying, patrolling, and training until 1909* , a motorboat (1917–1919) used in World War I as a non-commissioned section patrol craft* (1936), a ''Yorktown''-class aircraft carrier, and the most decorated U.S. Navy ship* (1961), the world's first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier* (2027), a planned ''Gerald R. Ford''-class aircraft carrier==== Royal Navy ships ====(Chronological)* was a 24-gun sixth rate, previously the French frigate , captured in May 1705.She was wrecked in October 1707.", "* was a 44-gun fifth rate launched in 1709.She underwent a great repair in 1718–19, was hulked in 1740 and fitted as a hospital ship in 1745 before being sold in 1749.", "* , a 44-gun frigate, was to have been named ''Enterprise'', but was renamed five months before her launch in 1741.", "* was an 8 gun sloop captured from the Spanish in 1743.She was employed solely in the Mediterranean as a dispatch vessel and tender, and was sold in 1748 at Minorca.", "* HMS ''Enterprise'' was a 48-gun fifth rate launched in 1693 as .", "She was renamed ''Enterprise'' in 1744 as a 44-gun fifth rate and was broken up in 1771.", "* was a 28-gun sixth-rate frigate launched in August 1774, on harbour service from 1790 and broken up in 1807.", "* was a 10-gun tender captured by the Americans in 1775, see USS ''Enterprise'' (1775).", "* HMS ''Enterprise'' was a ship used for harbour service, launched in 1778 as .", "''Resource'' was rebuilt as a 22-gun floating battery in 1804, renamed ''Enterprise'' in 1806 and sold in 1816.", "* was a wooden paddle gunvessel purchased in 1824 and in service until 1830.", "* was a survey sloop launched in 1848, used as a coal hulk from 1860 and sold in 1903.", "* HMS ''Enterprise'' was to have been a wooden screw sloop.", "She was laid down in 1861, renamed HMS ''Circassian'' in 1862 but cancelled in 1863.", "* was an ironclad sloop ordered as HMS ''Circassian'', but renamed in 1862.She was launched in 1864 and sold in 1884.", "* was an light cruiser launched in 1919 and sold in 1946.", "* was an inshore survey ship launched in 1958 and sold in 1985.", "* is an multi-role survey vessel (hydrographic/oceanographic) launched in 2002 and currently in service.==== Other ships ====* , a J-class yacht involved in the America's Cup* , a schooner, previously a privateer, used by the Continental Navy in Chesapeake Bay until 1777* , a steamboat operating during the Battle of New Orleans* , an Australian topsail schooner used for the founding of Melbourne, Australia** , a replica of the 1829 ''Enterprize''* , forced by weather into Bermuda in 1835, resulting in the liberation of most of the slaves on board* , a Canadian 19th-century steamer on the Columbia and Fraser rivers* , a sidewheeler, built in San Francisco, operated on the Fraser River system, from 1861 to her loss in 1885* , a Canadian pioneer sternwheeler on the upper Fraser River* PS ''Enterprise'', an 1878 Australian paddle steamer on the Murray, Darling and Murrumbidgee Rivers* , an American steamboat that operated on the Willamette River in Oregon* ''Enterprise'', a sailing ship caught in a storm off St. Ives, Cornwall in 1903* ''London Enterprise'' (1950), an oil tanker built for London & Overseas Freighters, scrapped * ''London Enterprise'' (1983), a Panamax oil tanker built for London & Overseas Freighters* (1944–1952), an American cargo ship originally commissioned as the SS ''Cape Kumukaki'' (C1-B)* , see Boats of the Mackenzie River watershed==== Ship classes ====* , a class of sailboat* ''Discoverer Enterprise'', the namesake of a class of deepwater drillships" ], [ "Other uses", "* Enterprise (apple)* Enterprise (horse), a British Thoroughbred racehorse* Enterprise (ride), an amusement ride* Enterprise Cup, an annual rugby union competition in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda* Enterprise MRT station, an upcoming MRT station on the Jurong Region line in Singapore* Enterprise number, a former type of US business phone number which would automatically accept a collect call* USS ''Enterprise'' (BLDG 7115), a U.S. Navy Recruit Barracks named in honor of the Navy's ''Enterprise'' ships* \"The Enterprise\", a secret operation carried out by senior officials of the Reagan administration, used to identify the perpetrators of the Iran-Contra affair." ], [ "See also", "* Enterprise Building (disambiguation)* Business (disambiguation)* Enterprise High School (disambiguation)* Entreprenant (disambiguation), the French word for ''enterprising'' and the name of several sailing vessels* Entreprise, a variant spelling and the name of several sailing vessels* Free enterprise (disambiguation)* USS Enterprise (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Excommunication" ], [ "Introduction", "Sala Regia, by Giorgio Vasari, depicting Pope Gregory IX excommunicating Frederick II.", "Since few details were provided to the artist, Vasari chose to paint an excommunication scene generically.", "In the traditional excommunication procedure, the pope and his priests would hurl burning candles on the ground and stamp them out.", "The painter however here chose to show the pope personally stepping on the emperor.", "'''Excommunication''' is an institutional act of religious censure used to deprive, suspend, or limit membership in a religious community or to restrict certain rights within it, in particular those of being in communion with other members of the congregation, and of receiving the sacraments.It is practiced by all of the ancient churches (such as the Catholic Church, Oriental Orthodox churches and the Eastern Orthodox churches) as well as by other Christian denominations, but it is also used more generally to refer to similar types of institutional religious exclusionary practices and shunning among other religious groups.", "The Amish have also been known to excommunicate members that were either seen or known for breaking rules, or questioning the church, a practice known as shunning.", "Jehovah's Witnesses use the term '''disfellowship''' to refer to their form of excommunication.The word ''excommunication'' means putting a specific individual or group out of communion.", "In some denominations, excommunication includes spiritual condemnation of the member or group.", "Excommunication may involve banishment, shunning, and shaming, depending on the group, the offense that caused excommunication, or the rules or norms of the religious community.", "The grave act is often revoked in response to manifest repentance." ], [ "Bahá'í Faith", "Mírzá Muhammad ʻAlí, son of Bahá'u'lláh was excommunicated by 'Abdu'l-Bahá.Excommunication among Bahá'ís is rare and generally not used for transgressions of community standards, intellectual dissent, or conversion to other religions.", "Instead, it is the most severe punishment, reserved for suppressing organized dissent that threatens the unity of believers.", "''Covenant-breaker'' is a term used by Bahá'ís to refer to a person who has been excommunicated from the Bahá'í community for breaking the 'Covenant': actively promoting schism in the religion or otherwise opposing the legitimacy of the chain of succession of leadership.Currently, the Universal House of Justice has the sole authority to declare a person a Covenant-breaker, and once identified, all Bahá'ís are expected to shun them, even if they are family members.", "According to 'Abdu'l Baha Covenant-breaking is a contagious disease.", "The Bahá'í writings forbid association with Covenant-breakers and Bahá'ís are urged to avoid their literature, thus providing an exception to the Bahá'í principle of ''independent investigation of truth''.", "Most Bahá'ís are unaware of the small Bahá'í divisions that exist." ], [ "Christianity", "The purpose of excommunication is to exclude from the church those members who have behaviors or teachings contrary to the beliefs of a Christian community (heresy).", "It aims to protect members of the church from abuses and allow the offender to recognize their error and repent.=== Catholic Church ===Chiesa della Pietà in Venice, the church of the orphanage.", "This is where the foundling wheel once stood.", "The inscription declares, citing a 12 November 1548 papal bull of Pope Paul III, that God inflicts \"maledictions and excommunications\" on all who abandon a child of theirs whom they have the means to rear, and that they cannot be absolved unless they first refund all expenses incurred.Within the Catholic Church, there are differences between the discipline of the majority Latin Church regarding excommunication and that of the Eastern Catholic Churches.==== Latin Church ====Martin Luther was excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1521.Excommunication can be either (automatic, incurred at the moment of committing the offense for which canon law imposes that penalty) or (incurred only when imposed by a legitimate superior or declared as the sentence of an ecclesiastical court).Threat of excommunication for stealing books from the Salamanca University libraryThe Catholic Church teaches in the Council of Trent that \"excommunicated persons are not members of the Church, because they have been cut off by her sentence from the number of her children and belong not to her communion until they repent\".In the papal bull (May 16, 1520), Pope Leo X condemned Luther's twenty-third proposition according to which \"excommunications are merely external punishments, nor do they deprive a man of the common spiritual prayers of the Church\".", "Pope Pius VI in (August 28, 1794) condemned the notion which maintained that the effect of excommunication is only exterior because of its own nature it excludes only from exterior communion with the Church, as if, said the pope, excommunication were not a spiritual penalty binding in heaven and affecting souls.", "The excommunicated person, being excluded from the society of the Church, still bears the indelible mark of Baptism and is subject to the jurisdiction of the Church.", "They are excluded from engaging in certain activities.", "These activities are listed in Canon 1331 §1, and prohibit the individual from any ministerial participation in celebrating the sacrifice of the Eucharist or any other ceremonies of worship; celebrating or receiving the sacraments; or exercising any ecclesiastical offices, ministries, or functions.Isabelo de los Reyes, founder of the Aglipayan Church, was excommunicated by Pope Leo XIII in 1903 as a schismatic apostate.Under current Catholic canon law, excommunicates remain bound by ecclesiastical obligations such as attending Mass, even though they are barred from receiving the Eucharist and from taking an active part in the liturgy (reading, bringing the offerings, etc.).", "\"Excommunicates lose rights, such as the right to the sacraments, but they are still bound to the obligations of the law; their rights are restored when they are reconciled through the remission of the penalty.", "\"These are the only effects for those who have incurred a excommunication.", "For instance, a priest may not refuse Communion publicly to those who are under an automatic excommunication, as long as it has not been officially declared to have been incurred by them, even if the priest knows that they have incurred it—although if the person's offence was a \"manifest grave sin\", then the priest is obliged to refuse their communion by canon 915.On the other hand, if the priest knows that excommunication has been imposed on someone or that an automatic excommunication has been declared (and is no longer merely an undeclared automatic excommunication), he is forbidden to administer Holy Communion to that person.In the Catholic Church, excommunication is normally resolved by a declaration of repentance, profession of the Creed (if the offense involved heresy) and an Act of Faith, or renewal of obedience (if that was a relevant part of the offending act, i.e., an act of schism) by the excommunicated person and the lifting of the censure (absolution) by a priest or bishop empowered to do this.", "\"The absolution can be in the internal (private) forum only, or also in the external (public) forum, depending on whether scandal would be given if a person were privately absolved and yet publicly considered unrepentant.", "\"==== Eastern Catholic Churches ====In the Eastern Catholic Churches, excommunication is imposed only by decree, never incurred automatically by excommunication.", "A distinction is made between minor and major excommunication.", "Those on whom minor excommunication has been imposed are excluded from receiving the Eucharist and can also be excluded from participating in the Divine Liturgy.", "They can even be excluded from entering a church when divine worship is being celebrated there.", "The decree of excommunication must indicate the precise effect of the excommunication and, if required, its duration.Those under major excommunication are in addition forbidden to receive not only the Eucharist but also the other sacraments, to administer sacraments or sacramentals, to exercise any ecclesiastical offices, ministries, or functions whatsoever, and any such exercise by them is null and void.", "They are to be removed from participation in the Divine Liturgy and any public celebrations of divine worship.", "They are forbidden to make use of any privileges granted to them and cannot be given any dignity, office, ministry, or function in the church, they cannot receive any pension or emoluments associated with these dignities etc., and they are deprived of the right to vote or to be elected.=== Eastern Orthodox Church ===In the Eastern Orthodox Church, excommunication is the exclusion of a member from the Eucharist.", "It is not expulsion from the churches.", "This can happen for such reasons as not having confessed within that year; excommunication can also be imposed as part of a penitential period.", "It is generally done with the goal of restoring the member to full communion.", "Before an excommunication of significant duration is imposed, the bishop is usually consulted.", "The Eastern Orthodox do have a means of expulsion, by pronouncing anathema, but this is reserved only for acts of serious and unrepentant heresy.", "As an example of this, the Second Council of Constantinople in 553, in its eleventh capitula, declared: \"If anyone does not anathematize Arius, Eunomius, Macedonius, Apollinaris, Nestorius, Eutyches and Origen, as well as their impious writings, as also all other heretics already condemned and anathematized by the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, and by the aforesaid four Holy Synods and if anyone does not equally anathematize all those who have held and hold or who in their impiety persist in holding to the end the same opinion as those heretics just mentioned: let him be anathema.", "\"=== Lutheran churches ===Although Lutheranism technically has an excommunication process, some denominations and congregations do not use it.", "In the Smalcald Articles Luther differentiates between the \"great\" and \"small\" excommunication.", "The \"small\" excommunication is simply barring an individual from the Lord's Supper and \"other fellowship in the church\".", "While the \"great\" excommunication excluded a person from both the church and political communities which he considered to be outside the authority of the church and only for civil leaders.", "A modern Lutheran practice is laid out in the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod's 1986 explanation to the Small Catechism, defined beginning at Questions No.", "277–284, in \"The Office of Keys\".", "Many Lutheran denominations operate under the premise that the entire congregation (as opposed to the pastor alone) must take appropriate steps for excommunication, and there are not always precise rules, to the point where individual congregations often set out rules for excommunicating laymen (as opposed to clergy).", "For example, churches may sometimes require that a vote must be taken at Sunday services; some congregations require that this vote be unanimous.In the Church of Sweden and the Church of Denmark, excommunicated individuals are turned out from their parish in front of their congregation.", "They are not forbidden, however, to attend church and participate in other acts of devotion, although they are to sit in a place appointed by the priest (which was at a distance from others).The Lutheran process, though rarely used, has created unusual situations in recent years due to its somewhat democratic excommunication process.", "One example was an effort to get serial killer Dennis Rader excommunicated from his denomination (the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America) by individuals who tried to \"lobby\" Rader's fellow church members into voting for his excommunication.=== Anglican Communion ======= Church of England ====The Church of England does not have any specific canons regarding how or why a member can be excommunicated, although it has a canon according to which ecclesiastical burial may be refused to someone \"declared excommunicate for some grievous and notorious crime and no man to testify to his repentance\".The punishment of imprisonment for being excommunicated from the Church of England was removed from English law in 1963.Historian Christopher Hill found that, in pre-revolutionary England, excommunication was common but fell into disrepute because it was applied unevenly and could be avoided on payment of fines.==== Episcopal Church of the United States of America ====The ECUSA is in the Anglican Communion, and shares many canons with the Church of England which would determine its policy on excommunication.=== Reformed churches ===In the Reformed Churches, excommunication has generally been seen as the culmination of church discipline, which is one of the three marks of the Church.", "The Westminster Confession of Faith sees it as the third step after \"admonition\" and \"suspension from the sacrament of the Lord's Supper for a season.\"", "Yet, John Calvin argues in his ''Institutes of the Christian Religion'' that church censures do not \"consign those who are excommunicated to perpetual ruin and damnation\", but are designed to induce repentance, reconciliation and restoration to communion.", "Calvin notes, \"though ecclesiastical discipline does not allow us to be on familiar and intimate terms with excommunicated persons, still we ought to strive by all possible means to bring them to a better mind, and recover them to the fellowship and unity of the Church.", "\"At least one modern Reformed theologian argues that excommunication is not the final step in the disciplinary process.", "Jay E. Adams argues that in excommunication, the offender is still seen as a brother, but in the final step they become \"as the heathen and tax collector\" (Matthew 18:17).", "Adams writes, \"Nowhere in the Bible is excommunication (removal from the fellowship of the Lord's Table, according to Adams) equated with what happens in step 5; rather, step 5 is called 'removing from the midst, handing over to Satan,' and the like.", "\"Former Princeton president and theologian, Jonathan Edwards, addresses the notion of excommunication as \"removal from the fellowship of the Lord's Table\" in his treatise entitled \"The Nature and End of Excommunication\".", "Edwards argues:\"Particularly, we are forbidden such a degree of associating ourselves with (excommunicants), as there is in making them our guests at our tables, or in being their guests at their tables; as is manifest in the text, where we are commanded to have no company with them, no not to eat ... That this respects not eating with them at the Lord's supper, but a common eating, is evident by the words, that the eating here forbidden, is one of the lowest degrees of keeping company, which are forbidden.", "Keep no company with such a one, saith the apostle, no not to eat – as much as to say, no not in so low a degree as to eat with him.", "But eating with him at the Lord's supper, is the very highest degree of visible Christian communion.", "Who can suppose that the apostle meant this: Take heed and have no company with a man, no not so much as in the highest degree of communion that you can have?", "Besides, the apostle mentions this eating as a way of keeping company which, however, they might hold with the heathen.", "He tells them, not to keep company with fornicators.", "Then he informs them, he means not with fornicators of this world, that is, the heathens; but, saith he, 'if any man that is called a brother be a fornicator, etc.", "with such a one keep no company, no not to eat.'", "This makes it most apparent, that the apostle doth not mean eating at the Lord's table; for so, they might not keep company with the heathens, any more than with an excommunicated person\".===Methodism===In the Methodist Episcopal Church, individuals were able to be excommunicated following \"trial before a jury of his peers, and after having had the privilege of an appeal to a higher court\".", "Nevertheless, an excommunication could be lifted after sufficient penance.John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist Churches, excommunicated sixty-four members from the Newcastle Methodist society alone for the following reasons:The Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection, in its 2014 ''Discipline'', includes \"homosexuality, lesbianism, bi-sexuality, bestiality, incest, fornication, adultery, and any attempt to alter one's gender by surgery\", as well as remarriage after divorce among its excommunicable offences.The Evangelical Wesleyan Church, in its 2015 ''Discipline'', states that \"Any member of our church who is accused of neglect of the means of grace or other duties required by the Word of God, the indulgence of sinful tempers, words or actions, the sowing of dissension, or any other violation of the order and discipline of the church, may, after proper labor and admonition, be censured, placed on probation, or expelled by the official board of the circuit of which he is a member.", "If he request a trial, however, within thirty dates of the final action of the official board, it shall be granted.", "\"===Anabaptist tradition=======Amish====Amish communities practice variations of excommunication known as \"shunning\".", "This practice may include isolation from community events or the cessation of all communiction.====Mennonites========Hutterites=======Baptists===For Baptists, excommunication is used as a last resort by denominations and churches for members who do not want to repent of beliefs or behavior at odds with the confession of faith of the community.", "The vote of community members, however, can restore a person who has been excluded.=== The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ===The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) practices excommunication as a penalty for those who commit serious sins, ''i.e.", "'', actions that significantly impair the name or moral influence of the church or pose a threat to other people.", "In 2020, the church ceased using the term \"excommunication\" and instead refers to \"withdrawal of membership\".", "According to the church leadership ''General Handbook'', the purposes of withdrawing membership or imposing membership restrictions are, (1) to help protect others; (2) to help a person access the redeeming power of Jesus Christ through repentance; and (3) to protect the integrity of the Church.", "The origins of LDS disciplinary procedures and excommunications are traced to a revelation Joseph Smith dictated on 9 February 1831, later canonized as Doctrine and Covenants, section 42 and codified in the ''General Handbook''.The LDS Church also practices the lesser sanctions of private counsel and caution and informal and formal membership restrictions.", "(Informal membership restrictions was formerly known as \"probation\"; formal membership restrictions was formerly known as \"disfellowshipment\".", ")Formal membership restrictions are used for serious sins that do not rise to the level of membership withdrawal.", "Formal membership restriction denies some privileges but does not include a loss of church membership.", "Once formal membership restrictions are in place, persons may not take the sacrament or enter church temples, nor may they offer public prayers or sermons.", "Such persons may continue to attend most church functions and are allowed to wear temple garments, pay tithes and offerings, and participate in church classes if their conduct is orderly.", "Formal membership restrictions typically lasts for one year, after which one may be reinstated as a member in good standing.In the more grievous or recalcitrant cases, withdrawal of membership becomes a disciplinary option.", "Such an action is generally reserved for what are seen as the most serious sins, including committing serious crimes such as murder, child abuse, and incest; committing adultery; involvement in or teaching of polygamy; involvement in homosexual conduct; apostasy; participation in an abortion; teaching false doctrine; or openly criticizing church leaders.", "The ''General Handbook'' states that formally joining another church constitutes apostasy and is worthy of membership withdrawal; however, merely attending another church does not constitute apostasy.A withdrawal of membership can occur only after a formal church membership council.", "Formerly called a \"disciplinary council\" or a \"church court\", the councils were renamed to avoid focusing on guilt and instead to emphasize the availability of repentance.The decision to withdraw the membership of a Melchizedek priesthood holder is generally the province of the leadership of a stake.", "In such a disciplinary council, the stake presidency and, sometimes in more difficult cases, the stake high council attend.", "It is possible to appeal a decision of a stake membership council to the church's First Presidency.For females and for male members not initiated into the Melchizedek priesthood, a ward membership council is held.", "In such cases, a bishop determines whether withdrawal of membership or a lesser sanction is warranted.", "He does this in consultation with his two counselors, with the bishop making the final determination after prayer.", "The decision of a ward membership council can be appealed to the stake president.The following list of variables serves as a general set of guidelines for when membership withdrawal or lesser action may be warranted, beginning with those more likely to result in severe sanction:#Violation of covenants: Covenants are made in conjunction with specific ordinances in the LDS Church.", "Violated covenants that might result in excommunication are usually those surrounding marriage covenants, temple covenants, and priesthood covenants.#Position of trust or authority: The person's position in the church hierarchy factors into the decision.", "It is considered more serious when a sin is committed by an area seventy; a stake, mission, or temple president; a bishop; a patriarch; or a full-time missionary.#Repetition: Repetition of a sin is more serious than a single instance.#Magnitude: How often, how many individuals were impacted, and who is aware of the sin factor into the decision.#Age, maturity, and experience: Those who are young in age, or immature in their understanding, are typically afforded leniency.#Interests of the innocent: How the discipline will impact innocent family members may be considered.#Time between transgression and confession: If the sin was committed in the distant past, and there has not been repetition, leniency may be considered.#Voluntary confession: If a person voluntarily confesses the sin, leniency is suggested.#Evidence of repentance: Sorrow for sin, and demonstrated commitment to repentance, as well as faith in Jesus Christ all play a role in determining the severity of discipline.Notices of withdrawal of membership may be made public, especially in cases of apostasy, where members could be misled.", "However, the specific reasons for individual withdrawal of membership are typically kept confidential and are seldom made public by church leadership.Those who have their membership withdrawn lose the right to partake of the sacrament.", "Such persons are permitted to attend church meetings but participation is limited: they cannot offer public prayers, preach sermons, and cannot enter temples.", "Such individuals are also prohibited from wearing or purchasing temple garments and from paying tithes.", "A person whose membership has been withdrawn may be re-baptized after a waiting period of at least one year and sincere repentance, as judged by a series of interviews with church leaders.Some critics have charged that LDS Church leaders have used the threat of membership withdrawal to silence or punish church members and researchers who disagree with established policy and doctrine, who study or discuss controversial subjects, or who may be involved in disputes with local, stake leaders or general authorities; see, e.g., Brian Evenson, a former BYU professor and writer whose fiction came under criticism from BYU officials and LDS Leadership.", "Another notable case of excommunication from the LDS Church was the \"September Six\", a group of intellectuals and professors, five of whom were excommunicated and the sixth disfellowshipped.", "However, church policy dictates that local leaders are responsible for membership withdrawal, without influence from church headquarters.", "The church thus argues that this policy is evidence against any systematic persecution of scholars or dissenters.", "Data shows per-capita excommunication rates among the LDS Church have varied dramatically over the years, from a low of about 1 in 6,400 members in the early 1900s to one in 640 by the 1970s, an increase which has been speculatively attributed to \"informal guidance from above\" in enforcing the growing list of possible transgressions added to ''General Handbook'' editions over time.=== Jehovah's Witnesses ===Jehovah's Witnesses practice a form of excommunication, using the term \"disfellowshipping\", in cases where a member is believed to have unrepentantly committed one or more of several documented \"serious sins\".When a member confesses to, or is accused of, a ''serious sin'', a ''judicial committee'' of at least three elders is formed.", "This committee investigates the case and determines the magnitude of the sin committed.", "If the person is deemed guilty of a disfellowshipping offense, the committee then decides, on the basis of the person's attitude and \"works befitting repentance\".Disfellowshipping is a severing of friendly relationships between all Jehovah's Witnesses and the disfellowshipped person.", "Interaction with extended family is typically restricted to a minimum, such as presence at the reading of wills and providing essential care for the elderly.", "Within a household, typical family contact may continue, but without spiritual fellowship such as family Bible study and religious discussions.", "Parents of disfellowshipped minors living in the family home may continue to attempt to convince the child about the group's teachings.", "Jehovah's Witnesses believe that this form of discipline encourages the disfellowshipped individual to conform to biblical standards and prevents the person from influencing other members of the congregation.Along with breaches of the Witnesses' moral code, openly disagreeing with the teachings of Jehovah's Witnesses is considered grounds for shunning.", "These persons are labeled as \"apostates\" and are described in Watch Tower Society literature as \"mentally diseased\".", "Descriptions of \"apostates\" appearing in the Witnesses literature have been the subject of investigation in the UK to determine if they violate religious hatred laws.", "Sociologist Andrew Holden claims many Witnesses who would otherwise defect because of disillusionment with the organization and its teachings, remain affiliated out of fear of being shunned and losing contact with friends and family members.", "Shunning employs what is known ''as relational aggression'' in psychological literature.", "When used by church members and member-spouse parents against excommunicant parents it contains elements of what psychologists call ''parental alienation''.", "Extreme shunning may cause trauma to the shunned (and to their dependents) similar to what is studied in the psychology of torture.Disassociation is a form of shunning where a member expresses verbally or in writing that they do not wish to be associated with Jehovah's Witnesses, rather than for having committed any specific 'sin'.", "Elders may also decide that an individual has disassociated, without any formal statement by the individual, by actions such as accepting a blood transfusion, or for joining another religious or military organization.", "Individuals who are deemed by the elders to have disassociated are given no right of appeal.Each year, congregation elders are instructed to consider meeting with disfellowshipped individuals to determine changed circumstances and encourage them to pursue reinstatement.", "Reinstatement is not automatic after a certain time period, nor is there a minimum duration; disfellowshipped persons may talk to elders at any time but must apply in writing to be considered for reinstatement into the congregation.", "Elders consider each case individually, and are instructed to ensure \"that sufficient time has passed for the disfellowshipped person to prove that his profession of repentance is genuine\".", "A judicial committee meets with the individual to determine their repentance, and if this is established, the person is reinstated into the congregation and may participate with the congregation in their formal ministry (such as house-to-house preaching).A Witness who has been formally reproved or reinstated cannot be appointed to any ''special privilege of service'' for at least one year.", "Serious sins involving child sex abuse permanently disqualify the sinner from appointment to any congregational ''privilege of service'', regardless of whether the sinner was convicted of any secular crime.===Christadelphians===Similarly to many groups having their origins in the 1830s Restoration Movement, Christadelphians call their form of excommunication \"disfellowshipping\", though they do not practice \"shunning\".", "Disfellowshipping can occur for moral reasons, changing beliefs, or (in some ecclesias) for not attending communion (referred to as \"the emblems\" or \"the breaking of bread\").In such cases, the person involved is usually required to discuss the issues.", "If they do not conform, the church ('meeting' or 'ecclesia') is recommended by the management committee (\"Arranging Brethren\") to vote on disfellowshipping the person.", "These procedures were formulated 1863 onwards by early Christadelphians, and then in 1883 codified by Robert Roberts in ''A Guide to the Formation and Conduct of Christadelphian Ecclesias'' (colloquially \"The Ecclesial Guide\").", "However Christadelphians justify and apply their practice not only from this document but also from passages such as the exclusion in 1Co.5 and recovery in 2Co.2.Christadelphians typically avoid the term \"excommunication\" which many associate with the Catholic Church; and may feel the word carries implications they do not agree with, such as undue condemnation and punishment, as well as failing to recognise the remedial intention of the measure.", "* Behavioural cases.", "Many cases regarding moral issues tend to involve relational matters such as marriage outside the faith, divorce and remarriage (which is considered adultery in some circumstances by some ecclesias), or homosexuality.", "Reinstatement for moral issues is determined by the ecclesia's assessment of whether the individual has \"turned away\" from (ceased) the course of action considered immoral by the church.", "This can be complex when dealing with cases of divorce and subsequent remarriage, with different positions adopted by different ecclesias, but generally within the main \"Central\" grouping, such cases can be accommodated.", "* Doctrinal cases.", "Changes of belief on what Christadelphians call \"first principle\" doctrines are difficult to accommodate unless the individual agrees to not teach or spread them, since the body has a documented Statement of Faith which informally serves as a basis of ecclesial membership and interecclesial fellowship.", "Those who are disfellowshipped for reasons of differing belief rarely return, because they are expected to conform to an understanding with which they do not agree.", "Holding differing beliefs on fundamental matters is considered as error and apostasy, which can limit a person's salvation.", "However, in practice disfellowship for doctrinal reasons is now unusual.In the case of adultery and divorce, the passage of time usually means a member can be restored if he or she wants to be.", "In the case of ongoing behaviour, cohabitation, homosexual activity, then the terms of the suspension have not been met.The mechanics of \"refellowship\" follow the reverse of the original process; the individual makes an application to the \"ecclesia\", and the \"Arranging Brethren\" give a recommendation to the members who vote.", "If the \"Arranging Brethren\" judge that a vote may divide the ecclesia, or personally upset some members, they may seek to find a third party ecclesia which is willing to \"refellowship\" the member instead.", "According to the Ecclesial Guide a third party ecclesia may also take the initiative to \"refellowship\" another meeting's member.", "However this cannot be done unilaterally, as this would constitute heteronomy over the autonomy of the original ecclesia's members.===Society of Friends (Quakers)===Among many of the Society of Friends groups (Quakers) one is ''read out of meeting'' for behaviour inconsistent with the sense of the meeting.", "In Britain a meeting may record a minute of disunity.", "However it is the responsibility of each meeting, quarterly meeting, and yearly meeting, to act with respect to their own members.", "For example, during the Vietnam War many Friends were concerned about Friend Richard Nixon's position on war which seemed at odds with their beliefs; however, it was the responsibility of Nixon's own meeting, the East Whittier Meeting of Whittier, California, to act if indeed that meeting felt the leading.", "They did not.In the 17th century, before the founding of abolitionist societies, Friends who too forcefully tried to convince their coreligionists of the evils of slavery were read out of meeting.", "Benjamin Lay was read out of the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting for this.", "During the American Revolution over 400 Friends were read out of meeting for their military participation or support.===Iglesia ni Cristo=== practices expulsion of members it deems to have gravely sinned or gone against the teachings and doctrines of the church.", "The Sanggunian, the church's council, has jurisdiction to expel members from the church.", "People expelled by the church are referred to as ''dismissed'' ().", "Offenses that may be grounds for expulsion include marrying a non-member, having a romantic relationship with a non-member, becoming pregnant out of wedlock (unless the couple marries before the child is born) and most especially disagreeing with the church administration.", "An expelled member can be re-admitted by pledging obedience to the church administration and its rules, values and teachings." ], [ "Unitarian Universalism", "Unitarian Universalism, being a liberal religious group and a congregational denomination, has a wide diversity of opinions and sentiments.", "Nonetheless, Unitarian Universalists have had to deal with disruptive individuals.", "Congregations which had no policies on disruptive individuals have sometimes found themselves having to create such policies, up to (and including) expulsion.By the late 1990s, several churches were using the West Shore UU Church's policy as a model.", "If someone is threatening, disruptive, or distracting from the appeal of the church to its membership, a church using this model has three recommended levels of response to the offending individual.", "While the first level involves dialogue between a committee or clergy member and the offender, the second and third levels involve expulsion, either from the church itself or a church activity." ], [ "Buddhism", "There is no direct equivalent to excommunication in Buddhism.", "However, in the Theravadan monastic community monks can be expelled from monasteries for heresy or other acts.", "In addition, monks have four vows, called the four defeats, which are abstaining from sexual intercourse, stealing, and murder, and refraining from lying about spiritual gains (e.g., having special power or ability to perform miracles).", "If even one is broken, the monk is automatically a layman again and can never become a monk in his or her current life.Most Japanese Buddhist sects hold ecclesiastical authority over their followers and have their own rules for expelling members of the sangha, lay or bishopric.", "The lay Japanese Buddhist organization Sōka Gakkai was expelled from the Nichiren Shoshu sect in 1991." ], [ "Hinduism", "Hinduism is too diverse to be seen as a homogenous and monolithic religion, it is often described an unorganised and syncretist religion with a conspicuous absence of any listed doctrines, there are multiple religious institutions (ecclesia is the Christian equivalent) within Hinduism that teach slight variations of Dharma and Karma, hence Hinduism has no concept of excommunication and hence no Hindu may be ousted from the Hindu religion, although a person may easily lose caste status through gramanya for a very wide variety of infringements of caste prohibitions.", "This may or may not be recoverable.", "However, some of the modern organised sects within Hinduism may practice something equivalent to excommunication today, by ousting a person from their own sect.In medieval and early-modern times (and sometimes even now) in South Asia, excommunication from one's ''caste'' (''jāti'' or ''varna'') used to be practiced (by the caste-councils) and was often with serious consequences, such as abasement of the person's caste status and even throwing him into the sphere of the untouchables or bhangi.", "In the 19th century, a Hindu faced excommunication for going abroad, since it was presumed he/she would be forced to break caste restrictions and, as a result, become polluted.After excommunication, it would depend upon the caste-council whether they would accept any form of repentance (ritual or otherwise) or not.", "Such current examples of excommunication in Hinduism are often more political or social rather than religious, for example the excommunication of lower castes for refusing to work as scavengers in Tamil Nadu.Another example of caste-related violence and discrimination occurred in the case of the Gupti Ismailis from the Hindu Kachhiya caste.", "Interestingly, Hindu members of this caste began prayers with the inclusion of the mantra “OM, by the command, in the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful” (''om farmānjī bi’smi’l-lāh al-raḥmān al-raḥīm''), but never found it objectionable or Islamic.", "However, in the early 1930s, after some conflict with caste members due to their profession of allegiance to the Ismaili Imam, this group, known as the Guptis, were excommunicated from the caste completely as they appeared to be breaking caste solidarity.", "This was also significant for the Gupti community as, for the first time, they could be identified as a distinct group based on their religious persuasion.", "Some of the more daring Guptis also abandoned their former practice of pious circumspection (''taqiyya'') as Hindus, claiming that since they had been excommunicated, the caste no longer had any jurisdiction over their actions.An earlier example of excommunication in Hinduism is that of Shastri Yagnapurushdas, who voluntarily left and was later expelled from the Vadtal Gadi of the Swaminarayan Sampraday by the then Vadtal acharya in 1906.He went on to form his own institution, ''Bochasanwasi Swaminarayan Sanstha'' or ''BSS'' (now BAPS) claiming Gunatitanand Swami was the rightful spiritual successor to Swaminarayan." ], [ "Sikhism", "''Patit'' is a Sikh term which is sometimes translated into English as apostate.", "It refers to a person who initiated into Sikh religion, but violated the religious rules of Sikhi.", "The Sikh Rehat Maryada (Code of Conduct), Section Six states the transgressions which cause a person to become a ''patit'':* Dishonouring the hair;* Eating the meat of an animal slaughtered the Kutha way;* Cohabiting with a person other than one's spouse;* Using an intoxicant (such as smoking, drinking alcohol, using recreational drugs or tobacco)These four kurahit causes of apostasy were first listed by Guru Gobind Singh in his 52 hukams (commandments)." ], [ "Islam", "Since there has been no universally and univocally recognized religious authority among the many Islamic denominations that have emerged throughout history, papal excommunication has no exact equivalent in Islam, at least insofar as the attitudes of any conflicting religious authorities with regard to an individual or another sect are judged to be coordinate, not subordinate to one another.", "Nonetheless, condemning heterodoxy and punishing heretics through shunning and ostracism is comparable with the practice in non-Catholic Christian faiths.Islamic theologians commonly employ two terms when describing measurements to be taken against schismatics and heresy: هَجْر (''hajr'', \"abandoning\") and تَكْفِير (''takfīr'', \"making or declaring to be a nonbeliever\").", "The former signifies the act of abandoning somewhere (such as migration, as in the Islamic prophet's journey out of Mecca, which is called al-Hijra (\"the (e)migration\")) or someone (used in the Qur'an in the case of disciplining a dissonant or disobedient wife or avoiding a harmful person), whereas the latter means a definitive declaration that denounces a person as a kāfir (\"infidel\").", "However, because such a charge would entail serious consequences for the accused, who would then be deemed to be a مُرْتَدّ (''murtadd'', \"a backslider; an apostate), less extreme denunciations, such as an accusation of بِدْعَة (''bidʽah'', \"deviant innovation; heresy\") followed by shunning and excommunication have historically preponderated over apostasy trials.", "''Takfīr'' has often been practiced through the courts.", "More recently, cases have taken place where individuals have been considered nonbelievers.", "These decisions followed lawsuits against individuals, mainly in response to their writings that some have viewed as anti-Islamic.", "The most famous cases are of Salman Rushdie, Nasr Abu Zayd, and Nawal El-Saadawi and Ahmadiyya Muslim Community.", "The repercussions of such cases have included divorce, since under traditional interpretations of Islamic law, Muslim women are not permitted to marry non-Muslim men." ], [ "Judaism", "''Herem'' is the highest ecclesiastical censure in Judaism.", "It is the total exclusion of a person from the Jewish community.", "Except for cases in the Charedi community, ''cherem'' stopped existing after The Enlightenment, when local Jewish communities lost their political autonomy, and Jews were integrated into the gentile nations in which they lived.", "A ''siruv'' order, equivalent to a contempt of court, issued by a Rabbinical court may also limit religious participation.Rabbinical conferences of movements do expel members from time to time, but sometimes choose the lesser penalty of censuring the offending rabbi.", "Between 2010 and 2015, the Reform Jewish Central Conference of American Rabbis expelled six rabbis, the Orthodox Jewish Rabbinical Council of America expelled three, and the Conservative Jewish Rabbinical Assembly expelled one, suspended three, and caused one to resign without eligibility for reinstatement.", "While the CCAR and RCA were relatively shy about their reasons for expelling rabbis, the RA was more open about its reasons for kicking rabbis out.", "Reasons for expulsion from the three conferences include sexual misconduct, failure to comply with ethics investigations, setting up conversion groups without the conference's approval, stealing money from congregations, other financial misconduct, and getting arrested.Judaism, like Unitarian Universalism, tends towards congregationalism, and so decisions to exclude from a community of worship often depend on the congregation.", "Congregational bylaws sometimes enable the board of a synagogue to ask individuals to leave or not to enter." ], [ "See also", "* Banishment in the Bible* Disconnection* Excommunication of actors by the Catholic Church* Interdict* List of people excommunicated by the Catholic Church" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* ''Encyclopedia of American Religions'', by J. Gordon Melton * Ludlow, Daniel H. ed, ''Encyclopedia of Mormonism'', Macmillan Publishing, 1992.", "* Esau, Alvin J., \"The Courts and the Colonies: The Litigation of Hutterite Church Disputes\", Univ of British Columbia Press, 2004.", "* Gruter, Margaret, and Masters Roger, ''Ostracism: A Social and Biological Phenomenon, (Amish) Ostracism on Trial: The Limits of Individual Rights'', Gruter Institute , 1984.", "* Beck, Martha N., ''Leaving the Saints: How I Lost the Mormons and Found My Faith'', Crown, 2005.", "* Stammer, Larry B., \"Mormon Author Says He's Facing Excommunication\", ''Los Angeles Times'', Los Angeles, CA.", ": 9 December 2004.p.", "A.34.", "* D'anna, Lynnette, \"Post-Mennonite Women Congregate to Address Abuse\", ''Herizons'', 3/1/93.", "* Anonymous, \"Atlanta Mennonite congregation penalized over gays\", ''The Atlanta Journal the Atlanta Constitution'', Atlanta, GA: 2 January 1999.p.", "F.01.", "* Garrett, Ottie, Garrett Irene, ''True Stories of the X-Amish: Banned, Excommunicated, Shunned'', Horse Cave KY: Nue Leben, Inc., 1998.", "* Garret, Ruth, Farrant Rick, ''Crossing Over: One Woman's Escape from Amish Life'', Harper San Francisco, 2003.", "* Hostetler, John A.", "(1993), ''Amish Society'', The Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore.", "* MacMaster, Richard K. (1985), ''Land, Piety, Peoplehood: The Establishment of Mennonite Communities in America 1683–1790'', Herald Press: Kitchener & Scottdale.", "* Scott, Stephen (1996), ''An Introduction to Old Order and Conservative Mennonite Groups'', Good Books: Intercourse, Pennsylvania.", "* Juhnke, James, ''Vision, Doctrine, War: Mennonite Identity and Organization in America, 1890–1930'', (The Mennonite Experience in America #3), Scottdale, PA, Herald Press, p. 393, 1989." ], [ "External links", "* ''Excommunication, the Ban, Church Discipline and Avoidance'' (from ''Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia'' Online)* Ostracism on Trial: The Limits of Individual Rights (Amish)* ''Catholic Encyclopaedia'' on excommunication* The two sides of excommunication * Jehovah's Witnesses press release regarding expulsion of child molesters" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Electrochemical cell" ], [ "Introduction", "A demonstration electrochemical cell setup resembling the Daniell cell.", "The two half-cells are linked by a salt bridge carrying ions between them.", "Electrons flow in the external circuit.An '''electrochemical cell''' is a device that generates electrical energy from chemical reactions.", "Electrical energy can also be applied to these cells to cause chemical reactions to occur.", "Electrochemical cells that generate an electric current are called voltaic or galvanic cells and those that generate chemical reactions, via electrolysis for example, are called electrolytic cells.Both galvanic and electrolytic cells can be thought of as having two half-cells: consisting of separate oxidation and reduction reactions.", "When one or more electrochemical cells are connected in parallel or series they make a battery.", "Primary cells are single use batteries." ], [ "Types of electrochemical cells", "=== Galvanic cell ===A galvanic cell (voltaic cell) named after Luigi Galvani (Alessandro Volta) is an electrochemical cell that generates electrical energy from spontaneous redox reactions.Galvanic cell with no cation flowA wire connects two different metals (ex.", "Zinc and Copper).", "Each metal is in a separate solution; often the aqueous sulphate or nitrate forms of the metal, however more generally metal salts and water which conduct current.", "A salt bridge or porous membrane connects the two solutions, keeping electric neutrality and the avoidance of charge accumulation.", "The metal's differences in oxidation/reduction potential drive the reaction until equilibrium.Key features:* spontaneous reaction* generates electric current* current flows through a wire, and ions flow through a salt bridge* anode (negative), cathode (positive)==== Half cells ====Galvanic cells consists of two half-cells.", "Each half-cell consists of an electrode and an electrolyte (both half cells may use the same or different electrolytes).The chemical reactions in the cell involve the electrolyte, electrodes, and/or an external substance (fuel cells may use hydrogen gas as a reactant).", "In a full electrochemical cell, species from one half-cell lose electrons (oxidation) to their electrode while species from the other half-cell gain electrons (reduction) from their electrode.A ''salt bridge'' (e.g., filter paper soaked in KNO3, NaCl, or some other electrolyte) is used to ionically connect two half-cells with different electrolytes, but it prevents the solutions from mixing and unwanted side reactions.", "An alternative to a salt bridge is to allow direct contact (and mixing) between the two half-cells, for example in simple electrolysis of water.As electrons flow from one half-cell to the other through an external circuit, a difference in charge is established.", "If no ionic contact were provided, this charge difference would quickly prevent the further flow of electrons.", "A salt bridge allows the flow of negative or positive ions to maintain a steady-state charge distribution between the oxidation and reduction vessels, while keeping the contents otherwise separate.", "Other devices for achieving separation of solutions are porous pots and gelled solutions.", "A porous pot is used in the Bunsen cell.==== Equilibrium reaction ====Each half-cell has a characteristic voltage (depending on the metal and its characteristic reduction potential).", "Each reaction is undergoing an equilibrium reaction between different oxidation states of the ions: when equilibrium is reached, the cell cannot provide further voltage.", "In the half-cell performing oxidation, the closer the equilibrium lies to the ion/atom with the more positive oxidation state the more potential this reaction will provide.", "Likewise, in the reduction reaction, the closer the equilibrium lies to the ion/atom with the more ''negative'' oxidation state the higher the potential.==== Cell potential ====The cell potential can be predicted through the use of electrode potentials (the voltages of each half-cell).", "These half-cell potentials are defined relative to the assignment of 0 volts to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE).", "(See table of standard electrode potentials).", "The difference in voltage between electrode potentials gives a prediction for the potential measured.", "When calculating the difference in voltage, one must first rewrite the half-cell reaction equations to obtain a balanced oxidation-reduction equation.# Reverse the reduction reaction with the smallest potential (to create an oxidation reaction/overall positive cell potential)# Half-reactions must be multiplied by integers to achieve electron balance.Cell potentials have a possible range of roughly zero to 6 volts.", "Cells using water-based electrolytes are usually limited to cell potentials less than about 2.5 volts due to high reactivity of the powerful oxidizing and reducing agents with water that is needed to produce a higher voltage.", "Higher cell potentials are possible with cells using other solvents instead of water.", "For instance, lithium cells with a voltage of 3 volts are commonly available.The cell potential depends on the concentration of the reactants, as well as their type.", "As the cell is discharged, the concentration of the reactants decreases and the cell potential also decreases.=== Electrolytic cell ===An electrolytic cell is an electrochemical cell in which applied electrical energy drives a non-spontaneous redox reaction.A modern electrolytic cell consisting of two half reactions, two electrodes, a salt bridge, voltmeter, and a battery.They are often used to decompose chemical compounds, in a process called electrolysis.", "(The Greek word \"lysis\" (λύσις) means \"loosing\" or \"setting free\".", ")Important examples of electrolysis are the decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen, and of bauxite into aluminium and other chemicals.", "Electroplating (e.g.", "of copper, silver, nickel or chromium) is done using an electrolytic cell.", "Electrolysis is a technique that uses a direct electric current (DC).The components of an electrolytic cell are:an electrolyte: usually a solution of water or other solvents in which ions are dissolved.", "Molten salts such as sodium chloride are also electrolytes.", "two electrodes (a cathode and an anode) which are electrical terminals consisting of a suitable substance at which oxidation or reduction can take place, and maintained at two different electric potentials.", "When driven by an external voltage (potential difference) applied to the electrodes, the ions in the electrolyte are attracted to the electrode with the opposite potential, where charge-transferring (also called faradaic or redox) reactions can take place.", "Only with a sufficient external voltage can an electrolytic cell decompose a normally stable, or inert chemical compound in the solution.", "Thus the electrical energy provided produces a chemical reaction which would not occur spontaneously otherwise.Key features:* non-spontaneous reaction* generates current* current flows through a wire, and ions flow through salt bridge* anode (positive), cathode (negative)=== Primary cell ===A variety of standard sizes of primary cells.", "From left: 4.5V multicell battery, D, C, AA, AAA, AAAA, A23, 9V multicell battery, LR44 ''(top)'', CR2032 ''(bottom)''.A primary cell produces current by irreversible chemical reactions (ex.", "small disposable batteries) and is not rechargeable.They are used for their portability, low cost, and short lifetime.Primary cells are made in a range of standard sizes to power small household appliances such as flashlights and portable radios.As chemical reactions proceed in a primary cell, the battery uses up the chemicals that generate the power; when they are gone, the battery stops producing electricity.Circuit diagram of a primary cell showing difference in cell potential, and flow of electrons through a resistor.Primary batteries make up about 90% of the $50 billion battery market, but secondary batteries have been gaining market share.", "About 15 billion primary batteries are thrown away worldwide every year, virtually all ending up in landfills.", "Due to the toxic heavy metals and strong acids or alkalis they contain, batteries are hazardous waste.", "Most municipalities classify them as such and require separate disposal.", "The energy needed to manufacture a battery is about 50 times greater than the energy it contains.", "Due to their high pollutant content compared to their small energy content, the primary battery is considered a wasteful, environmentally unfriendly technology.", "Due mainly to increasing sales of wireless devices and cordless tools, which cannot be economically powered by primary batteries and come with integral rechargeable batteries, the secondary battery industry has high growth and has slowly been replacing the primary battery in high end products.=== Secondary cell ===Lead acid car battery (secondary cell)Circuit diagram of a secondary cell showing difference in cell potential, and flow of electrons through a resistor.A secondary cell produces current by reversible chemical reactions (ex.", "lead-acid battery car battery) and is rechargeable.Lead-acid batteries are used in an automobile to start an engine and to operate the car's electrical accessories when the engine is not running.", "The alternator, once the car is running, recharges the battery.It can perform as a galvanic cell and an electrolytic cell.", "It is a convenient way to store electricity: when current flows one way, the levels of one or more chemicals build up (charging); while it is discharging, they reduce and the resulting electromotive force can do work.They are used for their high voltage, low costs, reliability, and long lifetime.=== Fuel cell ===Scheme of a proton-conducting fuel cellA fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that reacts hydrogen fuel with oxygen or another oxidizing agent, to convert chemical energy to electricity.Fuel cells are different from batteries in requiring a continuous source of fuel and oxygen (usually from air) to sustain the chemical reaction, whereas in a battery the chemical energy comes from chemicals already present in the battery.Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as fuel and oxygen are supplied.They are used for primary and backup power for commercial, industrial and residential buildings and in remote or inaccessible areas.", "They are also used to power fuel cell vehicles, including forklifts, automobiles, buses, boats, motorcycles and submarines.Fuel cells are classified by the type of electrolyte they use and by the difference in startup time, which ranges from 1 second for proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEM fuel cells, or PEMFC) to 10 minutes for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC).There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of:;anode: At the anode a catalyst causes the fuel to undergo oxidation reactions that generate protons (positively charged hydrogen ions) and electrons.", "The protons flow from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte after the reaction.", "At the same time, electrons are drawn from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, producing direct current electricity.", ";cathode: At the cathode, another catalyst causes hydrogen ions, electrons, and oxygen to react, forming water.", ";electrolyte: Allows positively charged hydrogen ions (protons) to move between the two sides of the fuel cell.A related technology are flow batteries, in which the fuel can be regenerated by recharging.", "Individual fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials, about 0.7 volts, so cells are \"stacked\", or placed in series, to create sufficient voltage to meet an application's requirements.", "In addition to electricity, fuel cells produce water, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small amounts of nitrogen dioxide and other emissions.", "The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between 40 and 60%; however, if waste heat is captured in a cogeneration scheme, efficiencies up to 85% can be obtained.In 2022, the global fuel cell market was estimated to be $6.3 billion, and is expected to increase by 19.9% by 2030.Many countries are attempting to enter the market by setting renewable energy GW goals." ], [ "See also", "* Activity (chemistry)* Cell notation* Electrochemical potential* Electrochemical engineering* Battery (electricity)* Rechargeable battery* Fuel cell* Flow battery* Scanning flow cell" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ecdysis" ], [ "Introduction", "Adult ''Rhopalomyia solidaginis'' fly, emerging from pupal caseProcess of ecdysis of a cicada.", "'''Ecdysis''' is the moulting of the cuticle in many invertebrates of the clade Ecdysozoa.", "Since the cuticle of these animals typically forms a largely inelastic exoskeleton, it is shed during growth and a new, larger covering is formed.", "The remnants of the old, empty exoskeleton are called exuviae.After moulting, an arthropod is described as ''teneral'', a ''callow''; it is \"fresh\", pale and soft-bodied.", "Within one or two hours, the cuticle hardens and darkens following a tanning process analogous to the production of leather.", "During this short phase the animal expands, since growth is otherwise constrained by the rigidity of the exoskeleton.", "Growth of the limbs and other parts normally covered by the hard exoskeleton is achieved by transfer of body fluids from soft parts before the new skin hardens.", "A spider with a small abdomen may be undernourished but more probably has recently undergone ecdysis.", "Some arthropods, especially large insects with tracheal respiration, expand their new exoskeleton by swallowing or otherwise taking in air.", "The maturation of the structure and colouration of the new exoskeleton might take days or weeks in a long-lived insect; this can make it difficult to identify an individual if it has recently undergone ecdysis.Ecdysis allows damaged tissue and missing limbs to be regenerated or substantially re-formed.", "Complete regeneration may require a series of moults, the stump becoming a little larger with each moult until the limb is a normal, or near normal, size." ], [ "Etymology", "The term ''ecdysis'' comes from Ancient Greek () 'to take off, strip off'." ], [ "Process", "In preparation for ecdysis, the arthropod becomes inactive for a period of time, undergoing apolysis or separation of the old exoskeleton from the underlying epidermal cells.", "For most organisms, the resting period is a stage of preparation during which the secretion of fluid from the moulting glands of the epidermal layer and the loosening of the underpart of the cuticle occurs.Once the old cuticle has separated from the epidermis, a digesting fluid is secreted into the space between them.", "However, this fluid remains inactive until the upper part of the new cuticle has been formed.", "Then, by crawling movements, the organism pushes forward in the old integumentary shell, which splits down the back allowing the animal to emerge.", "Often, this initial crack is caused by a combination of movement and increase in blood pressure within the body, forcing an expansion across its exoskeleton, leading to an eventual crack that allows for certain organisms such as spiders to extricate themselves.While the old cuticle is being digested, the new layer is secreted.", "All cuticular structures are shed at ecdysis, including the inner parts of the exoskeleton, which includes terminal linings of the alimentary tract and of the tracheae if they are present." ], [ "Insects", "Each stage of development between moults for insects in the taxon Endopterygota is called an instar, or stadium, and each stage between moults of insects in the Exopterygota is called a nymph: there may be up to 15 nymphal stages.", "Endopterygota tend to have only four or five instars.", "Endopterygotes have more alternatives to moulting, such as expansion of the cuticle and collapse of air sacs to allow growth of internal organs.The process of moulting in insects begins with the separation of the cuticle from the underlying epidermal cells (apolysis) and ends with the shedding of the old cuticle (ecdysis).", "In many species it is initiated by an increase in the hormone ecdysone.", "This hormone causes:* apolysis – the separation of the cuticle from the epidermis* secretion of new cuticle materials beneath the old* degradation of the old cuticleAfter apolysis the insect is known as a pharate.", "Moulting fluid is then secreted into the exuvial space between the old cuticle and the epidermis, this contains inactive enzymes which are activated only after the new epicuticle is secreted.", "This prevents the new procuticle from getting digested as it is laid down.", "The lower regions of the old cuticle, the endocuticle and mesocuticle, are then digested by the enzymes and subsequently absorbed.", "The exocuticle and epicuticle resist digestion and are hence shed at ecdysis." ], [ "Spiders", "Female crab spider ''Synema decens'', teneral after final ecdysis, still dangling from drop line, about to be mated, opisthosoma still shrunkenComplete process of a spider moulting.Spiders generally change their skin for the first time while still inside the egg sac, and the spiderling that emerges broadly resembles the adult.", "The number of moults varies, both between species and sexes, but generally will be between five times and nine times before the spider reaches maturity.", "Not surprisingly, since males are generally smaller than females, the males of many species mature faster and do not undergo ecdysis as many times as the females before maturing.Members of the Mygalomorphae are very long-lived, sometimes 20 years or more; they moult annually even after they mature.Spiders stop feeding at some time before moulting, usually for several days.", "The physiological processes of releasing the old exoskeleton from the tissues beneath typically cause various colour changes, such as darkening.", "If the old exoskeleton is not too thick it may be possible to see new structures, such as setae, from the outside.", "However, contact between the nerves and the old exoskeleton is maintained until a very late stage in the process.The new, teneral exoskeleton has to accommodate a larger frame than the previous instar, while the spider has had to fit into the previous exoskeleton until it has been shed.", "This means the spider does not fill out the new exoskeleton completely, so it commonly appears somewhat wrinkled.Most species of spiders hang from silk during the entire process, either dangling from a drop line, or fastening their claws into webbed fibres attached to a suitable base.", "The discarded, dried exoskeleton typically remains hanging where it was abandoned once the spider has left.To open the old exoskeleton, the spider generally contracts its abdomen (opisthosoma) to supply enough fluid to pump into the prosoma with sufficient pressure to crack it open along its lines of weakness.", "The carapace lifts off from the front, like a helmet, as its surrounding skin ruptures, but it remains attached at the back.", "Now the spider works its limbs free and typically winds up dangling by a new thread of silk attached to its own exuviae, which in turn hang from the original silk attachment.At this point the spider is a callow; it is teneral and vulnerable.", "As it dangles, its exoskeleton hardens and takes shape.", "The process may take minutes in small spiders, or some hours in the larger Mygalomorphs.", "Some spiders, such as some ''Synema'' species, members of the Thomisidae (crab spiders), mate while the female is still callow, during which time she is unable to eat the male." ], [ "Eurypterids", "Eurypterids are a group of chelicerates that became extinct in the Late Permian.", "They underwent ecdysis similarly to extant chelicerates, and most fossils are thought to be of exuviae, rather than cadavers." ], [ "See also", "Ecdysteroid" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ebor, New South Wales" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ebor''' is a village on Waterfall Way on the Northern Tablelands in New South Wales, Australia.", "It is situated about east of Armidale and about a third of the way between Armidale and the coast.", "Dorrigo to the east is away with the Coffs Coast away along Waterfall Way.", "In the , Ebor's zone had a population of 149." ], [ "History", "The village is situated in the traditional lands of the Gumbaynggirr peoples.Ebor shares its name with a nearby set of waterfalls, Ebor Falls, which is a local tourist attraction.", "Gumbaynggirr people traditionally called the falls ''Martiam'' (meaning 'the great falls').The village's wooden Catholic church burned down in October 1946.At the , Ebor had a population of 149 people." ], [ "Borderlands", "Although \"The Heart of Waterfall Way\", Ebor is on the eastern edge of Armidale Regional Council, and close to the border of Clarence Valley Council and Bellingen Shire Council.", "Until the amalgamation of Guyra and Armidale councils, one side of Ebor was under Armidale council, and the other under Guyra shire.", "Likewise, Ebor is close to three state electoral districts (Northern Tablelands, Oxley and Clarence) and three federal electoral boundaries (New England, Cowper and Page)." ], [ "Facilities", "Amenities in the area include a cafe, a combined post office, fuel station and general store, a pub/motel with camp ground, and a NSW DEC primary school.", "The local sports ground is home of the Ebor Campdraft.There are also Rural Fire Service and National Parks and Wildlife Service depots in the area, but no police or ambulance services based in Ebor.", "The nearest hospital and 24h emergency department is in Dorrigo." ], [ "Features", "Due to its central position on Waterfall Way, Ebor offers easy access for residents and tourists to Guy Fawkes River National Park, Cathedral Rock National Park, Cunnawarra National Park, New England National Park, part of Oxley Wild Rivers National Park, Nymboi-Binderay National Park and Mount Hyland Nature Reserve.The natural environment of the surrounding district includes several areas which have been cleared for pastoralism and forestry.", "Nonetheless, the national parks around Ebor have been described as a bush walking \"Mecca\".", "The main tourist attraction is the twin Ebor Falls.In 1930 Sydney Smith Jr. wrote that: \"During a recent visit to Ebor I was much impressed with the possibilities of this part of the State as a tourist resort... Around Ebor and Guy Fawkes can be seen some of the most magnificent scenery in this State if not Australia.", "...The two falls are scenes of beauty, and in winter time are sometimes frozen, making a beautiful spectacle as they hang in huge icicles.", "The water from the Ebor eventually finds an outlet in the Clarence River.", "...The view, ...as regards expansiveness, ruggedness, and beauty, must compare more than favourably with views of a similar nature in any part of the Commonwealth.", "It reminded me of the Valley of a Thousand Hills, outside Durban, in South Africa\".In 1976, local historian Eric Fahey also wrote: \"I believe the future of Dorrigo will depend largely on tourism.", "The area has a lot to offer, both in peerless scenery and because of the native fauna which can be seen in large numbers in their natural state.", "\"Wagyu beef specialists Stone Axe have a large holding, \"Glen Alvie\", on the northern boundary of the village.", "Stone Axe also acquired \"Alfreda\" in the nearby locality of Wongwibinda.Black truffles (tuber melanosporum) are grown at the Guy Fawkes Truffle Company outside of Ebor on the Guyra Rd.Trout are another local product.", "The Dutton Trout Hatchery on Point Lookout Road was established in 1950 and is one of the largest hatcheries in the state.", "Visitors can see the various stages of trout development prior to their release in the mountain streams.", "The release of trout into local streams is believed to have led to decline of the endangered Tusked frog.There are two short walks close to the village.", "One takes walkers through the recreation reserve.", "This walk follows the Guy Fawkes River upstream for about half of the walk.", "Some bird life can be seen.", "The second walk is accessed by crossing the Guy Fawkes River bridge, and following the pedestrian path that winds downstream under the bridge.", "This path follows the Guy Fawkes River north and meets the national park's Upper and Lower Falls paths.", "Wallabies, kangaroos, bird life and fire-flies can be seen depending on the season.", "Platypus have also been sighted in August in the pool above the falls.The Bicentennial National Trail (BNT) passes through Ebor, which sits on the boundary of sections 7 and 8 of the BNT.The Ebor Falls area is sometimes used for rock climbing, and is described as \"holding a rather special place in the History of New England climbing\"." ], [ "Speeding and traffic", "Ebor has a noted problem with speeding vehicles.", "Both passenger cars and heavy vehicles regularly exceed the posted speed limit of 50 km/h.", "Traffic noise is also a problem.", "Waterfall Way has an entry on the Dangerous Roads website." ], [ "Post office", "Ebor's Post Office opened on 2 March 1868, closed in 1869 and reopened in 1910.It is currently located at the Ebor petrol station/store having moved from Fusspots Cafe." ], [ "Cultural heritage", "Ebor has a number of cultural heritage sites, including several Aboriginal meeting places, and massacre sites.", "\"Gwenda Gardens\" is an abandoned homestead on the Guyra-Ebor Road.Other sites include:* Waterfall Way: Yooroonah Tank Barrier* Former Cottage Hospital at 5 Parke Street* Ebor Cemetery off Waterfall Way* Deconsecrated Union Church at 11608 Waterfall Way* Former Ebor Soldiers Hall at 11626 Waterfall Way* Former Australian Bank of Commerce (formerly City Bank of Sydney) at 27 Ebor Street* Homestead, “Milamba” (including original Guy Fawkes Post Office and sheep dip) at 7122 Grafton Road * House, “Kotupna” at 7314 Grafton Road* Cement weir at 337 Point Lookout Road" ], [ "Climate", "The village of Ebor is at high altitude by Australian standards.", "It has cold winters with frequent overnight frost and occasional light snow falls.", "The average rain fall is about ." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Ebor General Cemetery* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ancient history of Afghanistan" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''ancient history of Afghanistan''', also referred to as the '''pre-Islamic period of Afghanistan''', dates back to the prehistoric era and the '''Helmand civilization''' around 3300–2350 BCE.", "Archaeological exploration began in Afghanistan in earnest after World War II and proceeded until the late 1970s during the Soviet–Afghan War.", "Archaeologists and historians suggest that humans were living in Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities of the region were among the earliest in the world.", "Urbanized culture has existed in the land from between 3000 and 2000 BC.", "Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron ages have been found inside Afghanistan.After the Indus Valley civilization stretched up to northeast Afghanistan, it was inhabited by the Iranic tribes and controlled by the Medes until about 500 BC when Darius the Great (Darius I) marched with his Persian army to make it part of the Achaemenid Empire.", "In 330 BC, Alexander the Great of Macedonia invaded the land after defeating Darius III of Persia in the Battle of Gaugamela.", "Much of Afghanistan became part of the Seleucid Empire followed by the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom.", "Seleucus I Nicator was defeated by Chandragupta Maurya and gave his daughter in peace treaty.", "The land was inhabited by various tribes and ruled by many different kingdoms for the next two millenniums.", "Before the arrival of Islam in the 7th century, there were a number of religions practiced in modern day Afghanistan, including Zoroastrianism, Ancient Iranian religions, Buddhism and Hinduism.", "The Kafiristan (present-day Nuristan) region, in the Hindu Kush mountain range, was not converted until the 19th century." ], [ "Prehistoric era", "Louis Dupree, the University of Pennsylvania, the Smithsonian Institution and others suggest that humans were living in Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities of the region were among the earliest in the world.Afghanistan seems in prehistory, as well as in ancient and modern times, to have been connected by culture and trade with the neighbouring regions.", "Urban civilization may have begun as early as 3000 to 2000 BC.", "Archaeological finds indicate the possible beginnings of the Bronze Age, which would ultimately spread throughout the ancient world from Afghanistan.", "It is also believed that the region had early trade contacts with Mesopotamia.===Indus Valley civilization===The Indus Valley civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) extending from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan.", "An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan.", "Apart from Shortughai is Mundigak, another notable site.", "There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan." ], [ "Aryan expansion into Mesopotamia and the Medean rule (1500 BC–551 BC)", "Territory controlled by the Median EmpireBetween 2000–1200 BC, a branch of Indo-European-speaking tribes known as the Aryans began migrating into the region.", "This is part of a dispute in regards to the Indo-Aryan migration.", "They split into Iranic peoples, Nuristani, and Indo-Aryan groups at an early stage, possibly between 1500 and 1000 BC in what is today Afghanistan or much earlier as eastern remnants of the Indo-Aryans drifted much further west as with the Mitanni.", "The Iranians dominated the modern day plateau, while the Indo-Aryans ultimately headed towards the Indian subcontinent.", "The Avesta is believed to have been composed possibly as early as 1800 BC and written in ancient Ariana (Aryana), the earliest name of Afghanistan which indicates an early link with today's Iranian tribes to the west, or adjacent regions in Central Asia or northeastern Iran in the 6th century BC.", "Due to the similarity between early Avestan and Sanskrit (and other related early Indo-European languages such as Latin and Ancient Greek), it is believed that the split between the old Persians and Indo-Aryan tribes had taken place at least by 1000 BC.", "There are striking similarities between Avestan and Sanskrit, which may support the notion that the split was contemporary with the Indo-Aryans living in Afghanistan at a very early stage.", "Also, the Avesta itself divides into Old and New sections and neither mention the Medes who are known to have ruled Afghanistan starting around 700 BC.", "This suggests an early time-frame for the Avesta that has yet to be exactly determined as most academics believe it was written over the course of centuries if not millennia.", "Much of the archaeological data comes from the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC and Indus Valley civilization) that probably played a key role in early Aryanic civilization in Afghanistan.The Indo-Aryan inhabitants of the region- mainly in the southern and eastern parts of the country were adherents of Hinduism.", "Notable among these were the GandharisThe Pashayi and Nuristanis are present day examples of these Indo-Iranian people.The Medes, a Western Iranian people, arrived from what is today Kurdistan sometime around the 700s BC and came to dominate most of ancient Afghanistan.", "They were an early tribe that forged the first empire on the present Iranian plateau and sister-nations with the Persians whom they initially dominated in the province of Fars to the south.", "Median control of parts of far off Afghanistan would last until Cyrus the Great, prince of the Persians, assassinated and ultimately replaced his Median emperor father-in-law from rule." ], [ "Achaemenid invasion and Zoroastrianism (550 BC–331 BC)", "Arachosia, Aria and Bactria were the more eastern ancient satraps of the Achaemenid Empire that made up most of what is now Afghanistan during 500 B.C.", "The inhabitants of Arachosia were known as Pactyans, possibly today's Pakhtuns or Pashtuns.The city of Bactra (which later became Balkh), is believed to have been the home of Zarathustra, who founded the Zoroastrian religion.", "The Avesta refers to eastern Bactria as being the home of the Zoroastrian faith.", "Regardless of the debate as to where Zoroaster was from, Zoroastrianism spread to become one of the world's most influential religions and became the main faith of the old Aryan people for centuries.", "It also remained the official religion of Persia until the defeat of the Sassanian ruler Yazdegerd III—over a thousand years after its founding—by Muslim Arabs.", "In what is today southern Iran, the Persians emerged to challenge Median supremacy on the Iranian plateau.", "By 550 BC, the Persians had replaced Median rule with their own dominion and even began to expand past previous Median imperial borders.", "Both Gandhara and Kamboja Mahajanapadas of the Buddhist texts soon fell a prey to the Achaemenian Dynasty during the reign of Achaemenid, Cyrus the Great (558–530 BC), or in the first year of Darius I, marking the region or of the easternmost provinces of the empire, located partly in nowadays Afghanistan.", "According to Pliny's evidence, Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) had destroyed Kapisa in Capiscene which was a Kamboja city.", "The former region of Gandhara and Kamboja (upper Indus) had constituted seventh satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire and annually contributed 170 talents of gold dust as a tribute to the Achaemenids.Bactria had a special position in old Afghanistan, being the capital of a vice-kingdom.", "By the 4th century BC, Persian control of outlying areas and the internal cohesion of the empire had become somewhat tenuous.", "Although distant provinces like Bactriana had often been restless under Achaemenid rule, Bactrian troops nevertheless fought in the decisive Battle of Gaugamela in 330 BC against the advancing armies of Alexander the Great.", "The Achaemenids were decisively defeated by Alexander and retreated from his advancing army of Greco-Macedonians and their allies.", "Darius III, the last Achaemenid ruler, tried to flee to Bactria but was assassinated by a subordinate lord, the Bactrian-born Bessus, who proclaimed himself the new ruler of Persia as Artaxerxes (V).", "Bessus was unable to mount a successful resistance to the growing military might of Alexander's army so he fled to his native Bactria, where he attempted to rally local tribes to his side but was instead turned over to Alexander who proceeded to have him tortured and executed for having committed regicide." ], [ "Alexander the Great to Greco-Bactrian rule (330 BC – {{circa}} 150 BC)", "Empire of Alexander the GreatMoving thousands of kilometers eastward from recently subdued Persia, the Macedonian leader Alexander the Great, encountered fierce resistance from the local tribes of Aria, Drangiana, Arachosia (South and Eastern Afghanistan, North-West Pakistan) and Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan).", "One of the fiercest battles that he faced was in Herat.", "One of his top commanding officers was killed by the rebels and he had to go there himself.", "He couldn't defeat them in time and he ended up burning down the forest to finish the rebellion.Upon Alexander's death in 323 BC, his empire, which had never been politically consolidated, broke apart as his companions began to divide it amongst themselves.", "Alexander's cavalry commander, Seleucus, took nominal control of the eastern lands and founded the Seleucid dynasty.", "Under the Seleucids, as under Alexander, Greek colonists and soldiers colonized Bactria, roughly corresponding to modern Afghanistan's borders.", "However, the majority of Macedonian soldiers of Alexander the Great wanted to leave the east and return home to Greece.", "Later, Seleucus sought to guard his eastern frontier and moved Ionian Greeks (also known as Yavanas to many local groups) to Bactria in the 3rd century BC.Greece had one of the most advanced civilizations at that period.", "Wherever they went, they left and gained something from cultures and ultimately, they had a civilization that was compromised from other top civilizations of the time.", "Greek men were marrying with other women and this helped the process of mixing the cultures a lot.", "===Maurya Empire===Maurya Empire at its maximum extent Greek and Aramaic) by Emperor Ashoka, from Kandahar - Afghan National Museum.", "(Click image for translation.", ")While the Diadochi were warring amongst themselves, the Mauryan Empire was developing in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent.", "The founder of the empire, Chandragupta Maurya, confronted a Macedonian invasion force led by Seleucus I in 305 BC and following a brief conflict, an agreement was reached as Seleucus ceded Gandhara and Arachosia (centered around ancient Kandahar) and areas south of Bagram (corresponding to the extreme south-east of modern Afghanistan) to the Mauryans.", "During the 120 years of the Mauryans in southern Afghanistan, Buddhism was introduced and eventually become a major religion alongside Zoroastrianism and local pagan beliefs.", "The ancient Grand Trunk Road was built linking what is now Kabul to various cities in the Punjab and the Gangetic Plain.", "Commerce, art, and architecture (seen especially in the construction of stupas) developed during this period.", "It reached its high point under Emperor Ashoka whose edicts, roads, and rest stops were found throughout the subcontinent.", "Although the vast majority of them throughout the subcontinent were written in Prakrit, Afghanistan is notable for the inclusion of 2 Greek and Aramaic ones alongside the court language of the Mauryans.Inscriptions made by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, a fragment of Edict 13 in Greek, as well as a full Edict, written in both Greek and Aramaic has been discovered in Old Kandahar.", "It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical terms.", "In this Edict, Ashoka uses the word Eusebeia (\"Piety\") as the Greek translation for the ubiquitous \"Dharma\" of his other Edicts written in Prakrit::\"Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made known (the doctrine of) Piety (''εὐσέβεια'', Eusebeia) to men; and from this moment he has made men more pious, and everything thrives throughout the whole world.", "And the king abstains from (killing) living beings, and other men and those who (are) huntsmen and fishermen of the king have desisted from hunting.", "And if some (were) intemperate, they have ceased from their intemperance as was in their power; and obedient to their father and mother and to the elders, in opposition to the past also in the future, by so acting on every occasion, they will live better and more happily.\"", "(Trans.", "by G.P.", "Carratelli)The last ruler in the region was probably Subhagasena (Sophagasenus of Polybius), who, in all probability, belonged to the Ashvaka (q.v.)", "background.===Greco-Bactrians===Eucratides (171-145 BC)In the middle of the 3rd century BC, an independent, Hellenistic state was declared in Bactria and eventually the control of the Seleucids and Mauryans was overthrown in western and southern Afghanistan.", "Graeco-Bactrian rule spread until it included a large territory which stretched from Turkmenistan in the west to the Punjab in India in the east by about 170 BC.", "Graeco-Bactrian rule was eventually defeated by a combination of internecine disputes that plagued Greek and Hellenized rulers to the west, continual conflict with Indian kingdoms, as well as the pressure of two groups of nomadic invaders from Central Asia—the Parthians and Sakas." ], [ "Kushan Empire (150 BC–300 AD)", "Silver tetradrachm of Kushan king Heraios (1–30 AD) in Greco-Bactrian style, with horseman crowned by the Greek goddess of victory Nike.Greek legend: ΤVΡΑΝΝΟVΟΤΟΣ ΗΛΟV - ΣΛΝΛΒ - ΚΟÞÞΑΝΟΥ \"Of the Tyrant Heraios, Sanav, the Kushan\" (the meaning of \"Sanav\" is unknown).In the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, the Parthians, a nomadic Iranian peoples, arrived in Western Asia.", "While they made large inroads into the modern-day territory of Afghanistan, about 100 years later another Indo-European group from the north—the Kushans (a subgroup of the tribe called the Yuezhi by the Chinese)—entered the region of Afghanistan and established an empire lasting almost four centuries, which would dominate most of the Afghanistan region.The Kushan Empire spread from the Kabul River valley to defeat other Central Asian tribes that had previously conquered parts of the northern central Iranian Plateau once ruled by the Parthians.", "By the middle of the 1st century BC, the Kushans' base of control became Afghanistan and their empire spanned from the north of the Pamir mountains to the Ganges river valley in India.", "During rule of Kanishka, they had 2 seasonal capital cities which were Kabul in Spring and Summer then moving to Peshawr for Fall and Winter.", "Early in the 2nd century under Kanishka, the most powerful of the Kushan rulers, the empire reached its greatest geographic and cultural breadth to become a center of literature and art.", "Kanishka extended Kushan control to the mouth of the Indus River on the Arabian Sea, into Kashmir, and into what is today the Chinese-controlled area north of Tibet.", "Kanishka was a patron of religion and the arts.", "It was during his reign that Buddhism, which was promoted in northern India earlier by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka (c. 260 BC–232 BC), reached its zenith in Central Asia.", "Though the Kushanas supported local Buddhists and Hindus as well as the worship of various local deities." ], [ "Sasanian & Hephthalite invasions (300–650)", "Coin of Hormizd I Kushanshah, issued in Khorasan, and derived from Kushan designsIn the 3rd century, Kushan control fragmented into semi-independent kingdoms that became easy targets for conquest by the rising Iranian dynasty, the Sasanians (c. 224–561) which annexed Afghanistan by 300 AD.", "In these far off easternmost territories, they established vassal kings as rulers, known as the Kushanshahs.", "Sasanian control was tenuous at times as numerous challenges from Central Asian tribes led to instability and constant warfare in the region.The disunited Kushan and Sasanian kingdoms were in a poor position to meet the threat several waves of Xionite/Huna invaders from the north from the 4th century onwards.", "In particular, the Hephthalites (or ''Ebodalo''; Bactrian script ηβοδαλο) swept out of Central Asia during the 5th century into Bactria and Iran, overwhelming the last of the Kushan kingdoms.", "Historians believe that Hephthalite control continued for a century and was marked by constant warfare with the Sassanians to the west who exerted nominal control over the region.By the middle of the 6th century the Hephthalites were defeated in the territories north of the Amu Darya (the Oxus River of antiquity) by another group of Central Asian nomads, the Göktürks, and by the resurgent Sassanians in the lands south of the Amu Darya.", "It was the ruler of western Göktürks, Sijin (a.k.a.", "Sinjibu, Silzibul and Yandu Muchu Khan) who led the forces against the Hepthalites who were defeated at the Battle of Chach (Tashkent) and at the Battle of Bukhara." ], [ "Kabul Shahi", "Kushano-Hephthalite kingdoms around 600 ADThe Shahi dynasties ruled portions of the Kabul Valley (in eastern Afghanistan) and the old province of Gandhara (northern Pakistan and Kashmir) from the decline of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century to the early 9th century.", "They are split into two eras the Buddhist Turk Shahis and the later Hindu Shahis with the change-over occurring around 870, and ruled up until the Islamic conquest of Afghanistan.When Xuanzang visited the region early in the 7th century, the Kabul region was ruled by a Kshatriya king, who is identified as the ''Shahi Khingal'', and whose name has been found in an inscription found in Gardez.", "The Turkic Shahi regency was overthrown and replaced by a Mohyal Shahi dynasty of Brahmins who began the first phase of the Hindu Shahi dynasty.These Hindu kings of Kabul and Gandhara may have had links to some ruling families in neighboring Kashmir and other areas to the east.", "The Shahis were rulers of predominantly Buddhist, Zoroastrian, Hindu and Muslim populations and were thus patrons of numerous faiths, and various artifacts and coins from their rule have been found that display their multicultural domain.", "In 964 AD, the last Mohyal Shahi was succeeded by the Janjua overlord, Jayapala, of the Panduvanshi dynasty.", "The last Shahi emperors Jayapala, Anandapala and Tirlochanpala fought the Muslim Ghaznavids of Ghazna and were gradually defeated.", "Their remaining army were eventually exiled into northern India." ], [ "Archaeological remnants", "One of the Buddhas of Bamiyan.", "Buddhism was widespread in the region before the Islamic conquest of Afghanistan.Most of the Zoroastrian, Greek, Hellenistic, Buddhist, Hindu and other indigenous cultures were replaced by the coming of Islam and little influence remains in Afghanistan today.", "Along ancient trade routes, however, stone monuments of the once flourishing Buddhist culture did exist as reminders of the past.", "The two massive sandstone Buddhas of Bamyan, 35 and 53 meters high, overlooked the ancient route through Bamyan to Balkh and dated from the 3rd and 5th centuries.", "They survived until 2001, when they were destroyed by the Taliban.", "In this and other key places in Afghanistan, archaeologists have located frescoes, stucco decorations, statuary, and rare objects from as far away as China, Phoenicia, and Rome, which were crafted as early as the 2nd century and bear witness to the influence of these ancient civilizations upon Afghanistan.One of the early Buddhist schools, the Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravāda, were known to be prominent in the area of Bamiyan.", "The Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang visited a Lokottaravāda monastery in the 7th century CE, at Bamiyan, Afghanistan, and this monastery site has since been rediscovered by archaeologists.", "Birchbark and palm leaf manuscripts of texts in this monastery's collection, including Mahāyāna sūtras, have been discovered at the site, and these are now located in the Schøyen Collection.", "Some manuscripts are in the Gāndhārī language and Kharoṣṭhī script, while others are in Sanskrit and written in forms of the Gupta script.", "Manuscripts and fragments that have survived from this monastery's collection include well-known Buddhist texts such as the ''Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra'' (from the ''Āgamas''), the ''Diamond Sūtra'' (''Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā''), the ''Medicine Buddha Sūtra'', and the ''Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra''.In 2010, reports stated that about 42 Buddhist relics have been discovered in the Logar Province of Afghanistan, which is south of Kabul.", "Some of these items date back to the 2nd century according to Archaeologists.", "The items included two Buddhist temples (Stupas), Buddha statues, frescos, silver and gold coins and precious beads." ], [ "See also", "Pre Islamic Hindu and Buddhist heritage of AfghanistanPre-Islamic scripts in AfghanistanZunbils" ], [ "References" ], [ "Other sources", " Ahmed, Akbar S. 1980.TAJIK economy and society.", "London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.", "* Bryant, Edwin.", "'The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).", "* Dupree, Louis.", "'Afghanistan' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).", "* Ewans, Martin.", "Afghanistan: A Short History of Its People and Politics, Harper Perennial; 1st Perennial ed edition (September 1, 2002)* Harmatta, János, ed., 1994.", "''History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II.", "The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C.", "to A.D. 250''.", "Paris, UNESCO Publishing.", "* Hill, John E.", "2004.", "''The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu.''", "Draft annotated English translation.", "* Hill, John E.", "2004.", "''The Peoples of the West from the Weilue'' 魏略 ''by Yu Huan'' 魚豢'': A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 AD.''", "Draft annotated English translation.", "* Holt, Frank L. Thundering Zeus: The Making of Hellenistic Bactria, University of California Press (March, 1999)* Kriwaczek, Paul.", "In Search of Zarathustra: Across Iran and Central Asia to Find the World's First Prophet, Vintage (March 9, 2004)* Litvinsky, B.", "A., ed., 1996.", "''History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III.", "The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750''.", "Paris, UNESCO Publishing.", "* Olmstead, A.T. History of the Persian Empire, University Of Chicago Press (February 15, 1959)* Reat, Ross.", "'Buddhism: A History', (Jain Publishing Company, 1996).", "* Rowland, Benjamin, Jr.", "Ancient Art from Afghanistan: Treasures of the Kabul Museum, Ayer Co Pub (October, 1981)* Sarianidi, Viktor.", "1985.", "''The Golden Hoard of Bactria: From the Tillya-tepe Excavations in Northern Afghanistan''.", "Harry N. Abrams, Inc. New York.", "* Shayegan, Rahim.", "The Avesta and the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex* Witzel, Michael.", "Autochthonous Aryans?", "The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts* \"The Káfirs of the Hindu-Kush\" By Sir George Scott Robertson (1896)" ], [ "External links", "* Library of Congress Country Studies: Afghanistan* Encyclopædia Britannica: Afghanistan* Afghanistan Online: Chronological History of Afghanistan* Afghanistan History** Association for the Protection of Afghan Archaeology* Buddhist Manuscripts from ancient Afghanistan" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Gravitational redshift" ], [ "Introduction", "The gravitational redshift of a light wave as it moves upwards against a gravitational field (produced by the yellow star below).", "The effect is greatly exaggerated in this diagram.In physics and general relativity, '''gravitational redshift''' (known as '''Einstein shift''' in older literature) is the phenomenon that electromagnetic waves or photons travelling out of a gravitational well (seem to) lose energy.", "This loss of energy corresponds to a decrease in the wave frequency and increase in the wavelength, known more generally as a ''redshift''.", "The opposite effect, in which photons (seem to) gain energy when travelling into a gravitational well, is known as a '''gravitational blueshift''' (a type of ''blueshift'').", "The effect was first described by Einstein in 1907, eight years before his publication of the full theory of relativity.Gravitational redshift can be interpreted as a consequence of the equivalence principle (that gravity and acceleration are equivalent and the redshift is caused by the Doppler effect) or as a consequence of the mass–energy equivalence and conservation of energy ('falling' photons gain energy), though there are numerous subtleties that complicate a rigorous derivation.", "A gravitational redshift can also equivalently be interpreted as gravitational time dilation at the source of the radiation: if two oscillators (attached to transmitters producing electromagnetic radiation) are operating at different gravitational potentials, the oscillator at the higher gravitational potential (farther from the attracting body) will seem to ‘tick’ faster; that is, when observed from the same location, it will have a higher measured frequency than the oscillator at the lower gravitational potential (closer to the attracting body).To first approximation, gravitational redshift is proportional to the difference in gravitational potential divided by the speed of light squared, , thus resulting in a very small effect.", "Light escaping from the surface of the Sun was predicted by Einstein in 1911 to be redshifted by roughly 2 ppm or 2 × 10−6.Navigational signals from GPS satellites orbiting at 20,000 km altitude are perceived blueshifted by approximately 0.5 ppb or 5 × 10−10, corresponding to a (negligible) increase of less than 1 Hz in the frequency of a 1.5 GHz GPS radio signal (however, the accompanying gravitational time dilation affecting the atomic clock in the satellite ''is'' crucially important for accurate navigation).", "On the surface of the Earth the gravitational potential is proportional to height, , and the corresponding redshift is roughly 10−16 (0.1 part per quadrillion) per meter of change in elevation and/or altitude.In astronomy, the magnitude of a gravitational redshift is often expressed as the velocity that would create an equivalent shift through the relativistic Doppler effect.", "In such units, the 2 ppm sunlight redshift corresponds to a 633 m/s receding velocity, roughly of the same magnitude as convective motions in the Sun, thus complicating the measurement.", "The GPS satellite gravitational blueshift velocity equivalent is less than 0.2 m/s, which is negligible compared to the actual Doppler shift resulting from its orbital velocity.", "In astronomical objects with strong gravitational fields the redshift can be much greater; for example, light from the surface of a white dwarf is gravitationally redshifted on average by around 50 km/s/c (around 170 ppm).Observing the gravitational redshift in the Solar System is one of the classical tests of general relativity.", "Measuring the gravitational redshift to high precision with atomic clocks can serve as a test of Lorentz symmetry and guide searches for dark matter." ], [ "Prediction by the equivalence principle and general relativity", "===Uniform gravitational field or acceleration===Einstein's theory of general relativity incorporates the equivalence principle, which can be stated in various different ways.", "One such statement is that gravitational effects are locally undetectable for a free-falling observer.", "Therefore, in a laboratory experiment at the surface of the Earth, all gravitational effects should be equivalent to the effects that would have been observed if the laboratory had been accelerating through outer space at ''g''.", "One consequence is a gravitational Doppler effect.", "If a light pulse is emitted at the floor of the laboratory, then a free-falling observer says that by the time it reaches the ceiling, the ceiling has accelerated away from it, and therefore when observed by a detector fixed to the ceiling, it will be observed to have been Doppler shifted toward the red end of the spectrum.", "This shift, which the free-falling observer considers to be a kinematical Doppler shift, is thought of by the laboratory observer as a gravitational redshift.", "Such an effect was verified in the 1959 Pound–Rebka experiment.", "In a case such as this, where the gravitational field is uniform, the change in wavelength is given by: where , where is the clock time of an observer at distance ''R'' from the center, is the time measured by an observer at infinity, is the Schwarzschild radius , \"...\" represents terms that vanish if the observer is at rest, is Newton's gravitational constant, the mass of the gravitating body, and the speed of light.", "The result is that frequencies and wavelengths are shifted according to the ratio: where* is the wavelength of the light as measured by the observer at infinity,* is the wavelength measured at the source of emission, and* is the radius at which the photon is emitted.This can be related to the redshift parameter conventionally defined as .In the case where neither the emitter nor the observer is at infinity, the transitivity of Doppler shifts allows us to generalize the result to .", "The redshift formula for the frequency is .", "When is small, these results are consistent with the equation given above based on the equivalence principle.The redshift ratio may also be expressed in terms of a (Newtonian) escape velocity at , resulting in the corresponding Lorentz factor::.For an object compact enough to have an event horizon, the redshift is not defined for photons emitted inside the Schwarzschild radius, both because signals cannot escape from inside the horizon and because an object such as the emitter cannot be stationary inside the horizon, as was assumed above.", "Therefore, this formula only applies when is larger than .", "When the photon is emitted at a distance equal to the Schwarzschild radius, the redshift will be ''infinitely'' large, and it will not escape to ''any'' finite distance from the Schwarzschild sphere.", "When the photon is emitted at an infinitely large distance, there is no redshift.====Newtonian limit====In the Newtonian limit, i.e.", "when is sufficiently large compared to the Schwarzschild radius , the redshift can be approximated as: where is the gravitational acceleration at .", "For Earth's surface with respect to infinity, ''z'' is approximately 7 × 10−10 (the equivalent of a 0.2 m/s radial Doppler shift); for the Moon it is approximately 3 × 10−11 (about 1 cm/s).", "The value for the surface of the Sun is about 2 × 10−6, corresponding to 0.64 km/s.", "(For non-relativisitc velocities, the radial Doppler equivalent velocity can be approximated by multiplying ''z'' with the speed of light.", ")The z-value can be expressed succinctly in terms of the escape velocity at , since the gravitational potential is equal to half the square of the escape velocity, thus::where is the escape velocity at .It can also be related to the circular orbit velocity at , which equals , thus:.For example, the gravitational blueshift of distant starlight due to the Sun's gravity, which the Earth is orbiting at about 30 km/s, would be approximately 1 × 10−8 or the equivalent of a 3 m/s radial Doppler shift.For an object in a (circular) orbit, the gravitational redshift is of comparable magnitude as the transverse Doppler effect, where ''β''=''v''/''c'', while both are much smaller than the radial Doppler effect, for which ." ], [ "Experimental verification", "===Astronomical observations===A number of experimenters initially claimed to have identified the effect using astronomical measurements, and the effect was considered to have been finally identified in the spectral lines of the star Sirius B by W.S.", "Adams in 1925.However, measurements by Adams have been criticized as being too low and these observations are now considered to be measurements of spectra that are unusable because of scattered light from the primary, Sirius A.", "The first accurate measurement of the gravitational redshift of a white dwarf was done by Popper in 1954, measuring a 21 km/s gravitational redshift of 40 Eridani B.", "The redshift of Sirius B was finally measured by Greenstein ''et al.''", "in 1971, obtaining the value for the gravitational redshift of 89±16 km/s, with more accurate measurements by the Hubble Space Telescope, showing 80.4±4.8 km/s.James W. Brault, a graduate student of Robert Dicke at Princeton University, measured the gravitational redshift of the sun using optical methods in 1962.In 2020, a team of scientists published the most accurate measurement of the solar gravitational redshift so far, made by analyzing Fe spectral lines in sunlight reflected by the Moon; their measurement of a mean global 638 ± 6 m/s lineshift is in agreement with the theoretical value of 633.1 m/s.", "Measuring the solar redshift is complicated by the Doppler shift caused by the motion of the Sun's surface, which is of similar magnitude as the gravitational effect.In 2011, the group of Radek Wojtak of the Niels Bohr Institute at the University of Copenhagen collected data from 8000 galaxy clusters and found that the light coming from the cluster centers tended to be red-shifted compared to the cluster edges, confirming the energy loss due to gravity.In 2018, the star S2 made its closest approach to Sgr A, the 4-million solar mass supermassive black hole at the centre of the Milky Way, reaching 7650 km/s or about 2.5% of the speed of light while passing the black hole at a distance of just 120 AU, or 1400 Schwarzschild radii.", "Independent analyses by the GRAVITY collaboration (led by Reinhard Genzel) and the KECK/UCLA Galactic Center Group (led by Andrea Ghez) revealed a combined transverse Doppler and gravitational redshift up to 200 km/s/c, in agreement with general relativity predictions.In 2021, Mediavilla (IAC, Spain) & Jiménez-Vicente (UGR, Spain) were able to use measurements of the gravitational redshift in quasars up to cosmological redshift of z~3 to confirm the predictions of Einstein's Equivalence Principle and the lack of cosmological evolution within 13%.===Terrestrial tests===The effect is now considered to have been definitively verified by the experiments of Pound, Rebka and Snider between 1959 and 1965.The Pound–Rebka experiment of 1959 measured the gravitational redshift in spectral lines using a terrestrial 57Fe gamma source over a vertical height of 22.5 metres.", "This paper was the first determination of the gravitational redshift which used measurements of the change in wavelength of gamma-ray photons generated with the Mössbauer effect, which generates radiation with a very narrow line width.", "The accuracy of the gamma-ray measurements was typically 1%.An improved experiment was done by Pound and Snider in 1965, with an accuracy better than the 1% level.A very accurate gravitational redshift experiment was performed in 1976, where a hydrogen maser clock on a rocket was launched to a height of 10,000 km, and its rate compared with an identical clock on the ground.", "It tested the gravitational redshift to 0.007%.Later tests can be done with the Global Positioning System (GPS), which must account for the gravitational redshift in its timing system, and physicists have analyzed timing data from the GPS to confirm other tests.", "When the first satellite was launched, it showed the predicted shift of 38 microseconds per day.", "This rate of the discrepancy is sufficient to substantially impair the function of GPS within hours if not accounted for.", "An excellent account of the role played by general relativity in the design of GPS can be found in Ashby 2003.In 2010, an experiment placed two aluminum-ion quantum clocks close to each other, but with the second elevated 33 cm compared to the first, making the gravitational red shift effect visible in everyday lab scales.In 2020, a group at the University of Tokyo measured the gravitational redshift of two strontium-87 optical lattice clocks.", "The measurement took place at Tokyo Skytree where the clocks were separated by approximately 450 m and connected by telecom fibers.", "The gravitational redshift can be expressed as: ,where is the gravitational redshift, is the optical clock transition frequency, is the difference in gravitational potential, and denotes the violation from general relativity.", "By Ramsey spectroscopy of the strontium-87 optical clock transition (429 THz, 698 nm) the group determined the gravitational redshift between the two optical clocks to be 21.18 Hz, corresponding to a ''z''-value of approximately 5 × 10−14.Their measured value of , , is an agreement with recent measurements made with hydrogen masers in elliptical orbits.In October 2021, a group at JILA led by physicist Jun Ye reported a measurement of gravitational redshift in the submillimeter scale.", "The measurement is done on the 87Sr clock transition between the top and the bottom of a millimeter-tall ultracold cloud of 100,000 strontium atoms in an optical lattice." ], [ "Early historical development of the theory", "The gravitational weakening of light from high-gravity stars was predicted by John Michell in 1783 and Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1796, using Isaac Newton's concept of light corpuscles (see: emission theory) and who predicted that some stars would have a gravity so strong that light would not be able to escape.", "The effect of gravity on light was then explored by Johann Georg von Soldner (1801), who calculated the amount of deflection of a light ray by the Sun, arriving at the Newtonian answer which is half the value predicted by general relativity.", "All of this early work assumed that light could slow down and fall, which is inconsistent with the modern understanding of light waves.Once it became accepted that light was an electromagnetic wave, it was clear that the frequency of light should not change from place to place, since waves from a source with a fixed frequency keep the same frequency everywhere.", "One way around this conclusion would be if time itself were altered if clocks at different points had different rates.", "This was precisely Einstein's conclusion in 1911.He considered an accelerating box, and noted that according to the special theory of relativity, the clock rate at the \"bottom\" of the box (the side away from the direction of acceleration) was slower than the clock rate at the \"top\" (the side toward the direction of acceleration).", "Indeed, in a frame moving (in direction) with velocity relative to the rest frame, the clocks at a nearby position are ahead by (to the first order); so an acceleration (that changes speed by per time ) makes clocks at the position to be ahead by , that is, tick at a rate :The equivalence principle implies that this change in clock rate is the same whether the acceleration is that of an accelerated frame without gravitational effects, or caused by a gravitational field in a stationary frame.", "Since acceleration due to gravitational potential is , we get:so – in weak fields – the change in the clock rate is equal to .Since the light would be slowed down by gravitational time dilation (as seen by outside observer), the regions with lower gravitational potential would act like a medium with higher refractive index causing light to deflect.", "This reasoning allowed Einstein in 1911 to reproduce the incorrect Newtonian value for the deflection of light.", "At the time he only considered the time-dilating manifestation of gravity, which is the dominating contribution at non-relativistic speeds; however relativistic objects travel through space a comparable amount as they do though time, so purely spatial curvature becomes just as important.", "After constructing the full theory of general relativity, Einstein solved in 1915 the full post-Newtonian approximation for the Sun's gravity and calculated the correct amount of light deflection – double the Newtonian value.", "Einstein's prediction was confirmed by many experiments, starting with Arthur Eddington's 1919 solar eclipse expedition.The changing rates of clocks allowed Einstein to conclude that light waves change frequency as they move, and the frequency/energy relationship for photons allowed him to see that this was best interpreted as the effect of the gravitational field on the mass–energy of the photon.", "To calculate the changes in frequency in a nearly static gravitational field, only the time component of the metric tensor is important, and the lowest order approximation is accurate enough for ordinary stars and planets, which are much bigger than their Schwarzschild radius." ], [ "See also", " Tests of general relativity* Equivalence principle* Gravitational time dilation* Redshift* Gravitational wave#Redshifting (redshifting of Gravitational waves due to speed or cosmic expansion)" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "===Primary sources===* * * * Albert Einstein, \"Relativity: the Special and General Theory\".", "(@Project Gutenberg).", "* * * ===Other sources===*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Easter Rising" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Easter Rising''' (), also known as the '''Easter Rebellion''', was an armed insurrection in Ireland during Easter Week in April 1916.The Rising was launched by Irish republicans against British rule in Ireland with the aim of establishing an independent Irish Republic while the United Kingdom was fighting the First World War.", "It was the most significant uprising in Ireland since the rebellion of 1798 and the first armed conflict of the Irish revolutionary period.", "Sixteen of the Rising's leaders were executed starting in May 1916.The nature of the executions, and subsequent political developments, ultimately contributed to an increase in popular support for Irish independence.Organised by a seven-man Military Council of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, the Rising began on Easter Monday, 24 April 1916 and lasted for six days.", "Members of the Irish Volunteers, led by schoolmaster and Irish language activist Patrick Pearse, joined by the smaller Irish Citizen Army of James Connolly and 200 women of Cumann na mBan, seized strategically important buildings in Dublin and proclaimed the Irish Republic.", "The British Army brought in thousands of reinforcements as well as artillery and a gunboat.", "There was street fighting on the routes into the city centre, where the rebels slowed the British advance and inflicted many casualties.", "Elsewhere in Dublin, the fighting mainly consisted of sniping and long-range gun battles.", "The main rebel positions were gradually surrounded and bombarded with artillery.", "There were isolated actions in other parts of Ireland; Volunteer leader Eoin MacNeill had issued a countermand in a bid to halt the Rising, which greatly reduced the extent of the rebel actions.With much greater numbers and heavier weapons, the British Army suppressed the Rising.", "Pearse agreed to an unconditional surrender on Saturday 29 April, although sporadic fighting continued briefly.", "After the surrender, the country remained under martial law.", "About 3,500 people were taken prisoner by the British and 1,800 of them were sent to internment camps or prisons in Britain.", "Most of the leaders of the Rising were executed following courts martial.", "The Rising brought physical force republicanism back to the forefront of Irish politics, which for nearly fifty years had been dominated by constitutional nationalism.", "Opposition to the British reaction to the Rising contributed to changes in public opinion and the move toward independence, as shown in the December 1918 election in Ireland which was won by the Sinn Féin party, which convened the First Dáil and declared independence.Of the 485 people killed, 260 were civilians, 143 were British military and police personnel, and 82 were Irish rebels, including 16 rebels executed for their roles in the Rising.", "More than 2,600 people were wounded.", "Many of the civilians were killed or wounded by British artillery fire or were mistaken for rebels.", "Others were caught in the crossfire during firefights between the British and the rebels.", "The shelling and resulting fires left parts of central Dublin in ruins." ], [ "Background", "Members of the Irish Citizen Army outside Liberty Hall, under the slogan \"We serve neither King nor Kaiser, but Ireland\"The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, abolishing the Irish Parliament and giving Ireland representation in the British Parliament.", "From early on, many Irish nationalists opposed the union and the continued lack of adequate political representation, along with the British government's handling of Ireland and Irish people, particularly the Great Famine.", "The union was closely preceded by and formed partly in response to an Irish uprising – whose centenary would prove an influence on the Easter Rising.", "Three more rebellions ensued: one in 1803, another in 1848 and one in 1867 – all were failures.Opposition took other forms: constitutional (the Repeal Association; the Home Rule League) and social (disestablishment of the Church of Ireland; the Land League).", "The Irish Home Rule movement sought to achieve self-government for Ireland, within the United Kingdom.", "In 1886, the Irish Parliamentary Party under Charles Stewart Parnell succeeded in having the First Home Rule Bill introduced in the British parliament, but it was defeated.", "The Second Home Rule Bill of 1893 was passed by the House of Commons but rejected by the House of Lords.After the death of Parnell, younger and more radical nationalists became disillusioned with parliamentary politics and turned toward more extreme forms of separatism.", "The Gaelic Athletic Association, the Gaelic League, and the cultural revival under W. B. Yeats and Augusta, Lady Gregory, together with the new political thinking of Arthur Griffith expressed in his newspaper ''Sinn Féin'' and organisations such as the National Council and the Sinn Féin League, led many Irish people to identify with the idea of an independent Gaelic Ireland.The Third Home Rule Bill was introduced by British Liberal Prime Minister H. H. Asquith in 1912.Irish Unionists, who were overwhelmingly Protestants, opposed it, as they did not want to be ruled by a Catholic-dominated Irish government.", "Led by Sir Edward Carson and James Craig, they formed the Ulster Volunteers (UVF) in January 1913.The UVF's opposition included arming themselves, in the event that they had to resist by force.Seeking to defend Home Rule, the Irish Volunteers was formed in November 1913.Although sporting broadly open membership and without avowed support for separatism, the executive branch of the Irish Volunteers – excluding leadership – was dominated by the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) who rose to prominence via the organisation, having had restarted recuritment in 1909.These members feared that Home Rule's enactment would result in a broad, seemingly perpetual, contentment with the British Empire.", "Another militant group, the Irish Citizen Army, was formed by trade unionists as a result of the Dublin Lock-out of that year.", "The issue of Home Rule, appeared to some, as the basis of an \"imminent civil war\".Although the Third Home Rule Bill was eventually enacted, the outbreak of the First World War resulted in its implementation being postponed for the war's duration.", "It was widely believed at the time that the war would not last more than a few months.", "The Irish Volunteers split.", "The vast majority – thereafter known as the National Volunteers – enlisted in the British Army.", "The minority that objected – retaining the name – did so in accordance with separatist principles, official policy thus becoming \"the abolition of the system of governing Ireland through Dublin Castle and the British military power and the establishment of a National Government in its place\"; the Volunteers believed that \"England’s difficulty\" was \"Ireland’s opportunity\"." ], [ "Planning the Rising", "The Supreme Council of the IRB met on 5 September 1914, just over a month after the British government had declared war on Germany.", "At this meeting, they elected to stage an uprising before the war ended and to secure help from Germany.", "Responsibility for the planning of the rising was given to Tom Clarke and Seán Mac Diarmada.", "Patrick Pearse, Michael Joseph O’Rahilly, Joseph Plunkett and Bulmer Hobson would assume general control of the Volunteers by March 1915.In May 1915, Clarke and Mac Diarmada established a Military Council within the IRB, consisting of Pearse, Plunkett and Éamonn Ceannt – and soon themselves – to devise plans for a rising.", "The Military Council functioned independently and in opposition to those who considered a possible uprising inopportune.", "Volunteer Chief-of-Staff Eoin MacNeill supported a rising only if the British government attempted to suppress the Volunteers or introduce conscription in Ireland, and if such a rising had some chance of success.", "Hobson and IRB President Denis McCullough held similar views as did much of the executive branches of both organisations.The Military Council kept its plans secret, so as to prevent the British authorities from learning of the plans, and to thwart those within the organisation who might try to stop the rising.", "The secrecy of the plans was such that the Military Council largely superseded the IRB's Supreme Council with even McCullough being unaware of some of the plans, whereas the likes of MacNeill were only informed as the Rising rapidly approached.", "Although most Volunteers were oblivious to any plans their training increased in the preceding year.", "The public nature of their training hightened tensions with authorities, which, come the next year, manifested in rumours of the Rising.", "Public displays likewise existed in the espousal of anti-recruitiment.", "The number of Volunteers also increased: between December 1914 and February 1916 the rank and file rose from 9,700 to 12,215.Although the likes of the civil servants were discouraged from joining the Volunteers, the organisation was permitted by law.Shortly after the outbreak of World War I, Roger Casement and John Devoy went to Germany and began negotiations with the German government and military.", "Casement – later accompanied by Plunkett – persuaded the Germans to announce their support for Irish independence in November 1914.Casement envisioned the recruitment of Irish prisoners of war, to be known as the Irish Brigade, aided by a German expeditionary force who would secure the line of the River Shannon, before advancing on the capital.", "Neither intention came to fruition, but the German military did agree to ship arms and ammunition to the Volunteers, gunrunning having become difficult and dangerous on account of the war.Head of the Irish Citizen Army, James Connolly, was unaware of the IRB's plans, and threatened to start a rebellion on his own if other parties failed to act.", "The IRB leaders met with Connolly in Dolphin's Barn in January 1916 and convinced him to join forces with them.", "They agreed that they would launch a rising together at Easter and made Connolly the sixth member of the Military Council.", "Thomas MacDonagh would later become the seventh and final member.The death of the old Fenian leader Jeremiah O'Donovan Rossa in New York City in August 1915 was an opportunity to mount a spectacular demonstration.", "His body was sent to Ireland for burial in Glasnevin Cemetery, with the Volunteers in charge of arrangements.", "Huge crowds lined the route and gathered at the graveside.", "Pearse made a dramatic funeral oration, a rallying call to republicans, which ended with the words \"Ireland unfree shall never be at peace\"." ], [ "Build-up to Easter Week", "Proclamation of the Republic, Easter 1916In early April, Pearse issued orders to the Irish Volunteers for three days of \"parades and manoeuvres\" beginning on Easter Sunday.", "He had the authority to do this, as the Volunteers' Director of Organisation.", "The idea was that IRB members within the organisation would know these were orders to begin the rising, while men such as MacNeill and the British authorities would take it at face value.On 9 April, the German Navy dispatched the SS ''Libau'' for County Kerry, disguised as the Norwegian ship ''Aud''.", "It was loaded with 20,000 rifles, one million rounds of ammunition, and explosives.", "Casement also left for Ireland aboard the German submarine ''U-19''.", "He was disappointed with the level of support offered by the Germans and he intended to stop or at least postpone the rising.", "During this time, the Volunteers amassed ammunition from various sources, including the adolescent Michael McCabe.On Wednesday 19 April, Alderman Tom Kelly, a Sinn Féin member of Dublin Corporation, read out at a meeting of the corporation a document purportedly leaked from Dublin Castle, detailing plans by the British authorities to shortly arrest leaders of the Irish Volunteers, Sinn Féin and the Gaelic League, and occupy their premises.", "Although the British authorities said the \"Castle Document\" was fake, MacNeill ordered the Volunteers to prepare to resist.", "Unbeknownst to MacNeill, the document had been forged by the Military Council to persuade moderates of the need for their planned uprising.", "It was an edited version of a real document outlining British plans in the event of conscription.", "That same day, the Military Council informed senior Volunteer officers that the rising would begin on Easter Sunday.", "However, it chose not to inform the rank-and-file, or moderates such as MacNeill, until the last minute.The following day, MacNeill got wind that a rising was about to be launched and threatened to do everything he could to prevent it, short of informing the British.", "He and Hobson confronted Pearse, but refrained from decisive action as to avoiding instigating a rebellion of any kind; Hobson would be detained by Volunteers until the Rising occurred.The ''SS Libau'' (disguised as the ''Aud'') and the ''U-19'' reached the coast of Kerry on Good Friday, 21 April.", "This was earlier than the Volunteers expected and so none were there to meet the vessels.", "The Royal Navy had known about the arms shipment and intercepted the ''SS Libau'', prompting the captain to scuttle the ship.", "Furthermore, Casement was captured shortly after he landed at Banna Strand.When MacNeill learned that the arms shipment had been lost, he reverted to his original position.", "With the support of other leaders of like mind, notably Bulmer Hobson and The O'Rahilly, he issued a countermand to all Volunteers, cancelling all actions for Sunday.", "This countermanding order was relayed to Volunteer officers and printed in the Sunday morning newspapers.", "The order resulted in a delay to the rising by a day, and some confusion over strategy for those who took part.British Naval Intelligence had been aware of the arms shipment, Casement's return, and the Easter date for the rising through radio messages between Germany and its embassy in the United States that were intercepted by the Royal Navy and deciphered in Room 40 of the Admiralty.", "It is unclear how extensive Room 40's decryptions preceding the Rising were.", "On the eve of the Rising, John Dillon wrote to Redmond of Dublin being \"full of most extraordinary rumours.", "And I have no doubt in my mind that the Clan men – are planning some devilish business – what it is I cannot make out.", "It may not come off – But you must not be surprised if something very unpleasant and mischievous happens this week\".The information was passed to the Under-Secretary for Ireland, Sir Matthew Nathan, on 17 April, but without revealing its source; Nathan was doubtful about its accuracy.", "When news reached Dublin of the capture of the ''SS Libau'' and the arrest of Casement, Nathan conferred with the Lord Lieutenant, Lord Wimborne.", "Nathan proposed to raid Liberty Hall, headquarters of the Citizen Army, and Volunteer properties at Father Matthew Park and at Kimmage, but Wimborne insisted on wholesale arrests of the leaders.", "It was decided to postpone action until after Easter Monday, and in the meantime, Nathan telegraphed the Chief Secretary, Augustine Birrell, in London seeking his approval.", "By the time Birrell cabled his reply authorising the action, at noon on Monday 24 April 1916, the Rising had already begun.On the morning of Easter Sunday, 23 April, the Military Council met at Liberty Hall to discuss what to do in light of MacNeill's countermanding order.", "They decided that the Rising would go ahead the following day, Easter Monday, and that the Irish Volunteers and Irish Citizen Army would go into action as the 'Army of the Irish Republic'.", "They elected Pearse as president of the Irish Republic, and also as Commander-in-Chief of the army; Connolly became Commandant of the Dublin Brigade.", "That weekend was largely spent preparing rations and manufacturing ammunition and bombs.", "Messengers were then sent to all units informing them of the new orders." ], [ "The Rising in Dublin", "=== Easter Monday ===General Post Office in Dublin – the rebel headquartersOne of two flags flown over the GPO during the RisingPositions of rebel and British forces in central DublinOn the morning of Monday 24 April, about 1,200 members of the Irish Volunteers and Irish Citizen Army mustered at several locations in central Dublin.", "Among them were members of the all-female Cumann na mBan.", "Some wore Irish Volunteer and Citizen Army uniforms, while others wore civilian clothes with a yellow Irish Volunteer armband, military hats, and bandoliers.", "They were armed mostly with rifles (especially 1871 Mausers), but also with shotguns, revolvers, a few Mauser C96 semi-automatic pistols, and grenades.", "The number of Volunteers who mobilised was much smaller than expected.", "This was due to MacNeill's countermanding order, and the fact that the new orders had been sent so soon beforehand.", "However, several hundred Volunteers joined the Rising after it began.Shortly before midday, the rebels began to seize important sites in central Dublin.", "The rebels' plan was to hold Dublin city centre.", "This was a large, oval-shaped area bounded by two canals: the Grand to the south and the Royal to the north, with the River Liffey running through the middle.", "On the southern and western edges of this district were five British Army barracks.", "Most of the rebels' positions had been chosen to defend against counter-attacks from these barracks.", "The rebels took the positions with ease.", "Civilians were evacuated and policemen were ejected or taken prisoner.", "Windows and doors were barricaded, food and supplies were secured, and first aid posts were set up.", "Barricades were erected on the streets to hinder British Army movement.A joint force of about 400 Volunteers and the Citizen Army gathered at Liberty Hall under the command of Commandant James Connolly.", "This was the headquarters battalion, and it also included Commander-in-Chief Patrick Pearse, as well as Tom Clarke, Seán Mac Diarmada and Joseph Plunkett.", "They marched to the General Post Office (GPO) on O'Connell Street, Dublin's main thoroughfare, occupied the building and hoisted two republican flags.", "Pearse stood outside and read the Proclamation of the Irish Republic.", "Copies of the Proclamation were also pasted on walls and handed out to bystanders by Volunteers and newsboys.", "The GPO would be the rebels' headquarters for most of the Rising.", "Volunteers from the GPO also occupied other buildings on the street, including buildings overlooking O'Connell Bridge.", "They took over a wireless telegraph station and sent out a radio broadcast in Morse code, announcing that an Irish Republic had been declared.", "This was the first radio broadcast in Ireland.Elsewhere, some of the headquarters battalion under Michael Mallin occupied St Stephen's Green, where they dug trenches and barricaded the surrounding roads.", "The 1st battalion, under Edward 'Ned' Daly, occupied the Four Courts and surrounding buildings, while a company under Seán Heuston occupied the Mendicity Institution, across the River Liffey from the Four Courts.", "The 2nd battalion, under Thomas MacDonagh, occupied Jacob's biscuit factory.", "The 3rd battalion, under Éamon de Valera, occupied Boland's Mill and surrounding buildings.", "The 4th battalion, under Éamonn Ceannt, occupied the South Dublin Union and the distillery on Marrowbone Lane.", "From each of these garrisons, small units of rebels established outposts in the surrounding area.", "The rebels also attempted to cut transport and communication links.", "As well as erecting roadblocks, they took control of various bridges and cut telephone and telegraph wires.", "Westland Row and Harcourt Street railway stations were occupied, though the latter only briefly.", "The railway line was cut at Fairview and the line was damaged by bombs at Amiens Street, Broadstone, Kingsbridge and Lansdowne Road.Around midday, a small team of Volunteers and Fianna Éireann members swiftly captured the Magazine Fort in the Phoenix Park and disarmed the guards.", "The goal was to seize weapons and blow up the ammunition store to signal that the Rising had begun.", "They seized weapons and planted explosives, but the blast was not loud enough to be heard across the city.", "The 23-year-old son of the fort's commander was fatally shot when he ran to raise the alarm.A street barricade erected by the rebels outside the Westmoreland Lock Hospital in Dublin during the RisingA contingent under Seán Connolly occupied Dublin City Hall and adjacent buildings.", "They attempted to seize neighbouring Dublin Castle, the heart of British rule in Ireland.", "As they approached the gate a lone and unarmed police sentry, James O'Brien, attempted to stop them and was shot dead by Connolly.", "According to some accounts, he was the first casualty of the Rising.", "The rebels overpowered the soldiers in the guardroom but failed to press further.", "The British Army's chief intelligence officer, Major Ivon Price, fired on the rebels while the Under-Secretary for Ireland, Sir Matthew Nathan, helped shut the castle gates.", "Unbeknownst to the rebels, the Castle was lightly guarded and could have been taken with ease.", "The rebels instead laid siege to the Castle from City Hall.", "Fierce fighting erupted there after British reinforcements arrived.", "The rebels on the roof exchanged fire with soldiers on the street.", "Seán Connolly was shot dead by a sniper, becoming the first rebel casualty.", "By the following morning, British forces had re-captured City Hall and taken the rebels prisoner.The rebels did not attempt to take some other key locations, notably Trinity College, in the heart of the city centre and defended by only a handful of armed unionist students.", "Failure to capture the telephone exchange in Crown Alley left communications in the hands of the Government with GPO staff quickly repairing telephone wires that had been cut by the rebels.", "The failure to occupy strategic locations was attributed to lack of manpower.", "In at least two incidents, at Jacob's and Stephen's Green, the Volunteers and Citizen Army shot dead civilians trying to attack them or dismantle their barricades.", "Elsewhere, they hit civilians with their rifle butts to drive them off.The British military were caught totally unprepared by the Rising and their response of the first day was generally un-coordinated.", "Two squadrons of British cavalry were sent to investigate what was happening.", "They took fire and casualties from rebel forces at the GPO and at the Four Courts.", "As one troop passed Nelson's Pillar, the rebels opened fire from the GPO, killing three cavalrymen and two horses and fatally wounding a fourth man.", "The cavalrymen retreated and were withdrawn to barracks.", "On Mount Street, a group of Volunteer Training Corps men stumbled upon the rebel position and four were killed before they reached Beggars Bush Barracks.The only substantial combat of the first day of the Rising took place at the South Dublin Union where a piquet from the Royal Irish Regiment encountered an outpost of Éamonn Ceannt's force at the northwestern corner of the South Dublin Union.", "The British troops, after taking some casualties, managed to regroup and launch several assaults on the position before they forced their way inside and the small rebel force in the tin huts at the eastern end of the Union surrendered.", "However, the Union complex as a whole remained in rebel hands.", "A nurse in uniform, Margaret Keogh, was shot dead by British soldiers at the Union.", "She is believed to have been the first civilian killed in the Rising.Three unarmed Dublin Metropolitan Police were shot dead on the first day of the Rising and their Commissioner pulled them off the streets.", "Partly as a result of the police withdrawal, a wave of looting broke out in the city centre, especially in the area of O'Connell Street (still officially called \"Sackville Street\" at the time).", "=== Tuesday and Wednesday ===Lord Wimborne, the Lord Lieutenant, declared martial law on Tuesday evening and handed over civil power to Brigadier-General William Lowe.", "British forces initially put their efforts into securing the approaches to Dublin Castle and isolating the rebel headquarters, which they believed was in Liberty Hall.", "The British commander, Lowe, worked slowly, unsure of the size of the force he was up against, and with only 1,269 troops in the city when he arrived from the Curragh Camp in the early hours of Tuesday 25 April.", "City Hall was taken from the rebel unit that had attacked Dublin Castle on Tuesday morning.In the early hours of Tuesday, 120 British soldiers, with machine guns, occupied two buildings overlooking St Stephen's Green: the Shelbourne Hotel and United Services Club.", "At dawn they opened fire on the Citizen Army occupying the green.", "The rebels returned fire but were forced to retreat to the Royal College of Surgeons building.", "They remained there for the rest of the week, exchanging fire with British forces.Fighting erupted along the northern edge of the city centre on Tuesday afternoon.", "In the northeast, British troops left Amiens Street railway station in an armoured train, to secure and repair a section of damaged tracks.", "They were attacked by rebels who had taken up position at Annesley Bridge.", "After a two-hour battle, the British were forced to retreat and several soldiers were captured.", "At Phibsborough, in the northwest, rebels had occupied buildings and erected barricades at junctions on the North Circular Road.", "The British summoned 18-pounder field artillery from Athlone and shelled the rebel positions, destroying the barricades.", "After a fierce firefight, the rebels withdrew.That afternoon Pearse walked out into O'Connell Street with a small escort and stood in front of Nelson's Pillar.", "As a large crowd gathered, he read out a 'manifesto to the citizens of Dublin,' calling on them to support the Rising.The rebels had failed to take either of Dublin's two main railway stations or either of its ports, at Dublin Port and Kingstown.", "As a result, during the following week, the British were able to bring in thousands of reinforcements from Britain and from their garrisons at the Curragh and Belfast.", "By the end of the week, British strength stood at over 16,000 men.", "Their firepower was provided by field artillery which they positioned on the Northside of the city at Phibsborough and at Trinity College, and by the patrol vessel ''Helga'', which sailed up the Liffey, having been summoned from the port at Kingstown.", "On Wednesday, 26 April, the guns at Trinity College and ''Helga'' shelled Liberty Hall, and the Trinity College guns then began firing at rebel positions, first at Boland's Mill and then in O'Connell Street.", "Some rebel commanders, particularly James Connolly, did not believe that the British would shell the 'second city' of the British Empire.British soldiers in position behind a stack of barrels during the Rising in DublinThe principal rebel positions at the GPO, the Four Courts, Jacob's Factory and Boland's Mill saw little action.", "The British surrounded and bombarded them rather than assault them directly.", "One Volunteer in the GPO recalled, \"we did practically no shooting as there was no target\".", "Entertainment ensued within the factory, \"everybody merry & cheerful\", bar the \"occasional sniping\", noted one Volunteer.", "However, where the rebels dominated the routes by which the British tried to funnel reinforcements into the city, there was fierce fighting.At 5:25 PM Volunteers Eamon Martin, Garry Holohan, Robert Beggs, Sean Cody, Dinny O'Callaghan, Charles Shelley, Peadar Breslin and five others attempted to occupy Broadstone railway station on Church Street, the attack was unsuccessful and Martin was injured.On Wednesday morning, hundreds of British troops encircled the Mendicity Institution, which was occupied by 26 Volunteers under Seán Heuston.", "British troops advanced on the building, supported by snipers and machine-gun fire, but the Volunteers put up stiff resistance.", "Eventually, the troops got close enough to hurl grenades into the building, some of which the rebels threw back.", "Exhausted and almost out of ammunition, Heuston's men became the first rebel position to surrender.", "Heuston had been ordered to hold his position for a few hours, to delay the British, but had held on for three days.Reinforcements were sent to Dublin from Britain and disembarked at Kingstown on the morning of Wednesday 26 April.", "Heavy fighting occurred at the rebel-held positions around the Grand Canal as these troops advanced towards Dublin.", "More than 1,000 Sherwood Foresters were repeatedly caught in a crossfire trying to cross the canal at Mount Street Bridge.", "Seventeen Volunteers were able to severely disrupt the British advance, killing or wounding 240 men.", "Despite there being alternative routes across the canal nearby, General Lowe ordered repeated frontal assaults on the Mount Street position.", "The British eventually took the position, which had not been reinforced by the nearby rebel garrison at Boland's Mills, on Thursday, but the fighting there inflicted up to two-thirds of their casualties for the entire week for a cost of just four dead Volunteers.", "It had taken nearly nine hours for the British to advance .On Wednesday Linenhall Barracks on Constitution Hill was burnt down under the orders of Commandant Edward Daly to prevent its reoccupation by the British.=== Thursday to Saturday ===The rebel position at the South Dublin Union (site of the present-day St. James's Hospital) and Marrowbone Lane, further west along the canal, also inflicted heavy losses on British troops.", "The South Dublin Union was a large complex of buildings and there was vicious fighting around and inside the buildings.", "Cathal Brugha, a rebel officer, distinguished himself in this action and was badly wounded.", "By the end of the week, the British had taken some of the buildings in the Union, but others remained in rebel hands.", "British troops also took casualties in unsuccessful frontal assaults on the Marrowbone Lane Distillery.Walter Paget, depicting the GPO during the shellingThe third major scene of fighting during the week was in the area of North King Street, north of the Four Courts.", "The rebels had established strong outposts in the area, occupying numerous small buildings and barricading the streets.", "From Thursday to Saturday, the British made repeated attempts to capture the area, in what was some of the fiercest fighting of the Rising.", "As the troops moved in, the rebels continually opened fire from windows and behind chimneys and barricades.", "At one point, a platoon led by Major Sheppard made a bayonet charge on one of the barricades but was cut down by rebel fire.", "The British employed machine guns and attempted to avoid direct fire by using makeshift armoured trucks, and by mouse-holing through the inside walls of terraced houses to get near the rebel positions.", "By the time of the rebel headquarters' surrender on Saturday, the South Staffordshire Regiment under Colonel Taylor had advanced only down the street at a cost of 11 dead and 28 wounded.", "The enraged troops broke into the houses along the street and shot or bayoneted fifteen unarmed male civilians whom they accused of being rebel fighters.Elsewhere, at Portobello Barracks, an officer named Bowen Colthurst summarily executed six civilians, including the pacifist nationalist activist, Francis Sheehy-Skeffington.", "These instances of British troops killing Irish civilians would later be highly controversial in Ireland.=== Surrender ===British soldiers marching rebel prisoners away after the surrenderThe headquarters garrison at the GPO was forced to evacuate after days of shelling when a fire caused by the shells spread to the GPO.", "Connolly had been incapacitated by a bullet wound to the ankle and had passed command on to Pearse.", "The O'Rahilly was killed in a sortie from the GPO.", "They tunnelled through the walls of the neighbouring buildings in order to evacuate the Post Office without coming under fire and took up a new position in 16 Moore Street.", "The young Seán McLoughlin was given military command and planned a breakout, but Pearse realised this plan would lead to further loss of civilian life.On Saturday 29 April, from this new headquarters, Pearse issued an order for all companies to surrender.", "Pearse surrendered unconditionally to Brigadier-General Lowe.", "The surrender document read:The other posts surrendered only after Pearse's surrender order, carried by nurse Elizabeth O'Farrell, reached them.", "Sporadic fighting, therefore, continued until Sunday, when word of the surrender was got to the other rebel garrisons.", "Command of British forces had passed from Lowe to General John Maxwell, who arrived in Dublin just in time to take the surrender.", "Maxwell was made temporary military governor of Ireland." ], [ "The Rising outside Dublin", "''Irish War News'', produced by the rebels during the RisingThe Rising was planned to occur across the nation, but MacNeill's countermanding order coupled with the failure to secure German arms hindered this objective significantly.", "Charles Townshend contended that serious intentions for a national Rising were meagre, being diminished by a focus upon Dublin – although this is an increasingly contentious notion.In the south, around 1,200 Volunteers commanded by Tomás Mac Curtain mustered on the Sunday in Cork, but they dispersed on Wednesday after receiving nine contradictory orders by dispatch from the Volunteer leadership in Dublin.", "At their Sheares Street headquarters, some of the Volunteers engaged in a standoff with British forces.", "Much to the anger of many Volunteers, MacCurtain, under pressure from Catholic clergy, agreed to surrender his men's arms to the British.", "The only violence in County Cork occurred when the RIC attempted to raid the home of the Kent family.", "The Kent brothers, who were Volunteers, engaged in a three-hour firefight with the RIC.", "An RIC officer and one of the brothers were killed, while another brother was later executed.", "Virtually all rebel family homes were raided, either during or after the Rising.In the north, Volunteer companies were mobilised in County Tyrone at Coalisland (including 132 men from Belfast led by IRB President Dennis McCullough) and Carrickmore, under the leadership of Patrick McCartan.", "They also mobilised at Creeslough, County Donegal under Daniel Kelly and James McNulty.", "However, in part because of the confusion caused by the countermanding order, the Volunteers in these locations dispersed without fighting.=== Ashbourne ===In north County Dublin, about 60 Volunteers mobilised near Swords.", "They belonged to the 5th Battalion of the Dublin Brigade (also known as the Fingal Battalion), and were led by Thomas Ashe and his second in command, Richard Mulcahy.", "Unlike the rebels elsewhere, the Fingal Battalion successfully employed guerrilla tactics.", "They set up camp and Ashe split the battalion into four sections: three would undertake operations while the fourth was kept in reserve, guarding camp and foraging for food.", "The Volunteers moved against the RIC barracks in Swords, Donabate and Garristown, forcing the RIC to surrender and seizing all the weapons.", "They also damaged railway lines and cut telegraph wires.", "The railway line at Blanchardstown was bombed to prevent a troop train from reaching Dublin.", "This derailed a cattle train, which had been sent ahead of the troop train.The only large-scale engagement of the Rising, outside Dublin city, was at Ashbourne, County Meath.", "On Friday, about 35 Fingal Volunteers surrounded the Ashbourne RIC barracks and called on it to surrender, but the RIC responded with a volley of gunfire.", "A firefight followed, and the RIC surrendered after the Volunteers attacked the building with a homemade grenade.", "Before the surrender could be taken, up to sixty RIC men arrived in a convoy, sparking a five-hour gun battle, in which eight RIC men were killed and 18 wounded.", "Two Volunteers were also killed and five wounded, and a civilian was fatally shot.", "The RIC surrendered and were disarmed.", "Ashe let them go after warning them not to fight against the Irish Republic again.", "Ashe's men camped at Kilsalaghan near Dublin until they received orders to surrender on Saturday.", "The Fingal Battalion's tactics during the Rising foreshadowed those of the IRA during the War of Independence that followed.Volunteer contingents also mobilised nearby in counties Meath and Louth but proved unable to link up with the North Dublin unit until after it had surrendered.", "In County Louth, Volunteers shot dead an RIC man near the village of Castlebellingham on 24 April, in an incident in which 15 RIC men were also taken prisoner.=== Enniscorthy ===Enniscorthy in the 1890sIn County Wexford, 100–200 Volunteers—led by Robert Brennan, Séamus Doyle and Seán Etchingham—took over the town of Enniscorthy on Thursday 27 April until Sunday.", "Volunteer officer Paul Galligan had cycled 200 km from rebel headquarters in Dublin with orders to mobilise.", "They blocked all roads into the town and made a brief attack on the RIC barracks, but chose to blockade it rather than attempt to capture it.", "They flew the tricolour over the Athenaeum building, which they had made their headquarters, and paraded uniformed in the streets.", "They also occupied Vinegar Hill, where the United Irishmen had made a last stand in the 1798 rebellion.", "The public largely supported the rebels and many local men offered to join them.By Saturday, up to 1,000 rebels had been mobilised, and a detachment was sent to occupy the nearby village of Ferns.", "In Wexford, the British assembled a column of 1,000 soldiers (including the Connaught Rangers), two field guns and a 4.7 inch naval gun on a makeshift armoured train.", "On Sunday, the British sent messengers to Enniscorthy, informing the rebels of Pearse's surrender order.", "However, the Volunteer officers were sceptical.", "Two of them were escorted by the British to Arbour Hill Prison, where Pearse confirmed the surrender order.=== Galway ===In County Galway, 600–700 Volunteers mobilised on Tuesday under Liam Mellows.", "His plan was to \"bottle up the British garrison and divert the British from concentrating on Dublin\".", "However, his men were poorly armed, with only 25 rifles, 60 revolvers, 300 shotguns and some homemade grenades – many of them only had pikes.", "Most of the action took place in a rural area to the east of Galway city.", "They made unsuccessful attacks on the RIC barracks at Clarinbridge and Oranmore, captured several officers, and bombed a bridge and railway line, before taking up position near Athenry.", "There was also a skirmish between rebels and an RIC mobile patrol at Carnmore crossroads.", "A constable, Patrick Whelan, was shot dead after he had called to the rebels: \"Surrender, boys, I know ye all\".On Wednesday, arrived in Galway Bay and shelled the countryside on the northeastern edge of Galway.", "The rebels retreated southeast to Moyode, an abandoned country house and estate.", "From here they set up lookout posts and sent out scouting parties.", "On Friday, landed 200 Royal Marines and began shelling the countryside near the rebel position.", "The rebels retreated further south to Limepark, another abandoned country house.", "Deeming the situation to be hopeless, they dispersed on Saturday morning.", "Many went home and were arrested following the Rising, while others, including Mellows, went \"on the run\".", "By the time British reinforcements arrived in the west, the Rising there had already disintegrated.=== Limerick and Clare ===In County Limerick, 300 Irish Volunteers assembled at Glenquin Castle near Killeedy, but they did not take any military action.In County Clare, Micheal Brennan marched with 100 Volunteers (from Meelick, Oatfield, and Cratloe) to the River Shannon on Easter Monday to await orders from the Rising leaders in Dublin, and weapons from the expected Casement shipment.", "However, neither arrived and no actions were taken." ], [ "Casualties", "Deansgrange Cemetery, where various civilians and members of the Irish Volunteer Army, Irish Citizen Army and British Army are buriedThe Easter Rising resulted in at least 485 deaths, according to the Glasnevin Trust.Of those killed:* 260 (about 54%) were civilians* 126 (about 26%) were U.K. forces (120 U.K. military personnel, 5 Volunteer Training Corps members, and one Canadian soldier) 35 – Irish Regiments:-* 11 – Royal Dublin Fusiliers* 10 – Royal Irish Rifles* 9 – Royal Irish Regiment* 2 – Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers* 2 – Royal Irish Fusiliers* 1 – Leinster Regiment 74 – British Regiments:-* 29 – Sherwood Foresters* 15 – South Staffordshire* 2 – North Staffordshire* 1 – Royal Field Artillery* 4 – Royal Engineers* 5 – Army Service Corps* 10 – Lancers* 7 – 8th Hussars* 2 – 2nd King Edwards Horse* 3 – Yeomanry** 1 – Royal Navy* 82 (about 16%) were Irish rebel forces (64 Irish Volunteers, 15 Irish Citizen Army and 3 Fianna Éireann)* 17 (about 4%) were police 14 – Royal Irish Constabulary 3 – Dublin Metropolitan PoliceMore than 2,600 were wounded; including at least 2,200 civilians and rebels, at least 370 British soldiers and 29 policemen.", "All 16 police fatalities and 22 of the British soldiers killed were Irishmen.", "About 40 of those killed were children (under 17 years old), four of whom were members of the rebel forces.The number of casualties each day steadily rose, with 55 killed on Monday and 78 killed on Saturday.", "The British Army suffered their biggest losses in the Battle of Mount Street Bridge on Wednesday when at least 30 soldiers were killed.", "The rebels also suffered their biggest losses on that day.", "The RIC suffered most of their casualties in the Battle of Ashbourne on Friday.The majority of the casualties, both killed and wounded, were civilians.", "Most of the civilian casualties and most of the casualties overall were caused by the British Army.", "This was due to the British using artillery, incendiary shells and heavy machine guns in built-up areas, as well as their \"inability to discern rebels from civilians\".", "One Royal Irish Regiment officer recalled, \"they regarded, not unreasonably, every one they saw as an enemy, and fired at anything that moved\".", "Many other civilians were killed when caught in the crossfire.", "Both sides, British and rebel, also shot civilians deliberately on occasion; for not obeying orders (such as to stop at checkpoints), for assaulting or attempting to hinder them, and for looting.", "There were also instances of British troops killing unarmed civilians out of revenge or frustration: notably in the North King Street Massacre, where fifteen were killed, and at Portobello Barracks, where six were shot.", "Furthermore, there were incidents of friendly fire.", "On 29 April, the Royal Dublin Fusiliers under Company Quartermaster Sergeant Robert Flood shot dead two British officers and two Irish civilian employees of the Guinness Brewery after he decided they were rebels.", "Flood was court-martialled for murder but acquitted.According to the historian Fearghal McGarry, the rebels attempted to avoid needless bloodshed.", "Desmond Ryan stated that Volunteers were told \"no firing was to take place except under orders or to repel attack\".", "Aside from the engagement at Ashbourne, policemen and unarmed soldiers were not systematically targeted, and a large group of policemen was allowed to stand at Nelson's Pillar throughout Monday.", "McGarry writes that the Irish Citizen Army \"were more ruthless than Volunteers when it came to shooting policemen\" and attributes this to the \"acrimonious legacy\" of the Dublin Lock-out.The vast majority of the Irish casualties were buried in Glasnevin Cemetery in the aftermath of the fighting.", "British families came to Dublin Castle in May 1916 to reclaim the bodies of British soldiers, and funerals were arranged.", "Soldiers whose bodies were not claimed were given military funerals in Grangegorman Military Cemetery." ], [ "Aftermath", "Ruins of the Metropole Hotel on Sackville Street, next to the GPOThe spot at Kilmainham Gaol where most of the leaders were executedThe burial spot of the leaders of the Rising, in the old prison yard of Arbour Hill Prison.", "The Proclamation of 1916 is inscribed on the wall in both Irish and EnglishBritish soldiers searching the River Tolka in Dublin for arms and ammunition after the Easter Rising.", "May 1916View of O'Connell Bridge, 1916, on a German postcard.", "The caption reads: ''Rising of the Sinn Feiners in Ireland.", "O'Connell bridge with Dublin city, where the fiercest clashes took place.", "''=== Arrests and executions ===In the immediate aftermath, the Rising was commonly described as the \"Sinn Féin Rebellion\", reflecting a popular belief that Sinn Féin, a separatist organisation that was neither militant nor republican, was behind it.", "General Maxwell, for example, signalled his intention \"to arrest all dangerous Sinn Feiners\", including \"those who have taken an active part in the movement although not in the present rebellion\".A total of 3,430 men and 79 women were arrested, including 425 people for looting – roughly, 1,500 of these arrests accounted for the rebels.", "Detainees were overwhelmingly young, Catholic and religious.", "1,424 men and 73 women were released after a few weeks of imprisonment; those interned without trial in England and Wales (see below) were released on Christmas Eve, 1916; the remaining majority of convicts were held until June 1917.A series of courts martial began on 2 May, in which 187 people were tried.", "Controversially, Maxwell decided that the courts martial would be held in secret and without a defence, which Crown law officers later ruled to have been illegal.", "Some of those who conducted the trials had commanded British troops involved in suppressing the Rising, a conflict of interest that the Military Manual prohibited.", "Only one of those tried by courts martial was a woman, Constance Markievicz, who was also the only woman to be kept in solitary confinement.", "Ninety were sentenced to death.", "Fifteen of those (including all seven signatories of the Proclamation) had their sentences confirmed by Maxwell and fourteen were executed by firing squad at Kilmainham Gaol between 3 and 12 May.Maxwell stated that only the \"ringleaders\" and those proven to have committed \"cold-blooded murder\" would be executed.", "However, some of those executed were not leaders and did not kill anyone, such as Willie Pearse and John MacBride; Thomas Kent did not come out at all—he was executed for the killing of a police officer during the raid on his house the week after the Rising.", "The most prominent leader to escape execution was Éamon de Valera, Commandant of the 3rd Battalion, who did so partly because of his American birth.", "Hobson went into hiding, re-emerging after the June amnesty, largely to scorn.Most of the executions took place over a ten-day period:* 3 May: Patrick Pearse, Thomas MacDonagh and Thomas Clarke* 4 May: Joseph Plunkett, William Pearse, Edward Daly and Michael O'Hanrahan* 5 May: John MacBride* 8 May: Éamonn Ceannt, Michael Mallin, Seán Heuston and Con Colbert* 12 May: James Connolly and Seán Mac DiarmadaThe arrests greatly affected hundreds of families and communities; anti-English sentiment developed among the public, as separatists declared the arrests as indicative of a draconian approach.", "The public, at large, feared that the response was \"an assault on the entirety of the Irish national cause\".", "This radical transformation was recognised in the moment and had become a point of concern among British authorities; after Connolly's execution, the remaining death sentences were commuted to penal servitude.", "Growing support for republicanism can be found as early as June 1916; imprisonment largely failed to deter militants – interned rebels would proceed to fight at higher rates than those who weren't – who thereafter quickly reorganised the movement.==== Frongoch prison camp ====Under Regulation 14B of the Defence of the Realm Act 1914 1,836 men were interned at internment camps and prisons in England and Wales.", "As urban areas were becoming the nexus for republicanism, Internees were largely from such areas.", "Many Internees had not taken part in the Rising; many thereafter became sympathetic to the nationalist cause.", "Internees occupied themselves with the likes of lectures, craftwork, music and sports.", "These activities – which included games of Gaelic football, crafting of Gaelic symbols, and lessons in Irish – regularly had a nationalist character and the cause itself developed a sense of cohesion within the camps.", "The military studies included discussion of the Rising.", "Interment lasted until December of that year with releases having started in July.", "Martial law had ceased by the end of November.Casement was tried in London for high treason and hanged at Pentonville Prison on 3 August.=== British atrocities ===Grave in Donaghcumper, Celbridge, of Peter Connolly, one of 15 civilians murdered in the North King Street Massacre.On Tuesday 25 April, Dubliner Francis Sheehy-Skeffington, a pacifist nationalist activist, was arrested and then taken as hostage and human shield by Captain John Bowen-Colthurst; that night Bowen-Colthurst shot dead a teenage boy.", "Skeffington was executed the next day – alongside two journalists.", "Two hours later, Bowen-Colthurst captured the Labour Party councillor and IRB lieutenant, Richard O'Carroll and had him shot in the street.", "Major Sir Francis Vane raised concerns over Bowen-Colthurst's actions and saw to him being court martialled.", "Bowen-Colthurst was found guilty but insane and was sentenced to an insane asylum.", "Owing to political pressure, an inquiry soon transpired, revealing the murders and their cover-up.", "The killing of Skeffington and others provoked outrage among citizens.The other incident was the \"North King Street Massacre\".", "On the night of 28–29 April, British soldiers of the South Staffordshire Regiment, under Colonel Henry Taylor, had burst into houses on North King Street and killed fifteen male civilians whom they accused of being rebels.", "The soldiers shot or bayoneted the victims, and then secretly buried some of them in cellars or backyards after robbing them.", "The area saw some of the fiercest fighting of the Rising and the British had taken heavy casualties for little gain.", "Maxwell attempted to excuse the killings and argued that the rebels were ultimately responsible.", "He claimed that \"the rebels wore no uniform\" and that the people of North King Street were rebel sympathisers.", "Maxwell concluded that such incidents \"are absolutely unavoidable in such a business as this\" and that \"under the circumstance the troops ... behaved with the greatest restraint\".", "A private brief, prepared for the Prime Minister, said the soldiers \"had orders not to take any prisoners\" but took it to mean they were to shoot any suspected rebel.", "The City Coroner's inquest found that soldiers had killed \"unarmed and unoffending\" residents.", "The military court of inquiry ruled that no specific soldiers could be held responsible, and no action was taken.=== Inquiry ===A Royal Commission was set up to enquire into the causes of the Rising.", "It began hearings on 18 May under the chairmanship of Lord Hardinge of Penshurst.", "The Commission heard evidence from Sir Matthew Nathan, Augustine Birrell, Lord Wimborne, Sir Neville Chamberlain (Inspector-General of the Royal Irish Constabulary), General Lovick Friend, Major Ivor Price of Military Intelligence and others.", "The report, published on 26 June, was critical of the Dublin administration, saying that \"Ireland for several years had been administered on the principle that it was safer and more expedient to leave the law in abeyance if collision with any faction of the Irish people could thereby be avoided.\"", "Birrell and Nathan had resigned immediately after the Rising.", "Wimborne resisted the pressure to resign, but was recalled to London by Asquith.", "He was re-appointed in July 1916.Chamberlain also resigned.=== Reaction of the Dublin public ===At first, many Dubliners were bewildered by the outbreak of the Rising.", "James Stephens, who was in Dublin during the week, thought, \"None of these people were prepared for Insurrection.", "The thing had been sprung on them so suddenly they were unable to take sides.\"", "Eyewitnesses compared the ruin of Dublin with the destruction of towns in Europe in the war: the physical damage, which included over ninety fires, was largely confined to Sackville Street.", "In the immediate aftermath, the Irish government was in disarray.", "There was great hostility towards the Volunteers in some parts of the city which escalated to physical violence in some instances.", "Historian Keith Jeffery noted that most of the opposition came from the dependents of British Army personnel.", "The death and destruction, which resulted in disrupted trade, considerable looting and unemployment, contributed to the antagonism of the Volunteers, who were denounced as \"murderers\" and \"starvers of the people\" – the monetary consequences of the Rising were estimated to be at £2,500,000.International aid was supplied to residents – nationalists aided the dependents of Volunteers.", "The British Government compensated the consequences to the sum of £2,500,000.Commemoration of Connolly's execution, 12 May 1917Crowds in Dublin waiting to welcome republican prisoners released in 1917Support for the rebels did exist among Dubliners, expressed through both crowds cheering at prisoners and reverent silence.", "With martial law seeing this expression prosecuted, many would-be supporters elected to remain silent although \"a strong undercurrent of disloyalty\" was still felt.", "Drawing upon this support, and amidst the deluge of nationalist ephemera, the significantly popular ''Catholic Bulletin'' eulogised Volunteers killed in action and implored readers to donate; entertainment was offered as an extension of those intentions, targeting local sectors to great success.", "The ''Bulletin'''s Catholic character allowed it to evade the widespread censorship of press and seizure of republican propaganda; it therefore exposed many unaware readers to such propaganda.=== Rise of Sinn Féin ===A meeting called by Count Plunkett on 19 April 1917 led to the formation of a broad political movement under the banner of Sinn Féin which was formalised at the Sinn Féin Ard Fheis of 25 October 1917.The Conscription Crisis of 1918 further intensified public support for Sinn Féin before the general elections to the British Parliament on 14 December 1918, which resulted in a landslide victory for Sinn Féin, winning 73 seats out of 105, whose Members of Parliament (MPs) gathered in Dublin on 21 January 1919 to form Dáil Éireann and adopt the Declaration of Independence.", "During that election, they drew directly upon the Rising and their popularity was significantly accreditable to that association, one that accrued political prestige until the end of the century.", "Many participants of the Rising would soon assume electoral positions.", "Sinn Féin served as an alternative to the Irish Parliamentary Party whose support for British establishments alienated voters.Sinn Féin would become closely aligned with the Irish Republican Army, who sought to continue the IRB's ideals and waged armed conflict against British forces." ], [ "Legacy", "In 1935, Éamon de Valera unveiled a statue of the mythical Irish hero Cú Chulainn at the General Post Office to commemorate the Rising.", "Similar remembrance is present throughout Dublin.1916 – containing both the Rising and the Battle of the Somme, events paramount to the memory of Irish Republicans and Ulster Unionists, respectively – had a profound effect on Ireland and is remembered accordingly.", "The Rising was among the events that ended colonial rule in Ireland, succeeded by the Irish War of Independence.", "The legacy of the Rising possess many dimensions although the declaration of the Republic and the ensuing executions remain focal points.", "Annual parades in celebration of the Rising occurred for many years, however, ceased after The Troubles in Northern Ireland began, being seen as supportive of republican paramilitary violence – the Rising is a common feature of republican murals in Northern Ireland.", "These commemorations celebrated the Rising as the origin of the Irish state, a stance reiterated through extensive analysis.", "Unionists contend that the Rising was an illegal attack on the British State that should not be celebrated.", "Revivalism of the parades has inspired significant public debate, although the centenary of the Rising, which featured the likes of ceremonies and memorials, was largely successful and praised for its sensitivity.The leaders of the Rising were \"instantly apotheosized\" and remembrance was situated within a larger republican tradition of claimed martyrdom – the Catholic Church would contend this narrative as the foundational myth of the Irish Free State, assuming a place within the remembrance as an association between republicanism and Catholicism grew.", "Within the Free State, the Rising was sanctified by officials, positioned as a \"highly disciplined military operation\".", "Historians largely agree that the Rising succeeded by offering a symbolic display of sacrifice, while the military action was a considerable failure.", "As Monk Gibbon remarked, the \"shots from khaki-uniformed firing parties did more to create the Republic of Ireland than any shot fired by a Volunteer in the course of Easter week\".Literature surrounding the Rising was significant: MacDonagh, Plunkett, and Pearse were themselves poets, whose ideals were granted a spiritual dimension in their work; Arnold Bax, Francis Ledwidge, George William Russell and W. B. Yeats responded through verse that ranged from endorsement to elegies.", "Although James Joyce was ambivalent to the insurgence, metaphors of and imagery consistent with the Rising appear in his later work.", "Hugh Leonard, Denis Johnston, Tom Murphy, Roddy Doyle and Sorley MacLean are among writers would later invoke the Rising.", "Now extensively dramatised, its theatricality was identified in the moment and has been stressed in its remembrance.", "Literary and political evocation position the Rising as a \"watershed moment\" central to Irish history.", "Black, Basque, Breton, Catalan and Indian nationalists have drawn upon the Rising and its consequences.", "For the latter, Jawaharlal Nehru noted, the symbolic display was the appeal, that of the transcendent, \"invincible spirit of a nation\"; such was broadly appealing in America, where diasporic, occasionally socialist, nationalism occurred.", "Vladimir Lenin was effusive, ascribing its anti-imperialism a singular significance within geopolitics – his only misgiving was its estrangement from the broader wave of revolution occurring.During the Troubles, significant revisionism of the Rising occurred.", "Revisionists contended that it was not a \"heroic drama\" as thought but rather informed the violence transpiring, by having legitimised a \"cult of 'blood sacrifice'\".", "With the advent of a Provisional IRA ceasefire and the beginning of what became known as the Peace Process during the 1990s, the government's view of the Rising grew more positive and in 1996 an 80th anniversary commemoration at the Garden of Remembrance in Dublin was attended by the Taoiseach and leader of Fine Gael, John Bruton.File:GPO Easter Rising Plaque.jpg\|Plaque commemorating the Easter Rising at the General Post Office, Dublin, with the Irish text in Gaelic script, and the English text in regular Latin scriptFile:Cobh Volunteers 1916 memorial.jpg\|Memorial in Cobh, County Cork, to the Volunteers from that townFile:Easter 1916.jpg\|Mural in Belfast depicting the Easter Rising of 1916File:Offaly 1916 memorial.jpg\|Memorial in Clonmacnoise commemorating men of County Offaly (then King's County) who fought in 1916: James Kenny, Kieran Kenny and Paddy McDonnell are namedFile:Clonegal flag.jpg\|Flag and copy of the Proclamation in Clonegal" ], [ "In popular culture", "* \"Easter, 1916\", a poem by the poet and playwright W.B.", "Yeats, published in 1921.", "* \"The Foggy Dew\" is a song by Canon Charles O'Neill, composed during the Irish War of Independence, that eulogises the rebels of the Easter Rising.", "* ''The Plough and the Stars'' is a 1926 play by Seán O'Casey that takes place during the Easter Rising.", "* ''Insurrection'' is a 1950 novel by Liam O'Flaherty that takes place during the Rising.", "* ''The Red and the Green'' is a 1965 novel by Iris Murdoch that covers the events leading up to and during the Easter Rising.", "* ''Insurrection'' is an eight-part 1966 docudrama made by Telefís Éireann for the 50th anniversary of the Rising.", "It was rebroadcast during the centenary celebrations in 2016.", "* \"Grace\" is a 1985 song about the marriage of Joseph Plunkett to Grace Gifford in Kilmainham Gaol before his execution.", "* ''1916, A Novel of the Irish Rebellion'' is a 1998 historical novel by Morgan Llywelyn.", "* ''A Star Called Henry'' is a 1999 novel by Roddy Doyle that partly recounts the Easter Rising through the involvement of the novel's protagonist Henry Smart.", "* ''At Swim, Two Boys'' is a 2001 novel by Irish writer Jamie O'Neill, set in Dublin before and during the 1916 Easter Rising.", "* ''Rebel Heart'', is a 2001 BBC miniseries on the life of a (fictional) nationalist from the Rising through the Irish Civil War.", "* ''Blood Upon the Rose'' is a 2009 graphic novel by Gerry Hunt depicting the events of the Easter Rising.", "* ''1916 Seachtar na Cásca'' is a 2010 Irish TV documentary series based on the Easter Rising, telling about seven signatories of the rebellion.", "* ''The Dream of the Celt'' is a 2012 novel by Mario Vargas Llosa based on the life and death of Roger Casement, including his involvement with the Rising.", "* ''Rebellion'' is a 2016 mini-series about the Easter Rising.", "* ''1916'' is a 2016 three-part documentary mini-series about the Easter Rising narrated by Liam Neeson.", "''Penance'' is a 2018 Irish film set primarily in Donegal in 1916 and in Derry in 1969, in which the Rising is also featured." ], [ "See also", " List of Irish uprisings" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Augusteijn, Joost (ed.", ")''The Memoirs of John M. Regan, a Catholic Officer in the RIC and RUC, 1909–48'', ''Witnessed Rising'', .", "* * * * * Coogan, Tim Pat, ''1916: The Easter Rising'' (2001) * Coogan, Tim Pat, ''The IRA'' (2nd ed.", "2000), * De Rosa, Peter.", "''Rebels: The Irish Rising of 1916.''", "Fawcett Columbine, New York.", "1990.", "* Eberspächer, Cord/Wiechmann, Gerhard: \"Erfolg Revolution kann Krieg entscheiden\".", "Der Einsatz von S.M.H.", "LIBAU im irischen Osteraufstand 1916 (\"Successful revolution may decide war\".", "The use of S.M.H.", "LIBAU in the Irish Easter rising 1916), in: Schiff & Zeit, Nr.", "67, Frühjahr 2008, S.", "2–16.", "* * * * Foster, R. F. ''Vivid Faces: The Revolutionary Generation in Ireland, 1890–1923'' (2015) excerpt * Foy, Michael and Barton, Brian, ''The Easter Rising'' * ** Greaves, C. Desmond, ''The Life and Times of James Connolly''* * * * * * Kostick, Conor & Collins, Lorcan, ''The Easter Rising, A Guide to Dublin in 1916'' * Lyons, F.S.L., ''Ireland Since the Famine'' * Macardle, Dorothy, ''The Irish Republic'' (Dublin 1951)* * * * * * * * * \"Patrick Pearse and Patriotic Soteriology,\" in Yonah Alexander and Alan O'Day, eds, ''The Irish Terrorism Experience'', (Aldershot: Dartmouth) 1991* Ó Broin, Leon, ''Dublin Castle & the 1916 Rising'', Sidgwick & Jackson, 1970* * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Bunbury, Turtle.", "''Easter Dawn – The 1916 Rising'' (Mercier Press, 2015) * McCarthy, Mark.", "''Ireland's 1916 Rising: Explorations of History-Making, Commemoration & Heritage in Modern Times'' (2013), historiography excerpt* McKeown, Eitne, 'A Family in the Rising' ''Dublin Electricity Supply Board Journal'' 1966.", "* Murphy, John A., ''Ireland in the Twentieth Century''* * Purdon, Edward, ''The 1916 Rising''* Shaw, Francis, S.J., \"The Canon of Irish History: A Challenge\", in ''Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review'', LXI, 242, 1972, pp.", "113–52" ], [ "External links", "* Easter 1916 – Digital Heritage Website* The 1916 Rising – an Online Exhibition.", "National Library of Ireland* The Letters of 1916 – Crowdsourcing Project Trinity College Dublin* * * Lillian Stokes (1878–1955): account of the 1916 Easter Rising* Primary and secondary sources relating to the Easter Rising (Sources database, National Library of Ireland)* Easter Rising site and walking tour of 1916 Dublin* News articles and letters to the editor in ''The Age'', 27 April 1916* The 1916 Rising by Norman Teeling a 10-painting suite acquired by An Post for permanent display at the General Post Office (Dublin)* The Easter Rising – ''BBC History''* The Irish Story archive on the Rising* Easter Rising website* The Discussion On Self-Determination Summed Up Lenin's discussion of the importance of the rebellion appears in Section 10: The Irish Rebellion of 1916* Bureau of Military History – Witness Statements Online (PDF files)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Eschrichtiidae" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eschrichtiidae''' or the '''gray whales''' is a family of baleen whale (Parvorder Mysticeti) with a single extant species, the gray whale (''Eschrichtius robustus''), as well as three described fossil genera: ''Archaeschrichtius'' and ''Eschrichtioides'' from the Miocene and Pliocene of Italy respectively, and ''Gricetoides'' from the Pliocene of North Carolina.", "More recent phylogenetic studies have found this family to be invalid, with its members nesting inside the Balaenopteridae.", "The names of the extant genus and the family honours Danish zoologist Daniel Eschricht." ], [ "Taxonomy", "In his morphological analysis, found that eschrichtiids and Cetotheriidae (''Cetotherium'', ''Mixocetus'' and ''Metopocetus'') form a monophyletic sister group of Balaenopteridae.A specimen from the Late Pliocene of northern Italy, named ''\"Cetotherium\" gastaldii'' by and renamed ''\"Balaenoptera\" gastaldii'' by , was identified as a basal eschrichtiid by who recombined it to ''Eschrichtioides gastaldii''.", "found that the gray whale is phylogenetically distinct from rorquals and that previous morphological studies were correct in the conclusion that the evolution of gulp feeding was a single event in the rorqual lineage.", "In contrast, multiple later studies found the gray whale to fall within the family Balaenopteridae, being more derived than the minke whales but basal to all other members in the family, and reclassified it in Balaenopteridae; the American Society of Mammalogists has followed this classification." ], [ "Evolution", "Fossils of Eschrichtiidae have been found in all major oceanic basins in the Northern Hemisphere, and the family is believed date back to the Late Miocene.", "Today, gray whales are only present in the northern Pacific, but a population was also present in the northern Atlantic before being driven to extinction by European whalers three centuries ago.Fossil eschrichtiids from before the Holocene are rare compared to other fossil mysticetes.", "The only Pleistocene fossil from the Pacific referred to ''E.", "eschrichtius'' is a partial skeleton and an associated skull from California, estimated to be about 200 thousand years old.", "However, a late Pliocene fossil from Hokkaido, Japan, referred to ''Eschrichtius'' sp.", "is estimated to be and a similar unnamed fossil has been reported from California.In their description of ''Archaeschrichtius ruggieroi'' from the late Miocene of Italy, argued that eschrichtiids most likely originated in the Mediterranean Basin about and remained there, either permanently or intermittently, at least until the Early Pliocene (5–3 Mya), (but see Messinian salinity crisis.)" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *** * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Edmund I" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edmund I''' or '''Eadmund I''' (920/921 – 26 May 946) was King of the English from 27 October 939 until his death.", "He was the elder son of King Edward the Elder and his third wife, Queen Eadgifu, and a grandson of King Alfred the Great.", "After Edward died in 924, he was succeeded by his eldest son, Edmund's half-brother Æthelstan.", "Edmund was crowned after Æthelstan died childless in 939.He had two sons, Eadwig and Edgar, by his first wife Ælfgifu, and none by his second wife Æthelflæd.", "His sons were young children when he was killed in a brawl with an outlaw at Pucklechurch in Gloucestershire, and he was succeeded by his younger brother Eadred, who died in 955 and was followed by Edmund's sons in succession.Æthelstan had succeeded as the king of England south of the Humber and he became the first king of all England when he conquered Viking-ruled York in 927, but after his death Anlaf Guthfrithson was accepted as King of York and extended Viking rule to the Five Boroughs of north-east Mercia.", "Edmund was initially forced to accept the reverse, the first major setback for the West Saxon dynasty since Alfred's reign, but he was able to recover his position following Anlaf's death in 941.In 942 Edmund took back control of the Five Boroughs and in 944 he regained control over the whole of England when he expelled the Viking kings of York.", "Eadred had to deal with further revolts when he became king, and York was not finally conquered until 954.Æthelstan had achieved a dominant position over other British kings and Edmund maintained this, perhaps apart from Scotland.", "The north Welsh king Idwal Foel may have allied with the Vikings as he was killed by the English in 942.The British kingdom of Strathclyde may also have sided with the Vikings as Edmund ravaged it in 945 and then ceded it to Malcolm I of Scotland.", "Edmund also continued his brother's friendly relations with Continental rulers, several of whom were married to his half-sisters.Edmund inherited his brother's interests and leading advisers, such as Oda, whom he appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in 941, Æthelstan Half-King, ealdorman of East Anglia, and Ælfheah the Bald, Bishop of Winchester.", "Government at the local level was mainly carried on by ealdormen, and Edmund made substantial changes in personnel during his reign, with a move from Æthelstan's main reliance on West Saxons to a greater prominence of men with Mercian connections.", "Unlike the close relatives of previous kings, his mother and brother attested many of Edmund's charters, suggesting a high degree of family cooperation.", "Edmund was also an active legislator, and three of his codes survive.", "Provisions include ones which attempt to regulate feuds and emphasise the sanctity of the royal person.The major religious movement of the tenth century, the English Benedictine Reform, reached its peak under Edgar, but Edmund's reign was important in its early stages.", "He appointed Dunstan abbot of Glastonbury, where he was joined by Æthelwold.", "They were to be two of the leaders of the reform and they made the abbey the first important centre for disseminating it.", "Unlike the circle of his son Edgar, Edmund did not take the view that Benedictine monasticism was the only worthwhile religious life, and he also patronised unreformed (non-Benedictine) establishments." ], [ "Background", "alt=Map of the British Isles in the tenth century.", "Edmund's territory at the beginning and end of his reign covered Wessex, Mercia, East Anglia, York and Northumbria.In the ninth century the four Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Wessex, Mercia, Northumbria and East Anglia came under increasing attack from Vikings, culminating in invasion by the Great Heathen Army in 865.By 878, the Vikings had overrun East Anglia, Northumbria, and Mercia, and nearly conquered Wessex, but in that year the West Saxons fought back under Alfred the Great and achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Edington.", "In the 880s and 890s the Anglo-Saxons ruled Wessex and western Mercia, but the rest of England was under Viking kings.", "Alfred constructed a network of fortresses, and these helped him to frustrate renewed Viking attacks in the 890s with the assistance of his son-in-law, Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians, and his elder son Edward, who became king when Alfred died in 899.In 909 Edward sent a force of West Saxons and Mercians to attack the Northumbrian Danes, and the following year the Danes retaliated with a raid on Mercia.", "While they were marching back to Northumbria, they were caught by an Anglo-Saxon army and decisively defeated at the Battle of Tettenhall, ending the threat from the Northumbrian Vikings for a generation.", "In the 910s Edward and Æthelflæd, his sister and Æthelred's widow, extended Alfred's network of fortresses and conquered Viking-ruled eastern Mercia and East Anglia.", "When Edward died in 924, he controlled all England south of the Humber.Edward was succeeded by his eldest son Æthelstan, who seized control of Northumbria in 927, thus becoming the first king of all England.", "He then styled himself in charters as king of the English, and soon afterwards Welsh kings and the kings of Scotland and Strathclyde acknowledged his overlordship.", "After this, he adopted more grandiose titles such as (king of the whole of Britain).", "In 934 he invaded Scotland and in 937 an alliance of armies of Scotland, Strathclyde and the Vikings invaded England.", "Æthelstan secured a decisive victory at the Battle of Brunanburh, cementing his dominant position in Britain.Benedictine monasticism had flourished in England in the seventh and eighth centuries, but it severely declined in the late eighth and ninth centuries.", "By the time Alfred came to the throne in 871, monasteries and knowledge of Latin were at a low ebb, but there was a gradual revival from Alfred's time onwards.", "This accelerated during Æthelstan's reign, and two leaders of the later tenth-century English Benedictine Reform, Dunstan and Æthelwold, reached maturity in Æthelstan's cosmopolitan, intellectual court of the 930s." ], [ "Family and early life", "Edmund's father, Edward the Elder, had three wives, eight or nine daughters, several of whom married Continental royalty, and five sons.", "Æthelstan was the only known son of Edward's first wife, Ecgwynn.", "His second wife, Ælfflæd, had two sons: Ælfweard, who may have been acknowledged in Wessex as king when his father died in 924 but who died less than a month later, and Edwin, who drowned in 933.In about 919 Edward married Eadgifu, the daughter of Sigehelm, ealdorman of Kent.", "Edmund, who was born in 920 or 921, was Eadgifu's elder son.", "Her younger son Eadred succeeded him as king.", "Edmund had one or two full sisters.", "Eadburh was a nun at Winchester who was later venerated as a saint.", "The twelfth-century historian William of Malmesbury gives Edmund a second full sister who married Louis, prince of Aquitaine; she was called Eadgifu, the same name as her mother.", "William's account is accepted by the historians Ann Williams and Sean Miller, but Æthelstan's biographer Sarah Foot argues that she did not exist, and that William confused her with Ælfgifu, a daughter of Ælfflæd.Edmund was a young child when his half-brother Æthelstan became king in 924.He grew up at Æthelstan's court, probably with two important Continental exiles, his nephew Louis, future King of the West Franks, and Alain, future Duke of Brittany.", "According to William of Malmesbury, Æthelstan showed great affection towards Edmund and Eadred: \"mere infants at his father's death, he brought them up lovingly in childhood, and when they grew up gave them a share in his kingdom\".", "Edmund may have been a member of the expedition to Scotland in 934 as, according to the (History of Saint Cuthbert), Æthelstan instructed that in the event of his death Edmund was to take his body to Cuthbert's shrine at Chester-le-Street.", "Edmund fought at the Battle of Brunanburh in 937, and in a poem commemorating the victory in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (''ASC''), Edmund (prince of the royal house) is given such a prominent role – and praised for his heroism alongside Æthelstan – that the historian Simon Walker has suggested that the poem was written during Edmund's reign.", "At a royal assembly shortly before Æthelstan's death in 939, Edmund and Eadred attested a grant to their full sister, Eadburh, both as (king's brother).", "Their attestations may have been because of the family connection, but they also may have been intended to display the throneworthiness of the king's half-brothers when it was known that he did not have long to live.", "This is the only charter of Æthelstan attested by Edmund, the authenticity of which has not been questioned.", "Æthelstan died childless on 27 October 939 and Edmund's succession to the throne was undisputed.", "He was the first king to succeed to the throne of all England, and was probably crowned at Kingston-upon-Thames, perhaps on Advent Sunday, 1 December 939." ], [ "Reign", "===The loss and recovery of the north===alt=The name 'Anlaf' in the Anglo-Saxon ChronicleBrunanburh saved England from destruction as a united kingdom, and it helped to ensure that Edmund would succeed smoothly to the throne, but it did not preserve him from challenges to his rule once he became king.", "The chronology of the Viking challenge is disputed, but according to the most widely accepted version, Æthelstan's death encouraged the York Vikings to accept the kingship of Anlaf Guthfrithson, the King of Dublin who had led the Viking forces defeated at Brunanburh.", "According to ''ASC D'': \"Here the Northumbrians belied their pledges and chose Anlaf from Ireland as their king.\"", "Anlaf was in York by the end of 939 and the following year he invaded north-east Mercia, aiming to recover the southern territories of the York kingdom which had been conquered by Edward and Æthelflæd.", "He marched on Northampton, where he was repulsed, and then stormed the ancient Mercian royal centre of Tamworth, with considerable loss of life on both sides.", "On his way back north he was caught at Leicester by an army under Edmund, but battle was averted by the mediation of Archbishop Wulfstan of York, on behalf of the Vikings, and probably the Archbishop of Canterbury acting for the English.", "They arranged a treaty at Leicester which surrendered the Five Boroughs of Lincoln, Leicester, Nottingham, Stamford and Derby, to Guthfrithson.", "This was the first serious setback for the English since Edward the Elder began to roll back Viking conquests in the early tenth century, and it was described by the historian Frank Stenton as \"an ignominious surrender\".", "Guthfrithson had coins struck at York with the lower Viking weight than the English standard.Guthfrithson died in 941, allowing Edmund to reverse his losses.", "In 942 he recovered the Five Boroughs, and his victory was considered so significant that it was commemorated by a poem in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'':Like other tenth-century poems in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', this one shows a concern with English nationalism and the West Saxon royal dynasty, and in this case displays the Christian English and Danes as united under Edmund in their victorious opposition to Norse (Norwegian) pagans.", "Stenton commented that the poem brings out the highly significant fact that the Danes of eastern Mercia, after fifteen years of Æthelstan's government, had come to regard themselves as the rightful subjects of the English king.", "Above all, it emphasises the antagonism between Danes and Norsemen, which is often ignored by modern writers, but underlies the whole history of England in this period.", "It is the first political poem in the English language, and its author understood political realities.However, Williams is sceptical, arguing that the poem is not contemporary, and that it is doubtful whether contemporaries saw their situation in those terms.", "In the same year Edmund granted large estates in northern Mercia to a leading nobleman, Wulfsige the Black, continuing the policy of his father of granting land in the Danelaw to supporters in order to give them an interest in resisting the Vikings.Guthfrithson was succeeded as king of York by his cousin, Anlaf Sihtricson, who was baptised in 943 with Edmund as his godfather, suggesting that he accepted West Saxon overlordship.", "Sihtricson issued his own coinage, but he clearly had rivals in York as coins were also issued there in two other names: Ragnall, a brother of Anlaf Guthfrithson who also accepted baptism under Edmund's sponsorship, and an otherwise unknown Sihtric.", "The coins of all three men were issued with the same design, which may suggest joint authority.", "In 944 Edmund expelled the Viking rulers of York and seized control of the city with the assistance of Archbishop Wulfstan, who had previously supported the Vikings, and an ealdorman in Mercia, probably Æthelmund, who had been appointed by Edmund in 940.When Edmund died, his successor Eadred faced further revolts in Northumbria, which were not finally defeated until 954.In Miller's view, Edmund's reign \"shows clearly that although Æthelstan had conquered Northumbria, it was still not really part of a united England, nor would it be until the end of Eadred's reign\".", "The Northumbrians' repeated revolts show that they retained separatist ambitions, which they only abandoned under pressure from successive southern kings.", "Unlike Æthelstan, Edmund and Eadred rarely claimed jurisdiction over the whole of Britain, although each did sometimes describe himself as 'king of the English' even at times when he did not control Northumbria.", "In charters Edmund sometimes even called himself by the lesser title of 'king of the Anglo-Saxons' in 940 and 942, and only claimed to be king of all Britain once he had gained full control over Northumbria in 945.He never described himself as on his coinage.===Relations with other British kingdoms===Edmund inherited overlordship over the kings of Wales from Æthelstan, but Idwal Foel, king of Gwynedd in north Wales, apparently took advantage of Edmund's early weakness to withhold fealty and may have supported Anlaf Guthfrithson, as according to the he was killed by the English in 942.Between 942 and 950 his kingdom was conquered by Hywel Dda, the king of Deheubarth in south Wales, who is described by the historian of Wales Thomas Charles-Edwards as \"the firmest ally of the English 'emperors of Britain' among all the kings of his day\".", "Attestations of Welsh kings to English charters appear to have been rare compared with those in Æthelstan's reign, but in the historian David Dumville's view there is no reason to doubt that Edmund retained his overlordship over the Welsh kings.", "In a charter of 944 disposing of land in Devon, Edmund is styled \"King of the English and ruler of this British province\", suggesting that the former British kingdom of Dumnonia was still not regarded as fully integrated into England, although the historian Simon Keynes \"suspects some 'local' interference\" in the wording of Edmund's title.By 945 both Scotland and Strathclyde had kings who had assumed the throne since Brunanburh, and it is likely that whereas Scotland allied with England, Strathclyde held to its alliance with the Vikings.", "In that year Edmund ravaged Strathclyde.", "According to the thirteenth-century chronicler Roger of Wendover, the invasion was supported by Hywel Dda, and Edmund had two sons of the king of Strathclyde blinded, perhaps to deprive their father of throneworthy heirs.", "Edmund then gave the kingdom to Malcolm I of Scotland in return for a pledge to defend it on land and on sea, a decision variously interpreted by historians.", "Dumville and Charles-Edwards regard it as granting Strathclyde to the Scottish king in return for an acknowledgement of Edmund's overlordship, whereas Williams thinks it probably means that he agreed to Malcolm's overlordship of the area in return for an alliance against the Dublin Vikings, and Stenton and Miller see it as recognition by Edmund that Northumbria was the northern limit of Anglo-Saxon England.According to the hagiography of a Gaelic monk called Cathróe he travelled through England on his journey from Scotland to the Continent; Edmund summoned him to court and Oda, Archbishop of Canterbury, then ceremonially conducted him to his ship at Lympne.", "Travelling clerics played an important part in the circulation of manuscripts and ideas in this period, and Cathróe is unlikely to have been the only Celtic cleric at Edmund's court.===Relations with Continental Europe===Edmund inherited strong Continental contacts from Æthelstan's cosmopolitan court, and these were enhanced by their sisters' marriages to foreign kings and princes.", "Edmund carried on his brother's Continental policies and maintained his alliances, especially with his nephew King Louis IV of West Francia and Otto I, King of East Francia and future Holy Roman Emperor.", "Louis was both nephew and brother-in-law of Otto, while Otto and Edmund were brothers-in-law.", "There were almost certainly extensive diplomatic contacts between Edmund and Continental rulers which have not been recorded, but it is known that Otto sent delegations to Edmund's court.", "In the early 940s some Norman lords sought the help of the Danish prince Harald against Louis, and in 945 Harald captured Louis and handed him to Hugh the Great, Duke of the Franks, who kept him prisoner.", "Edmund and Otto both protested and demanded his immediate release, but this only took place in exchange for the surrender of the town of Laon to Hugh.Edmund's name is in the confraternity book of Pfäfers Abbey in Switzerland, perhaps at the request of Archbishop Oda when staying there on his way to or from Rome to collect his pallium.", "As with the diplomatic delegations, this probably represents rare surviving evidence of extensive contacts between English and Continental churchmen which continued from Æthelstan's reign.===Administration===Edmund inherited his brother's interests and leading advisers, such as Æthelstan Half-King, ealdorman of East Anglia, Ælfheah the Bald, bishop of Winchester, and Oda, bishop of Ramsbury, who was appointed as Archbishop of Canterbury by Edmund in 941.Æthelstan Half-King first witnessed a charter as an ealdorman in 932, and within three years of Edmund's accession he had been joined by two of his brothers as ealdormen; their territories covered more than half of England and his wife fostered the future King Edgar.", "The historian Cyril Hart compares the brothers' power during Edmund's reign to that of the Godwins a century later.", "Edmund's mother, Eadgifu, who had been in eclipse during her step-son's reign, was also very influential.For the first half of 940 there were no changes in the attestations of ealdormen compared with the end of Æthelstan's reign, but later in the year the number of ealdormen was doubled from four to eight, with three of the new ealdormen covering Mercian districts.", "There was an increased reliance on the family of Æthelstan Half-King, which was enriched by grants in 942.The appointments may have been part of Edmund's measures to deal with Anlaf's incursion.Eadgifu and Eadred attested many of Edmund's charters, showing a high degree of family cooperation; initially Eadgifu attested first, but from sometime in late 943 or early 944 Eadred took precedence, perhaps reflecting his growing authority.", "Eadgifu attested around one third, always as (king's mother), including all grants to religious institutions and individuals.", "Eadred attested over half of his brother's charters.", "Eadgifu's and Eadred's prominence in charter attestations is unparalleled by any other West Saxon king's mother and male relative.===Charters===The period from around 925 to 975 was the golden age of Anglo-Saxon royal charters, when they were at their peak as instruments of royal government, and the scribes who drew up most of Edmund's charters constituted a royal secretariat which he inherited from his brother.", "From 928 until 935 charters were produced by the very learned scribe designated by scholars as Æthelstan A in a highly elaborate style.", "Keynes comments: \"It is only by dwelling on the glories and complexities of the diplomas drafted and written by Æthelstan A that one can appreciate the elegant simplicity of the diplomas that followed.\"", "A scribe known as Edmund C wrote an inscription in a gospel book (BL Cotton Tiberius A. ii folio 15v) during Æthelstan's reign and wrote charters for Edmund and Eadred between 944 and 949.Most of Edmund's charters belong to the diplomatic 'mainstream', including those of Edmund C, but four are part of a group, dating mainly to Eadred's reign, called the 'alliterative charters'.", "They were drafted by a very learned scholar, almost certainly someone in the circle of Cenwald, Bishop of Worcester, or perhaps the bishop himself.", "These charters are characterised both by a high proportion of words starting with the same letter and by the use of unusual words.", "Ben Snook describes the charters as \"impressive literary works\", and like much of the writing of the period their style displays the influence of Aldhelm, a leading scholar and early eighth-century bishop of Sherborne.===Coinage===The only coin in common use in the tenth century was the penny.", "The main coin designs in Edmund's reign were H (Horizontal) types, with a cross or other decoration on the obverse surrounded by a circular inscription including the king's name, and the moneyer's name horizontally on the reverse.", "There were also substantial numbers of BC (Bust Crowned) types in East Anglia and the Danish shires; these had a portrait of the king, often crudely drawn, on the obverse.", "For a period in Æthelstan's reign many coins showed the mint town, but this had become rare by the time of Edmund's accession, except in Norwich, where it continued during the 940s for BC types.After the reign of Edward the Elder there was a slight decline in the weight of coins under Æthelstan, and the deterioration increased after around 940, continuing until Edgar's reform of the coinage in around 973.However, based on a very small sample, there is no evidence of a decline in the silver content under Edmund.", "His reign saw an increase in regional diversity of the coinage which lasted for twenty years until a return to relative unity of design early in Edgar's reign.===Legislation===Three law codes of Edmund survive, carrying on Æthelstan's tradition of legal reform.", "They are called I Edmund, II Edmund and III Edmund.", "The order in which they were issued is clear, but not the dates of issue.", "I Edmund is concerned with ecclesiastical matters, while the other codes deal with public order.I Edmund was promulgated at a council in London convened by Edmund and attended by archbishops Oda and Wulfstan.", "The code is very similar to \"Constitutions\" previously promulgated by Oda.", "Uncelibate clerics were threatened with the loss of property and forbidden burial in consecrated ground, and there were also provisions regarding church dues and the restoration of church property.", "A clause forbidding a murderer from coming into the neighbourhood of the king, unless he had done penance for his crime, reflected an increasing emphasis on the sanctity of kingship.", "Edmund was one of the few Anglo-Saxon kings to promulgate laws concerned with sorcery and idolatry, and the code condemns false witness and the use of magical drugs.", "The association between perjury and the use of drugs in magic was traditional, probably because they both involved the breaking of a religious oath.In II Edmund, the king and his counsellors are stated to be \"greatly distressed by the manifold illegal deeds of violence which are in our midst\", and aimed to promote \"peace and concord\".", "The main focus is on regulating and controlling blood feuds.", "The authorities () are required to put a stop to vendettas following murders: the killer should instead pay (compensation) to the relatives of the victim.", "If no wergeld is paid, the killer has to bear the feud, but attacks on him are forbidden in churches and royal manor houses.", "If the killer's kin abandon him and refuse to contribute to a wergeld and to protect him, then it is the king's will that they are to be exempt from the feud: any of the victim's kin taking vengeance on them shall incur the hostility of the king and his friends and shall lose all their possessions.", "In the view of the historian Dorothy Whitelock the need for legislation to control the feud was partly due to the influx of Danish settlers who believed that it was more manly to pursue a vendetta than to settle a dispute by accepting compensation.", "Several Scandinavian loan words are first recorded in this code, such as , the crime of attacking a homestead; the penalty is loss of all the offender's property, while the king decides whether he also loses his life.", "Scandinavian loan words are not found in Edmund's other codes, and this one may have been particularly aimed at his Danish subjects.", "In contrast to Edmund's concern about the level of violence, he congratulated his people on their success in suppressing thefts.", "The code encourages greater local initiative in upholding the law, while emphasising Edmund's royal dignity and authority.The relationship between Anglo-Saxon kings and their leading men was personal; kings were lords and protectors in return for pledges of loyalty and obedience, and this is spelled out in terms based on Carolingian legislation for the first time in III Edmund, issued at Colyton in Devon.", "This requires that \"all shall swear in the name of the Lord, before whom that holy thing is holy, that they will be faithful to King Edmund, even as it behoves a man to be faithful to his lord, without any dispute or dissension, openly or in secret, favouring what he favours and discountenancing what he discountenances.\"", "The threat of divine retribution was important in a society which had limited coercive power to punish law breaking and disloyalty.", "The military historian Richard Abels argues that \"all\" () shall swear does not mean literally all, but should be understood to mean those men qualified to take oaths administered by royal reeves at shire courts, that is the middling and great landholders, and that Edmund's oath united his diverse peoples by binding them all to him personally.", "The emphasis on lordship is further seen in provisions setting out the duties of lords to take responsibility for their followers and stand surety for them.III Edmund was also concerned to prevent theft, especially cattle rustling.", "The local community is required to cooperate in catching thieves, dead or alive, and to assist in tracking down stolen cattle, while trading had to be witnessed by a high reeve, priest, treasurer or port reeve.", "According to a provision described by the legal historian Patrick Wormald as gruesome: \"we have declared with regard to slaves that, if a number of them commit theft, their leader shall be captured and slain, or hanged, and each of the others shall be scourged three times and have his scalp removed and his little finger mutilated as a token of his guilt\".", "The code has the first reference to the hundred as an administrative unit of local government in a provision requiring anyone who refuses to assist in the apprehension of a thief to pay 120 shillings to the king and 30 shillings to the hundred.Williams comments \"In both the second code and the Colyton legislation, the functions of the four pillars of medieval society, kingship, lordship, family, and neighbourhood, are clearly evident.\"", "Wormald describes the codes as \"an object-lesson in the variety of Anglo-Saxon legal texts\", but he sees what they have in common as more important, especially a heightened rhetorical tone which extends to treating murder as an affront to the royal person.", "The historian Alaric Trousdale sees \"explicit funding of local administrative institutions and the greater empowerment of local officials in the application of the law\" as original contributions of Edmund's legislation.", "Edmund is listed in laws of his grandson Æthelred the Unready as one of the wise law-givers of the past.===Religion===Apocalypse inscribed 'Dunstan the abbot gave orders for the writing of this book.", "'\|alt=Last page of commentaries on the Apocalypse inscribed 'Dunstan the abbot gave orders for the writing of this book.", "'The major religious movement of the tenth century, the English Benedictine Reform, reached its peak under Edgar, but Edmund's reign was important in the early stages, which were led by Oda and Ælfheah, both of whom were monks.", "Oda had strong connections with Continental centres of reform, especially Fleury Abbey.", "He had been a leading counsellor of Æthelstan and had helped to negotiate the return of Louis to France as king of the Franks in 936.Dunstan was to be a key figure in the reform and Archbishop of Canterbury, and according to his first biographer he was a leading figure at Edmund's court until his enemies persuaded Edmund to expel him, only for the king to have a change of heart after a narrow escape from death and give him a royal estate at Glastonbury, including its abbey.", "Williams rejects the story because there is no evidence that he was influential in this period; his brother attested charters, but he did not.", "Edmund may have given Dunstan the abbey to keep him at a distance because he was too much of a disruptive influence at court.", "He was joined by Æthelwold, another future reform leader, and they spent much of the next decade studying Benedictine texts at Glastonbury, which became the first centre for disseminating monastic reform.Edmund visited the shrine of St Cuthbert in Chester-le-Street church, probably on his way to Scotland in 945.He prayed at the shrine and commended himself and his army to the saint.", "His men gave 60 pounds to the shrine, and Edmund placed two gold bracelets on the saint's body and wrapped two costly (lengths of Greek cloth) around it.", "One of the was probably an excellent Byzantine silk found in Cuthbert's tomb known as the 'Nature Goddess silk'.", "He also \"granted peace and law better than any it ever had to the whole territory of St Cuthbert\".", "Edmund's show of respect and support for the shrine reflected both the political power of the community of St Cuthbert in the north and southern reverence for him.", "According to William of Malmesbury, Edmund brought the relics of important Northumbrian saints such as Aidan south to Glastonbury Abbey.Another sign of the religious revival was the number of aristocratic women who adopted a religious life.", "Several received grants from Edmund, including a nun called Ælfgyth, who was a patron of Wilton Abbey, and Wynflæd, the mother of Edmund's first wife.", "Æthelstan had granted two estates to religious women, Edmund made seven such grants and Eadred four.", "After this the practice ceased abruptly, apart from one further donation.", "The significance of the donations is uncertain, but the most likely explanation is that in the mid-tenth century some religious aristocratic women were granted the estates so that they could choose how to pursue their vocation, whether by establishing a nunnery or living a religious life in their own homes.In the reign of Edmund's son Edgar, Æthelwold and his circle insisted that Benedictine monasticism was the only worthwhile form of religious life, but this was not the view of earlier kings such as Edmund.", "He was concerned to support religion, but was not committed to a particular ideology of religious development.", "In his grants he continued Æthelstan's policies.", "When Gérard of Brogne reformed the Abbey of Saint Bertin by imposing the Benedictine rule in 944, monks who rejected the changes fled to England and Edmund gave them a church owned by the crown at Bath.", "He may have had personal motives for his assistance, as the monks had given burial to his half-brother, Edwin, who had drowned at sea in 933, but the incident shows that Edmund did not see only one monastic rule as valid.", "He may also have granted privileges to the unreformed (non-Benedictine) Bury St Edmunds Abbey, but the charter's authenticity is disputed.===Learning===Latin learning revived in Æthelstan's reign, influenced by Continental models and by the hermeneutic style of the leading seventh-century scholar and Bishop of Sherborne, Aldhelm.", "The revival continued in Edmund's reign, and Welsh book production became increasingly influential.", "Welsh manuscripts were studied and copied, and they influenced the early use of Carolingian minuscule script in England, although Continental sources are also important.", "Edmund's reign also saw the development of a new style of the native square minuscule script, which was used in mid-century royal diplomas.", "Oda's school at Canterbury was praised by post-Conquest chroniclers, especially for the presence there of Frithegod, a brilliant Continental scholar and the most skilful poet in mid-tenth-century England.", "The \"Vatican\" recension of the was produced in England in Edmund's reign, probably in 944." ], [ "Marriages and children", "Edmund probably married his first wife Ælfgifu around the time of his accession to the throne, as their second son was born in 943.Their sons Eadwig and Edgar both became kings of England.", "Ælfgifu's father is not known, but her mother is identified by a charter of Edgar which confirms a grant by his grandmother Wynflæd of land to Shaftesbury Abbey.", "Ælfgifu was also a benefactor of Shaftesbury Abbey; when she died in 944 she was buried there and venerated as a saint.", "Edmund had no known children by his second wife, Æthelflæd, who died after 991.Her father Ælfgar became ealdorman of Essex in 946.Edmund presented him with a sword lavishly decorated with gold and silver, which Ælfgar later presented to King Eadred.", "Æthelflæd's second husband was Æthelstan Rota, a south-east Mercian ealdorman, and her will survives." ], [ "Death and succession", "On 26 May 946 Edmund was killed in a brawl at Pucklechurch in Gloucestershire.", "According to the post-Conquest chronicler, John of Worcester:The historians Clare Downham and Kevin Halloran dismiss John of Worcester's account and suggest that the king was the victim of a political assassination, but this view has not been accepted by other historians.Like his son Edgar thirty years later, Edmund was buried at Glastonbury Abbey.", "The location may have reflected its spiritual prestige and royal endorsement of the monastic reform movement, but as his death was unexpected it is more likely that Dunstan was successful in claiming the body.", "His sons were still young children, so he was succeeded as king by his brother Eadred, who was in turn succeeded by Edmund's elder son Eadwig in 955." ], [ "Assessment", "Historians' views of Edmund's character and record differ widely.", "The historian Barbara Yorke comments that when substantial powers were delegated there was a danger that subjects would become over-powerful: the kings following Æthelstan came to the throne young and had short reigns, and the families of Æthelstan 'Half-King' and Ælfhere, Ealdorman of Mercia, developed unassailable positions.", "In the view of Cyril Hart: \"For the whole of his brief reign, the young king Edmund remained strongly under the influence of his mother Eadgifu and the 'Half King', who between them must have decided much of the national policy.\"", "In contrast, Williams describes Edmund as \"an energetic and forceful ruler\" and Stenton commented that \"he proved himself to be both warlike and politically effective\", while in Dumville's view, but for his early death \"he might yet have been remembered as one of the more remarkable of Anglo-Saxon kings\".The historian Ryan Lavelle comments that \"a case can be made, as Alaric Trousdale has recently done in his PhD thesis on Edmund's reign, for assigning Edmund a central role to the achievements of the tenth-century English state\".", "Trousdale comments that the period between the reigns of Æthelstan and Edgar has been comparatively neglected by historians: the reigns of Edmund, Eadred and Eadwig \"are often lumped together as a sort of interim period between the much more interesting reigns of Æthelstan and Edgar\".", "He argues that \"King Edmund's legislation shows an ambition towards tighter control of the localities through increased cooperation between all levels of government, and that king and archbishop were working closely together in restructuring the English administrative framework\".", "Trousdale sees a transition which \"was marked in part by a small yet significant shift away from a reliance on traditional West Saxon administrative structures and the power blocs that had enjoyed influence under King Æthelstan, towards increased cooperation with interests and families from Mercia and East Anglia\".", "He also sees Edmund as moving away from Æthelstan's centralisation of power to a more collegial relationship with local secular and ecclesiastical authorities.", "Trousdale's picture contrasts with that of other historians such as Sarah Foot, who emphasises the achievements of Æthelstan, and George Molyneaux in his study of the formation of the late Anglo-Saxon state in the reign of Edgar." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Edmund I at the official website of the British monarchy* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Endothermic process" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''endothermic process''' is a chemical or physical process that absorbs heat from its surroundings.", "In terms of thermodynamics and thermochemistry, it is a thermodynamic process with an increase in the enthalpy (or internal energy ) of the system.", "In an endothermic process, the heat that a system absorbs is thermal energy transfer into the system.", "Thus, an endothermic reaction generally leads to an increase in the temperature of the system and a decrease in that of the surroundings.The term was coined by 19th-century French chemist Marcellin Berthelot.", "The term ''endothermic'' comes from the Greek ἔνδον (''endon'') meaning 'within' and θερμ- (''therm'') meaning 'hot' or 'warm'.An endothermic process may be a chemical process, such as dissolving ammonium nitrate () in water (), or a physical process, such as the melting of ice cubes.The opposite of an endothermic process is an exothermic process, one that releases or \"gives out\" energy, usually in the form of heat and sometimes as electrical energy.", "Thus, ''endo'' in endothermic refers to energy or heat going in, and ''exo'' in exothermic refers to energy or heat going out.", "In each term (endothermic and exothermic) the prefix refers to where heat (or electrical energy) goes as the process occurs." ], [ "In chemistry", "The formation of barium thiocyanate from ammonium thiocyanate and barium hydroxide is so endothermic that it can freeze a beaker to wet styrofoamDue to bonds breaking and forming during various processes (changes in state, chemical reactions), there is usually a change in energy.", "If the energy of the forming bonds is greater than the energy of the breaking bonds, then energy is released.", "This is known as an exothermic reaction.", "However, if more energy is needed to break the bonds than the energy being released, energy is taken up.", "Therefore, it is an '''endothermic reaction'''." ], [ "Details", "Whether a process can occur spontaneously depends not only on the enthalpy change but also on the entropy change () and absolute temperature .", "If a process is a spontaneous process at a certain temperature, the products have a lower Gibbs free energy than the reactants (an exergonic process), even if the enthalpy of the products is higher.", "Thus, an endothermic process usually requires a favorable entropy increase () in the system that overcomes the unfavorable increase in enthalpy so that still .", "While endothermic phase transitions into more disordered states of higher entropy, e.g.", "melting and vaporization, are common, spontaneous chemical processes at moderate temperatures are rarely endothermic.", "The enthalpy increase in a hypothetical strongly endothermic process usually results in , which means that the process will not occur (unless driven by electrical or photon energy).", "An example of an endothermic and exergonic process is:C6H12O6 + 6 H2O -> 12 H2 + 6 CO2:." ], [ "Examples", "* Evaporation* Sublimation* Cracking of alkanes* Thermal decomposition* Hydrolysis* Nucleosynthesis of elements heavier than nickel in stellar cores* High-energy neutrons can produce tritium from lithium-7 in an endothermic process, consuming 2.466 MeV.", "This was discovered when the 1954 Castle Bravo nuclear test produced an unexpectedly high yield.", "* Nuclear fusion of elements heavier than iron in supernovaeDissolving together barium hydroxide and ammonium chlorideDissolving together citric acid and baking soda" ], [ "Distinction between endothermic and endotherm", "The terms \"endothermic\" and \"endotherm\" are both derived from Greek '''' \"within\" and '''' \"heat\", but depending on context, they can have very different meanings.In physics, thermodynamics applies to processes involving a system and its surroundings, and the term \"endothermic\" is used to describe a reaction where energy is taken \"(with)in\" by the system (vs. an \"exothermic\" reaction, which releases energy \"outwards\").In biology, thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to maintain its body temperature, and the term \"endotherm\" refers to an organism that can do so from \"within\" by using the heat released by its internal bodily functions (vs. an \"ectotherm\", which relies on external, environmental heat sources) to maintain an adequate temperature." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Exothermic and Endothermic – MSDS Hyper-Glossary at Interactive Learning Paradigms, Incorporated" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Earle Page" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir Earle Christmas Grafton Page''' (8 August 188020 December 1961) was an Australian politician and surgeon who was the 11th prime minister of Australia, holding office for 19 days after the death of Joseph Lyons in 1939.He was the leader of the Country Party from 1921 to 1939, and was the most influential figure in its early years.Page was born in Grafton, New South Wales.", "He entered the University of Sydney at the age of 15, and completed a degree in medicine at the age of 21.After completing his medical residency at Sydney's Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, he moved back to Grafton and opened a private hospital.", "He soon became involved in local politics, and in 1915 purchased a part-share in ''The Daily Examiner'', a local newspaper.", "He also briefly was a military surgeon during World War I.", "Page gained prominence as an advocate of various development schemes for the Northern Rivers region, especially those involving hydroelectricity.", "He also helped found a movement for New England statehood.In 1919, Page was elected to Federal Parliament representing the Division of Cowper.", "He joined the new Country Party the following year as its inaugural whip, and then replaced William McWilliams as party leader in 1921.Page opposed the economic policies of Prime Minister Billy Hughes, and when the Country Party gained the balance of power at the 1922 election, he demanded Hughes' resignation as the price for a coalition with the Nationalist Party.", "He was subsequently made Treasurer of Australia under the new prime minister, Stanley Bruce, serving in that role from 1923 to 1929.He had a significant degree of influence on domestic policy, with Bruce concentrating on international issues.Page returned to cabinet after the 1934 election, when the Country Party entered a new coalition with Joseph Lyons' United Australia Party (UAP).", "He was appointed Minister for Commerce, and concentrated on agricultural issues.", "When Lyons died in office in April 1939, Page was commissioned as his successor in a caretaker capacity while the UAP elected a new leader, Robert Menzies.", "Page subsequently denounced Menzies and refused to serve in his cabinet, withdrawing the Country Party from the coalition, but this proved unpopular and he resigned the party leadership after a few months.", "The coalition was eventually reconstituted, and Page served again as Minister for Commerce under Menzies and Arthur Fadden until the government's defeat in October 1941.Page's last major role was as Minister for Health (1949–1956) in the post-war Menzies Government.", "He retired from cabinet at the age of 76, and died a short time after losing his seat at the 1961 election.", "Page served in parliament for almost 42 years, the third longest-serving Australian parliamentarian of all time; only Menzies lasted longer as the leader of a major Australian political party.", "He secured his party's independence by refusing overtures to merge with the Nationalists and the UAP, and the policies that he favoured – decentralisation, agrarianism, and government support of primary industry – have remained the basis of its platform up to the present day.", "The coalitions that he established and maintained with Bruce and Lyons have served as a model for all subsequent coalition governments." ], [ "Early life", "===Birth and family background===Earle Christmas Grafton Page was born in Grafton, New South Wales, on 8 August 1880.His first middle name, which he disliked, was given to him to carry on the surname of a childless relative, while his second middle name was in honour of his birthplace.", "Page was the fifth of eleven children born to Charles Page and Mary Johanna Haddon (Annie) Cox.", "His older brother Rodger was chaplain to the royal family of Tonga and his younger brother Harold was the deputy administrator of the Territory of New Guinea and a Japanese prisoner of war.", "Page's parents had both lived in Grafton since they were children.", "His mother was born in Tasmania to an English father and a Scottish mother.", "His father, born in London, was a successful businessman and a member of the Grafton City Council, serving a single term as mayor in 1908.The family business was a hardware manufacturing firm, which had its origins in a coachbuilding firm established in 1858 by Page's maternal grandfather, Edwin Cox.", "His other grandfather, James Page, arrived in Grafton in 1855, serving as the town's first schoolmaster and first town clerk.===Education===Page began his schooling at Grafton Public School, where he excelled academically.", "His family could not afford to send him to boarding school, as a result of financial difficulties caused by the banking crisis of 1893.Page consequently had to rely on scholarships to advance his education.", "He won a bursary to attend Sydney Boys High School in 1895, where he passed the university entrance exams, and the following year – aged 15 – began studying a liberal arts course at the University of Sydney.", "He was equal top in mathematics in his first year, and was also awarded the lucrative Struth Exhibition for \"general proficiency in the arts\", which allowed him to switch to medicine and covered his first four years of medical school.", "His role model was Grafton Smith, who had followed a similar path from Grafton Public School to university.", "At Sydney Medical School, Page's lecturers included William Haswell (biology), James Hill (biology), Charles Martin (physiology), Anderson Stuart (physiology), and James Wilson (anatomy).", "He graduated at the top of his class in 1901, with the degrees of Bachelor of Medicine (M.B.)", "and Master of Surgery (Ch.M.", ")." ], [ "Medical career", "Page's first professional posting came before he had even been registered as a medical practitioner.", "Due to a shortage of doctors, he was acting superintendent of the Royal Alexandra Hospital for Children for one month.", "In 1902, he took up a position as a resident at the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, serving in a variety of roles including as house surgeon under Robert Scot Skirving.", "During that time he contracted a near-fatal infection from a postmortem examination.", "He also met his future wife, nurse Ethel Blunt.", "Page returned to his home town in 1903, taking over a practice in South Grafton.", "He and two partners subsequently established a new private hospital, Clarence House Hospital, which opened in 1904 and served both Grafton and the surrounding region.Page was a keen adopter of new technologies.", "In 1904, he bought what he claimed was \"the first Rover car in Australia\", which was powered by kerosene.", "He upgraded to an Itala in 1908, and had the chassis enlarged so it could be used as an ambulance.", "He also had an x-ray machine installed in his hospital, one of the first in Australia outside a major city.", "Page developed a reputation for surgical innovation, taking a number of patients from Sydney and even some from interstate.", "One operation that brought him particular fame was the removal of a patient's diseased lung, a procedure that had only been invented a few years previously.", "Page became an inaugural Fellow of the Royal Australasian College of Surgeons (FRACS) in 1927, and in 1942 was made an honorary Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of England (FRCS).In February 1916, Page enlisted in the Australian Army Medical Corps.", "He was chief medical officer aboard the troopship ''Ballarat'', and was then stationed at an army hospital in Cairo for several months.", "He was transferred to a hospital in England in July 1916, and concluded his service as a surgical specialist at a casualty clearing station in France.", "Page returned to Australia in March 1917 and was discharged from the military in July 1917.Although his active involvement in medicine declined as his political career progressed, he was frequently called upon to treat his fellow MPs or parliamentary staff.", "This was particularly true after the federal government moved to Canberra, as the new capital had only a handful of qualified surgeons.", "In 1928, for instance, he performed an emergency appendectomy on Parker Moloney." ], [ "Early political involvement", "Page in about 1920Page's medical career brought him considerable wealth, and he began investing in land.", "He bought several large farming properties in South-East Queensland, including in Nerang, Kandanga, and the Numinbah Valley; Pages Pinnacle in the Numinbah State Forest is named after him.", "His entry into public life came about as a result of his passion for hydroelectricity, which he first observed in New Zealand while attending a medical convention in 1910.He believed that it could be applied to the Northern Rivers region, which was still mostly unelectrified outside of the major towns.", "Page was elected to the South Grafton Municipal Council in 1913, believing his position as an alderman would be useful in his lobbying efforts.", "However, his overtures to the state government were rebuffed.", "In 1915, Page was one of the founders of the Northern New South Wales Separation League, which advocated the creation of a new state in the New England region.", "He toured a number of towns to raise awareness of the new movement, but interest waned as a result of the ongoing war.", "Later that year, he was part of a syndicate that bought ''The Daily Examiner'', the local newspaper in Grafton.Page visited a number of hydroelectric sites in North America in 1917, on his way back from military service in France.", "He was elected mayor of South Grafton in 1918, serving until 1920, and also became the inaugural president of the North Coast Development League.", "He developed more concrete plans for a hydroelectric project on the Clarence River, and put forward various other development schemes relating to roads, railways, and ports, all of which served to raise his profile in the local district.", "Page was elected to the Australian House of Representatives at the 1919 federal election, defeating the sitting Nationalist MP, John Thomson in the Division of Cowper.", "He stood as an independent with the endorsement of the Farmers' and Settlers' Association, and after the election joined the new Country Party, along with 10 other MPs from rural seats.", "Page continued to advocate for hydroelectricity throughout his political career, and many such projects were built in New South Wales.", "However, the specific scheme he favoured for the Clarence River was never put in place, only the smaller Nymboida Power Station.", "Decentralisation also remained a pet project, with Page frequently arguing for New South Wales and Queensland to be divided into smaller states to aid regional development.", "The movement for New England statehood waned in the 1920s, but re-emerged in the 1950s; a legally binding referendum on the subject was finally held in 1967, after Page's death, but was narrowly defeated in controversial circumstances." ], [ "Bruce–Page government", "Page in 1924 as acting prime minister signing the first cabinet document prepared in Canberra===Government formation===Page was elected leader of the Country Party in 1921, replacing William McWilliams.", "At the 1922 federal election the party campaigned on a platform which included the establishment of a national sinking fund, national insurance scheme covering \"sickness, unemployment, poverty and age\", and conversion of the Commonwealth Bank of Australia into a full central bank.", "The party emerged from the election with the balance of power in the House; the Nationalist government of Billy Hughes lost its majority and could not govern without Country Party support.", "It soon became apparent that the price for that support would be a full coalition with the Nationalists.", "However, the Country Party had been formed partly due to discontent with Hughes' rural policy, and Page's animosity toward Hughes was such that he would not even consider supporting him.", "Indeed, he would not even begin talks with the Nationalists as long as Hughes remained leader.", "Bowing to the inevitable, Hughes resigned.Page then began negotiations with Hughes' successor as leader of the Nationalists, Stanley Bruce.", "His terms were stiff; he wanted his Country Party to have five seats in an 11-man cabinet, including the post of Treasurer and the second rank in the ministry for himself.", "These demands were unprecedented for a prospective junior coalition partner in a Westminster system, and especially so for such a new party.", "Nonetheless, Bruce agreed rather than force another election.", "For all intents and purposes, Page was the first Deputy Prime Minister of Australia (a title that did not officially exist until 1968).", "Since then, the leader of the Country/National Party has been the second-ranking member in nearly every non-Labor government.", "Page was acting prime minister on several occasions, and in January 1924 chaired the first meeting of Federal Cabinet ever held in Canberra, at Yarralumla.", "Parliament did not move to Canberra until 1927.===Treasurer===Page in 1929As Treasurer, Page formed a close working relationship with Bruce.", "Due to favourable economic conditions the government was able to abolish land tax, cut income tax, and establishment the national sinking fund that Page had campaigned on.", "The government also established an investment fund for the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research and sponsored the first national housing program.", "The final years of Page's treasurership were marked by the beginnings of an economic downturn.", "The budget went into deficit in 1927 and his 1929 budget speech referred to a \"temporary financial depression\".", "He was a strong believer in orthodox finance and conservative policies, as well as a \"high protectionist\" supporting tariff barriers to protect Australian rural industries.Page introduced a series of reforms to the Commonwealth Bank to enhance its central banking functions.", "In 1924, he announced that the government would place the Commonwealth Bank under an independent board, comprising a governor, the Treasury secretary, and representatives of industry.", "The same bill placed banknotes under the direct control of the bank, whereas previously it had been under a nominally independent Note Issue Board.", "Later reforms saw the establishment of a Rural Credits Department within the bank, the profits of which were partly hypothecated to agricultural research.", "In March 1925, cabinet decided to return Australia to the gold standard, which it had left during World War I.", "It delayed its announcement until the United Kingdom had decided it would do the same, which \"disguised what was arguably Australia’s first explicit macroeconomic policy decision\".In 1924, Bruce and Page established the Loan Council to coordinate public-sector borrowings between the state and federal governments.", "It was given constitutional force with an amendment passed in 1928.The government abolished the previous system of per-capita grants to states that had been implemented in 1911 and began introducing tied grants, initially for road building.", "It also announced a royal commission into a national insurance scheme chaired by Senator John Millen.", "Page was one of the chief supporters of the ''National Insurance Bill 1928'', which would have provided \"sickness, old age, disability and maternity benefits\", as well as payments to orphans and a limited form of child endowment.", "It was to be paid for by compulsory contributions from workers and co-contributions from employers.", "The government took the policy to the 1928 Australian federal election but failed to pass the bill by the time of its defeat in 1929.As Treasurer, Page continued his professional medical practice.", "On 22 October 1924, he had to tell his best friend, Thomas Shorten Cole (1870–1957), the news that his wife Mary Ann Crane had just died on the operating table from complications of intestinal or stomach cancer, reputed by their daughter Dorothy May Cole to be \"the worst day of his life\".", "Due to a shortage of surgeons in Canberra, in 1928 Page performed an appendectomy on fellow MP Parker Moloney." ], [ "Opposition and Lyons government", "The Bruce-Page government was heavily defeated by Labor in 1929 (with Bruce losing his own seat), and Page went into opposition.", "In 1931, a group of dissident Labor MPs led by Joseph Lyons merged with the Nationalists to form the United Australia Party under Lyons' leadership.", "Lyons and the UAP won majority government at the 1931 election.", "Although Lyons was keen to form a coalition with the Country Party, talks broke down, and Lyons opted to govern alone—to date, the last time that the Country/National Party has not had any posts in a non-Labor government.", "In 1934, however, the UAP suffered an eight-seat swing, forcing Lyons to take the Country Party back into his government in a full-fledged Coalition.", "Page became Minister for Commerce.", "He was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG) in the New Year's Day Honours of 1938.While nine Australian Prime Ministers were knighted (and Bruce was elevated to the peerage), Page is the only one who was knighted before becoming Prime Minister." ], [ "Prime Minister and aftermath", "Page c. 1940When Lyons died suddenly in 1939, the Governor-General of Australia Lord Gowrie appointed Page as caretaker Prime Minister pending the UAP choosing a new leader.", "He held the office for three weeks until the UAP elected former deputy leader Robert Menzies as its new leader, and hence Prime Minister.", "Page had been close to Lyons, but disliked Menzies, whom he charged publicly with having been disloyal to Lyons.", "Page contacted Stanley Bruce (now in London as Australian High Commissioner to the UK) and offered to resign his seat if Bruce would return to Australia to seek re-election to the parliament in a by-election for Page's old seat, and then seek election as UAP leader.", "Bruce said that he would only re-enter the parliament as an independent.When Menzies was elected UAP leader, Page refused to serve under him, and made an extraordinary personal attack on him in the House, accusing him not only of ministerial incompetence but of physical cowardice (for failing to enlist during World War I).", "His party soon rebelled, though, and Page was deposed as Country Party leader in favour of Archie Cameron." ], [ "World War II", "In March 1940, Archie Cameron led the Country Party back into coalition with the UAP.", "However, he resigned as party leader on 16 October, following the 1940 federal election.", "Page attempted to regain the party's leadership, but was deadlocked with John McEwen over multiple ballots.", "As a compromise, the party elected Arthur Fadden as acting leader; he was confirmed in the position a few months later.", "Page replaced Cameron as Minister for Commerce in the reconstituted ministry.Parliament House portrait of Page by Fred Leist, 1940–41Fadden replaced Menzies as prime minister in August 1941.A few weeks later, cabinet decided to send Page to London as resident minister, with the intention that he would be granted access to the British War Cabinet.", "While he was en route to England, the Fadden government lost a confidence motion and was replaced by an ALP minority government.", "The new prime minister John Curtin nonetheless allowed Page to take up the position, declining his offer to return to Australia.", "The attack on Pearl Harbor in December changed the dynamic of Anglo-Australian relations, as the War in the Pacific became the primary concern of the Australian government.", "Page assisted in the creation of the Pacific War Council early the following year.", "He later recalled Winston Churchill's frustration in war cabinet meetings with Curtin's decision to withdraw troops from the Middle East and North Africa and return them to Australia.", "He credited himself with helping negate the tensions between the two men, but in February 1942 mistakenly advised Churchill that the Australian government was amenable to diverting the 7th Division to Burma rather than return it directly to Australia.", "He was heavily rebuked by Curtin and external affairs minister H. V. Evatt for his error.Page wrote to Curtin in April 1942 that since January he had been through \"the worst period of acute mental distress of my whole life\".", "His tenure was not regarded as a success, and he was said to have suffered from a lack of experience in diplomacy.", "Field Marshal Alan Brooke, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, recalled that in war cabinet meetings he had \"the mentality of a greengrocer\".", "Page left London in June 1942 following a severe bout of pneumonia.", "He had been made a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) before his departure.", "He returned to Australia in August, travelling via the United States, and quickly turned his attention to planning for post-war reconstruction.Page spent the remaining years of the Curtin and Chifley governments on the opposition backbench.", "He served on the Advisory War Council and was a delegate to the constitutional convention in Canberra in late 1942, which included members of all major political parties.", "However, he was frustrated by the government's failure to offer him any formal role in developing post-war policy, which he believed was due to him given his past work.", "Page's brother Harold and nephew Robert were killed by the Japanese during the war." ], [ "Return to the ministry", "Page c. 1950Page was reappointed Minister for Health after the Coalition won the 1949 federal election, at the age of 69.He was the chief architect of the ''National Health Act 1953'', which established a national public health scheme based on government subsidies of voluntary private insurance and free medical services for pensioners.", "He played a key role in securing the support of the medical profession, which had strongly opposed the Chifley government's attempt to introduce universal health care.", "Unlike in previous governments, Page had little influence beyond his own policy area and was frustrated by the lack of interest in his ideas for national development.", "In 1951 when Senator Gordon Brown of the ALP suffered a stroke while speaking in the Senate, Page, a trained surgeon rushed in from the House to treat him before medical professionals could take Brown to hospital for treatment.Upon the death of Billy Hughes in October 1952, Page became the Father of the House of Representatives and Father of the Parliament.", "In 1954, he became the first chancellor of the University of New England, which had become fully autonomous from the University of Sydney.", "He retired from cabinet at the age of 76, moving to the backbench in January 1956 after the December 1955 election.Upon Arthur Fadden's retirement in 1958, Page became the only former Prime Minister returned at that year's election." ], [ "Electoral history", "+ Electoral results of Page's seat: CowperElectorate ElectionVotes Vote changeTotal timeFirst-preference (%)Two-party preference (%)Cowper(New South Wales) 191911,372 52.415,54371.6 192213,157 67.3 14.1%192524,571 70.0 5.1%192827,55676.8 4.4%1929193129,26672.330,47675.3 2.6%193430,924 64.233,93570.4 8.0%193732,000 63.2 0.5%194027,773 53.733,590 64.9 9.3%194324,017 45.527,73752.7 7.7%194631,785 57.2 33,071 59.5 11.4%194922,791 61.7 4.6%195122,632 61.023,001 62.0 0.7%195421,767 58.821,805 58.9 2.0%1955 195821,152 54.823,56661.1 4.5%196115,259 39.9 18,44248.2 14.6%" ], [ "Later life and death", "Page sought a 17th term in parliament at the 1961 election, having joined Billy Hughes two years earlier as only the second person to serve over 40 years in federal parliament.", "Two weeks before the election, he experienced stomach pains while visiting the home of Ian Robinson near Coraki, New South Wales.", "His health then dramatically declined and he was admitted to the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital in Sydney.", "He was diagnosed with bowel cancer and underwent immediate surgery.Page died in hospital on 20 December 1961, aged 81.He was granted a state funeral at St Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney.", "At his request, his ashes were scattered over the Clarence River near his home.", "On the same date Page died, the election result in Cowper was declared and recorded his defeat by the Australian Labor Party (ALP) candidate Frank McGuren, as part of a nationwide swing against the Coalition.Page had represented Cowper for just four days short of 42 years, making him the longest-serving Australian federal parliamentarian who represented the same seat throughout his career.", "Only Billy Hughes and Philip Ruddock have served in Parliament longer than Page.", "He was the last former Prime Minister to lose his seat until Tony Abbott lost his seat of Warringah in 2019, though John Howard would lose his seat of Bennelong as a sitting Prime Minister in 2007.Page's defeat/death saw the Australian Federal Parliament having no former Prime Ministers among its members, for the first time since the period between Sir Joseph Cook's resignation from Parliament in 1921 to become Australia's High Commissioner to the United Kingdom and Billy Hughes' forced resignation as Prime Minister in 1923." ], [ "Personal life", "EthelPage married Ethel Blunt on 18 September 1906.They had met at Royal Prince Alfred Hospital while he was undertaking his medical residency; she was a senior nurse there.", "Page soon began courting her, and convinced her to become the matron of his new hospital in Grafton.", "She gave up nursing after their marriage, but was active in politics and community organisations.", "The couple had five children: Mary (b.", "1909), Earle Jr. (b.", "1910), Donald (b.", "1912), Iven (b.", "1914), and Douglas (b.", "1916).", "Their grandchildren include Don Page, who was active in New South Wales state politics, and Geoff Page, a poet.Page was predeceased by his first wife and his oldest son.", "Earle Jr., a qualified veterinarian, was killed by a lightning strike in January 1933, aged 22.Ethel died in May 1958, aged 82, after a long illness.", "On 20 July 1959 at St Paul's Cathedral, London, Page married for a second time, wedding his long-serving secretary Jean Thomas (32 years his junior).", "Stanley Bruce was his best man.", "The second Lady Page lived for almost 50 years after her husband's death, dying on 20 June 2011; her ashes were interred at Northern Suburbs Crematorium." ], [ "Honours", "Bust of Earle Page, Prime Ministers Avenue in the Ballarat Botanical Gardens;Decorations* In 1929, Page was made a member of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom (PC).", "* In 1938, Page was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG).", "* In 1942, Page was made a member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH).", "* In 1942, Page was made an honorary Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of England (FRCS).", "* In 1952, Page was awarded the degree of Doctor of Science ''honoris causa'' by the University of Sydney.", "* In 1955, Page was awarded the degree of Doctor of Science ''honoris causa'' by the University of New England (the first honorary degree awarded by the institution).", ";Namesakes* Division of Page – division of the federal House of Representatives; established in 1984, includes the city of Grafton* Page, Australian Capital Territory – suburb of Canberra* The Sir Earle Page Library and Education Centre, in the city of Grafton* Earle Page College – residential college of the University of New England; opened in 1963* Page Chest Pavilion – building at Royal Prince Alfred Hospital; opened in 1957, demolished in 2010* Page Research Centre – think tank associated with the National Party of Australia; established in 2003" ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Citations'''" ], [ "Further reading", "* Hughes, Colin A (1976), ''Mr Prime Minister.", "Australian Prime Ministers 1901–1972'', Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Victoria, Ch.12.", "*** In their autobiographies Ann Moyal and Ulrich Ellis wrote of their experience of working with Page.", " Moyal, Ann.", "''Breakfast with Beaverbrook: memoirs of an independent woman'' (Hale & Iremonger, 1995) ** Ulrich Ellis ''A Pen in Politics'' (Gininderra Press, 2007).", "* Both had helped Page with his autobiography ''Truant Surgeon: The Inside Story of Forty Years of Australian Political Life'' (Angus & Robertson, 1963)." ], [ "External links", "***" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ephrem the Syrian" ], [ "Introduction", "Parchment manuscript of the Ephrem's Commentary on the Diatessaron.", "Egypt, late 5th or early 6th century.", "Chester Beatty Library'''Ephrem the Syrian''' (), also known as '''Saint Ephrem''', '''Saint Ephraim''', '''Ephrem of Edessa''' or '''Aprem of Nisibis''', was a prominent Christian theologian and writer who is revered as one of the most notable hymnographers of Eastern Christianity.", "He was born in Nisibis, served as a deacon and later lived in Edessa.Ephrem is venerated as a saint by all traditional Churches.", "He is especially revered in Syriac Christianity, both in East Syriac tradition and West Syriac tradition, and also counted as a Holy and Venerable Father (i.e., a sainted monk) in the Eastern Orthodox Church, especially in the Slovak Tradition.", "He was declared a Doctor of the Church in the Roman Catholic Church in 1920.Ephrem is also credited as the founder of the School of Nisibis, which, in later centuries, was the centre of learning of the Church of the East.Ephrem wrote a wide variety of hymns, poems, and sermons in verse, as well as prose exegesis.", "These were works of practical theology for the edification of the Church in troubled times.", "Some of these works have been examined by feminist scholars who have analyzed the incorporation of feminine imagery in his texts.", "They also examine the performance practice of all-women choirs singing his madrāšê, or his teaching hymns.", "Ephrem's works were so popular that, for centuries after his death, Christian authors wrote hundreds of pseudepigraphal works in his name.", "He has been called the most significant of all of the fathers of the Syriac-speaking church tradition.", "In Syriac Christian tradition, he is considered patron of the Syriac Aramaic people." ], [ "Life", "Dormition of Saint EphraimEphrem was born around the year 306 in the city of Nisibis (modern Nusaybin, Turkey), in the Roman province of Mesopotamia, that was recently acquired by the Roman Empire.", "Internal evidence from Ephrem's hymnody suggests that both his parents were part of the growing Christian community in the city, although later hagiographers wrote that his father was a pagan priest.", "In those days, religious culture in the region of Nisibis included local polytheism, Judaism and several varieties of the Early Christianity.", "Most of the population spoke the Aramaic language, while Greek and Latin were languages of administration.", "The city had a complex ethnic composition, consisting of \"Assyrians, Arabs, Greeks, Jews, Parthians, Romans, and Iranians\".Jacob, the second bishop of Nisibis, was appointed in 308, and Ephrem grew up under his leadership of the community.", "Jacob of Nisibis is recorded as a signatory at the First Council of Nicea in 325.Ephrem was baptized as a youth and almost certainly became a son of the covenant, an unusual form of Syriac proto-monasticism.", "Jacob appointed Ephrem as a teacher (Syriac ''malp̄ānâ'', a title that still carries great respect for Syriac Christians).", "He was ordained as a deacon either at his baptism or later.", "He began to compose hymns and write biblical commentaries as part of his educational office.", "In his hymns, he sometimes refers to himself as a \"herdsman\" (, ''‘allānâ''), to his bishop as the \"shepherd\" (, ''rā‘yâ''), and to his community as a 'fold' (, ''dayrâ'').", "Ephrem is popularly credited as the founder of the School of Nisibis, which, in later centuries, was the centre of learning of the Church of the East.Newly excavated Church of Saint Jacob of Nisibis, where Ephrem taught and ministeredIn 337, Emperor Constantine I, who had legalised and promoted the practice of Christianity in the Roman Empire, died.", "Seizing on this opportunity, Shapur II of Persia began a series of attacks into Roman North Mesopotamia.", "Nisibis was besieged in 338, 346 and 350.During the first siege, Ephrem credits Bishop Jacob as defending the city with his prayers.", "In the third siege, of 350, Shapur rerouted the River Mygdonius to undermine the walls of Nisibis.", "The Nisibenes quickly repaired the walls while the Persian elephant cavalry became bogged down in the wet ground.", "Ephrem celebrated what he saw as the miraculous salvation of the city in a hymn that portrayed Nisibis as being like Noah's Ark, floating to safety on the flood.One important physical link to Ephrem's lifetime is the baptistery of Nisibis.", "The inscription tells that it was constructed under Bishop Vologeses in 359.In that year, Shapur attacked again.", "The cities around Nisibis were destroyed one by one, and their citizens killed or deported.", "Constantius II was unable to respond; the campaign of Julian in 363 ended with his death in battle.", "His army elected Jovian as the new emperor, and to rescue his army, he was forced to surrender Nisibis to Persia (also in 363) and to permit the expulsion of the entire Christian population.", "Ephrem declined being ordinated a bishop by feigning madness, because he regarded himself unworthy for it.Ephrem, with the others, went first to Amida (Diyarbakır), eventually settling in Edessa (Urhay, in Aramaic) in 363.Ephrem, in his late fifties, applied himself to ministry in his new church and seems to have continued his work as a teacher, perhaps in the School of Edessa.", "Edessa had been an important center of the Aramaic-speaking world, and the birthplace of a specific Middle Aramaic dialect that came to be known as the Syriac language.", "The city was rich with rivaling philosophies and religions.", "Ephrem comments that orthodox Nicene Christians were simply called \"Palutians\" in Edessa, after a former bishop.", "Arians, Marcionites, Manichees, Bardaisanites and various gnostic sects proclaimed themselves as the true church.", "In this confusion, Ephrem wrote a great number of hymns defending Nicene orthodoxy.", "A later Syriac writer, Jacob of Serugh, wrote that Ephrem rehearsed all-female choirs to sing his hymns set to Syriac folk tunes in the forum of Edessa.", "In 370 he visited Basil the Great at Caesarea, and then journeyed to the monks of Egypt.", "As he preached a panegyrie on St.", "Basil, who died in 379, his own death must be placed at a later date.", "After a ten-year residency in Edessa, in his sixties, Ephrem succumbed to the plague as he ministered to its victims.", "The most reliable date for his death is after 379." ], [ "Language", "Ephrem the Syriac in a 16th-century Russian illustrationSaint Jacob in NisibisEphrem wrote exclusively in his native Aramaic language, using the local Edessan (''Urhaya'') dialect, that later came to be known as the Classical Syriac.", "Ephrem's works contain several endonymic (native) references to his language (''Aramaic''), homeland (''Aram'') and people (''Arameans'').", "He is therefore known as \"the authentic voice of Aramaic Christianity\".In the early stages of modern scholarly studies, it was believed that some examples of the long-standing Greek practice of labeling Aramaic as \"Syriac\", that are found in the ''Cave of Treasures'', can be attributed to Ephrem, but later scholarly analyses have shown that the work in question was written much later ( 600) by an unknown author, thus also showing that Ephrem's original works still belonged to the tradition unaffected by exonymic (foreign) labeling.One of the early admirers of Ephrem's works, theologian Jacob of Serugh (d. 521), who already belonged to the generation that accepted the custom of a double naming of their language not only as Aramaic (''Ārāmāyā'') but also as \"Syriac\" (''Suryāyā''), wrote a homily (''memrā'') dedicated to Ephrem, praising him as the ''crown'' or ''wreath'' of the ''Arameans'' (), and the same praise was repeated in early liturgical texts.", "Only later, under the Greek influence already prevalent in the works of the middle fifth century author Theodoret of Cyrus, did it became customary to associate Ephrem with Syriac identity, and label him only as \"the Syrian\" (), thus blurring his Aramaic self-identification, attested by his own writings and works of other Aramaic-speaking writers, and also by examples from the earliest liturgical tradition.Some of those problems persisted up to the recent times, even in scholarly literature, as a consequence of several methodological problems within the field of source editing.", "During the process of critical editing and translation of sources within Syriac studies, some scholars have practiced various forms of arbitrary (and often unexplained) interventions, including the occasional disregard for the importance of original terms, used as endonymic (native) designations for Arameans and their language (ārāmāyā).", "Such disregard was manifested primarily in translations and commentaries, by replacement of authentic terms with polysemic Syrian/Syriac labels.", "In previously mentioned ''memrā'', dedicated to Ephrem, one of the terms for ''Aramean people'' ( / Arameandom) was published correctly in original script of the source, but in the same time it was translated in English as \"Syriac nation\"'','' and then enlisted among quotations related to \"Syrian/Syriac\" identity, without any mention of Aramean-related terms in the source.", "Even when noticed and corrected by some scholars, such replacements of terms continue to create problems for others.Several translations of his writings exist in Classical Armenian, Coptic, Old Georgian, Koine Greek and other languages.", "Some of his works are extant only in translation (particularly in Armenian)." ], [ "Writings", "Over four hundred hymns composed by Ephrem still exist.", "Granted that some have been lost, Ephrem's productivity is not in doubt.", "The church historian Sozomen credits Ephrem with having written over three million lines.", "Ephrem combines in his writing a threefold heritage: he draws on the models and methods of early Rabbinic Judaism, he engages skillfully with Greek science and philosophy, and he delights in the Mesopotamian/Persian tradition of mystery symbolism.The most important of his works are his lyric, teaching hymns (ܡܕܖ̈ܫܐ, ''madrāšê'').", "These hymns are full of rich, poetic imagery drawn from biblical sources, folk tradition, and other religions and philosophies.", "The ''madrāšê'' are written in stanzas of syllabic verse and employ over fifty different metrical schemes.", "The form is defined by an antiphon, or congregational refrain (ܥܘܢܝܬܐ, ''‘ûnîṯâ''), between each independent strophe (or verse), and the refrain's melody mimics that of the opening half of the strophe.", "Each ''madrāšâ'' had its ''qālâ'' (ܩܠܐ), a traditional tune identified by its opening line.", "All of these ''qālê'' are now lost.", "It seems that Bardaisan and Mani composed ''madrāšê'', and Ephrem felt that the medium was a suitable tool to use against their claims.", "The ''madrāšê'' are gathered into various hymn cycles.", "Each group has a title — ''Carmina Nisibena'', ''On Faith'', ''On Paradise'', ''On Virginity'', ''Against Heresies'' — but some of these titles do not do justice to the entirety of the collection (for instance, only the first half of the ''Carmina Nisibena'' is about Nisibis).", "Some of these hymn cycles provide implicit insight into Ephrem's perceived level of comfort with incorporating feminine imagery into his writings.", "One such hymn cycle was ''Hymns on the Nativity'', centered around Mary, which contained 28 hymns and had the clearest pervasive theme of Ephrem's hymn cycles.", "An example of feminine imagery is found when Ephrem writes of the baby Jesus: \"he was lofty but he sucked Mary's milk and from his blessings all creation sucks.", "\"Particularly influential were his ''Hymns Against Heresies''.", "Ephrem used these to warn his flock of the heresies that threatened to divide the early church.", "He lamented that the faithful were \"tossed to and fro and carried around with every wind of doctrine, by the cunning of men, by their craftiness and deceitful wiles\" (Eph 4:14).", "He devised hymns laden with doctrinal details to inoculate right-thinking Christians against heresies such as docetism.", "The ''Hymns Against Heresies'' employ colourful metaphors to describe the Incarnation of Christ as fully human and divine.", "Ephrem asserts that Christ's unity of humanity and divinity represents peace, perfection and salvation; in contrast, docetism and other heresies sought to divide or reduce Christ's nature and, in doing so, rend and devalue Christ's followers with their false teachings.=== Performance Practices and Gender ===The relationship between Ephrem's compositions and femininity is shown again in documentation suggesting that the madrāšê were sung by all-women choirs with an accompanying lyre.", "These women's choirs were composed of members of the Daughters of the Covenant, an important institution in historical Syriac Christianity, but they weren't always labeled as such.", "Ephrem, like many Syriac liturgical poets, believed that women's voices were important to hear in the church as they were modeled after Mary, mother of Jesus, whose acceptance of God's call led to salvation for all through the birth of Jesus.", "One variety of the madrāšê, the ''soghyatha'', was sung in a conversational style between male and female choirs.", "The women's choir would sing the role of biblical women, and the men's choir would sing the male role.", "Through the role of singing Ephrem's madrāšê, women's choirs were granted a role in worship.=== Further writings ===Ephrem also wrote verse homilies (, ''mêmrê'').", "These sermons in poetry are far fewer in number than the madrāšê.", "The mêmrê were written in a heptosyllabic couplets (pairs of lines of seven syllables each).The third category of Ephrem's writings is his prose work.", "He wrote a biblical commentary on the Diatessaron (the single gospel harmony of the early Syriac church), the Syriac original of which was found in 1957.His ''Commentary on Genesis and Exodus'' is an exegesis of Genesis and Exodus.", "Some fragments exist in Armenian of his commentaries on the Acts of the Apostles and Pauline Epistles.He also wrote refutations against Bardaisan, Mani, Marcion and others.Syriac churches still use many of Ephrem's hymns as part of the annual cycle of worship.", "However, most of these liturgical hymns are edited and conflated versions of the originals.The most complete, critical text of authentic Ephrem was compiled between 1955 and 1979 by Dom Edmund Beck, OSB, as part of the ''Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium''.Ephrem is attributed with writing hagiographies such as ''The Life of Saint Mary the Harlot'', though this credit is called into question.One of the works attributed to Ephrem was the ''Cave of Treasures'', written by a much later but unknown author, who lived at the end of the 6th and the beginning of the 7th century.===Symbols and metaphors===Ephrem's writings contain a rich variety of symbols and metaphors.", "Christopher Buck gives a summary of analysis of a selection of six key scenarios (the way, robe of glory, sons and daughters of the Covenant, wedding feast, harrowing of hell, Noah's Ark/Mariner) and six root metaphors (physician, medicine of life, mirror, pearl, Tree of life, paradise)." ], [ "Greek Ephrem", "Ephrem's meditations on the symbols of Christian faith and his stand against heresy made him a popular source of inspiration throughout the church.", "There is a huge corpus of Ephrem pseudepigraphy and legendary hagiography in many languages.", "Some of these compositions are in verse, often mimicking Ephrem's heptasyllabic couplets.There is a very large number of works by \"Ephrem\" extant in Greek.", "In the literature this material is often referred to as \"Greek Ephrem\", or ''Ephraem Graecus'' (as opposed to the real Ephrem the Syrian), as if it was by a single author.", "This is not the case, but the term is used for convenience.", "Some texts are in fact Greek translations of genuine works by Ephrem.", "Most are not.", "The best known of these writings is the ''Prayer of Saint Ephrem'', which is recited at every service during Great Lent and other fasting periods in Eastern Christianity.There are also works by \"Ephrem\" in Latin, Slavonic and Arabic.", "\"Ephrem Latinus\" is the term given to Latin translations of \"Ephrem Graecus\".", "None is by Ephrem the Syrian.", "\"Pseudo Ephrem Latinus\" is the name given to Latin works under the name of Ephrem which are imitations of the style of Ephrem Latinus.There has been very little critical examination of any of these works.", "They were edited uncritically by Assemani, and there is also a modern Greek edition by Phrantzolas." ], [ "Veneration as a saint", "George (top) and John Damascene on a 14th-century triptychContemporary Romanian icon (2005)Soon after Ephrem's death, legendary accounts of his life began to circulate.", "One of the earlier \"modifications\" is the statement that Ephrem's father was a pagan priest of Abnil or Abizal.", "However, internal evidence from his authentic writings suggest that he was raised by Christian parents.Ephrem is venerated as an example of monastic discipline in Eastern Christianity.", "In the Eastern Orthodox scheme of hagiography, Ephrem is counted as a Venerable Father (i.e., a sainted monk).", "His feast day is celebrated on 28 January and on the Saturday of the Venerable Fathers (Cheesefare Saturday), which is the Saturday before the beginning of Great Lent.On 5 October 1920, Pope Benedict XV proclaimed Ephrem a Doctor of the Church (\"Doctor of the Syrians\").The most popular title for Ephrem is ''Harp of the Spirit'' (Syriac: , ''Kenārâ d-Rûḥâ'').", "He is also referred to as the Deacon of Edessa, the Sun of the Syrians and a Pillar of the Church.His Roman Catholic feast day of 9 June conforms to his date of death.", "For 48 years (1920–1969), it was on 18 June, and this date is still observed in the Extraordinary Form.Ephrem is honored with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) on June 10.Ephrem is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 9 June." ], [ "Translations", "* ''Sancti Patris Nostri Ephraem Syri opera omnia quae exstant'' (3 vol), by Peter Ambarach Rome, 1737–1743.", "* Ephrem the Syrian ''Hymns'', introduced by John Meyendorff, translated by Kathleen E. McVey.", "(New York: Paulist Press, 1989) * St. Ephrem ''Hymns on Paradise'', translated by Sebastian Brock (Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1990).", "* ''Saint Ephrem's Commentary on Tatian's Diatessaron: An English Translation of'' Chester Beatty ''Syriac MS 709 with Introduction and Notes'', translated by Carmel McCarthy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993).", "* St. Ephrem the Syrian ''Commentary on Genesis, Commentary on Exodus, Homily on our Lord, Letter to Publius'', translated by Edward G. Mathews Jr., and Joseph P. Amar.", "Ed.", "by Kathleen McVey.", "(Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1994).", "* St. Ephrem the Syrian ''The Hymns on Faith'', translated by Jeffrey Wickes.", "(Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2015).", "* San Efrén de Nísibis ''Himnos de Navidad y Epifanía'', by Efrem Yildiz Sadak Madrid, 2016 (in Spanish).", "* Saint Ephraim the Syrian ''Eschatological Hymns and Homilies'', translated by M.F.", "Toal and Henry Burgess, amended.", "(Florence, AZ: SAGOM Press, 2019)." ], [ "See also", "* Syriac Christianity* Syriac literature* Syriac language* Syria (region)* Prayer of Saint Ephrem* Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus* Light of Christ* Church of Saint Jacob of Nisibis* Narsai* Jacob of Serugh" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " ''Margonitho'': Mor Ephrem the Syrian* ''Anastasis'' article* ''Hugoye'': Influence of Saint Ephraim the Syrian, part 1* ''Hugoye'': Influence of Saint Ephraim the Syrian, part 2* ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' 1911: \"Ephraem Syrus\"* * Benedict XVI on St. Ephrem and his role in history* Lewis E 235b Grammatical treatise (Ad correctionem eorum qui virtuose vivunt) at OPenn" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Amiga Enhanced Chip Set" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Enhanced Chip Set''' ('''ECS''') is the second generation of the Amiga computer's chipset, offering minor improvements over the original chipset (OCS) design.", "ECS was introduced in 1990 with the launch of the Amiga 3000.Amigas produced from 1990 onwards featured a mix of OCS and ECS chips, such as later versions of the Amiga 500 and the Commodore CDTV.", "Other ECS models were the Amiga 500+ in 1991 and lastly the Amiga 600 in 1992.Notable improvements were the ''Super Agnus'' and the ''HiRes Denise'' chips.", "The sound and floppy controller chip, ''Paula'', remained unchanged from the OCS design.", "Super Agnus supports 2 MB of Chip RAM, whereas the original Agnus/''Fat Agnus'' and subsequent ''Fatter Agnus'' can address 512 KB and 1 MB, respectively.", "The ECS Denise chip offers ''Productivity'' VGA output (640×480 non-interlaced) and ''SuperHiRes'' (1280×200 or 1280×256) display modes (also available in interlaced mode), which are however limited to only 4 bits on-screen colors.", "Essentially, a 35 ns pixel mode was added plus the ability to run arbitrary horizontal and vertical scan rates.", "This made other display modes possible, but only the aforementioned modes were supported originally out of the box.", "For example, the Linux Amiga framebuffer device driver allows the use of several other display modes.", "Other improvements were the ability of the blitter to copy regions larger than 1024×1024 pixels in one operation and the ability to display sprites in border regions (outside of any display window where bitplanes are shown).", "ECS also allows software switching between 60 Hz and 50 Hz video modes.These improvements largely favored application software, which benefited from higher resolution and VGA-like display modes, rather than games.", "As an incremental update, ECS was intended to be backward compatible with software designed for OCS machines, though some pre-ECS games were found to be incompatible.", "Additionally, features from the improved Kickstart 2 operating system were used in subsequent software, and since these two technologies largely overlap, some users misjudged the significance of ECS.", "It is possible to upgrade some OCS machines, such as the Amiga 500, to obtain partial or full ECS functionality by replacing OCS chips with ECS versions.", "ECS was followed by the third generation AGA chipset with the launch of the Amiga 4000 and Amiga 1200 in 1992." ], [ "See also", "* Amiga custom chips* Amiga Ranger Chipset* Advanced Graphics Architecture* Amiga Advanced Architecture chipset* AA+ Chipset* Hombre chipset" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "European Space Operations Centre" ], [ "Introduction", "Rosetta (January 2014), the first comet landing missionThe '''European Space Operations Centre''' ('''ESOC''') serves as the main mission control centre for the European Space Agency (ESA) and is located in Darmstadt, Germany.", "ESOC's primary function is the operation of uncrewed spacecraft on behalf of ESA and the launch and early orbit phases (LEOP) of ESA and third-party missions.", "The Centre is also responsible for a range of operations-related activities within ESA and in cooperation with ESA's industry and international partners, including ground systems engineering, software development, flight dynamics and navigation, development of mission control tools and techniques and space debris studies.ESOC's current major activities comprise operating planetary and solar missions, such as Mars Express and the Trace Gas Orbiter, astronomy & fundamental physics missions, such as Gaia and XMM Newton, and Earth observation missions such as CryoSat2 and Swarm.ESOC is responsible for developing, operating and maintaining ESA's ESTRACK network of ground stations.", "Teams at the Centre are also involved in research and development related to advanced mission control concepts and Space Situational Awareness, and standardisation activities related to frequency management; mission operations; tracking, telemetry and telecommanding; and space debris." ], [ "Missions", "ESOC's current missions comprise the following:Planetary and solar missions* BepiColombo* Mars Express* Solar Orbiter* ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter* Cluster II* JUpiter ICy moons Explorer (JUICE)Astronomy and fundamental physics missions* Gaia* INTEGRAL* XMM-Newton* OPS-SAT* EuclidEarth observation missions* CryoSat-2* Swarm* Sentinel-1A* Sentinel-1B* Sentinel-2A* Sentinel-2B* Sentinel-5 Precursor* SMOS* ADM-AeolusIn addition, the ground segment and mission control teams for several missions are in preparation and training, including:* ExoMars* Biomass* EarthCare* FLEX* PLATO* future satellites of the Sentinel programme" ], [ "ESTRACK", "ESOC hosts the control centre for the Agency's European Tracking ESTRACK station network.", "The core network comprises seven stations in seven countries: Kourou (French Guiana), Cebreros (Spain), Redu (Belgium), Santa Maria (Portugal), Kiruna (Sweden), Malargüe (Argentina) and New Norcia (Australia).", "Operators are on duty at ESOC 24 hours/day, year round, to conduct tracking passes, uploading telecommands and downloading telemetry and data." ], [ "Activities", "XMM-Newton model at ESOCIn addition to 'pure' mission operations, a number of other activities take place at the Centre, most of which are directly related to ESA's broader space operations activities.", "* Flight dynamics: A team is responsible for all orbital calculations and orbit determinations.", "* Mission analysis: Selection and calculation of possible orbits and launch windows* Software development: Mission control systems and spacecraft management tools* ESA Navigation Support Office: Calculating and predicting GPS and Galileo satellite orbits* Ground station engineering: Developing deep-space tracking technology* Space debris: Coordinating ESA's debris research, provision of conjunction warning services and cooperating with agencies worldwide* Frequency management: Helping manage radio spectrum used by all satellite operators" ], [ "History", "The European Space Operations Centre was formally inaugurated in Darmstadt, Germany, on 8 September 1967 by the then-Minister of Research of the Federal Republic of Germany, Gerhard Stoltenberg.", "Its role was to provide satellite control for the European Space Research Organisation (ESRO), which is today known as its successor organisation, the European Space Agency (ESA).The 90-person ESOC facility was, as it is today, located on the west side of Darmstadt; it employed the staff and resources previously allocated to the European Space Data Centre (ESDAC), which had been established in 1963 to conduct orbit calculations.", "These were augmented by mission control staff transferred from ESTEC to operate satellites and manage the ESTRACK tracking station network.Within just eight months, ESOC, as part of ESRO, was already operating its first mission, ESRO-2B, a scientific research satellite and the first of many operated from ESOC for ESRO, and later ESA.By July 2012, ESOC had operated over 56 missions spanning science, Earth observation, orbiting observatories, meteorology and space physics." ], [ "Location and expansion", "European Space Operations CentreESOC is located on the west side of the city of Darmstadt, some from the main train station, at Robert-Bosch-Straße 5.In 2011, ESA announced the first phase of the ESOC II modernisation and expansion project valued at €60 million.", "The new construction will be located across Robert-Bosch-Straße, opposite the current centre." ], [ "Employees", "At ESOC, ESA employs approximately 800, comprising some 250 permanent staff and about 550 contractors.", "Staff from ESOC are routinely dispatched to work at other ESA establishments, ESTRACK stations, the ATV Control Centre (Toulouse), the Columbus Control Centre (Oberpfaffenhofen) and at partner facilities in several countries." ], [ "See also", "* ATV Control Centre (Toulouse, France)* Columbus Control Centre (Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany)* ESA Centre for Earth Observation (ESRIN)* European Centre for Space Applications and Telecommunications (ECSAT)* European Space Astronomy Centre (ESAC)* European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC)* European Union Satellite Centre (EU SatCen)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* European Space Operations Centre website* ESA Operations website* ESTRACK station website* Space Situational Awareness website* ESA Space Debris website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "European Space Agency" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''European Space Agency''' ('''ESA''') is a 22-member intergovernmental body devoted to space exploration.", "With its headquarters in Paris and a staff of around 2,200 people globally as of 2022, ESA was founded in 1975.Its 2024 annual budget was €7.8 billion.ESA's space flight programme includes human spaceflight (mainly through participation in the International Space Station program); the launch and operation of crewless exploration missions to other planets (such as Mars) and the Moon; Earth observation, science and telecommunication; designing launch vehicles; and maintaining a major spaceport, the Guiana Space Centre at Kourou (French Guiana), France.", "The main European launch vehicle Ariane 6 will be operated through Arianespace with ESA sharing in the costs of launching and further developing this launch vehicle.", "The agency is also working with NASA to manufacture the Orion spacecraft service module that flies on the Space Launch System." ], [ "History", "===Foundation===ESTEC buildings in Noordwijk, Netherlands.", "ESTEC was the main technical centre of ESRO and remains so for the successor organisation (ESA).After World War II, many European scientists left Western Europe in order to work with the United States.", "Although the 1950s boom made it possible for Western European countries to invest in research and specifically in space-related activities, Western European scientists realised solely national projects would not be able to compete with the two main superpowers.", "In 1958, only months after the Sputnik shock, Edoardo Amaldi (Italy) and Pierre Auger (France), two prominent members of the Western European scientific community, met to discuss the foundation of a common Western European space agency.", "The meeting was attended by scientific representatives from eight countries.The Western European nations decided to have two agencies: one concerned with developing a launch system, ELDO (European Launcher Development Organisation), and the other the precursor of the European Space Agency, ESRO (European Space Research Organisation).", "The latter was established on 20 March 1964 by an agreement signed on 14 June 1962.From 1968 to 1972, ESRO launched seven research satellites, but ELDO was not able to deliver a launch vehicle.", "Both agencies struggled with the underfunding and diverging interests of their participants.ESA in its current form was founded with the ESA Convention in 1975, when ESRO was merged with ELDO.", "ESA had ten founding member states: Belgium, Denmark, France, West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.", "These signed the ESA Convention in 1975 and deposited the instruments of ratification by 1980, when the convention came into force.", "During this interval the agency functioned in a de facto fashion.", "ESA launched its first major scientific mission in 1975, Cos-B, a space probe monitoring gamma-ray emissions in the universe, which was first worked on by ESRO.===Later activities===Mock-up of the ESA collaborated with NASA on the International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE), the world's first high-orbit telescope, which was launched in 1978 and operated successfully for 18 years.", "A number of successful Earth-orbit projects followed, and in 1986 ESA began Giotto, its first deep-space mission, to study the comets Halley and Grigg–Skjellerup.", "Hipparcos, a star-mapping mission, was launched in 1989 and in the 1990s SOHO, ''Ulysses'' and the Hubble Space Telescope were all jointly carried out with NASA.", "Later scientific missions in cooperation with NASA include the ''Cassini–Huygens'' space probe, to which ESA contributed by building the Titan landing module ''Huygens''.As the successor of ELDO, ESA has also constructed rockets for scientific and commercial payloads.", "Ariane 1, launched in 1979, carried mostly commercial payloads into orbit from 1984 onward.", "The next two versions of the Ariane rocket were intermediate stages in the development of a more advanced launch system, the Ariane 4, which operated between 1988 and 2003 and established ESA as the world leader in commercial space launches in the 1990s.", "Although the succeeding Ariane 5 experienced a failure on its first flight, it has since firmly established itself within the heavily competitive commercial space launch market with 112 successful launches until 2021.The successor launch vehicle, the Ariane 6, is under development and had a successful long-firing engine test in November 2023.The ESA plans for the Ariane 6 to launch in June or July 2024.The beginning of the new millennium saw ESA become, along with agencies like NASA, JAXA, ISRO, the CSA and Roscosmos, one of the major participants in scientific space research.", "Although ESA had relied on co-operation with NASA in previous decades, especially the 1990s, changed circumstances (such as tough legal restrictions on information sharing by the United States military) led to decisions to rely more on itself and on co-operation with Russia.", "A 2011 press issue thus stated:Notable ESA programmes include SMART-1, a probe testing cutting-edge space propulsion technology, the ''Mars Express'' and ''Venus Express'' missions, as well as the development of the Ariane 5 rocket and its role in the ISS partnership.", "ESA maintains its scientific and research projects mainly for astronomy-space missions such as Corot, launched on 27 December 2006, a milestone in the search for exoplanets.On 21 January 2019, ArianeGroup and Arianespace announced a one-year contract with ESA to study and prepare for a mission to mine the Moon for lunar regolith.In 2021 the ESA ministerial council agreed to the \"Matosinhos manifesto\" which set three priority areas (referred to as ''accelerators'') \"space for a green future, a rapid and resilient crisis response, and the protection of space assets\", and two further high visibility projects (referred to as ''inspirators'') an icy moon sample return mission; and human space exploration.", "In the same year the recruitment process began for the 2022 European Space Agency Astronaut Group.1 July 2023 saw the launch of the Euclid spacecraft, developed jointly with the Euclid Consortium, after 10 years of planning and building it is designed to better understand dark energy and dark matter by accurately measuring the accelerating expansion of the universe.===Facilities===The agency's facilities date back to ESRO and are deliberately distributed among various countries and areas.", "The most important are the following centres:ESA headquarter is in Paris, FranceESA science missions are based at ESTEC in Noordwijk, Netherlands;Earth Observation missions at ESA Centre for Earth Observation in Frascati, Italy;ESA Mission Control (ESOC) is in Darmstadt, Germany;the European Astronaut Centre (EAC) that trains astronauts for future missions is situated in Cologne, Germany;the European Centre for Space Applications and Telecommunications (ECSAT), a research institute created in 2009, is located in Harwell, England;the European Space Astronomy Centre (ESAC) is located in Villanueva de la Cañada, Madrid, Spain.", "the European Space Security and Education Centre (ESEC), located in Redu, Belgium; the ESTRACK tracking and deep space communication network.", "Many other facilities are operated by national space agencies in close collaboration with ESA.", "Esrange near Kiruna in Sweden.", "Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, FranceToulouse Space Centre, France.", "Institute of Space Propulsion in Lampoldshausen, Germany.", "*Columbus Control Centre in Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany." ], [ "Mission", "The treaty establishing the European Space Agency reads:ESA is responsible for setting a unified space and related industrial policy, recommending space objectives to the member states, and integrating national programs like satellite development, into the European program as much as possible.Jean-Jacques Dordain – ESA's Director General (2003–2015) – outlined the European Space Agency's mission in a 2003 interview:" ], [ "Activities and programmes", "ESA describes its work in two overlapping ways: For the general public, the various fields of work are described as \"Activities\".", "* Budgets are organised as \"Programmes\".These are either mandatory or optional.===Activities===According to the ESA website, the activities are:Observing the EarthHuman and Robotic ExplorationLaunchersNavigationSpace ScienceSpace Engineering & TechnologyOperationsTelecommunications & Integrated ApplicationsPreparing for the FutureSpace for Climate===Programmes=======Mandatory====Every member country (known as 'Member States') must contribute to these programmes: The European Space Agency Science Programme is a long-term programme of space science missions.", "Technology Development Element ProgrammeScience Core Technology ProgrammeGeneral Study ProgrammeEuropean Component Initiative====Optional====Depending on their individual choices the countries can contribute to the following programmes, becoming 'Participating States', listed according to:" ], [ "Employment", "As of 2023, ESA employs around 2200 people, and thousands of contractors.", "Initially, new employees are contracted for a expandable four-year term, which is until the organization's retirement age of 63.According to ESA's documents, the staff can receive myriad of perks, such as financial childcare support, retirement plans, and financial help when migrating.", "ESA also allows employees prevent any private documents or correspondences from disclosure to outside parties.", "''Ars Technica'''s 2023 report, which contained testimonies of 18 people, suggested that there is a widespread harassment between management and its employees, especially with its contractors.", "Since ESA is an international organization, unaffiliated with any single nation, any form of legal action is difficult to raise against the organization." ], [ "Member states, funding and budget", "===Membership and contribution to ESA===By 2015, ESA was an intergovernmental organisation of 22 member states.", "Member states participate to varying degrees in the mandatory (25% of total expenditures in 2008) and optional space programmes (75% of total expenditures in 2008).", "The 2008 budget amounted to €3.0 billion whilst the 2009 budget amounted to €3.6 billion.", "The total budget amounted to about €3.7 billion in 2010, €3.99 billion in 2011, €4.02 billion in 2012, €4.28 billion in 2013, €4.10 billion in 2014 and €4.33 billion in 2015.English and French are the two official languages within ESA.", "Additionally, official documents are also provided in German and documents regarding the Spacelab are also provided in Italian.", "If found appropriate, the agency may conduct its correspondence in any language of a member state.The following table lists all the member states and adjunct members, their ESA convention ratification dates, and their contributions in 2022: Member state, or source ESA convention National programme Contributions M€ % of total Per capita (€)Full member statesFFG%5.55BELSPO%20.52Ministry of Transport%4.32DTU Space%5.75ESO%1.5Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment%5.17CNES%17.37DLR%12.22%1.89HSO%2.19Enterprise Ireland%4.53ASI%11.53LSA%73.6NSO%5.66NSA%13.23POLSA %1.19PT Space%2.43ROSA%2.07AEE%4.65SNSA%7.18SSO%20UKSA%6.53Others%Non-full members CSA%0.43LSO%0.59LSO%1.07SSO%0Ministry of Economic Development and Technology%1.28Members and associates total% EUSPA%4.54EUMETSAT%Other income%Other institutional partners total%Grand total===Non-full member states===Previously associated members were Austria, Norway and Finland, all of which later joined ESA as full members.", "As of November 8, 2023 there are five associate members: Slovenia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia and Canada.", "The first four members have shown interest in full membership and may eventually apply within the next years.====Slovenia====Since 2016, Slovenia has been an associated member of the ESA.", "In November 2023 Slovenia formally applied for full membership, and it is expected that the final decision will be made by the ESA Council in 2024.====Latvia====Latvia became the second current associated member on 30 June 2020, when the Association Agreement was signed by ESA Director Jan Wörner and the Minister of Education and Science of Latvia, Ilga Šuplinska in Riga.", "The Saeima ratified it on 27 July.====Lithuania====In May 2021, Lithuania became the third current associated member.", "As a consequence its citizens became eligible to apply to the 2022 ESA Astronaut group, applications for which were scheduled to close one week later.", "The deadline was therefore extended by three weeks to allow Lithuanians a fair chance to apply.====Slovakia====Slovakia's Associate membership came into effect on 13 October 2022, for an initial duration of seven years.", "The Association Agreement supersedes the European Cooperating State (ECS) Agreement, which entered into force upon Slovakia's subscription to the Plan for European Cooperating States Charter on 4 February 2016, a scheme introduced at ESA in 2001.The ECS Agreement was subsequently extended until 3 August 2022.====Canada====Since 1 January 1979, Canada has had the special status of a Cooperating State within ESA.", "By virtue of this accord, the Canadian Space Agency takes part in ESA's deliberative bodies and decision-making and also in ESA's programmes and activities.", "Canadian firms can bid for and receive contracts to work on programmes.", "The accord has a provision ensuring a fair industrial return to Canada.", "The most recent Cooperation Agreement was signed on 15 December 2010 with a term extending to 2020.For 2014, Canada's annual assessed contribution to the ESA general budget was €6,059,449 (CAD$8,559,050).", "For 2017, Canada has increased its annual contribution to €21,600,000 (CAD$30,000,000).===Budget appropriation and allocation===European Space Agency 2016 budget by domain out of a total budget is 5250M€.ESA is funded from annual contributions by individual states as well as from an annual contribution by the European Union (EU).The budget of ESA was €5.250 billion in 2016.Every 3–4 years, ESA member states agree on a budget plan for several years at an ESA member states conference.", "This plan can be amended in future years, however provides the major guideline for ESA for several years.", "The 2016 budget allocations for major areas of ESA activity are shown in the chart on the right.Countries typically have their own space programmes that differ in how they operate organisationally and financially with ESA.", "For example, the French space agency CNES has a total budget of €2015 million, of which €755 million is paid as direct financial contribution to ESA.", "Several space-related projects are joint projects between national space agencies and ESA (e.g.", "COROT).", "Also, ESA is not the only European governmental space organisation (for example European Union Satellite Centre and the European Union Space Programme Agency).===Enlargement===After the decision of the ESA Council of 21/22 March 2001, the procedure for accession of the European states was detailed as described the document titled \"The Plan for European Co-operating States (PECS)\".", "Nations that want to become a full member of ESA do so in 3 stages.", "First a Cooperation Agreement is signed between the country and ESA.", "In this stage, the country has very limited financial responsibilities.", "If a country wants to co-operate more fully with ESA, it signs a European Cooperating State (ECS) Agreement, albeit to be a candidate for said agreement, a country must be European.", "The ECS Agreement makes companies based in the country eligible for participation in ESA procurements.", "The country can also participate in all ESA programmes, except for the Basic Technology Research Programme.", "While the financial contribution of the country concerned increases, it is still much lower than that of a full member state.", "The agreement is normally followed by a Plan For European Cooperating State (or PECS Charter).", "This is a 5-year programme of basic research and development activities aimed at improving the nation's space industry capacity.", "At the end of the 5-year period, the country can either begin negotiations to become a full member state or an associated state or sign a new PECS Charter.", "Many countries, most of which joined the EU in both 2004 and 2007, have started to co-operate with ESA on various levels: Applicant state Cooperation agreement ECS agreement PECS charter ESA Convention signature Associate membership National programmethrough MoEDTLSOLSOSSOSRTIthrough MoCWthrough MoSETUASSAUISAMCSTAEMDuring the Ministerial Meeting in December 2014, ESA ministers approved a resolution calling for discussions to begin with Israel, Australia and South Africa on future association agreements.", "The ministers noted that \"concrete cooperation is at an advanced stage\" with these nations and that \"prospects for mutual benefits are existing\".A separate space exploration strategy resolution calls for further co-operation with the United States, Russia and China on \"LEO exploration, including a continuation of ISS cooperation and the development of a robust plan for the coordinated use of space transportation vehicles and systems for exploration purposes, participation in robotic missions for the exploration of the Moon, the robotic exploration of Mars, leading to a broad Mars Sample Return mission in which Europe should be involved as a full partner, and human missions beyond LEO in the longer term.", "\"In August 2019, ESA and the Australian Space Agency signed a joint statement of intent \"to explore deeper cooperation and identify projects in a range of areas including deep space, communications, navigation, remote asset management, data analytics and mission support.\"", "Details of the cooperation were laid out in a framework agreement signed by the two entities.On 17 November 2020, ESA signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with the South African National Space Agency (SANSA).", "SANSA CEO Dr. Valanathan Munsami tweeted: \"Today saw another land mark event for SANSA with the signing of an MoU with ESA.", "This builds on initiatives that we have been discussing for a while already and which gives effect to these.", "Thanks Jan for your hand of friendship and making this possible.\"" ], [ "Launch vehicles", "The ESA currently has only one operational launch vehicle, Vega, and another, Ariane 6, in development.", "Rocket launches are carried out by Arianespace, which has 23 shareholders representing the industry that manufactures the Ariane 5 as well as CNES, at ESA's Guiana Space Centre.", "Because many communication satellites have equatorial orbits, launches from French Guiana are able to take larger payloads into space than from spaceports at higher latitudes.", "In addition, equatorial launches give spacecraft an extra 'push' of nearly 500 m/s due to the higher rotational velocity of the Earth at the equator compared to near the Earth's poles where rotational velocity approaches zero.===Vega===Vega rocketVega is ESA's carrier for small satellites.", "Developed by seven ESA members led by Italy, it is capable of carrying a payload with a mass of between 300 and 1500 kg to an altitude of 700 km, for low polar orbit.", "Its maiden launch from Kourou was on 13 February 2012.Vega began full commercial exploitation in December 2015.The rocket has three solid propulsion stages and a liquid propulsion upper stage (the AVUM) for accurate orbital insertion and the ability to place multiple payloads into different orbits.A larger version of the Vega launcher, Vega-C had its first flight in July 2022.The new evolution of the rocket incorporates a larger first stage booster, the P120C replacing the P80, an upgraded Zefiro (rocket stage) second stage, and the AVUM+ upper stage.", "This new variant enables larger single payloads, dual payloads, return missions, and orbital transfer capabilities.===Ariane launch vehicle development funding===Historically, the Ariane family rockets have been funded primarily \"with money contributed by ESA governments seeking to participate in the program rather than through competitive industry bids.", "This has meant that governments commit multiyear funding to the development with the expectation of a roughly 90% return on investment in the form of industrial workshare.\"", "ESA is proposing changes to this scheme by moving to competitive bids for the development of the Ariane 6.===Future rocket development===Future projects include the Prometheus reusable engine technology demonstrator, Phoebus (an upgraded second stage for Ariane 6), and Themis (a reusable first stage)." ], [ "Human space flight", "===Formation and development===Ulf Merbold became the first ESA astronaut to fly into space.At the time ESA was formed, its main goals did not encompass human space flight; rather it considered itself to be primarily a scientific research organisation for uncrewed space exploration in contrast to its American and Soviet counterparts.", "It is therefore not surprising that the first non-Soviet European in space was not an ESA astronaut on a European space craft; it was Czechoslovak Vladimír Remek who in 1978 became the first non-Soviet or American in space (the first man in space being Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union) – on a Soviet Soyuz spacecraft, followed by the Pole Mirosław Hermaszewski and East German Sigmund Jähn in the same year.", "This Soviet co-operation programme, known as Intercosmos, primarily involved the participation of Eastern bloc countries.", "In 1982, however, Jean-Loup Chrétien became the first non-Communist Bloc astronaut on a flight to the Soviet Salyut 7 space station.Because Chrétien did not officially fly into space as an ESA astronaut, but rather as a member of the French CNES astronaut corps, the German Ulf Merbold is considered the first ESA astronaut to fly into space.", "He participated in the STS-9 Space Shuttle mission that included the first use of the European-built Spacelab in 1983.STS-9 marked the beginning of an extensive ESA/NASA joint partnership that included dozens of space flights of ESA astronauts in the following years.", "Some of these missions with Spacelab were fully funded and organisationally and scientifically controlled by ESA (such as two missions by Germany and one by Japan) with European astronauts as full crew members rather than guests on board.", "Beside paying for Spacelab flights and seats on the shuttles, ESA continued its human space flight co-operation with the Soviet Union and later Russia, including numerous visits to Mir.During the latter half of the 1980s, European human space flights changed from being the exception to routine and therefore, in 1990, the European Astronaut Centre in Cologne, Germany was established.", "It selects and trains prospective astronauts and is responsible for the co-ordination with international partners, especially with regard to the International Space Station.", "As of 2006, the ESA astronaut corps officially included twelve members, including nationals from most large European countries except the United Kingdom.In 2008, ESA started to recruit new astronauts so that final selection would be due in spring 2009.Almost 10,000 people registered as astronaut candidates before registration ended in June 2008.8,413 fulfilled the initial application criteria.", "Of the applicants, 918 were chosen to take part in the first stage of psychological testing, which narrowed down the field to 192.After two-stage psychological tests and medical evaluation in early 2009, as well as formal interviews, six new members of the European Astronaut Corps were selected – five men and one woman.===List of astronauts===The astronauts of the European Space Agency are:France Jean-François ClervoyItaly Samantha CristoforettiBelgium Frank De WinneSpain Pedro DuqueGermany Reinhold EwaldFrance Léopold EyhartsGermany Alexander GerstItaly Umberto GuidoniSweden Christer FuglesangNetherlands André KuipersGermany Matthias MaurerDenmark Andreas MogensenItaly Paolo NespoliSwitzerland Claude NicollierItaly Luca ParmitanoUnited Kingdom Timothy PeakeFrance Philippe PerrinFrance Thomas PesquetGermany Thomas ReiterGermany Hans SchlegelGermany Gerhard ThieleFrance Michel TogniniItaly Roberto Vittori===Crew vehicles===In the 1980s, France pressed for an independent European crew launch vehicle.", "Around 1978, it was decided to pursue a reusable spacecraft model and starting in November 1987 a project to create a mini-shuttle by the name of Hermes was introduced.", "The craft was comparable to early proposals for the Space Shuttle and consisted of a small reusable spaceship that would carry 3 to 5 astronauts and 3 to 4 metric tons of payload for scientific experiments.", "With a total maximum weight of 21 metric tons it would have been launched on the Ariane 5 rocket, which was being developed at that time.", "It was planned solely for use in low Earth orbit space flights.", "The planning and pre-development phase concluded in 1991; the production phase was never fully implemented because at that time the political landscape had changed significantly.", "With the fall of the Soviet Union ESA looked forward to co-operation with Russia to build a next-generation space vehicle.", "Thus the Hermes programme was cancelled in 1995 after about 3 billion dollars had been spent.", "The Columbus space station programme had a similar fate.In the 21st century, ESA started new programmes in order to create its own crew vehicles, most notable among its various projects and proposals is Hopper, whose prototype by EADS, called Phoenix, has already been tested.", "While projects such as Hopper are neither concrete nor to be realised within the next decade, other possibilities for human spaceflight in co-operation with the Russian Space Agency have emerged.", "Following talks with the Russian Space Agency in 2004 and June 2005, a co-operation between ESA and the Russian Space Agency was announced to jointly work on the Russian-designed Kliper, a reusable spacecraft that would be available for space travel beyond LEO (e.g.", "the moon or even Mars).", "It was speculated that Europe would finance part of it.", "A €50 million participation study for Kliper, which was expected to be approved in December 2005, was finally not approved by the ESA member states.", "The Russian state tender for the project was subsequently cancelled in 2006.In June 2006, ESA member states granted 15 million to the Crew Space Transportation System (CSTS) study, a two-year study to design a spacecraft capable of going beyond Low-Earth orbit based on the current Soyuz design.", "This project was pursued with Roskosmos instead of the cancelled Kliper proposal.", "A decision on the actual implementation and construction of the CSTS spacecraft was contemplated for 2008.In mid-2009 EADS Astrium was awarded a €21 million study into designing a crew vehicle based on the European ATV which is believed to now be the basis of the Advanced Crew Transportation System design.In November 2012, ESA decided to join NASA's Orion programme.", "The ATV would form the basis of a propulsion unit for NASA's new crewed spacecraft.", "ESA may also seek to work with NASA on Orion's launch system as well in order to secure a seat on the spacecraft for its own astronauts.In September 2014, ESA signed an agreement with Sierra Nevada Corporation for co-operation in Dream Chaser project.", "Further studies on the Dream Chaser for European Utilization or DC4EU project were funded, including the feasibility of launching a Europeanised Dream Chaser onboard Ariane 5." ], [ "Cooperation with other countries and organisations", "ESA has signed co-operation agreements with the following states that currently neither plan to integrate as tightly with ESA institutions as Canada, nor envision future membership of ESA: Argentina, Brazil, China, India (for the Chandrayan mission), Russia and Turkey.Additionally, ESA has joint projects with the EUSPA of the European Union, NASA of the United States and is participating in the International Space Station together with the United States (NASA), Russia and Japan (JAXA).===National space organisations of member states===The ''Centre National d'Études Spatiales'' (CNES) (National Centre for Space Study) is the French government space agency (administratively, a \"public establishment of industrial and commercial character\").", "Its headquarters are in central Paris.", "CNES is the main participant on the Ariane project.", "Indeed, CNES designed and tested all Ariane family rockets (mainly from its centre in Évry near Paris)The UK Space Agency is a partnership of the UK government departments which are active in space.", "Through the UK Space Agency, the partners provide delegates to represent the UK on the various ESA governing bodies.", "Each partner funds its own programme.", "The Italian Space Agency (''Agenzia Spaziale Italiana'' or ASI) was founded in 1988 to promote, co-ordinate and conduct space activities in Italy.", "Operating under the Ministry of the Universities and of Scientific and Technological Research, the agency cooperates with numerous entities active in space technology and with the president of the Council of Ministers.", "Internationally, the ASI provides Italy's delegation to the Council of the European Space Agency and to its subordinate bodies.", "The German Aerospace Center (DLR) (German: ''Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V.'') is the national research centre for aviation and space flight of the Federal Republic of Germany and of other member states in the Helmholtz Association.", "Its extensive research and development projects are included in national and international cooperative programmes.", "In addition to its research projects, the centre is the assigned space agency of Germany bestowing headquarters of German space flight activities and its associates.", "The Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial (INTA) (National Institute for Aerospace Technique) is a Public Research Organisation specialised in aerospace research and technology development in Spain.", "Among other functions, it serves as a platform for space research and acts as a significant testing facility for the aeronautic and space sector in the country.===NASA===ESA has a long history of collaboration with NASA.", "Since ESA's astronaut corps was formed, the Space Shuttle has been the primary launch vehicle used by ESA's astronauts to get into space through partnership programmes with NASA.", "In the 1980s and 1990s, the Spacelab programme was an ESA-NASA joint research programme that had ESA develop and manufacture orbital labs for the Space Shuttle for several flights on which ESA participate with astronauts in experiments.In robotic science mission and exploration missions, NASA has been ESA's main partner.", "''Cassini–Huygens'' was a joint NASA-ESA mission, along with the Infrared Space Observatory, INTEGRAL, SOHO, and others.", "Also, the Hubble Space Telescope is a joint project of NASA and ESA.", "Future ESA-NASA joint projects include the James Webb Space Telescope and the proposed Laser Interferometer Space Antenna.", "NASA has supported ESA's MarcoPolo-R mission which landed on asteroid Bennu in October 2020 and is scheduled to return a sample to Earth for further analysis in 2023.NASA and ESA will also likely join for a Mars sample-return mission.", "In October 2020, the ESA entered into a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with NASA to work together on the Artemis program, which will provide an orbiting Lunar Gateway and also accomplish the first crewed lunar landing in 50 years, whose team will include the first woman on the Moon.", "Astronaut selection announcements are expected within two years of the 2024 scheduled launch date.", "ESA also purchases seats on the NASA operated Commercial Crew Program.", "The first ESA astronaut to be on a Commercial Crew Program mission is Thomas Pesquet.", "Pesquet launched into space aboard Crew Dragon Endeavour on the Crew-2 mission.", "ESA also has seats on Crew-3 with Matthias Maurer and Crew-4 with Samantha Cristoforetti.=== SpaceX ===In 2023, following the successful launch of the Euclid telescope in July on a Falcon 9 rocket, ESA approached SpaceX to launch four Galileo communication satellites on two Falcon 9 rockets in 2024, however it would require approval from the European Commission and all member states of the European Union to proceed.===Cooperation with other space agencies===Since China has invested more money into space activities, the Chinese Space Agency has sought international partnerships.", "Besides the Russian Space Agency, ESA is one of its most important partners.", "Both space agencies cooperated in the development of the Double Star Mission.", "In 2017, ESA sent two astronauts to China for two weeks sea survival training with Chinese astronauts in Yantai, Shandong.ESA entered into a major joint venture with Russia in the form of the CSTS, the preparation of French Guiana spaceport for launches of Soyuz-2 rockets and other projects.", "With India, ESA agreed to send instruments into space aboard the ISRO's Chandrayaan-1 in 2008.ESA is also co-operating with Japan, the most notable current project in collaboration with JAXA is the ''BepiColombo'' mission to Mercury.===International Space Station===ISS module Columbus'' at Kennedy Space Center's Space Station Processing FacilityWith regard to the International Space Station (ISS), ESA is not represented by all of its member states: 11 of the 22 ESA member states currently participate in the project: Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and United Kingdom.", "Austria, Finland and Ireland chose not to participate, because of lack of interest or concerns about the expense of the project.", "Portugal, Luxembourg, Greece, the Czech Republic, Romania, Poland, Estonia and Hungary joined ESA after the agreement had been signed.ESA takes part in the construction and operation of the ISS, with contributions such as Columbus, a science laboratory module that was brought into orbit by NASA's STS-122 Space Shuttle mission, and the Cupola observatory module that was completed in July 2005 by Alenia Spazio for ESA.", "The current estimates for the ISS are approaching €100 billion in total (development, construction and 10 years of maintaining the station) of which ESA has committed to paying €8 billion.", "About 90% of the costs of ESA's ISS share will be contributed by Germany (41%), France (28%) and Italy (20%).", "German ESA astronaut Thomas Reiter was the first long-term ISS crew member.ESA has developed the Automated Transfer Vehicle for ISS resupply.", "Each ATV has a cargo capacity of .", "The first ATV, ''Jules Verne'', was launched on 9 March 2008 and on 3 April 2008 successfully docked with the ISS.", "This manoeuvre, considered a major technical feat, involved using automated systems to allow the ATV to track the ISS, moving at 27,000 km/h, and attach itself with an accuracy of 2 cm.", "Five vehicles were launched before the program ended with the launch of the fifth ATV, ''Georges Lemaître'', in 2014.As of 2020, the spacecraft establishing supply links to the ISS are the Russian Progress and Soyuz, Japanese Kounotori (HTV), and the United States vehicles Cargo Dragon 2 and Cygnus stemmed from the Commercial Resupply Services program.European Life and Physical Sciences research on board the International Space Station (ISS) is mainly based on the European Programme for Life and Physical Sciences in Space programme that was initiated in 2001.===Facilities===ESA Headquarters (HQ), Paris, FranceEuropean Space Operations Centre (ESOC), Darmstadt, GermanyEuropean Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC), Noordwijk, NetherlandsEuropean Space Astronomy Centre (ESAC), Madrid, SpainEuropean Centre for Space Applications and Telecommunications (ECSAT), Oxfordshire, United KingdomEuropean Astronaut Centre (EAC), Cologne, GermanyESA Centre for Earth Observation (ESRIN), Frascati, ItalyGuiana Space Centre (CSG), Kourou, French GuianaEuropean Space Tracking Network (ESTRACK)European Data Relay System" ], [ "Link between ESA and EU", "The ESA is an independent space agency and not under the jurisdiction of the European Union, although they have common goals, share funding, and work together often.The initial aim of the European Union (EU) was to make the European Space Agency an agency of the EU by 2014.While the EU and its member states fund together 86% of the budget of ESA, it is not an EU agency.", "Furthermore, ESA has several non-EU members, most notably the United Kingdom which had left the EU while remaining a full member of ESA.", "ESA is partnered with the EU on its two current flagship space programs, the Copernicus series of Earth observation satellites and the Galileo satellite navigation system, with ESA providing technical oversight and, in the case of Copernicus, some of the funding.", "The EU, though, has shown an interest in expanding into new areas, whence the proposal to rename and expand its satellite navigation agency (the European GNSS Agency) into the EU Agency for the Space Programme.", "The proposal drew strong criticism from ESA, as it was perceived as encroaching on ESA's turf.In January 2021, after years of acrimonious relations, EU and ESA officials mended their relationship, with the EU Internal Market commissioner Thierry Breton saying \"The European space policy will continue to rely on ESA and its unique technical, engineering and science expertise,\" and that \"ESA will continue to be the European agency for space matters.", "If we are to be successful in our European strategy for space, and we will be, I will need ESA by my side.\"", "ESA director Aschbacher reciprocated, saying \"I would really like to make ESA the main agency, the go-to agency of the European Commission for all its flagship programs.\"", "ESA and EUSPA are now seen to have distinct roles and competencies, which will be officialized in the Financial Framework Partnership Agreement (FFPA).", "Whereas ESA's focus will be on the technical elements of the EU space programs, EUSPA will handle the operational elements of those programs." ], [ "Security incidents", "On 3 August 1984, ESA's Paris headquarters were severely damaged and six people were hurt when a bomb exploded.", "It was planted by the far-left armed Action Directe group.On 14 December 2015, hackers from Anonymous breached ESA's subdomains and leaked thousands of login credentials." ], [ "See also", "*European Space Security and Education CentreEurospaceList of European Space Agency programmes and missionsList of government space agenciesSEDSSpace Night===European Union matters===Agencies of the European UnionDirectorate-General for Defence Industry and SpaceEnhanced co-operationEuropean Union Agency for the Space Programme" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ESA Bulletin ( ESA Bulletin ) is a quarterly magazine about the work of ESA that can be subscribed to European Space Agency free of charge.", "Bonnet, Roger; Manno, Vittorio (1994).", "''International Cooperation in Space: The Example of the European Space Agency'' (Frontiers of Space).", "Harvard University Press.", ".", "Johnson, Nicholas (1993).", "''Space technologies and space science activities of member states of the European Space Agency''.", ".", "Peeters, Walter (2000).", "''Space Marketing: A European Perspective'' (Space Technology Library).", ".", "Zabusky, Stacia (1995 and 2001).", "''Launching Europe: An Ethnography of European Cooperation in Space Science''.", "Harvey, Brian (2003).", "''Europe's Space Programme: To Ariane and Beyond''.", "." ], [ "External links", "* A European strategy for space – Europa* Convention for the establishment of a European Space Agency, September 2005* Convention for the Establishment of a European Space Agency, Annex I: Privileges and Immunities* European Space Agency fonds and 'Oral History of Europe in Space' project run by the European Space Agency at the Historical Archives of the EU in Florence* Open access at the European Space Agency" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Embouchure" ], [ "Introduction", "The embouchure of a trumpeter.", "'''Embouchure''' () or '''lipping''' is the use of the lips, facial muscles, tongue, and teeth in playing a wind instrument.", "This includes shaping the lips to the mouthpiece of a woodwind instrument or the mouthpiece of a brass instrument.", "The word is of French origin and is related to the root '''', 'mouth'.", "Proper embouchure allows instrumentalists to play their instrument at its full range with a full, clear tone and without strain or damage to their muscles." ], [ "Brass embouchure", "While performing on a brass instrument, the sound is produced by the player buzzing their lips into a mouthpiece.", "Pitches are changed in part through altering the amount of muscular contraction in the lip formation.", "The performer's use of the air, tightening of cheek and jaw muscles, as well as tongue manipulation can affect how the embouchure works.Maintaining an effective embouchure is an essential skill for any brass instrumentalist, but its personal and particular characteristics mean that different pedagogues and researchers have advocated differing, even contradictory, advice on what proper embouchure is and how it should be taught.", "One point on which there is some agreement is that proper embouchure is not one-size-fits-all: individual differences in dental structure, lip shape and size, jaw shape and the degree of jaw malocclusion, and other anatomical factors will affect whether a particular embouchure technique will be effective or not.In 1962, Philip Farkas hypothesized that the air stream traveling through the lip aperture should be directed straight down the shank of the mouthpiece.", "He believed that it would be illogical to \"violently deflect\" the air stream downward at the point of where the air moves past the lips.", "In this text, Farkas also recommends that the lower jaw be protruded so that the upper and lower teeth are aligned.In 1970, Farkas published a second text which contradicted his earlier writing.", "Out of 40 subjects, Farkas showed that 39 subjects directed the air downward to varying degrees and one subject directed the air in an upward direction at various degrees.", "The lower jaw position seen in these photographs shows more variation from his earlier text as well.This supports what was written by trombonist and brass pedagogue Donald S. Reinhardt in 1942.In 1972, Reinhardt described and labeled different embouchure patterns according to such characteristics as mouthpiece placement and the general direction of the air stream as it travels past the lips.", "According to this later text, players who place the mouthpiece higher on the lips, so that more upper lip is inside the mouthpiece, will direct the air downwards to varying degrees while playing.", "Performers who place the mouthpiece lower, so that more lower lip is inside the mouthpiece, will direct the air to varying degrees in an upward manner.", "In order for the performer to be successful, the air stream direction and mouthpiece placement need to be personalized based on individual anatomical differences.", "Lloyd Leno confirmed the existence of both upstream and downstream embouchures.More controversial was Reinhardt's description and recommendations regarding a phenomenon he termed a \"pivot\".", "According to Reinhardt, a successful brass embouchure depends on a motion wherein the performer moves both the mouthpiece and lips as a single unit along the teeth in an upward and downward direction.", "As the performer ascends in pitch, he or she will either move the lips and mouthpiece together slightly up towards the nose or pull them down together slightly towards the chin, and use the opposite motion to descend in pitch.", "Whether the player uses one general pivot direction or the other, and the degree to which the motion is performed, depends on the performer's anatomical features and stage of development.", "The placement of the mouthpiece upon the lips doesn't change, but rather the relationship of the rim and lips to the teeth.", "While the angle of the instrument may change as this motion follows the shape of the teeth and placement of the jaw, contrary to what many brass performers and teachers believe, the angle of the instrument does not actually constitute the motion Reinhardt advised as a pivot.Later research supports Reinhardt's claim that this motion exists and might be advisable for brass performers to adopt.", "John Froelich describes how mouthpiece pressure towards the lips (vertical forces) and shear pressure (horizontal forces) functioned in three test groups, student trombonists, professional trombonists, and professional symphonic trombonists.", "Froelich noted that the symphonic trombonists used the least amount of both direct and shear forces and recommends this model be followed.", "Other research notes that virtually all brass performers rely upon the upward and downward embouchure motion.", "Other authors and pedagogues remain skeptical about the necessity of this motion, but scientific evidence supporting this view has not been sufficiently developed at this time.Some noted brass pedagogues prefer to instruct the use of the embouchure from a less analytical point of view.", "Arnold Jacobs, a tubist and well-regarded brass teacher, believed that it was best for the student to focus on his or her use of the air and musical expression to allow the embouchure to develop naturally on its own.", "Other instructors, such as Carmine Caruso, believed that the brass player's embouchure could best be developed through coordination exercises and drills that bring all the muscles into balance that focus the student's attention on his or her time perception.", "Still other authors who have differing approaches to embouchure development include Louis Maggio, Jeff Smiley, Jerome Callet and Clint McLaughlin.===Farkas embouchure===Most professional performers, as well as instructors, use a combination called a puckered smile.", "Farkas told people to blow as if they were trying to cool soup.", "Raphael Mendez advised saying the letter \"M\".", "The skin under the lower lip will be taut with no air pocket.", "The lips do not overlap nor do they roll in or out.", "The corners of the mouth are held firmly in place.", "To play with an extended range one should use a pivot, tongue arch and lip to lip compression.According to Farkas the mouthpiece should have upper lip and lower lip (French horn), lower lip and upper lip (trumpet and cornet), and more latitude for lower brass (trombone, baritone, and tuba).", "For trumpet, some also advocate upper lip and lower lip.", "Farkas claimed placement was more important for the instruments with smaller mouthpieces.", "The lips should not overlap each other, nor should they roll in or out.", "The mouth corners should be held firm.", "Farkas speculated that the horn should be held in a downward angle to allow the air stream to go straight into the mouthpiece, although his later text shows that air stream direction actually is either upstream or downstream and is dependent upon the ratio of upper or lower lip inside the mouthpiece, not the horn angle.", "Farkas advised to moisten the outside of the lips, then form the embouchure and gently place the mouthpiece on it.", "He also recommended there must be a gap of or so between the teeth so that the air flows freely.===Arban vs. Saint-Jacome===Arban and Saint-Jacome were both cornet soloists and authors of well respected and still used method books.", "Arban stated undogmatically that he believed the mouthpiece should be placed on the top lip.", "Saint-Jacome to the contrary said dogmatically that the mouthpiece should be placed \"two-thirds for the upper and the rest for the under according to all professors and one-third for the upper and two-thirds for the under according to one sole individual, whom I shall not name.", "\"====Buzzing embouchure====The Farkas set is the basis of most lip buzzing embouchures.", "Mendez did teach lip buzzing by making the student lip buzz for a month before they could play their trumpet and got great results.", "One can initiate this type of buzz by using the same sensation as spitting seeds, but maintaining a continued flow of air.", "This technique assists the development of the Farkas approach by preventing the player from using an aperture that is too open.===Stevens–Costello embouchure===Stevens–Costello embouchure has its origins in the William Costello embouchure and was further developed by Roy Stevens.", "It uses a slight rolling in of both lips and touching evenly all the way across.", "It also uses mouthpiece placement of about 40–50% top lip and 50–60% lower lip.", "The teeth will be about apart and the teeth are parallel or the jaw slightly forward.There is relative mouthpiece pressure to the given air column.", "One exercise to practice the proper weight to air relationship is the palm exercise where the player holds the horn by laying it on its side in the palm of the hand, not grasping it.", "The lips are placed on the mouthpiece and the player blows utilizing the weight of the horn in establishing a sound.===Maggio embouchure===A puckered embouchure, used by most players, and sometimes used by jazz players for extremely high \"screamer\" notes.", "Maggio claimed that the pucker embouchure gives more endurance than some systems.", "Carlton MacBeth is the main proponent of the pucker embouchure.", "The Maggio system was established because Louis Maggio had sustained an injury which prevented him from playing.", "In this system the player cushions the lips by extending them or puckering (like a monkey).", "This puckering enables the players to overcome physical malformations.", "It also lets the player play for an extended time in the upper register.", "The pucker can make it easy to use to open an aperture.", "Much very soft practice can help overcome this.", "Claude Gordon was a student of Louis Maggio and Herbert L. Clarke and systematized the concepts of these teachers.", "Claude Gordon made use of pedal tones for embouchure development as did Maggio and Herbert L. Clarke.", "All three stressed that the mouthpiece should be placed higher on the top lip for a more free vibration of the lips.===Tongue-controlled embouchure===This embouchure method, advocated by a minority of brass pedagogues such as Jerome Callet, has not yet been sufficiently researched to support the claims that this system is the most effective approach for all brass performers.Advocates of Callet's approach believe that this method was recommended and taught by the great brass instructors of the early 20th century.", "Two French trumpet technique books, authored by Jean-Baptiste Arban and Saint-Jacome, were translated into English for use by American players.", "According to some, due to a misunderstanding arising from differences in pronunciation between French and English, the commonly used brass embouchure in Europe was incorrectly interpreted.", "Callet attributes this difference in embouchure technique as the reason the great players of the past were able to play at the level of technical virtuosity which they did, although the increased difficulty of contemporary compositions for brass seem to indicate that the level of brass technique achieved by today's performers equals or even exceeds that of most performers from the late 19th and early 20th centuries.Callet's method of brass embouchure consists of the tongue remaining forward and through the teeth at all times.", "The corners of the mouth always remain relaxed, and only a small amount of air is used.", "The top and bottom lips curl inward and grip the forward tongue.", "The tongue will force the teeth, and subsequently the throat, wide open, supposedly resulting in a bigger, more open sound.", "The forward tongue resists the pressure of the mouthpiece, controls the flow of air for lower and higher notes, and protects the lips and teeth from damage or injury from mouthpiece pressure.", "Because of the importance of the tongue in this method many refer to this as a \"tongue-controlled embouchure\".", "This technique facilitates the use of a smaller mouthpiece and larger bore instruments.", "It results in improved intonation and stronger harmonically related partials across the player's range." ], [ "Woodwind embouchure", "Flute embouchure===Flute embouchure===A variety of transverse flute embouchures are employed by professional flautists, though the most natural form is perfectly symmetrical, the corners of the mouth relaxed (i.e.", "not smiling), the lower lip placed along and at a short distance from the embouchure hole.", "It must be stressed, however, that achieving a symmetrical, or perfectly centred blowing hole ought not to be an end in itself.", "Indeed, French flautist Marcel Moyse did not play with a symmetrical embouchure.The end-blown xiao, kaval, shakuhachi and hocchiku flutes demand especially difficult embouchures, sometimes requiring many lessons before any sound can be produced.The embouchure is an important element to tone production.", "The right embouchure, developed with \"time, patience, and intelligent work\", will produce a beautiful sound and a correct intonation.", "The embouchure is produced with the muscles around the lips: principally the orbicularis oris muscle and the depressor anguli oris, whilst avoiding activation of zygomaticus major, which will produce a smile, flattening the top lip against the maxillary (upper jaw) teeth.", "Beginner flute-players tend to suffer fatigue in these muscles, and notably struggle to use the depressor muscle, which necessarily helps to keep the top lip directing the flow of air across the embouchure hole.", "These muscles have to be properly warmed up and exercised before practicing.", "Tone-development exercises including long notes and harmonics must be done as part of the warm up daily.Some further adjustments to the embouchure are necessary when moving from the transverse orchestral flute to the piccolo.", "With the piccolo, it becomes necessary to place the near side of the embouchure hole slightly higher on the lower lip, i.e.", "above the lip margin, and greater muscle tone from the lip muscles is needed to keep the stream/pressure of air directed across the smaller embouchure hole, particularly when playing in higher piccolo registers.===Reed instrument embouchure===Clarinet embouchure.With the woodwinds, aside from the flute, piccolo, and recorder, the sound is generated by a reed and not with the lips.", "The embouchure is therefore based on sealing the area around the reed and mouthpiece.", "This serves to prevent air from escaping while simultaneously supporting the reed, allowing it to vibrate, and constrict the reed preventing it from vibrating too much.", "With woodwinds, it is important to ensure that the mouthpiece is not placed too far into the mouth, which would result in too much vibration (no control), often creating a sound an octave (or harmonic twelfth for the clarinet) above the intended note.", "If the mouthpiece is not placed far enough into the mouth, no sound will be generated, as the reed will not vibrate.The standard embouchures for single reed woodwinds like the clarinet and saxophone are variants of the ''single lip embouchure'', formed by resting the reed upon the bottom lip, which rests on the teeth and is supported by the chin muscles and the buccinator muscles on the sides of the mouth.", "The top teeth rest on top of the mouthpiece.", "The manner in which the lower lip rests against the teeth differs between clarinet and saxophone embouchures.", "In clarinet playing, the lower lip is rolled over the teeth and corners of the mouth are drawn back, which has the effect of drawing the upper lip around the mouthpiece to create a seal due to the angle at which the mouthpiece rests in the mouth.", "With the saxophone embouchure, the lower lip rests against, but not over, the teeth as in pronouncing the letter \"V\" and the corners of the lip are drawn in (similar to a drawstring bag).", "With the less common double-lip embouchure, the top lip is placed under (around) the top teeth, an alternative embouchure sometimes recommended by dentists for single-reed players for whom the single-lip approach is potentially harmful.", "In both instances, the position of the tongue in the mouth plays a vital role in focusing and accelerating the air stream blown by the player.", "This results in a more mature and full sound, rich in overtones.The double reed woodwinds, the oboe and bassoon, have no mouthpiece.", "Instead the reed is two pieces of cane extending from a metal tube (oboe – staple) or placed on a bocal (bassoon, English horn).", "The reed is placed directly on the lips and then played like the double-lip embouchure described above.", "Compared to the single reed woodwinds, the reed is very small and subtle changes in the embouchure can have a dramatic effect on tuning, tone and pitch control." ], [ "See also", "Double buzz relating to the brass players embouchureEmbouchure collapse" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "\"Brass Playing Is No Harder Than Deep Breathing\" by Claude Gordon\"Super Chops\", \"Trumpet Secrets\" by Jerry Callet\"Screamin - The Final Embouchure Method\" video by Bill Carmichael\"Sail the Seven C's\" Book & CD by Clyde Hunt\"Embouchure Enhancement\" by Roddy Lewis\"A New Approach to Altissimo Trumpet Playing\" by John Lynch\"Trumpet A-Z\", \"Trumpet FAQ'S\", \"Pros Talk Embouchure\" by Clint Pops McLaughlin\"Brass Tactics\" by Chase Sanborn\"The Buzzing Book\" by James Thompson\"The Complete Stevens-Costello Embouchure Technique, 2nd Edition\" by Roy Stevens & Bill Moriarity" ], [ "External links", "* Flute Embouchure Photos* Jerome Callet's Superchops Embouchure Clinic* Trumpet Playing and Brass Playing Articles by Claude Gordon student Jeff Purtle* Bahb Civiletti's TCE page* Rune's Trumpet-think Discussion about embouchures* Diagrams of embouchures* Trumpet College Discussion about all embouchures* Beginners guide to embouchures* OJ's Discussion about all embouchures* Saxophone embouchures* Roy Roman's Stevens-Costello Embouchure Instruction* Tribute Site about Roy Stevens* http://www.embouchure.nl, information" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Elephant 6" ], [ "Introduction", "The official Elephant 6 logo, which was commonly affixed to recordings from bands associated with the collective'''The Elephant 6 Recording Company''' is a loosely defined musical collective from the United States.", "Notable bands associated with the collective include the Apples in Stereo, Beulah, Circulatory System, Elf Power, the Minders, Neutral Milk Hotel, of Montreal, and the Olivia Tremor Control.", "Although bands in Elephant 6 explore many different genres, they have a shared interest in psychedelic pop of the 1960s, with particular influence from bands such as the Beach Boys, the Beatles, and the Zombies.", "Their music sometimes features intentionally low fidelity production and experimental recording techniques.The collective started in Ruston, Louisiana in the late 1980s.", "The name was occasionally used to denote the home recordings made by four high school friends: Bill Doss, Will Cullen Hart, Jeff Mangum, and Robert Schneider.", "After high school, Schneider formed the Apples in Stereo; Doss, Hart, and Mangum formed the Olivia Tremor Control; and Mangum independently formed Neutral Milk Hotel.", "These three bands would serve as the basis for Elephant 6, and soon, many other bands joined.", "Athens, Georgia, and Denver, Colorado, became major hub cities, and the mid-to-late 1990s represented the peak years of activity for the collective.Due to the confluence of new bands and the dissolution of Neutral Milk Hotel and the Olivia Tremor Control, the collective stagnated in activity in the early 2000s.", "A brief resurgence in the late 2000s ended with the death of Doss, and in recent years the collective has remained relatively dormant.", "Journalists have described Elephant 6 as an important underground music movement, and a key contributor to the emergence of alternative rock and indie rock in the 1990s." ], [ "History", "===Background and formation===Noel Murray and Marcus Gilmer of ''The A.V.", "Club'' note the difficulty in defining the exact parameters of the collective due to the multitude of associated acts.", "Each act has their own unique sound, and musicians are often members of multiple bands.", "This problem is compounded by the fact that members will sometimes obfuscate the truth, such as misleading a ''Rolling Stone'' reporter into believing they lived in a communal compound in Athens.", "In 2012, the official Elephant 6 website read: \"A collective, a label ... a cult?", "Elephant 6 may be all of these things or none of these depending on your point of view.", "And we're certainly not going to try to define what it is now!", "\"Elephant 6 originated in Ruston, Louisiana, in the late 1980s.", "The name was occasionally used to denote home recordings made by four high school friends: Bill Doss, Will Cullen Hart, Jeff Mangum, and Robert Schneider.", "These recordings were circulated between the four of them, and they did not seek approval from record labels or fanzines.", "Musician Laura Carter said: \"They were just 13-year-old boys yelling, 'Fuck your mama,' and bashing on the drums as hard as they can.", "It was just kids having fun, and they would fill up a whole cassette tape with this.\"", "When the group decided to create an imaginary label for their music, Hart came up with the name Elephant 6.When the four friends graduated high school, they dispersed to different cities in the United States, but continued to mail tapes to each other.", "Schneider moved to Denver, Colorado and formed a band called the Apples in 1992 with Jim McIntyre, Hilarie Sidney and Chris Parfitt.", "Doss, Hart, and Mangum moved to Athens, Georgia.", "The three were drawn to the city's burgeoning music scene, and played in a band called the Synthetic Flying Machine.", "While in Athens, the group began collaborating with New York musician Julian Koster.", "In 1993, the Synthetic Flying Machine evolved into a band called the Olivia Tremor Control, and the band gained local attention for their psychedelic sound, which was in contrast to the prevalent grunge sound of the 1990s.In the 1990s, bands joined Elephant 6 through invitation.", "Inspired by the Surrealist Manifestos, members of the collective issued their own manifesto in small hand-drawn catalogs, found within early releases.", "According to Schneider: \"We wanted to find these little pockets of people in different cities who listened to Pavement and the Beach Boys and were recording on 4-tracks.\"", "Schneider notes that another way a band may join is by simply having a similar sound.", "He uses Beulah as an example, and in reference to the band's sound, he said: \"This is a kindred spirit.", "This is Elephant 6.", "\"Schneider created a record label called the Elephant 6 Recording Company as a vehicle for the Apples music, and in 1993, the first recording released on the label was an extended play titled ''Tidal Wave''.", "Around this time, Mangum left the Olivia Tremor Control, and became a vagabond.", "While living in Seattle, Mangum released the song \"Everything Is\" on Cher Doll Records in 1994, and was the first member of the collective to have their music released on a mainstream label, although the release was not directly affiliated with the Elephant 6 collective and did not feature the Elephant 6 logo.", "Mangum released the song under the name Neutral Milk Hotel.", "The Apples were later known as the Apples in Stereo.===Peak years===Jeff Mangum (''front'') and Kevin Barnes (''right'') performing with Elf Power in 1997The mid-to-late 1990s saw the greatest amount of activity for the collective.", "The three main bands associated with Elephant 6 at the time–the Apples in Stereo, the Olivia Tremor Control, and Neutral Milk Hotel–grew in popularity, and each respectively released a notable album: ''Fun Trick Noisemaker'', ''Music from the Unrealized Film Script: Dusk at Cubist Castle'', and ''In the Aeroplane Over the Sea''.", "''The A.V.", "Club'' wrote highly of ''In the Aereoplane Over the Sea'', saying it \"is the culmination of everything the Elephant 6 collective was about in the mid-'90s: distinctive, ragged, catchy records ripped straight from their makers' veins.", "\"Many bands associated with the collective were formed during this period, and Athens became a major hub city.", "Elf Power, of Montreal, and Doss' solo project the Sunshine Fix were among the more notable Athens based groups.", "of Montreal frontperson Kevin Barnes said: \"The heyday, most of the late 1990s, everyone was involved in each others lives, and we would collaborate more, have dinners where everyone would make something.\"", "Schneider compares this period to the Summer of Love, and said the driving force for many of the bands was \"out-weirding their neighbor\" with their music.", "Elephant 6 bands would tour with each other, the larger bands allowed the smaller bands to open for them.Denver was the smaller of the two hub cities.", "In addition to the Apples in Stereo, the major bands from Denver were the Minders, Dressy Bessy, and McIntyre's solo project Von Hemmling.", "The main draw for Elephant 6 bands in Denver was Pet Sounds Studio, a recording studio Schneider built in McIntyre's house.", "Many Elephant 6 albums were recorded at Pet Sounds, and were produced by Schneider.", "In addition to the two main hub cities, Elephant 6 bands began forming in various cities in the United States, such as the Essex Green and the Ladybug Transistor in Brooklyn, and Beulah in San Francisco.===Inactivity===In the early 2000s, Elephant 6 stagnated in activity.", "Neutral Milk Hotel member and the Gerbils frontman Scott Spillane identifies the sudden uptick of bands across the country as an important factor to this period.", "\"At the time the Elephant 6 thing was getting out of hand, and we started seeing all of these bands that had little Elephant 6 logos on them all over the place\" said Spillane.", "Bands began to tour more often, and the members had less time to interact with each other.", "Additionally, Neutral Milk Hotel and the Olivia Tremor Control went on hiatus.", "Mangum became reclusive as he struggled to cope with his newfound stardom, while the members of the Olivia Tremor Control wanted to record their own solo music.Beulah member Pat Noel said many bands were dismayed at how journalists would \"pigeonhole\" them to the collective.", "\"We kind of made a conscious decision to distance ourselves a little bit from the whole thing.\"", "Schneider took a break from producing albums, and the final album to be affixed with the Elephant 6 Recording Company logo was ''Cul-De-Sacs and Dead Ends'' by the Minders in 1999.The collective slowly dissipated, although bands like the Apples in Stereo, Elf Power, and of Montreal continued making music throughout the 2000s.===Brief reemergence===The collective was relatively dormant until the release of ''New Magnetic Wonder'', a 2007 album by the Apples in Stereo.", "''New Magnetic Wonder'' featured all four of the collective's originating members.", "While recording the album, they discussed new ideas, which in turn facilitated a need to make more music.", "The following year, Koster organized the \"Elephant 6 Holiday Surprise Tour,\" a short concert tour that featured fifteen artists and ten Elephant 6 bands.", "Koster said \"Elephant 6 is back,\" and added: \"Somehow, everything's happening for us now.", "I don't know why we were ever interrupted, and why all this is happening now.", "But we're all just so happy.\"", "The Olivia Tremor Control reunited in 2009, and Mangum returned to the public eye with solo concerts over the next few years.On July 30, 2012, Doss died from a reported aneurysm.", "His death came as a shock to the collective, and stalled nearly all recordings at the time.", "Schneider said: \"I can't say what it means for the Elephant 6 or the Apples ... On a musical level it's too soon to say.", "I mean, I don't want to say definitively that I don't want to make music again, but on a musical level there's no way to come to terms with the loss.\"", "The Olivia Tremor Control continued making music, and in 2017 Schneider confirmed he was producing unfinished recordings.", "Today, the Elephant 6 collective still exists, albeit on a much smaller scale.", "Bands like Elf Power and of Montreal continue to record music, and many bands have moved onto Elephant 6 offshoot labels such as Orange Twin Records and Cloud Recordings." ], [ "Influences and style", "Many Elephant 6 bands were inspired by 1960s psychedelic pop bands, in particular, the Beach Boys (pictured 1967)Elephant 6 bands explore a variety of music genres, including indie rock, synth-pop, and twee pop.", "A common interest for nearly every associated band, however, is psychedelic pop of the 1960s.", "Bands such as the Beach Boys, the Beatles, and the Zombies are important influences for Elephant 6 groups like the Apples in Stereo, Beulah, and the Olivia Tremor Control.", "Elephant 6's de facto leader Robert Schneider notes the particular influence of the Beach Boys' unfinished album ''Smile'', calling it the \"Holy Grail\" for many members of the collective.", "He notes how he and other members were obsessed with Beach Boys albums, and attempted to create the type of music they felt would have been included in ''Smile''.Most Elephant 6 members are anti-consumerism and possess a DIY ethic.", "Their music sometimes features intentionally low quality production, and bands may experiment with unique recording methods; for example, ''Music from the Unrealized Film Script: Dusk at Cubist Castle'' features recording techniques such as tape manipulation and sound collages.", "Schneider notes his hatred of both indie music and modern pop music, and said that his vision for Elephant 6 is a \"perfect pop world,\" untarnished by commercial interests." ], [ "Impact", "Several journalists regard Elephant 6 as an important underground music movement, and a key contributor to the alternative rock and indie rock explosion in the 1990s.", "Lee M. Shook Jr. of ''Paste'' wrote: \"The Elephant 6 Recording Company would raise the bar for wide-scale countercultural activity and underground pop art—both musical, visual and otherwise—well into the 21st century.\"", "Tom Murphy of ''Westword'' expanded on this statement, by writing: \"It became a movement of sorts because the music was so accessible and inclusive of a wide range of musical expression, allowing for immediate and enduring growth, however loose the association.", "\"The collective has influenced many indie rock bands, including Arcade Fire, Franz Ferdinand, and Tame Impala.", "Chris Chu of the Canadian band the Morning Benders said: \"Elephant 6 was the gateway for me.", "They seemed to be bridging that tradition from the 60s to a more modern, more indie approach.", "It was exactly what I was looking for, a new take on that stuff.\"" ], [ "Documentary", "In 2022 a documentary was released called ''A Future History Of: The Elephant 6 Recording Co.'' On RottenTomatoes the film currently has a 100% positive review rate." ], [ "Associated acts", "The official Elephant 6 website lists forty-seven acts associated with the collective, although Shook Jr. reports there are more than fifty.", "Among the collective's more notable acts include:" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*****************" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "* Official website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Echolocation" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Echolocation''' is the use of sound as a form of navigation." ], [ "Navigation using sound", "* Acoustic location, the general use of sound to locate objects.", " Animal echolocation, non-human animals emitting sound waves and listening to the echo in order to locate objects or navigate.", " Human echolocation, the use of sound by people to navigate.", " Sonar ('''so'''und '''n'''avigation '''a'''nd '''r'''anging), the use of sound on water or underwater, to navigate or to locate other watercraft, usually by submarines.", " Echo sounding, listening to the echo of sound pulses to measure the distance to the bottom of the sea, a special case of Sonar.", "** Medical ultrasonography, the use of ultrasound echoes to look inside the body." ], [ "Other", "* ''Echolocation'' (album), a 2001 album by Fruit Bats* ''Echolocation'', a 2017 album by Gone Is Gone" ], [ "See also", "* Radar, locating objects by detecting the echo of emitted radio waves* Lidar, locating objects by detecting the echo of emitted laser beams* ''Time to Echolocate'', a 2005 album by The Ebb and Flow" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Evangelicalism" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Evangelicalism''' (), also called '''evangelical Christianity''' or '''evangelical Protestantism''', is a worldwide interdenominational movement within Protestant Christianity that emphasizes the centrality of sharing the \"good news\" of Christianity, being \"born again\" in which an individual experiences personal conversion, as authoritatively guided by the Bible, God's revelation to humanity.", "The word ''evangelical'' comes from the Greek word for \"good news\" (''euangelion'').The theological nature of evangelicalism was first explored during the Protestant Reformation in 16th century Europe.", "Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses in 1517 emphasized that scripture and the preaching of the gospel had ultimate authority over the practices of the Church.", "The origins of modern evangelicalism are usually traced to 1738, with various theological streams contributing to its foundation, including Pietism and Radical Pietism, Puritanism, Quakerism, Presbyterianism and Moravianism (in particular its bishop Nicolaus Zinzendorf and his community at Herrnhut).", "Preeminently, John Wesley and other early Methodists were at the root of sparking this new movement during the First Great Awakening.", "Today, evangelicals are found across many Protestant branches, as well as in various denominations around the world, not subsumed to a specific branch.", "Among leaders and major figures of the evangelical Protestant movement were Nicolaus Zinzendorf, George Fox, John Wesley, George Whitefield, Jonathan Edwards, Billy Graham, Bill Bright, Harold Ockenga, Gudina Tumsa, John Stott, Francisco Olazábal, William J. Seymour, and Martyn Lloyd-Jones.The movement has long had a presence in the Anglosphere before spreading further afield in the 19th, 20th, and early 21st centuries.", "The movement gained significant momentum during the 18th and 19th centuries with the Great Awakening in Great Britain and the United States.", "there were an estimated 619 million evangelicals in the world, meaning that one in four Christians would be classified as evangelical.", "The United States has the largest proportion of evangelicals in the world.", "American evangelicals are a quarter of that nation's population and its single largest religious group.", "As a transdenominational coalition, evangelicals can be found in nearly every Protestant denomination and tradition, particularly within the Reformed (Continental Reformed, Anglicanism, Presbyterian, Congregational), Plymouth Brethren, Baptist, Methodist (Wesleyan–Arminian), Lutheran, Moravian, Free Church, Mennonite, Quaker, Pentecostal/charismatic and non-denominational churches." ], [ "Terminology", "The word ''evangelical'' has its etymological roots in the Greek word for \"gospel\" or \"good news\": ''euangelion'', from ''eu'' \"good\", ''angel''- the stem of, among other words, ''angelos'' \"messenger, angel\", and the neuter suffix -''ion''.", "By the English Middle Ages, the term had expanded semantically to include not only the message, but also the New Testament which contained the message as well as more specifically the Gospels, which portray the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus.", "The first published use of ''evangelical'' in English was in 1531, when William Tyndale wrote \"He exhorteth them to proceed constantly in the evangelical truth.\"", "One year later, Thomas More wrote the earliest recorded use in reference to a theological distinction when he spoke of \"Tyndale and his evangelical brother Barns.", "\"During the Reformation, Protestant theologians embraced the term as referring to \"gospel truth.\"", "Martin Luther referred to the ''evangelische Kirche'' (\"evangelical church\") to distinguish Protestants from Catholics in the Catholic Church.", "Into the 21st century, ''evangelical'' has continued in use as a synonym for Mainline Protestant in continental Europe.", "This usage is reflected in the names of Protestant denominations, such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America.", "The German term more accurately corresponds to the broad English term ''Protestant'' and should not be confused with the narrower German term '''''evangelikal''','' or the term '''pietistisch''' (a term etymologically related to the Pietist and Radical Pietist movements), which are used to described Evangelicalism in the sense used in this article.", "Mainline Protestant denominations with a Lutheran or semi-Lutheran background, like the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada, and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of England, who are not evangelical in the \"'''''evangelikal'''\"'' sense but Protestant in the ''\"evangelisch\"'' sense, have translated the German term ''\"evangelisch\"'' (or Protestant) into the English term \"Evangelical\", although the two German words have different meanings.", "In other parts of the world, especially in the English-speaking world, '''''evangelical''''' (German: '''evangelikal''' or '''pietistisch''') is commonly applied to describe the interdenominational Born-Again believing movement.Christian historian David W. Bebbington writes that, \"Although 'evangelical,' with a lower-case initial, is occasionally used to mean 'of the gospel,' the term 'Evangelical' with a capital letter, is applied to any aspect of the movement beginning in the 1730s.\"", "According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', ''evangelicalism'' was first used in 1831.In 1812, the term \"evangelicalism\" appeared in \"The History of Lynn\" by William Richards.", "In the summer of 1811 the term \"evangelicalists\" was used in \"The Sin and Danger of Schism\" by Rev.", "Dr. Andrew Burnaby, Archdeacon of Leicester.The term may also be used outside any religious context to characterize a generic missionary, reforming, or redeeming impulse or purpose.", "For example, ''The Times Literary Supplement'' refers to \"the rise and fall of evangelical fervor within the Socialist movement.\"", "This usage refers to evangelism, rather than evangelicalism as discussed here; though sharing an etymology and conceptual basis, the words have diverged significantly in meaning." ], [ "Beliefs", "Baptistery in the Pentecostal church (Pingstförsamlingen) of Västerås, in Sweden, 2018.Passion Conferences, a music and evangelism festival at Georgia Dome in Atlanta, Georgia, United States, in 2013.One influential definition of evangelicalism has been proposed by historian David Bebbington.", "Bebbington notes four distinctive aspects of evangelical faith: conversionism, biblicism, crucicentrism, and activism, noting, \"Together they form a quadrilateral of priorities that is the basis of Evangelicalism.", "\"Conversionism, or belief in the necessity of being \"born again,\" has been a constant theme of evangelicalism since its beginnings.", "To evangelicals, the central message of the gospel is justification by faith in Christ and repentance, or turning away, from sin.", "Conversion differentiates the Christian from the non-Christian, and the change in life it leads to is marked by both a rejection of sin and a corresponding personal holiness of life.", "A conversion experience can be emotional, including grief and sorrow for sin followed by great relief at receiving forgiveness.", "The stress on conversion differentiates evangelicalism from other forms of Protestantism by the associated belief that an assurance will accompany conversion.", "Among evangelicals, individuals have testified to both sudden and gradual conversions.Biblicism is reverence for the Bible and high regard for biblical authority.", "All evangelicals believe in biblical inspiration, though they disagree over how this inspiration should be defined.", "Many evangelicals believe in biblical inerrancy, while other evangelicals believe in biblical infallibility.Crucicentrism is the centrality that evangelicals give to the Atonement, the saving death and the resurrection of Jesus, that offers forgiveness of sins and new life.", "This is understood most commonly in terms of a substitutionary atonement, in which Christ died as a substitute for sinful humanity by taking on himself the guilt and punishment for sin.Activism describes the tendency toward active expression and sharing of the gospel in diverse ways that include preaching and social action.", "This aspect of evangelicalism continues to be seen today in the proliferation of evangelical voluntary religious groups and parachurch organizations.=== Church government and organizations ===Hong Kong Baptist Theological Seminary, in Hong Kong, 2008.Baptist Hospital Mutengene (Tiko), member of the Cameroon Baptist Convention.The word ''church'' has several meanings among evangelicals.", "It can refer to the universal church (the body of Christ) including all Christians everywhere.", "It can also refer to the church (congregation), which is the visible representation of the invisible church.", "It is responsible for teaching and administering the sacraments or ordinances (baptism and the Lord's Supper, but some evangelicals also count footwashing as an ordinance as well).Many evangelical traditions adhere to the doctrine of the believers' Church, which teaches that one becomes a member of the Church by the new birth and profession of faith.", "This originated in the Radical Reformation with Anabaptists but is held by denominations that practice believer's baptism.", "Evangelicals in the Anglican, Methodist and Reformed traditions practice infant baptism as one's initiation into the community of faith and the New Testament counterpart to circumcision, while also stressing the necessity of personal conversion later in life for salvation.Some evangelical denominations operate according to episcopal polity or presbyterian polity.", "However, the most common form of church government within Evangelicalism is congregational polity.", "This is especially common among nondenominational evangelical churches.", "Many churches are members of a national and international denomination for a cooperative relationship in common organizations, for the mission and social areas, such as humanitarian aid, schools, theological institutes and hospitals.", "Common ministries within evangelical congregations are pastor, elder, deacon, evangelist and worship leader.", "The ministry of bishop with a function of supervision over churches on a regional or national scale is present in all the Evangelical Christian denominations, even if the titles president of the council or general overseer are mainly used for this function.", "The term bishop is explicitly used in certain denominations.", "Some evangelical denominations are members of the World Evangelical Alliance and its 129 national alliances.Some evangelical denominations officially authorize the ordination of women in churches.", "The female ministry is justified by the fact that Mary Magdalene was chosen by Jesus to announce his resurrection to the apostles.", "The first Baptist woman who was consecrated pastor is the American Clarissa Danforth in the denomination Free Will Baptist in 1815.In 1882, in the American Baptist Churches USA.", "In the Assemblies of God of the United States, since 1927.In 1965, in the National Baptist Convention, USA.", "In 1969, in the Progressive National Baptist Convention.", "In 1975, in The Foursquare Church.===Worship service===Worship service at Christ's Commission Fellowship Pasig affiliated to the Christ's Commission Fellowship in 2014, in Pasig, Philippines.For evangelicals, there are three interrelated meanings to the term ''worship''.", "It can refer to living a \"God-pleasing and God-focused way of life,\" specific actions of praise to God, and a public Worship service.", "Diversity characterizes evangelical worship practices.", "Liturgical, contemporary, charismatic and seeker-sensitive worship styles can all be found among evangelical churches.", "Overall, evangelicals tend to be more flexible and experimental with worship practices than mainline Protestant churches.", "It is usually run by a Christian pastor.", "A service is often divided into several parts, including congregational singing, a sermon, intercessory prayer, and other ministry.", "During worship there is usually a nursery for babies.", "Children and young people receive an adapted education, Sunday school, in a separate room.", "Chümoukedima Ao Baptist Church building in Chümoukedima, affiliated with the Nagaland Baptist Church Council (India).Places of worship are usually called \"churches.\"", "In some megachurches, the building is called \"campus.\"", "The architecture of places of worship is mainly characterized by its sobriety.", "The Latin cross is one of the only spiritual symbols that can usually be seen on the building of an evangelical church and that identifies the place's belonging.Some services take place in theaters, schools or multipurpose rooms, rented for Sunday only.", "Because of their understanding of the second of the Ten Commandments, some evangelicals do not have religious material representations such as statues, icons, or paintings in their places of worship.", "There is usually a baptistery on what is variously known as the chancel (also called sanctuary) or stage, though they may be alternatively found in a separate room, for the baptisms by immersion.In some countries of the world which apply sharia or communism, government authorizations for worship are complex for Evangelical Christians.", "Because of persecution of Christians, Evangelical house churches are the only option for many Christians to live their faith in community.", "For example, there is the Evangelical house churches in China movement.", "The meetings thus take place in private houses, in secret and in illegality.The main Christian feasts celebrated by the Evangelicals are Christmas, Pentecost (by a majority of Evangelical denominations) and Easter for all believers.===Education=== College of Nursing, Central Philippine University in Iloilo City, affiliated with the Convention of Philippine Baptist Churches, 2018.Evangelical churches have been involved in the establishment of elementary and secondary schools.", "It also enabled the development of several bible colleges, colleges and universities in the United States during the 19th century.", "Other evangelical universities have been established in various countries of the world.The Council for Christian Colleges and Universities was founded in 1976.In 2023, the CCCU had 185 members in 21 countries.The Association of Christian Schools International was founded in 1978 by 3 American associations of evangelical Christian schools.", "Various international schools have joined the network.", "In 2023, it had 23,000 schools in 100 countries.The International Council for Evangelical Theological Education was founded in 1980 by the Theological Commission of the World Evangelical Alliance.", "In 2023, it had 850 member schools in 113 countries.===Sexuality===Rivas, Baptist Convention of Nicaragua, 2011.In matters of sexuality, several evangelical churches promote the virginity pledge (abstinence pledge) among young evangelical Christians, who are invited to commit themselves, during a public ceremony, to sexual abstinence until Christian marriage.", "This pledge is often symbolized by a purity ring.In some evangelical churches, young adults and unmarried couples are encouraged to marry early in order to live a sexuality according to the will of God.A 2009 American study of the National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy reported that 80 percent of young, unmarried evangelicals had had sex and that 42 percent were in a relationship with sex, when surveyed.The majority of evangelical Christian churches are against abortion and support adoption agencies and social support agencies for young mothers.Masturbation is seen as forbidden by some evangelical pastors because of the sexual thoughts that may accompany it.", "However, evangelical pastors have pointed out that the practice has been erroneously associated with Onan by scholars, that it is not a sin if it is not practiced with fantasies or compulsively, and that it was useful in a married couple, if his or her partner did not have the same frequency of sexual needs.Some evangelical churches speak only of sexual abstinence and do not speak of sexuality in marriage.", "Other evangelical churches in the United States and Switzerland speak of satisfying sexuality as a gift from God and a component of a Christian marriage harmonious, in messages during worship services or conferences.", "Many evangelical books and websites are specialized on the subject.", "The book ''The Act of Marriage: The Beauty of Sexual Love'' published in 1976 by Baptist pastor Tim LaHaye and his wife Beverly LaHaye was a pioneer in the field.The perceptions of homosexuality in the Evangelical Churches are varied.", "They range from liberal to fundamentalist or moderate Conservative and neutral.", "A 2011 Pew Research Center study found that 84 percent of evangelical leaders surveyed believed homosexuality should be discouraged.", "It is in the fundamentalist conservative positions, that there are antigay activists on TV or radio who claim that homosexuality is the cause of many social problems, such as terrorism.", "Some churches have a Conservative moderate position.", "Although they do not approve homosexual practices, they claim to show sympathy and respect for homosexuals.", "Some evangelical denominations have adopted neutral positions, leaving the choice to local churches to decide for same-sex marriage.", "There are some international evangelical denominations that are gay-friendly.The christian marriage is presented by some churches as a protection against sexual misconduct and a compulsory step to obtain a position of responsibility in the church.", "This concept, however, has been challenged by numerous sex scandals involving married evangelical leaders.", "Finally, evangelical theologians recalled that celibacy should be more valued in the Church today, since the gift of celibacy was taught and lived by Jesus Christ and Paul of Tarsus.=== Other views ===For a majority of evangelical Christians, a belief in biblical inerrancy ensures that the miracles described in the Bible are still relevant and may be present in the life of the believer.", "Healings, academic or professional successes, the birth of a child after several attempts, the end of an addiction, etc., would be tangible examples of God's intervention with the faith and prayer, by the Holy Spirit.", "In the 1980s, the neo-charismatic movement re-emphasized miracles and faith healing.", "In certain churches, a special place is thus reserved for faith healings with laying on of hands during worship services or for evangelization campaigns.", "Faith healing or divine healing is considered to be an inheritance of Jesus acquired by his death and resurrection.", "This view is typically ascribed to Pentecostal denominations, and not others that are cessationist (believing that miraculous gifts have ceased.", ")Ark Encounter in Williamstown, Kentucky, United States.In terms of denominational beliefs regarding science and the origin of the earth and human life, some evangelicals support young Earth creationism.", "For example, Answers in Genesis, founded in Australia in 1986, is an evangelical organization that seeks to defend the thesis.", "In 2007, they founded the Creation Museum in Petersburg, in Kentucky and in 2016 the Ark Encounter in Williamstown.", "Since the end of the 20th century, literalist creationism has been abandoned by some evangelicals in favor of intelligent design.", "For example, the think tank Discovery Institute, established in 1991 in Seattle, defends this thesis.", "Other evangelicals who accept the scientific consensus on evolution and the age of Earth believe in theistic evolution or evolutionary creation—the notion that God used the process of evolution to create life; a Christian organization that espouses this view is the BioLogos Foundation." ], [ "Diversity", " Show on the life of Jesus at Igreja da Cidade, affiliated to the Brazilian Baptist Convention, in São José dos Campos, Brazil, 2017.Together for the Gospel, an evangelical pastors' conference held biennially.", "A panel discussion with (from left to right) Albert Mohler, Ligon Duncan, C. J. Mahaney, and Mark Dever.The Reformed, Baptist, Methodist, Pentecostal, Churches of Christ, Plymouth Brethren, charismatic Protestant, and nondenominational Protestant traditions have all had strong influence within contemporary evangelicalism.", "Some Anabaptist denominations (such as the Brethren Church) are evangelical, and some Lutherans self-identify as evangelicals.", "There are also evangelical Anglicans and Quakers.In the early 20th century, evangelical influence declined within mainline Protestantism and Christian fundamentalism developed as a distinct religious movement.", "Between 1950 and 2000 a mainstream evangelical consensus developed that sought to be more inclusive and more culturally relevant than fundamentalism while maintaining theologically conservative Protestant teaching.", "According to Brian Stanley, professor of world Christianity, this new postwar consensus is termed ''neoevangelicalism'', the ''new evangelicalism'', or simply ''evangelicalism'' in the United States, while in Great Britain and in other English-speaking countries, it is commonly termed ''conservative evangelicalism''.", "Over the years, less conservative evangelicals have challenged this mainstream consensus to varying degrees.", "Such movements have been classified by a variety of labels, such as progressive, open, postconservative, and postevangelical.Evangelical leaders like Tony Perkins of the Family Research Council have called attention to the problem of equating the term ''Christian right'' with theological conservatism and Evangelicalism.", "Although evangelicals constitute the core constituency of the Christian right within the United States, not all evangelicals fit that political description (and not all of the Christian right are evangelicals).", "The problem of describing the Christian right which in most cases is conflated with theological conservatism in secular media, is further complicated by the fact that the label ''religious conservative'' or ''conservative Christian'' applies to other religious groups who are theologically, socially, and culturally conservative but do not have overtly political organizations associated with some of these Christian denominations, which are usually uninvolved, uninterested, apathetic, or indifferent towards politics.", "Tim Keller, an Evangelical theologian and Presbyterian Church in America pastor, shows that Conservative Christianity (theology) predates the Christian right (politics), and that being a theological conservative didn't necessitate being a political conservative, that some political progressive views around economics, helping the poor, the redistribution of wealth, and racial diversity are compatible with theologically conservative Christianity.", "Rod Dreher, a senior editor for ''The American Conservative'', a secular conservative magazine, also argues the same differences, even claiming that a \"traditional Christian\" a theological conservative, can simultaneously be left on economics (economic progressive) and even a socialist at that while maintaining traditional Christian beliefs.Outside of self-consciously evangelical denominations, there is a broader \"evangelical streak\" in mainline Protestantism.", "Mainline Protestant churches predominantly have a liberal theology while evangelical churches predominantly have a fundamentalist or moderate conservative theology.Some commentators have complained that Evangelicalism as a movement is too broad and its definition too vague to be of any practical value.", "Theologian Donald Dayton has called for a \"moratorium\" on use of the term.", "Historian D. G. Hart has also argued that \"evangelicalism needs to be relinquished as a religious identity because it does not exist\".===Christian fundamentalism===Christian fundamentalism has been called a subset or \"subspecies\" of Evangelicalism.", "Fundamentalism regards biblical inerrancy, the virgin birth of Jesus, penal substitutionary atonement, the literal resurrection of Christ, and the Second Coming of Christ as fundamental Christian doctrines.", "Fundamentalism arose among evangelicals in the 1920s—primarily as an American phenomenon, but with counterparts in Britain and British Empire—to combat modernist or liberal theology in mainline Protestant churches.", "Failing to reform the mainline churches, fundamentalists separated from them and established their own churches, refusing to participate in ecumenical organizations (such as the National Council of Churches, founded in 1950), and making separatism (rigid separation from nonfundamentalist churches and their culture) a true test of faith.", "Most fundamentalists are Baptists and dispensationalist or Pentecostals and Charismatics.Great emphasis is placed on the literal interpretation of the Bible as the primary method of Bible study as well as the biblical inerrancy and the infallibility of their interpretation.", "Adherence to conspiracy theories is particularly important.===Mainstream varieties===The Prayer Book of 1662 included the Thirty-Nine Articles emphasized by evangelical Anglicans.Mainstream evangelicalism is historically divided between two main orientations: confessionalism and revivalism.", "These two streams have been critical of each other.", "Confessional evangelicals have been suspicious of unguarded religious experience, while revivalist evangelicals have been critical of overly intellectual teaching that (they suspect) stifles vibrant spirituality.", "In an effort to broaden their appeal, many contemporary evangelical congregations intentionally avoid identifying with any single form of evangelicalism.", "These \"generic evangelicals\" are usually theologically and socially conservative, but their churches often present themselves as nondenominational (or, if a denominational member, strongly deemphasize its ties to such, such as a church name which excludes the denominational name) within the broader evangelical movement.In the words of Albert Mohler, president of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, confessional evangelicalism refers to \"that movement of Christian believers who seek a constant convictional continuity with the theological formulas of the Protestant Reformation\".", "While approving of the evangelical distinctions proposed by Bebbington, confessional evangelicals believe that authentic evangelicalism requires more concrete definition in order to protect the movement from theological liberalism and from heresy.", "According to confessional evangelicals, subscription to the ecumenical creeds and to the Reformation-era confessions of faith (such as the confessions of the Reformed churches) provides such protection.", "Confessional evangelicals are represented by conservative Presbyterian churches (emphasizing the Westminster Confession), certain Baptist churches that emphasize historic Baptist confessions such as the Second London Confession, evangelical Anglicans who emphasize the Thirty-Nine Articles (such as in the Anglican Diocese of Sydney, Australia), Methodist churches that adhere to the Articles of Religion, and some confessional Lutherans with pietistic convictions.The emphasis on historic Protestant orthodoxy among confessional evangelicals stands in direct contrast to an anticreedal outlook that has exerted its own influence on evangelicalism, particularly among churches strongly affected by revivalism and by pietism.", "Revivalist evangelicals are represented by some quarters of Methodism, the Wesleyan Holiness churches, the Pentecostal and charismatic churches, some Anabaptist churches, and some Baptists and Presbyterians.", "Revivalist evangelicals tend to place greater emphasis on religious experience than their confessional counterparts.===Moderate evangelicals===Moderate evangelical Christianity emerged in the 1940s in the United States in response to the Fundamentalist movement of the 1910s.", "In the late 1940s, evangelical theologians from Fuller Theological Seminary founded in Pasadena, California, in 1947, championed the Christian importance of social activism.", "In this movement called neo-evangelicalism, new organizations, social agencies, media and Bible colleges were established in the 1950s.===Progressive evangelicals===Evangelicals dissatisfied with the movement's fundamentalism mainstream have been variously described as progressive evangelicals, postconservative evangelicals, open evangelicals and postevangelicals.", "Progressive evangelicals, also known as the evangelical left, share theological or social views with other progressive Christians while also identifying with evangelicalism.", "Progressive evangelicals commonly advocate for women's equality, pacifism and social justice.As described by Baptist theologian Roger E. Olson, postconservative evangelicalism is a theological school of thought that adheres to the four marks of evangelicalism, while being less rigid and more inclusive of other Christians.", "According to Olson, postconservatives believe that doctrinal truth is secondary to spiritual experience shaped by Scripture.", "Postconservative evangelicals seek greater dialogue with other Christian traditions and support the development of a multicultural evangelical theology that incorporates the voices of women, racial minorities, and Christians in the developing world.", "Some postconservative evangelicals also support open theism and the possibility of near universal salvation.The term \"open evangelical\" refers to a particular Christian school of thought or churchmanship, primarily in Great Britain (especially in the Church of England).", "Open evangelicals describe their position as combining a traditional evangelical emphasis on the nature of scriptural authority, the teaching of the ecumenical creeds and other traditional doctrinal teachings, with an approach towards culture and other theological points-of-view which tends to be more inclusive than that taken by other evangelicals.", "Some open evangelicals aim to take a middle position between conservative and charismatic evangelicals, while others would combine conservative theological emphases with more liberal social positions.British author Dave Tomlinson coined the phrase ''postevangelical'' to describe a movement comprising various trends of dissatisfaction among evangelicals.", "Others use the term with comparable intent, often to distinguish evangelicals in the emerging church movement from postevangelicals and antievangelicals.", "Tomlinson argues that \"linguistically, the distinction ''between evangelical and postevangelical'' resembles the one that sociologists make between the modern and postmodern eras\"." ], [ "History", "===Background===Evangelicalism emerged in the 18th century, first in Britain and its North American colonies.", "Nevertheless, there were earlier developments within the larger Protestant world that preceded and influenced the later evangelical revivals.", "According to religion scholar Randall Balmer, Evangelicalism resulted \"from the confluence of Pietism, Presbyterianism, and the vestiges of Puritanism.", "Evangelicalism picked up the peculiar characteristics from each strain – warmhearted spirituality from the Pietists (for instance), doctrinal precisionism from the Presbyterians, and individualistic introspection from the Puritans\".", "Historian Mark Noll adds to this list High Church Anglicanism, which contributed to Evangelicalism a legacy of \"rigorous spirituality and innovative organization.\"", "Historian Rick Kennedy has identified New England Puritan clergyman Cotton Mather as the \"first American Evangelical\".During the 17th century, Pietism emerged in Europe as a movement for the revival of piety and devotion within the Lutheran church.", "As a protest against \"cold orthodoxy\" or against an overly formal and rational Christianity, Pietists advocated for an experiential religion that stressed high moral standards both for clergy and for lay people.", "The movement included both Christians who remained in the liturgical, state churches as well as separatist groups who rejected the use of baptismal fonts, altars, pulpits, and confessionals.", "As Radical Pietism spread, the movement's ideals and aspirations influenced and were absorbed by evangelicals.When George Fox, who is considered the father of Quakerism, was eleven, he wrote that God spoke to him about \"keeping pure and being faithful to God and man.\"", "After being troubled when his friends asked him to drink alcohol with them at the age of nineteen, Fox spent the night in prayer and soon afterwards he left his home in a four year search for spiritual satisfaction.", "In his ''Journal'', at age 23, he believed that he \"found through faith in Jesus Christ the full assurance of salvation.\"", "Fox began to spread his message and his emphasis on \"the necessity of an inward transformation of heart\", as well as the possibility of Christian perfection, drew opposition from English clergy and laity.", "In the mid-1600s, many people became attracted to Fox's preaching and his followers became known as the Religious Society of Friends.", "By 1660, the Quakers grew to 35,000 and are considered to be among the first in the evangelical Christian movement.The Presbyterian heritage not only gave Evangelicalism a commitment to Protestant orthodoxy but also contributed a revival tradition that stretched back to the 1620s in Scotland and Northern Ireland.", "Central to this tradition was the communion season, which normally occurred in the summer months.", "For Presbyterians, celebrations of Holy Communion were infrequent but popular events preceded by several Sundays of preparatory preaching and accompanied with preaching, singing, and prayers.Puritanism combined Calvinism with a doctrine that conversion was a prerequisite for church membership and with an emphasis on the study of Scripture by lay people.", "It took root in the colonies of New England, where the Congregational church became an established religion.", "There the Half-Way Covenant of 1662 allowed parents who had not testified to a conversion experience to have their children baptized, while reserving Holy Communion for converted church members alone.", "By the 18th century Puritanism was in decline and many ministers expressed alarm at the loss of religious piety.", "This concern over declining religious commitment led many people to support evangelical revival.High-Church Anglicanism also exerted influence on early Evangelicalism.", "High Churchmen were distinguished by their desire to adhere to primitive Christianity.", "This desire included imitating the faith and ascetic practices of early Christians as well as regularly partaking of Holy Communion.", "High Churchmen were also enthusiastic organizers of voluntary religious societies.", "Two of the most prominent were the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (founded in London in 1698), which distributed Bibles and other literature and built schools, and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, which was founded in England in 1701 to facilitate missionary work in British colonies (especially among colonists in North America).", "Samuel and Susanna Wesley, the parents of John and Charles Wesley (born 1703 and 1707 respectively), were both devoted advocates of High-Church ideas.===18th century===Jonathan Edwards' account of the revival in Northampton was published in 1737 as ''A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God in the Conversion of Many Hundred Souls in Northampton''.In the 1730s, Evangelicalism emerged as a distinct phenomenon out of religious revivals that began in Britain and New England.", "While religious revivals had occurred within Protestant churches in the past, the evangelical revivals that marked the 18th century were more intense and radical.", "Evangelical revivalism imbued ordinary men and women with a confidence and enthusiasm for sharing the gospel and converting others outside of the control of established churches, a key discontinuity with the Protestantism of the previous era.It was developments in the doctrine of assurance that differentiated Evangelicalism from what went before.", "Bebbington says, \"The dynamism of the Evangelical movement was possible only because its adherents were assured in their faith.\"", "He goes on:The first local revival occurred in Northampton, Massachusetts, under the leadership of Congregationalist minister Jonathan Edwards.", "In the fall of 1734, Edwards preached a sermon series on \"Justification By Faith Alone\", and the community's response was extraordinary.", "Signs of religious commitment among the laity increased, especially among the town's young people.", "The revival ultimately spread to 25 communities in western Massachusetts and central Connecticut until it began to wane by the spring of 1735.Edwards was heavily influenced by Pietism, so much so that one historian has stressed his \"American Pietism\".", "One practice clearly copied from European Pietists was the use of small groups divided by age and gender, which met in private homes to conserve and promote the fruits of revival.At the same time, students at Yale University (at that time Yale College) in New Haven, Connecticut, were also experiencing revival.", "Among them was Aaron Burr, Sr., who would become a prominent Presbyterian minister and future president of Princeton University.", "In New Jersey, Gilbert Tennent, another Presbyterian minister, was preaching the evangelical message and urging the Presbyterian Church to stress the necessity of converted ministers.The spring of 1735 also marked important events in England and Wales.", "Howell Harris, a Welsh schoolteacher, had a conversion experience on May 25 during a communion service.", "He described receiving assurance of God's grace after a period of fasting, self-examination, and despair over his sins.", "Sometime later, Daniel Rowland, the Anglican curate of Llangeitho, Wales, experienced conversion as well.", "Both men began preaching the evangelical message to large audiences, becoming leaders of the Welsh Methodist revival.", "At about the same time that Harris experienced conversion in Wales, George Whitefield was converted at Oxford University after his own prolonged spiritual crisis.", "Whitefield later remarked, \"About this time God was pleased to enlighten my soul and bring me into the knowledge of His free grace, and the necessity of being justified in His sight by ''faith only.", "''\"When forbidden from preaching from the pulpits of parish churches, John Wesley began open-air preaching.Whitefield's fellow Holy Club member and spiritual mentor, Charles Wesley, reported an evangelical conversion in 1738.In the same week, Charles' brother and future founder of Methodism, John Wesley was also converted after a long period of inward struggle.", "During this spiritual crisis, John Wesley was directly influenced by Pietism.", "Two years before his conversion, Wesley had traveled to the newly established colony of Georgia as a missionary for the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.", "He shared his voyage with a group of Moravian Brethren led by August Gottlieb Spangenberg.", "The Moravians' faith and piety deeply impressed Wesley, especially their belief that it was a normal part of Christian life to have an assurance of one's salvation.", "Wesley recounted the following exchange with Spangenberg on February 7, 1736:Wesley finally received the assurance he had been searching for at a meeting of a religious society in London.", "While listening to a reading from Martin Luther's preface to the Epistle to the Romans, Wesley felt spiritually transformed:Pietism continued to influence Wesley, who had translated 33 Pietist hymns from German to English.", "Numerous German Pietist hymns became part of the English Evangelical repertoire.", "By 1737, Whitefield had become a national celebrity in England where his preaching drew large crowds, especially in London where the Fetter Lane Society had become a center of evangelical activity.", "Whitfield joined forces with Edwards to \"fan the flame of revival\" in the Thirteen Colonies in 1739–40.Soon the First Great Awakening stirred Protestants throughout America.Evangelical preachers emphasized personal salvation and piety more than ritual and tradition.", "Pamphlets and printed sermons crisscrossed the Atlantic, encouraging the revivalists.", "The Awakening resulted from powerful preaching that gave listeners a sense of deep personal revelation of their need of salvation by Jesus Christ.", "Pulling away from ritual and ceremony, the Great Awakening made Christianity intensely personal to the average person by fostering a deep sense of spiritual conviction and redemption, and by encouraging introspection and a commitment to a new standard of personal morality.", "It reached people who were already church members.", "It changed their rituals, their piety and their self-awareness.", "To the evangelical imperatives of Reformation Protestantism, 18th century American Christians added emphases on divine outpourings of the Holy Spirit and conversions that implanted within new believers an intense love for God.", "Revivals encapsulated those hallmarks and forwarded the newly created Evangelicalism into the early republic.By the 1790s, the Evangelical party in the Church of England remained a small minority but were not without influence.", "John Newton and Joseph Milner were influential evangelical clerics.", "Evangelical clergy networked together through societies such as the Eclectic Society in London and the Elland Society in Yorkshire.", "The Old Dissenter denominations (the Baptists, Congregationalists and Quakers) were falling under evangelical influence, with the Baptists most affected and Quakers the least.", "Evangelical ministers dissatisfied with both Anglicanism and Methodism often chose to work within these churches.", "In the 1790s, all of these evangelical groups, including the Anglicans, were Calvinist in orientation.Methodism (the \"New Dissent\") was the most visible expression of evangelicalism by the end of the 18th century.", "The Wesleyan Methodists boasted around 70,000 members throughout the British Isles, in addition to the Calvinistic Methodists in Wales and the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion, which was organized under George Whitefield's influence.", "The Wesleyan Methodists, however, were still nominally affiliated with the Church of England and would not completely separate until 1795, four years after Wesley's death.", "The Wesleyan Methodist Church's Arminianism distinguished it from the other evangelical groups.At the same time, evangelicals were an important faction within the Presbyterian Church of Scotland.", "Influential ministers included John Erskine, Henry Wellwood Moncrieff and Stevenson Macgill.", "The church's General Assembly, however, was controlled by the Moderate Party, and evangelicals were involved in the First and Second Secessions from the national church during the 18th century.===19th century===The start of the 19th century saw an increase in missionary work and many of the major missionary societies were founded around this time (see Timeline of Christian missions).", "Both the Evangelical and high church movements sponsored missionaries.The Second Great Awakening (which actually began in 1790) was primarily an American revivalist movement and resulted in substantial growth of the Methodist and Baptist churches.", "Charles Grandison Finney was an important preacher of this period.William Wilberforce was a politician, philanthropist and an evangelical Anglican, who led the British movement to abolish the slave trade.In Britain in addition to stressing the traditional Wesleyan combination of \"Bible, cross, conversion, and activism\", the revivalist movement sought a universal appeal, hoping to include rich and poor, urban and rural, and men and women.", "Special efforts were made to attract children and to generate literature to spread the revivalist message.", "\"Christian conscience\" was used by the British Evangelical movement to promote social activism.", "Evangelicals believed activism in government and the social sphere was an essential method in reaching the goal of eliminating sin in a world drenched in wickedness.", "The Evangelicals in the Clapham Sect included figures such as William Wilberforce who successfully campaigned for the abolition of slavery.In the late 19th century, the revivalist Wesleyan-Holiness movement based on John Wesley's doctrine of \"entire sanctification\" came to the forefront, and while many adherents remained within mainline Methodism, others established new denominations, such as the Free Methodist Church and Wesleyan Methodist Church.", "In urban Britain the Holiness message was less exclusive and censorious.Keswickianism taught the doctrine of the second blessing in non-Methodist circles and came to influence evangelicals of the Calvinistic (Reformed) tradition, leading to the establishment of denominations such as the Christian and Missionary Alliance.John Nelson Darby of the Plymouth Brethren was a 19th-century Irish Anglican minister who devised modern dispensationalism, an innovative Protestant theological interpretation of the Bible that was incorporated in the development of modern Evangelicalism.", "Cyrus Scofield further promoted the influence of dispensationalism through the explanatory notes to his Scofield Reference Bible.", "According to scholar Mark S. Sweetnam, who takes a cultural studies perspective, dispensationalism can be defined in terms of its Evangelicalism, its insistence on the literal interpretation of Scripture, its recognition of stages in God's dealings with humanity, its expectation of the imminent return of Christ to rapture His saints, and its focus on both apocalypticism and premillennialism.During the 19th century, the megachurches, churches with more than 2,000 people, began to develop.", "The first evangelical megachurch, the Metropolitan Tabernacle with a 6000-seat auditorium, was inaugurated in 1861 in London by Charles Spurgeon.", "Dwight L. Moody founded the Illinois Street Church in Chicago.An advanced theological perspective came from the Princeton theologians from the 1850s to the 1920s, such as Charles Hodge, Archibald Alexander and B.B.", "Warfield.===20th century===After 1910 the Fundamentalist movement dominated Evangelicalism in the early part of the 20th century; the Fundamentalists rejected liberal theology and emphasized the inerrancy of the Scriptures.Following the 1904–1905 Welsh revival, the Azusa Street Revival in 1906 began the spread of Pentecostalism in North America.The 20th century also marked by the emergence of the televangelism.", "Aimee Semple McPherson, who founded the megachurch ''Angelus Temple'' in Los Angeles, used radio in the 1920s to reach a wider audience.After the Scopes trial in 1925, ''Christian Century'' wrote of \"Vanishing Fundamentalism\".", "In 1929 Princeton University, once the bastion of conservative theology, added several modernists to its faculty, resulting in the departure of J. Gresham Machen and a split in the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America.Evangelicalism began to reassert itself in the second half of the 1930s.", "One factor was the advent of the radio as a means of mass communication.", "When Charles E. Fuller began his \"Old Fashioned Revival Hour\" on October 3, 1937, he sought to avoid the contentious issues that had caused fundamentalists to be characterized as narrow.One hundred forty-seven representatives from thirty-four denominations met from April 7 through 9, 1942, in St. Louis, Missouri, for a \"National Conference for United Action among Evangelicals.\"", "The next year six hundred representatives in Chicago established the National Association of Evangelicals (NAE) with Harold Ockenga as its first president.", "The NAE was partly a reaction to the founding of the American Council of Christian Churches (ACCC) under the leadership of the fundamentalist Carl McIntire.", "The ACCC in turn had been founded to counter the influence of the Federal Council of Churches (later merged into the National Council of Churches), which fundamentalists saw as increasingly embracing modernism in its ecumenism.", "Those who established the NAE had come to view the name fundamentalist as \"an embarrassment instead of a badge of honor.", "\"Evangelical revivalist radio preachers organized themselves in the National Religious Broadcasters in 1944 in order to regulate their activity.With the founding of the NAE, American Protestantism was divided into three large groups—the fundamentalists, the modernists, and the new evangelicals, who sought to position themselves between the other two.", "In 1947 Harold Ockenga coined the term '''neo-evangelicalism''' to identify a movement distinct from fundamentalism.", "The neo-evangelicals had three broad characteristics that distinguished them from the conservative fundamentalism of the ACCC:Each of these characteristics took concrete shape by the mid-1950s.", "In 1947 Carl F. H. Henry's book ''The Uneasy Conscience of Fundamentalism'' called on evangelicals to engage in addressing social concerns:In the same year Fuller Theological Seminary was established with Ockenga as its president and Henry as the head of its theology department.The evangelical revivalist Billy Graham in Duisburg, Germany, 1954.The strongest impetus, however, was the development of the work of Billy Graham.", "In 1951, with producer Dick Ross, he founded the film production company World Wide Pictures.", "Graham had begun his career with the support of McIntire and fellow conservatives Bob Jones Sr. and John R. Rice.", "However, in broadening the reach of his London crusade of 1954, he accepted the support of denominations that those men disapproved of.", "When he went even further in his 1957 New York crusade, conservatives strongly condemned him and withdrew their support.", "According to William Martin:A fourth development—the founding of ''Christianity Today'' (''CT'') with Henry as its first editor—was strategic in giving neo-evangelicals a platform to promote their views and in positioning them between the fundamentalists and modernists.", "In a letter to Harold Lindsell, Graham said that ''CT'' would:The postwar period also saw growth of the ecumenical movement and the founding of the World Council of Churches, which the Evangelical community generally regarded with suspicion.In the United Kingdom, John Stott (1921–2011) and Martyn Lloyd-Jones (1899–1981) emerged as key leaders in Evangelical Christianity.The charismatic movement began in the 1960s and resulted in the introduction of Pentecostal theology and practice into many mainline denominations.", "New charismatic groups such as the Association of Vineyard Churches and Newfrontiers trace their roots to this period (see also British New Church Movement).The closing years of the 20th century saw controversial postmodern influences entering some parts of Evangelicalism, particularly with the emerging church movement.", "Also controversial is the relationship between spiritualism and contemporary military metaphors and practices animating many branches of Christianity but especially relevant in the sphere of Evangelicalism.", "Spiritual warfare is the latest iteration in a long-standing partnership between religious organization and militarization, two spheres that are rarely considered together, although aggressive forms of prayer have long been used to further the aims of expanding Evangelical influence.", "Major moments of increased political militarization have occurred concurrently with the growth of prominence of militaristic imagery in evangelical communities.", "This paradigmatic language, paired with an increasing reliance on sociological and academic research to bolster militarized sensibility, serves to illustrate the violent ethos that effectively underscores militarized forms of evangelical prayer.evangelical charismatic worship service at Lakewood Church, Houston, Texas, in 2013===21st century===In Nigeria, evangelical megachurches, such as Redeemed Christian Church of God and Living Faith Church Worldwide, have built autonomous cities with houses, supermarkets, banks, universities, and power plants.Evangelical Christian film production societies were founded, such as Pure Flix in 2005 and Kendrick Brothers in 2013.The growth of evangelical churches continues with the construction of new places of worship or enlargements in various regions of the world." ], [ "Global statistics", "Worship service at The Rock Baptist Church of Lomé, member of the Togo Baptist Convention.According to a 2011 Pew Forum study on global Christianity, 285,480,000 or 13.1 percent of all Christians are Evangelicals.", "These figures do not include the Pentecostalism and Charismatic movements.", "The study states that the category \"Evangelicals\" should not be considered as a separate category of \"Pentecostal and Charismatic\" categories, since some believers consider themselves in both movements where their church is affiliated with an Evangelical association.In 2015, the World Evangelical Alliance is \"a network of churches in 129 nations that have each formed an Evangelical alliance and over 100 international organizations joining together to give a world-wide identity, voice, and platform to more than 600 million Evangelical Christians\".", "The Alliance was formed in 1951 by Evangelicals from 21 countries.", "It has worked to support its members to work together globally.According to Sébastien Fath of CNRS, in 2016, there are 619 million Evangelicals in the world, one in four Christians.", "In 2017, about 630 million, an increase of 11 million, including Pentecostals.Operation World estimates the number of Evangelicals at 545.9 million, which makes for 7.9 percent of the world's population.", "From 1960 to 2000, the global growth of the number of reported Evangelicals grew three times the world's population rate, and twice that of Islam.", "According to Operation World, the Evangelical population's current annual growth rate is 2.6 percent, still more than twice the world's population growth rate.===Africa===In the 21st century, there are Evangelical churches active in many African countries.", "They have grown especially since independence came in the 1960s, the strongest movements are based on Pentecostal beliefs.", "There is a wide range of theology and organizations, including some international movements.==== Nigeria ====Worship service at Noah's Ark Auditorium, affiliated to the Full Life Christian Centre, in 2019, in Uyo, NigeriaIn Nigeria the Evangelical Church Winning All (formerly \"Evangelical Church of West Africa\") is the largest church organization with five thousand congregations and over ten million members.", "It sponsors three seminaries and eight Bible colleges, and 1600 missionaries who serve in Nigeria and other countries with the Evangelical Missionary Society (EMS).", "There have been serious confrontations since 1999 between Muslims and Christians standing in opposition to the expansion of Sharia law in northern Nigeria.", "The confrontation has radicalized and politicized the Christians.", "Violence has been escalating.==== Ethiopia and Eritrea ====In Ethiopia, Eritrea, and the Ethiopian and Eritrean diaspora, P'ent'ay (from Ge'ez: ጴንጤ), also known as Ethiopian–Eritrean Evangelicalism''',''' or Wenigēlawī (from Ge'ez: ወንጌላዊ – which directly translates to \"Evangelical\") are terms used for Evangelical Christians and other Eastern/Oriental-oriented Protestant Christians within Ethiopia and Eritrea, and the Ethiopian and Eritrean diaspora abroad.", "Prominent movements among them have been Pentecostalism (Ethiopian Full Gospel Believers' Church), the Baptist tradition (Ethiopian Kale Heywet Church), Lutheranism (Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus and Evangelical Lutheran Church of Eritrea), and the Mennonite-Anabaptist tradition (Meserete Kristos Church).==== Kenya ====In Kenya, mainstream Evangelical denominations have taken the lead in promoting political activism and backers, with the smaller Evangelical sects of less importance.", "Daniel arap Moi was president 1978 to 2002 and claimed to be an Evangelical; he proved intolerant of dissent or pluralism or decentralization of power.==== South Africa ====Worship at the Word and Life Church in Boksburg, South AfricaThe Berlin Missionary Society (BMS) was one of four German Protestant mission societies active in South Africa before 1914.It emerged from the German tradition of Pietism after 1815 and sent its first missionaries to South Africa in 1834.There were few positive reports in the early years, but it was especially active 1859–1914.It was especially strong in the Boer republics.", "The World War cut off contact with Germany, but the missions continued at a reduced pace.", "After 1945 the missionaries had to deal with decolonization across Africa and especially with the apartheid government.", "At all times the BMS emphasized spiritual inwardness, and values such as morality, hard work and self-discipline.", "It proved unable to speak and act decisively against injustice and racial discrimination and was disbanded in 1972.==== Malawi ====Since 1974, young professionals have been the active proselytizers of Evangelicalism in the cities of Malawi.==== Mozambique ====In Mozambique, Evangelical Protestant Christianity emerged around 1900 from black migrants whose converted previously in South Africa.", "They were assisted by European missionaries, but, as industrial workers, they paid for their own churches and proselytizing.", "They prepared southern Mozambique for the spread of Evangelical Protestantism.", "During its time as a colonial power in Mozambique, the Catholic Portuguese government tried to counter the spread of Evangelical Protestantism.====East African Revival====The East African Revival was a renewal movement within Evangelical churches in East Africa during the late 1920s and 1930s that began at a Church Missionary Society mission station in the Belgian territory of Ruanda-Urundi in 1929, and spread to: Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya during the 1930s and 1940s contributing to the significant growth of the church in East Africa through the 1970s and had a visible influence on Western missionaries who were observer-participants of the movement.===Latin America=== Worship at El Lugar de Su Presencia, in Bogotá, in Colombia, 2019.In modern Latin America, the term \"Evangelical\" is often simply a synonym for \"Protestant\".====Brazil====Temple of Solomon replica built by the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God in São Paulo.Protestantism in Brazil largely originated with German immigrants and British and American missionaries in the 19th century, following up on efforts that began in the 1820s.In the late nineteenth century, while the vast majority of Brazilians were nominal Catholics, the nation was underserved by priests, and for large numbers their religion was only nominal.", "The Catholic Church in Brazil was de-established in 1890, and responded by increasing the number of dioceses and the efficiency of its clergy.", "Many Protestants came from a large German immigrant community, but they were seldom engaged in proselytism and grew mostly by natural increase.Methodists were active along with Presbyterians and Baptists.", "The Scottish missionary Robert Reid Kalley, with support from the Free Church of Scotland, moved to Brazil in 1855, founding the first Evangelical church among the Portuguese-speaking population there in 1856.It was organized according to the Congregational policy as the Igreja Evangélica Fluminense; it became the mother church of Congregationalism in Brazil.", "The Seventh-day Adventists arrived in 1894, and the YMCA was organized in 1896.The missionaries promoted schools colleges and seminaries, including a liberal arts college in São Paulo, later known as Mackenzie, and an agricultural school in Lavras.", "The Presbyterian schools in particular later became the nucleus of the governmental system.", "In 1887 Protestants in Rio de Janeiro formed a hospital.", "The missionaries largely reached a working-class audience, as the Brazilian upper-class was wedded either to Catholicism or to secularism.", "By 1914, Protestant churches founded by American missionaries had 47,000 communicants, served by 282 missionaries.", "In general, these missionaries were more successful than they had been in Mexico, Argentina or elsewhere in Latin America.There were 700,000 Protestants by 1930, and increasingly they were in charge of their own affairs.", "In 1930, the Methodist Church of Brazil became independent of the missionary societies and elected its own bishop.", "Protestants were largely from a working-class, but their religious networks help speed their upward social mobility.Baptist worship service in BrazilProtestants accounted for fewer than 5 percent of the population until the 1960s but grew exponentially by proselytizing and by 2000 made up over 15 percent of Brazilians affiliated with a church.", "Pentecostals and charismatic groups account for the vast majority of this expansion.Pentecostal missionaries arrived early in the 20th century.", "Pentecostal conversions surged during the 1950s and 1960s, when native Brazilians began founding autonomous churches.", "The most influential included Brasil Para o Cristo (Brazil for Christ), founded in 1955 by Manoel de Mello.", "With an emphasis on personal salvation, on God's healing power, and on strict moral codes these groups have developed broad appeal, particularly among the booming urban migrant communities.", "In Brazil, since the mid-1990s, groups committed to uniting black identity, antiracism, and Evangelical theology have rapidly proliferated.", "Pentecostalism arrived in Brazil with Swedish and American missionaries in 1911.it grew rapidly but endured numerous schisms and splits.", "In some areas the Evangelical Assemblies of God churches have taken a leadership role in politics since the 1960s.", "They claimed major credit for the election of Fernando Collor de Mello as president of Brazil in 1990.Pentecostal worship service in Araras, BrazilAccording to the 2000 census, 15.4 percent of the Brazilian population was Protestant.", "Recent research conducted by the Datafolha institute shows that 25 percent of Brazilians are Protestants, of which 19 percent are followers of Pentecostal denominations.", "The 2010 census found out that 22.2 percent were Protestant at that date.", "Protestant denominations saw a rapid growth in their number of followers since the last decades of the 20th century.", "They are politically and socially conservative, and emphasize that God's favor translates into business success.", "The rich and the poor remained traditional Catholics, while most Evangelical Protestants were in the new lower-middle class – known as the \"C class\" (in a A–E classification system).Chesnut argues that Pentecostalism has become \"one of the principal organizations of the poor\", for these churches provide the sort of social network that teach members the skills they need to thrive in a rapidly developing meritocratic society.One large Evangelical church that originated from Brazil is the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God (IURD), a neo‐Pentecostal denomination begun in 1977.It now has a presence in many countries, and claims millions of members worldwide.====Guatemala====Protestants remained a small portion of the population until the late-twentieth century, when various Protestant groups experienced a demographic boom that coincided with the increasing violence of the Guatemalan Civil War.", "Two former Guatemalan heads of state, General Efraín Ríos Montt and Jorge Serrano Elías have been practicing Evangelical Protestants, as is Guatemala's former President, Jimmy Morales.", "General Montt, an Evangelical from the Pentecostal tradition, came to power through a coup.", "He escalated the war against leftist guerrilla insurgents as a holy war against atheistic \"forces of evil\".===Asia===American pastor Johannes Maas preaching in Andhra Pradesh, India in 1974.Spreading the revival is an essential part of work done by evangelical missionaries.====South Korea====Protestant missionary activity in Asia was most successful in Korea.", "American Presbyterians and Methodists arrived in the 1880s and were well received.", "Between 1910 and 1945, when Korea was a Japanese colony, Christianity became in part an expression of nationalism in opposition to Japan's efforts to enforce the Japanese language and the Shinto religion.", "In 1914, out of 16 million people, there were 86,000 Protestants and 79,000 Catholics; by 1934, the numbers were 168,000 and 147,000.Presbyterian missionaries were especially successful.", "Since the Korean War (1950–53), many Korean Christians have migrated to the U.S., while those who remained behind have risen sharply in social and economic status.", "Most Korean Protestant churches in the 21st century emphasize their Evangelical heritage.", "Korean Evangelicalism is characterized by theological conservatism coupled with an emotional revivalist style.", "Most churches sponsor revival meetings once or twice a year.", "Missionary work is a high priority, with 13,000 men and women serving in missions across the world, putting Korea in second place just behind the US.Gwacheon Presbyterian Church in South KoreaSukman argues that since 1945, Protestantism has been widely seen by Koreans as the religion of the middle class, youth, intellectuals, urbanites, and modernists.", "It has been a powerful force supporting South Korea's pursuit of modernity and emulation of the United States, and opposition to the old Japanese colonialism and to the authoritarianism of North Korea.South Korea has been referred as an \"evangelical superpower\" for being the home to some of the largest and most dynamic Christian churches in the world; South Korea is also second to the U.S. in the number of missionaries sent abroad.According to 2015 South Korean census, 9.7 million or 19.7 percent of the population described themselves as Protestants, many of whom belong to Presbyterian churches shaped by Evangelicalism.==== Philippines ====According to the 2010 census, 2.68 percent of Filipinos are Evangelicals.", "The Philippine Council of Evangelical Churches (PCEC), an organization of more than seventy Evangelical and Mainline Protestant churches, and more than 210 para-church organizations in the Philippines, counts more than 11 million members as of 2011.===Europe===Evangelical Free Church at Kirkkokatu street in Vanhatulli neighborhood in Oulu, Finland.====France====In 2019, it was reported that Evangelicalism in France was growing, and a new Evangelical church was built every 10 days and now counts 700,000 followers across France.====Great Britain====John Wesley (1703–1791) was an Anglican cleric and theologian who, with his brother Charles Wesley (1707–1788) and fellow cleric George Whitefield (1714–1770), founded Methodism.", "After 1791 the movement became independent of the Anglican Church as the \"Methodist Connection\".", "It became a force in its own right, especially among the working class.The ''Clapham Sect'' was a group of Church of England evangelicals and social reformers based in Clapham, London; they were active 1780s–1840s).", "John Newton (1725–1807) was the founder.", "They are described by the historian Stephen Tomkins as \"a network of friends and families in England, with William Wilberforce as its center of gravity, who were powerfully bound together by their shared moral and spiritual values, by their religious mission and social activism, by their love for each other, and by marriage\".Evangelicalism was a major force in the Anglican Church from about 1800 to the 1860s.", "By 1848 when an evangelical John Bird Sumner became Archbishop of Canterbury, between a quarter and a third of all Anglican clergy were linked to the movement, which by then had diversified greatly in its goals and they were no longer considered an organized faction.The Church Triumphant Global in Croydon, United KingdomIn the 21st century there are an estimated 2 million Evangelicals in the UK.", "According to research performed by the Evangelical Alliance in 2013, 87 percent of UK evangelicals attend Sunday morning church services every week and 63 percent attend weekly or fortnightly small groups.", "An earlier survey conducted in 2012 found that 92 percent of evangelicals agree it is a Christian's duty to help those in poverty and 45 percent attend a church which has a fund or scheme that helps people in immediate need, and 42 percent go to a church that supports or runs a foodbank.", "63 percent believe in tithing, and so give around 10 percent of their income to their church, Christian organizations and various charities 83 percent of UK evangelicals believe that the Bible has supreme authority in guiding their beliefs, views and behavior and 52 percent read or listen to the Bible daily.", "The Evangelical Alliance, formed in 1846, was the first ecumenical evangelical body in the world and works to unite evangelicals, helping them listen to, and be heard by, the government, media and society.====Switzerland====Since the 70s, the number of Evangelicals and Evangelical congregations has grown strongly in Switzerland.", "Population censuses suggest that these congregations saw the number of their members triple from 1970 to 2000, qualified as a \"spectacular development\" by specialists.", "Sociologists Jörg Stolz and Olivier Favre show that the growth is due to charismatic and Pentecostal groups, while classical evangelical groups are stable and fundamentalist groups are in decline.", "A quantitative national census on religious congregations reveals the important diversity of evangelicalism in Switzerland.=== North America ======= United States ====Worship service at the Baptist Church in Lancaster, CaliforniaSocially conservative evangelical Protestantism plays a major role in the Bible Belt, an area covering almost all of the Southern United States.", "Evangelicals form a majority in the region.By the late 19th to early 20th century, most American Protestants were Evangelicals.", "A bitter divide had arisen between the more liberal-modernist mainline denominations and the fundamentalist denominations, the latter typically consisting of Evangelicals.", "Key issues included the truth of the Bible—literal or figurative, and teaching of evolution in the schools.During and after World War II, Evangelicals became increasingly organized.", "There was a great expansion of Evangelical activity within the United States, \"a revival of revivalism\".", "Youth for Christ was formed; it later became the base for Billy Graham's revivals.", "The National Association of Evangelicals formed in 1942 as a counterpoise to the mainline Federal Council of Churches.", "In 1942–43, the Old-Fashioned Revival Hour had a record-setting national radio audience.", "With this organization, though, fundamentalist groups separated from Evangelicals.According to a Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life study, Evangelicals can be broadly divided into three camps: traditionalist, centrist, and modernist.", "A 2004 Pew survey identified that while 70.4 percent of Americans call themselves \"Christian\", Evangelicals only make up 26.3 percent of the population, while Catholics make up 22 percent and mainline Protestants make up 16 percent.", "Among the Christian population in 2020, mainline Protestants began to outnumber Evangelicals.Evangelicals have been socially active throughout US history, a tradition dating back to the abolitionist movement of the Antebellum period and the prohibition movement.", "As a group, evangelicals are most often associated with the Christian right.", "However, a large number of black self-labeled Evangelicals, and a small proportion of liberal white self-labeled Evangelicals, gravitate towards the Christian left.Recurrent themes within American Evangelical discourse include abortion, evolution denial, secularism, and the notion of the United States as a Christian nation." ], [ "Evangelical humanitarian aid", " Emergency food distribution in a disaster area in Indonesia by World Vision International, in 2009.In the 1940s, in the United States, neo-evangelicalism developed the importance of social justice and Christian humanitarian aid actions in Evangelical churches.", "The majority of evangelical Christian humanitarian organizations were founded in the second half of the 20th century.", "Among those with the most partner countries, there was the foundation of World Vision International (1950), Samaritan's Purse (1970), Mercy Ships (1978), Prison Fellowship International (1979), International Justice Mission (1997)." ], [ "See also", "* Biblical literalism* Child evangelism movement* Christian eschatology* Christian fundamentalism* Christian nationalism* Christian right* Christian Zionism* Christianity and politics* Conservative Evangelicalism in Britain* Evangelical Council of Venezuela* Evangelical Fellowship of Canada* Exvangelical* ''Jesus and John Wayne'' * List of the largest evangelical churches* List of the largest evangelical church auditoriums* List of evangelical Christians* List of evangelical seminaries and theological colleges* National Association of Evangelicals* Red-Letter Christian* The Scandal of the Evangelical Mind* World Evangelical Alliance* Worship service (evangelicalism)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* Balmer, Randall.", "''Evangelicalism in America'' (Baylor University Press, 2016).", "xvi, 199 pp.", "* .", "* * * .", "* * * .", "* * * * * * * * * * * .", "* * * * Sutton, Matthew Avery.", "''American Apocalypse: A History of Modern Evangelicalism'' (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2014).", "480 pp.", "online review * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "===Missions===" ], [ "External links", "....", " – Statistics from around the world including numbers of Evangelicals by country.", "* (WEA)* – An exploration of what it means to be Evangelical" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Euphonium" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''euphonium''' is a medium-sized, 3 or 4-valve, often compensating, conical-bore, tenor-voiced brass instrument that derives its name from the Ancient Greek word ''euphōnos'', meaning \"well-sounding\" or \"sweet-voiced\" ( ''eu'' means \"well\" or \"good\" and ''phōnē'' means \"sound\", hence \"of good sound\").", "The euphonium is a valved instrument.", "Nearly all current models have piston valves, though some models with rotary valves do exist.Euphonium music may be notated in the bass clef as a non-transposing instrument or in the treble clef as a transposing instrument in B.", "In British brass bands, it is typically treated as a treble-clef instrument, while in American band music, parts may be written in either treble clef or bass clef, or both.A person who plays the euphonium is known as a euphoniumist, a euphonist, a euphophonist or simply a euphonium player." ], [ "Name", "The euphonium is in the family of brass instruments, more particularly low-brass instruments with many relatives.", "It is extremely similar to a baritone horn.", "The difference is that the bore size of the baritone horn is typically smaller than that of the euphonium, and the baritone has a primarily cylindrical bore, whereas the euphonium has a predominantly conical bore.", "It is controversial whether this is sufficient to make them two different instruments.", "In the trombone family large and small bore trombones are both called trombones, while the cylindrical trumpet and the conical flugelhorn are given different names.", "As with the trumpet and flugelhorn, the two instruments are easily doubled by one player, with some modification of breath and embouchure, since the two have identical range and essentially identical fingering.", "The ''American baritone'', featuring three valves on the front of the instrument and a curved, forward-pointing bell, was dominant in American school bands throughout most of the 20th century, its weight, shape, and configuration conforming to the needs of the marching band.", "While this instrument is a conical-cylindrical bore hybrid, somewhere between the classic baritone horn and euphonium, it was almost universally labelled a \"baritone\" by both band directors and composers, thus contributing to the confusion of terminology in the United States.Several late 19th century music catalogs (such as Pepper and Lyon & Healy) sold a euphonium-like instrument called the \"B bass\" (to distinguish it from the E and BB bass).", "In these catalog drawings, the B Bass had thicker tubing than the baritone; both had three valves.", "Along the same lines, drum and bugle corps introduced the \"Bass-baritone\", and distinguished it from the baritone.", "The thicker tubing of the three-valve B bass allowed for production of strong false-tones, providing chromatic access to the pedal register.Ferdinand Sommer's original name for the instrument was the ''euphonion''.", "It is sometimes called the tenor tuba in B, although this can also refer to other varieties of tuba.", "Names in other languages, as included in scores, can be ambiguous as well.", "They include French ''basse'', ''saxhorn basse'', and ''tuba basse''; German ''Baryton'', ''Tenorbass'', and ''Tenorbasshorn''; Italian ''baritono'', ''bombardino'', ''eufonio'', and ''flicorno basso''.", "The most common German name, ''Baryton'', may have influenced Americans to adopt the name \"baritone\" for the instrument, due to the influx of German musicians to the United States in the nineteenth century." ], [ "History and development", "As a baritone-voiced brass instrument, the euphonium traces its ancestry to the ophicleide and ultimately back to the serpent.", "The search for a satisfactory foundational wind instrument that could support massed sound above its pitch took many years.", "While the serpent was used for over two centuries dating back to the late Renaissance, it was notoriously difficult to control its pitch and tone quality due to its disproportionately small open finger holes.", "The ophicleide, which was used in bands and orchestras for a few decades in the early to mid-19th century, used a system of keys and was an improvement over the serpent but was still unreliable, especially in the high register.With the invention of the piston valve system 1818, the construction of brass instruments with an even sound and facility of playing in all registers became possible.", "The euphonium is said to have been invented, as a \"wide-bore, valved bugle of baritone range\", by Ferdinand Sommer of Weimar in 1843, though Carl Moritz in 1838 and Adolphe Sax in 1843 have also been credited.", "While Sax's family of saxhorns were invented at about the same time and the bass saxhorn is very similar to a euphonium, there are also differences—such as the bass saxhorn being narrower throughout the length of the instrument.The \"British-style\" compensating euphonium was developed in 1874 by David Blaikley, of Boosey & Co, and has been in use in Britain since then, with the basic construction little changed.Modern-day euphonium makers have been working to further enhance the construction of the instrument.", "Companies such as Adams and Besson have been leading the way in that respect.", "Adams euphoniums have developed an adjustable lead-pipe receiver, which allows players to change the timbre of the instrument to whatever they find preferable.", "Besson has been credited with introducing an adjustable main tuning-slide trigger, which allows players more flexibility with intonation." ], [ "Construction and general characteristics", "The euphonium, like the tenor trombone, is pitched in concert B.", "For a valved brass instrument like the euphonium, this means that when no valves are in use the instrument will produce partials of the B harmonic series.", "It is generally orchestrated as a non-transposing instrument like the trombone, written at concert pitch in the bass clef with higher passages in the tenor clef.", "Treble clef euphonium parts transposing down a major ninth are included in much concert band music: in the British-style brass band tradition, euphonium music is always written this way.", "In continental European band music, parts for the euphonium may be written in the bass clef as a B transposing instrument sounding a major second lower than written.Professional models have three top-action valves, played with the first three fingers of the right hand, plus a fourth valve, generally found midway down the right side of the instrument, played with the left index finger; such an instrument is shown at the top of this page.", "Such models also have compensating \"knuckles\" to resolve intonation issues below E2.Beginner models often have only the three top-action valves, while some intermediate \"student\" models may have a fourth top-action valve, played with the fourth finger of the right hand.", "Compensating systems are expensive to build, and there is in general a substantial difference in price between compensating and non-compensating models.", "For a thorough discussion of the valves and the compensation system, see the article on brass instruments.A euphonium (left) and tuba (right), the two lowest conical-bore instrumentsThe euphonium has an extensive range, from E2 to about F4 for intermediate players (using scientific pitch notation).", "In professional hands this may extend from B0 to as high as B5.The lowest notes obtainable depend on the valve set-up of the instrument.", "All instruments are chromatic down to E2, but four-valved instruments extend that down to at least C2.Non-compensating four-valved instruments suffer from intonation problems from E2 down to C2 and cannot produce the low B1; compensating instruments do not have such intonation problems and can play the low B1.From B1 down lies the \"pedal range\", i.e., the fundamentals of the instrument's harmonic series.", "They are easily produced on the euphonium as compared to other brass instruments, and the extent of the range depends on the make of the instrument in exactly the same way as just described.", "Thus, on a compensating four-valved instrument, the lowest note possible is B0, sometimes called double pedal B, which is six ledger lines below the bass clef.As with the other conical-bore instruments, the cornet, flugelhorn, horn, and tuba, the euphonium's tubing (excepting the tubing in the valve section, which is necessarily cylindrical) gradually increases in diameter throughout its length, resulting in a softer, gentler tone compared to cylindrical-bore instruments such as the trumpet, trombone, sudrophone, and baritone horn.", "While a truly characteristic euphonium sound is rather hard to define precisely, most players would agree that an ideal sound is dark, rich, warm, and velvety, with virtually no hardness to it.", "This also has to do with the different models preferred by British and American players.Though the euphonium's fingerings are no different from those of the trumpet or tuba, beginning euphoniumists will likely experience significant problems with intonation, response and range compared to other beginning brass players." ], [ "Types", "===Compensating===The compensating euphonium is common among professionals.", "It utilizes a three-plus-one-valve system with three upright valves and one side valve.", "The compensating valve system uses extra tubing, usually coming off the back of the three upright valves, in order to achieve proper intonation in the lower range of the instrument.", "This range being from E2 down to B1.Not all four-valve and three-plus-one-valve euphoniums are compensating.", "Only those designed with extra tubing are compensating.", "There were, at one time, three-valve compensating euphoniums available.", "This configuration utilized extra tubing, just as the three-plus-one compensating models did, in order to bring the notes C2 and B1 in tune.", "This three-valve compensating configuration is still available in British style baritone horns, usually on professional models.=== Double-bell ===Double bell euphonium by ConnA creation unique to the United States was the double-bell euphonium, featuring a second smaller bell in addition to the main one; the player could switch bells for certain passages or even for individual notes by use of an additional valve, operated with the left hand.", "Ostensibly, the smaller bell was intended to emulate the sound of a trombone (it was cylindrical-bore) and was possibly intended for performance situations in which trombones were not available.", "The extent to which the difference in sound and timbre was apparent to the listener, however, is up for debate.", "Michele Raffayolo of the Patrick S. Gilmore band introduced the instrument in the U.S. by 1880, and it was used widely in both school and service bands for several decades.", "''Harold Brasch'' (see \"List of important players\" below) brought the British-style compensating euphonium to the United States c. 1939, but the double-belled euphonium may have remained in common use even into the 1950s and 1960s.", "In any case, they have become rare (they were last in Conn's advertisements in the 1940s, and King's catalog in the 1960s), and are generally unknown to younger players.", "They are chiefly known now through their mention in the song \"Seventy-Six Trombones\" from the musical ''The Music Man'' by Meredith Willson.=== Marching ===King marching euphoniumMarching euphoniums are used by marching bands and in drum and bugle corps.", "Typically in a drum corps, there will be two baritone parts and one euphonium part, with the euphonium playing the lower parts comparatively.", "Some corps (such as the Blue Devils) march all-euphonium sections rather than only marching baritone or a mix of both.", "In high school marching bands, the two will often be used interchangeably.Depending on the manufacturer, the weight of these instruments can be straining to the average marcher and require great strength to hold during practices and performances, leading to nerve problems in the right pinky, a callus on the left hand, and possibly back and arm problems.", "Marching euphoniums and marching baritones commonly have 3 valves, opposed to the regular euphonium having 4.Another form of the marching euphonium is the convertible euphonium.", "Recently widely produced, the horn resembles a convertible tuba, being able to change from a concert upright to a marching forward bell on either the left or right shoulder.", "These are mainly produced by Jupiter or Yamaha, but other less expensive versions can be found.=== Five valves ===The five-valve euphonium (non-compensating) is an extremely rare variation of the euphonium manufactured in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by Britain's Besson musical instrument company and Highams of Manchester Musical Instrument Company.", "Higham and Besson's ''Clearbore'' five-valve euphonium was economical but not widely used.The Besson five-valve euphonium featured the standard three piston valves horizontally not on top, but had an additional two piston valves off to the side.", "The standard euphonium has eight possible fingering and non-fingering positions by which sound is produced.", "The Besson and the Highams \"clearbore\" model rare fourth and fifth extra \"side\" valves change the possible fingering and non-fingering positions from eight to thirty-two.The term 'five-valve euphonium' does not refer to variations of the double bell euphonium made by various brass instrument companies during the same time period.", "Some of the double-bell euphoniums had five valves, with the fifth valve either not on top with the other four, or by itself off to the side, but the double-bell fifth valve was used for switching the sound to the second smaller trombone-sized bell, and not for changing the fingering pitch of the instrument.", "Also, Cerveny Musical Instruments manufactures several euphoniums with five vertical rotary valves today, but this is an unrelated recent development." ], [ "Notable euphonium players", "German Ferdinand Sommer, if one discounts the claims of Moritz and Sax each of whose horns also approached a euphonium in nature, in addition to being credited with inventing the euphonium as the Sommerhorn in 1843, as a soloist on the horn, qualifies as the first euphonium player to significantly advance and alter the understanding of the instrument.=== United Kingdom ===* Alfred James Phasey (1834–1888), English ophicleide, baritone and euphonium artist credited with modifying the bore of the baritone saxhorn, precursor of the baritone horn, to enlarge it and make it more resonant thereby creating the first true euphonium which he went on to popularize as a performer and author of an early instructional method for tenor brass.", "* Steven Mead, English euphonium soloist and professor at the Royal Northern College of Music noted internationally for advancing the British euphonium sound.", "* David Thornton, principal euphonium of the Brighouse and Rastrick Band and student of Steven Mead noted for winning several prestigious international competitions and advancing the British euphonium sound through broadcast as well as recording media.=== United States ===* Simone Mantia (1873–1951), an Italian-born American baritone horn/euphonium virtuoso and also trombone artist at the start of the 20th century.", "Playing as soloist with the Sousa and the Pryor Bands, Mantia was the first euphonium virtuoso to record and popularized this non-orchestral instrument in the United States.", "* Leonard Falcone (1899–1985), Italian-born American baritone/euphonium soloist, arranger, professor, Director of Bands at Michigan State University, and teacher of many noted euphonium artists.", "Falcone advanced an operatic passionate baritone style and is the namesake of the Leonard Falcone International Tuba and Euphonium Festival, the leading venue for the instrument in the United States.", "* Arthur W. Lehman, (1917–2009), American euphonium soloist known as 'Art', Recording Artist, United States Marine Band, noted euphonium author of works such as ''The Art of Euphonium''.", "Lehman was a student of Harold Brasch and Simone Mantia and advanced the concept of a rich resonant sound with no vibrato pioneered by Mantia.", "* Brian Bowman, former soloist with the U.S. Navy Band (1971–75) and U.S. Air Force Band (1976–91); former professor of euphonium at the University of North Texas, co-editor of \"Arban's Method for Trombone and Euphonium\".", "Bowman innovated a fusion of the mellow British sound with deep passion heard in Falcone recordings, becoming the best known American artist at the end of the 20th century through recording, teaching and the first euphonium recital at Carnegie Hall.", "* Bernard Atwell McKinney, later Kiane Zawadi (born 1932) jazz trombonist and euphonium player, one of the few jazz soloists on the latter instrument.=== Japan ===* Toru Miura, professor of euphonium at the Kunitachi College of Music; soloist and clinician who was awarded a lifetime achievement award by the International Tuba Euphonium Association (formerly TUBA) for his role in promoting the instrument.=== Brazil ===* Irineu de Almeida (known as Irineu Batina) (1863-1916), one of the most influential musicians and professors of the genre of Choro, the very first Brazilian typical music.", "Irineu was an active composer, euphoniumist, ophicleidist and professor, and has participated in the very first commercial recordings of brazilian music, from 1900 onwards, in Rio de Janeiro, playing both euphonium and ophicleide, as a composer, soloist and counterpointist.", "De Almeida was also professor of the prodigy Pixinguinha, who later became the most important developer of the whole genre of Choro, and one of the most important creators in Brazilian music history.", "Due to Irineu Batina and his contemporaries, the bombardino is an essential part of the genre of Choro, which is an intangible cultural heritage in Brazil." ], [ "Repertoire", "The ''euphonium repertoire'' consists of solo literature and orchestral, or, more commonly, concert band parts written for the euphonium.", "Since its invention in 1843, the euphonium has always had an important role in ensembles, but solo literature was slow to appear, consisting of only a handful of lighter solos until the 1960s.", "Since then, however, the breadth and depth of the solo euphonium repertoire has increased dramatically.In the current age, there has been a huge number of new commissions and repertoire development and promotion through Steven Mead's World of the Euphonium Series and the Beyond the Horizon series from Euphonium.com.", "There has also been a vast number of new commissions by more and more players and a proliferation of large scale Consortium Commissions that are occurring including current ones in 2008 and 2009 organized by Brian Meixner (Libby Larson), Adam Frey (The Euphonium Foundation Consortium), and Jason Ham (David Gillingham).Amilcare Ponchielli, composer of the first original euphonium soloUpon its invention, it was clear that the euphonium had, compared to its predecessors the serpent and ophicleide, a wide range and had a consistently rich, pleasing sound throughout that range.", "It was flexible both in tone quality and intonation and could blend well with a variety of ensembles, gaining it immediate popularity with composers and conductors as the principal tenor-voices solo instrument in brass band settings, especially in Britain.", "It is no surprise, then, that when British composers – some of the same ones who were writing for brass bands – began to write serious, original music for the concert band in the early 20th century, they used the euphonium in a very similar role.When American composers also began writing for the concert band as its own artistic medium in the 1930s and 1940s, they continued the British brass and concert band tradition of using the euphonium as the principal tenor-voiced solo.This is not to say that composers, then and now, valued the euphonium only for its lyrical capabilities.", "Indeed, examination of a large body of concert band literature reveals that the euphonium functions as a \"jack of all trades.", "\"Though the euphonium was, as previously noted, embraced from its earliest days by composers and arrangers in band settings, orchestral composers have, by and large, not taken advantage of this capability.", "There are, nevertheless, several orchestral works, a few of which are standard repertoire, in which composers have called for instruments, such as the Wagner tuba, for which euphonium is commonly substituted in the present.In contrast to the long-standing practice of extensive euphonium use in wind bands and orchestras, there was, until approximately forty years ago, literally no body of solo literature written specifically for the euphonium, and euphonium players were forced to borrow the literature of other instruments.", "Fortunately, given the instrument's multifaceted capabilities discussed above, solos for many different instruments are easily adaptable to performance on the euphonium.The earliest surviving solo composition written specifically for euphonium or one of its saxhorn cousins is the ''Concerto per Flicorno Basso'' (1872) by Amilcare Ponchielli.", "For almost a century after this, the euphonium solo repertoire consisted of only a dozen or so virtuosic pieces, mostly light in character.", "However, in the 1960s and 1970s, American composers began to write the first of the \"new school\" of serious, artistic solo works specifically for euphonium.", "Since then, there has been a virtual explosion of solo repertoire for the euphonium.", "In a mere four decades, the solo literature has expanded from virtually zero to thousands of pieces.", "More and more composers have become aware of the tremendous soloistic capabilities of the euphonium, and have constantly \"pushed the envelope\" with new literature in terms of tessitura, endurance, technical demands, and extended techniques.Finally, the euphonium has, thanks to a handful of enterprising individuals, begun to make inroads in jazz, pop and other non-concert performance settings.", "One well-known euphonium player from the world of popular music is Don McGlashan, the New Zealand musician who began his musical career as an orchestral brass player before finding success in popular music with bands such as Blam Blam Blam and The Mutton Birds." ], [ "See also", "* List of euphonium players* Baritone Horn* William Bell (tuba player)* List of euphonium, baritone horn and tenor horn manufacturers* Steven Mead* Brian Bowman" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* * The History of the Euphonium and its use in Orchestral Music by Jeff Cottrell 2005 Archive retrieved 28 January 2008* Euphonium Asylum site by Nikk Pilato 2005 Archive retrieved 28 January 2008* History of the Baritone and the Euphonium by historyman 2008 2015 Archive" ], [ "External links", "* Weston, Stephen.", "2015 \"Bass-Euphonium.\"", "''Grove Music Online.''", "13 Sep.", "2018.", "(by subscription)* Euphonium Music Guide A list of original euphonium literature.", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Entire function" ], [ "Introduction", "In complex analysis, an '''entire function''', also called an '''integral function,''' is a complex-valued function that is holomorphic on the whole complex plane.", "Typical examples of entire functions are polynomials and the exponential function, and any finite sums, products and compositions of these, such as the trigonometric functions sine and cosine and their hyperbolic counterparts sinh and cosh, as well as derivatives and integrals of entire functions such as the error function.", "If an entire function has a root at , then , taking the limit value at , is an entire function.", "On the other hand, the natural logarithm, the reciprocal function, and the square root are all not entire functions, nor can they be continued analytically to an entire function.A '''transcendental entire function''' is an entire function that is not a polynomial.Just as meromorphic functions can be viewed as a generalization of rational fractions, entire functions can be viewed as a generalization of polynomials.", "In particular, if for meromorphic functions one can generalize the factorization into simple fractions (the Mittag-Leffler theorem on the decomposition of a meromorphic function), then for entire functions there is a generalization of the factorization — the Weierstrass theorem on entire functions." ], [ "Properties", "Every entire function can be represented as a single power seriesthat converges everywhere in the complex plane, hence uniformly on compact sets.", "The radius of convergence is infinite, which implies thator, equivalently,Any power series satisfying this criterion will represent an entire function.If (and only if) the coefficients of the power series are all real then the function evidently takes real values for real arguments, and the value of the function at the complex conjugate of will be the complex conjugate of the value at Such functions are sometimes called self-conjugate (the conjugate function, being given by If the real part of an entire function is known in a neighborhood of a point then both the real and imaginary parts are known for the whole complex plane, up to an imaginary constant.", "For instance, if the real part is known in a neighborhood of zero, then we can find the coefficients for from the following derivatives with respect to a real variable :(Likewise, if the imaginary part is known in a neighborhood then the function is determined up to a real constant.)", "In fact, if the real part is known just on an arc of a circle, then the function is determined up to an imaginary constant.", "}Note however that an entire function is '''''not''''' determined by its real part on all curves.", "In particular, if the real part is given on any curve in the complex plane where the real part of some other entire function is zero, then any multiple of that function can be added to the function we are trying to determine.", "For example, if the curve where the real part is known is the real line, then we can add times any self-conjugate function.", "If the curve forms a loop, then it is determined by the real part of the function on the loop since the only functions whose real part is zero on the curve are those that are everywhere equal to some imaginary number.The Weierstrass factorization theorem asserts that any entire function can be represented by a product involving its zeroes (or \"roots\").The entire functions on the complex plane form an integral domain (in fact a Prüfer domain).", "They also form a commutative unital associative algebra over the complex numbers.Liouville's theorem states that any bounded entire function must be constant.As a consequence of Liouville's theorem, any function that is entire on the whole Riemann sphereis constant.", "Thus any non-constant entire function must have a singularity at the complex point at infinity, either a pole for a polynomial or an essential singularity for a transcendental entire function.", "Specifically, by the Casorati–Weierstrass theorem, for any transcendental entire function and any complex there is a sequence such that :Picard's little theorem is a much stronger result: Any non-constant entire function takes on every complex number as value, possibly with a single exception.", "When an exception exists, it is called a lacunary value of the function.", "The possibility of a lacunary value is illustrated by the exponential function, which never takes on the value One can take a suitable branch of the logarithm of an entire function that never hits so that this will also be an entire function (according to the Weierstrass factorization theorem).", "The logarithm hits every complex number except possibly one number, which implies that the first function will hit any value other than 0 an infinite number of times.", "Similarly, a non-constant, entire function that does not hit a particular value will hit every other value an infinite number of times.Liouville's theorem is a special case of the following statement:" ], [ "Growth", "Entire functions may grow as fast as any increasing function: for any increasing function there exists an entire function such that for all real .", "Such a function may be easily found of the form:for a constant and a strictly increasing sequence of positive integers .", "Any such sequence defines an entire function , and if the powers are chosen appropriately we may satisfy the inequality for all real .", "(For instance, it certainly holds if one chooses and, for any integer one chooses an even exponent such that )." ], [ "{{anchor\|order of an entire function}} Order and type", "The '''order''' (at infinity) of an entire function is defined using the limit superior as:where is the disk of radius and denotes the supremum norm of on .", "The order is a non-negative real number or infinity (except when for all .", "In other words, the order of is the infimum of all such that: The example of shows that this does not mean if is of order .If one can also define the '''''type''''':If the order is 1 and the type is , the function is said to be \"of exponential type \".", "If it is of order less than 1 it is said to be of exponential type 0.If then the order and type can be found by the formulasLet denote the -th derivative of , then we may restate these formulas in terms of the derivatives at any arbitrary point :The type may be infinite, as in the case of the reciprocal gamma function, or zero (see example below under ).Another way to find out the order and type is Matsaev's theorem.===Examples===Here are some examples of functions of various orders:====Order ''ρ''====For arbitrary positive numbers and one can construct an example of an entire function of order and type using:====Order 0====* Non-zero polynomials====Order 1/4==== where ====Order 1/3====where====Order 1/2==== with (for which the type is given by )====Order 1==== with ()**the Bessel function the reciprocal gamma function ( is infinite)====Order 3/2==== Airy function ====Order 2====* with ()The Barnes G-function ( is infinite).====Order infinity====" ], [ "{{anchor\|genus of an entire function}} Genus", "Entire functions of finite order have Hadamard's canonical representation (Hadamard factorization theorem):where are those roots of that are not zero (), is the order of the zero of at (the case being taken to mean ), a polynomial (whose degree we shall call ), and is the smallest non-negative integer such that the seriesconverges.", "The non-negative integer is called the genus of the entire function .If the order is not an integer, then is the integer part of .", "If the order is a positive integer, then there are two possibilities: or .For example, , and are entire functions of genus ." ], [ "Other examples", "According to J. E. Littlewood, the Weierstrass sigma function is a 'typical' entire function.", "This statement can be made precise in the theory of random entire functions: the asymptotic behavior of almost all entire functions is similar to that of the sigma function.", "Other examples include the Fresnel integrals, the Jacobi theta function, and the reciprocal Gamma function.", "The exponential function and the error function are special cases of the Mittag-Leffler function.", "According to the fundamental theorem of Paley and Wiener, Fourier transforms of functions (or distributions) with bounded support are entire functions of order and finite type.Other examples are solutions of linear differential equations with polynomial coefficients.", "If the coefficient at the highest derivative is constant, then all solutions of such equations are entire functions.", "For example, the exponential function, sine, cosine, Airy functions and Parabolic cylinder functions arise in this way.", "The class of entire functions is closed with respect to compositions.", "This makes it possible to study dynamics of entire functions.An entire function of the square root of a complex number is entire if the original function is even, for example .If a sequence of polynomials all of whose roots are real converges in a neighborhood of the origin to a limit which is not identically equal to zero, then this limit is an entire function.", "Such entire functions form the Laguerre–Pólya class, which can also be characterized in terms of the Hadamard product, namely, belongs to this class if and only if in the Hadamard representation all are real, , and , where and are real, and .", "For example, the sequence of polynomials converges, as increases, to .", "The polynomials have all real roots, and converge to .", "The polynomials also converge to , showing the buildup of the Hadamard product for cosine." ], [ "See also", "* Jensen's formula* Carlson's theorem* Exponential type* Paley–Wiener theorem* Wiman-Valiron theory" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Essay" ], [ "Introduction", "Essays of Michel de MontaigneAn '''essay''' is, generally, a piece of writing that gives the author's own argument, but the definition is vague, overlapping with those of a letter, a paper, an article, a pamphlet, and a short story.", "Essays have been sub-classified as formal and informal: formal essays are characterized by \"serious purpose, dignity, logical organization, length,\" whereas the informal essay is characterized by \"the personal element (self-revelation, individual tastes and experiences, confidential manner), humor, graceful style, rambling structure, unconventionality or novelty of theme,\" etc.Essays are commonly used as literary criticism, political manifestos, learned arguments, observations of daily life, recollections, and reflections of the author.", "Almost all modern essays are written in prose, but works in verse have been dubbed essays (e.g., Alexander Pope's ''An Essay on Criticism'' and ''An Essay on Man'').", "While brevity usually defines an essay, voluminous works like John Locke's ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'' and Thomas Malthus's ''An Essay on the Principle of Population'' are counterexamples.In some countries (e.g., the United States and Canada), essays have become a major part of formal education.", "Secondary students are taught structured essay formats to improve their writing skills; admission essays are often used by universities in selecting applicants, and in the humanities and social sciences essays are often used as a way of assessing the performance of students during final exams.The concept of an \"essay\" has been extended to other media beyond writing.", "A film essay is a movie that often incorporates documentary filmmaking styles and focuses more on the evolution of a theme or idea.", "A photographic essay covers a topic with a linked series of photographs that may have accompanying text or captions." ], [ "Definitions", "John Locke's 1690 ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding''The word ''essay'' derives from the French infinitive , \"to try\" or \"to attempt\".", "In English ''essay'' first meant \"a trial\" or \"an attempt\", and this is still an alternative meaning.", "The Frenchman Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) was the first author to describe his work as essays; he used the term to characterize these as \"attempts\" to put his thoughts into writing.Subsequently, ''essay'' has been defined in a variety of ways.", "One definition is a \"prose composition with a focused subject of discussion\" or a \"long, systematic discourse\".It is difficult to define the genre into which essays fall.", "Aldous Huxley, a leading essayist, gives guidance on the subject.", "He notes that \"the essay is a literary device for saying almost everything about almost anything\", and adds that \"by tradition, almost by definition, the essay is a short piece\".", "Furthermore, Huxley argues that \"essays belong to a literary species whose extreme variability can be studied most effectively within a three-poled frame of reference\".These three poles (or worlds in which the essay may exist) are:* The personal and the autobiographical: The essayists that feel most comfortable in this pole \"write fragments of reflective autobiography and look at the world through the keyhole of anecdote and description\".", "* The objective, the factual, and the concrete particular: The essayists that write from this pole \"do not speak directly of themselves, but turn their attention outward to some literary or scientific or political theme.", "Their art consists of setting forth, passing judgment upon, and drawing general conclusions from the relevant data\".", "* The abstract-universal: In this pole \"we find those essayists who do their work in the world of high abstractions\", who are never personal and who seldom mention the particular facts of experience.Huxley adds that the most satisfying essays \"...make the best not of one, not of two, but of all the three worlds in which it is possible for the essay to exist.\"" ], [ "History", "===Montaigne===Montaigne's \"attempts\" grew out of his commonplacing.", "Inspired in particular by the works of Plutarch, a translation of whose ''Œuvres Morales'' (''Moral works'') into French had just been published by Jacques Amyot, Montaigne began to compose his essays in 1572; the first edition, entitled ''Essais'', was published in two volumes in 1580.For the rest of his life, he continued revising previously published essays and composing new ones.", "A third volume was published posthumously; together, their over 100 examples are widely regarded as the predecessor of the modern essay.===Europe===While Montaigne's philosophy was admired and copied in France, none of his most immediate disciples tried to write essays.", "But Montaigne, who liked to fancy that his family (the Eyquem line) was of English extraction, had spoken of the English people as his \"cousins\", and he was early read in England, notably by Francis Bacon.Bacon's essays, published in book form in 1597 (only five years after the death of Montaigne, containing the first ten of his essays), 1612, and 1625, were the first works in English that described themselves as ''essays''.", "Ben Jonson first used the word ''essayist'' in 1609, according to the ''Oxford English Dictionary''.Other English essayists included Sir William Cornwallis, who published essays in 1600 and 1617 that were popular at the time, Robert Burton (1577–1641) and Sir Thomas Browne (1605–1682).", "In Italy, Baldassare Castiglione wrote about courtly manners in his essay ''Il Cortigiano''.", "In the 17th century, the Spanish Jesuit Baltasar Gracián wrote about the theme of wisdom.In England, during the Age of Enlightenment, essays were a favored tool of polemicists who aimed at convincing readers of their position; they also featured heavily in the rise of periodical literature, as seen in the works of Joseph Addison, Richard Steele and Samuel Johnson.", "Addison and Steele used the journal ''Tatler'' (founded in 1709 by Steele) and its successors as storehouses of their work, and they became the most celebrated eighteenth-century essayists in England.", "Johnson's essays appear during the 1750s in various similar publications.", "As a result of the focus on journals, the term also acquired a meaning synonymous with \"article\", although the content may not the strict definition.", "On the other hand, Locke's ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'' is not an essay at all, or cluster of essays, in the technical sense, but still it refers to the experimental and tentative nature of the inquiry which the philosopher was undertaking.In the 18th and 19th centuries, Edmund Burke and Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote essays for the general public.", "The early 19th century, in particular, saw a proliferation of great essayists in English—William Hazlitt, Charles Lamb, Leigh Hunt and Thomas De Quincey all penned numerous essays on diverse subjects, reviving the earlier graceful style.", "Thomas Carlyle's essays were highly influential, and one of his readers, Ralph Waldo Emerson, became a prominent essayist himself.", "Later in the century, Robert Louis Stevenson also raised the form's literary level.", "In the 20th century, a number of essayists, such as T.S.", "Eliot, tried to explain the new movements in art and culture by using essays.", "Virginia Woolf, Edmund Wilson, and Charles du Bos wrote literary criticism essays.In France, several writers produced longer works with the title of that were not true examples of the form.", "However, by the mid-19th century, the ''Causeries du lundi'', newspaper columns by the critic Sainte-Beuve, are literary essays in the original sense.", "Other French writers followed suit, including Théophile Gautier, Anatole France, Jules Lemaître and Émile Faguet.===Japan===As with the novel, essays existed in Japan several centuries before they developed in Europe with a genre of essays known as ''zuihitsu''—loosely connected essays and fragmented ideas.", "Zuihitsu have existed since almost the beginnings of Japanese literature.", "Many of the most noted early works of Japanese literature are in this genre.", "Notable examples include ''The Pillow Book'' (c. 1000), by court lady Sei Shōnagon, and ''Tsurezuregusa'' (1330), by particularly renowned Japanese Buddhist monk Yoshida Kenkō.", "Kenkō described his short writings similarly to Montaigne, referring to them as \"nonsensical thoughts\" written in \"idle hours\".", "Another noteworthy difference from Europe is that women have traditionally written in Japan, though the more formal, Chinese-influenced writings of male writers were more prized at the time.=== China ===The '''eight-legged essay''' (Chinese: 八股文; pinyin: ''bāgǔwén''; lit.", "'eight bone text') was a style of essay in imperial examinations during the Ming and Qing dynasties in China.", "The eight-legged essay was needed for those test takers in these civil service tests to show their merits for government service, often focusing on Confucian thought and knowledge of the Four Books and Five Classics, in relation to governmental ideals.", "Test takers could not write in innovative or creative ways, but needed to conform to the standards of the eight-legged essay.", "Various skills were examined, including the ability to write coherently and to display basic logic.", "In certain times, the candidates were expected to spontaneously compose poetry upon a set theme, whose value was also sometimes questioned, or eliminated as part of the test material.", "This was a major argument in favor of the eight-legged essay, arguing that it were better to eliminate creative art in favor of prosaic literacy.", "In the history of Chinese literature, the eight-legged essay is often said to have caused China's \"cultural stagnation and economic backwardness\" in the 19th century." ], [ "Forms and styles", "This section describes the different forms and styles of essay writing.", "These are used by an array of authors, including university students and professional essayists.===Cause and effect===The defining features of a \"cause and effect\" essay are causal chains that connect from a cause to an effect, careful language, and chronological or emphatic order.", "A writer using this rhetorical method must consider the subject, determine the purpose, consider the audience, think critically about different causes or consequences, consider a thesis statement, arrange the parts, consider the language, and decide on a conclusion.===Classification and division===Classification is the categorization of objects into a larger whole while division is the breaking of a larger whole into smaller parts.===Compare and contrast===Compare and contrast essays are characterized by a basis for comparison, points of comparison, and analogies.", "It is grouped by the object (chunking) or by point (sequential).", "The comparison highlights the similarities between two or more similar objects while contrasting highlights the differences between two or more objects.", "When writing a compare/contrast essay, writers need to determine their purpose, consider their audience, consider the basis and points of comparison, consider their thesis statement, arrange and develop the comparison, and reach a conclusion.", "Compare and contrast is arranged emphatically.=== Expository ===An expository essay is used to inform, describe or explain a topic, using important facts to teach the reader about a topic.", "Mostly written in third-person, using \"it\", \"he\", \"she\", \"they,\" the expository essay uses formal language to discuss someone or something.", "Examples of expository essays are: a medical or biological condition, social or technological process, life or character of a famous person.", "The writing of an expository essay often consists of the following steps: organizing thoughts (brainstorming), researching a topic, developing a thesis statement, writing the introduction, writing the body of essay, and writing the conclusion.", "Expository essays are often assigned as a part of SAT and other standardized testing or as homework for high school and college students.===Descriptive===Descriptive writing is characterized by sensory details, which appeal to the physical senses, and details that appeal to a reader's emotional, physical, or intellectual sensibilities.", "Determining the purpose, considering the audience, creating a dominant impression, using descriptive language, and organizing the description are the rhetorical choices to consider when using a description.", "A description is usually arranged spatially but can also be chronological or emphatic.", "The focus of a description is the scene.", "Description uses tools such as denotative language, connotative language, figurative language, metaphor, and simile to arrive at a dominant impression.", "One university essay guide states that \"descriptive writing says what happened or what another author has discussed; it provides an account of the topic\".Lyric essays are an important form of descriptive essays.===Dialectic===In the dialectic form of the essay, which is commonly used in philosophy, the writer makes a thesis and argument, then objects to their own argument (with a counterargument), but then counters the counterargument with a final and novel argument.", "This form benefits from presenting a broader perspective while countering a possible flaw that some may present.", "This type is sometimes called an ethics paper.===Exemplification===An exemplification essay is characterized by a generalization and relevant, representative, and believable examples including anecdotes.", "Writers need to consider their subject, determine their purpose, consider their audience, decide on specific examples, and arrange all the parts together when writing an exemplification essay.Malthus' ''Essay on the Principle of Population''===Familiar===An essayist writes a ''familiar essay'' if speaking to a single reader, writing about both themselves, and about particular subjects.", "Anne Fadiman notes that \"the genre's heyday was the early nineteenth century,\" and that its greatest exponent was Charles Lamb.", "She also suggests that while critical essays have more brain than the heart, and personal essays have more heart than brain, familiar essays have equal measures of both.===History (thesis)===A history essay sometimes referred to as a thesis essay describes an argument or claim about one or more historical events and supports that claim with evidence, arguments, and references.", "The text makes it clear to the reader why the argument or claim is as such.===Narrative===A narrative uses tools such as flashbacks, flash-forwards, and transitions that often build to a climax.", "The focus of a narrative is the plot.", "When creating a narrative, authors must determine their purpose, consider their audience, establish their point of view, use dialogue, and organize the narrative.", "A narrative is usually arranged chronologically.===Argumentative===An argumentative essay is a critical piece of writing, aimed at presenting objective analysis of the subject matter, narrowed down to a single topic.", "The main idea of all the criticism is to provide an opinion either of positive or negative implication.", "As such, a critical essay requires research and analysis, strong internal logic and sharp structure.", "Its structure normally builds around introduction with a topic's relevance and a thesis statement, body paragraphs with arguments linking back to the main thesis, and conclusion.", "In addition, an argumentative essay may include a refutation section where conflicting ideas are acknowledged, described, and criticized.", "Each argument of an argumentative essay should be supported with sufficient evidence, relevant to the point.=== Process ===A process essay is used for an explanation of making or breaking something.", "Often, it is written in chronological order or numerical order to show step-by-step processes.", "It has all the qualities of a technical document with the only difference is that it is often written in descriptive mood, while a technical document is mostly in imperative mood.===Economic===An economic essay can start with a thesis, or it can start with a theme.", "It can take a narrative course and a descriptive course.", "It can even become an argumentative essay if the author feels the need.", "After the introduction, the author has to do his/her best to expose the economic matter at hand, to analyze it, evaluate it, and draw a conclusion.", "If the essay takes more of a narrative form then the author has to expose each aspect of the economic puzzle in a way that makes it clear and understandable for the reader===Reflective===A ''reflective essay'' is an analytical piece of writing in which the writer describes a real or imaginary scene, event, interaction, passing thought, memory, or form—adding a personal reflection on the meaning of the topic in the author's life.", "Thus, the focus is not merely descriptive.", "The writer doesn't just describe the situation, but revisits the scene with more detail and emotion to examine what went well, or reveal a need for additional learning—and may relate what transpired to the rest of the author's life.===Other logical structures===The logical progression and organizational structure of an essay can take many forms.", "Understanding how the movement of thought is managed through an essay has a profound impact on its overall cogency and ability to impress.", "A number of alternative logical structures for essays have been visualized as diagrams, making them easy to implement or adapt in the construction of an argument." ], [ "Academic", "University students, like these students doing research at a university library, are often assigned essays as a way to get them to analyze what they have read.In countries like the United States and the United Kingdom, essays have become a major part of a formal education in the form of free response questions.", "Secondary students in these countries are taught structured essay formats to improve their writing skills, and essays are often used by universities in these countries in selecting applicants (''see'' admissions essay).", "In both secondary and tertiary education, essays are used to judge the mastery and comprehension of the material.", "Students are asked to explain, comment on, or assess a topic of study in the form of an essay.", "In some courses, university students must complete one or more essays over several weeks or months.", "In addition, in fields such as the humanities and social sciences, mid-term and end of term examinations often require students to write a short essay in two or three hours.In these countries, so-called academic essays, also called ''papers'', are usually more formal than literary ones.", "They may still allow the presentation of the writer's own views, but this is done in a logical and factual manner, with the use of the first person often discouraged.", "Longer academic essays (often with a word limit of between 2,000 and 5,000 words) are often more discursive.", "They sometimes begin with a short summary analysis of what has previously been written on a topic, which is often called a literature review.Longer essays may also contain an introductory page that defines words and phrases of the essay's topic.", "Most academic institutions require that all substantial facts, quotations, and other supporting material in an essay be referenced in a bibliography or works cited page at the end of the text.", "This scholarly convention helps others (whether teachers or fellow scholars) to understand the basis of facts and quotations the author uses to support the essay's argument.", "The bibliography also helps readers evaluate to what extent the argument is supported by evidence and to evaluate the quality of that evidence.", "The academic essay tests the student's ability to present their thoughts in an organized way and is designed to test their intellectual capabilities.One of the challenges facing universities is that in some cases, students may submit essays purchased from an essay mill (or \"paper mill\") as their own work.", "An \"essay mill\" is a ghostwriting service that sells pre-written essays to university and college students.", "Since plagiarism is a form of academic dishonesty or academic fraud, universities and colleges may investigate papers they suspect are from an essay mill by using plagiarism detection software, which compares essays against a database of known mill essays and by orally testing students on the contents of their papers." ], [ "Magazine or newspaper", "Essays often appear in magazines, especially magazines with an intellectual bent, such as ''The Atlantic'' and ''Harpers''.", "Magazine and newspaper essays use many of the essay types described in the section on forms and styles (e.g., descriptive essays, narrative essays, etc.).", "Some newspapers also print essays in the op-ed section.Harpers'', a US magazine that prints a number of essays per issue" ], [ "Employment", "Employment essays detailing experience in a certain occupational field are required when applying for some jobs, especially government jobs in the United States.", "Essays known as Knowledge Skills and Executive Core Qualifications are required when applying to certain US federal government positions.A KSA, or \"Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities\", is a series of narrative statements that are required when applying to Federal government job openings in the United States.", "KSAs are used along with resumes to determine who the best applicants are when several candidates qualify for a job.", "The knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary for the successful performance of a position are contained on each job vacancy announcement.", "KSAs are brief and focused essays about one's career and educational background that presumably qualify one to perform the duties of the position being applied for.An Executive Core Qualification, or ECQ, is a narrative statement that is required when applying to Senior Executive Service positions within the US Federal government.", "Like the KSAs, ECQs are used along with resumes to determine who the best applicants are when several candidates qualify for a job.", "The Office of Personnel Management has established five executive core qualifications that all applicants seeking to enter the Senior Executive Service must demonstrate." ], [ "Non-literary types", "===Film===A '''film essay''' (also '''essay film''' or '''cinematic essay''') consists of the evolution of a theme or an idea rather than a plot per se, or the film literally being a cinematic accompaniment to a narrator reading an essay.", "From another perspective, an essay film could be defined as a documentary film visual basis combined with a form of commentary that contains elements of self-portrait (rather than autobiography), where the signature (rather than the life story) of the filmmaker is apparent.", "The cinematic essay often blends documentary, fiction, and experimental film making using tones and editing styles.The genre is not well-defined but might include propaganda works of early Soviet filmmakers like Dziga Vertov, present-day filmmakers including Chris Marker, Michael Moore (''Roger & Me'', ''Bowling for Columbine'' and ''Fahrenheit 9/11''), Errol Morris (''The Thin Blue Line''), Morgan Spurlock (''Supersize Me'') and Agnès Varda.", "Jean-Luc Godard describes his recent work as \"film-essays\".", "Two filmmakers whose work was the antecedent to the cinematic essay include Georges Méliès and Bertolt Brecht.", "Méliès made a short film (''The Coronation of Edward VII'' (1902)) about the 1902 coronation of King Edward VII, which mixes actual footage with shots of a recreation of the event.", "Brecht was a playwright who experimented with film and incorporated film projections into some of his plays.", "Orson Welles made an essay film in his own pioneering style, released in 1974, called ''F for Fake'', which dealt specifically with art forger Elmyr de Hory and with the themes of deception, \"fakery\", and authenticity in general.David Winks Gray's article \"The essay film in action\" states that the \"essay film became an identifiable form of filmmaking in the 1950s and '60s\".", "He states that since that time, essay films have tended to be \"on the margins\" of the filmmaking the world.", "Essay films have a \"peculiar searching, questioning tone ... between documentary and fiction\" but without \"fitting comfortably\" into either genre.", "Gray notes that just like written essays, essay films \"tend to marry the personal voice of a guiding narrator (often the director) with a wide swath of other voices\".", "The University of Wisconsin Cinematheque website echoes some of Gray's comments; it calls a film essay an \"intimate and allusive\" genre that \"catches filmmakers in a pensive mood, ruminating on the margins between fiction and documentary\" in a manner that is \"refreshingly inventive, playful, and idiosyncratic\".===Music===In the realm of music, composer Samuel Barber wrote a set of \"Essays for Orchestra\", relying on the form and content of the music to guide the listener's ear, rather than any extra-musical plot or story.===Photography===\"After School Play Interrupted by the Catch and Release of a Stingray\" is a simple time-sequence photo essay.A photographic essay strives to cover a topic with a linked series of photographs.", "Photo essays range from purely photographic works to photographs with captions or small notes to full-text essays with a few or many accompanying photographs.", "Photo essays can be sequential in nature, intended to be viewed in a particular order—or they may consist of non-ordered photographs viewed all at once or in an order that the viewer chooses.", "All photo essays are collections of photographs, but not all collections of photographs are photo essays.", "Photo essays often address a certain issue or attempt to capture the character of places and events.===Visual arts===In the visual arts, an essay is a preliminary drawing or sketch that forms a basis for a final painting or sculpture, made as a test of the work's composition (this meaning of the term, like several of those following, comes from the word ''essay'''s meaning of \"attempt\" or \"trial\")." ], [ "See also", "* Abstract (summary)* Body (writing)* Book report* Essay thesis* Five-paragraph essay* Introduction* List of essayists* SAT Essay* Schaffer paragraph* Treatise" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Theodor W. Adorno, \"The Essay as Form\" in: Theodor W. Adorno, ''The Adorno Reader'', Blackwell Publishers 2000.", "* Beaujour, Michel.", "''Miroirs d'encre: Rhétorique de l'autoportrait''.", "Paris: Seuil, 1980.Poetics of the Literary Self-Portrait.", "Trans.", "Yara Milos.", "New York: NYU Press, 1991.", "* Bensmaïa, Reda.", "''The Barthes Effect: The Essay as Reflective Text''.", "Trans.", "Pat Fedkiew.", "Minneapolis: Univ.", "of Minnesota Press, 1987.", "* D'Agata, John (Editor), ''The Lost Origins of the Essay''.", "St Paul: Graywolf Press, 2009.", "* Giamatti, Louis.", "\"The Cinematic Essay\", in ''Godard and the Others: Essays in Cinematic Form''.", "London, Tantivy Press, 1975.", "* Lopate, Phillip.", "\"In Search of the Centaur: The Essay-Film\", in ''Beyond Document: Essays on Nonfiction Film''.", "Edited by Charles Warren, Wesleyan University Press, 1998.pp. 243–270.", "* Warburton, Nigel.", "''The basics of essay writing''.", "Routledge, 2006." ], [ "External links", "* Essay writing category on EnglishGrammar.org* Essay eTexts at Project Gutenberg* What is an Essay?", "from Wikidot* The Age of the Essay Criticism of the modern essay, by Paul Graham" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Error detection and correction" ], [ "Introduction", "To clean up transmission errors introduced by Earth's atmosphere (left), Goddard scientists applied Reed–Solomon error correction (right), which is commonly used in CDs and DVDs.", "Typical errors include missing pixels (white) and false signals (black).", "The white stripe indicates a brief period when transmission was interrupted.In information theory and coding theory with applications in computer science and telecommunication, '''error detection and correction''' ('''EDAC''') or '''error control''' are techniques that enable reliable delivery of digital data over unreliable communication channels.", "Many communication channels are subject to channel noise, and thus errors may be introduced during transmission from the source to a receiver.", "Error detection techniques allow detecting such errors, while error correction enables reconstruction of the original data in many cases." ], [ "Definitions", "''Error detection'' is the detection of errors caused by noise or other impairments during transmission from the transmitter to the receiver.", "''Error correction'' is the detection of errors and reconstruction of the original, error-free data." ], [ "History", "In classical antiquity, copyists of the Hebrew Bible were paid for their work according to the number of stichs (lines of verse).", "As the prose books of the Bible were hardly ever written in stichs, the copyists, in order to estimate the amount of work, had to count the letters.", "This also helped ensure accuracy in the transmission of the text with the production of subsequent copies.", "Between the 7th and 10th centuries CE a group of Jewish scribes formalized and expanded this to create the Numerical Masorah to ensure accurate reproduction of the sacred text.", "It included counts of the number of words in a line, section, book and groups of books, noting the middle stich of a book, word use statistics, and commentary.", "Standards became such that a deviation in even a single letter in a Torah scroll was considered unacceptable.", "The effectiveness of their error correction method was verified by the accuracy of copying through the centuries demonstrated by discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947–1956, dating from .The modern development of error correction codes is credited to Richard Hamming in 1947.A description of Hamming's code appeared in Claude Shannon's ''A Mathematical Theory of Communication'' and was quickly generalized by Marcel J. E. Golay." ], [ "Principles", "All error-detection and correction schemes add some redundancy (i.e., some extra data) to a message, which receivers can use to check consistency of the delivered message and to recover data that has been determined to be corrupted.", "Error detection and correction schemes can be either systematic or non-systematic.", "In a systematic scheme, the transmitter sends the original (error-free) data and attaches a fixed number of ''check bits'' (or ''parity data''), which are derived from the data bits by some encoding algorithm.", "If error detection is required, a receiver can simply apply the same algorithm to the received data bits and compare its output with the received check bits; if the values do not match, an error has occurred at some point during the transmission.", "If error correction is required, a receiver can apply the decoding algorithm to the received data bits and the received check bits to recover the original error-free data.", "In a system that uses a non-systematic code, the original message is transformed into an encoded message carrying the same information and that has at least as many bits as the original message.Good error control performance requires the scheme to be selected based on the characteristics of the communication channel.", "Common channel models include memoryless models where errors occur randomly and with a certain probability, and dynamic models where errors occur primarily in bursts.", "Consequently, error-detecting and correcting codes can be generally distinguished between ''random-error-detecting/correcting'' and ''burst-error-detecting/correcting''.", "Some codes can also be suitable for a mixture of random errors and burst errors.If the channel characteristics cannot be determined, or are highly variable, an error-detection scheme may be combined with a system for retransmissions of erroneous data.", "This is known as automatic repeat request (ARQ), and is most notably used in the Internet.", "An alternate approach for error control is hybrid automatic repeat request (HARQ), which is a combination of ARQ and error-correction coding." ], [ "Types of error correction", "There are three major types of error correction:=== Automatic repeat request ===Automatic repeat request (ARQ) is an error control method for data transmission that makes use of error-detection codes, acknowledgment and/or negative acknowledgment messages, and timeouts to achieve reliable data transmission.", "An ''acknowledgment'' is a message sent by the receiver to indicate that it has correctly received a data frame.Usually, when the transmitter does not receive the acknowledgment before the timeout occurs (i.e., within a reasonable amount of time after sending the data frame), it retransmits the frame until it is either correctly received or the error persists beyond a predetermined number of retransmissions.Three types of ARQ protocols are Stop-and-wait ARQ, Go-Back-N ARQ, and Selective Repeat ARQ.ARQ is appropriate if the communication channel has varying or unknown capacity, such as is the case on the Internet.", "However, ARQ requires the availability of a back channel, results in possibly increased latency due to retransmissions, and requires the maintenance of buffers and timers for retransmissions, which in the case of network congestion can put a strain on the server and overall network capacity.For example, ARQ is used on shortwave radio data links in the form of ARQ-E, or combined with multiplexing as ARQ-M.=== Forward error correction ===Forward error correction (FEC) is a process of adding redundant data such as an error-correcting code (ECC) to a message so that it can be recovered by a receiver even when a number of errors (up to the capability of the code being used) are introduced, either during the process of transmission or on storage.", "Since the receiver does not have to ask the sender for retransmission of the data, a backchannel is not required in forward error correction.", "Error-correcting codes are used in lower-layer communication such as cellular network, high-speed fiber-optic communication and Wi-Fi, as well as for reliable storage in media such as flash memory, hard disk and RAM.Error-correcting codes are usually distinguished between convolutional codes and block codes:* ''Convolutional codes'' are processed on a bit-by-bit basis.", "They are particularly suitable for implementation in hardware, and the Viterbi decoder allows optimal decoding.", "* ''Block codes'' are processed on a block-by-block basis.", "Early examples of block codes are repetition codes, Hamming codes and multidimensional parity-check codes.", "They were followed by a number of efficient codes, Reed–Solomon codes being the most notable due to their current widespread use.", "Turbo codes and low-density parity-check codes (LDPC) are relatively new constructions that can provide almost optimal efficiency.Shannon's theorem is an important theorem in forward error correction, and describes the maximum information rate at which reliable communication is possible over a channel that has a certain error probability or signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).", "This strict upper limit is expressed in terms of the channel capacity.", "More specifically, the theorem says that there exist codes such that with increasing encoding length the probability of error on a discrete memoryless channel can be made arbitrarily small, provided that the code rate is smaller than the channel capacity.", "The code rate is defined as the fraction ''k/n'' of ''k'' source symbols and ''n'' encoded symbols.The actual maximum code rate allowed depends on the error-correcting code used, and may be lower.", "This is because Shannon's proof was only of existential nature, and did not show how to construct codes that are both optimal and have efficient encoding and decoding algorithms.=== Hybrid schemes ===Hybrid ARQ is a combination of ARQ and forward error correction.", "There are two basic approaches:* Messages are always transmitted with FEC parity data (and error-detection redundancy).", "A receiver decodes a message using the parity information and requests retransmission using ARQ only if the parity data was not sufficient for successful decoding (identified through a failed integrity check).", "* Messages are transmitted without parity data (only with error-detection information).", "If a receiver detects an error, it requests FEC information from the transmitter using ARQ and uses it to reconstruct the original message.The latter approach is particularly attractive on an erasure channel when using a rateless erasure code.<!-- Combined two somewhat redundant sections" ], [ "Types", "Error correction may generally be realized in two different ways:* ''Automatic repeat request (ARQ)'' (sometimes also referred to as ''backward error correction''): This is an error control technique whereby an error detection scheme is combined with requests for retransmission of corrupted data.", "Every block of data received is checked using the error detection code used, and if the check fails, retransmission of the data is requested – this may be done repeatedly, until the data can be verified.", "* ''Forward error correction (FEC)'': The sender encodes the data using an ''error-correcting code (ECC)'' prior to transmission.", "The additional information (redundancy) added by the code is used by the receiver to recover the original data in the case of corruption.ARQ and FEC may be combined such that minor errors are corrected without retransmission, and major errors are corrected via a request for retransmission: this is called ''hybrid automatic repeat request (HARQ)''.-->" ], [ "Types of error detection", "Error detection is most commonly realized using a suitable hash function (or specifically, a checksum, cyclic redundancy check or other algorithm).", "A hash function adds a fixed-length ''tag'' to a message, which enables receivers to verify the delivered message by recomputing the tag and comparing it with the one provided.There exists a vast variety of different hash function designs.", "However, some are of particularly widespread use because of either their simplicity or their suitability for detecting certain kinds of errors (e.g., the cyclic redundancy check's performance in detecting burst errors).=== Minimum distance coding ===A random-error-correcting code based on minimum distance coding can provide a strict guarantee on the number of detectable errors, but it may not protect against a preimage attack.=== Repetition codes ===A repetition code is a coding scheme that repeats the bits across a channel to achieve error-free communication.", "Given a stream of data to be transmitted, the data are divided into blocks of bits.", "Each block is transmitted some predetermined number of times.", "For example, to send the bit pattern , the four-bit block can be repeated three times, thus producing .", "If this twelve-bit pattern was received as – where the first block is unlike the other two – an error has occurred.A repetition code is very inefficient and can be susceptible to problems if the error occurs in exactly the same place for each group (e.g., in the previous example would be detected as correct).", "The advantage of repetition codes is that they are extremely simple, and are in fact used in some transmissions of numbers stations.=== Parity bit ===A ''parity bit'' is a bit that is added to a group of source bits to ensure that the number of set bits (i.e., bits with value 1) in the outcome is even or odd.", "It is a very simple scheme that can be used to detect single or any other odd number (i.e., three, five, etc.)", "of errors in the output.", "An even number of flipped bits will make the parity bit appear correct even though the data is erroneous.Parity bits added to each ''word'' sent are called transverse redundancy checks, while those added at the end of a stream of ''words'' are called longitudinal redundancy checks.", "For example, if each of a series of m-bit ''words'' has a parity bit added, showing whether there were an odd or even number of ones in that word, any word with a single error in it will be detected.", "It will not be known where in the word the error is, however.", "If, in addition, after each stream of n words a parity sum is sent, each bit of which shows whether there were an odd or even number of ones at that bit-position sent in the most recent group, the exact position of the error can be determined and the error corrected.", "This method is only guaranteed to be effective, however, if there are no more than 1 error in every group of n words.", "With more error correction bits, more errors can be detected and in some cases corrected.There are also other bit-grouping techniques.=== Checksum ===A ''checksum'' of a message is a modular arithmetic sum of message code words of a fixed word length (e.g., byte values).", "The sum may be negated by means of a ones'-complement operation prior to transmission to detect unintentional all-zero messages.Checksum schemes include parity bits, check digits, and longitudinal redundancy checks.", "Some checksum schemes, such as the Damm algorithm, the Luhn algorithm, and the Verhoeff algorithm, are specifically designed to detect errors commonly introduced by humans in writing down or remembering identification numbers.=== Cyclic redundancy check ===A ''cyclic redundancy check'' (CRC) is a non-secure hash function designed to detect accidental changes to digital data in computer networks.", "It is not suitable for detecting maliciously introduced errors.", "It is characterized by specification of a ''generator polynomial'', which is used as the divisor in a polynomial long division over a finite field, taking the input data as the dividend.", "The remainder becomes the result.A CRC has properties that make it well suited for detecting burst errors.", "CRCs are particularly easy to implement in hardware and are therefore commonly used in computer networks and storage devices such as hard disk drives.The parity bit can be seen as a special-case 1-bit CRC.=== Cryptographic hash function ===The output of a ''cryptographic hash function'', also known as a ''message digest'', can provide strong assurances about data integrity, whether changes of the data are accidental (e.g., due to transmission errors) or maliciously introduced.", "Any modification to the data will likely be detected through a mismatching hash value.", "Furthermore, given some hash value, it is typically infeasible to find some input data (other than the one given) that will yield the same hash value.", "If an attacker can change not only the message but also the hash value, then a ''keyed hash'' or message authentication code (MAC) can be used for additional security.", "Without knowing the key, it is not possible for the attacker to easily or conveniently calculate the correct keyed hash value for a modified message.=== Error correction code ===Any error-correcting code can be used for error detection.", "A code with ''minimum Hamming distance'', ''d'', can detect up to ''d'' − 1 errors in a code word.", "Using minimum-distance-based error-correcting codes for error detection can be suitable if a strict limit on the minimum number of errors to be detected is desired.Codes with minimum Hamming distance ''d'' = 2 are degenerate cases of error-correcting codes and can be used to detect single errors.", "The parity bit is an example of a single-error-detecting code." ], [ "Applications", "Applications that require low latency (such as telephone conversations) cannot use automatic repeat request (ARQ); they must use forward error correction (FEC).", "By the time an ARQ system discovers an error and re-transmits it, the re-sent data will arrive too late to be usable.Applications where the transmitter immediately forgets the information as soon as it is sent (such as most television cameras) cannot use ARQ; they must use FEC because when an error occurs, the original data is no longer available.Applications that use ARQ must have a return channel; applications having no return channel cannot use ARQ.Applications that require extremely low error rates (such as digital money transfers) must use ARQ due to the possibility of uncorrectable errors with FEC.Reliability and inspection engineering also make use of the theory of error-correcting codes.=== Internet ===In a typical TCP/IP stack, error control is performed at multiple levels:* Each Ethernet frame uses CRC-32 error detection.", "Frames with detected errors are discarded by the receiver hardware.", "* The IPv4 header contains a checksum protecting the contents of the header.", "Packets with incorrect checksums are dropped within the network or at the receiver.", "* The checksum was omitted from the IPv6 header in order to minimize processing costs in network routing and because current link layer technology is assumed to provide sufficient error detection (see also RFC 3819).", "* UDP has an optional checksum covering the payload and addressing information in the UDP and IP headers.", "Packets with incorrect checksums are discarded by the network stack.", "The checksum is optional under IPv4, and required under IPv6.When omitted, it is assumed the data-link layer provides the desired level of error protection.", "* TCP provides a checksum for protecting the payload and addressing information in the TCP and IP headers.", "Packets with incorrect checksums are discarded by the network stack and eventually get retransmitted using ARQ, either explicitly (such as through three-way handshake) or implicitly due to a timeout.=== Deep-space telecommunications ===The development of error-correction codes was tightly coupled with the history of deep-space missions due to the extreme dilution of signal power over interplanetary distances, and the limited power availability aboard space probes.", "Whereas early missions sent their data uncoded, starting in 1968, digital error correction was implemented in the form of (sub-optimally decoded) convolutional codes and Reed–Muller codes.", "The Reed–Muller code was well suited to the noise the spacecraft was subject to (approximately matching a bell curve), and was implemented for the Mariner spacecraft and used on missions between 1969 and 1977.The Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 missions, which started in 1977, were designed to deliver color imaging and scientific information from Jupiter and Saturn.", "This resulted in increased coding requirements, and thus, the spacecraft were supported by (optimally Viterbi-decoded) convolutional codes that could be concatenated with an outer Golay (24,12,8) code.", "The Voyager 2 craft additionally supported an implementation of a Reed–Solomon code.", "The concatenated Reed–Solomon–Viterbi (RSV) code allowed for very powerful error correction, and enabled the spacecraft's extended journey to Uranus and Neptune.", "After ECC system upgrades in 1989, both crafts used V2 RSV coding.The Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems currently recommends usage of error correction codes with performance similar to the Voyager 2 RSV code as a minimum.", "Concatenated codes are increasingly falling out of favor with space missions, and are replaced by more powerful codes such as Turbo codes or LDPC codes.The different kinds of deep space and orbital missions that are conducted suggest that trying to find a one-size-fits-all error correction system will be an ongoing problem.", "For missions close to Earth, the nature of the noise in the communication channel is different from that which a spacecraft on an interplanetary mission experiences.", "Additionally, as a spacecraft increases its distance from Earth, the problem of correcting for noise becomes more difficult.=== Satellite broadcasting ===The demand for satellite transponder bandwidth continues to grow, fueled by the desire to deliver television (including new channels and high-definition television) and IP data.", "Transponder availability and bandwidth constraints have limited this growth.", "Transponder capacity is determined by the selected modulation scheme and the proportion of capacity consumed by FEC.=== Data storage ===Error detection and correction codes are often used to improve the reliability of data storage media.", "A parity track capable of detecting single-bit errors was present on the first magnetic tape data storage in 1951.The optimal rectangular code used in group coded recording tapes not only detects but also corrects single-bit errors.", "Some file formats, particularly archive formats, include a checksum (most often CRC32) to detect corruption and truncation and can employ redundancy or parity files to recover portions of corrupted data.", "Reed-Solomon codes are used in compact discs to correct errors caused by scratches.Modern hard drives use Reed–Solomon codes to detect and correct minor errors in sector reads, and to recover corrupted data from failing sectors and store that data in the spare sectors.", "RAID systems use a variety of error correction techniques to recover data when a hard drive completely fails.", "Filesystems such as ZFS or Btrfs, as well as some RAID implementations, support data scrubbing and resilvering, which allows bad blocks to be detected and (hopefully) recovered before they are used.", "The recovered data may be re-written to exactly the same physical location, to spare blocks elsewhere on the same piece of hardware, or the data may be rewritten onto replacement hardware.=== Error-correcting memory ===Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) may provide stronger protection against soft errors by relying on error-correcting codes.", "Such error-correcting memory, known as ''ECC'' or ''EDAC-protected'' memory, is particularly desirable for mission-critical applications, such as scientific computing, financial, medical, etc.", "as well as extraterrestrial applications due to the increased radiation in space.Error-correcting memory controllers traditionally use Hamming codes, although some use triple modular redundancy.", "Interleaving allows distributing the effect of a single cosmic ray potentially upsetting multiple physically neighboring bits across multiple words by associating neighboring bits to different words.", "As long as a single-event upset (SEU) does not exceed the error threshold (e.g., a single error) in any particular word between accesses, it can be corrected (e.g., by a single-bit error-correcting code), and the illusion of an error-free memory system may be maintained.In addition to hardware providing features required for ECC memory to operate, operating systems usually contain related reporting facilities that are used to provide notifications when soft errors are transparently recovered.", "One example is the Linux kernel's ''EDAC'' subsystem (previously known as ''Bluesmoke''), which collects the data from error-checking-enabled components inside a computer system; besides collecting and reporting back the events related to ECC memory, it also supports other checksumming errors, including those detected on the PCI bus.", "A few systems also support memory scrubbing to catch and correct errors early before they become unrecoverable." ], [ "See also", "* Berger code* Burst error-correcting code* ECC memory, a type of computer data storage * Link adaptation* * List of hash functions" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * SoftECC: A System for Software Memory Integrity Checking* A Tunable, Software-based DRAM Error Detection and Correction Library for HPC* Detection and Correction of Silent Data Corruption for Large-Scale High-Performance Computing" ], [ "External links", "* The on-line textbook: Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms, by David J.C. MacKay, contains chapters on elementary error-correcting codes; on the theoretical limits of error-correction; and on the latest state-of-the-art error-correcting codes, including low-density parity-check codes, turbo codes, and fountain codes.", "* ECC Page - implementations of popular ECC encoding and decoding routines" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Euclidean domain" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, more specifically in ring theory, a '''Euclidean domain''' (also called a '''Euclidean ring''') is an integral domain that can be endowed with a Euclidean function which allows a suitable generalization of the Euclidean division of integers.", "This generalized Euclidean algorithm can be put to many of the same uses as Euclid's original algorithm in the ring of integers: in any Euclidean domain, one can apply the Euclidean algorithm to compute the greatest common divisor of any two elements.", "In particular, the greatest common divisor of any two elements exists and can be written as a linear combination of them (Bézout's identity).", "Also every ideal in a Euclidean domain is principal, which implies a suitable generalization of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic: every Euclidean domain is a unique factorization domain.It is important to compare the class of Euclidean domains with the larger class of principal ideal domains (PIDs).", "An arbitrary PID has much the same \"structural properties\" of a Euclidean domain (or, indeed, even of the ring of integers), but when an explicit algorithm for Euclidean division is known, one may use the Euclidean algorithm and extended Euclidean algorithm to compute greatest common divisors and Bézout's identity.", "In particular, the existence of efficient algorithms for Euclidean division of integers and of polynomials in one variable over a field is of basic importance in computer algebra.So, given an integral domain , it is often very useful to know that has a Euclidean function: in particular, this implies that is a PID.", "However, if there is no \"obvious\" Euclidean function, then determining whether is a PID is generally a much easier problem than determining whether it is a Euclidean domain.Euclidean domains appear in the following chain of class inclusions:" ], [ "Definition", "Let be an integral domain.", "A '''Euclidean function''' on is a function from to the non-negative integers satisfying the following fundamental division-with-remainder property:(EF1) If and are in and is nonzero, then there exist and in such that and either or .A '''Euclidean domain''' is an integral domain which can be endowed with at least one Euclidean function.", "A particular Euclidean function is ''not'' part of the definition of a Euclidean domain, as, in general, a Euclidean domain may admit many different Euclidean functions.In this context, and are called respectively a ''quotient'' and a ''remainder'' of the ''division'' (or ''Euclidean division'') of by .", "In contrast with the case of integers and polynomials, the quotient is generally not uniquely defined, but when a quotient has been chosen, the remainder is uniquely defined.", "Most algebra texts require a Euclidean function to have the following additional property:(EF2) For all nonzero and in , .However, one can show that (EF1) alone suffices to define a Euclidean domain; if an integral domain is endowed with a function satisfying (EF1), then can also be endowed with a function satisfying both (EF1) and (EF2) simultaneously.", "Indeed, for in , one can define as follows::In words, one may define to be the minimum value attained by on the set of all non-zero elements of the principal ideal generated by .A Euclidean function is '''multiplicative''' if and is never zero.", "It follows that .", "More generally, if and only if is a unit.=== Notes on the definition ===Many authors use other terms in place of \"Euclidean function\", such as \"degree function\", \"valuation function\", \"gauge function\" or \"norm function\".", "Some authors also require the domain of the Euclidean function to be the entire ring ; however, this does not essentially affect the definition, since (EF1) does not involve the value of .", "The definition is sometimes generalized by allowing the Euclidean function to take its values in any well-ordered set; this weakening does not affect the most important implications of the Euclidean property.The property (EF1) can be restated as follows: for any principal ideal of with nonzero generator , all nonzero classes of the quotient ring have a representative with .", "Since the possible values of are well-ordered, this property can be established by showing that for any with minimal value of in its class.", "Note that, for a Euclidean function that is so established, there need not exist an effective method to determine and in (EF1)." ], [ "Examples", "Examples of Euclidean domains include:Any field.", "Define for all nonzero .", ", the ring of integers.", "Define , the absolute value of .", ", the ring of Gaussian integers.", "Define , the norm of the Gaussian integer .", " (where is a primitive (non-real) cube root of unity), the ring of Eisenstein integers.", "Define , the norm of the Eisenstein integer .", ", the ring of polynomials over a field .", "For each nonzero polynomial , define to be the degree of .", ", the ring of formal power series over the field .", "For each nonzero power series , define as the order of , that is the degree of the smallest power of occurring in .", "In particular, for two nonzero power series and , if and only if divides .", "Any discrete valuation ring.", "Define to be the highest power of the maximal ideal containing .", "Equivalently, let be a generator of , and be the unique integer such that is an associate of , then define .", "The previous example is a special case of this.", "A Dedekind domain with finitely many nonzero prime ideals .", "Define , where is the discrete valuation corresponding to the ideal .Examples of domains that are ''not'' Euclidean domains include:* Every domain that is not a principal ideal domain, such as the ring of polynomials in at least two indeterminates over a field, or the ring of univariate polynomials with integer coefficients, or the number ring .", "* The ring of integers of , consisting of the numbers where and are integers and both even or both odd.", "It is a principal ideal domain that is not Euclidean.This was proved by Theodore Motzkin and was the first case known.", "* The ring is also a principal ideal domain that is not Euclidean.", "To see that it is not a Euclidean domain, it suffices to show that for every non-zero prime , the map induced by the quotient map is not surjective." ], [ "Properties", "Let ''R'' be a domain and ''f'' a Euclidean function on ''R''.", "Then:* ''R'' is a principal ideal domain (PID).", "In fact, if ''I'' is a nonzero ideal of ''R'' then any element ''a'' of ''I'' \\ {0} with minimal value (on that set) of ''f''(''a'') is a generator of ''I''.", "As a consequence ''R'' is also a unique factorization domain and a Noetherian ring.", "With respect to general principal ideal domains, the existence of factorizations (i.e., that ''R'' is an atomic domain) is particularly easy to prove in Euclidean domains: choosing a Euclidean function ''f'' satisfying (EF2), ''x'' cannot have any decomposition into more than ''f''(''x'') nonunit factors, so starting with ''x'' and repeatedly decomposing reducible factors is bound to produce a factorization into irreducible elements.", "* Any element of ''R'' at which ''f'' takes its globally minimal value is invertible in ''R''.", "If an ''f'' satisfying (EF2) is chosen, then the converse also holds, and ''f'' takes its minimal value exactly at the invertible elements of ''R''.", "If Euclidean division is algorithmic, that is, if there is an algorithm for computing the quotient and the remainder, then an extended Euclidean algorithm can be defined exactly as in the case of integers.", "If a Euclidean domain is not a field then it has an element ''a'' with the following property: any element ''x'' not divisible by ''a'' can be written as ''x'' = ''ay'' + ''u'' for some unit ''u'' and some element ''y''.", "This follows by taking ''a'' to be a non-unit with ''f''(''a'') as small as possible.", "This strange property can be used to show that some principal ideal domains are not Euclidean domains, as not all PIDs have this property.", "For example, for ''d'' = −19, −43, −67, −163, the ring of integers of is a PID which is Euclidean, but the cases ''d'' = −1, −2, −3, −7, −11 Euclidean.However, in many finite extensions of '''Q''' with trivial class group, the ring of integers is Euclidean (not necessarily with respect to the absolute value of the field norm; see below).Assuming the extended Riemann hypothesis, if ''K'' is a finite extension of '''Q''' and the ring of integers of ''K'' is a PID with an infinite number of units, then the ring of integers is Euclidean.In particular this applies to the case of totally real quadratic number fields with trivial class group.In addition (and without assuming ERH), if the field ''K'' is a Galois extension of '''Q''', has trivial class group and unit rank strictly greater than three, then the ring of integers is Euclidean.An immediate corollary of this is that if the number field is Galois over '''Q''', its class group is trivial and the extension has degree greater than 8 then the ring of integers is necessarily Euclidean.<!--" ], [ "Euclidean domains according to Motzkin and Samuel", "-->" ], [ "Norm-Euclidean fields", "Algebraic number fields ''K'' come with a canonical norm function on them: the absolute value of the field norm ''N'' that takes an algebraic element ''α'' to the product of all the conjugates of ''α''.", "This norm maps the ring of integers of a number field ''K'', say ''O''''K'', to the nonnegative rational integers, so it is a candidate to be a Euclidean norm on this ring.", "If this norm satisfies the axioms of a Euclidean function then the number field ''K'' is called ''norm-Euclidean'' or simply ''Euclidean''.", "Strictly speaking it is the ring of integers that is Euclidean since fields are trivially Euclidean domains, but the terminology is standard.If a field is not norm-Euclidean then that does not mean the ring of integers is not Euclidean, just that the field norm does not satisfy the axioms of a Euclidean function.", "In fact, the rings of integers of number fields may be divided in several classes:Those that are not principal and therefore not Euclidean, such as the integers of Those that are principal and not Euclidean, such as the integers of Those that are Euclidean and not norm-Euclidean, such as the integers of Those that are norm-Euclidean, such as Gaussian integers (integers of )The norm-Euclidean quadratic fields have been fully classified; they are where takes the values:−11, −7, −3, −2, −1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 21, 29, 33, 37, 41, 57, 73 .Every Euclidean imaginary quadratic field is norm-Euclidean and is one of the five first fields in the preceding list.<!--" ], [ "Euclidean rings with zero-divisors", "== ''k''-stage Euclidean domains ==" ], [ "Euclidean ideal classes", "-->" ], [ "See also", "Valuation (algebra)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Euclidean algorithm" ], [ "Introduction", "Euclid's method for finding the greatest common divisor (GCD) of two starting lengths BA and DC, both defined to be multiples of a common \"unit\" length.", "The length DC being shorter, it is used to \"measure\" BA, but only once because the remainder EA is less than DC.", "EA now measures (twice) the shorter length DC, with remainder FC shorter than EA.", "Then FC measures (three times) length EA.", "Because there is no remainder, the process ends with FC being the GCD.", "On the right Nicomachus's example with numbers 49 and 21 resulting in their GCD of 7 (derived from Heath 1908:300).In mathematics, the '''Euclidean algorithm''', or '''Euclid's algorithm''', is an efficient method for computing the greatest common divisor (GCD) of two integers (numbers), the largest number that divides them both without a remainder.", "It is named after the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid, who first described it in his ''Elements'' ().It is an example of an ''algorithm'', a step-by-step procedure for performing a calculation according to well-defined rules,and is one of the oldest algorithms in common use.", "It can be used to reduce fractions to their simplest form, and is a part of many other number-theoretic and cryptographic calculations.The Euclidean algorithm is based on the principle that the greatest common divisor of two numbers does not change if the larger number is replaced by its difference with the smaller number.", "For example, 21 is the GCD of 252 and 105 (as and , and the same number 21 is also the GCD of 105 and .", "Since this replacement reduces the larger of the two numbers, repeating this process gives successively smaller pairs of numbers until the two numbers become equal.", "When that occurs, they are the GCD of the original two numbers.", "By reversing the steps or using the extended Euclidean algorithm, the GCD can be expressed as a linear combination of the two original numbers, that is the sum of the two numbers, each multiplied by an integer (for example, ).", "The fact that the GCD can always be expressed in this way is known as Bézout's identity.The version of the Euclidean algorithm described above (and by Euclid) can take many subtraction steps to find the GCD when one of the given numbers is much bigger than the other.", "A more efficient version of the algorithm shortcuts these steps, instead replacing the larger of the two numbers by its remainder when divided by the smaller of the two (with this version, the algorithm stops when reaching a zero remainder).", "With this improvement, the algorithm never requires more steps than five times the number of digits (base 10) of the smaller integer.", "This was proven by Gabriel Lamé in 1844 (Lamé's Theorem), and marks the beginning of computational complexity theory.", "Additional methods for improving the algorithm's efficiency were developed in the 20th century.The Euclidean algorithm has many theoretical and practical applications.", "It is used for reducing fractions to their simplest form and for performing division in modular arithmetic.", "Computations using this algorithm form part of the cryptographic protocols that are used to secure internet communications, and in methods for breaking these cryptosystems by factoring large composite numbers.", "The Euclidean algorithm may be used to solve Diophantine equations, such as finding numbers that satisfy multiple congruences according to the Chinese remainder theorem, to construct continued fractions, and to find accurate rational approximations to real numbers.", "Finally, it can be used as a basic tool for proving theorems in number theory such as Lagrange's four-square theorem and the uniqueness of prime factorizations.The original algorithm was described only for natural numbers and geometric lengths (real numbers), but the algorithm was generalized in the 19th century to other types of numbers, such as Gaussian integers and polynomials of one variable.", "This led to modern abstract algebraic notions such as Euclidean domains." ], [ "Background: greatest common divisor", "The Euclidean algorithm calculates the greatest common divisor (GCD) of two natural numbers and .", "The greatest common divisor is the largest natural number that divides both and without leaving a remainder.", "Synonyms for GCD include ''greatest common factor'' (GCF), ''highest common factor'' (HCF), ''highest common divisor'' (HCD), and ''greatest common measure'' (GCM).", "The greatest common divisor is often written as or, more simply, as , although the latter notation is ambiguous, also used for concepts such as an ideal in the ring of integers, which is closely related to GCD.If , then and are said to be coprime (or relatively prime).", "This property does not imply that or are themselves prime numbers.", "For example, 6 and 35 factor as 6 = 2 × 3 and 35 = 5 × 7, so they are not prime, but their prime factors are different, so 6 and 35 are coprime, with no common factors other than 1.A 24×60 rectangle is covered with ten 12×12 square tiles, where 12 is the GCD of 24 and 60.More generally, an rectangle can be covered with square tiles of side-length only if is a common divisor of and .Let .", "Since and are both multiples of , they can be written and , and there is no larger number for which this is true.", "The natural numbers and must be coprime, since any common factor could be factored out of and to make greater.", "Thus, any other number that divides both and must also divide .", "The greatest common divisor of and is the unique (positive) common divisor of and that is divisible by any other common divisor .The greatest common divisor can be visualized as follows.", "Consider a rectangular area by , and any common divisor that divides both and exactly.", "The sides of the rectangle can be divided into segments of length , which divides the rectangle into a grid of squares of side length .", "The GCD is the largest value of for which this is possible.", "For illustration, a rectangular area can be divided into a grid of: squares, squares, squares, squares, squares or squares.", "Therefore, is the GCD of and .", "A rectangular area can be divided into a grid of squares, with two squares along one edge () and five squares along the other ().The greatest common divisor of two numbers and is the product of the prime factors shared by the two numbers, where each prime factor can be repeated as many times as it divides both and .", "For example, since can be factored into , and can be factored into , the GCD of and equals , the product of their shared prime factors (with 3 repeated since divides both).", "If two numbers have no common prime factors, their GCD is (obtained here as an instance of the empty product); in other words, they are coprime.", "A key advantage of the Euclidean algorithm is that it can find the GCD efficiently without having to compute the prime factors.", "Factorization of large integers is believed to be a computationally very difficult problem, and the security of many widely used cryptographic protocols is based upon its infeasibility.Another definition of the GCD is helpful in advanced mathematics, particularly ring theory.", "The greatest common divisor of two nonzero numbers and is also their smallest positive integral linear combination, that is, the smallest positive number of the form where and are integers.", "The set of all integral linear combinations of and is actually the same as the set of all multiples of (, where is an integer).", "In modern mathematical language, the ideal generated by and is the ideal generated by alone (an ideal generated by a single element is called a principal ideal, and all ideals of the integers are principal ideals).", "Some properties of the GCD are in fact easier to see with this description, for instance the fact that any common divisor of and also divides the GCD (it divides both terms of ).", "The equivalence of this GCD definition with the other definitions is described below.The GCD of three or more numbers equals the product of the prime factors common to all the numbers, but it can also be calculated by repeatedly taking the GCDs of pairs of numbers.", "For example,: Thus, Euclid's algorithm, which computes the GCD of two integers, suffices to calculate the GCD of arbitrarily many integers." ], [ "Description", "===Procedure===The Euclidean algorithm can be thought of as constructing a sequence of non-negative integers that begins with the two given integers and and will eventually terminate with the integer zero: with .", "The integer will then be the GCD and we can state .", "The algorithm indicates how to construct the intermediate remainders via division-with-remainder on the preceding pair by finding an integer quotient so that::Because the sequence of non-negative integers is strictly decreasing, it eventually must terminate.", "In other words, since for every , and each is an integer that is strictly smaller than the preceding , there eventually cannot be a non-negative integer smaller than zero, and hence the algorithm must terminate.", "In fact, the algorithm will always terminate at the n-th step with equal to zero.To illustrate, suppose the GCD of 1071 and 462 is requested.", "The sequence is initially and in order to find , we need to find integers and such that::.This is the quotient since .", "This determines and so the sequence is now .", "The next step is to continue the sequence to find by finding integers and such that::.This is the quotient since .", "This determines and so the sequence is now .", "The next step is to continue the sequence to find by finding integers and such that::.This is the quotient since .", "This determines and so the sequence is completed as as no further non-negative integer smaller than can be found.", "The penultimate remainder is therefore the requested GCD::We can generalise slightly by dropping any ordering requirement on the initial two values and .", "If , the algorithm may continue and trivially find that as the sequence of remainders will be .", "If , then we can also continue since , suggesting the next remainder should be itself, and the sequence is .", "Normally, this would be invalid because it breaks the requirement but now we have by construction, so the requirement is automatically satisfied and the Euclidean algorithm can continue as normal.", "Therefore, dropping any ordering between the first two integers does not affect the conclusion that the sequence must eventually terminate because the next remainder will always satisfy and everything continues as above.", "The only modifications that need to be made are that only for , and that the sub-sequence of non-negative integers for is strictly decreasing, therefore excluding from both statements.===Proof of validity===The validity of the Euclidean algorithm can be proven by a two-step argument.", "In the first step, the final nonzero remainder ''r''''N''−1 is shown to divide both ''a'' and ''b''.", "Since it is a common divisor, it must be less than or equal to the greatest common divisor ''g''.", "In the second step, it is shown that any common divisor of ''a'' and ''b'', including ''g'', must divide ''r''''N''−1; therefore, ''g'' must be less than or equal to ''r''''N''−1.These two opposite inequalities imply ''r''''N''−1 = ''g''.To demonstrate that ''r''''N''−1 divides both ''a'' and ''b'' (the first step), ''r''''N''−1 divides its predecessor ''r''''N''−2: since the final remainder ''r''''N'' is zero.", "''r''''N''−1 also divides its next predecessor ''r''''N''−3: because it divides both terms on the right-hand side of the equation.", "Iterating the same argument, ''r''''N''−1 divides all the preceding remainders, including ''a'' and ''b''.", "None of the preceding remainders ''r''''N''−2, ''r''''N''−3, etc.", "divide ''a'' and ''b'', since they leave a remainder.", "Since ''r''''N''−1 is a common divisor of ''a'' and ''b'', ''r''''N''−1 ≤ ''g''.In the second step, any natural number ''c'' that divides both ''a'' and ''b'' (in other words, any common divisor of ''a'' and ''b'') divides the remainders ''r''''k''.", "By definition, ''a'' and ''b'' can be written as multiples of ''c'' : ''a'' = ''mc'' and ''b'' = ''nc'', where ''m'' and ''n'' are natural numbers.", "Therefore, ''c'' divides the initial remainder ''r''0, since ''r''0 = ''a'' − ''q''0''b'' = ''mc'' − ''q''0''nc'' = (''m'' − ''q''0''n'')''c''.", "An analogous argument shows that ''c'' also divides the subsequent remainders ''r''1, ''r''2, etc.", "Therefore, the greatest common divisor ''g'' must divide ''r''''N''−1, which implies that ''g'' ≤ ''r''''N''−1.Since the first part of the argument showed the reverse (''r''''N''−1 ≤ ''g''), it follows that ''g'' = ''r''''N''−1.Thus, ''g'' is the greatest common divisor of all the succeeding pairs:: ===Worked example===Subtraction-based animation of the Euclidean algorithm.", "The initial rectangle has dimensions ''a'' = 1071 and ''b'' = 462.Squares of size 462×462 are placed within it leaving a 462×147 rectangle.", "This rectangle is tiled with 147×147 squares until a 21×147 rectangle is left, which in turn is tiled with 21×21 squares, leaving no uncovered area.", "The smallest square size, 21, is the GCD of 1071 and 462.For illustration, the Euclidean algorithm can be used to find the greatest common divisor of ''a'' = 1071 and ''b'' = 462.To begin, multiples of 462 are subtracted from 1071 until the remainder is less than 462.Two such multiples can be subtracted (''q''0 = 2), leaving a remainder of 147:: Then multiples of 147 are subtracted from 462 until the remainder is less than 147.Three multiples can be subtracted (''q''1 = 3), leaving a remainder of 21:: Then multiples of 21 are subtracted from 147 until the remainder is less than 21.Seven multiples can be subtracted (''q''2 = 7), leaving no remainder:: Since the last remainder is zero, the algorithm ends with 21 as the greatest common divisor of 1071 and 462.This agrees with the gcd(1071, 462) found by prime factorization above.", "In tabular form, the steps are:Step ''k''EquationQuotient and remainder 0 and 1 and 2 and ; algorithm ends===Visualization===The Euclidean algorithm can be visualized in terms of the tiling analogy given above for the greatest common divisor.", "Assume that we wish to cover an ''a''×''b'' rectangle with square tiles exactly, where ''a'' is the larger of the two numbers.", "We first attempt to tile the rectangle using ''b''×''b'' square tiles; however, this leaves an ''r''0×''b'' residual rectangle untiled, where ''r''0 0×''r''0 square tiles.", "This leaves a second residual rectangle ''r''1×''r''0, which we attempt to tile using ''r''1×''r''1 square tiles, and so on.", "The sequence ends when there is no residual rectangle, i.e., when the square tiles cover the previous residual rectangle exactly.", "The length of the sides of the smallest square tile is the GCD of the dimensions of the original rectangle.", "For example, the smallest square tile in the adjacent figure is 21×21 (shown in red), and 21 is the GCD of 1071 and 462, the dimensions of the original rectangle (shown in green).===Euclidean division===At every step ''k'', the Euclidean algorithm computes a quotient ''q''''k'' and remainder ''r''''k'' from two numbers ''r''''k''−1 and ''r''''k''−2: where the ''r''''k'' is non-negative and is strictly less than the absolute value of ''r''''k''−1.The theorem which underlies the definition of the Euclidean division ensures that such a quotient and remainder always exist and are unique.In Euclid's original version of the algorithm, the quotient and remainder are found by repeated subtraction; that is, ''r''''k''−1 is subtracted from ''r''''k''−2 repeatedly until the remainder ''r''''k'' is smaller than ''r''''k''−1.After that ''r''''k'' and ''r''''k''−1 are exchanged and the process is iterated.", "Euclidean division reduces all the steps between two exchanges into a single step, which is thus more efficient.", "Moreover, the quotients are not needed, thus one may replace Euclidean division by the modulo operation, which gives only the remainder.", "Thus the iteration of the Euclidean algorithm becomes simply: ===Implementations===Implementations of the algorithm may be expressed in pseudocode.", "For example, the division-based version may be programmed as '''function''' gcd(a, b) '''while''' b ≠ 0 t := b b := a '''mod''' b a := t '''return''' aAt the beginning of the ''k''th iteration, the variable ''b'' holds the latest remainder ''r''''k''−1, whereas the variable ''a'' holds its predecessor, ''r''''k''−2.The step ''b'' := ''a'' mod ''b'' is equivalent to the above recursion formula ''r''''k'' ≡ ''r''''k''−2 mod ''r''''k''−1.The temporary variable ''t'' holds the value of ''r''''k''−1 while the next remainder ''r''''k'' is being calculated.", "At the end of the loop iteration, the variable ''b'' holds the remainder ''r''''k'', whereas the variable ''a'' holds its predecessor, ''r''''k''−1.", "(If negative inputs are allowed, or if the '''mod''' function may return negative values, the last line must be changed into '''return abs'''(a).", ")In the subtraction-based version, which was Euclid's original version, the remainder calculation (b := a '''mod''' b) is replaced by repeated subtraction.", "Contrary to the division-based version, which works with arbitrary integers as input, the subtraction-based version supposes that the input consists of positive integers and stops when ''a'' = ''b'': '''function''' gcd(a, b) '''while''' a ≠ b '''if''' a > b a := a − b '''else''' b := b − a '''return''' aThe variables ''a'' and ''b'' alternate holding the previous remainders ''r''''k''−1 and ''r''''k''−2.Assume that ''a'' is larger than ''b'' at the beginning of an iteration; then ''a'' equals ''r''''k''−2, since ''r''''k''−2 > ''r''''k''−1.During the loop iteration, ''a'' is reduced by multiples of the previous remainder ''b'' until ''a'' is smaller than ''b''.", "Then ''a'' is the next remainder ''r''''k''.", "Then ''b'' is reduced by multiples of ''a'' until it is again smaller than ''a'', giving the next remainder ''r''''k''+1, and so on.The recursive version is based on the equality of the GCDs of successive remainders and the stopping condition gcd(''r''''N''−1, 0) = ''r''''N''−1.", "'''function''' gcd(a, b) '''if''' b = 0 '''return''' a '''else''' '''return''' gcd(b, a '''mod''' b)(As above, if negative inputs are allowed, or if the '''mod''' function may return negative values, the instruction \"'''return''' a\" must be changed into \"'''return max'''(a, −a)\".", ")For illustration, the gcd(1071, 462) is calculated from the equivalent gcd(462, 1071 mod 462) = gcd(462, 147).", "The latter GCD is calculated from the gcd(147, 462 mod 147) = gcd(147, 21), which in turn is calculated from the gcd(21, 147 mod 21) = gcd(21, 0) = 21.===Method of least absolute remainders===In another version of Euclid's algorithm, the quotient at each step is increased by one if the resulting negative remainder is smaller in magnitude than the typical positive remainder.", "Previously, the equation: assumed that .", "However, an alternative negative remainder can be computed:: if or: if .If is replaced by when , then one gets a variant of Euclidean algorithm such that: at each step.Leopold Kronecker has shown that this version requires the fewest steps of any version of Euclid's algorithm.", "More generally, it has been proven that, for every input numbers ''a'' and ''b'', the number of steps is minimal if and only if is chosen in order that where is the golden ratio." ], [ "Historical development", "The Euclidean algorithm was probably invented before Euclid, depicted here holding a compass in a painting of about 1474.The Euclidean algorithm is one of the oldest algorithms in common use.", "It appears in Euclid's ''Elements'' (c. 300 BC), specifically in Book 7 (Propositions 1–2) and Book 10 (Propositions 2–3).", "In Book 7, the algorithm is formulated for integers, whereas in Book 10, it is formulated for lengths of line segments.", "(In modern usage, one would say it was formulated there for real numbers.", "But lengths, areas, and volumes, represented as real numbers in modern usage, are not measured in the same units and there is no natural unit of length, area, or volume; the concept of real numbers was unknown at that time.)", "The latter algorithm is geometrical.", "The GCD of two lengths ''a'' and ''b'' corresponds to the greatest length ''g'' that measures ''a'' and ''b'' evenly; in other words, the lengths ''a'' and ''b'' are both integer multiples of the length ''g''.The algorithm was probably not discovered by Euclid, who compiled results from earlier mathematicians in his ''Elements''.", "The mathematician and historian B. L. van der Waerden suggests that Book VII derives from a textbook on number theory written by mathematicians in the school of Pythagoras.", "The algorithm was probably known by Eudoxus of Cnidus (about 375 BC).", "The algorithm may even pre-date Eudoxus, judging from the use of the technical term ἀνθυφαίρεσις (''anthyphairesis'', reciprocal subtraction) in works by Euclid and Aristotle.Centuries later, Euclid's algorithm was discovered independently both in India and in China, primarily to solve Diophantine equations that arose in astronomy and making accurate calendars.", "In the late 5th century, the Indian mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata described the algorithm as the \"pulverizer\", perhaps because of its effectiveness in solving Diophantine equations.", "Although a special case of the Chinese remainder theorem had already been described in the Chinese book ''Sunzi Suanjing'', the general solution was published by Qin Jiushao in his 1247 book ''Shushu Jiuzhang'' (數書九章 ''Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections'').", "The Euclidean algorithm was first described ''numerically'' and popularized in Europe in the second edition of Bachet's ''Problèmes plaisants et délectables'' (''Pleasant and enjoyable problems'', 1624).", "In Europe, it was likewise used to solve Diophantine equations and in developing continued fractions.", "The extended Euclidean algorithm was published by the English mathematician Nicholas Saunderson, who attributed it to Roger Cotes as a method for computing continued fractions efficiently.In the 19th century, the Euclidean algorithm led to the development of new number systems, such as Gaussian integers and Eisenstein integers.", "In 1815, Carl Gauss used the Euclidean algorithm to demonstrate unique factorization of Gaussian integers, although his work was first published in 1832.Gauss mentioned the algorithm in his ''Disquisitiones Arithmeticae'' (published 1801), but only as a method for continued fractions.", "Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet seems to have been the first to describe the Euclidean algorithm as the basis for much of number theory.", "Lejeune Dirichlet noted that many results of number theory, such as unique factorization, would hold true for any other system of numbers to which the Euclidean algorithm could be applied.", "Lejeune Dirichlet's lectures on number theory were edited and extended by Richard Dedekind, who used Euclid's algorithm to study algebraic integers, a new general type of number.", "For example, Dedekind was the first to prove Fermat's two-square theorem using the unique factorization of Gaussian integers.", "Dedekind also defined the concept of a Euclidean domain, a number system in which a generalized version of the Euclidean algorithm can be defined (as described below).", "In the closing decades of the 19th century, the Euclidean algorithm gradually became eclipsed by Dedekind's more general theory of ideals.", "\"The Euclidean algorithm is the granddaddy of all algorithms, because it is the oldest nontrivial algorithm that has survived to the present day.\"", "Donald Knuth, ''The Art of Computer Programming, Vol.", "2: Seminumerical Algorithms'', 2nd edition (1981), p. 318.Other applications of Euclid's algorithm were developed in the 19th century.", "In 1829, Charles Sturm showed that the algorithm was useful in the Sturm chain method for counting the real roots of polynomials in any given interval.The Euclidean algorithm was the first integer relation algorithm, which is a method for finding integer relations between commensurate real numbers.", "Several novel integer relation algorithms have been developed, such as the algorithm of Helaman Ferguson and R.W.", "Forcade (1979) and the LLL algorithm.In 1969, Cole and Davie developed a two-player game based on the Euclidean algorithm, called ''The Game of Euclid'', which has an optimal strategy.", "The players begin with two piles of ''a'' and ''b'' stones.", "The players take turns removing ''m'' multiples of the smaller pile from the larger.", "Thus, if the two piles consist of ''x'' and ''y'' stones, where ''x'' is larger than ''y'', the next player can reduce the larger pile from ''x'' stones to ''x'' − ''my'' stones, as long as the latter is a nonnegative integer.", "The winner is the first player to reduce one pile to zero stones." ], [ "Mathematical applications", "===Bézout's identity===Bézout's identity states that the greatest common divisor ''g'' of two integers ''a'' and ''b'' can be represented as a linear sum of the original two numbers ''a'' and ''b''.", "In other words, it is always possible to find integers ''s'' and ''t'' such that ''g'' = ''sa'' + ''tb''.The integers ''s'' and ''t'' can be calculated from the quotients ''q''0, ''q''1, etc.", "by reversing the order of equations in Euclid's algorithm.", "Beginning with the next-to-last equation, ''g'' can be expressed in terms of the quotient ''q''''N''−1 and the two preceding remainders, ''r''''N''−2 and ''r''''N''−3:: Those two remainders can be likewise expressed in terms of their quotients and preceding remainders,: and: Substituting these formulae for ''r''''N''−2 and ''r''''N''−3 into the first equation yields ''g'' as a linear sum of the remainders ''r''''N''−4 and ''r''''N''−5.The process of substituting remainders by formulae involving their predecessors can be continued until the original numbers ''a'' and ''b'' are reached:: : : After all the remainders ''r''0, ''r''1, etc.", "have been substituted, the final equation expresses ''g'' as a linear sum of ''a'' and ''b'', so that ''g'' = ''sa'' + ''tb''.The Euclidean algorithm, and thus Bezout's identity, can be generalized to the context of Euclidean domains.===Principal ideals and related problems===Bézout's identity provides yet another definition of the greatest common divisor ''g'' of two numbers ''a'' and ''b''.", "Consider the set of all numbers ''ua'' + ''vb'', where ''u'' and ''v'' are any two integers.", "Since ''a'' and ''b'' are both divisible by ''g'', every number in the set is divisible by ''g''.", "In other words, every number of the set is an integer multiple of ''g''.", "This is true for every common divisor of ''a'' and ''b''.", "However, unlike other common divisors, the greatest common divisor is a member of the set; by Bézout's identity, choosing ''u'' = ''s'' and ''v'' = ''t'' gives ''g''.", "A smaller common divisor cannot be a member of the set, since every member of the set must be divisible by ''g''.", "Conversely, any multiple ''m'' of ''g'' can be obtained by choosing ''u'' = ''ms'' and ''v'' = ''mt'', where ''s'' and ''t'' are the integers of Bézout's identity.", "This may be seen by multiplying Bézout's identity by ''m'',: Therefore, the set of all numbers ''ua'' + ''vb'' is equivalent to the set of multiples ''m'' of ''g''.", "In other words, the set of all possible sums of integer multiples of two numbers (''a'' and ''b'') is equivalent to the set of multiples of gcd(''a'', ''b'').", "The GCD is said to be the generator of the ideal of ''a'' and ''b''.", "This GCD definition led to the modern abstract algebraic concepts of a principal ideal (an ideal generated by a single element) and a principal ideal domain (a domain in which every ideal is a principal ideal).Certain problems can be solved using this result.", "For example, consider two measuring cups of volume ''a'' and ''b''.", "By adding/subtracting ''u'' multiples of the first cup and ''v'' multiples of the second cup, any volume ''ua'' + ''vb'' can be measured out.", "These volumes are all multiples of ''g'' = gcd(''a'', ''b'').===Extended Euclidean algorithm===The integers ''s'' and ''t'' of Bézout's identity can be computed efficiently using the extended Euclidean algorithm.", "This extension adds two recursive equations to Euclid's algorithm: : with the starting values: : Using this recursion, Bézout's integers ''s'' and ''t'' are given by ''s'' = ''s''''N'' and ''t'' = ''t''''N'', where ''N+1'' is the step on which the algorithm terminates with ''r''''N+1'' = 0.The validity of this approach can be shown by induction.", "Assume that the recursion formula is correct up to step ''k'' − 1 of the algorithm; in other words, assume that: for all ''j'' less than ''k''.", "The ''k''th step of the algorithm gives the equation: Since the recursion formula has been assumed to be correct for ''r''''k''−2 and ''r''''k''−1, they may be expressed in terms of the corresponding ''s'' and ''t'' variables: Rearranging this equation yields the recursion formula for step ''k'', as required: === Matrix method ===The integers ''s'' and ''t'' can also be found using an equivalent matrix method.", "The sequence of equations of Euclid's algorithm: can be written as a product of 2×2 quotient matrices multiplying a two-dimensional remainder vector:Let '''M''' represent the product of all the quotient matrices:This simplifies the Euclidean algorithm to the form:To express ''g'' as a linear sum of ''a'' and ''b'', both sides of this equation can be multiplied by the inverse of the matrix '''M'''.", "The determinant of '''M''' equals (−1)''N''+1, since it equals the product of the determinants of the quotient matrices, each of which is negative one.", "Since the determinant of '''M''' is never zero, the vector of the final remainders can be solved using the inverse of '''M''':Since the top equation gives: the two integers of Bézout's identity are ''s'' = (−1)''N''+1''m''22 and ''t'' = (−1)''N''''m''12.The matrix method is as efficient as the equivalent recursion, with two multiplications and two additions per step of the Euclidean algorithm.===Euclid's lemma and unique factorization===Bézout's identity is essential to many applications of Euclid's algorithm, such as demonstrating the unique factorization of numbers into prime factors.", "To illustrate this, suppose that a number ''L'' can be written as a product of two factors ''u'' and ''v'', that is, ''L'' = ''uv''.", "If another number ''w'' also divides ''L'' but is coprime with ''u'', then ''w'' must divide ''v'', by the following argument: If the greatest common divisor of ''u'' and ''w'' is 1, then integers ''s'' and ''t'' can be found such that: by Bézout's identity.", "Multiplying both sides by ''v'' gives the relation:: Since ''w'' divides both terms on the right-hand side, it must also divide the left-hand side, ''v''.", "This result is known as Euclid's lemma.", "Specifically, if a prime number divides ''L'', then it must divide at least one factor of ''L''.", "Conversely, if a number ''w'' is coprime to each of a series of numbers ''a''1, ''a''2, ..., ''a''''n'', then ''w'' is also coprime to their product, ''a''1 × ''a''2 × ... × ''a''''n''.Euclid's lemma suffices to prove that every number has a unique factorization into prime numbers.", "To see this, assume the contrary, that there are two independent factorizations of ''L'' into ''m'' and ''n'' prime factors, respectively: Since each prime ''p'' divides ''L'' by assumption, it must also divide one of the ''q'' factors; since each ''q'' is prime as well, it must be that ''p'' = ''q''.", "Iteratively dividing by the ''p'' factors shows that each ''p'' has an equal counterpart ''q''; the two prime factorizations are identical except for their order.", "The unique factorization of numbers into primes has many applications in mathematical proofs, as shown below.===Linear Diophantine equations===Plot of a linear Diophantine equation, 9''x'' + 12''y'' = 483.The solutions are shown as blue circles.Diophantine equations are equations in which the solutions are restricted to integers; they are named after the 3rd-century Alexandrian mathematician Diophantus.", "A typical ''linear'' Diophantine equation seeks integers ''x'' and ''y'' such that: where ''a'', ''b'' and ''c'' are given integers.", "This can be written as an equation for ''x'' in modular arithmetic:: Let ''g'' be the greatest common divisor of ''a'' and ''b''.", "Both terms in ''ax'' + ''by'' are divisible by ''g''; therefore, ''c'' must also be divisible by ''g'', or the equation has no solutions.", "By dividing both sides by ''c''/''g'', the equation can be reduced to Bezout's identity: where ''s'' and ''t'' can be found by the extended Euclidean algorithm.", "This provides one solution to the Diophantine equation, ''x''1 = ''s'' (''c''/''g'') and ''y''1 = ''t'' (''c''/''g'').In general, a linear Diophantine equation has no solutions, or an infinite number of solutions.", "To find the latter, consider two solutions, (''x''1, ''y''1) and (''x''2, ''y''2), where: or equivalently: Therefore, the smallest difference between two ''x'' solutions is ''b''/''g'', whereas the smallest difference between two ''y'' solutions is ''a''/''g''.", "Thus, the solutions may be expressed as: : .By allowing ''u'' to vary over all possible integers, an infinite family of solutions can be generated from a single solution (''x''1, ''y''1).", "If the solutions are required to be ''positive'' integers (''x'' > 0, ''y'' > 0), only a finite number of solutions may be possible.", "This restriction on the acceptable solutions allows some systems of Diophantine equations with more unknowns than equations to have a finite number of solutions; this is impossible for a system of linear equations when the solutions can be any real number (see Underdetermined system).===Multiplicative inverses and the RSA algorithm===A finite field is a set of numbers with four generalized operations.", "The operations are called addition, subtraction, multiplication and division and have their usual properties, such as commutativity, associativity and distributivity.", "An example of a finite field is the set of 13 numbers {0, 1, 2, ..., 12} using modular arithmetic.", "In this field, the results of any mathematical operation (addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division) is reduced modulo 13; that is, multiples of 13 are added or subtracted until the result is brought within the range 0–12.For example, the result of 5 × 7 = 35 mod 13 = 9.Such finite fields can be defined for any prime ''p''; using more sophisticated definitions, they can also be defined for any power ''m'' of a prime ''p'' ''m''.", "Finite fields are often called Galois fields, and are abbreviated as GF(''p'') or GF(''p'' ''m'').In such a field with ''m'' numbers, every nonzero element ''a'' has a unique modular multiplicative inverse, ''a''−1 such that This inverse can be found by solving the congruence equation ''ax'' ≡ 1 mod ''m'', or the equivalent linear Diophantine equation: This equation can be solved by the Euclidean algorithm, as described above.", "Finding multiplicative inverses is an essential step in the RSA algorithm, which is widely used in electronic commerce; specifically, the equation determines the integer used to decrypt the message.", "Although the RSA algorithm uses rings rather than fields, the Euclidean algorithm can still be used to find a multiplicative inverse where one exists.", "The Euclidean algorithm also has other applications in error-correcting codes; for example, it can be used as an alternative to the Berlekamp–Massey algorithm for decoding BCH and Reed–Solomon codes, which are based on Galois fields.===Chinese remainder theorem===Euclid's algorithm can also be used to solve multiple linear Diophantine equations.", "Such equations arise in the Chinese remainder theorem, which describes a novel method to represent an integer ''x''.", "Instead of representing an integer by its digits, it may be represented by its remainders ''x''''i'' modulo a set of ''N'' coprime numbers ''m''''i'':: The goal is to determine ''x'' from its ''N'' remainders ''x''''i''.", "The solution is to combine the multiple equations into a single linear Diophantine equation with a much larger modulus ''M'' that is the product of all the individual moduli ''m''''i'', and define ''M''''i'' as: Thus, each ''M''''i'' is the product of all the moduli ''except'' ''m''''i''.", "The solution depends on finding ''N'' new numbers ''h''''i'' such that: With these numbers ''h''''i'', any integer ''x'' can be reconstructed from its remainders ''x''''i'' by the equation: Since these numbers ''h''''i'' are the multiplicative inverses of the ''M''''i'', they may be found using Euclid's algorithm as described in the previous subsection.===Stern–Brocot tree===The Euclidean algorithm can be used to arrange the set of all positive rational numbers into an infinite binary search tree, called the Stern–Brocot tree.The number 1 (expressed as a fraction 1/1) is placed at the root of the tree, and the location of any other number ''a''/''b'' can be found by computing gcd(''a'',''b'') using the original form of the Euclidean algorithm, in which each step replaces the larger of the two given numbers by its difference with the smaller number (not its remainder), stopping when two equal numbers are reached.", "A step of the Euclidean algorithm that replaces the first of the two numbers corresponds to a step in the tree from a node to its right child, and a step that replaces the second of the two numbers corresponds to a step in the tree from a node to its left child.", "The sequence of steps constructed in this way does not depend on whether ''a''/''b'' is given in lowest terms, and forms a path from the root to a node containing the number ''a''/''b''.", "This fact can be used to prove that each positive rational number appears exactly once in this tree.For example, 3/4 can be found by starting at the root, going to the left once, then to the right twice:The Stern–Brocot tree, and the Stern–Brocot sequences of order ''i'' for ''i'' = 1, 2, 3, 4:The Euclidean algorithm has almost the same relationship to another binary tree on the rational numbers called the Calkin–Wilf tree.", "The difference is that the path is reversed: instead of producing a path from the root of the tree to a target, it produces a path from the target to the root.===Continued fractions===The Euclidean algorithm has a close relationship with continued fractions.", "The sequence of equations can be written in the form:The last term on the right-hand side always equals the inverse of the left-hand side of the next equation.", "Thus, the first two equations may be combined to form:The third equation may be used to substitute the denominator term ''r''1/''r''0, yielding:The final ratio of remainders ''r''''k''/''r''''k''−1 can always be replaced using the next equation in the series, up to the final equation.", "The result is a continued fraction:In the worked example above, the gcd(1071, 462) was calculated, and the quotients ''q''''k'' were 2, 3 and 7, respectively.", "Therefore, the fraction 1071/462 may be written:as can be confirmed by calculation.===Factorization algorithms===Calculating a greatest common divisor is an essential step in several integer factorization algorithms, such as Pollard's rho algorithm, Shor's algorithm, Dixon's factorization method and the Lenstra elliptic curve factorization.", "The Euclidean algorithm may be used to find this GCD efficiently.", "Continued fraction factorization uses continued fractions, which are determined using Euclid's algorithm." ], [ "Algorithmic efficiency", "Number of steps in the Euclidean algorithm for gcd(''x'',''y'').", "Lighter (red and yellow) points indicate relatively few steps, whereas darker (violet and blue) points indicate more steps.", "The largest dark area follows the line ''y'' = ''Φx'', where ''Φ'' is the golden ratio.The computational efficiency of Euclid's algorithm has been studied thoroughly.", "This efficiency can be described by the number of division steps the algorithm requires, multiplied by the computational expense of each step.", "The first known analysis of Euclid's algorithm is due to A.", "A. L. Reynaud in 1811, who showed that the number of division steps on input (''u'', ''v'') is bounded by ''v''; later he improved this to ''v''/2 + 2.Later, in 1841, P. J. E. Finck showed that the number of division steps is at most 2 log2 ''v'' + 1, and hence Euclid's algorithm runs in time polynomial in the size of the input.", "Émile Léger, in 1837, studied the worst case, which is when the inputs are consecutive Fibonacci numbers.", "Finck's analysis was refined by Gabriel Lamé in 1844, who showed that the number of steps required for completion is never more than five times the number ''h'' of base-10 digits of the smaller number ''b''.In the uniform cost model (suitable for analyzing the complexity of gcd calculation on numbers that fit into a single machine word), each step of the algorithm takes constant time, and Lamé's analysis implies that the total running time is also ''O''(''h'').", "However, in a model of computation suitable for computation with larger numbers, the computational expense of a single remainder computation in the algorithm can be as large as ''O''(''h''2).", "In this case the total time for all of the steps of the algorithm can be analyzed using a telescoping series, showing that it is also ''O''(''h''2).", "Modern algorithmic techniques based on the Schönhage–Strassen algorithm for fast integer multiplication can be used to speed this up, leading to quasilinear algorithms for the GCD.===Number of steps===The number of steps to calculate the GCD of two natural numbers, ''a'' and ''b'', may be denoted by ''T''(''a'', ''b'').", "If ''g'' is the GCD of ''a'' and ''b'', then ''a'' = ''mg'' and ''b'' = ''ng'' for two coprime numbers ''m'' and ''n''.", "Then: as may be seen by dividing all the steps in the Euclidean algorithm by ''g''.", "By the same argument, the number of steps remains the same if ''a'' and ''b'' are multiplied by a common factor ''w'': ''T''(''a'', ''b'') = ''T''(''wa'', ''wb'').", "Therefore, the number of steps ''T'' may vary dramatically between neighboring pairs of numbers, such as T(''a'', ''b'') and T(''a'', ''b'' + 1), depending on the size of the two GCDs.The recursive nature of the Euclidean algorithm gives another equation: where ''T''(''x'', 0) = 0 by assumption.====Worst-case====If the Euclidean algorithm requires ''N'' steps for a pair of natural numbers ''a'' > ''b'' > 0, the smallest values of ''a'' and ''b'' for which this is true are the Fibonacci numbers ''F''''N''+2 and ''F''''N''+1, respectively.", "More precisely, if the Euclidean algorithm requires ''N'' steps for the pair ''a'' > ''b'', then one has ''a'' ≥ ''F''''N''+2 and ''b'' ≥ ''F''''N''+1.This can be shown by induction.", "If ''N'' = 1, ''b'' divides ''a'' with no remainder; the smallest natural numbers for which this is true is ''b'' = 1 and ''a'' = 2, which are ''F''2 and ''F''3, respectively.", "Now assume that the result holds for all values of ''N'' up to ''M'' − 1.The first step of the ''M''-step algorithm is ''a'' = ''q''0''b'' + ''r''0, and the Euclidean algorithm requires ''M'' − 1 steps for the pair ''b'' > ''r''0.By induction hypothesis, one has ''b'' ≥ ''F''''M''+1 and ''r''0 ≥ ''F''''M''.", "Therefore, ''a'' = ''q''0''b'' + ''r''0 ≥ ''b'' + ''r''0 ≥ ''F''''M''+1 + ''F''''M'' = ''F''''M''+2,which is the desired inequality.This proof, published by Gabriel Lamé in 1844, represents the beginning of computational complexity theory, and also the first practical application of the Fibonacci numbers.This result suffices to show that the number of steps in Euclid's algorithm can never be more than five times the number of its digits (base 10).", "For if the algorithm requires ''N'' steps, then ''b'' is greater than or equal to ''F''''N''+1 which in turn is greater than or equal to ''φ''''N''−1, where ''φ'' is the golden ratio.", "Since ''b'' ≥ ''φ''''N''−1, then ''N'' − 1 ≤ log''φ''''b''.", "Since log10''φ'' > 1/5, (''N'' − 1)/5 10''φ'' log''φ''''b'' = log10''b''.", "Thus, ''N'' ≤ 5 log10''b''.", "Thus, the Euclidean algorithm always needs less than ''O''(''h'') divisions, where ''h'' is the number of digits in the smaller number ''b''.====Average====The average number of steps taken by the Euclidean algorithm has been defined in three different ways.", "The first definition is the average time ''T''(''a'') required to calculate the GCD of a given number ''a'' and a smaller natural number ''b'' chosen with equal probability from the integers 0 to ''a'' − 1 :However, since ''T''(''a'', ''b'') fluctuates dramatically with the GCD of the two numbers, the averaged function ''T''(''a'') is likewise \"noisy\".To reduce this noise, a second average ''τ''(''a'') is taken over all numbers coprime with ''a'' :There are ''φ''(''a'') coprime integers less than ''a'', where ''φ'' is Euler's totient function.", "This tau average grows smoothly with ''a'':with the residual error being of order ''a''−(1/6) + ''ε'', where ''ε'' is infinitesimal.", "The constant ''C'' in this formula is called Porter's constant and equals:where ''γ'' is the Euler–Mascheroni constant and ζ' is the derivative of the Riemann zeta function.", "The leading coefficient (12/π2) ln 2 was determined by two independent methods.Since the first average can be calculated from the tau average by summing over the divisors ''d'' of ''a'':it can be approximated by the formula:where Λ(''d'') is the Mangoldt function.A third average ''Y''(''n'') is defined as the mean number of steps required when both ''a'' and ''b'' are chosen randomly (with uniform distribution) from 1 to ''n'':Substituting the approximate formula for ''T''(''a'') into this equation yields an estimate for ''Y''(''n''): ===Computational expense per step===In each step ''k'' of the Euclidean algorithm, the quotient ''q''''k'' and remainder ''r''''k'' are computed for a given pair of integers ''r''''k''−2 and ''r''''k''−1: The computational expense per step is associated chiefly with finding ''q''''k'', since the remainder ''r''''k'' can be calculated quickly from ''r''''k''−2, ''r''''k''−1, and ''q''''k'': The computational expense of dividing ''h''-bit numbers scales as , where is the length of the quotient.For comparison, Euclid's original subtraction-based algorithm can be much slower.", "A single integer division is equivalent to the quotient ''q'' number of subtractions.", "If the ratio of ''a'' and ''b'' is very large, the quotient is large and many subtractions will be required.", "On the other hand, it has been shown that the quotients are very likely to be small integers.", "The probability of a given quotient ''q'' is approximately where .", "For illustration, the probability of a quotient of 1, 2, 3, or 4 is roughly 41.5%, 17.0%, 9.3%, and 5.9%, respectively.", "Since the operation of subtraction is faster than division, particularly for large numbers, the subtraction-based Euclid's algorithm is competitive with the division-based version.", "This is exploited in the binary version of Euclid's algorithm.Combining the estimated number of steps with the estimated computational expense per step shows that the Euclid's algorithm grows quadratically (''h''2) with the average number of digits ''h'' in the initial two numbers ''a'' and ''b''.", "Let represent the number of digits in the successive remainders .", "Since the number of steps ''N'' grows linearly with ''h'', the running time is bounded by:===Alternative methods===Euclid's algorithm is widely used in practice, especially for small numbers, due to its simplicity.", "For comparison, the efficiency of alternatives to Euclid's algorithm may be determined.One inefficient approach to finding the GCD of two natural numbers ''a'' and ''b'' is to calculate all their common divisors; the GCD is then the largest common divisor.", "The common divisors can be found by dividing both numbers by successive integers from 2 to the smaller number ''b''.", "The number of steps of this approach grows linearly with ''b'', or exponentially in the number of digits.", "Another inefficient approach is to find the prime factors of one or both numbers.", "As noted above, the GCD equals the product of the prime factors shared by the two numbers ''a'' and ''b''.", "Present methods for prime factorization are also inefficient; many modern cryptography systems even rely on that inefficiency.The binary GCD algorithm is an efficient alternative that substitutes division with faster operations by exploiting the binary representation used by computers.", "However, this alternative also scales like ''O''(''h''²).", "It is generally faster than the Euclidean algorithm on real computers, even though it scales in the same way.", "Additional efficiency can be gleaned by examining only the leading digits of the two numbers ''a'' and ''b''.", "The binary algorithm can be extended to other bases (''k''-ary algorithms), with up to fivefold increases in speed.", "Lehmer's GCD algorithm uses the same general principle as the binary algorithm to speed up GCD computations in arbitrary bases.A recursive approach for very large integers (with more than 25,000 digits) leads to quasilinear integer GCD algorithms, such as those of Schönhage, and Stehlé and Zimmermann.", "These algorithms exploit the 2×2 matrix form of the Euclidean algorithm given above.", "These quasilinear methods generally scale as" ], [ "Generalizations", "Although the Euclidean algorithm is used to find the greatest common divisor of two natural numbers (positive integers), it may be generalized to the real numbers, and to other mathematical objects, such as polynomials, quadratic integers and Hurwitz quaternions.", "In the latter cases, the Euclidean algorithm is used to demonstrate the crucial property of unique factorization, i.e., that such numbers can be factored uniquely into irreducible elements, the counterparts of prime numbers.", "Unique factorization is essential to many proofs of number theory.===Rational and real numbers===Euclid's algorithm can be applied to real numbers, as described by Euclid in Book 10 of his ''Elements''.", "The goal of the algorithm is to identify a real number such that two given real numbers, and , are integer multiples of it: and , where and are integers.", "This identification is equivalent to finding an integer relation among the real numbers and ; that is, it determines integers and such that .", "If such an equation is possible, ''a'' and ''b'' are called commensurable lengths, otherwise they are incommensurable lengths.The real-number Euclidean algorithm differs from its integer counterpart in two respects.", "First, the remainders are real numbers, although the quotients are integers as before.", "Second, the algorithm is not guaranteed to end in a finite number of steps.", "If it does, the fraction is a rational number, i.e., the ratio of two integers:and can be written as a finite continued fraction .", "If the algorithm does not stop, the fraction is an irrational number and can be described by an infinite continued fraction .", "Examples of infinite continued fractions are the golden ratio and the square root of two, .", "The algorithm is unlikely to stop, since almost all ratios of two real numbers are irrational.An infinite continued fraction may be truncated at a step to yield an approximation to that improves as is increased.", "The approximation is described by convergents ; the numerator and denominators are coprime and obey the recurrence relation:where and are the initial values of the recursion.", "The convergent is the best rational number approximation to with denominator ::===Polynomials===Polynomials in a single variable ''x'' can be added, multiplied and factored into irreducible polynomials, which are the analogs of the prime numbers for integers.", "The greatest common divisor polynomial of two polynomials and is defined as the product of their shared irreducible polynomials, which can be identified using the Euclidean algorithm.", "The basic procedure is similar to that for integers.", "At each step , a quotient polynomial and a remainder polynomial are identified to satisfy the recursive equation:where and .", "Each quotient polynomial is chosen such that each remainder is either zero or has a degree that is smaller than the degree of its predecessor: .", "Since the degree is a nonnegative integer, and since it decreases with every step, the Euclidean algorithm concludes in a finite number of steps.", "The last nonzero remainder is the greatest common divisor of the original two polynomials, and .For example, consider the following two quartic polynomials, which each factor into two quadratic polynomials:Dividing by yields a remainder .", "In the next step, is divided by yielding a remainder .", "Finally, dividing by yields a zero remainder, indicating that is the greatest common divisor polynomial of and , consistent with their factorization.Many of the applications described above for integers carry over to polynomials.", "The Euclidean algorithm can be used to solve linear Diophantine equations and Chinese remainder problems for polynomials; continued fractions of polynomials can also be defined.The polynomial Euclidean algorithm has other applications, such as Sturm chains, a method for counting the zeros of a polynomial that lie inside a given real interval.", "This in turn has applications in several areas, such as the Routh–Hurwitz stability criterion in control theory.Finally, the coefficients of the polynomials need not be drawn from integers, real numbers or even the complex numbers.", "For example, the coefficients may be drawn from a general field, such as the finite fields described above.", "The corresponding conclusions about the Euclidean algorithm and its applications hold even for such polynomials.===Gaussian integers===Distribution of Gaussian primes in the complex plane, with norms less than 500The Gaussian integers are complex numbers of the form , where and are ordinary integers and is the square root of negative one.", "By defining an analog of the Euclidean algorithm, Gaussian integers can be shown to be uniquely factorizable, by the argument above.", "This unique factorization is helpful in many applications, such as deriving all Pythagorean triples or proving Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares.", "In general, the Euclidean algorithm is convenient in such applications, but not essential; for example, the theorems can often be proven by other arguments.The Euclidean algorithm developed for two Gaussian integers and is nearly the same as that for ordinary integers, but differs in two respects.", "As before, we set and , and the task at each step is to identify a quotient and a remainder such that:where every remainder is strictly smaller than its predecessor: .", "The first difference is that the quotients and remainders are themselves Gaussian integers, and thus are complex numbers.", "The quotients are generally found by rounding the real and complex parts of the exact ratio (such as the complex number ) to the nearest integers.", "The second difference lies in the necessity of defining how one complex remainder can be \"smaller\" than another.", "To do this, a norm function is defined, which converts every Gaussian integer into an ordinary integer.", "After each step of the Euclidean algorithm, the norm of the remainder is smaller than the norm of the preceding remainder, .", "Since the norm is a nonnegative integer and decreases with every step, the Euclidean algorithm for Gaussian integers ends in a finite number of steps.", "The final nonzero remainder is , the Gaussian integer of largest norm that divides both and ; it is unique up to multiplication by a unit, or .Many of the other applications of the Euclidean algorithm carry over to Gaussian integers.", "For example, it can be used to solve linear Diophantine equations and Chinese remainder problems for Gaussian integers; continued fractions of Gaussian integers can also be defined.===Euclidean domains===A set of elements under two binary operations, denoted as addition and multiplication, is called a Euclidean domain if it forms a commutative ring and, roughly speaking, if a generalized Euclidean algorithm can be performed on them.", "The two operations of such a ring need not be the addition and multiplication of ordinary arithmetic; rather, they can be more general, such as the operations of a mathematical group or monoid.", "Nevertheless, these general operations should respect many of the laws governing ordinary arithmetic, such as commutativity, associativity and distributivity.The generalized Euclidean algorithm requires a ''Euclidean function'', i.e., a mapping from into the set of nonnegative integers such that, for any two nonzero elements and in , there exist and in such that and .", "Examples of such mappings are the absolute value for integers, the degree for univariate polynomials, and the norm for Gaussian integers above.", "The basic principle is that each step of the algorithm reduces ''f'' inexorably; hence, if can be reduced only a finite number of times, the algorithm must stop in a finite number of steps.", "This principle relies on the well-ordering property of the non-negative integers, which asserts that every non-empty set of non-negative integers has a smallest member.The fundamental theorem of arithmetic applies to any Euclidean domain: Any number from a Euclidean domain can be factored uniquely into irreducible elements.", "Any Euclidean domain is a unique factorization domain (UFD), although the converse is not true.", "The Euclidean domains and the UFD's are subclasses of the GCD domains, domains in which a greatest common divisor of two numbers always exists.", "In other words, a greatest common divisor may exist (for all pairs of elements in a domain), although it may not be possible to find it using a Euclidean algorithm.", "A Euclidean domain is always a principal ideal domain (PID), an integral domain in which every ideal is a principal ideal.", "Again, the converse is not true: not every PID is a Euclidean domain.The unique factorization of Euclidean domains is useful in many applications.", "For example, the unique factorization of the Gaussian integers is convenient in deriving formulae for all Pythagorean triples and in proving Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares.", "Unique factorization was also a key element in an attempted proof of Fermat's Last Theorem published in 1847 by Gabriel Lamé, the same mathematician who analyzed the efficiency of Euclid's algorithm, based on a suggestion of Joseph Liouville.", "Lamé's approach required the unique factorization of numbers of the form , where and are integers, and is an th root of 1, that is, .", "Although this approach succeeds for some values of (such as , the Eisenstein integers), in general such numbers do factor uniquely.", "This failure of unique factorization in some cyclotomic fields led Ernst Kummer to the concept of ideal numbers and, later, Richard Dedekind to ideals.====Unique factorization of quadratic integers====cube root of 1.The quadratic integer rings are helpful to illustrate Euclidean domains.", "Quadratic integers are generalizations of the Gaussian integers in which the imaginary unit ''i'' is replaced by a number .", "Thus, they have the form , where and are integers and has one of two forms, depending on a parameter .", "If does not equal a multiple of four plus one, then:If, however, ''D'' does equal a multiple of four plus one, then:If the function corresponds to a norm function, such as that used to order the Gaussian integers above, then the domain is known as ''norm-Euclidean''.", "The norm-Euclidean rings of quadratic integers are exactly those where is one of the values −11, −7, −3, −2, −1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 21, 29, 33, 37, 41, 57, or 73.The cases and yield the Gaussian integers and Eisenstein integers, respectively.If is allowed to be any Euclidean function, then the list of possible values of for which the domain is Euclidean is not yet known.", "The first example of a Euclidean domain that was not norm-Euclidean (with ) was published in 1994.In 1973, Weinberger proved that a quadratic integer ring with is Euclidean if, and only if, it is a principal ideal domain, provided that the generalized Riemann hypothesis holds.===Noncommutative rings===The Euclidean algorithm may be applied to some noncommutative rings such as the set of Hurwitz quaternions.", "Let and represent two elements from such a ring.", "They have a common right divisor if and for some choice of and in the ring.", "Similarly, they have a common left divisor if and for some choice of and in the ring.", "Since multiplication is not commutative, there are two versions of the Euclidean algorithm, one for right divisors and one for left divisors.", "Choosing the right divisors, the first step in finding the by the Euclidean algorithm can be written:where represents the quotient and the remainder.", "This equation shows that any common right divisor of and is likewise a common divisor of the remainder .", "The analogous equation for the left divisors would be:With either choice, the process is repeated as above until the greatest common right or left divisor is identified.", "As in the Euclidean domain, the \"size\" of the remainder (formally, its norm) must be strictly smaller than , and there must be only a finite number of possible sizes for , so that the algorithm is guaranteed to terminate.Most of the results for the GCD carry over to noncommutative numbers.", "For example, Bézout's identity states that the right can be expressed as a linear combination of and .", "In other words, there are numbers and such that:The analogous identity for the left GCD is nearly the same::Bézout's identity can be used to solve Diophantine equations.", "For instance, one of the standard proofs of Lagrange's four-square theorem, that every positive integer can be represented as a sum of four squares, is based on quaternion GCDs in this way." ], [ "See also", "* Euclidean rhythm, a method for using the Euclidean algorithm to generate musical rhythms" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * .", "See also Vorlesungen über Zahlentheorie* * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Demonstrations of Euclid's algorithm* * Euclid's Algorithm at cut-the-knot* * The Euclidean Algorithm at MathPages* Euclid's Game at cut-the-knot* Music and Euclid's algorithm" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts''' ('''ECMWF''') is an independent intergovernmental organisation supported by most of the nations of Europe.", "It is based at three sites: Shinfield Park, Reading, United Kingdom; Bologna, Italy; and Bonn, Germany.", "It operates one of the largest supercomputer complexes in Europe and the world's largest archive of numerical weather prediction data." ], [ "History", "ECMWF was established in 1975, in recognition of the need to pool the scientific and technical resources of Europe's meteorological services and institutions for the production of weather forecasts for medium-range timescales (up to approximately two weeks) and of the economic and social benefits expected from it.", "The Centre employs about 350 staff, mostly appointed from across the member states and co-operating states.In 2017, the centre's member states accepted an offer from the Italian Government to move ECMWF's data centre to Bologna, Italy.", "The new site, a former tobacco factory, would be redesigned by the architecture firm gmp.During 2020, the Centre arranged to move its Copernicus operations away from Reading and into European Union territory.", "Following bids from Toulouse, Italy, Austria, Germany, Spain and Ireland, eventually Bonn (Germany) was chosen.", "The move has been directly attributed to Brexit.In August 2023, the centre partnered with Huawei on it's cloud, AI-powered Pangu-Weather model for 10-day global weather prediction accuracies." ], [ "Objectives", "ECMWF aims to provide accurate medium-range global weather forecasts out to 15 days and seasonal forecasts out to 12 months.", "Its products are provided to the national weather services of its member states and co-operating states as a complement to their national short-range and climatological activities, and those national states use ECMWF's products for their own national duties, in particular to give early warning of potentially damaging severe weather.ECMWF's core mission is to:* Produce numerical weather forecasts and monitor planetary systems that influence weather* Carry out scientific and technical research to improve forecast skill* Maintain an archive of meteorological dataTo deliver this core mission, the Centre provides:* Twice-daily global numerical weather forecasts* Air quality analysis* Atmospheric composition monitoring* Climate monitoring* Ocean circulation analysis* Hydrological predictionThe Centre develops and operates global atmospheric models and data assimilation systems for the dynamics, thermodynamics and composition of the Earth's atmosphere and for interacting parts of the Earth-system.", "It uses numerical weather prediction methods to prepare forecasts and their initial conditions, and it contributes to monitoring the relevant parts of the Earth system." ], [ "Work and projects", "=== Forecasting ===Numerical weather prediction (NWP) requires input of meteorological data, collected by satellites and earth observation systems such as automatic and crewed weather stations, aircraft (including commercial flights), ships and weather balloons.", "Assimilation of this data is used to produce an initial state of a computer model of the atmosphere, from which an atmospheric model is used to forecast the weather.", "These forecasts are typically:* medium-range forecasts, predicting the weather up to 15 days ahead* monthly forecasts, predicting the weather on a weekly basis 30 days ahead* seasonal forecasts up to 12 months ahead.Over the past three decades ECMWF's wide-ranging programme of research has played a major role in developing such assimilation and modelling systems.", "This improves the accuracy and reliability of weather forecasting by about a day per decade, so that a seven-day forecast now (2015) is as accurate as a three-day forecast was four decades ago (1975).=== Monthly and seasonal forecasts ===ECMWF's monthly and seasonal forecasts provide early predictions of events such as heat waves, cold spells and droughts, as well as their impacts on sectors such as agriculture, energy and health.", "Since ECMWF runs a wave model, there are also predictions of coastal waves and storm surges in European waters which can be used to provide warnings.=== Early warning of severe weather events ===Forecasts of severe weather events allow appropriate mitigating action to be taken and contingency plans to be put into place by the authorities and the public.", "The increased time gained by issuing accurate warnings can save lives, for instance by evacuating people from a storm surge area.", "Authorities and businesses can plan to maintain services around threats such as high winds, floods or snow.In October 2012 the ECMWF model suggested seven days in advance that Hurricane Sandy was likely to make landfall on the East Coast of the United States.It also predicted the intensity and track of the November 2012 nor'easter, which impacted the east coast a week after Sandy.ECMWF's Extreme Forecast Index (EFI) was developed as a tool to identify where the EPS (Ensemble Prediction System) forecast distribution differs substantially from that of the model climate.", "It contains information regarding variability of weather parameters, in location and time and can highlight an abnormality of a weather situation without having to define specific space- and time-dependent thresholds.=== Satellite data ===ECMWF, through its partnerships with EUMETSAT, ESA, the EU and others, exploits satellite data for operational numerical weather prediction and operational seasonal forecasting with coupled atmosphere–ocean–land models.", "The increasing amount of satellite data and the development of more sophisticated ways of extracting information from that data have made a major contribution to improving the accuracy and utility of NWP forecasts.", "ECMWF continuously endeavours to improve the use of satellite observations for NWP.=== Reanalysis ===ECMWF supports research on climate variability using an approach known as reanalysis.", "This involves feeding weather observations collected over decades into a NWP system to recreate past atmospheric, sea- and land-surface conditions over specific time periods to obtain a clearer picture of how the climate has changed.", "Reanalysis provides a four-dimensional picture of the atmosphere and effectively allows monitoring of the variability and change of global climate, thereby contributing also to the understanding and attribution of climate change.To date, and with support from Europe's National Meteorological Services and the European Commission, ECMWF has conducted several major reanalyses of the global atmosphere: the first ECMWF re-analysis (ERA-15) project generated reanalyses from December 1978 to February 1994; the ERA-40 project generated reanalyses from September 1957 to August 2002.The ERA-Interim reanalysis covered the period from 1979 onwards.", "A reanalysis product (ERA5) with higher spatial resolution (31 km) was released by ECMWF in 2019 as part of the Copernicus Climate Change Service.=== Operational forecast model ===ECMWF's operational forecasts are produced from its \"Integrated Forecast System\" (sometimes informally known in the United States as the \"European model\") which is run every twelve hours and forecasts out to ten days.It includes both a \"deterministic forecast\" mode and an ensemble.", "The deterministic forecast is a single model run that is relatively high in resolution as well as in computational expense.", "The ensemble is relatively low (about half that of the deterministic) in resolution (and in computational expense), so less accurate.", "But it is run 51 times in parallel, from slightly different initial conditions to give a spread of likelihood over the range of the forecast.As of 2021, the ECMWF's weather model is generally considered to be the most accurate weather forecasting model." ], [ "Copernicus", "The centre currently serves as the Entrusted Entity responsible for delivery of two of the Services of the EU's Copernicus Programme.", "The two services are the Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS) and the Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S).The Centre arranged to move its Copernicus operations away from Reading and into Bonn (Germany).", "The move has been directly attributed to Brexit." ], [ "Member and co-operating states", "ECMWF comprises 23 European countries:* the eighteen founding states of 1975: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Republic of Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom.", "* five states that joined since 2010: Iceland (April 2011), Slovenia (December 2012), Serbia (January 2015), Croatia (January 2016), Estonia (December 2020)It also has co-operation agreements with other states: Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Israel, Latvia, Lithuania, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Morocco, Romania and Slovakia.", "Member state Year of joining 1975 1975 2011 1975 2020 1975 1975 1975 1976 2011 1975 1977 2002 1975 1989 1976 2014 2011 1975 1975 1975 1976 1975 Co-operating State Year of joining 12 July 2010 1 August 2001 1 December 2021 1 July 1994 28 October 2010 30 April 2008 20 November 2006 5 November 2007 1 December 2006 9 February 2011 22 December 2003 1 January 2008 Co-operating agreements Year of joiningWMO 1 November 1975EUMETSAT 18 May 1988ACMAD 11 May 1995ALADIN/HIRLAM - Use of IFS/Arpege 19 February 1999JRC 6 May 2003CTBTO 24 June 2003CLRTAP 26 January 2005ESA 31 May 2005Memorandum of Understanding for Joint Liaison Office with European institutions in Brussels 23 April 2010RIMES 8 February 2012CMA 21 January 2014US NWS 23 January 2015 - amended 30 January 2018US NCAR 31 August 2016INPE Brazil 31 August 2017" ], [ "See also", "EUMETNETEUMETSATCopernicus Programme" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "* * ECMWF Re-analysis (ERA):: :: * ECMWF on TOP500" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "European Broadcasting Union" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''European Broadcasting Union''' ('''EBU'''; , '''UER''') is an alliance of public service media organisations whose countries are within the European Broadcasting Area or who are members of the Council of Europe.", ", it is made up of 112 member organisations from 54 countries, and 30 associate members from a further 19 countries.", "It was established in 1950, and has its administrative headquarters in Geneva.The EBU owns and operates the Eurovision and Euroradio telecommunications networks on which major television and radio broadcasts are distributed live to its members.", "It also operates the daily Eurovision news exchange in which members share breaking news footage.", "In 2017, the EBU launched the Eurovision Social Newswire, an eyewitness and video verification service.", "Led by Head of Social Newsgathering, Derek Bowler, the service provides members of the EBU with verified and cleared-for-use newsworthy eyewitness media emerging on social media.The EBU, in co-operation with its members, produces programmes and organises events in which its members can participate, such as the Eurovision Song Contest, its best known production, or the Eurovision Debates between candidates for president of the European Commission for the 2014 and 2019 parliamentary elections.", "The Director-General is Noel Curran since 2017." ], [ "General description", "Eurovision network transmissions until 1993.The logotypes of both the sending and receiving companies were shown in the middle.", "This sample shows the old logo of the BBC.European Commission presidency candidates at ''Eurovision Debate'' (May 2019).", "Left to right: Zahradil, Cué, Keller, Vestager, Timmermans, Weber.EBU members are public service media (PSM) broadcasters whose output is made, financed, and controlled by the public, for the public.", "PSM broadcasters are often established by law but are non-partisan, independent and run for the benefit of society as a whole.EBU members come from as far north as Iceland and as far south as Egypt, from Ireland in the west and Azerbaijan in the east, and almost every nation from geographical Europe in between.", "Associate Members are from countries and territories beyond Europe, such as Canada, Japan, India and China.", "Associate members from the United States include ABC, CBS, NBC, CPB, NPR, APM and the only individual station, Chicago-based classical music radio WFMT.Membership is for media organisations whose countries are within the European Broadcasting Area, as defined by the International Telecommunication Union, or who are members of the Council of Europe.Members benefit from:Access to world-class content ranging from exclusive sports rights to exchanges for news, music and children's programs.", "A voice in Brussels and on international platforms lobbying for PSM and ensuring the optimal legal and technical framework.", "Opportunities for sharing, learning and collaborating through conferences, working groups, training, and dedicated advice and guidance.", "A centre for learning and sharing new technology and innovation with a team of experts providing strategic advice and guidance.The EBU's highest-profile production is the Eurovision Song Contest.", "The EBU also organises the Eurovision Dance Contest, the Junior Eurovision Song Contest, the Eurovision Young Dancers competition, and other competitions which are modeled along similar lines.Radio collaborations include Euroclassic Notturno—an overnight classical music stream, produced by BBC Radio 3 and broadcast in the United Kingdom as ''Through the Night''—and special theme days, such as the annual Christmas music relays from around Europe.", "The EBU is a member of the International Music Council.Most EBU broadcasters have group deals to carry major sporting events including the FIFA World Cup and the inaugural European Championships.", "Another annually recurring event which is broadcast across Europe through the EBU is the Vienna New Year's Concert.Eurovision Media Services is the business arm of the EBU and provides media services for many media organisations and sports federations around the world.The theme music played before and after every EBU broadcast is Marc-Antoine Charpentier's ''Prelude to Te Deum''.", "It is well known to Europeans as it is played before and after the Eurovision Song Contest and other important events." ], [ "History", "EBU's previous logo used from 1994 to 17 June 2012.Vienna New Year's Concert.The EBU was a successor to the International Broadcasting Union (IBU) that was founded in 1925 and had its administrative headquarters in Geneva and technical office in Brussels.", "It fostered programming exchanges between members and mediated technical disputes between members that were mostly concerned with frequency and interference issues.", "It was in effect taken over by Nazi Germany during the Second World War, and thereafter the Allies viewed it as a compromised organisation that they could not trust.In the spring of 1946, representatives of the Soviet radio committee proposed forming a new organisation; however, at the same time preparations were being made for an inter-governmental \"European Broadcasting Conference\" in Copenhagen in 1948 to draw up a new plan for frequency use in the European Broadcasting Area.", "It was considered necessary to have an organisation that could implement the \"Copenhagen Wavelength Plan\" but there was disagreement among broadcasters and particularly a fear expressed by the BBC that a new association might be dominated by the USSR and its proposal to give each of its constituent states one vote.", "France proposed that it would have four votes with the inclusion of its North African colonies.", "The United Kingdom felt it would have little influence with just one vote.On 27 June 1946, the alternative International Broadcasting Organisation (IBO) was founded with 26 members and without British participation.", "The following day the IBU met in General Assembly and an attempt was made to dissolve it but failed; though 18 of its 28 members left to join the IBO.", "For a period of time in the late 1940s both the IBU and IBO vied for the role of organising frequencies but Britain decided to be in involved in neither.", "The BBC attempted but failed to find suitable working arrangements with them.", "However, for practical purposes, the IBO rented the IBU technical centre in Brussels and employed its staff.", "The BBC then proposed a new solution based on the IBO changing its constitution so there will be only one member per International Telecommunication Union (ITU) country, thus ensuring a Western majority over the USSR and its satellite states.", "In August 1949 a meeting took place in Stresa, Italy but it resulted in disagreement between delegates on how to resolve the problems.", "One proposal was for the European Broadcasting Area to be replaced by one that would exclude Eastern Europe, the Levant and North Africa.After Stresa, a consensus emerged among the Western Europeans to form a new organisation and the BBC proposed it be based in London.", "Meetings in Paris on 31 October and 1 November 1949 sealed the fate of the IBU and IBO, but it was decided not to allow West Germany to be a founder of the new organisation.", "On 13 February 1950 the European Broadcasting Union had its first meeting with 23 members from the ITU defined European Broadcasting Area at the Imperial Hotel in Torquay, England, United Kingdom.", "The first president was Ian Jacob of the BBC who remained at the helm for 10 years while its operation was largely dominated by the BBC due to its financial, technical and staff input.", "The most important difference between the EBU and its predecessors was that EBU membership was for broadcasters and not governments.", "Early delegates said EBU meetings were cordial and professional and very different from the abrupt tone of its predecessors.", "West Germany was admitted in 1951 and a working relationship forged with the USSR's Organisation for International Radio and TV (OIRT) which existed in parallel with the EBU until its merger on 1 January 1993.In 1967, the first concert in the International Concert Season of the European Broadcasting Union was broadcast from the Queen Elizabeth Hall in London." ], [ "Technical activities", "The objective of the EBU's technical activities is simply to assist EBU Members (see below) in this period of unprecedented technological changes.", "This includes the provision of technical information to Members via conferences and workshops, as well as in written form (such as the EBU Technical Review, and the EBU tech-''i'' magazine).The EBU also encourages active collaboration between its Members on the basis that they can freely share their knowledge and experience, thus achieving considerably more than individual Members could achieve by themselves.", "Much of this collaboration is achieved through Project Groups which study specific technical issues of common interest: for example, EBU Members have long been preparing for the revision of the 1961 Stockholm Plan.The EBU places great emphasis on the use of open standards.", "Widespread use of open standards (such as MPEG-2, DAB, DVB, etc.)", "ensures interoperability between products from different vendors, as well as facilitating the exchange of programme material between EBU Members and promoting \"horizontal markets\" for the benefit of all consumers.EBU Members and the EBU Technical Department have long played an important role in the development of many systems used in radio and television broadcasting, such as:The AES/EBU digital audio interface, formally known as AES3;Serial and parallel interfaces for digital video (ITU-R Recommendations 601 and 656);RDS – the radio data system used on FM broadcasting.", " The EBU Loudness Recommendation R 128 and 'EBU Mode' meters ( EBU Tech 3341)The EBU has also actively encouraged the development and implementation of:Digital radio (DAB) through Eureka Project 147 and the WorldDAB Forum.", "DVB (Digital Video Broadcasting) through the DVB Project and DigiTAG.", "Digital radio in the bands currently used for AM broadcasting through DRM (Digital Radio Mondiale).", "Standardisation of PVR systems through the TV-Anytime Forum.", "Development of other content distribution networks on the internet through P2PTV; EBU Project Group D/P2P, from November 2007 to April 2008, with a trial of selected member channels, thanks to Octoshape's distribution platform.", "The EBU is also part of the European P2P-Next project." ], [ "Controversies", "===Greek state broadcaster (2013)===On 11 June 2013, the Greek government shut down the state broadcaster Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation (ERT) on short notice, citing government spending concerns related to the European debt crisis.", "In response, the EBU set up a makeshift studio the same day near the former ERT offices in Athens in order to continue providing EBU members with the news-gathering and broadcast relay services which had formerly been provided by ERT.", "The EBU put out a statement expressing its \"profound dismay\" at the shutdown, urging the Greek Prime Minister \"to use all his powers to immediately reverse this decision\" and offered the \"advice, assistance and expertise necessary for ERT to be preserved\".", "Starting on 4 May 2014, the new state broadcaster New Hellenic Radio, Internet and Television (NERIT) began nationwide transmissions, taking over ERT's vacant active membership slot in the EBU.", "On 11 June 2015, two years after ERT's closure, NERIT was renamed as Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation (ERT), which reopened with a comprehensive program in all radio stations (with nineteen regional, two world-range and five pan-Hellenic range radio stations) and three TV channels ERT1, ERT2 and ERT3.===Belarusian state broadcaster (2021)===The Belarusian Television and Radio Company (BTRC) has been accused of repressing its own employees, having fired more than 100 people since a wave of anti-Lukashenko protests in 2020 following alleged election fraud.", "Many of them have also been jailed.", "Many voices have been raised against the participation of Belarus and the BTRC in the otherwise unpolitical Eurovision Song Contest in 2021, the argument being that the EBU would make a political statement if it did endorse Belarus by essentially and silently saying that democracy is unimportant and so are basic human rights such as freedom of speech.On 28 May 2021, the EBU suspended the BTRC's membership as they had been \"particularly alarmed by the broadcast of interviews apparently obtained under duress\".", "BTRC was given two weeks to respond before the suspension came into effect, but did not do so publicly.", "The broadcaster was completely expelled from the EBU on 1 July 2021 for a period of three years.===Russian state broadcasters (2022)===The three Russian members of the EBU, Channel One Russia, VGTRK, and Radio Dom Ostankino are all controlled by the Russian government.", "On 21 February 2022, the Russian government recognized the independence of the Donetsk and Luhansk People's Republics, disputed territories that are internationally recognized as part of Ukraine.", "Ukraine's public broadcaster Suspilne called on the EBU to terminate the membership of Channel One Russia and VGTRK, and to consider preventing Russia from participating in the Eurovision Song Contest 2022, citing the Russian government's use of both outlets to spread disinformation surrounding the Russo-Ukrainian war.", "Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine, several other public broadcasters joined UA:PBC in calling for Russia's exclusion from the 2022 Contest; Finland's Yle and Estonia's ERR stated that they would not send a representative if Russia was allowed to participate.", "After initially stating that both Russia and Ukraine would be allowed to compete, the EBU announced on 25 February 2022 that it would ban Russia from participating in the Contest.The three Russian broadcasters announced, via a statement released by Russian state media, that they would withdraw from the EBU on 26 February, citing increased politicization of the organization.", "The EBU released a statement saying that it was aware of the reports, but that it had not received any formal confirmation.", "On 1 March, a further statement from the EBU announced that it had suspended its Russian members from its governance structures.", "On 26 May, the EBU made effective the suspension of its Russian members indefinitely.In 2023, an extensive investigation by the EBU Investigative Journalism Network uncovered evidence of a Kremlin-sponsored initiative to take Ukrainian children from the war-torn country to Russia, a war crime under international law." ], [ "Members", "Map of EBU members in Europe (as of September 2022)Countries with active EBU membership coloured in order of accession from 1950., the list of EBU members comprises the following 66 broadcasting companies from 54 countries.===Current members=== Country Broadcasting organisation Year Albanian Radio-Television () RTSH 1999 Public Establishment of Television () EPTV 1970 National Sound Broadcasting Company () ENRS TDA Radio and Television of Andorra () RTVA 2002 Public Television Company of Armenia (, ) ARMTVՀՀՀ 2005 Public Radio of Armenia ARMR ORF 1953 : (İTV)* (İR) İCTI/İTV 2007 VRT 1950 RTBF BHRT 1993 BNRБНР 1993 BNTБНТ Croatian Radiotelevision () HRT 1993 Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation (, , ) CyBCΡΊΚRKYK 1969 ČRo 1993 ČT DR 1950 DK/TV2 1989 Egyptian Radio and Television Union ERTU 1985 :* Eesti Raadio (ER)* Eesti Televisioon (ETV) ERR 1993 Yle 1950 :* France Télévisions (FTV)* Radio France (RF)* France Médias Monde (FMM) GRF 1950 Georgian Public Broadcaster (, ) GPBსსმ 2005 (Working group of public broadcasters of the Federal Republic of Germany, ARD):* (Bavarian Broadcasting: BR)* (Hessian Broadcasting Corporation: HR)* (Central German Broadcasting: MDR)* (Northern German Broadcasting: NDR)* (RB)* (Berlin-Brandenburg Broadcasting: RBB)* (Saarland Broadcasting: SR)* (Southwest Broadcasting: SWR)* (West German Broadcasting: WDR)* (German Wave: DW)* (DLR or DRadio) ARD 1952 (Second German Television) ZDF 1963 Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation (, ) ERT 1950–2013,2015 (Media Support and Asset Management Fund):* (Duna Media Service Provider) MTVA 2014 RÚV 1956 RTÉ 1950 TG4 TG4 2007 Israeli Public Broadcasting Corporation (, ) (, ) KAN 2017 RAI 1950 Jordan Radio and Television Corporation () JRTV 1970 Public Broadcasting of Latvia (''Latvijas Sabiedriskie mediji''):* (LTV)* (LR) LSM 1993 () TL 1950 Libya National Channel LNC 2011 LRT 1993 RTL Group RTL 1950 ERSL 1996 Public Broadcasting Services PBS 1970 TRM 1993 MMD 1994 () RTCG 2006 Société Nationale de Radiodiffusion et de Télévision () SNRT 1950 :* AVROTROS* BNNVARA* Evangelische Omroep (EO)* Humanistische Omroep (HUMAN)* KRO-NCRV* MAX* Nederlandse Omroep Stichting (NOS)* NTR* (ON)* PowNed* Stichting Ether Reclame (STER)* VPRO* WNL* Zwart NPO 1950 () MRTМРТ 1993 NRK 1950 TV 2 Group () NO/TV2 1993 TVP 1993 PR RTP 1950 ROR 1993 RO/TVR San Marino RTV SMRTV 1995 () RTS 2006 Radio and Television of Slovakia () RTVS 2011 RTVSLO 1993 RTVE 1955 :* Sveriges Television (SVT)* Sveriges Radio (SR)* Sveriges Utbildningsradio (UR) SRT 1950 Swiss Broadcasting Corporation:* (SRF)* (RTS)* (RSI)* (RTR) SRG SSR 1950 Radio TunisienneRTT2007 Télévision Tunisienne TRT 1950 National Public Broadcasting Company of Ukraine (, ) SU 1993 British Broadcasting Corporation BBC 1950 United Kingdom Independent Broadcasting:* ITV plc* STV Group* Channel Four Television Corporation* S4C Authority UKIB 1981 Vatican Radio VR 1950===Suspended members=== Country Broadcasting organisation Year Suspension National State TV and Radio Company of the Republic of Belarus BTRC 1993 2021–2024Channel One Russia C1R19952022 (indefinite)All-Russia State Television and Radio Broadcasting Company VGTRK1993:* Radio Mayak (MK)* Radio Orpheus (OP)RDO1996===Past members=== Country Broadcasting organisation From To Czechoslovak Television CST 1991 1992 Finland MTV3 FI/MTV 1993 2019 France Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française RTF 1950 1964 Office de Radiodiffusion Télévision Française ORTF 1964 1975 Télédiffusion de France TDF 1975 1982 TF1 TF1 1975 2018 Europe 1 E1 1978 2022 Organisme Français de Radiodiffusion et de Télévision OFRT 1983 1992 Canal+ C+ 1984 2018 Greece New Hellenic Radio, Internet and Television NERIT 2014 2015 Hungary Duna 20132015 MR1993 MTV Israel Israel Broadcasting Authority IBA 1957 2017 Libyan Jamahiriya Broadcasting Corporation () LJBC 1974 2011 Maltese Broadcasting Authority MBA 1970 2003 Groupement de Radiodiffuseurs Monégasques:* Radio Monte Carlo (RMC)* Télé Monte-Carlo (TMC) GRMC 1950 2021 Telemontecarlo (now La7) TMC 1981 2001 Channel One Ostankino C1O 1994 1995 Udruženje javnih radija i televizija (Alliance of Public Radio and Television) UJRT 2001 2006 Slovakia SRo19932011 STV Spain Antena 3 Radio A3R 1986 1993 COPE 1998 2019 SER 1982 2020 Sweden TV4 SE/TV4 2004 2019 Tunisia Établissement de la radiodiffusion-télévision tunisienne ERTT 1990 2007 United Kingdom Independent Television Authority ITA 1959 1972 Independent Television Companies Association ITCA 1959 1981 Independent Broadcasting Authority IBA 1972 1981 Commercial Radio Companies Association (now Radiocentre) CRCA 1981 2006 Yugoslav Radio Television JRT 1950 1992===Associate members===Countries with Associate EBU Membership.Any group or organisation from an International Telecommunication Union (ITU) member country, which provides a radio or television service outside of the European Broadcasting Area, is permitted to submit applications to the EBU for Associate Membership.It is also noted by the EBU that any country that is granted Associate Member status does not gain access into Eurovision events with the notable exceptions of Australia, who have participated in the Eurovision Song Contest and the Junior Eurovision Song Contest since 2015, Canada in Eurovision Young Dancers between 1987 and 1989 and Kazakhstan, who have participated in Junior Eurovision since 2018, all of which were individually invited.The list of Associate Members of EBU comprised the following 31 broadcasting companies from 20 countries .", "Country Broadcasting organisation Year Australian Broadcasting Corporation ABC 1950 FreeTV Australia Free 1962 Special Broadcasting Service SBS 1979 National Broadcasting Authority of Bangladesh NBAB 1974 TV Cultura (Fundação Padre Anchieta) FPA 2012 Canadian Broadcasting Corporation/ CBC 1950 Canal 13 C13 1971 China Media Group CMG 2010 Shanghai Media Group SMG 2016 Cuban Institute of Radio and Television ICRT 1992 Teleimedi TEME 2004 Rustavi 2 RB 2003 Radio Television Hong Kong RTHK 1983 Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting IRIB 1968 Nippon Hoso Kyokai NHK 1951 TBS Holdings TBS 2000 Khabar Agency KA 2016 RTM 1970 Mauritius Broadcasting Corporation MBC 1980 Association of Community Radio Broadcasters Nepal ACORAB 2023 Radio New Zealand RNZ 1950 Television New Zealand TVNZ 1980 Public Authority for Radio and TV of Oman PART 1976 Korean Broadcasting System KBS 1974 General Organization of Radio and TV(, ) ORTAS 1978 American Broadcasting Company ABC 1959 American Public Media APM 2004 Columbia Broadcasting System CBS 1956 National Public Radio NPR 1971 National Broadcasting Company NBC 1953 WFMT Radio Network WFMT 1980===Past associate members===The list of past associate members of EBU comprises the following 82 broadcasting companies from 48 countries and 1 autonomous territory.", "Country Broadcasting organisation From To Canal 7 C7 1970 Canal 13 C13 1973 Australian Fine Music Network AFMN 2008 2010 Caribbean Broadcasting Corporation BB/CBC 1971 2005 Radiodiffusion du Dahomey RD Associação Brasileira das Emissoras de Rádio e Televisão ABERT Emissoras Unidas de Rádio e Televisão EURT 1969 TV Globo GLOBO 1970 CTV Television Network CTV 1969 Radiodiffusion Nationale Tchadienne RNT Televisión Nacional de Chile TVN 1970 Instituto Nacional de Radio y Televisión Inravisión 1970 Radiodiffusion Télévision Congolaise RTC 1974 Telesistema Nacional S.R.L.", "TSN 1969 1971 Radiodiffusion-Télévision Gabonaise RTG Gambia Radio & Television Service GRTS 2010 Ghana Broadcasting Corporation GBC Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa KNR 2011 Service des Télécommunications 1969 Televisora de Honduras, S.A. TH 1969 1971 Asia Television ATV 2010 Television Broadcasts Limited TVB 2012/2013 All India Radio AIR 1979 2021 Radio Republik Indonesia RRI 1973 Televisi Republik Indonesia TVRI 1973 Radiodiffusion-Télévision Ivoirienne RTI Jamaica Broadcasting Corporation JBC 1970 Mainichi Broadcasting System MBS 1971 TV Asahi ANB 2009 Fuji Television FTN 2012/2013 National Association of Commercial Broadcasters in Japan NACB 2012/2013 Nippon Television Network Corporation NTV 2009 Tokyo FM TFM 1986 2021 The Voice of Kenya VK Kuwait Broadcasting and Television Service KBTS 1970 Liberian Broadcasting Corporation LBC Radiodiffusion-Télévision de Madagascar RTM 1971 Malawi Broadcasting Corporation MBC Television of Mauritania MR/TVM 2003 2013 Telesistema Mexicano TSM 1973 Televisión Independiente de México TIM 1969 1973 Tele-Cadena Mexicana TCM 1969 1973 Televisa SA de CV TVA 1973 2005 Corporación Mexicana de Radio y Televisión CMRT 1973 Nepal Television NTVC 2010 Office de radiodiffusion et Télévision du Niger ORTN Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation NBC Radio Pakistan RP 1974 Pakistan Television Corporation PK/PTV 2010 Palestinian Broadcasting Corporation () PBC 2002 2014 Teledos T2 1969 1971 Compañía Peruana de Radiodifusión AMÉRICA 1969 Panamericana Televisión PANTEL 1969 Qatar Television and Broadcasting Service QTBC 1973 Al Jazeera Children's Channel JCC 2008 2013 Qatar Radio () QR 2009 2009 Radiodiffusion Télévision Sénégalaise RTS 1973 2006 Ceylon Broadcasting Corporation CBC Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation SLBC 2007 2010 South African Broadcasting Corporation SABC 1951 2022 Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation MBC 2009 Tanzania Broadcasting Corporation TBC Emirates Media Inc. EMI 2006 United Arab Emirates Radio And Television – Dubai UAERTVD 2006 National Association of Educational Broadcasters NAEB 1981 Time Life Television TIME United States Information Agency USIA National Educational Television NET 1970 Educational Broadcasting Corporation EBC 1971 Corporation for Public Broadcasting CPB 1972 International Broadcasting Bureau IBB 2007 Minnesota Public Radio MPR 2004 2007 WGBH Educational Foundation WGBH2014 2014 New York Public Radio NYPR 2012 2016 Radiodiffusion-Télévision Voltaïque RTV Sociedad Televisora Larrañaga (Tele 12) C12 1970 Teleinversiones S.A. 1969 1971 Corporación Venezolana de Televisión CVTV 1973 Radio Caracas Televisión RCTV 2010 Radio Caracas Radio RCR 2010 Radiodiffusion National Congolaise RNC 1972 Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation ZBC 2010===Approved participant members===Any groups or organisations from a country with International Telecommunication Union (ITU) membership, which does not qualify for either the EBU's Active or Associate memberships, but still provide a broadcasting activity for the EBU, are granted a unique Approved Participants membership, which lasts approximately five years.", "An application for this status may be submitted to the EBU at any given time, providing an annual fee is paid.The following seven EBU broadcast members had status as Approved Participants in May 2022.Broadcasting Organisation Arte ARTE Catalunya Música CAT Euronews EURONEWS JP Makedonska Radiodifuzija JP MRD Cellnex CELLNEX Radio Television of Vojvodina RTV TV5Monde TV5The following members previously had status as Approved Participants.", "Broadcasting Organisation AH Abertis Telecom S.A. ALBERTIS International Radio and Television Union () URTI MBC Limited – Middle East Broadcasting Centre MEBC Retevisión RETE Russian Television and Radio Broadcasting Network RTRN Sentech SNTC" ], [ "Organised events", "The EBU in co-operation with the respective host broadcaster organises competitions and events in which its members can participate if they wish to do so.", "These include:===Eurovision Song Contest===A replica of the Eurovision Song Contest trophy on display in Rotterdam, host city of the 2021 edition.The '''Eurovision Song Contest''' () is an annual international song competition between EBU members, that was first held in Lugano, Switzerland, on 24 May 1956.Seven countries participated – each submitting two songs, for a total of 14.This was the only contest in which more than one song per country was performed: since 1957, all contests have allowed one entry per country.", "The was won by the host nation, Switzerland.", "The most recent host city was Liverpool, United Kingdom, where Sweden won the competition.===Let the Peoples Sing==='''Let the Peoples Sing''' is a biennial choir competition, the participants of which are chosen from radio recordings entered by EBU radio members.", "The final, encompassing three categories and around ten choirs, is offered as a live broadcast to all EBU members.", "The overall winner is awarded the ''Silver Rose Bowl''.===Jeux sans frontières==='''Jeux sans frontières''' (, or Games Without Borders) was a Europe-wide television game show.", "In its original conception, it was broadcast from 1965 to 1999 under the auspices of the EBU.", "The original series' run ended in 1982, but was revived in 1988 with a different composition of nations and was hosted by smaller broadcasters.===Eurovision Young Musicians===The '''Eurovision Young Musicians''' is a competition for European musicians that are between the ages of 12 and 21 years old.", "It is organised by the EBU and is a member of EMCY.", "The first competition was held in Manchester, United Kingdom on 11 May 1982.The televised competition is held every two years, with some countries holding national heats.", "Since its inaugural edition in 1982, it has become one of the most important music competitions on an international level.===Eurovision Young Dancers===The '''Eurovision Young Dancers''' was a biennial dance showcase broadcast on television throughout Europe.", "The first competition was held in Reggio Emilia, Italy on 16 June 1985.It uses a format similar to the Eurovision Song Contest.", "Every participating country has the opportunity to send a dance act to compete for the title of \"Eurovision Young Dancer\".", "The competition is for solo dancers, and all contestants must be between the ages of 16 and 21, and not professionally engaged.===Euroclassic Notturno==='''Euroclassic Notturno''' is a six-hour sequence of classical music recordings, assembled by BBC Radio from material supplied by EBU members and streamed back to those broadcasters by satellite for use in their overnight classical-music schedules.", "The recordings used are taken not from commercial CDs, but from earlier (usually live) radio broadcasts.===Junior Eurovision Song Contest===The '''Junior Eurovision Song Contest''' () is an annual international song competition that was first held in Copenhagen, Denmark, on 15 November 2003.Sixteen countries participated in the inaugural edition, with each submitting one song, for a total of 16 entries.", "The inaugural contest was won by Croatia.", "The winner of the most recent contest, which took place in Nice, France, is France.===Eurovision Dance Contest===The '''Eurovision Dance Contest''' (not to be confused with the ''Eurovision Young Dancers Competition'') was an international dancing competition that was held for the first time in London, United Kingdom, on 1 September 2007.The competition was repeated in 2008 when it was held in Glasgow, United Kingdom, but has not been held since.===Eurovision Magic Circus Show===The '''Eurovision Magic Circus Show''' was an entertainment show organised by the EBU, which took place in 2010, 2011 and 2012 in Geneva.", "Children aged between 7–14 representing eight countries within the EBU membership area performed a variety of circus acts at the ''Geneva Christmas Circus'' ().", "The main show was also accompanied by the ''Magic Circus Show Orchestra''.===Eurovision Choir===The inaugural '''Eurovision Choir''', featuring non-professional choirs selected by EBU members, took place on 22 July 2017 in Riga, hosted by the Latvian broadcaster Latvijas Televīzija (LTV).", "Nine countries took part in the first edition.", "Carmen Manet from Slovenia was the first winner.===European Sports Championships===The '''European Sports Championships''' is a multi-sport event involving some of the leading sports in Europe.", "The European Governing Bodies for athletics, aquatics, cycling, rowing, golf, gymnastics and triathlon, coordinated their individual championships as part of the first edition in the summer of 2018, hosted by the cities of Berlin (already chosen as the host for the 2018 European Athletics Championships) and Glasgow (already chosen as the host for the 2018 European Aquatics Championships, and which concurrently also hosted the events of the other sports)." ], [ "See also", "African Union of BroadcastingAsia-Pacific Broadcasting UnionCaribbean Broadcasting UnionCommonwealth Broadcasting AssociationCommonwealth Press UnionEurope by SatelliteInternational Telecommunication UnionNorth American Broadcasters AssociationOrganización de Telecomunicaciones de IberoaméricaPublic Broadcasting System" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Electrothermal-chemical technology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Electrothermal-chemical''' ('''ETC''') technology is an attempt to increase accuracy and muzzle energy of future tank, artillery, and close-in weapon system guns by improving the predictability and rate of expansion of propellants inside the barrel.An electrothermal-chemical gun uses a plasma cartridge to ignite and control the ammunition's propellant, using electrical energy to trigger the process.", "ETC increases the performance of conventional solid propellants, reduces the effect of temperature on propellant expansion and allows for more advanced, higher density propellants to be used.The technology has been under development since the mid-1980s and in 1993 was actively being researched in the United States by the Army Research Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratories and defense industry contractors, including FMC Corporation, General Dynamics Land Systems, Olin Ordnance, and Soreq Nuclear Research Center.", "It is possible that electrothermal-chemical gun propulsion will be an integral part of US Army's future combat system and those of other countries such as Germany and the United Kingdom.", "Electrothermal-chemical technology is part of a broad research and development program that encompasses all electric gun technology, such as railguns and coil guns." ], [ "Background", "The XM360.The constant battle between armour and armor-piercing round has led to continuous development of the main battle tank design.", "The evolution of American anti-tank weapons can be traced back to requirements to combat Soviet tanks.", "In the late 1980s, it was thought that the protection level of the Future Soviet Tank (FST) could exceed 700 mm of rolled homogeneous armour equivalence at its maximum thickness, which was effectively immune against the contemporary M829 armour piercing fin stabilized discarding sabot.", "In the 1980s the most immediate method available to NATO to counter Soviet advances in armour technology was the adoption of a 140 mm main gun, but this required a redesigned turret that could incorporate the larger breech and ammunition, and it also required some sort of automatic loader.", "Although the 140 mm gun was considered a real interim solution it was decided after the fall of the Soviet Union that the increase in muzzle energy it provided was not worth the increase in weight.", "Resources were therefore spent on research into other programs that could provide the needed muzzle energy.", "One of the most successful alternative technologies remains electrothermal-chemical ignition.Most proposed advances in gun technology are based on the assumption that the solid propellant as a stand-alone propulsion system is no longer capable of delivering the required muzzle energy.", "This requirement has been underscored by the appearance of the Russian T-90 main battle tank.", "The elongation of current gun tubes, such as the new German 120 mm L/55, which was introduced by Rheinmetall is considered only an interim solution as it does not offer the required increase in muzzle velocity.", "Even advanced kinetic energy ammunition such as the United States' M829A3 is considered only an interim solution against future threats.", "To that extent the solid propellant is considered to have reached the end of its usefulness, although it will remain the principal propulsion method for at least the next decade until newer technologies mature.", "To improve on the capabilities of a solid propellant weapon the electrothermal-chemical gun may see production as early as 2016.ETC technology offers a medium-risk upgrade and is developed to the point that further improvements are so minor that it can be considered mature.", "The lightweight American 120 mm XM291 came close to achieving 17 MJ of muzzle energy, which is the lower-end muzzle energy spectrum for a 140 mm gun.", "However, the success of the XM291 does not imply the success of ETC technology as there are key parts of the propulsion system that are not yet understood or fully developed, such as the plasma ignition process.", "Nevertheless, there is substantial existing evidence that ETC technology is viable and worth the money to continue development.", "Furthermore, it can be integrated into current gun systems." ], [ "Operational Principle", "A diagram of a working electrothermal-chemical gun.An electrothermal-chemical gun uses a plasma cartridge to ignite and control the ammunition's propellant, using electrical energy as a catalyst to begin the process.", "Originally researched by Dr. Jon Parmentola for the U.S. Army, it has grown into a very plausible successor to a standard solid propellant tank gun.", "Since the beginning of research the United States has funded the XM291 gun project with USD 4,000,000, basic research with USD 300,000, and applied research with USD 600,000.Since then it has been proven to work, although efficiency to the level required has not yet been accomplished.", "ETC increases the performance of conventional solid propellants, reduces the effect of temperature on propellant expansion and allows for more advanced, higher density propellants to be used.", "It will also reduce pressure placed on the barrel in comparison to alternative technologies that offer the same muzzle energy given the fact that it helps spread the propellant's gas much more smoothly during ignition.", "Currently, there are two principal methods of plasma initiation: the flashboard large area emitter (FLARE) and the triple coaxial plasma igniter (TCPI).=== Flashboard large area emitter ===Flashboards run in several parallel strings to provide a large area of plasma or ultraviolet radiation and uses the breakdown and vaporization of gaps of diamonds to produce the required plasma.", "These parallel strings are mounted in tubes and oriented to have their gaps azimuthal to the tube's axis.", "It discharges by using high pressure air to move air out of the way.", "FLARE initiators can ignite propellants through the release of plasma, or even through the use of ultraviolet heat radiation.", "The absorption length of a solid propellant is sufficient to be ignited by radiation from a plasma source.", "However, FLARE has most likely not reached optimal design requirements and further understanding of FLARE and how it works is completely necessary to ensure the evolution of the technology.", "If FLARE provided the XM291 gun project with the sufficient radiative heat to ignite the propellant to achieve a muzzle energy of 17 MJ one could only imagine the possibilities with a fully developed FLARE plasma igniter.", "Current areas of study include how plasma will affect the propellant through radiation, the deliverance of mechanical energy and heat directly and by driving gas flow.", "Despite these daunting tasks FLARE has been seen as the most plausible igniter for future application on ETC guns.=== Triple coaxial plasma igniter ===A coaxial igniter consists of a fully insulated conductor, covered by four strips of aluminium foil.", "All of this is further insulated in a tube about 1.6 cm in diameter that is perforated with small holes.", "The idea is to use an electrical flow through the conductor and then exploding the flow into vapour and then breaking it down into plasma.", "Consequently, the plasma escapes through the constant perforations throughout the insulating tube and initiates the surrounding propellant.", "A TCPI igniter is fitted in individual propellant cases for each round of ammunition.", "However, TCPI is no longer considered a viable method of propellant ignition because it may damage the fins and does not deliver energy as efficiently as a FLARE igniter." ], [ "Feasibility", "The 60 mm ETC gun developed by the US Navy at FMC as an ETC CIWS proof of principle demonstrator.The XM291 is the best existing example of a working electrothermal-chemical gun.", "It was an alternative technology to the heavier caliber 140 mm gun by using the dual-caliber approach.", "It uses a breech that is large enough to accept 140 mm ammunition and be mounted with both a 120 mm barrel and a 135 mm or 140 mm barrel.", "The XM291 also mounts a larger gun tube and a larger ignition chamber than the existing M256 L/44 main gun.", "Through the application of electrothermal-chemical technology the XM291 has been able to achieve muzzle energy outputs that equate that to a low-level 140 mm gun, while achieving muzzle velocities greater than those of the larger 140 mm gun.", "Although the XM291 does not mean that ETC technology is viable it does offer an example that it is possible.ETC is also a more viable option than other alternatives by definition.", "ETC requires much less energy input from outside sources, like a battery, than a railgun or a coilgun would.", "Tests have shown that energy output by the propellant is higher than energy input from outside sources on ETC guns.", "In comparison, a railgun currently cannot achieve a higher muzzle velocity than the amount of energy input.", "Even at 50% efficiency a rail gun launching a projectile with a kinetic energy of 20 MJ would require an energy input into the rails of 40 MJ, and 50% efficiency has not yet been achieved.", "To put this into perspective, a rail gun launching at 9 MJ of energy would need roughly 32 MJ worth of energy from capacitors.", "Current advances in energy storage allow for energy densities as high as 2.5 MJ/dm³, which means that a battery delivering 32 MJ of energy would require a volume of 12.8 dm³ per shot; this is not a viable volume for use in a modern main battle tank, especially one designed to be lighter than existing models.", "There has even been discussion about eliminating the necessity for an outside electrical source in ETC ignition by initiating the plasma cartridge through a small explosive force.Furthermore, ETC technology is not only applicable to solid propellants.", "To increase muzzle velocity even further electrothermal-chemical ignition can work with liquid propellants, although this would require further research into plasma ignition.", "ETC technology is also compatible with existing projects to reduce the amount of recoil delivered to the vehicle while firing.", "Understandably, recoil of a gun firing a projectile at 17 MJ or more will increase directly with the increase in muzzle energy in accordance to Newton's third law of motion and successful implementation of recoil reduction mechanisms will be vital to the installation of an ETC powered gun in an existing vehicle design.", "For example, OTO Melara's new lightweight 120 mm L/45 gun has achieved a recoil force of 25 t by using a longer recoil mechanism (550 mm) and a pepperpot muzzle brake.", "Reduction in recoil can also be achieved through mass attenuation of the thermal sleeve.", "The ability of ETC technology to be applied to existing gun designs means that for future gun upgrades there's no longer the necessity to redesign the turret to include a larger breech or caliber gun barrel.Several countries have already determined that ETC technology is viable for the future and have funded indigenous projects considerably.", "These include the United States, Germany and the United Kingdom, amongst others.", "The United States' XM360, which was planned to equip the Future Combat Systems Mounted Combat System light tank and may be the M1 Abrams' next gun upgrade, is reportedly based on the XM291 and may include ETC technology, or portions of ETC technology.", "Tests of this gun have been performed using \"precision ignition\" technology, which may refer to ETC ignition." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Electromagnetic Launch Symposium* http://www.powerlabs.org/electrothermal.htm" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Boeing E-3 Sentry" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Boeing E-3 Sentry''' is an American airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) aircraft developed by Boeing.", "E-3s are commonly known as '''AWACS''' (Airborne Warning and Control System).", "Derived from the Boeing 707 airliner, it provides all-weather surveillance, command, control, and communications, and is used by the United States Air Force, NATO, French Air and Space Force, Royal Saudi Air Force and Chilean Air Force.", "The E-3 has a distinctive rotating radar dome (rotodome) above the fuselage.", "Production ended in 1992 after 68 aircraft had been built.In the mid-1960s, the U.S. Air Force (USAF) was seeking an aircraft to replace its piston-engined Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star, which had been in service for over a decade.", "After issuing preliminary development contracts to three companies, the USAF picked Boeing to construct two airframes to test Westinghouse Electric and Hughes's competing radars.", "Both radars used pulse-Doppler technology, with Westinghouse's design emerging as the contract winner.", "Testing on the first production E-3 began in October 1975.The first USAF E-3 was delivered in March 1977, and during the next seven years, a total of 34 aircraft were manufactured.", "E-3s were also purchased by NATO (18), the United Kingdom (7), France (4) and Saudi Arabia (5).", "In 1991, when the last aircraft had been delivered, E-3s participated in the Persian Gulf War, playing a crucial role of directing coalition aircraft against Iraqi forces.", "The aircraft was also the last of the Boeing 707 derivatives after 34 years of continuous production.", "The aircraft's capabilities have been maintained and enhanced through numerous upgrades.", "In 1996, Westinghouse Electric's Defense & Electronic Systems division was acquired by Northrop Corporation, before being renamed Northrop Grumman Mission Systems, which currently supports the E-3's radar.", "In April 2022, the U.S. Air Force announced that the Boeing E-7 is to replace the E-3 beginning in 2027." ], [ "Development", "===Background===In 1963, the USAF asked for proposals for an Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) to replace its EC-121 Warning Stars, which had served in the airborne early warning role for over a decade.", "The new aircraft would take advantage of improvements in radar technology and computer-aided radar data analysis and data reduction.", "These developments allowed airborne radars to \"look down\", i.e.", "to detect the movement of low-flying aircraft, and discriminate, even over land, target aircraft's movements; previously this had been impossible due to the inability to discriminate an aircraft's track from ground clutter.", "Contracts were issued to Boeing, Douglas, and Lockheed, the latter being eliminated in July 1966.In 1967, a parallel program was put into place to develop the radar, with Westinghouse Electric Corporation and Hughes Aircraft being asked to compete in producing the radar system.", "In 1968, it was referred to as Overland Radar Technology (ORT) during development tests on the modified EC-121Q.", "The Westinghouse radar antenna was going to be used by whichever company won the radar competition since Westinghouse had pioneered the design of high-power radio frequency (RF) phase-shifters, which are used to both focus the RF into a pencil beam and scan electronically for altitude determination.EC-121 Warning Star, military version of the Lockheed Constellation, saw service in the mid-1950s.\|alt=Black-and-white photograph of piston-engined aircraft with a large hump on midfuselageBoeing initially proposed a purpose-built aircraft, but tests indicated it would not outperform the already-operational 707, so the latter was chosen instead.", "To increase endurance, this design was to be powered by eight General Electric TF34s.", "It would carry its radar in a rotating dome mounted at the top of a forward-swept tail, above the fuselage.", "Boeing was selected ahead of McDonnell Douglas's DC-8-based proposal in July 1970.Initial orders were placed for two aircraft, designated EC-137D, as test beds to evaluate the two competing radars.", "As the test beds did not need the same 14-hour endurance demanded of the production aircraft, the EC-137s retained the Pratt & Whitney JT3D commercial engines, and a later reduction in the endurance requirement led to retention of the JT3D engines in production.The first EC-137 made its maiden flight on 9 February 1972, with the fly-off between the two radars taking place from March to July of that year.", "Favorable test results led to the selection of Westinghouse's radar for the production aircraft.", "Hughes' radar was initially thought to be a certain winner due to its related development of the APG-63 radar for the new F-15 Eagle.", "The Westinghouse radar used a pipelined fast Fourier transform (FFT) to digitally resolve 128 Doppler frequencies, while Hughes's radars used analog filters based on the design for the F-15.Westinghouse's engineering team won this competition by using a programmable 18-bit computer whose software could be modified before each mission.", "This computer was the AN/AYK-8 design from the B-57G program, and designated AYK-8-EP1 for its much expanded memory.", "This radar also multiplexed a beyond-the-horizon (BTH) pulse mode that could complement the pulse-Doppler radar mode.", "This proved to be beneficial especially when the BTH mode is used to detect ships at sea when the radar beam is directed below the horizon.===Full-scale development===Approval was given on 26 January 1973 for the full-scale development of the AWACS system.", "To allow further development of the aircraft's systems, orders were placed for three preproduction aircraft, the first of which performed its maiden flight in February 1975.IBM and Hazeltine were selected to develop the mission computer and display system.", "The IBM computer was designated 4PI, and the software was written in JOVIAL.", "A Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) or back-up interceptor control (BUIC) operator would immediately be at home with the track displays and tabular displays, but differences in symbology would create compatibility problems in tactical ground radar systems in Iceland, mainland Europe, and South Korea over Link-11 (TADIL-A).", "In 1977, Iran placed an order for ten E-3s, however this order was cancelled following the Iranian Revolution.Welcome ceremony for first E-3 aircraft at alt=Black-and-white photograph with angled front view of four-engine jet aircraft on ramp with front fuselage door opened: A contingent of people are there to welcome the jet, which has a disc-shaped radar perching on top of struts on the dorsal fuselage.Engineering, test and evaluation began on the first E-3 Sentry in October 1975.Between 1977 and 1992, a total of 68 E-3s were built.===Future status===Because the Boeing 707 is no longer in production, the E-3 mission package has been fitted into the Boeing E-767 for the Japan Air Self Defense Forces.", "The E-10 MC2A was intended to replace USAF E-3s—along with the RC-135 and the E-8 Joint STARS, but the program was canceled by the Department of Defense.NATO intends to extend the operational status of its AWACS until 2035 when it is due to be replaced by the Alliance Future Surveillance and Control (AFSC) program.", "The Royal Air Force (RAF) chose to limit investment in its E-3D fleet in the early 2000s, diverting Sentry upgrade funds to a replacement program.", "On 22 March 2019, the UK Defence Secretary announced a $1.98 billion (~$ in ) contract to purchase five E-7 Wedgetails.", "The U.S. Air Force intends to retire 15 of its 31 E-3s and acquire the E-7.On 31 March 2023, the USAF retired an E-3 from service for the first time." ], [ "Design", "===Overview===Close-up rotodome revolving at 6 alt=Close-up view of black disc-shaped radar with wide diagonal white band.", "The radar rests on 2 convergent struts above aircraft fuselage.The E-3 Sentry's airframe is a modified Boeing 707-320B Advanced model.", "Modifications include a rotating radar dome (rotodome), uprated hydraulics from 241 to 345 bar (3500–5000 PSI) to drive the rotodome, single-point ground refueling, air refueling, and a bail-out tunnel or chute.", "A second bail-out chute was deleted to cut mounting costs.USAF and NATO E-3s have an unrefueled range of or 8 hours of flying.", "The newer E-3 versions bought by France, Saudi Arabia, and the UK are equipped with newer CFM56-2 turbofan engines, and these can fly for about 11 hours or more than .", "The Sentry's range and on-station time can be increased through air-to-air refueling and the crews can work in shifts by the use of an on-board crew rest and meals area.", "The aircraft are equipped with one toilet in the rear, and a urinal behind the cockpit.", "Saudi E-3s were delivered with an additional toilet in the rear.When deployed, the E-3 monitors an assigned area of the battlefield and provides information for commanders of air operations to gain and maintain control of the battle; while as an air defense asset, E-3s can detect, identify, and track airborne enemy forces far from the boundaries of the U.S. or NATO countries and can direct interceptor aircraft to these targets.", "In support of air-to-ground operations, the E-3 can provide direct information needed for interdiction, reconnaissance, airlift, and close-air support for friendly ground forces.===Avionics===The unpressurized rotodome is in diameter, thick at the center, and is held above the fuselage by 2 struts.", "It is tilted down at the front to reduce its aerodynamic drag, which lessens its detrimental effect on take-offs and endurance.", "This tilt is corrected electronically by both the radar and secondary surveillance radar antenna phase shifters.", "The rotodome uses bleed air, outside cooling doors, and fluorocarbon-based cold plate cooling to maintain the electronic and mechanical equipment temperatures.", "The hydraulically rotated antenna system permits the and AN/APY-2 passive electronically scanned array radar system to provide surveillance from the Earth's surface up into the stratosphere, over land or water.Air controllers aboard a US E-3 during Operation Provide ComfortOther major subsystems in the E-3 Sentry are navigation, communications, and computers.", "14 consoles display computer-processed data in graphic and tabular format on screens.", "Its operators perform surveillance, identification, weapons control, battle management and communications functions.", "Data may be forwarded in real-time to any major command and control center in rear areas or aboard ships.", "In times of crisis, data may also be forwarded to the National Command Authority in the U.S. via RC-135 or aircraft carrier task forces.Electrical generators mounted in each of the E-3's four engines provide 1 megawatt of electrical power required by the aircraft's radars and electronics.", "Its pulse-Doppler radar has a range of more than 250 mi (400 km) for low-flying targets at its operating altitude, and the pulse (BTH) radar has a range of approximately 400 mi (650 km) for aircraft flying at medium to high altitudes.", "The radar, combined with a secondary surveillance radar (SSR) and electronic support measures (ESM), provides a look down capability, to detect, identify, and track low-flying aircraft, while eliminating ground clutter returns.===Upgrades===alt=Inside military aircraft.", "Two personnel manning communications consoles with wide displays.Between 1987 and 2001, USAF E-3s were upgraded under the \"Block 30/35 Modification Program\".", "Enhancements included:The installation of ESM and an electronic surveillance capability, for both active and passive means of detection.", "Installation of the Joint Tactical Information Distribution System (JTIDS), which provides rapid and secure communication for transmitting information, including target positions and identification data, to other friendly platforms.", "Global Positioning System (GPS) capability was added.", "Onboard computers were overhauled to accommodate JTIDS, Link-16, the new ESM systems and to allow for future enhancements.====RSIP====The Radar System Improvement Program (RSIP) was a joint US/NATO development program.", "RSIP enhances the operational capability of the E-3 radars' electronic countermeasures, and improves the system's reliability, maintainability, and availability.", "Essentially, this program replaced the older transistor-transistor logic (TTL) and emitter-coupled logic (MECL) electronic components, long-since out of production, with off-the-shelf computers that utilised a High-level programming language instead of assembly language.", "Significant improvement came from adding pulse compression to the pulse-Doppler mode.", "These hardware and software modifications improve the E-3 radars' performance, providing enhanced detection with an emphasis towards low radar cross-section (RCS) targets.The RAF had also joined the USAF in adding RSIP to upgrade the E-3's radars.", "The retrofitting of the E-3 squadrons was completed in December 2000.Along with the RSIP upgrade was installation of the Global Positioning System/Inertial Navigation Systems which improved positioning accuracy.", "In 2002, Boeing was awarded a contract to add RSIP to the small French AWACS squadron.", "Installation was completed in 2006.Saudi Arabia began RSIP upgrades in 2013; the first aircraft being upgraded by Boeing in Seattle with the four remaining aircraft upgraded in Riyadh between 2014 and 2016.====NATO Mid Term Program====Between 2000 and 2008 NATO upgraded its E-3s to ''Mid Term Program'' (MTP) standard.", "This involved technical upgrades and a total multi-sensor-systems integration====DRAGON====In 2009, the USAF, in cooperation with NATO, entered into a major flight deck avionics modernization program in order to maintain compliance with worldwide airspace mandates.", "The program, called DRAGON (for DMS Replacement of Avionics for Global Operation and Navigation), was awarded to Boeing and Rockwell Collins in 2010.Drawing on their Flight2 flight management system (FMS), almost all the avionics were replaced with more modern digital equipment from Rockwell Collins.", "Main upgrades include a Digital Audio Distribution System, Mode-5/ADS-B transponder, Inmarsat and VDL datalinks, and a terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS).", "The centerpiece flight deck hardware consists of five 6x8 color graphics displays and two color CDUs.", "DRAGON laid the foundation for subsequent upgrades including GPS M-Code, Iridium ATC, and Autopilot.", "USAF DRAGON Production began in 2018.====USAF Block 40/45====In 2014 the USAF began upgrading block 30/35 E-3B/Cs into block 40/45 E-3Gs.", "This upgrade replaces the main flight computer with a Red Hat Linux-based system, as well as replacing the DOS 2.0-like operating system with a Windows 95-like system on the operator workstations.", "In 2016, a three-week long cybersecurity vulnerability test revealed that the 40/45 block and its supporting ground equipment were vulnerable to cyber threats, and were thus deemed \"not survivable.\"", "This caused a delay of approximately two years.", "Twenty-four E-3s are projected to complete this upgrade to 40/45 by the end of fiscal year 2020, while seven aircraft will be retired to save upgrade costs and harvest out-of-production components.====NATO Final Lifetime Extension Program====NATO intends to extend the operational status of its AWACS until 2035 by significantly upgrading fourteen aircraft in the ''Final Lifetime Extension Program'' (FLEP) between 2019 and 2026.Upgrades include the expansion of data capacity, expansion of bandwidth for satellite communications, new encryption equipment, new HAVE QUICK radios, upgraded mission computing software and new operator consoles.", "The supporting ground systems (mission training center and mission planning and evaluation system) will also be upgraded to the latest standard.", "NATO Airborne Early Warning & Control Program Management Agency (NAPMA) is the preparing and executing authority for the FLEP.", "FLEP will be combined with the standard planned higher echelon technical maintenance." ], [ "Operational history", "===United States===In March 1977 the 552nd Airborne Warning and Control Wing received the first E-3 aircraft at Tinker AFB, Oklahoma.", "The 34th and last USAF Sentry was delivered in June 1984.The USAF has a total of thirty E-3s in active service.", "Twenty-six are stationed at Tinker AFB and belong to the Air Combat Command (ACC).", "Four are assigned to the Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) and stationed at Kadena AB, Okinawa and Elmendorf AFB, Alaska.", "One aircraft (TS-3) was assigned to Boeing for testing and development (retired/scrapped June 2012).E-3 Sentry aircraft were among the first to deploy during Operation Desert Shield, where they established a radar screen to monitor Iraqi forces.", "During Operation Desert Storm, E-3s flew 379 missions and logged 5,052 hours of on-station time.", "The data collection capability of the E-3 radar and computer subsystems allowed an entire air war to be recorded for the first time.", "In addition to providing senior leadership with time-critical information on the actions of enemy forces, E-3 controllers assisted in 38 of the 41 air-to-air kills recorded during the conflict.NATO, UK, French and USAF AWACS played an important role in the air campaign against Serbia and Montenegro in the former republic of FR Yugoslavia.", "From March to June 1999 the aircraft were deployed in the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia (operation Allied Force) directing allied strike and air defence aircraft to and from their targets.", "Over 1,000 aircraft operating from bases in Germany and Italy took part in the air campaign which was intended to destroy Yugoslav air defenses and high-value targets such as the bridges across the Danube river, factories, power stations, telecommunications facilities, and military installations.On 18 November 2015, an E-3G was deployed to the Middle East to begin flying combat missions in support of Operation Inherent Resolve against ISIL, marking the first combat deployment of the upgraded Block 40/45 aircraft.===United Kingdom===A Royal Air Force E-3 Sentry over North YorkshireIn February 1987 the UK and France ordered E-3 aircraft in a joint project which saw deliveries start in 1991.The British requirement arose due to the cancellation of the BAE Nimrod AEW3 project.", "UK E-3Ds formed the E-3D Component of the NATO Airborne Early Warning and Control Force (NAEWCF), receiving much of their tasking directly from NATO.", "However, RAF E-3Ds remain UK manned and capable of independent, national tasking.", "This has been done on numerous occasions, notably when E-3Ds were committed to operations over Afghanistan in 2001 and Iraq in 2003.The UK fleet has slowly been reduced from 7 since 2011.In 2009, the UK effectively limited the service life of the E-3D fleet by de-funding the Project Eagle upgrade which would have seen it upgraded in line with the USAF Block 40/45 standard.", "''AirForces Monthly'' reported that by December 2020, just 2 aircraft were available for operations at any one time.", "The Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 had announced the intention to retain the E-3D fleet until 2035, however in March 2019, the Ministry of Defence announced that the E-3Ds would be replaced by five E-7 Wedgetails from 2023.The £1.51 billion contract was awarded to Boeing without a competitive procurement process, a decision criticised by both competitors of Boeing and the UK's Defence Select Committee.", "The 2021 Integrated Defence Review confirmed a reduced order of three aircraft.", "On 27 January 2015, the RAF deployed an E-3D Sentry to Cyprus in support of U.S.-led coalition airstrikes against Islamic State militants in Iraq and Syria.", "The last intended operational flight by an RAF E3 Sentry was supposed to be in July 2021 with the Sentry retired from service, however RAF ZH101 and ZH106 have both flown patrols over Poland / Eastern Europe during Russia's incursions into Ukraine during late February / March 2022.===France===In February 1987 the UK and France ordered E-3 aircraft in a joint project which saw deliveries start in 1991.France operates its E-3F aircraft independently of NATO.", "France operates four aircraft, all fitted with the newer CFM56-2 engines.In early 2024, there were reports that France is looking to the Swedish Saab GlobalEye to replace its AWACS aircraft.===Chile===3 Boeing E-3D Sentry (Sentry AEW.1) aircraft, acquired second hand from the United Kingdom in September 2021, arrived in Chile in July 2022; units ZH103 and ZH106 will join the \"Grupo de Aviación N.º 10\" of the II Air Brigade.===NATO===NATO acquired 18 E-3As and support equipment, with the first aircraft delivered in January 1982.The aircraft are registered in Luxembourg.", "The eighteen E-3s were operated by Number 1, 2 and 3 Squadrons of NATO's E-3 Component, based at NATO Air Base Geilenkirchen.NATO E-3s participated in Operation Eagle Assist after the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center towers and the Pentagon.", "NATO and RAF E-3s participated in the military intervention in Libya.From January 2011 to September 2014, NATO E-3s were deployed to Mazar-i-Sharif International Airport, Afghanistan, as part of NATO's International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) mission.", "The aircraft were used for air traffic control of military aircraft over the country, as well as surveillance, and tactical management of friendly aircraft.", "During the mission to Afghanistan, NATO E-3s flew 1,240 missions and accumulated 12,240 flying hours.Presently, 14 NATO E-3As are in the inventory, since one E-3 was lost in a crash and three were retired from service in 2015, 2017, and 2018.The first was due for its six-year cycle Depot Level Maintenance (DLM) inspection which would have been very costly.", "The \"449 Retirement Project\" resulted in reclamation of critical parts with a value of upwards of $40 million which will be used to support the remaining active aircraft.", "Some of the parts to be removed are no longer on the market or have become very expensive." ], [ "Variants", "alt=Four-engined jet aircraft in-flight with landing gear partially extended.", "A large disc-shaped radar perches on two convergent struts on the aft fuselage.", ";EC-137D:2 prototype AWACS aircraft with JT3D engines, 1 fitted with a Westinghouse Electric radar and 1 with a Hughes Aircraft Company radar.", "Both converted to E-3A standard with TF33 engines.", ";E-3A:Production aircraft with TF33 engines and AN/APY-1 radar, 24 built for USAF (later converted to E-3B standard), total of 34 ordered but the last 9 completed as E-3C.", "One additional aircraft retained by Boeing for testing, 18 built for NATO with TF33 engines and 5 for Saudi Arabia with CFM56 engines.", ";KE-3A:These are not AWACS aircraft but CFM56 powered tankers based on the E-3 design.", "8 were sold to Saudi Arabia.", ";RE-3A:Three KE-3 airframes delivered as CFM56–powered strategic reconnaissance aircraft.", "Systems and external appearance are similar to the USAF’s RC-135V/W Rivet Joint platform.", "At least one of the RE-3As has received the extended \"hog nose\" as fitted to the RC-135.", ";E-3B:USAF Block 30 modification.", "E-3As with improvements, 24 conversions.", ";E-3C:USAF Block 35 modification.", "Production aircraft with AN/APY-2 radar, additional electronic consoles and system improvements, ten built.", ";JE-3C:One E-3A aircraft used by Boeing for trials later redesignated E-3C.", ";E-3D:Production aircraft for the RAF to E-3C standard with CFM56 engines and British modifications designated ''Sentry AEW.1'', 7 built.", "Modifications included the addition of a refueling probe next to the existing boom AAR recipticle, CFM-56 engines, wingtip ESM pods, an enhanced Maritime Surveillance Capability (MSC) offering Maritime Scan-Scan Processing (MSSP), JTIDS and Havequick 2 radios.", ";E-3F:Production aircraft for the French Air and Space Force to E-3C standard with CFM56 engines and French modifications, 4 built.", ";E-3G:USAF Block 40/45 modification.", "Includes hardware and software upgrades to improve communications, computer processing power, threat tracking, and others, and automates some previously manual functions.", "Initial operating capability (IOC) declared in July 2014.E-3G(II) Block 40/45 modification that included a glass cockpit modification that reduced the crew size by one, and added a new avionics suite." ], [ "Operators", "Boeing E-3F Sentry of the French Air and Space ForceBoeing E-3A Sentry of the NATO E-3A ComponentBoeing E-3A Sentry of the Royal Saudi Air Force;: The Chilean Air Force purchased three retired E-3D Sentry aircraft from the Royal Air Force.", ";: The French Air and Space Force purchased four E-3F aircraft.", "* ''Escadron de détection et de contrôle aéroportés 36 Berry'' (36th Airborne Detection and Control Squadron \"Berry\") based at Avord Air Base.", ";: 18 E-3 AWACS were purchased – 1 was written off in Greece, 3 were retired from service.", "Mainly responsible for monitoring European NATO airspace, they have also been deployed outside the area in support of NATO commitments.", "The 20 multinational crews are provided by 15 of the 28 NATO member states.", "* NATO Airborne Early Warning and Control Force – E-3A Component.", "Based at Geilenkirchen (Germany), with forward operating bases at Konya (Turkey), Preveza/Aktion (Greece) and Trapani/Birgi (Italy) and a forward operating location at Ørland (Norway).", " Aircrew Training Squadron Flying Squadron 1 Flying Squadron 2 Flying Squadron 3 – disbanded in 2015;: The Royal Saudi Air Force purchased five E-3A aircraft in 1983.In 2004, modifications began to convert KE-3A tankers into RE-3 electronic intelligence gathering aircraft.", "* RSAF No.", "6 Wing (Prince Sultan Air Base – Al Kharj)::''السرب الثامن عشر'' (''al-Sarab al-Ththamin Eshr'' – No.", "18 Squadron)::No.", "19 Squadron – RE-3A/B (as well as Beechcraft 350ER-ISR)::No.", "23 Squadron – KE-3A;: The United States Air Force has 31 operational E-3s as of December 2019:Tactical Air Command 1976–1992:'''Air Combat Command''' 1992–present* 552d Air Control Wing – Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma::960th Airborne Air Control Squadron 2001–present (NAS Keflavik, Iceland 1979–1992)::963d Airborne Air Control Squadron 1976–present::964th Airborne Air Control Squadron 1977–present::965th Airborne Air Control Squadron 1978–1979, 1984–present::966th Airborne Air Control Squadron 1976–present* 380th Air Expeditionary Wing 2002–present Al Dhafra Air Base, United Arab Emirates::968th Expeditionary Airborne Air Control Squadron 2013–present (Thumrait Air Base, Oman 2002–2003):'''Air Force Reserve Command'''* 513th Air Control Group (Associate) – Tinker AFB, Oklahoma::970th Airborne Air Control Squadron 1996–present (Personnel only, aircraft loaned by co-located 552nd ACW as needed)* 413th Flight Test Group – Robins AFB, Georgia:: 10th Flight Test Squadron – Tinker AFB, Oklahoma 1994–present:'''Pacific Air Forces'''* 3d Wing – Elmendorf AFB, Alaska::962d Airborne Air Control Squadron 1986–present* 18th Wing – Kadena AB, Japan::961st Airborne Air Control Squadron 1979–present=== Former operators ===;: The Royal Air Force purchased seven E-3Ds by October 1987, designated ''Sentry AEW.1'' in British service.", "As of December 2020, only three remained in service after one was withdrawn from service in 2009 to be used as spares, two were withdrawn in March 2019 and a further one withdrawn in January 2020.The fleet had been given an out of service date (OSD) of December 2022.They formed the E-3D Component of the NATO Airborne Early Warning and Control Force.", "However, that date was accelerated pursuant to the 2021 defence review and the aircraft made its final flight in U.K. service in August 2021.", "* RAF Waddington, Lincolnshire, England::No.", "8 Squadron (1991–2021)::No.", "23 Squadron (1996–2009)::No.", "54 Squadron (Operational Conversion Unit 2005–?)::No.", "56 Squadron (Operational Evaluation Unit 2008–?)" ], [ "Incidents and accidents", "Preveza AB on 14 July 1996E-3s have been involved in three hull-loss accidents, and one radar antenna was destroyed during RSIP development (see photo under Avionics).", "* On 22 September 1995, a U.S. Air Force E-3 Sentry (callsign Yukla 27, serial number 77-0354), crashed shortly after takeoff from Elmendorf AFB, Alaska.", "The plane lost power to both left side engines after ingesting several Canada geese during takeoff.", "The aircraft went down about northeast of the runway, killing all 24 crew members on board.", "* On 14 July 1996, a NATO E-3 Sentry (tail number LX-N90457) overran the runway and crashed into a sea wall at Preveza-Aktion Airport in Greece when the pilot attempted to abort takeoff after mistakenly believing that the aircraft had suffered a bird strike.", "The aircraft overran the runway and struck a sea wall, where it came to a halt.", "There were no injuries and the aircraft was written off.", "Investigators could find no evidence that a bird strike and ingestion had occurred.", "* On 28 August 2009, a U.S. Air Force E-3C Sentry (serial number 83-0008) participating in a Red Flag exercise at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada experienced a nose gear collapse on landing, resulting in a fire and damaging the aircraft beyond repair.", "All 32 crew members evacuated safely." ], [ "Specifications (USAF/NATO)", " antenna array in the National Electronics Museum500px" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Citations''''''Bibliography'''* * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Royal Air Force E-3 Sentry information* NATO AWACS-Spotter Geilenkirchen website* Airborne Early Warning Association website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System''' ('''Joint STARS''') is a retired United States Air Force (USAF) airborne ground surveillance, battle management and command and control aircraft.", "It tracks ground vehicles and some aircraft, collects imagery, and relays tactical pictures to ground and air theater commanders.", "The aircraft was operated by both active duty USAF and Air National Guard units and also carried specially trained U.S. Army personnel as additional flight crew." ], [ "Development", "Joint STARS evolved from separate U.S. Army and Air Force (USAF) programs to develop technology to detect, locate and attack enemy armor at ranges beyond the forward area of troops.", "In 1982, the programs were merged and the USAF became the lead agent.", "The concept and sensor technology for the E-8 was developed and tested on the Tacit Blue experimental aircraft.", "The prime contract was awarded to Grumman Aerospace Corporation in September 1985 for two E-8A development systems.===Upgrades===In late 2005, Northrop Grumman was awarded a contract for upgrading engines and other systems.", "Pratt & Whitney, in a joint venture with Seven Q Seven (SQS), was contracted to produce and deliver JT8D-219 engines for the E-8s.", "Their greater efficiency would have allowed the Joint STARS to spend more time on station, take off from a wider range of runways, climb faster, fly higher, all with a much reduced cost per flying hour.In December 2008, an E-8C test aircraft took its first flight with the new engines.", "In 2009, the company began engine replacement and additional upgrade efforts.", "The re-engining funding was halted in 2009 as the Air Force began to consider other options for performing the JSTARS mission." ], [ "Design", "Northrop Grumman E-8A Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System.", "The radome for the side-looking radar is visible under the forward fuselage.The E-8C is an aircraft modified from the Boeing 707-300 series commercial airliner.", "The E-8 carries specialized radar, communications, operations and control subsystems.", "The most prominent external feature is the 40 ft (12 m) canoe-shaped radome under the forward fuselage that houses the 24 ft (7.3 m) APY-7 active electronically scanned array side looking airborne radar antenna.The E-8C can respond quickly and effectively to support worldwide military contingency operations.", "It is a jam-resistant system capable of operating while experiencing heavy electronic countermeasures.", "The E-8C can fly a mission profile for 9 hours without refueling.", "Its range and on-station time can be substantially increased through in-flight refueling.===Radar and systems===Pave Mover Radar, the prototype for the JSTARS radaralt=The AN/APY-7 radar can operate in wide area surveillance, ground moving target indicator (GMTI), fixed target indicator (FTI) target classification, and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) modes.To pick up moving targets, the Doppler radar looks at the Doppler frequency shift of the returned signal.", "It can look from a long-range, which the military refers to as a high standoff capability.", "The antenna can be tilted to either side of the aircraft for a 120-degree field of view covering nearly 19,305 square miles (50,000 km2) and can simultaneously track 600 targets at more than 152 miles (250 km).", "The GMTI modes cannot pick up objects that are too small, insufficiently dense, or stationary.", "Data processing allows the APY-7 to differentiate between armored vehicles (tracked tanks) and trucks, allowing targeting personnel to better select the appropriate ordnance for various targets.The system's SAR modes can produce images of stationary objects.", "Objects with many angles (for example, the interior of a pick-up bed) will give a much better radar signature, or specular return.", "In addition to being able to detect, locate and track large numbers of ground vehicles, the radar has a limited capability to detect helicopters, rotating antennas and low, slow-moving fixed-wing aircraft.alt=The radar and computer subsystems on the E-8C can gather and display broad and detailed battlefield information.", "Data is collected as events occur.", "This includes position and tracking information on enemy and friendly ground forces.", "The information is relayed in near-real time to the US Army's common ground stations via the secure jam-resistant surveillance and control data link (SCDL) and to other ground C4I nodes beyond line-of-sight via ultra high-frequency satellite communications.Other major E-8C prime mission equipment are the communications/datalink (COMM/DLX) and operations and control (O&C) subsystems.", "Eighteen operator workstations display computer-processed data in graphic and tabular format on video screens.", "Operators and technicians perform battle management, surveillance, weapons, intelligence, communications and maintenance functions.Northrop Grumman has tested the installation of a MS-177 camera on an E-8C to provide real time visual target confirmation.===Battle management ===In missions from peacekeeping operations to major theater war, the E-8C can provide targeting data and intelligence for attack aviation, naval surface fire, field artillery and friendly maneuver forces.", "The information helps air and land commanders to control the battlespace.The E-8's ground-moving radar can tell approximate number of vehicles, location, speed, and direction of travel.", "It cannot identify exactly what type of vehicle a target is, tell what equipment it has, or discern whether it is friendly, hostile, or a bystander, so commanders often crosscheck the JSTARS data against other sources.", "In the Army, JSTARS data is analyzed in and disseminated from a Ground Station Module (GSM)." ], [ "Operational history", "Pilots from Robins Air Force Base cleaning the windshields of their E-8 before a mission in Iraq\|alt= The two E-8A development aircraft were deployed in 1991 to participate in Operation Desert Storm under the direction of USAF Colonel Harry H. Heimple, Program Director, even though they were still in development.", "The joint program accurately tracked mobile Iraqi forces, including tanks and Scud missiles.", "Crews flew developmental aircraft on 49 combat sorties, accumulating more than 500 combat hours and a 100% mission effectiveness rate.These Joint STARS developmental aircraft also participated in Operation Joint Endeavor, a NATO peacekeeping mission, in December 1995.While flying in friendly air space, the test-bed E-8A and pre-production E-8C aircraft monitored ground movements to confirm compliance with the Dayton Peace Accords agreements.", "Crews flew 95 consecutive operational sorties and more than 1,000 flight hours with a 98% mission effectiveness rate.The 93d Air Control Wing, which activated 29 January 1996, accepted its first aircraft on 11 June 1996, and deployed in support of Operation Joint Endeavor in October.", "The provisional 93d Air Expeditionary Group monitored treaty compliance while NATO rotated troops through Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "The first production E-8C and a pre-production E-8C flew 36 operational sorties and more than 470 flight hours with a 100% effectiveness rate.", "The wing declared initial operational capability 18 December 1997 after receiving the second production aircraft.", "Operation Allied Force saw Joint STARS in action again from February to June 1999 accumulating more than 1,000 flight hours and a 94.5% mission-effectiveness rate in support of the U.S.-lead Kosovo War.The twelfth production aircraft, outfitted with an upgraded operations and control subsystem, was delivered to the USAF on 5 November 2001.On 1 October 2002, the 93d Air Control Wing (93 ACW) was \"blended\" with the 116th Bomb Wing in a ceremony at Robins Air Force Base, Georgia.", "The 116 BW was an Air National Guard wing equipped with the B-1B Lancer bomber at Robins AFB.", "As a result of a USAF reorganization of the B-1B force, all B-1Bs were assigned to active duty wings, resulting in the 116 BW lacking a current mission.", "The newly created wing was designated as the 116th Air Control Wing (116 ACW).", "The 93 ACW was inactivated the same day.", "The 116 ACW constituted the first fully blended wing of active duty and Air National Guard airmen.", "The wing took delivery of the 17th and final E-8C on 23 March 2005.The E-8C Joint STARS routinely supports various taskings of the Combined Force Command Korea during the North Korean winter exercise cycle and for the United Nations enforcing resolutions on Iraq.In March 2009, a Joint STARS aircraft was damaged beyond economical repair when a test plug was left on a fuel tank vent, subsequently causing the fuel tank to rupture during in-flight refueling.", "There were no casualties but the aircraft sustained $25 million in damage.In September 2009, Loren B. Thompson of the Lexington Institute raised the question of why most of the Joint STARS fleet was sitting idle instead of being used to track insurgents in Afghanistan.", "Thompson states that the Joint STARS' radar has an inherent capacity to find what the Army calls 'dismounted' targets—insurgents walking around or placing roadside bombs.", "Thompson's neutrality has been questioned by some since Lexington Institute has been heavily funded by defense contractors, including Northrop Grumman.Recent trials of Joint STARS in Afghanistan are destined to develop tactics, techniques and procedures in tracking dismounted, moving groups of Taliban.In January 2011, Northrop Grumman's E-8C Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System (Joint STARS) test bed aircraft completed the second of two deployments to Naval Air Station Point Mugu, California, in support of the U.S. Navy Joint Surface Warfare Joint Capability Technology Demonstration to test its Network-Enabled Weapon (NEW) architecture.", "The Joint STARS aircraft executed three Operational Utility Assessment flights and demonstrated its ability to guide anti-ship weapons against surface combatants at a variety of standoff distances in the NEW architecture.From 2001 to January 2011 the Joint STARS fleet flew more than 63,000 hours in 5,200 combat missions in support of Operations Iraqi Freedom, Enduring Freedom and New Dawn.On 1 October 2011, the \"blended\" wing construct of the 116th Air Control Wing (116 ACW), combining Air National Guard and Regular Air Force personnel in a single unit was discontinued.", "On this date, the 461st Air Control Wing (461 ACW) was established at Robins AFB as the Air Force's sole active duty E-8 Joint STARS wing while the 116 ACW reverted to a traditional Air National Guard wing within the Georgia Air National Guard.", "Both units share the same E-8 aircraft and will often fly with mixed crews, but now function as separate units.On 1 October 2019, JSTARS ended its continuous presence in the United States Central Command (USCENTCOM) areas of responsibility.", "The 18–year deployment was the second-longest deployment in U.S. Air Force history.", "In that time, the crews and aircraft flew 10,938 sorties, and 114,426.6 combat hours.On 11 February 2022, the first of four JSTARS out of the remaining 16 operational JSTARS was retired as detailed in the Fiscal Year 2022 National Defence Authorisation Act (NDAA).", "The plane (serial number 92-3289/GA) which was the first to arrive at Robins AFB in 1996 has now been transferred to the 309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group at Davis–Monthan Air Force Base.USAF E-8C near Ukraine border on 23 March 2022 circa 14:37 UTC, likely monitoring Russian vehicle movementIn late 2021 to early 2022, E-8C JSTARS aircraft deployed to Europe during the 2021-2022 Russo-Ukrainian crisis.", "30 years after entering service, it was performing the type of mission it had originally been intended to: monitoring Russian military activity in Eastern Europe, which it did while operating over Ukrainian airspace until the start of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine in late February 2022.===Retirement===The USAF began an analysis of alternatives (AOA) in March 2010 for its next generation ground GMTI radar aircraft fleet.", "The study was completed in March 2012 and recommended buying a new business jet-based ISR aircraft, such as a version of the Boeing 737, and the Gulfstream 550.The Air Force said Joint STARS was expected to remain in operation through 2030.On 23 January 2014, the USAF revealed a plan for the acquisition of a new business jet-class replacement for the E-8C Joint STARS.", "The program was called Joint STARS Recap and planned for the aircraft to reach initial operating capability (IOC) by 2022.The airframe would be more efficient, and separate contracts would be awarded for developing the aircraft, airborne sensor, battle management command and control (BMC2) system, and communications subsystem.On 8 April 2014, the Air Force held an industry day for companies interested in competing for JSTARS Recap; attendees included Boeing, Bombardier Aerospace, and Gulfstream Aerospace.", "Air Force procurement documents called for a replacement for the Boeing 707-based E-8C as a \"business jet class\" airframe that is \"significantly smaller and more efficient.\"", "Indicative specification were for an aircraft with a 10-13 person crew with a radar array and capable of flying at 38,000 ft for eight hours.", "In August 2015, the Air Force issued contracts to Boeing, Lockheed Martin, and Northrop Grumman for a one-year pre-engineering and manufacturing development effort to mature and test competing designs ahead of a downselect in late 2017.During the fiscal 2019 budget rollout briefing it was announced that the Air Force will not move forward with an E-8C replacement aircraft.", "Funding for the JSTARS recapitalization program was instead be diverted to pay for development of an Advanced Battle Management System.The E-8C JSTARS began to be retired in February 2022, and flew its last operational sortie on 21 September 2023.Rather than procure a replacement aircraft, the USAF intends to use a network of satellites, aircraft sensors and ground radars as a cheaper and more resilient approach to collecting similar targeting and tracking data.", "The JSTARS performed its last flight on 15 November 2023.The aircraft conducted some 14,000 operational sorties flying more than 141,000 hours over 32 years of service." ], [ "Variants", "Edwards AFB\|alt= ;E-8A: Original platform configuration.", ";TE-8A: Single aircraft with mission equipment removed, used for flight crew training.", ";YE-8B: Single aircraft, was to be a U.S. Navy E-6 but transferred to the U.S. Air Force as a development aircraft before it was decided to convert second-hand Boeing 707s (1 from a Boeing CC-137) for the JSTARS role.", ";E-8C: Production Joint STARS platform configuration converted from second-hand Boeing 707s (1 from a CC-137)." ], [ "Operators", ";United States Air Force 1991-202393d/461st Air Control Wing - Robins Air Force Base, Georgia12th Airborne Command and Control Squadron16th Airborne Command and Control SquadronAir National Guard - 2006-2023116th Air Control Wing - Robins Air Force Base, Georgia*128th Airborne Command and Control Squadron" ], [ "Aircraft on display", " E-8C 00-2000 is preserved at the Museum of Aviation at Robins Air Force Base, Georgia.", "It was transported from the base to the museum's facilities in July 2023.", "* TE-8A 86-0416 was transferred to the Sowela Technical Community College in Lake Charles, Louisiana on 19 September 2023.It will be used as a ground aircraft maintenance training tool as part of the college's Aviation Maintenance Technology program.", "This aircraft was one of the original two pre-production E-8A which took part in Operation Desert Storm in 1991, and also saw action during Operation Joint Endeavor in 1995.Afterward, it was converted into a TE-8A training aircraft and used to qualify E-8C pilots, navigators, and flight engineers.", "E-8C 02-9111, the last JSTARS aircraft in service, was transferred to Kelly Field, San Antonio, Texas, on 15 November 2023, where it serves as a ground training aircraft in the 37th Training Wing." ], [ "Accidents", "One E-8C was damaged beyond economical repair during an operational sortie.", " On 13 March 2009, E-8C tail 93-0597, while assigned to the USAF 379th Air Expeditionary Wing, experienced a near catastrophic fuel tank over-pressurization during aerial refueling.", "The JSTARS crew was refueling from a KC-135T, when an unremoved test plug in the fuel vent system caused an overpressure event resulting in severe internal damage to the number two fuel tank and surrounding wing structure.", "The JSTARS crew were able to make a successful emergency landing at Al Udeid Air Base, and the aircraft was written off." ], [ "Specifications (E-8C)" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===" ], [ "External links", " Northrop Grumman Joint STARS System Information* Northrop Grumman Joint STARS Radar Information* Boeing Integrated Defense Systems* Northrop Grumman ISR overview* Joint STARS Re-engine Program Info" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Eric Cheney" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eric Cheney''' (5 January 1924 – 30 December 2001) was an English motorcycle racer, designer and independent constructor.", "He was known as one of the best motorcycle frame designers of his era, concentrating mainly in the off-road competition aftermarket." ], [ "Early life", "Cheney attended a school in Winchester based on Lancasterian principles before joining the Royal Navy at the age of 18, where he served on wartime Arctic convoys and in motor torpedo boats and gained experience of engineering and working on high performance engines.", "Cheney also worked on the development of remote controlled submarines for the Royal Navy." ], [ "Career", "After World War II, Cheney joined the motorcycle dealers Archers of Aldershot as a mechanic.", "Cheney began racing motocross and became one Britain's best riders, along with his travelling companion Les Archer, who went on to become European champion.", "He had ten successful years on the Continental circuit but a prolonged illness due to an infection contracted while racing in Algeria ended his riding career.", "He moved into bike preparation and designs for motorcycle chassis and suspension systems.Cheney had no formal training as a motorcycle designer yet was able to create original and high-performance motorcycle chassis designs working in a simple workshop that was essentially a domestic garage.", "His approach has been described as \"like a medieval engineer\" as in an age of computer-aided design and significant resources for research and development teams, he worked entirely by intuition.", "Eric relied on his long personal experience of international off-road competition riding and would prepare his initial designs for a new motorcycle frame in chalk on the wall of his workshop.", "Experimenting with different lines until he was satisfied, Cheney would then form the steel tubing using his chalk drawings as a guide.", "Only when he had built a working prototype motorcycle would he start work on a final jig for mass production.", "He was once quoted as saying \"I know when it's right and it screams at me when it's wrong.", "\"In the late 1960s, the British motorcycle industry was unable to support a national team to compete in the International Six Days Trial so, Cheney hand built a limited number of ISDT Cheney-Triumphs using his own design of twin down-tube frame with a specially tuned Triumph 5TA engine.", "Fitted with tapered conical hubs, special motocross forks and large alloy fuel tanks, a Cheney Triumph was first used in the 1968 British Trophy Team.", "In 1970 and 1971 three 504cc Cheney Triumphs were used by the British team in the ISDT, in which Cheney won a manufacturer's prize.", "Replicas were built, but production was short-lived due to a shortage of engines.1973 Cheney 500 cc BSA B50 VictorCheney's most noted successes were in the Grand Prix road racing championships, with Phil Read using his chassis in tandem with a Yamaha engine to win the 1971 250cc world championship.", "His designs were the last British ones to win a Grand Prix.", "He never worked for any of the major manufacturers but maintained a productive relationship with BSA in its heyday.", "After the demise of BSA in 1972, Cheney joined with former BSA factory rider John Banks to develop and campaign a highly successful BSA powered motocross bike.Some of Cheney's motorcycle designs are now famous in their own right, such as the competition BSA Gold Stars of Jerry Scott and Keith Hickman and the John Banks replica which used a BSA B50 engine specially tuned by Cheney.", "He also built some racing frames for Suzuki Grand Prix motorcycles in 1968 and, it has been suggested that Suzuki engineers incorporated features of Cheney's designs, such as magnesium hubs and lower fork legs into production road going motorcycles.", "Cheney's company was originally known as Eric Cheney Designs, then changed to Inter-Moto, now known as Cheney Racing." ], [ "Steve McQueen", "American actor Steve McQueen, an experienced off-road rider who represented the United States in the ISDT bought a number of Cheney's motorcycles at full price because he considered them better than other makes." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Cheney Racing web site" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Econometrics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Econometrics''' is an application of statistical methods to economic data in order to give empirical content to economic relationships.", "More precisely, it is \"the quantitative analysis of actual economic phenomena based on the concurrent development of theory and observation, related by appropriate methods of inference.\"", "An introductory economics textbook describes econometrics as allowing economists \"to sift through mountains of data to extract simple relationships.\"", "Jan Tinbergen is one of the two founding fathers of econometrics.", "The other, Ragnar Frisch, also coined the term in the sense in which it is used today.", "Aris Spanos (2008), \"statistics and economics\", ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd Edition.", "Abstract.", "A basic tool for econometrics is the multiple linear regression model.", "''Econometric theory'' uses statistical theory and mathematical statistics to evaluate and develop econometric methods.", "Econometricians try to find estimators that have desirable statistical properties including unbiasedness, efficiency, and consistency.", "''Applied econometrics'' uses theoretical econometrics and real-world data for assessing economic theories, developing econometric models, analysing economic history, and forecasting." ], [ "Basic models: linear regression", "A basic tool for econometrics is the multiple linear regression model.", "In modern econometrics, other statistical tools are frequently used, but linear regression is still the most frequently used starting point for an analysis.", "Estimating a linear regression on two variables can be visualised as fitting a line through data points representing paired values of the independent and dependent variables.Okun's law representing the relationship between GDP growth and the unemployment rate.", "The fitted line is found using regression analysis.For example, consider Okun's law, which relates GDP growth to the unemployment rate.", "This relationship is represented in a linear regression where the change in unemployment rate () is a function of an intercept (), a given value of GDP growth multiplied by a slope coefficient and an error term, ::The unknown parameters and can be estimated.", "Here is estimated to be 0.83 and is estimated to be -1.77.This means that if GDP growth increased by one percentage point, the unemployment rate would be predicted to drop by 1.77\t\t* 1 points, other things held constant.", "The model could then be tested for statistical significance as to whether an increase in GDP growth is associated with a decrease in the unemployment, as hypothesized.", "If the estimate of were not significantly different from 0, the test would fail to find evidence that changes in the growth rate and unemployment rate were related.", "The variance in a prediction of the dependent variable (unemployment) as a function of the independent variable (GDP growth) is given in polynomial least squares." ], [ "Theory", "Econometric theory uses statistical theory and mathematical statistics to evaluate and develop econometric methods.", "Econometricians try to find estimators that have desirable statistical properties including unbiasedness, efficiency, and consistency.", "An estimator is unbiased if its expected value is the true value of the parameter; it is consistent if it converges to the true value as the sample size gets larger, and it is efficient if the estimator has lower standard error than other unbiased estimators for a given sample size.", "Ordinary least squares (OLS) is often used for estimation since it provides the BLUE or \"best linear unbiased estimator\" (where \"best\" means most efficient, unbiased estimator) given the Gauss-Markov assumptions.", "When these assumptions are violated or other statistical properties are desired, other estimation techniques such as maximum likelihood estimation, generalized method of moments, or generalized least squares are used.", "Estimators that incorporate prior beliefs are advocated by those who favour Bayesian statistics over traditional, classical or \"frequentist\" approaches." ], [ "Methods", "''Applied econometrics'' uses theoretical econometrics and real-world data for assessing economic theories, developing econometric models, analysing economic history, and forecasting.Econometrics may use standard statistical models to study economic questions, but most often they are with observational data, rather than in controlled experiments.", "In this, the design of observational studies in econometrics is similar to the design of studies in other observational disciplines, such as astronomy, epidemiology, sociology and political science.", "Analysis of data from an observational study is guided by the study protocol, although exploratory data analysis may be useful for generating new hypotheses.", "Economics often analyses systems of equations and inequalities, such as supply and demand hypothesized to be in equilibrium.", "Consequently, the field of econometrics has developed methods for identification and estimation of simultaneous equations models.", "These methods are analogous to methods used in other areas of science, such as the field of system identification in systems analysis and control theory.", "Such methods may allow researchers to estimate models and investigate their empirical consequences, without directly manipulating the system.One of the fundamental statistical methods used by econometricians is regression analysis.", "Regression methods are important in econometrics because economists typically cannot use controlled experiments.", "Typically, the most readily available data is retrospective.", "However, retrospective analysis of observational data may be subject to omitted-variable bias, reverse causality, or other limitations that cast doubt on causal interpretation of the correlations.In the absence of evidence from controlled experiments, econometricians often seek illuminating natural experiments or apply quasi-experimental methods to draw credible causal inference.", "The methods include regression discontinuity design, instrumental variables, and difference-in-differences." ], [ "Example", "A simple example of a relationship in econometrics from the field of labour economics is::This example assumes that the natural logarithm of a person's wage is a linear function of the number of years of education that person has acquired.", "The parameter measures the increase in the natural log of the wage attributable to one more year of education.", "The term is a random variable representing all other factors that may have direct influence on wage.", "The econometric goal is to estimate the parameters, under specific assumptions about the random variable .", "For example, if is uncorrelated with years of education, then the equation can be estimated with ordinary least squares.If the researcher could randomly assign people to different levels of education, the data set thus generated would allow estimation of the effect of changes in years of education on wages.", "In reality, those experiments cannot be conducted.", "Instead, the econometrician observes the years of education of and the wages paid to people who differ along many dimensions.", "Given this kind of data, the estimated coefficient on years of education in the equation above reflects both the effect of education on wages and the effect of other variables on wages, if those other variables were correlated with education.", "For example, people born in certain places may have higher wages and higher levels of education.", "Unless the econometrician controls for place of birth in the above equation, the effect of birthplace on wages may be falsely attributed to the effect of education on wages.The most obvious way to control for birthplace is to include a measure of the effect of birthplace in the equation above.", "Exclusion of birthplace, together with the assumption that is uncorrelated with education produces a misspecified model.", "Another technique is to include in the equation additional set of measured covariates which are not instrumental variables, yet render identifiable.", "An overview of econometric methods used to study this problem were provided by Card (1999)." ], [ "Journals", "The main journals that publish work in econometrics are:* ''Econometrica'', which is published by Econometric Society.", "* The ''Journal of Econometrics'', which also publishes the supplement ''Annals of Econometrics.", "''* ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', which is over 100 years old.", "* The ''Journal of Applied Econometrics'', which applies econometrics to a wide various problems.", "* ''Econometric Reviews'', which includes reviews on econometric books and software as well.", "* ''The Econometrics Journal'', which was established by the Royal Economic Society.", "* and the ''Journal of Business & Economic Statistics,'' which is published by the American Statistical Associaion." ], [ "Limitations and criticisms", "Like other forms of statistical analysis, badly specified econometric models may show a spurious relationship where two variables are correlated but causally unrelated.", "In a study of the use of econometrics in major economics journals, McCloskey concluded that some economists report ''p''-values (following the Fisherian tradition of tests of significance of point null-hypotheses) and neglect concerns of type II errors; some economists fail to report estimates of the size of effects (apart from statistical significance) and to discuss their economic importance.", "She also argues that some economists also fail to use economic reasoning for model selection, especially for deciding which variables to include in a regression.In some cases, economic variables cannot be experimentally manipulated as treatments randomly assigned to subjects.", "In such cases, economists rely on observational studies, often using data sets with many strongly associated covariates, resulting in enormous numbers of models with similar explanatory ability but different covariates and regression estimates.", "Regarding the plurality of models compatible with observational data-sets, Edward Leamer urged that \"professionals ... properly withhold belief until an inference can be shown to be adequately insensitive to the choice of assumptions\"." ], [ "See also", "* Augmented Dickey–Fuller test* Choice modelling* Cowles Foundation* Econometric software* Financial econometrics* Financial modeling* Granger causality* Important publications in econometrics* Macroeconomic model* Mathematical sociology* Methodological individualism* Predetermined variables* Single-equation methods (econometrics)* Spatial econometrics* Unit root" ], [ "Further reading", "* Econometric Theory book on Wikibooks* Giovannini, Enrico ''Understanding Economic Statistics'', OECD Publishing, 2008," ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Journal of Financial Econometrics* Econometric Society* The Econometrics Journal* Econometric Links* Teaching Econometrics (Index by the Economics Network (UK))* Applied Econometric Association* The Society for Financial Econometrics* The interview with Clive Granger – Nobel winner in 2003, about econometrics" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ellen van Langen" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ellen Gezina Maria van Langen''' (; born 9 February 1966) is a Dutch former middle distance runner, who specialised in the 800 metres.", "A talented but injury-ridden athlete, she was the 1992 Olympic Champion for the women's 800 meters.", "She is now the director of the FBK games (the Hengelo meeting)." ], [ "Career", "Van Langen was born in Oldenzaal, Overijssel.", "Before she started running she played football.", "She only started to run seriously at 20.In 1989, she won her first of four national championships in the 800 meters and went on to win a silver medal behind Ana Quirot (Cuba) at the World Student Games (Universiade), running 1:59.82.In 1990, she finished fourth in the final of the European Championships in Split, with a Dutch national record of 1:57.57, behind the East German athletes Sigrun Wodars (gold), Christine Wachtel (silver) and Liliya Nurutdinova (bronze) from the Soviet Union.During the year 1991, she was troubled by an Achilles tendon injury.", "At the Tokyo World Championships she was eliminated in the heats.", "The next year, leading up to the 1992 Olympic Games in Barcelona, she defeated Tokyo gold medallist Liliya Nurutdinova at the Fanny Blankers-Koen Games in Hengelo on 28 June in 1:56.66, the fastest time of the season prior to the Games.", "Just two weeks before the Olympics, she ran another fast time of 1:56.92 at Hechtel.At the 1992 Olympic Games in Barcelona, Van Langen won the Olympic title in the 800 metres in a time of 1:55.54, a time which is still the Dutch national record.", "Fearing her final sprint, her competitors including favorites Nurutdinova, Quirot, Ella Kovacs (Romania) and Maria Mutola (Mozambique) set a rapid pace, running the first lap in a very fast time of 55.73, with Van Langen only in 6th position.", "Entering the final stretch Nurutdinova, who had led the final from the start, had a slight lead but Van Langen moved through on the inside in the last 50m to win a surprise victory, beating Nurutdinova (silver) and Quirot (bronze).The year 1992 remained her top year, when she won 10 of her 11 800m races.", "After her Olympic triumph, she was plagued by various injuries.", "Her best result after 1992 was a 6th-place finish at the 1995 World Championships at Gothenburg.", "The ongoing injuries prevented her from defending her Olympic title in 1996.She retired from the sport in 1998.Van Langen later explained the secret of her success.", "\"I think what I could do well is I could die very well in a race and still continue,” she said.", "“That is very hard, because it hurts running the 800 meters.", "You have to overcome some boundaries in yourself to continue when it hurts like hell.", "I was good at it.", "If the Olympic race would have been run by each athlete individual and the fastest time was the winner I would not have won.\"", "She added: \"I was also good in tactics, looking around me and taking the right decisions.", "\"After her gold medal win in 1992 the Amsterdam unemployment benefits office terminated her dole on grounds that she might earn money from her victory in the future.", "She has a degree in economics from the University of Amsterdam, and currently works as an event manager for Global Sports Communication.Van Langen is the director of the Fanny Blankers-Koen Games in Hengelo." ], [ "Personal bests", "Information from World Athletics profile unless otherwise noted.TypeEventTime (m:s)VenueDateRecordOutdoor800 metres1:55.54Barcelona, Spain3 August 19921000 metres2:35.21Sheffield, United Kingdom29 August 19931500 metres4:06.97Lausanne, Switzerland6 July 1994One mile4:31.88Lausanne, Switzerland8 July 1992Indoor800 metres2:00.36 Liévin, France19 February 19951000 metres2:39.65 Sindelfingen, Germany21 January 1990" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emacs Lisp" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Emacs Lisp''' is a dialect of the Lisp programming language used as a scripting language by Emacs (a text editor family most commonly associated with GNU Emacs and XEmacs).", "It is used for implementing most of the editing functionality built into Emacs, the remainder being written in C, as is the Lisp interpreter.", "Emacs Lisp is also termed '''Elisp''', although there are also older, unrelated Lisp dialects with that name.Users of Emacs commonly write Emacs Lisp code to customize and extend Emacs.", "Itself written in Emacs Lisp, Customize provides a set of preferences pages allowing the user to set options and preview their effect in the running Emacs session.", "When the user saves their changes, Customize simply writes the necessary Emacs Lisp code to the user's config file, which can be set to a special file that only Customize uses, to avoid the possibility of altering the user's own file.Emacs Lisp can also function as a scripting language, much like the Unix Bourne shell or Perl, by calling Emacs in ''batch mode''.", "In this way it may be called from the command line or via an executable file, and its editing functions, such as buffers and movement commands are available to the program just as in the normal mode.", "No user interface is presented when Emacs is started in batch mode; it simply executes the passed-in script and exits, displaying any output from the script." ], [ "Compared to other Lisp dialects", "Emacs Lisp is most closely related to Maclisp, with some later influence from Common Lisp.", "It supports imperative and functional programming methods.", "Lisp was the default extension language for Emacs derivatives such as EINE and ZWEI.", "When Richard Stallman forked Gosling Emacs into GNU Emacs, he also chose Lisp as the extension language, because of its powerful features, including the ability to treat functions as data.", "Although the Common Lisp standard had yet to be formulated, Scheme existed at the time but Stallman chose not to use it because of its comparatively poor performance on workstations (as opposed to the minicomputers that were Emacs' traditional home), and he wanted to develop a dialect which he thought would be more easily optimized.The Lisp dialect used in Emacs differs substantially from the more modern Common Lisp and Scheme dialects used for applications programming.", "A prominent characteristic of Emacs Lisp is in its use of dynamic rather than lexical scope by default.", "That is, a function may reference local variables in the scope it is called from, but not in the scope where it was defined.", "Recently, there has been an ongoing effort to update code to use lexical scoping, for reasons outlined below." ], [ "Example", "The development of Emacs Lisp was guided by the goal of providing data structures and features specific to making a versatile text editor over implementing a general-purpose programming language.", "For example, Emacs Lisp cannot easily read a file a line at a time—the entire file must be read into an Emacs buffer.", "However, Emacs Lisp provides many features for navigating and modifying buffer text at a sentence, paragraph, or higher syntactic level as defined by modes.Here follows a simple example of an Emacs extension written in Emacs Lisp.", "In Emacs, the editing area can be split into separate areas called ''windows'', each displaying a different ''buffer''.", "A buffer is a region of text loaded into Emacs' memory (possibly from a file) which can be saved into a text document.Users can press the default C-x 2 key binding to open a new window.", "This runs the Emacs Lisp function split-window-below.", "Normally, when the new window appears, it displays the same buffer as the previous one.", "Suppose we wish to make it display the next available buffer.", "In order to do this, the user writes the following Emacs Lisp code, in either an existing Emacs Lisp source file or an empty Emacs buffer:(defun my-split-window-func () (interactive) (split-window-below) (set-window-buffer (next-window) (other-buffer)))(global-set-key (kbd \"C-x 2\") #'my-split-window-func)The first statement, (defun ...), defines a new function, my-split-window-func, which calls split-window-below (the old window-splitting function), then tells the new window to display another (new) buffer.", "The second statement, (global-set-key ...) re-binds the key sequence \"C-x 2\" to the new function.This can also be written using the feature called ''advice'', which allows the user to create wrappers around existing functions instead of defining their own.", "This has the advantage of not requiring keybindings to be changed and working wherever the original function is called, as well as being simpler to write but the disadvantage of making debugging more complicated.", "For this reason, ''advice'' is not allowed in the source code of GNU Emacs, but if a user wishes, the advice feature can be used in their code to reimplement the above code as follows:(defadvice split-window-below (after my-window-splitting-advice first () activate) (set-window-buffer (next-window) (other-buffer)))This instructs split-window-below to execute the user-supplied code whenever it is called, after executing the rest of the function.", "Advice can also be specified to execute before the original function, around it (literally wrapping the original), or to conditionally execute the original function based on the results of the advice.Emacs 24.4 replaces this defadvice mechanism with advice-add, which is claimed to be more flexible and simpler.", "The advice above could be reimplemented using the new system as:(defun switch-to-next-window-in-split () (set-window-buffer (next-window) (other-buffer)))(advice-add 'split-window-below :before #'switch-to-next-window-in-split)These changes take effect as soon as the code is evaluated.", "It is not necessary to recompile, restart Emacs, or even rehash a configuration file.", "If the code is saved into an Emacs init file, then Emacs will load the extension the next time it starts.", "Otherwise, the changes must be reevaluated manually when Emacs is restarted." ], [ "Source code", "Emacs Lisp code is stored in filesystems as plain text files, by convention with the filename suffix \".el\".", "The user's init file is an exception, often appearing as \".emacs\" despite being evaluated as any Emacs Lisp code.", "Since the mid-1990s, Emacs also loads ~/.emacs.el and ~/.emacs.d/init.el.", "Additionally, users may specify any file to load as a config file on the command line, or explicitly state that no config file is to be loaded.", "When the files are loaded, an interpreter component of the Emacs program reads and parses the functions and variables, storing them in memory.", "They are then available to other editing functions, and to user commands.", "Functions and variables can be freely modified and redefined without restarting the editor or reloading the config file.In order to save time and memory space, much of the functionality of Emacs loads only when required.", "Each set of optional features shipped with Emacs is implemented by a collection of Emacs code called a package or library.", "For example, there is a library for highlighting keywords in program source code, and a library for playing the game of Tetris.", "Each library is implemented using one or more Emacs Lisp source files.", "Libraries can define one or more ''major modes'' to activate and control their function.Emacs developers write certain functions in C. These are ''primitives'', also termed ''built-in functions'' or ''subrs''.", "Although primitives can be called from Lisp code, they can only be modified by editing the C source files and recompiling.", "In GNU Emacs, primitives are not available as external libraries; they are part of the Emacs executable.", "In XEmacs, runtime loading of such primitives is possible, using the operating system's support for dynamic linking.", "Functions may be written as primitives because they need access to external data and libraries not otherwise available from Emacs Lisp, or because they are called often enough that the comparative speed of C versus Emacs Lisp makes a worthwhile difference.However, because errors in C code can easily lead to segmentation violations or to more subtle bugs, which crash the editor, and because writing C code that interacts correctly with the Emacs Lisp garbage collector is error-prone, the number of functions implemented as primitives is kept to a necessary minimum.===Byte code===''Byte-compiling'' can make Emacs Lisp code execute faster.", "Emacs contains a compiler which can translate Emacs Lisp source files into a special representation termed bytecode.", "Emacs Lisp bytecode files have the filename suffix \".elc\".", "Compared to source files, bytecode files load and run faster, occupy less disk space, and use less memory when loaded.Bytecode still runs more slowly than primitives, but functions loaded as bytecode can be easily modified and re-loaded.", "In addition, bytecode files are platform-independent.", "The standard Emacs Lisp code distributed with Emacs is loaded as bytecode, although the matching source files are usually provided for the user's reference as well.", "User-supplied extensions are typically not byte-compiled, as they are neither as large nor as computationally intensive." ], [ "Language features", "Notably, the \"cl-lib\" package implements a fairly large subset of Common Lisp.", "This package replaces an earlier \"cl\" package, which would overwrite existing Emacs Lisp function definitions with ones more similar to those found in Common Lisp.", "The \"cl-lib\" package, on the other hand, follows Emacs Lisp style guidelines more closely and prefixes each function and macro it defines with \"cl-\" (e.g., cl-defun, which doesn't conflict with the name of the built-in defun), avoiding the unexpected changes in behavior that could occur whenever the \"cl\" package was loaded.Emacs Lisp (unlike some other Lisp implementations) does not do tail-call optimization.", "Without this, tail recursions can eventually lead to stack overflow.The apel library aids in writing portable Emacs Lisp code, with the help of the polysylabi platform bridge.Emacs Lisp is a Lisp-2 like Common Lisp, meaning that it has a function namespace which is separate from the namespace it uses for other variables.===From dynamic to lexical scoping===Like MacLisp, Emacs Lisp uses dynamic scope, offering static (or lexical) as an option starting from version 24.It can be activated by setting the file local variable lexical-binding.", "Before this option was added, one could use the lexical-let macro from the (now deprecated) \"cl\" package to provide effective lexical scope.In dynamic scoping, if a programmer declares a variable within the scope of a function, it is available to subroutines called from within that function.", "Originally, this was intended as an optimization; lexical scoping was still uncommon and of uncertain performance.", "In computer scientist Olin Shivers’s recollection, \"I asked RMS when he was implementing emacs lisp why it was dynamically scoped and his exact reply was that lexical scope was too inefficient.\"", "Dynamic scoping was also meant to provide greater flexibility for user customizations.", "However, dynamic scoping has several disadvantages.", "Firstly, it can easily lead to bugs in large programs, due to unintended interactions between variables in different functions.", "Secondly, accessing variables under dynamic scoping is generally slower than under lexical scoping." ], [ "See also", "* Vim script" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* , GNU Project" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Edward Bulwer-Lytton" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton''', PC (25 May 180318 January 1873) was an English writer and politician.", "He served as a Whig member of Parliament from 1831 to 1841 and a Conservative from 1851 to 1866.He was Secretary of State for the Colonies from June 1858 to June 1859, choosing Richard Clement Moody as founder of British Columbia.", "He declined the Crown of Greece in 1862 after King Otto abdicated.", "He was created Baron Lytton of Knebworth in 1866.Bulwer-Lytton's works were well known in his time.", "He coined famous phrases like \"pursuit of the almighty dollar\", \"the pen is mightier than the sword\", \"dweller on the threshold\", \"the great unwashed\", and the opening phrase \"It was a dark and stormy night.\"", "The sardonic Bulwer-Lytton Fiction Contest, held annually since 1982, claims to seek the \"opening sentence of the worst of all possible novels\"." ], [ "Life", "Bulwer was born on 25 May 1803 to General William Earle Bulwer of Heydon Hall and Wood Dalling, Norfolk and Elizabeth Barbara Lytton, daughter of Richard Warburton Lytton of Knebworth House, Hertfordshire.", "He had two older brothers, William Earle Lytton Bulwer (1799–1877) and Henry (1801–1872), later Lord Dalling and Bulwer.His father died and his mother moved to London when he was four years old.", "When he was 15, a tutor named Wallington, who tutored him at Ealing, encouraged him to publish an immature work: ''Ishmael and Other Poems''.", "Around this time, Bulwer fell in love, but the woman's father induced her to marry another man.", "She died about the time that Bulwer went to Cambridge and he stated that her loss affected all his subsequent life.In 1822 Bulwer-Lytton entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he met John Auldjo, but soon moved to Trinity Hall.", "In 1825 he won the Chancellor's Gold Medal for English verse.", "In the following year he took his BA degree and printed for private circulation a small volume of poems, ''Weeds and Wild Flowers''.", "He purchased an army commission in 1826, but sold it in 1829 without serving.Edward Bulwer-Lytton.", "His ''Harold, the Last of the Saxons'' (1848) was the source for Verdi's opera ''Aroldo''.In August 1827, he married Rosina Doyle Wheeler (1802–1882), a noted Irish beauty, but against the wishes of his mother, who withdrew his allowance, forcing him to work for a living.", "They had two children, Emily Elizabeth Bulwer-Lytton (1828–1848), and (Edward) Robert Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton (1831–1891) who became Governor-General and Viceroy of British India (1876–1880).", "His writing and political work strained their marriage and his infidelity embittered Rosina.", "In 1833, they separated acrimoniously and in 1836 the separation became legal.", "Three years later, Rosina published ''Cheveley, or the Man of Honour'' (1839), a near-libellous fiction satirising her husband's alleged hypocrisy.", "In June 1858, when her husband was standing as parliamentary candidate for Hertfordshire, she denounced him at the hustings.", "He retaliated by threatening her publishers, withholding her allowance and denying her access to their children.", "Finally he had her committed to a mental asylum, but she was released a few weeks later after a public outcry.", "This she chronicled in a memoir, ''A Blighted Life'' (1880).", "She continued attacking her husband's character for several years.Bulwer-Lytton in later lifeThe death of Bulwer's mother in 1843 meant his \"exhaustion of toil and study had been completed by great anxiety and grief,\" and by \"about the January of 1844, I was thoroughly shattered.\"", "In his mother's room at Knebworth House, which he inherited, he \"had inscribed above the mantelpiece a request that future generations preserve the room as his beloved mother had used it.\"", "It remains hardly changed to this day.", "On 20 February 1844, in accordance with his mother's will, he changed his surname from Bulwer to Bulwer-Lytton and assumed the arms of Lytton by royal licence.", "His widowed mother had done the same in 1811.His brothers remained plain \"Bulwer\".By chance, Bulwer-Lytton encountered a copy of \"Captain Claridge's work on the \"Water Cure\", as practised by Priessnitz, at Graefenberg\" and, \"making allowances for certain exaggerations therein\", pondered the option of travelling to Graefenberg, but preferred to find something closer to home, with access to his own doctors in case of failure: \"I who scarcely lived through a day without leech or potion!\".", "After reading a pamphlet by Doctor James Wilson, who operated a hydropathic establishment with James Manby Gully at Malvern, he stayed there for \"some nine or ten weeks\", after which he \"continued the system some seven weeks longer under Doctor Weiss, at Petersham\", then again at \"Doctor Schmidt's magnificent hydropathic establishment at Boppart\" (at the former Marienberg Convent at Boppard), after developing a cold and fever upon his return home.When Otto, King of Greece abdicated in 1862, Bulwer-Lytton was offered the Greek Crown, but declined.The English Rosicrucian society, founded in 1867 by Robert Wentworth Little, claimed Bulwer-Lytton as their \"Grand Patron\", but he wrote to the society complaining that he was \"extremely surprised\" by their use of the title, as he had \"never sanctioned such.\"", "Nevertheless, a number of esoteric groups have continued to claim Bulwer-Lytton as their own, chiefly because some of his writings – such as the 1842 book ''Zanoni'' – have included Rosicrucian and other esoteric notions.", "According to the Fulham Football Club, he once resided in the original Craven Cottage, today the site of their stadium.Bulwer-Lytton had long suffered from a disease of the ear, and for the last two or three years of his life lived in Torquay nursing his health.", "After an operation to cure deafness, an abscess formed in the ear and burst; he endured intense pain for a week and died at 2 am on 18 January 1873, just short of his 70th birthday.", "The cause of death was unclear but it was thought the infection had affected his brain and caused a fit.", "Rosina outlived him by nine years.", "Against his wishes, Bulwer-Lytton was honoured with a burial in Westminster Abbey.", "His unfinished history ''Athens: Its Rise and Fall'' was published posthumously." ], [ "Political career", "Ape published in ''Vanity Fair'' in 1870Bulwer began his political career as a follower of Jeremy Bentham.", "In 1831 he was elected member for St Ives, Cornwall, after which he was returned for Lincoln in 1832, and sat in Parliament for that city for nine years.", "He spoke in favour of the Reform Bill and took the lead in securing the reduction, after he had vainly supported the repeal, of the newspaper stamp duties.", "His influence was perhaps most keenly felt after the British Whig Party's dismissal from office in 1834, when he issued a pamphlet entitled ''A Letter to a Late Cabinet Minister on the Crisis''.", "Lord Melbourne, the Prime Minister, offered him a lordship of the Admiralty, which he declined as likely to interfere with his activity as an author.Bulwer was created a baronet, of Knebworth House in the County of Hertford, in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom, in 1838.In 1841, he left Parliament and spent much of his time in travel.", "He did not return to politics until 1852, when, having differed from Lord John Russell over the Corn Laws, he stood for Hertfordshire as a Conservative.", "Bulwer-Lytton held that seat until 1866, when he was raised to the peerage as '''Baron Lytton''' of Knebworth in the County of Hertford.", "In 1858, he entered Lord Derby's government as Secretary of State for the Colonies, thus serving alongside his old friend Benjamin Disraeli.", "He was comparatively inactive in the House of Lords.", "\"Just prior to his government's defeat in 1859 the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton, notified Sir George Ferguson Bowen of his appointment as Governor of the new colony to be known as 'Queen's Land'.\"", "The draft letter was ranked #4 in the 'Top 150: Documenting Queensland' exhibition when it toured to venues around Queensland from February 2009 to April 2010.The exhibition was part of Queensland State Archives' events and exhibition program which contributed to the state's Q150 celebrations, marking the 150th anniversary of the separation of Queensland from New South Wales.===British Columbia===When news of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush reached London, Bulwer-Lytton, as Secretary of State for the Colonies, requested that the War Office recommend a field officer, \"a man of good judgement possessing a knowledge of mankind\", to lead a Corps of 150 (later increased to 172) Royal Engineers, who had been selected for their \"superior discipline and intelligence\".", "The War Office chose Richard Clement Moody, and Lord Lytton, who described Moody as his \"distinguished friend\", accepted the nomination in view of Moody's military record, his success as Governor of the Falkland Islands, and the distinguished record of his father, Colonel Thomas Moody, Knight at the Colonial Office.", "Moody was charged to establish British order and transform the newly-established Colony of British Columbia into the British Empire's \"bulwark in the farthest west\" and \"found a second England on the shores of the Pacific\".", "Lytton desired to send to the colony \"representatives of the best of British culture, not just a police force\", sought men who possessed \"courtesy, high breeding and urbane knowledge of the world\", and decided to send Moody, whom the Government considered to be the archetypal \"English gentleman and British Officer\" at the head of the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment to whom he wrote an impassioned letter.The former HBC Fort Dallas at Camchin, the confluence of the Thompson and the Fraser Rivers, was renamed in his honour by Governor Sir James Douglas in 1858 as Lytton, British Columbia." ], [ "Literary works", "Bulwer-Lytton's literary career began in 1820 with the publication of a book of poems and spanned much of the 19th century.", "He wrote in a variety of genres, including historical fiction, mystery, romance, the occult and science fiction.", "He financed his extravagant way of life with a varied and prolific literary output, sometimes publishing anonymously.", "Pelham'' with Hablot K. Browne (Phiz) frontispiece: Pelham's electioneering visit to the Rev.", "Combermere St Quintin, who is surprised at dinner with his family.Bulwer-Lytton published ''Falkland'' in 1827, a novel which was only a moderate success.", "But ''Pelham'' brought him public acclaim in 1828 and established his reputation as a wit and dandy.", "Its intricate plot and humorous, intimate portrayal of pre-Victorian dandyism kept gossips busy trying to associate public figures with characters in the book.", "''Pelham'' resembled Benjamin Disraeli's first novel ''Vivian Grey'' (1827).", "The character of the villainous Richard Crawford in ''The Disowned'', also published in 1828, borrowed much from that of banker and forger Henry Fauntleroy, who was hanged in London in 1824 before a crowd of some 100,000.Bulwer-Lytton admired Disraeli's father Isaac D'Israeli, himself a noted author.", "They began corresponding in the late 1820s and met for the first time in March 1830, when Isaac D'Israeli dined at Bulwer-Lytton's house.", "Also present that evening were Charles Pelham Villiers and Alexander Cockburn.", "The young Villiers had a long parliamentary career, while Cockburn became Lord Chief Justice of England in 1859.Bulwer-Lytton reached his height of popularity with the publication of ''England and the English'', and ''Godolphin'' (1833).", "This was followed by ''The Pilgrims of the Rhine'' (1834), ''The Last Days of Pompeii'' (1834), ''Rienzi, Last of the Roman Tribunes'' about Cola di Rienzo (1835), ''Ernest Maltravers; or, The Eleusinia'' (1837), ''Alice; or, The Mysteries'' (1838), ''Leila; or, The Siege of Granada'' (1838), and ''Harold, the Last of the Saxons'' (1848).", "''The Last Days of Pompeii'' was inspired by Karl Briullov's painting ''The Last Day of Pompeii'', which Bulwer-Lytton saw in Milan.His ''New Timon'' lampooned Tennyson, who responded in kind.", "Bulwer-Lytton also wrote the horror story ''The Haunted and the Haunters; or, The House and the Brain'' (1859).", "Another novel with a supernatural theme was ''A Strange Story'' (1862), which was an influence on Bram Stoker's ''Dracula''.Bulwer-Lytton wrote many other works, including ''Vril: The Power of the Coming Race'' (1871) which drew heavily on his interest in the occult and contributed to the early growth of the science fiction genre.", "Its story of a subterranean race waiting to reclaim the surface of the Earth is an early science fiction theme.", "The book popularised the Hollow Earth theory and may have inspired Nazi mysticism.", "His term \"vril\" lent its name to Bovril meat extract.", "The book was also the theme of a fundraising event held at the Royal Albert Hall in 1891, the Vril-Ya Bazaar and Fete.", "\"Vril\" has been adopted by theosophists and occultists since the 1870s and became closely associated with the ideas of an esoteric neo-Nazism after 1945.His play ''Money'' (1840) was first produced at the Theatre Royal, Haymarket, London, on 8 December 1840.The first American production was at the Old Park Theater in New York on 1 February 1841.Subsequent productions include the Prince of Wales's Theatre's in 1872 and as the inaugural play at the new California Theatre (San Francisco) in 1869.Among Bulwer-Lytton's lesser-known contributions to literature was that he convinced Charles Dickens to revise the ending of ''Great Expectations'' to make it more palatable to the reading public, as in the original version of the novel, Pip and Estella do not get together." ], [ "Legacy", "Bulwer-Lytton's works had an influence in a number of fields.===Quotations===Bulwer-Lytton's most famous quotation is \"The pen is mightier than the sword\" from his play ''Richelieu'':beneath the rule of men entirely great, the pen is mightier than the swordHe popularized the phrase \"pursuit of the almighty dollar\" from his novel ''The Coming Race'', and he is credited with \"the great unwashed\", using this disparaging term in his 1830 novel ''Paul Clifford'':He is certainly a man who bathes and \"lives cleanly\", (two especial charges preferred against him by Messrs. the Great Unwashed).", "===Theosophy===The writers of theosophy were among those influenced by Bulwer-Lytton's work.", "Annie Besant and especially Helena Blavatsky incorporated his thoughts and ideas, particularly from ''The Last Days of Pompeii'', ''Vril, the Power of the Coming Race'' and ''Zanoni'' in her own books.===Contest===Bulwer-Lytton's name lives on in the annual Bulwer-Lytton Fiction Contest, in which contestants think up terrible openings for imaginary novels, inspired by the first line of his 1830 novel ''Paul Clifford'':It was a dark and stormy night; the rain fell in torrentsexcept at occasional intervals, when it was checked by a violent gust of wind which swept up the streets (for it is in London that our scene lies), rattling along the housetops, and fiercely agitating the scanty flame of the lamps that struggled against the darkness.Entrants in the contest seek to capture the rapid changes in point of view, the florid language, and the atmosphere of the full sentence.", "The opening was popularized by the ''Peanuts'' comic strip, in which Snoopy's sessions on the typewriter usually began with \"It was a dark and stormy night\".", "The same words also form the first sentence of Madeleine L'Engle's Newbery Medal-winning novel ''A Wrinkle in Time''.", "Similar wording appears in Edgar Allan Poe's 1831 short story \"The Bargain Lost\", although not at the very beginning.", "It reads:It was a dark and stormy night.", "The rain fell in cataracts; and drowsy citizens started, from dreams of the deluge, to gaze upon the boisterous sea, which foamed and bellowed for admittance into the proud towers and marble palaces.", "Who would have thought of passions so fierce in that calm water that slumbers all day long?", "At a slight alabaster stand, trembling beneath the ponderous tomes which it supported, sat the hero of our story.===Operas===Several of Bulwer-Lytton's novels were made into operas.", "One of them, ''Rienzi, der Letzte der Tribunen'' (1842) by Richard Wagner, eventually became more famous than the novel.", "''Leonora'' (1846) by William Henry Fry, the first European-styled \"grand\" opera composed in the United States, is based on Bulwer-Lytton's play ''The Lady of Lyons'', as is Frederic Cowen's first opera ''Pauline'' (1876).", "Verdi rival Errico Petrella's most successful opera, ''Jone'' (1858), was based on Bulwer-Lytton's ''The Last Days of Pompeii'', and was performed all over the world until the 1880s, and in Italy until 1910.", "''Harold, the Last of the Saxons'' (1848) provided character names (but little else) for Verdi's opera ''Aroldo'' (1857).===Theatrical adaptations===Shortly after their first publication, ''The Last Days of Pompeii'', ''Rienzi'', and ''Ernest Maltravers'' all received successful stage performances in New York.The plays were written by Louisa Medina, one of the most successful playwrights of the 19th century.", "''The Last Days of Pompeii'' had the longest continuous stage run in New York at the time with 29 straight performances.===Magazines===In addition to his political and literary work, Bulwer-Lytton became the editor of the ''New Monthly'' in 1831, but he resigned the following year.", "In 1841, he started the ''Monthly Chronicle'', a semi-scientific magazine.", "During his career he wrote poetry, prose, and stage plays; his last novel was ''Kenelm Chillingly'', which was in course of publication in ''Blackwood's Magazine'' at the time of his death in 1873.===Translations===Bulwer-Lytton's works of fiction and non-fiction were translated in his day and since then into many languages, including Serbian (by Laza Kostic), German, Russian, Norwegian, Swedish, French, Finnish, and Spanish.", "In 1879, his ''Ernest Maltravers'' was the first complete novel from the West to be translated into Japanese.===Place names===In Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, the suburb of Lytton, the town of Bulwer on Moreton Island (Moorgumpin) and the neighbourhood (former island) of Bulwer Island are named after him.", "The township of Lytton, Quebec (today part of Montcerf-Lytton) was named after him as was Lytton, British Columbia, and Lytton, Iowa.", "Lytton Road in Gisborne, New Zealand was named after the novelist.", "Later a state secondary school, Lytton High School, was founded in the road.", "Also in New Zealand, Bulwer is a small locality in Waihinau Bay in the outer Pelorus Sound, New Zealand.", "It can be reached by 77 km of winding, mostly unsealed, road from Rai Valley.", "A weekly mail boat service delivers mail and also offers passenger services.", "In London, Lytton Road in the suburb of Pinner, where the novelist lived, is named after him.===Portrayal on television===Bulwer-Lytton was portrayed by the actor Brett Usher in the 1978 television serial ''Disraeli''." ], [ "Works", "===Novels===''Falkland'' (1827) Available online''Pelham'' (1828) Available online''The Disowned'' (1829) Available online''Devereux'' (1829) Available online''Paul Clifford'' (1830) Available online''Eugene Aram'' (1832) Available online''Godolphin'' (1833) Available online''Asmodeus at Large'' (1833)''The Last Days of Pompeii'' (1834) Available online''The Pilgrims of the Rhine'' (1834) Available online''Rienzi, the last of the Roman tribunes'' (1835) Available online''The Student'' (1835)''Ernest Maltravers; or The Eleusinia'' (1837) Available online''Alice, or The Mysteries'' (1838), a sequel to ''Ernest Maltravers'' Available online''Calderon, the Courtier'' (1838) Available online''Leila; or, The Siege of Granada'' (1838) Available online''Zicci: a Tale'' (1838) Available online''Night and Morning'' (1841) Available online''Zanoni'' (1842) Available online''The Last of the Barons'' (1843) Available online''Lucretia; or, The Children of Night'' (1846) Available online''Harold, the Last of the Saxons'' (1848) Available online''The Caxtons: A Family Picture'' (1849) Available online''My Novel, or Varieties in English Life'' (1853) Available online''The Haunted and the Haunters; or, The House and the Brain'' (novelette, 1859) Available online''What Will He Do With It?''", "(1858) Available online''A Strange Story'' (1861–1862) Available online''The Coming Race'' (1871), republished as ''Vril: The Power of the Coming Race'' – Available online''Kenelm Chillingly'' (1873) Available online''The Parisians'' (1873) Available online''Pausanias, the Spartan'' – Unfinished (1873)===Verse===''Ismael'' (1820)''The Poems and Ballads of Schiller'', translator (1844), published by Bernard Tauchnitz, Leipzig''The New Timon'' (1846), an attack on Tennyson published anonymously''King Arthur'' (1848–1849)===Plays===''The Duchess de la Vallière'' (1837)''The Lady of Lyons'' (1838)''Richelieu'' (1839), adapted for the 1935 film ''Cardinal Richelieu''''Money'' (1840)''Not So Bad as We Seem, or, Many Sides to a Character: A Comedy in Five Acts'' (1851)''The Rightful Heir'' (1868), based on ''The Sea Captain'', an earlier play of Lytton's''Walpole, or Every Man Has His Price''''Darnley'' (unfinished)" ], [ "See also", "Bulwer-Lytton and TheosophyLytton, Queensland" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* (Distributed in the United States and Canada by Palgrave Macmillan)Whittington-Egan, Molly (2013).", "''Arthur O'Shaughnessy: Music Maker'' Bluecoat Press" ], [ "External links", "===Bulwer-Lytton ebooks===*===Other links=== Edward George Earl Bulwer-Lytton (1803–73)* John S. Moore's essay on Bulwer-Lytton * Edward Bulwer-Lytton biography and works* Complete Works of Edward Bulwer-Lytton (Delphi Classics)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Esperanto" ], [ "Introduction", "An Esperanto speaker, recorded in the United States.L.", "L. Zamenhof developed Esperanto in the 1870s and '80s.", "''Unua Libro'', the first print discussion of the language, appeared in 1887.The number of Esperanto speakers have increased gradually since then, without much support from governments and international organizations.", "Its use has, in some instances, been outlawed or otherwise suppressed." ], [ "Standardized Yiddish", "Around 1880, while in Moscow and approximately simultaneously with working on Esperanto, Zamenhof made an aborted attempt to standardize Yiddish, based on his native Bialystok (Northeastern) dialect, as a unifying language for the Jews of the Russian Empire.", "He even used a Latin alphabet, with the letters ''ć, h́, ś, ź'' (the same as in early drafts of Esperanto, later ''ĉ, ĥ, ŝ, ĵ'') and ''ě'' for schwa.", "However, he concluded there was no future for such a project, and abandoned it, dedicating himself to Esperanto as a unifying language for all humankind.", "Paul Wexler proposed that Esperanto was not an arbitrary pastiche of major European languages but a Latinate relexification of Yiddish, a native language of its founder.", "This model is generally unsupported by mainstream linguists." ], [ "Development of the language before publication", "Zamenhof would later say that he had dreamed of a world language since he was a child.", "At first he considered a revival of Latin, but after learning it in school he decided it was too complicated to be a common means of international communication.", "When he learned English, he realised that verb conjugations were unnecessary, and that grammatical systems could be much simpler than he had expected.", "He still had the problem of memorising a large vocabulary, until he noticed two Russian signs labelled ''Швейцарская'' (''švejtsarskaja,'' a porter's lodge – from ''швейцар'' ''švejtsar,'' a porter) and ''Кондитерская'' (''konditerskaja,'' a confectioner's shop – from ''кондитер'' ''konditer,'' a confectioner).", "He then realised that a judicious use of affixes could greatly decrease the number of root words needed for communication.", "He chose to take his vocabulary from Romance and Germanic, the languages that were most widely taught in schools around the world and would therefore be recognisable to the largest number of people.Zamenhof taught an early version of the language to his high-school classmates.", "Then, for several years, he worked on translations and poetry to refine his creation.", "In 1895 he wrote, \"I worked for six years perfecting and testing the language, even though it had seemed to me in 1878 that it was already completely ready.\"", "When he was ready to publish, the Czarist censors would not allow it.", "Stymied, he spent his time in translating works such as the Bible and Shakespeare.", "This enforced delay led to continued improvement.", "In July 1887 he published his ''Unua Libro'' (''First Book''), a basic introduction to the language.", "This was essentially the language spoken today.== ''Unua Libro'' to Declaration of Boulogne (1887–1905)==''Unua Libro'' was published in 1887.At first the movement grew most in the Russian empire and eastern Europe, but soon spread to western Europe and beyond: to Argentina in 1889; to Canada in 1901; to Algeria, Chile, Japan, Mexico, and Peru in 1903; to Tunisia in 1904; and to Australia, the United States, Guinea, Indochina, New Zealand, Tonkin, and Uruguay in 1905.In its first years Esperanto was used mainly in publications by Zamenhof and early adopters like Antoni Grabowski, in extensive correspondence (mostly now lost), in the magazine ''La Esperantisto'', published from 1889 to 1895 and only occasionally in personal encounters.In 1894, under pressure from Wilhelm Trompeter, the publisher of the magazine ''La Esperantisto'', and some other leading users, Zamenhof reluctantly put forward a radical reform to be voted on by readers.", "He proposed the reduction of the alphabet to 22 letters (by eliminating the accented letters and most of their sounds), the change of the plural to ''-i'', the use of a positional accusative instead of the ending ''-n'', the removal of the distinction between adjectives and adverbs, the reduction of the number of participles from six to two, and the replacement of the table of correlatives with more Latinate words or phrases.", "These reforms were overwhelmingly rejected, but some were picked up in subsequent reforms (such as Ido) and criticisms of the language.", "In the following decade Esperanto spread into western Europe, especially France.", "By 1905 there were already 27 magazines being published (Auld 1988).A small international conference was held in 1904, leading to the first world congress in August 1905 in Boulogne-sur-Mer, France.", "There were 688 Esperanto speakers present from 20 nationalities.", "At this congress, Zamenhof officially resigned his leadership of the Esperanto movement, as he did not want personal prejudice against himself (or anti-Semitism) to hinder the progress of the language.", "He proposed a declaration on founding principles of the Esperanto movement, which the attendees of the congress endorsed." ], [ "Declaration of Boulogne to present (1905–present)", "World congresses have been held every year since 1905, except during the two World Wars.The autonomous territory of Neutral Moresnet, between Belgium and Germany, had a sizable proportion of Esperanto-speakers among its small and multiethnic population.", "There was a proposal to make Esperanto its official language.", "In 1908, it was eventually accepted alongside Dutch, German, and French.", "There was also a large Esperanto group led by Anna Tuschinski in the Free City of Danzig.In the early 1920s, a great opportunity seemed to arise for Esperanto when the Iranian delegation to the League of Nations proposed that it be adopted for use in international relations, following a report by Nitobe Inazō, an official delegate of League of Nations during the 13th World Congress of Esperanto in Prague.", "Ten delegates accepted the proposal with only one voice against, the French delegate, Gabriel Hanotaux, who employed France's Council veto privilege to squash all League attempts at the recognition of Esperanto, starting on the first vote on 18 December 1920 and continuing through the next three years.", "Hanotaux did not like how the French language was losing its position as the international language and saw Esperanto as a threat.", "However, two years later the League recommended that its member states include Esperanto in their educational curricula.", "The French retaliated by banning all instruction in Esperanto in French schools and universities.", "The French Ministry of Instruction said that acceptance of Esperanto would mean that \"French and English would perish and that the literary standard of the world would be debased\".", "Nonetheless, many people see the 1920s as the heyday of the Esperanto movement.In 1941, the Soviet Union started performing mass arrests, deportations, and killings of many Esperantists and their relatives for fear of an anti-nationalistic movement, but it was interrupted by the Nazi invasion.Hitler wrote in ''Mein Kampf'' that Esperanto was created as a universal language to unite the Jewish diaspora.The creation of a Jew-free National German Esperanto League was not enough to placate the Nazis.The teaching of Esperanto was not allowed in German prisoner-of-war camps during World War II.", "Esperantists sometimes were able to get around the ban by convincing guards that they were teaching Italian, the language of Germany's closest ally.A Soviet calendar page for 22 October 1935 including the Esperanto ''oktobro'' among other translations.In the early years of the Soviet Union, Esperanto was given a measure of government support, and an officially recognized Soviet Esperanto Association came into being.", "However, in 1937, Stalin reversed this policy and the use of Esperanto was effectively banned until 1956.While Esperanto itself was not enough cause for execution, its use was extended among Jews or trade unionists and encouraged contacts with foreigners.Fascist Italy, on the other hand, made some efforts of promoting tourism in Italy through Esperanto leaflets and appreciated the similarities of Italian and Esperanto.Portugal's right-wing governments cracked down on the language from 1936 until the Carnation Revolution of 1974.After the Spanish Civil War, Francoist Spain cracked down on the Anarchists and Catalan nationalists among whom the speaking of Esperanto had been quite widespread; but in the 1950s, the Esperanto movement was tolerated again, with Francisco Franco accepting the honorary patronage of the Madrid World Esperanto Congress.The Cold War, especially in the 1950s and 1960s, put a damper on the Esperanto movement as well, as there were fears on both sides that Esperanto could be used for enemy propaganda.", "However, the language experienced something of a renaissance in the 1970s and spread to new parts of the world, such as its veritable explosion in popularity in Iran in 1975.By 1991 there were enough African Esperantists to warrant a pan-African congress.", "The language continues to spread, although it is not officially recognised by any country, and is part of the state educational curriculum of only a few.In 2022 an Esperanto club was founded on the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station making Antarctica the last continent with organized Esperantists.Esperanto Club on the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station in 2022" ], [ "Evolution of the language", "The Declaration of Boulogne (1905) limited changes to Esperanto.", "That declaration stated, among other things, that the basis of the language should remain the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'' (\"Foundation of Esperanto\", a group of early works by Zamenhof), which is to be binding forever: nobody has the right to make changes to it.", "The declaration also permits new concepts to be expressed as the speaker sees fit, but it recommends doing so in accordance with the original style.Many Esperantists believe this declaration stabilising the language is a major reason why the Esperanto speaker community grew beyond the levels attained by other constructed languages and has developed a flourishing culture.", "Other constructed languages have been hindered from developing a stable speaking community by continual tinkering.", "Also, many developers of constructed languages have been possessive of their creation and have worked to prevent others from contributing to the language.", "One such ultimately disastrous case was Schleyer's Volapük.", "In contrast, Zamenhof declared that \"Esperanto belongs to the Esperantists\", and moved to the background once the language was published, allowing others to share in the early development of the language.The grammatical description in the earliest books was somewhat vague, so a consensus on usage (influenced by Zamenhof's answers to some questions) developed over time within boundaries set by the initial outline (Auld 1988).", "Even before the Declaration of Boulogne, the language was remarkably stable; only one set of lexical changes were made in the first year after publication, namely changing \"when\", \"then\", \"never\", \"sometimes\", \"always\" from ''kian'', ''tian'', ''nenian'', ''ian'', ''ĉian'' to ''kiam'', ''tiam'', ''neniam'' etc., to avoid confusion with the accusative forms of ''kia'' \"what sort of\", ''tia'' \"that sort of\", etc.", "Thus Esperanto achieved a stability of structure and grammar similar to that which natural languages enjoy by virtue of their native speakers and established bodies of literature.", "One could learn Esperanto without having it move from underfoot.", "Changes could and did occur in the language, but only by acquiring widespread popular support; there was no central authority making arbitrary changes, as happened with Volapük and some other languages.Modern Esperanto usage may in fact depart from that originally described in the ''Fundamento'', though the differences are largely semantic (involving changed meaning of words) rather than grammatical or phonological.", "The translation given for \"I like this one\", in the sample phrases in the main Esperanto article, offers a significant example.", "According to the ''Fundamento'', ''Mi ŝatas ĉi tiun'' would in fact have meant \"I esteem this one\".", "The traditional usage is ''Tiu ĉi plaĉas al mi'' (literally, \"this one is pleasing to me\"), which reflects the phrasing of most European languages (French ''celui-ci me plaît'', Spanish ''éste me gusta'', Russian ''это мне нравится'' eto mnye nravitsya, German ''Das gefällt mir'', Italian ''mi piace'').", "However, the original ''Ĉi tiu plaĉas al mi'' continues to be commonly used.For later changes to the language, see Modern evolution of Esperanto." ], [ "Dialects, reform projects and derived languages", "Esperanto has not fragmented into regional dialects through natural language use.", "This may be because it is the language of daily communication for only a small minority of its speakers.", "However at least three other factors work against dialects, namely the centripetal force of the Fundamento, the unifying influence of the Plena Vortaro and its successors, which exemplified usage from the works of Zamenhof and leading writers, and the transnational ambitions of the speech community itself.", "Slang and jargon have developed to some extent, but such features interfere with universal communication – the whole point of Esperanto – and so have generally been avoided.However, in the early twentieth century numerous reform projects were proposed.", "Almost all of these Esperantidos were stillborn, but the very first, Ido (\"offspring\"), had significant success for several years.", "Ido was proposed by the Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language in Paris in October 1907.Its main reforms were in bringing the alphabet, semantics, and some grammatical features into closer alignment with the Romance languages, as well as removal of adjectival agreement and the accusative case except when necessary.", "At first, a number of leading Esperantists put their support behind the Ido project, but the movement stagnated and declined, first with the accidental death of one of its main proponents and later as people proposed further changes, and the number of current speakers is estimated at between 250 and 5000.However, Ido has proven to be a rich source of Esperanto vocabulary.Some more focused reform projects, affecting only a particular feature of the language, have gained a few adherents.", "One of these is riism, which modifies the language to incorporate non-sexist language and gender-neutral pronouns.", "However, most of these projects are specific to individual nationalities (riism from English speakers, for example), and the only changes that have gained acceptance in the Esperanto community have been the minor and gradual bottom-up reforms discussed in the last section.Esperanto is credited with influencing or inspiring several later competing language projects, such as Occidental (1922) and Novial (1928).", "These always lagged far behind Esperanto in their popularity.", "By contrast, Interlingua (1951) has greatly surpassed Ido in terms of popularity.", "It shows little or no Esperanto influence, however." ], [ "Timeline of Esperanto", "* 1859: L. L. Zamenhof, the creator of Esperanto, is born in Białystok, Russia (now Poland).", "* 1873: The Zamenhof family moves to Warsaw.", "* 1878: Zamenhof celebrates the completion of his universal language project, ''Lingwe Uniwersala'', with high school friends.", "* 1879: Zamenhof attends medical school in Moscow.", "His father burns his language project while he's away.", "Meanwhile Schleyer publishes a sketch of Volapük, the first constructed international auxiliary language to acquire a number of speakers.", "Many Volapük clubs will later switch to Esperanto.", "* 1881: Zamenhof returns to Warsaw to continue medical school, and starts to recreate his project.", "* 1887: Zamenhof marries.", "In July, with his wife's financial help, he publishes ''Unua Libro'', the first publication introducing Esperanto, in Russian.", "Polish, German, and French translations are published later that year.", "* 1888: Leo Tolstoy becomes an early supporter.", "Zamenhof publishes ''Dua Libro'', as well as the first English-language edition of ''Unua Libro'', which proved to be filled with errors.", "* 1889: The second English-language edition of ''Unua Libro'' is published in January, translated by Richard H. Geoghegan, and becomes the standard English translation.", "Henry Phillips, Jr., of the American Philosophical Society, also translates ''Unua Libro'' into English.", "The first volume of ''La Esperantisto'' is published in September.", "The language begins to be called ''Esperanto''.", "* 1894: Zamenhof, reacting to pressure, puts a radical reform to a vote, but it is overwhelmingly rejected.", "That version of Esperanto is often referred to as Esperanto 1894.", "* 1895: ''La Esperantisto'' ceases publication.", "''Lingvo Internacia'' begins publication in December.", "* 1901: Zamenhof publishes his ideas on a universal religion, based on the philosophy of Hillel the Elder.", "* 1905: ''Fundamento de Esperanto'' is published in the spring.", "The first World Esperanto Congress is held in Boulogne-sur-Mer, with 688 participants and conducted entirely in Esperanto.", "The Declaration of Boulogne is drafted and ratified at the congress.", "* 1906: The second World Esperanto Congress is held in Geneva, Switzerland, drawing 1200 participants.", "''La Revuo'' begins publication.", "* 1907: Twelve members of the British parliament nominate Zamenhof for the Nobel Peace Prize.", "The ''Ĉekbanko Esperantista'' (Esperantist Checking Bank) is founded in London, using the ''spesmilo'', an auxiliary Esperanto currency based on the gold standard.", "A committee organised by Louis Couturat in Paris proposes the Ido reform project, which provides significant competition for Esperanto until the First World War.", "* 1908: The Universal Esperanto Association is founded by Hector Hodler, a 19-year-old Swiss Esperantist.", "* 1909: The International Association of Esperantist Railway Workers is founded in Barcelona.", "* 1910s: Esperanto is taught in state schools in the Republic of China, Samos, and Macedonia.", "* 1910: 42 members of the French parliament nominate Zamenhof for the Nobel Peace Prize.", "* 1914: ''Lingvo Internacia'' and ''La Revuo'' cease publication.", "* 1917: Zamenhof dies during World War I.", "* 1920: The first Esperanto magazine for the blind, ''Aŭroro'', begins publishing in then-Czechoslovakia.", "It's still in print today.", "* 1921: The French Academy of the Sciences recommends using Esperanto for international scientific communication.", "* 1922: Esperanto is banned from French schools.", "* 1924: The League of Nations recommends that member states implement Esperanto as an auxiliary language.", "* 1920s: Offices of the Brazilian Ministry of Education use Esperanto for their international correspondence.", "Lu Xun, the founder of modern Chinese literature, becomes a supporter of Esperanto.", "Montagu C. Butler is the first to raise Esperanto-speaking children.", "* 1933/34: Reorganisation of the international (neutral) Esperanto movement, under the name UEA.", "* 1934: Encyclopedia of Esperanto first published in Budapest.", "* 1935: Kalocsay and Waringhien publish the influential ''Plena Gramatiko de Esperanto'' (Complete Grammar of Esperanto).", "Esperanto and other planned languages ''de facto'' prohibited in Nazi Germany in May.", "* 1936: All Esperanto organisations in Nazi Germany prohibited in June through the prohibition of the UEA and SAT in June by Heinrich Himmler.", "* 1937: Leaders of the Esperanto organisation in the Soviet Union arrested; Esperanto activities made impossible.", "* 1938: The World Esperanto Youth Organisation TEJO is founded.", "* 1939–1945: In World War II many countries are occupied by Germany and the Soviet Union, where Esperanto organisations often were prohibited or Esperanto activities were limited in other ways.", "* 1948: The railway workers' association is refounded as IFEF, the ''Internacia Fervojista Esperanto-Federacio'' (International Railway Workers' Esperanto Federation) to foster the use of Esperanto in the administration of the railroads of the world (so far, of Eurasia).", "* 1954: UNESCO establishes consultative relations with the Universal Esperanto Association.", "* 1966: The precursor to ''Pasporta Servo'' is launched in Argentina.", "''Pasporta Servo'' is a global network of Esperanto speakers who host Esperantists traveling through their countries.", "* 1967: István Nemere founds the ''Renkontiĝo de Esperanto-Familioj'', the first organisation for Esperanto-speaking families.", "* 1975: The Esperanto movement spreads to Iran, with three thousand learning the language in Tehran.", "* 1980: The ''Internacia Junulara Kongreso'' (International Youth Congress) in Rauma, Finland ratify the Manifesto of Rauma, articulating the view of many in the Esperanto movement that Esperanto is a goal in itself.", "* 1985: UNESCO encourages UN member states to add Esperanto to their school curricula.", "* 1987: 6000 Esperantists attend the 72nd World Esperanto Congress in Warsaw, marking Esperanto's centennial.", "* 1991: The first pan-African Esperanto Conference is held in Lomé, Togo.", "* 1992: PEN International accepts an Esperanto section.", "* 1999: The Esperanto poet William Auld is nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature.", "* 2001: The Vikipedio project (Esperanto Wikipedia) is launched, resulting in the first general encyclopedia written in a constructed language.", "It is now one of the most popular websites in Esperanto.", "* 2004: The Europe–Democracy–Esperanto party (E°D°E°) contests the European Parliament elections in France, on a platform of making Esperanto the second language of all EU member states, taking 0.15% of the vote.", "* 2007: Israel issues a stamp to commemorate 120 years of Esperanto (1887–2007).", "An image of Zamenhof is designed in a text describing his life, reproduced from the Wikipedia article on Esperanto.", "The corner of the tab shows the flag of the Esperanto movement.", "* 2009: The Senate of Brazil passed a bill which would make Esperanto an optional part of the curriculum in its state schools.", "As of 2010 the bill has not yet been passed by the Chamber of Deputies.", "* 2015: The 100th World Esperanto Congress is held in Lille, France.", "Duolingo launches its Esperanto program.", "* 2017: Amikumu is launched, an app connecting Esperantists with other local Esperantists throughout the world." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Auld, William.", "''La Fenomeno Esperanto''.", "Rotterdam: UEA, 1988.", "* Dijk, Ziko van.", "''Historio de UEA.''", "Partizánske: Espero, 2012.", "* Forster, Peter Glover.", "''The Esperanto Movement.''", "Den Haag et al.", "1982 (Hull 1977).", "* Gobbo, Federico. ''", "Is It Possible for All People to Speak the Same Language?", "The Story of Ludwik Zamenhof and Esperanto'' ( PDF).", "* Korĵenkov, Aleksander.", "''Historio de Esperanto''.", "Kaliningrad 2005.", "* Lins, Ulrich.", "''La Danĝera Lingvo''.", "Gerlingen, Germany: Bleicher Eldonejo, 1988.", "(Also available in Polish )" ], [ "Further reading", "* Ronald Creagh & Karine Tourraton. ''", "A Short History of Anarchist Participation in the Esperanto Movement''." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Esperanto grammar" ], [ "Introduction", "Esperanto is the most widely used constructed language intended for international communication; it was designed with highly regular grammatical rules, and as such is considered an easy language to learn.Each part of speech has a characteristic ending: nouns end with ''‑o''; adjectives with ''‑a''; present‑tense indicative verbs with ''‑as'', and so on.", "An extensive system of prefixes and suffixes may be freely combined with roots to generate vocabulary, so that it is possible to communicate effectively with a vocabulary of 400 to 500 root words.", "The original vocabulary of Esperanto had around 900 root words, but was quickly expanded." ], [ "Grammatical summary", "Esperanto has an agglutinative morphology, no grammatical gender, and simple verbal and nominal inflections.", "Verbal suffixes indicate whether a verb is in the infinitive, a participle form (active or passive in three tenses), or one of three moods (indicative, conditional, or volitive; of which the indicative has three tenses), and are derived for several aspects, but do not agree with the grammatical person or number of their subjects.", "Nouns and adjectives have two cases, nominative/oblique and accusative/allative, and two numbers, singular and plural; the adjectival form of personal pronouns behaves like a genitive case.", "Adjectives generally agree with nouns in case and number.", "In addition to indicating direct objects, the accusative/allative case is used with nouns, adjectives and adverbs for showing the destination of a motion, or to replace certain prepositions; the nominative/oblique is used in all other situations.", "The case system allows for a flexible word order that reflects information flow and other pragmatic concerns, as in Russian, Greek, and Latin." ], [ "Script and pronunciation", "Esperanto uses a 28-letter Latin alphabet that contains the six additional letters ''ĉ'', ''ĝ'', ''ĥ'', ''ĵ'', ''ŝ'' and ''ŭ'', but does not use the letters ''q'', ''w'', ''x'' or ''y''.", "The extra diacritics are the circumflex and the breve.", "Occasionally, an acute accent (or an apostrophe) is used to indicate irregular stress in a proper name.Zamenhof suggested Italian as a model for Esperanto pronunciation." ], [ "The article", "Esperanto has a single definite article, ''la'', which is invariable.", "It is similar to English \"the\".", "''La'' is used::For individual objects whose existence has been previously mentioned or implied:::''Mi trovis botelon kaj deprenis la fermilon.", "'':::\"I found a bottle and took off the lid.", "\":For entire classes or types:::''La gepardo estas la plej rapida el la bestoj.", "'':::\"The cheetah is the fastest of the animals.", "\"::''La abeloj havas harojn, sed ili ne taŭgas por karesi.", "'':::\"Bees have fur, but they're no good for petting.", "\":For adjectives used as definite nouns, such as ethnic adjectives used as the names of languages:::''la blua''::: \"the blue one\"::''la angla''::: \"English\" (i.e.", "\"the English language\"):The adjective may be the adjectival form of a personal pronoun, which functions as a possessive pronoun:::''La mia bluas, la via ruĝas.", "'':::\"Mine is blue, yours is red\".The article may also be used for inalienable possession of body parts and kin terms, where English would use a possessive adjective::''Ili tranĉis la manon.''", "(Or: ''Ili tranĉis sian manon.", "'')::\"They cut their hands.\"", "(one hand each)The article ''la'', like the demonstrative adjective ''tiu'' (this, that), occurs at the beginning of the noun phrase.There is no grammatically required indefinite article: ''homo'' means either \"human being\" or \"a human being\", depending on the context, and similarly the plural ''homoj'' means \"human beings\" or \"some human beings\".", "The words ''iu'' and ''unu'' (or their plurals ''iuj'' and ''unuj'') may be used somewhat like indefinite articles, but they're closer in meaning to \"some\" and \"a certain\" than to English \"a\".", "This use of ''unu'' corresponds to English \"a\" when the \"a\" indicates a specific individual.For example, it is used to introduce new participants (''Unu viro ekvenis al mi kaj diris ...'' 'A man came up to me and said ...')." ], [ "Parts of speech", "The suffixes ''‑o'', ''‑a'', ''‑e'', and ''‑i'' indicate that a word is a noun, adjective, adverb, and infinitive verb, respectively.", "Many new words can be derived simply by changing these suffixes.", "Derivations from the word ''vidi'' (to see) are ''vida'' (visual), ''vide'' (visually), and ''vido'' (vision).Each root word has an inherent part of speech: nominal, adjectival, verbal, or adverbial.", "These must be memorized explicitly and affect the use of the part-of-speech suffixes.", "With an adjectival or verbal root, the nominal suffix ''‑o'' indicates an abstraction: ''parolo'' (an act of speech, one's word) from the verbal root ''paroli'' (to speak); ''belo'' (beauty) from the adjectival root ''bela'' (beautiful); whereas with a noun, the nominal suffix simply indicates the noun.", "Nominal or verbal roots may likewise be modified with the adjectival suffix ''‑a'': ''reĝa'' (royal), from the nominal root ''reĝo'' (a king); ''parola'' (spoken).", "The various verbal endings mean ''to be __'' when added to an adjectival root: ''beli'' (to be beautiful); and with a nominal root they mean \"to act as\" the noun, \"to use\" the noun, etc., depending on the semantics of the root: ''reĝi'' (to reign).", "There are relatively few adverbial roots, so most words ending in ''-e'' are derived: ''bele'' (beautifully).", "Often with a nominal or verbal root, the English equivalent is a prepositional phrase: ''parole'' (by speech, orally); ''vide'' (by sight, visually); ''reĝe'' (like a king, royally).The meanings of part-of-speech affixes depend on the inherent part of speech of the root they are applied to.", "For example, ''brosi'' (to brush) is based on a nominal root (and therefore listed in modern dictionaries under the entry ''bros'''o'''),'' whereas ''kombi'' (to comb) is based on a verbal root (and therefore listed under ''komb'''i''').''", "Change the suffix to ''-o,'' and the similar meanings of ''brosi'' and ''kombi'' diverge: ''broso'' is a brush, the name of an instrument, whereas ''kombo'' is a combing, the name of an action.", "That is, changing verbal ''kombi'' (to comb) to a noun simply creates the name for the action; for the name of the tool, the suffix ''-ilo'' is used, which derives words for instruments from verbal roots: ''kombilo'' (a comb).", "On the other hand, changing the nominal root ''broso'' (a brush) to a verb gives the action associated with that noun, ''brosi'' (to brush).", "For the name of the action, the suffix ''-ado'' will change a derived verb back to a noun: ''brosado'' (a brushing).", "Similarly, an abstraction of a nominal root (changing it to an adjective and then back to a noun) requires the suffix ''-eco,'' as in ''infaneco'' (childhood), but an abstraction of an adjectival or verbal root merely requires the nominal ''-o: belo'' (beauty).", "Nevertheless, redundantly affixed forms such as ''beleco'' are acceptable and widely used.A limited number of basic adverbs do not end with ''-e,'' but with an undefined part-of-speech ending ''-aŭ''.", "Not all words ending in ''-aŭ'' are adverbs, and most of the adverbs that end in ''-aŭ'' have other functions, such as ''hodiaŭ'' \"today\" noun or adverb or ''ankoraŭ'' \"yet, still\" conjunction or adverb.", "About a dozen other adverbs are bare roots, such as ''nun'' \"now\", ''tro'' \"too, too much\", not counting the adverbs among the correlatives.", "(See special Esperanto adverbs.", ")The part-of-speech endings may double up.", "Apart from the ''-aŭ'' suffix, where adding a second part-of-speech ending is nearly universal, this happens only occasionally.", "For example, ''vivu!''", "\"viva!\"", "(the volitive of ''vivi'' 'to live') has a nominal form ''vivuo'' (a cry of 'viva!')", "and a doubly verbal form ''vivui'' (to cry 'viva!", "')." ], [ "Nouns and adjectives", "Nouns end with the suffix ''-o''.", "To make a word plural, the suffix ''-j'' is added to the ''-o''.", "Without this suffix, a countable noun is understood to be singular.", "Direct objects take an accusative case suffix ''-n,'' which goes after any plural suffix; the resulting pluralized accusative sequence ''-ojn'' rhymes with English ''c'''oin'''.", "''Names may be pluralized when there is more than one person of that name being referenced::''la frat'''oj''' Feliks'''o''' kaj Leon'''o''' Zamenhof'''oj''''' (the brothers Felix and Leon Zamenhof)Adjectives agree with nouns.", "That is, they are generally plural if the noun that they modify is plural, and accusative if the noun is accusative.", "Compare ''bona tago; bonaj tagoj; bonan tagon; bonajn tagojn'' (good day/days).", "(The sequence ''-ajn'' rhymes with English ''f'''ine'''.'')", "This requirement allows for the word orders ''adjective–noun'' and ''noun–adjective'', even when two noun phrases are adjacent in subject–object–verb or verb–subject–object clauses::''la knabino feliĉa'''n''' knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the girl kissed a happy boy):''la knabino feliĉa knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the happy girl kissed a boy).Agreement clarifies the syntax in other ways as well.", "Adjectives take the plural suffix when they modify more than one noun, even when those nouns are singular::''ruĝa'''j''' domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and a red car):''ruĝa domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and a car).A predicative adjective does not take the accusative case suffix even when the noun that it modifies does::''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'''n''''' (I painted the red door):''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'' (I painted the door red)." ], [ "Pronouns", "There are three types of pronouns in Esperanto: personal ''(vi'' \"you\"), demonstrative ''(tio'' \"that\", ''iu'' \"someone\"), and relative/interrogative ''(kio'' \"what\").According to the fifth rule of the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'':===Personal pronouns===The Esperanto '''personal pronoun''' system is similar to that of English, but with the addition of a reflexive pronoun.+ Personal pronouns singular plural first person '''mi''' (I) '''ni''' (we) second person '''vi''' (you) thirdperson masculine '''li''' (he) '''ili''' (they) feminine '''ŝi''' (she) neutral '''ĝi''' (it) indefinite '''oni''' (one, they, you) reflexive '''si''' (self) Zamenhof introduced a singular second-person pronoun ''ci'', to be used in translations from languages where the T–V distinction was important, but he discouraged its use.", "He added it in the ''Dua Libro'' in 1888 clarifying that \"this word is only found in the dictionary; in the language itself it is hardly ever used\", and excluded it from the list of pronouns in the ''Fundamento''.", "To this day, it is standard to use only ''vi'' regardless of number or formality.", "An unofficial gender-neutral third person singular pronoun ''ri'' has become relatively popular since about 2010, mostly among younger speakers.", "It is used when the gender of the referent is unknown, to be ignored, and especially when they are non-binary.", "While the speakers that use the pronoun are a minority as of 2020, it is widely understood by active users of Esperanto.", "Its opponents often object that any new pronoun is an unacceptable change to the basic rules and paradigms formulated in the ''Fundamento''.", "Zamenhof himself proposed using ''ĝi'' in such situations; the common opposition to referring to people with gender-neutral ''ĝi'' today is primarily due to the traditional ubiquity of ''li'' or ''ŝi'' for people and of ''ĝi'' for non-human animals and inanimate objects.", "A proposed specifically feminine plural pronoun ''iŝi'' was proposed by Kálmán Kalocsay and Gaston Waringhien to better translate languages with gendered plural pronouns.Personal pronouns take the accusative suffix ''-n'' as nouns do: ''min'' (me), ''lin'' (him), ''ŝin'' (her).", "Possessive adjectives are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a: mia'' (my), ''ĝia'' (its), ''nia'' (our).", "These agree with their noun like any other adjective: ''ni salutis liajn amikojn'' (we greeted his friends).", "Esperanto does not have separate forms for the possessive pronouns; this sense is generally (though not always) indicated with the definite article: ''la mia'' (mine).The reflexive pronoun is used in non-subject phrases only to refer back to the subject, usually only in the third and indefinite persons::''li lavis '''sin''''' \"he washed (himself)\":''ili lavis '''sin''''' \"they washed themselves (or each other)\":''li lavis lin'' \"he washed ''him'' (someone else)\":''li manĝis '''sian''' panon'' \"he ate his (own) bread\":''li manĝis lian panon'' \"he ate ''his'' (someone else's) bread\"The indefinite pronoun is used when making general statements, and is often used where English would have a passive verb,:''oni diras, ke ...'' \"one says that...\", \"they say that ...\" or \"it is said that ...\"With impersonal verbs, no pronoun is used::''pluvas'' \"it is raining\".Here the rain is falling by itself, and that idea is conveyed by the verb, so no subject pronoun is needed.When not referring to humans, ''ĝi'' is mostly used with items that have physical bodies, with ''tiu'' or ''tio'' used otherwise.", "Zamenhof proposed that ''ĝi'' could also be used as an epicene (gender-neutral) third-person singular pronoun, meaning for use when the gender of an individual is unknown or for when the speaker simply doesn't wish to clarify the gender.", "However, this proposal is only common when referring to children::''La infano ploras, ĉar ĝi volas manĝi'' \"the child is crying, because it wants to eat\".When speaking of adults or people in general, in popular usage it is much more common for the demonstrative adjective and pronoun ''tiu'' (\"that thing or person that is already known to the listener\") to be used in such situations.", "This mirrors languages such as Japanese, but it's not a method that can always be used.", "For example, in the sentence:''Iu ĵus diris, ke '''tiu''' malsatas'' \"Someone just said that ''that thing/person'' is hungry\",the word ''tiu'' would be understood as referring to someone other than the person speaking (like English pronouns ''this'' or ''that'' but also referring to people), and so cannot be used in place of ''ĝi'', ''li'' or ''ŝi.''", "See gender-neutral pronouns in Esperanto for other approaches.===Other pronouns===The demonstrative and relative pronouns form part of the correlative system, and are described in that article.", "The pronouns are the forms ending in ''-o'' (simple pronouns) and ''-u'' (adjectival pronouns); these take plural ''-j'' and accusative ''-n'' as nouns and adjectives do.", "The possessive pronouns, however, are the forms ending in ''-es''; they are indeclinable for number and case.", "Compare the nominative phases ''lia domo'' (his house) and ''ties domo'' (that one's house, those ones' house) with the plural ''lia'''j''' domo'''j''''' (his houses) and ''ties domo'''j''''' (that one's houses, those ones' houses), and with the accusative genitive ''lia'''n''' domo'''n''''' and ''ties domo'''n'''.''" ], [ "Prepositions", "Although Esperanto word order is fairly free, prepositions must come at the beginning of a noun phrase.", "Whereas in languages such as German, prepositions may require that a noun be in various cases (accusative, dative, ''and so on),'' in Esperanto all prepositions govern the nominative: ''por Johano'' (for John).", "The only exception is when there are two or more prepositions and one is ''replaced'' by the accusative.Prepositions should be used with a definite meaning.", "When no one preposition is clearly correct, the indefinite preposition ''je'' should be used::''ili iros '''je''' la tria de majo'' (they'll go on the third of May: the \"on\" isn't literally true).Alternatively, the accusative may be used without a preposition::''ili iros la tria'''n''' de majo.", "''Note that although ''la trian'' (the third) is in the accusative, ''de majo'' (of May) is still a prepositional phrase, and so the noun ''majo'' remains in the nominative case.A frequent use of the accusative is in place of ''al'' (to) to indicate the direction or goal of motion (allative construction).", "It is especially common when there would otherwise be a double preposition::''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'' (the cat chased the mouse '''in''' inside of the house):''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'''n''''' (the cat chased the mouse '''into''' the house).The accusative/allative may stand in for other prepositions also, especially when they have vague meanings that do not add much to the clause.", "Adverbs, with or without the case suffix, are frequently used instead of prepositional phrases::''li iris '''al''' sia hejmo'' (he went to his home):''li iris hejme'''n''''' (he went home)Both ''por'' and ''pro'' can correspond to English 'for'.", "However, ''por'' indicates ''for a goal'' (the more usual sense of English 'for') while ''pro'' indicates ''for a cause'' and more often may be translated 'because of': To vote ''por'' your friend means to cast a ballot with their name on it, whereas to vote ''pro'' your friend would mean to vote because of something that happened to them or something they said or did.The preposition most distinct from English usage is perhaps ''de'', which corresponds to English ''of, from, off,'' and ''(done) by''::''libro '''de''' Johano'' (John''''s''' book):''li venis '''de''' la butiko'' (he came '''from''' the shop):''mordita '''de''' hundo'' (bitten '''by''' a dog)However, English ''of'' corresponds to several Esperanto prepositions also: ''de, el'' (out of, made of), and ''da'' (quantity of, unity of form and contents)::''tablo '''el''' ligno'' (a table '''of''' wood):''glaso '''da''' vino'' (a glass '''of''' wine):''listo '''da''' kondiĉoj '''de''' la kandidatoj'' (a list '''of''' conditions '''from''' the candidates)The last of these, ''da'', is semantically Slavic and is difficult for Western Europeans, to the extent that even many Esperanto dictionaries and grammars define it incorrectly.See the entry for ''da'' at Wiktionary.Because a bare root may indicate a preposition or interjection, removing the grammatical suffix from another part of speech can be used to derive a preposition or interjection.", "Thus the verbal root ''far-'' (do, make) has been unofficially used without a part-of-speech suffix as a preposition \"by\", marking the agent of a passive participle or an action noun in place of the standard ''de''." ], [ "Verbs", "All verbal inflection is regular.", "There are three tenses of the indicative mood.", "The other moods are the conditional and volitive (treated as the jussive by some).", "There is also the infinitive.", "No aspectual distinctions are required by the grammar, but derivational expressions of Aktionsart are common.Verbs do not change form according to their subject.", "''I am, we are,'' and ''he is'' are simply ''mi estas, ni estas,'' and ''li estas,'' respectively.", "Impersonal subjects are not used: ''pluvas'' (it is raining), ''estas muso en la domo'' (there is a mouse in the house).Most verbs are inherently transitive or intransitive.", "As with the inherent part of speech of a root, this is not apparent from the shape of the verb and must simply be memorized.", "Transitivity is changed with the affixes ''-ig-'' (the transitivizer/causative) and ''-iĝ-'' (the intransitivizer/middle voice) after the root; for example::''akvo bolas je cent gradoj'' (water boils at 100 degrees):''ni bol'''ig'''as la akvo'''n''''' (we boil the water)(''Boli'' is an intransitive verb; the ''-ig-'' affix makes it transitive.", "):''mi movis la biciklo'''n''' al la ĝardeno'' (I moved the bicycle to the garden):''la biciklo mov'''iĝ'''is tre rapide'' (the bicycle moved very fast)(''Movi'' is a transitive verb; the ''-iĝ-'' affix makes it intransitive.", ")===The verbal paradigm===The tenses have characteristic vowels.", "Namely, ''a'' indicates the present tense, ''i'' the past, and ''o'' the future.", "(However, ''i'' on its own is used for the infinitive.", ")IndicativeActive participlePassive participleConditionalVolitiveInfinitivePast -is -inta -ita -us -iPresent -as -anta -ataFuture -os -onta -otaThe verbal forms may be illustrated with the root ''esper-'' (hope)::''esperis'' (hoped, was hoping):''esperas'' (hopes, is hoping):''esperos'' (shall hope, will hope):''esperus'' (were to hope, would hope):''esperu'' (hope, hope!", "a command):''esperi'' (to hope)A verb can be made emphatic with the particle ''ja'' (indeed): ''mi ja esperas'' (I do hope), ''mi ja esperis'' (I did hope).===Tense===As in English, Esperanto present tense may be used for generic statements such as \"birds fly\" (''la birdoj flugas'').The Esperanto future is a true tense, used whenever future time is meant.", "For example, in English \"(I'll give it to you) when I see you\" the verb \"see\" is in the present tense despite the time being in the future; in Esperanto, future tense is required: ''(Mi donos ĝin al vi) kiam mi vidos vin''.In indirect speech, Esperanto tense is relative.", "This differs from English absolute tense, where the tense is past, present, or future of the moment of speaking: In Esperanto, the tense of a subordinate verb is instead anterior or posterior to the time of the main verb.", "For example, \"John said that he would go\" is in Esperanto ''Johano diris, ke li iros'' (lit., \"John said that he will go\"); this does not mean that he will go at some point in the future from now (as \"John said that he will go\" means in English), but that at the time he said this, his going was still in the future.===Mood===The conditional mood is used for such expressions as ''se mi povus, mi irus'' (if I could, I would go) and ''se mi estus vi, mi irus'' (if I were you, I'd go).The volitive mood is used to indicate that an action or state is desired, requested, ordered, or aimed for.", "Although the verb form is formally called volitive, in practice it can be seen as a broader deontic form rather than a pure volitive form, as it is also used to express orders and commands besides wishes and desires.", "It serves as the imperative and performs some of the functions of a subjunctive::''Iru!''", "(Go!", "):''Mi petis, ke li venu.''", "(I asked him to come.", "):''Li parolu.''", "(Let him speak.", "):''Ni iru.''", "(Let's go.", "):''Benu ĉi tiun domaĉon.''", "(Bless this shack.", "):''Mia filino belu!''", "(May my daughter be beautiful!", ")===Aspect===Verbal aspect is not grammatically required in Esperanto.", "However, aspectual distinctions may be expressed via participles (see below), and the Slavic aspectual system survives in two aktionsart affixes, perfective (often inceptive) ''ek-'' and imperfective ''-ad.''", "Compare,:''Tio ĉi interesis min'' (This interested me)and,:''Tio ĉi '''ek'''interesis min'' (This '''caught''' my interest).Various prepositions may also be used as aktionsart prefixes, such as ''el'' (out of), used to indicate that an action is performed to completion or at least to a considerable degree, also as in Slavic languages, as in,:''Germanan kaj francan lingvojn mi '''el'''lernis en infaneco'' (I learned French and German in childhood).===Copula===The verb ''esti'' (to be) is both the copula (\"X is Y\") and the existential (\"there is\") verb.", "As a copula linking two noun phrases, it causes neither to take the accusative case.", "Therefore, unlike the situation with other verbs, word order with ''esti'' can be semantically important: compare ''hundoj estas personoj'' (dogs are people) and ''personoj estas hundoj'' (people are dogs).Existential verbs do not use dummy pronouns.", "Thus, the phrase ''estas pomo'' (there is an apple) does not contain a leading pronoun, as does its English translation.One sometimes sees ''esti''-plus-adjective rendered as a verb: ''la ĉielo estas blua'' as ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue).", "This is a stylistic rather than grammatical change in the language, as the more economical verbal forms were always found in poetry." ], [ "Participles", "Participles are verbal derivatives.", "In Esperanto, there are six forms:* three aspects: ** past (or \"perfective\"), present (or \"progressive\"), and future (or \"predictive\")for each of:* two voices:** active (performing an action) and passive (receiving an action)The participles represent aspect by retaining the vowel of the related verbal tense: '''i''', '''a''', '''o'''.", "In addition to carrying aspect, participles are the principal means of representing voice, with either '''nt''' or '''t''' following the vowel (see next section).===Adjectival participles===''Falonta'', ''falanta'' and ''falinta''.The basic principle of the participles may be illustrated with the verb ''fali'' (to fall).", "Picture a cartoon character running off a cliff and hanging in the air for a moment.", "As it hangs in the air, it is ''fal'''o'''nta'' (about to fall).", "As it drops, it is ''fal'''a'''nta'' (falling).", "After it hits the ground, it is ''fal'''i'''nta'' (fallen).Active and passive pairs can be illustrated with the transitive verb ''haki'' (to chop).", "Picture a woodsman approaching a tree with an axe, intending to chop it down.", "He is ''hak'''ont'''a'' (about to chop) and the tree is ''hak'''ot'''a'' (about to be chopped).", "While swinging the axe, he is ''hak'''ant'''a'' (chopping) and the tree ''hak'''at'''a'' (being chopped).", "After the tree has fallen, he is ''hak'''int'''a'' (having chopped) and the tree ''hak'''it'''a'' (chopped).Adjectival participles agree with nouns in number and case, just as other adjectives do::''ili ŝparis la arbojn '''hakotajn''''' (they spared the trees that were '''to be chopped down''').===Compound tense===Compound tenses are formed with the adjectival participles plus ''esti'' (to be) as the auxiliary verb.", "The participle reflects aspect and voice, while the verb carries tense.", "For example:* Present progressive: ''mi estas kaptanta'' (I am catching), ''mi estas kaptata'' (I am being caught)* Present perfect: ''mi estas kaptinta'' (I have caught), ''mi estas kaptita'' (I have been caught, I am caught)* Present prospective: ''mi estas kaptonta'' (I am going to catch / about to catch), ''mi estas kaptota'' (I am going to be caught / about to be caught)These are not used as often as their English equivalents.", "For \"I ''am'' go''ing'' to the store\", you would normally use the simple present ''mi iras'' ('I go') in Esperanto.The tense and mood of ''esti'' can be changed in these compound tenses::Past perfect: ''mi estis kaptinta'' (I had caught):Conditional future: ''mi estus kaptonta'' (I would be about to catch):Future present: ''mi estos kaptanta'' (I will be catching).==== Synthetic forms ====Although such periphrastic constructions are familiar to speakers of most European languages, the option of contracting ''esti'' + adjective into a verb is sometimes seen for adjectival participles::Present perfect: ''mi estas kaptinta'' is equivalent to ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught):Past perfect: ''mi estis kaptinta'' to ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)The active ''synthetic forms'' (i.e., abbreviated or contracted forms) are:+Synthetic compound tenses (active voice) Simple verb Progressive Perfect Prospective Past tense ''mi kaptis'' (I caught) ''mi kaptantis'' (I was catching) ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught) ''mi kaptontis'' (I was about to catch) Present tense ''mi kaptas'' (I catch) ''mi kaptantas'' (I am catching) ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught) ''mi kaptontas'' (I am about to catch) Future tense ''mi kaptos'' (I will catch) ''mi kaptantos'' (I will be catching) ''mi kaptintos'' (I will have caught) ''mi kaptontos'' (I will be about to catch) Conditional mood ''mi kaptus'' (I would catch) ''mi kaptantus'' (I would be catching) ''mi kaptintus'' (I would have caught) ''mi kaptontus'' (I would be about to catch) Infinitive ''kapti'' (to catch) ''kaptanti'' (to be catching) ''kaptinti'' (to have caught) ''kaptonti'' (to be about to catch) Volitive mood ''mi kaptu'' (that I catch) ''mi kaptantu'' (that I be catching) ''mi kaptintu'' (that I have caught) ''mi kaptontu'' (that I be about to catch)Besides the active voice, there is a parallel passive paradigm, obtained by omitting the ''-n-'':+Synthetic compound tenses (passive voice) Simple verb Progressive Perfect Prospective Past tense ''mi kaptis'' (I caught) ''mi kaptatis'' (I was getting caught) ''mi kaptitis'' (I was caught) ''mi kaptotis'' (I was about to be caught) Present tense ''mi kaptas'' (I catch) ''mi kaptatas'' (I am getting caught) ''mi kaptitas'' (I am caught) ''mi kaptotas'' (I am about to be caught) Future tense ''mi kaptos'' (I will catch) ''mi kaptatos'' (I will be getting caught) ''mi kaptitos'' (I will be caught) ''mi kaptotos'' (I will be about to be caught) Conditional mood ''mi kaptus'' (I would catch) ''mi kaptatus'' (I would be getting caught) ''mi kaptitus'' (I would be caught) ''mi kaptotus'' (I would be about to be caught) Infinitive ''kapti'' (to catch) ''kaptati'' (to be getting caught) ''kaptiti'' (to be caught) ''kaptoti'' (to be about to be caught) Volitive mood ''mi kaptu'' (that I catch) ''mi kaptatu'' (that I get caught) ''mi kaptitu'' (that I be caught) ''mi kaptotu'' (that I be about to get caught)A few of these forms, notably ''-intus'' (conditional past progressive) and ''-atas'' (present passive), have entered common usage, but most are rare because they are more difficult to parse than periphrastic constructions.===Nominal participles===Participles may be turned into adverbs or nouns by replacing the adjectival suffix ''-a'' with ''-e'' or ''-o.''", "This means that, in Esperanto, some nouns may be inflected for tense.A nominal participle indicates ''one who participates'' in the action specified by the verbal root.", "For example, ''esperinto'' is a \"hoper\" (past tense), or ''one who had been hoping.", "''===Adverbial participles===Adverbial participles are used for circumstantial participial phrases::''Kaptinte la pilkon, li ekkuris golen'' (Having caught the ball, he ran for the goal).===Conditional and tenseless participles (unofficial)===Occasionally, the participle paradigm will be extended to include conditional participles, with the vowel ''u (-unt-, -ut-).''", "If, for example, in our tree-chopping example, the woodsman found that the tree had been spiked and so couldn't be cut down after all, he would be ''hakunta'' and the tree ''hakuta'' (he, the one \"who would chop\", and the tree, the one that \"would be chopped\").This can also be illustrated with the verb ''prezidi'' (to preside).", "Just after the recount of the 2000 United States presidential election:* then-president Bill Clinton was still ''prezid'''a'''nto'' (current president) of the United States,* president-elect George W. Bush was declared ''prezid'''o'''nto'' (president-to-be),* the previous president George H. W. Bush was a ''prezid'''i'''nto'' (former president), and* the contending candidate Al Gore was ''prezid'''u'''nto'' (would-be president – that is, if the recount had gone differently).Tense-neutral words such as ''prezid'''e'''nto'' and ''stud'''ent'''o'' are formally considered distinct nominal roots, not derivatives of the verbs ''prezidi'' and ''studi''." ], [ "Negation", "A statement is made negative by using ''ne'' or one of the negative ''(neni-)'' correlatives.", "Ordinarily, only one negative word is allowed per clause:: ''Mi '''ne''' faris ion ajn.''", "I didn't do anything.Two negatives (double negative) within a clause cancel each other out, with the result being an affirmative sentence.", ": ''Mi '''ne''' faris '''nenion'''.", "Mi ja faris ion.''", "It is not the case that I did nothing.", "I did do something.The word ''ne'' comes before the word it negates:: '''''Ne''' mi devas skribi tion'' (It's not I who has to write this): ''Mi '''ne''' devas skribi tion'' (I don't have to write this): ''Mi devas '''ne''' skribi tion'' (I must not write this): ''Mi devas skribi '''ne''' tion'' (It's not this that I have to write)The latter will frequently be reordered as '''''Ne''' tion mi devas skribi'' depending on the flow of information." ], [ "Questions", "\"Wh\" questions are asked with one of the interrogative/relative ''(ki-'') correlatives.", "They are commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence, but different word orders are allowed for stress::''Li scias, '''kion''' vi faris'' (He knows what you did.", "):'''''Kion''' vi faris?''", "(What did you do?", "):''Vi faris '''kion'''?''", "(You did ''what?", ")''Yes/no questions are marked with the conjunction ''ĉu'' (whether)::''Mi ne scias, '''ĉu''' li venos'' (I don't know whether he'll come):'''''Ĉu''' li venos?''", "(Will he come?", ")Such questions can be answered ''jes'' (yes) or ''ne'' (no) in the European fashion of aligning with the polarity of the answer, or ''ĝuste'' (correct) or ''malĝuste'' (incorrect) in the Japanese fashion of aligning with the polarity of the question::''Ĉu vi ne iris?''", "(Did you not go?", "):''— '''Ne''', mi ne iris'' (No, I didn't go); ''— '''Jes''', mi iris'' (Yes, I went):''— '''Ĝuste''', mi ne iris'' (Correct, I didn't go); ''— '''Malĝuste''', mi iris'' (Incorrect, I did go)(Note that Esperanto questions may have the same word order as statements.)" ], [ "Conjunctions", "Basic Esperanto conjunctions are ''kaj'' (both/and), ''aŭ'' (either/or), ''nek'' (neither/nor), ''se'' (if), ''ĉu'' (whether/or), ''sed'' (but), ''anstataŭ'' (instead of), ''kiel'' (like, as), ''ke'' (that).", "Like prepositions, they ''precede'' the phrase or clause they modify::''Mi vidis '''kaj''' lin '''kaj''' lian amikon'' (I saw both him and his friend):''Estis '''nek''' hele '''nek''' agrable'' (it was neither clear sunny nor pleasant):'''''ĉu''' pro kaprico, '''ĉu''' pro natura lingvo-evoluo'' (whether by whim, or by natural language development):''Li volus, '''ke''' ni iru'' (he would like us to go)Conjunctions followed by incomplete clauses may be mistaken for prepositions, but unlike prepositions, they may be followed by an accusative noun phrase if the implied full clause requires it, as in the following example from Don Harlow::''Li traktis min '''kiel''' (li traktus) princon'' (He treated me as (he would) a prince):''Li traktis min '''kiel''' princo (traktus min)'' (He treated me as a prince (would))" ], [ "Interjections", "Interjections may be derived from bare affixes or roots: ''ek!''", "(get going!", "), from the perfective prefix; ''um'' (um, er), from the indefinite/undefined suffix; ''fek!''", "(shit!", "), from ''feki'' (to defecate)." ], [ "Word formation", "Esperanto derivational morphology uses a large number of lexical and grammatical affixes (prefixes and suffixes).", "These, along with compounding, decrease the memory load of the language, as they allow for the expansion of a relatively small number of basic roots into a large vocabulary.", "For example, the Esperanto root ''vid-'' (see) regularly corresponds to several dozen English words: ''see (saw, seen), sight, blind, vision, visual, visible, nonvisual, invisible, unsightly, glance, view, vista, panorama, observant'' etc., though there are also separate Esperanto roots for a couple of these concepts." ], [ "Numbers", "===Numerals===The cardinal numerals are::''nul'' (zero):''unu'' (one):''du'' (two):''tri'' (three):''kvar'' (four):''kvin'' (five):''ses'' (six):''sep'' (seven):''ok'' (eight):''naŭ'' (nine):''dek'' (ten):''cent'' (hundred):''mil'' (thousand)Grammatically, these are numerals, not nouns, and as such do not take the accusative case suffix ''-n''.", "However, ''unu'' (and only ''unu'') is sometimes used adjectivally or demonstratively, meaning \"a certain\", and in such cases it may take the plural affix ''-j,'' just as the demonstrative pronoun ''tiu'' does::''unu'''j''' homo'''j''''' \"certain people\";:''ili kuris unu'''j''' post la aliaj'' \"they ran some after others\".In such use ''unu'' is irregular in that it only rarely takes the accusative/prepositional case affix ''-n'' in the singular, but regularly does so in the plural::''ia'''n''' unu ideo'''n''''' \"some particular idea\",but:''unuj objektoj venis en unu'''jn''' mano'''jn''', aliaj en aliajn manojn'' \"some objects came into certain hands, others into other hands\".Additionally, when counting off, the final ''u'' of ''unu'' may be dropped, as if it were a part-of-speech suffix::''Un'!", "Du!", "Tri!", "Kvar!", "''===Higher numbers===At numbers beyond the thousands, the international roots ''miliono'' (million) and ''miliardo'' (milliard) are used.", "Beyond this there are two systems: A ''billion'' in most English-speaking countries is different from a ''billion'' in most other countries (109 ''vs.''", "1012 respectively; that is, a thousand million ''vs.''", "a million million).", "The international root ''biliono'' is likewise ambiguous in Esperanto, and is deprecated for this reason.", "An unambiguous system based on adding the Esperanto suffix ''-iliono'' to numerals is generally used instead, sometimes supplemented by a second suffix ''-iliardo:'':106: ''miliono'':109: ''miliardo'' (or ''mil milionoj''):1012: ''duiliono'':1015: ''duiliardo'' (or ''mil duilionoj''):1018: ''triiliono'':1021: ''triiliardo'' (or ''mil triilionoj''):''...", "etc.", "''Note that these forms are grammatically nouns, not numerals, and therefore cannot modify a noun directly: ''mil homojn'' (a thousand people accusative) but ''milionon da homoj'' (a million people accusative).===Compound numerals and derivatives===Tens and hundreds are pronounced and written together with their multipliers as one word, while all other parts of a number are pronounced and written separately (''dudek'' 20, ''dek du'' 12, ''dudek du'' 22, ''dek du mil'' 12,000).", "Ordinals are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a,'' quantities with the nominal suffix ''-o,'' multiples with ''-obl-,'' fractions with ''‑on‑'', collectives with ''‑op‑'', and repetitions with the root ''‑foj‑''.", ":''sescent sepdek kvin'' (675):''tria'' (third as in ''first, second, third''):''trie'' (thirdly):''dudeko'' (a score 20):''duobla'' (double):''kvarono'' (one fourth, a quarter):''duope'' (by twos):''dufoje'' (twice)The particle ''po'' is used to mark distributive numbers, that is, the idea of distributing a certain number of items to each member of a group::''mi donis al ili po tri pomojn'' or ''pomojn mi donis al ili po tri'' (I gave to them three apples each).Note that particle ''po'' forms a phrase with the numeral ''tri'' and is not a preposition for the noun phrase ''tri pomojn,'' so it does not prevent a grammatical object from taking the accusative case." ], [ "Comparisons", "Comparisons are made with the adverbial correlatives ''tiel ... kiel'' (as ... as), the adverbial roots ''pli'' (more) and ''plej'' (most), the antonym prefix ''mal-,'' and the preposition ''ol'' (than)::''mi skribas tiel bone kiel vi'' (I write as well as you):''tiu estas pli bona ol tiu'' (this one is better than that one):''tio estas la plej bona'' (that's the best):''la mia estas malpli multekosta ol la via'' (mine is less expensive than yours)Implied comparisons are made with ''tre'' (very) and ''tro'' (too much).Phrases like \"The more people, the smaller the portions\" and \"All the better!\"", "are translated using ''ju'' and ''des'' in place of \"the\"::'''''Ju''' pli da homoj, '''des''' malpli grandaj la porcioj'' (The more people, the smaller the portions):'''''Des''' pli bone!''", "(All the better!)" ], [ "Word order", "Esperanto has a fairly flexible word order.", "However, word order does play a role in Esperanto grammar, even if a much lesser role than it does in English.", "For example, the negative particle ''ne'' generally comes before the element being negated; negating the verb has the effect of negating the entire clause (or rather, there is ambiguity between negating the verb alone and negating the clause)::''mi '''ne''' iris'' 'I didn't go':''mi '''ne''' iris, mi revenis'' 'I didn't go, I came back':'''''ne''' mi iris'' / ''iris ne mi'' 'it wasn't me who went':''mi iris '''ne''' al la butiko '''sed''' hejmen'' 'I went not to the shop but home'.However, when the entire clause is negated, the ''ne'' may be left till last::''mi iris '''ne''''' Literally 'I went not' (i.e., 'I didn't go')Phrases typically follow a topic–comment (or theme–rheme) order: Known information, the topic under discussion, is introduced first, and what one has to say about it follows.", "(I went not: As for my going, there was none.)", "For example, ''ne iris mi'', would suggest that the possibility of not having gone was under discussion, and ''mi'' is given as an example of one who did not go.Compare::''Pasintjare mi feriis en Italujo''::'Last year I vacationed in Italy' (Italy was the place I went on holiday):''En Italujo mi feriis pasintjare''::'I vacationed in Italy last year' (last year was when I went):''En Italujo pasintjare mi feriis''::'In Italy last year I went on vacation' (a vacation is why I went):''En Italujo pasintjare feriis mi''::(I am the one who went)===The noun phrase===Within a noun phrase, either the order ''adjective–noun'' or ''noun–adjective'' may occur, though the former is somewhat more common.", ":''blua ĉielo'' 'a blue sky':''ĉielo blua'' (same)Because of adjectival agreement, an adjective may be separated from the rest of the noun phrase without confusion, though this is only found in poetry, and then only occasionally: :''Mi estas certa, ke brilan vi havos sukceson'' 'I am certain that you will have a brilliant success',Possessive pronouns strongly favor initial position, though the opposite is well known from ''Patro nia'' 'Our Father' in the Paternoster.Less flexibility occurs with demonstratives and the article, with ''demonstrative–noun'' being the norm, as in English::''la ĉielo'' \"the sky\":''tiu ĉielo'' 'that sky'::also ''ĉielo tiu'':''la blua ĉielo'' \"the blue sky\":''tiu blua ĉielo'' 'that blue sky'Noun–demonstrative order is used primarily for emphasis (''plumo tiu'' 'that pen').", "''La'' occurs at the very beginning of the noun phrase except rarely in poetry.Even less flexibility occurs with numerals, with ''numeral–noun'' being almost universal::''sep bluaj ĉieloj'' 'seven blue heavens',and noun–numeral being practically unheard of outside poetry.Adjective–noun order is much freer.", "With simple adjectives, adjective–noun order predominates, especially if the noun is long or complex.", "However, a long or complex adjective typically comes after the noun, in some cases parallel to structures in English, as in the second example below::''homo malgrandanima kaj ege avara'' 'a petty and extremely greedy person':''vizaĝo plena de cikatroj'' 'a face full of scars':''ideo fantazia sed tamen interesa'' 'a fantastic but still interesting idea'Adjectives also normally occur after correlative nouns.", "Again, this is one of the situations where adjectives come after nouns in English::''okazis io stranga'' 'something strange happened':''ne ĉio brilanta estas diamanto'' 'not everything shiny is a diamond'Changing the word order here can change the meaning, at least with the correlative ''nenio'' 'nothing'::''li manĝis nenion etan'' 'he ate nothing little':''li manĝis etan nenion'' 'he ate a little nothing'With multiple words in a phrase, the order is typically demonstrative/pronoun–numeral–(adjective/noun)::''miaj du grandaj amikoj ~ miaj du amikoj grandaj'' 'my two great friends'.In prepositional phrases, the preposition is ''required'' to come at the front of the noun phrase (that is, even before the article ''la''), though it is commonly replaced by turning the noun into an adverb::''al la ĉielo'' 'to the sky' or ''ĉielen'' 'skywards', never ''ĉielo al''===Constituent order===Constituent order ''within'' a clause is generally free, apart from copular clauses.The default order is subject–verb–object, though any order may occur, with subject and object distinguished by case, and other constituents distinguished by prepositions::''la hundo ĉasis la katon'' 'the dog chased/hunted the cat':''la katon ĉasis la hundo'':''ĉasis la hundo la katon'':''ĉasis la katon la hundo'':''la hundo la katon ĉasis'':''la katon la hundo ĉasis''The expectation of a topic–comment (theme–rheme) order apply here, so the context will influence word order: in ''la katon ĉasis la hundo'', the cat is the topic of the conversation, and the dog is the news; in ''la hundo la katon ĉasis'', the dog is the topic of the conversation, and it is the action of chasing that is the news; and in ''ĉasis la hundo la katon'', the action of chasing is already the topic of discussion.Context is required to tell whether:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno''means the dog chased a cat which was in the garden, or there, in the garden, the dog chased the cat.", "These may be disambiguated with:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno''::'The dog chased the cat, which was in the garden'and:''en la ĝardeno, la hundo ĉasis la katon''::'In the garden, the dog chased the cat'.Of course, if it chases the cat in''to'' the garden, the case of 'garden' would change::''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno'''n''''', ''en la ĝardeno'''n''' la hundo ĉasis la katon'', etc.Within copulative clauses, however, there are restrictions.", "Copulas are words such as ''esti'' 'be', ''iĝi'' 'become', ''resti'' 'remain', and ''ŝajni'' 'seem', for which neither noun phrase takes the accusative case.", "In such cases only two orders are generally found: noun-copula-predicate and, much less commonly, predicate-copula-noun.Generally, if a characteristic of the noun is being described, the choice between the two orders is not important::''sovaĝa estas la vento'' 'wild is the wind', ''la vento estas sovaĝa'' 'the wind is wild'However, ''la vento sovaĝa estas'' is unclear, at least in writing, as it could be interpreted as 'the wild wind exists.", "'When two noun phrases are linked by a copula, greater chance exists for ambiguity, at least in writing where prosody is not a cue.", "A demonstrative may help::''bruto estas tiu viro'' 'that man is a brute'.But in some cases word order is the only clue, in which case the subject comes before the predicate::''glavoj iĝu plugiloj'' 'let swords become ploughs':''plugiloj iĝu glavoj'' 'let ploughs become swords'.===Attributive phrases and clauses===In the sentence above, ''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno'' 'the dog chased the cat, which was in the garden', the relative pronoun ''kiu'' 'which' is restricted to a position ''after'' the noun 'cat'.", "In general, relative clauses and attributive prepositional phrases follow the noun they modify.Attributive prepositional phrases, which are dependent on nouns, include genitives (''la libro de Johano'' 'John's book') as well as ''la kato en la ĝardeno'' 'the cat in the garden' in the example above.", "Their order cannot be reversed: neither ''la de Johano libro'' nor ''la en la ĝardeno kato'' is possible.", "This behavior is more restrictive than prepositional phrases which are dependent on verbs, and which can be moved around: both ''ĉasis en la ĝardeno'' and ''en la ĝardeno ĉasis'' are acceptable for 'chased in the garden'.Relative clauses are similar, in that they are attributive and are subject to the same word-order constraint, except that rather than being linked by a preposition, the two elements are linked by a relative pronoun such as ''kiu'' 'which'::''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat which it chased fled':''mi vidis la hundon, kiu ĉasis la katon'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'Note that the noun and its adjacent relative pronoun do not agree in case.", "Rather, their cases depend on their relationships with their respective verbs.", "However, they do agree in number::''fuĝis la kato'''j''', kiu'''j'''n ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat'''s''' which it chased fled'Other word orders are possible, as long as the relative pronoun remains adjacent to the noun it depends on::''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĉasis ĝi'' 'the cat which it chased fled':''vidis mi la hundon, kiu la katon ĉasis'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'===Clause order===Coordinate clauses allow flexible word order, but tend to be iconic.", "For example, in:''la hundo ĉasis la katon kaj la kato fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat and the cat fled',the inference is that the cat fled after the dog started to chase it, not that the dog chased a cat which was already fleeing.", "For the latter reading, the clause order would be reversed::''la kato fuĝis, kaj la hundo ĉasis ĝin'' 'the cat fled, and the dog chased it'This distinction is lost in subordinate clauses such as the relative clauses in the previous section::''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat(,) which fled'In written English, a comma disambiguates the two readings, but both take a comma in Esperanto.Non-relative subordinate clauses are similarly restricted.", "They follow the conjunction ''ke'' 'that', as in,:''Mi estas certa, ke vi havos brilan sukceson'' 'I am certain that you will have a brilliant success'." ], [ "Non-European aspects?", "Esperanto's vocabulary, syntax, and semantics derive predominantly from Standard Average European languages.", "Roots are typically Latinate or Germanic in origin.", "The semantics show a significant Slavic influence.", "However, those aspects do not derive directly from Esperanto's source languages, and are generally extensions of them.", "It is often claimed that there are elements of the grammar which are not found in these language families.Frequently mentioned is Esperanto's agglutinative morphology based on invariant morphemes, and the subsequent lack of ablaut (internal inflection of its roots), which Zamenhof thought would prove alien to non-European language speakers.", "Ablaut is an element of all the source languages; an English example is ''.''", "However, the majority of words in all European languages inflect without ablaut, as '' and '' do in English.", "(This is the so-called strong–weak dichotomy.)", "Historically, many European languages have expanded the range of their 'weak' inflections, and Esperanto has merely taken this development closer to its logical conclusion, with the only remaining ablaut being frozen in a few sets of semantically related roots such as ''pli'', ''plej'', ''plu'' (more, most, further), ''tre'', ''tro'' (very, too much), and in the verbal morphemes ''‑as'', ''‑anta'', ''‑ata''; ''‑is'', ''‑inta'', ''‑ita''; ''‑os'', ''‑onta'', ''‑ota''; and ''‑us''.Other features often cited as being alien for a European language, such as the dedicated suffixes for different parts of speech, or the ''-o'' suffix for nouns combined with ''-a'' for adjectives and ''la'' for 'the', actually do occur.", "More pertinent is the accusative plural in ''-jn'', which is derived through leveling of the Greek nominal–adjectival paradigm: Esperanto nominative singular ''muz'''o''''' (muse) vs. Greek ''mous'''a''''', nominative plural ''muzo'''j''''' vs. Greek ''mousa'''i''','' and accusative singular ''muzo'''n''''' vs. Greek ''mousa'''n'''.''", "(Latin and Lithuanian had very similar setups, with in the plural and a nasal in the accusative.)", "Esperanto is thus ''formally'' similar to the non‑Indo‑European languages Hungarian and Turkish—that is, it is similar in its mechanics, but not in use.", "None of these proposed \"non-European\" elements of the original Esperanto proposal were actually taken from non-European or non-Indo-European languages, and any similarities with those languages are coincidental.East Asian languages may have had some influence on the development of Esperanto grammar after its creation.", "The principally cited candidate is the replacement of predicate adjectives with verbs, such as ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue) for ''la ĉielo estas blua'' and ''mia filino belu!''", "(may my daughter be beautiful!)", "for the ''mia filino estu bela!''", "mentioned above.", "However, this regularization of existing grammatical forms was always found in poetry; if there has been an influence of an East Asian language, it has only been in the spread of such forms, not in their origin.", "Such usage is not entirely unknown in Europe: Latin has an analogous ''folium viret'' for ''folium viride est'' (the leaf is green) and ''avis rubet'' for ''avis rubra est'' (the bird is red).Perhaps the best candidate for a \"non-European\" feature is the blurred distinction between root and affix.", "Esperanto derivational affixes may be used as independent roots and inflect for part of speech like other roots.", "This occurs only sporadically in other languages of the world.", "For example, ''ismo'' has an English equivalent in \"an ism\", but English has no adjectival form equivalent to Esperanto ''isma.''", "For most such affixes, natural languages familiar to Europeans must use a separate lexical root." ], [ "Sample text", "The Pater noster, from the first Esperanto publication in 1887, illustrates many of the grammatical points presented above:The morphologically complex words (see Esperanto word formation) are:: ''sanktigata'' '''sankt-''' '''-ig-''' '''-at-''' '''-a''' ''holy'' causative present passiveparticiple adjective \"being made holy\": ''fariĝu'' '''far-''' '''-iĝ-''' '''-u''' ''do'' middle voice(anticausative) volitive \"be done\": ''ĉiutagan'' '''ĉiu-''' '''tag-''' '''-a''' '''-n''' ''every'' ''day'' adjective accusative \"daily\": ''ŝuldantoj'' '''ŝuld-''' '''-ant-''' '''-o''' '''-j''' ''owe'' present activeparticiple noun plural \"debtors\": ''liberigu nin'' '''liber-''' '''-ig-''' '''-u''' '''ni''' '''-n''' ''free'' causative volitive ''we'' accusative \"free us\": ''la malbono'' '''la''' '''mal-''' '''bon-''' '''-o''' article antonym ''good'' noun \"evil\"" ], [ "Reference books", "Reference grammars include the () by Kálmán Kalocsay and Gaston Waringhien, and the ''Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko'' () by Bertilo Wennergren." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Esperanto Grammar (by Don Harlow)* Esperanto Grammar (by Jirka Hana)* An Elementary Esperanto Primer (by Daniel M. Albro)* '' Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko'' (\"A Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar\", by Bertilo Wennergren)* Detailed Lernu!", "Grammar of Esperanto (written by Bertilo Wennergren)* Esperanto Grammar with Exercises (by Lingolia)* Esperanto features in the Conlang Atlas of Language Structures." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Esperanto culture" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Esperanto culture''' refers to the shared cultural experience of the Esperantujo, or Esperanto-speaking community.", "Despite being a constructed language, Esperanto has a history dating back to the late 19th century, and shared socio-cultural norms have developed among its speakers.", "Some of these can be traced back to the initial ideas of the language's creator, Ludwig Zamenhof, including the theory that a global second language would foster international communication.", "Others have developed over time, as the language has allowed different national and linguistic cultures to blend together.", "Some Esperanto speakers have also researched the language's ideologies.Esperanto culture also includes art, literature, and music, as well as international celebrations and cultural exchanges such as the Pasporta Servo." ], [ "Native speakers", "Native Esperanto speakers are people who have acquired Esperanto as one of their native languages.", "As of 1996, there were 350 or so attested cases of families with native Esperanto speakers.", "Estimates from associations indicate that there are currently around 1,000 Esperanto-speaking families, involving perhaps 2,000 children.", "In all known cases, speakers are natively multilingual, being raised in both Esperanto and either the local national language or the native language of their parents.", "In all but a handful of cases, it was the father who used Esperanto with the child.", "In the majority of such families, the parents had the same native language, though in many the parents had different native languages, and only Esperanto in common." ], [ "Writing", "Esperanto was originally a language that one had to learn entirely through books, and even today most people live apart from each other and converse through the internet, so writing and reading are a big part of Esperanto culture.", "Most people have created or translated some sort of written work whether fiction or nonfiction, published or available to read online for free.Penpals have been popular since Esperanto's earliest days, as Esperanto was originally advertised as a language where you could \"send a letter with a message, short list of grammar rules and a dictionary to a complete stranger, and they'll be able to look up the words and write a coherent reply back\".", "Many people did indeed do this in order to recruit more Esperanto speakers.At the time, in the early 1900s, there was no major world language that could be used \"anywhere\" and it was difficult to get accurate information about foreign countries.", "On top of that, things like stamp collecting were popular hobbies for children.", "In the modern day, most Esperanto speakers talk to each other through the internet.", "''Monato'' (\"month\") is a general news magazine \"like a genuinely international ''Time'' or ''Newsweek''\", written by local correspondents.A magazine for the blind, ''Aŭroro'', has been published since 1920 and in general, Esperanto hosts the largest Braille publications in the world — starting in the early 1900s Esperanto was taught in schools of the blind in Europe, and that is where the trend started.", "''Esperanto'' is the magazine used by the World Esperanto Association to inform its members about everything happening in the Esperanto community.There are many more magazines created by individual Esperanto clubs from towns in places such as from Japan and China." ], [ "Literature", "Books that are translated to Esperanto are not always internationally famous books, because everyone can already read those in another language that they know.", "For example, several Japanese crime novels and several Icelandic novels that have never been translated to English (or any other language) have been translated to Esperanto.", "One reason for this is that people are actually translating their favourite stories instead of famous ones, and another is that it's simply cheaper and easier to get the rights to translate a small-time book compared to a famous one.The first Harry Potter book, for example, was translated and the translator enquired about how to purchase translating rights so the book could be published, but J.K. Rowling refused to allow it to be published in Esperanto (despite ''Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone'' being one of the most-translated books in the whole world).", "In lieu of physical books, the translation now exists as a free download on the internet.Similarly, famous books translated into Esperanto are often books fallen into public domain such as the Bible, the Quran, or works by Shakespeare, Molière, Balzac, etc., because there are no rights on them.Esperanto literature and organisations such as the Universal Esperanto Association (''Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda'' or SAT) often advocated against nationalism, leading to several fascist governments attempting to ban and eradicate its usage: Germany, Francoist Spain, Portugal, as well as in the Soviet Union.", "However, the level to which this discrimination was due to association with Judaism and Jewish people cannot be fully known; Hitler wrote of it as intrinsically Jewish and called it a \"Jewish weapon\" in his ''Mein Kampf''.", "Following this history of suppression, Esperanto literature frequently concerns themes of resistance and anti-nationalism, though not all criticism of Esperanto is grounded in politics (See Esperanto#Criticism).There are over 25,000 Esperanto books (originals and translations) as well as over a hundred regularly distributed Esperanto magazines.", "This is despite that Esperanto has only existed for around 100 years.", "In comparison, the entire literature of Iceland (a country created in the 900s, and with a population of around 320,000 people) totals fewer than 50,000 books." ], [ "Media", "Esperanto music is usually done in the traditional style of a person's country, but \"international\" music (American pop music, rap music etc.)", "also exists.", "Many famous songs are translated to Esperanto as well, for example \" La vie en rose\" and \" En el frente de Gandesa\" (the links are to the Esperanto versions of the songs on YouTube).There are currently radio broadcasts from China Radio International, Melbourne Ethnic Community Radio, Radio Habana Cuba, Radio Audizioni Italiane (Rai), Radio Polonia, Radio F.R.E.I.", "and Radio Vatican.", "Many more people have personal podcasts and vlogs.In 1964, Jacques-Louis Mahé produced the first full-length feature film in Esperanto, entitled ''Angoroj''.", "This was followed in 1965 by the first American Esperanto-production: ''Incubus'', starring William Shatner.", "''Incubus'' however is commonly seen as a funny way of introducing a person to Esperanto, as none of the actors even knew how to pronounce Esperanto in the first place, the dialogue being strange and bad due to the scriptwriter not getting a second opinion before the filming was done, and the plot being confusing in general.The Serbian actor Sasha Pilipovic presents his cabaret at the World Congress of Esperanto, Rotterdam 2008Internacia Televido, an internet television channel, began broadcasting in November 2005.Australia is the hotspot of much of the organization behind Esperanto television.Several short films have been produced, and at times plays have been recorded \"for television\".", ", the Esperanto-language Wikipedia lists 14 films and 3 short films.In 2011, Academy Award-nominated director Sam Green (''The Weather Underground''), released a new documentary about Esperanto titled The Universal Language (La Universala Lingvo.)", "This 30-minute film traces the history of Esperanto.", "It's known for having extremely good camera quality and filming sense, as well as being a good \"absolute introduction\" to what Esperanto is, but is criticized for being too short.Many more films, cartoons and documentaries that aren't Esperanto originals are simply subtitled in Esperanto and put up on YouTube.", "Some fan-dubs exist, especially of Disney songs and short scenes." ], [ "Conventions", "Many people wear their country's traditional clothing to Esperanto conventions, whether or not they would ever wear it in their own country.", "Swedish people, for example, who usually never wear their traditional clothing in their own country, may still wear traditional clothing for any meeting involving Esperanto speakers.Every year, the World Congress of Esperanto (), which is held in different countries around the world according to year (though it mostly takes place in Europe).", "Each convention draws in an average of 1500–3000 attendees, and the best-attended conferences are those held in Central or Eastern Europe (generally meaning Poland, Hungary etc.", "), as Esperanto is an option for fulfilling mandatory foreign-language requirements in Hungarian schools, and the creator of Esperanto came from Poland (see statistics at World Congress of Esperanto)." ], [ "Gufujo", "Esperanto speakers create a makeshift café (whether in a rented space or someone's home), using Esperanto coins or voucher-like items as well as real money to pay for food and drink.", "Live music, poetry reading, or literature reading are usual activities.", "This custom arose in 1995 in order to contrast with the more usual custom of after-convention partying at a bar." ], [ "Pasporta Servo", "An organisation called Pasporta Servo offers a free couchsurfing and homestay service, enabling cheaper and easier travel through a shared language." ], [ "Food", "As Esperanto speakers are from all over the world, and families whose children speak Esperanto natively usually have parents from two vastly different countries, recipes incorporating elements from different countries are naturally born.", "Traditional foods are also enjoyed in settings where a native wouldn't normally mix or eat them.One cookbook is ''Internacie kuiri'' “Cooking Internationally” by Maria Becker-Meisberger, published by FEL (Flemish Esperanto League), Antwerp 1989, .", "Another is ''Manĝoj el sanigaj plantoj'' “Meals from Healthy Vegetable Dishes” by Zlata Nanić, published by BIO-ZRNO, Zagreb 2002, .Some Esperanto periodicals, such as ''MONATO'', include recipes from time to time." ], [ "Zamenhof Day", "Castle of Grésilion, an Esperantist cultural center in FranceOn December 15 (L. L. Zamenhof's birthday), Esperanto speakers around the world celebrate Zamenhof Day, sometimes called Book Day.", "It's a common goal to have a book written in Esperanto published on or by that day, as Zamenhof was a strong advocate of the idea that in order to spread Esperanto around the world, its speakers need to create a large body of literature.The poem ''La Espero'' is the Esperanto anthem, and most Esperanto speakers know the lyrics of the anthem by heart.", "It is often sung at conventions.", "Whether or not one enjoys the lyrics, the song is something that ties all Esperanto speakers together — as it has been around since Esperanto's early days.", "The tune of ''La Espero'' is known to most Esperanto speakers, and is a general tradition.", "The very short poem Ho, mia kor' (Zamenhof, 1887) and the longer (Zamenhof, 1896) are also very famous and often quoted in whole or in part; some distychs of ''La vojo'', in particular, have become proverbial (e.g.", "''Eĉ guto malgranda, konstante frapante, traboros la monton granitan'' “Even a small drop, by constantly hitting, will pierce the mountain of granite” as a metaphor for unyielding perseverance)." ], [ "Religion", "Esperanto has had an influence on certain religious traditions (Oomoto, Baháʼí Faith, etc., see Esperanto and religion).", "While some Esperantists subscribe to these beliefs, they are not necessarily common, and are neither required nor encouraged by any Esperanto groups." ], [ "See also", "* Gufujo* Esperanto literature* Esperanto music* Esperanto flag* Interhelpo* Zamenhof-Esperanto object* Esperanto profanity* (EoLA)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Esperanto Kaj Turismo* Esperanto-USA's Esperanto Day page* Jacques-Louis Mahé* Generator for Esperanto typographical filler text* esperanto-panorama.net: Radio in Esperanto* Melbourne Ethnic Community Radio program with Esperanto entry* Radio F.R.E.I.", "from Erfurt/Germany once a month* Propono por la tago de Esperanto-libro kaj Zamenhof-festo* Esperanto website from Spain* Esperanto version of Le Monde diplomatique" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emotion" ], [ "Introduction", "Sixteen faces expressing the human passions – colored engraving by J.", "Pass, 1821, after Charles Le Brun\|371x371px'''Emotions''' are mental states brought on by neurophysiological changes, variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioral responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure.", "There is no scientific consensus on a definition.", "Emotions are often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, or creativity.Research on emotion has increased over the past two decades, with many fields contributing, including psychology, medicine, history, sociology of emotions, and computer science.", "The numerous attempts to explain the origin, function, and other aspects of emotions have fostered intense research on this topic.", "Theorizing about the evolutionary origin and possible purpose of emotion dates back to Charles Darwin.", "Current areas of research include the neuroscience of emotion, using tools like PET and fMRI scans to study the affective picture processes in the brain.From a mechanistic perspective, emotions can be defined as \"a positive or negative experience that is associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity.\"", "Emotions are complex, involving multiple different components, such as subjective experience, cognitive processes, expressive behavior, psychophysiological changes, and instrumental behavior.", "At one time, academics attempted to identify the emotion with one of the components: William James with a subjective experience, behaviorists with instrumental behavior, psychophysiologists with physiological changes, and so on.", "More recently, emotion has been said to consist of all the components.", "The different components of emotion are categorized somewhat differently depending on the academic discipline.", "In psychology and philosophy, emotion typically includes a subjective, conscious experience characterized primarily by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, and mental states.", "A similar multi-componential description of emotion is found in sociology.", "For example, Peggy Thoits described emotions as involving physiological components, cultural or emotional labels (anger, surprise, etc.", "), expressive body actions, and the appraisal of situations and contexts.", "Cognitive processes, like reasoning and decision-making, are often regarded as separate from emotional processes, making a division between \"thinking\" and \"feeling\".", "However, not all theories of emotion regard this separation as valid.Nowadays, most research into emotions in the clinical and well-being context focuses on emotion dynamics in daily life, predominantly the intensity of specific emotions and their variability, instability, inertia, and differentiation, as well as whether and how emotions augment or blunt each other over time and differences in these dynamics between people and along the lifespan." ], [ "Etymology", "The word \"emotion\" dates back to 1579, when it was adapted from the French word ''émouvoir'', which means \"to stir up\".", "The term emotion was introduced into academic discussion as a catch-all term to passions, sentiments and affections.", "The word \"emotion\" was coined in the early 1800s by Thomas Brown and it is around the 1830s that the modern concept of emotion first emerged for the English language.", "\"No one felt emotions before about 1830.Instead they felt other things – 'passions', 'accidents of the soul', 'moral sentiments' – and explained them very differently from how we understand emotions today.", "\"Some cross-cultural studies indicate that the categorization of \"emotion\" and classification of basic emotions such as \"anger\" and \"sadness\" are not universal and that the boundaries and domains of these concepts are categorized differently by all cultures.", "However, others argue that there are some universal bases of emotions (see Section 6.1).", "In psychiatry and psychology, an inability to express or perceive emotion is sometimes referred to as alexithymia." ], [ "History", "Human nature and the accompanying bodily sensations have always been part of the interests of thinkers and philosophers.", "Far more extensively, this has also been of great interest to both Western and Eastern societies.", "Emotional states have been associated with the divine and with the enlightenment of the human mind and body.", "The ever-changing actions of individuals and their mood variations have been of great importance to most of the Western philosophers (including Aristotle, Plato, Descartes, Aquinas, and Hobbes), leading them to propose extensive theories—often competing theories—that sought to explain emotion and the accompanying motivators of human action, as well as its consequences.In the Age of Enlightenment, Scottish thinker David Hume proposed a revolutionary argument that sought to explain the main motivators of human action and conduct.", "He proposed that actions are motivated by \"fears, desires, and passions\".", "As he wrote in his book ''A Treatise of Human Nature'' (1773): \"Reason alone can never be a motive to any action of the will… it can never oppose passion in the direction of the will… The reason is, and ought to be, the slave of the passions, and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them\".", "With these lines, Hume attempted to explain that reason and further action would be subject to the desires and experience of the self.", "Later thinkers would propose that actions and emotions are deeply interrelated with social, political, historical, and cultural aspects of reality that would also come to be associated with sophisticated neurological and physiological research on the brain and other parts of the physical body." ], [ "Definitions", "The Lexico definition of emotion is \"A strong feeling deriving from one's circumstances, mood, or relationships with others.\"", "Emotions are responses to significant internal and external events.Emotions can be occurrences (e.g., panic) or dispositions (e.g., hostility), and short-lived (e.g., anger) or long-lived (e.g., grief).", "Psychotherapist Michael C. Graham describes all emotions as existing on a continuum of intensity.", "Thus fear might range from mild concern to terror or shame might range from simple embarrassment to toxic shame.", "Emotions have been described as consisting of a coordinated set of responses, which may include verbal, physiological, behavioral, and neural mechanisms.Emotions have been categorized, with some relationships existing between emotions and some direct opposites existing.", "Graham differentiates emotions as functional or dysfunctional and argues all functional emotions have benefits.In some uses of the word, emotions are intense feelings that are directed at someone or something.", "On the other hand, emotion can be used to refer to states that are mild (as in annoyed or content) and to states that are not directed at anything (as in anxiety and depression).", "One line of research looks at the meaning of the word emotion in everyday language and finds that this usage is rather different from that in academic discourse.In practical terms, Joseph LeDoux has defined emotions as the result of a cognitive and conscious process which occurs in response to a body system response to a trigger." ], [ "Components", "According to Scherer's Component Process Model (CPM) of emotion, there are five crucial elements of emotion.", "From the component process perspective, emotional experience requires that all of these processes become coordinated and synchronized for a short period of time, driven by appraisal processes.", "Although the inclusion of cognitive appraisal as one of the elements is slightly controversial, since some theorists make the assumption that emotion and cognition are separate but interacting systems, the CPM provides a sequence of events that effectively describes the coordination involved during an emotional episode.", "* ''Cognitive appraisal'': provides an evaluation of events and objects.", "* ''Bodily symptoms'': the physiological component of emotional experience.", "* ''Action tendencies'': a motivational component for the preparation and direction of motor responses.", "* ''Expression'': facial and vocal expression almost always accompanies an emotional state to communicate reaction and intention of actions.", "* ''Feelings'': the subjective experience of emotional state once it has occurred." ], [ "Differentiation", "Emotion can be differentiated from a number of similar constructs within the field of affective neuroscience:* Emotions: predispositions to a certain type of action in response to a specific stimulus, which produce a cascade of rapid and synchronized physiological and cognitive changes.", "* Feeling: not all feelings include emotion, such as the feeling of knowing.", "In the context of emotion, feelings are best understood as a subjective representation of emotions, private to the individual experiencing them.", "Emotions are often described as the raw, instinctive responses, while feelings involve our interpretation and awareness of those responses.", "* Moods: enduring affective states that are considered less intense than emotions and appear to lack a contextual stimulus.", "* Affect: a broader term used to describe the emotional and cognitive experience of an emotion, feeling or mood.", "It can be understood as a combination of three components: emotion, mood, and affectivity (an individual's overall disposition or temperament, which can be characterized as having a generally positive or negative affect)." ], [ "Evolutionary Approach: Emotions' Purpose and Value", "There is no single, universally accepted evolutionary theory.", "The most prominent ideas suggest that emotions have evolved to serve various adaptive functions:# '''Survival, Threat Detection, Decision-Making, and Motivation'''.", "One view is that emotions facilitate adaptive responses to environmental challenges.", "Emotions like fear, anger, and disgust are thought to have evolved to help humans and other animals detect and respond to threats and dangers in their environment.", "For example, fear helps individuals react quickly to potential dangers, anger can motivate self-defense or assertiveness, and disgust can protect against harmful substances.", "While happiness might reinforce behaviors that lead to positive outcomes.", "For example, the anticipation of the reward associated with a pleasurable emotion like joy can motivate individuals to engage in behaviors that promote their well-being.# '''Memory Enhancement''': Emotions can enhance memory.", "Events or experiences that trigger strong emotions are often remembered more vividly, which can be advantageous for learning from past experiences and avoiding potential threats or repeating successful behaviors.# '''Social Communication.'''", "Emotions play a crucial role in social interactions.", "Expressing emotions through facial expressions, body language, and vocalizations helps convey information to others about one's internal state.", "This, in turn, facilitates cooperation, bonding, and the maintenance of social relationships.", "For example, a smile communicates happiness and friendliness, while a frown may signal distress or disapproval.", "Emotions can also ignite conversations about values and ethics.", "However some emotions, such as some forms of anxiety, are sometimes regarded as part of a mental illness and thus possibly of negative value." ], [ "Classification", "A distinction can be made between emotional episodes and emotional dispositions.", "Emotional dispositions are also comparable to character traits, where someone may be said to be generally disposed to experience certain emotions.", "For example, an irritable person is generally disposed to feel irritation more easily or quickly than others do.", "Finally, some theorists place emotions within a more general category of \"affective states\" where affective states can also include emotion-related phenomena such as pleasure and pain, motivational states (for example, hunger or curiosity), moods, dispositions and traits.=== Basic Emotions Theory ===Examples of basic emotionsThe emotion wheelFor more than 40 years, Paul Ekman has supported the view that emotions are discrete, measurable, and physiologically distinct.", "Ekman's most influential work revolved around the finding that certain emotions appeared to be universally recognized, even in cultures that were preliterate and could not have learned associations for facial expressions through media.", "Another classic study found that when participants contorted their facial muscles into distinct facial expressions (for example, disgust), they reported subjective and physiological experiences that matched the distinct facial expressions.", "Ekman's facial-expression research examined six basic emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise.Later in his career, Ekman theorized that other universal emotions may exist beyond these six.", "In light of this, recent cross-cultural studies led by Daniel Cordaro and Dacher Keltner, both former students of Ekman, extended the list of universal emotions.", "In addition to the original six, these studies provided evidence for amusement, awe, contentment, desire, embarrassment, pain, relief, and sympathy in both facial and vocal expressions.", "They also found evidence for boredom, confusion, interest, pride, and shame facial expressions, as well as contempt, relief, and triumph vocal expressions.Robert Plutchik agreed with Ekman's biologically driven perspective but developed the \"wheel of emotions\", suggesting eight primary emotions grouped on a positive or negative basis: joy versus sadness; anger versus fear; trust versus disgust; and surprise versus anticipation.", "Some basic emotions can be modified to form complex emotions.", "The complex emotions could arise from cultural conditioning or association combined with the basic emotions.", "Alternatively, similar to the way primary colors combine, ''primary emotions'' could blend to form the full spectrum of human emotional experience.", "For example, interpersonal anger and disgust could blend to form contempt.", "Relationships exist between basic emotions, resulting in positive or negative influences.Jaak Panksepp carved out seven biologically inherited primary affective systems called SEEKING (expectancy), FEAR (anxiety), RAGE (anger), LUST (sexual excitement), CARE (nurturance), PANIC/GRIEF (sadness), and PLAY (social joy).", "He proposed what is known as \"core-SELF\" to be generating these affects.=== Multi-Dimensional Analysis Theory ===Two dimensions of emotions, made accessible for practical usePsychologists have used methods such as factor analysis to attempt to map emotion-related responses onto a more limited number of dimensions.", "Such methods attempt to boil emotions down to underlying dimensions that capture the similarities and differences between experiences.", "Often, the first two dimensions uncovered by factor analysis are valence (how negative or positive the experience feels) and arousal (how energized or enervated the experience feels).", "These two dimensions can be depicted on a 2D coordinate map.", "This two-dimensional map has been theorized to capture one important component of emotion called core affect.", "Core affect is not theorized to be the only component to emotion, but to give the emotion its hedonic and felt energy.Using statistical methods to analyze emotional states elicited by short videos, Cowen and Keltner identified 27 varieties of emotional experience: admiration, adoration, aesthetic appreciation, amusement, anger, anxiety, awe, awkwardness, boredom, calmness, confusion, craving, disgust, empathic pain, entrancement, excitement, fear, horror, interest, joy, nostalgia, relief, romance, sadness, satisfaction, sexual desire and surprise." ], [ "Theories<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Theory\"></span>", "=== Pre-modern history ===In Buddhism, emotions occur when an object is considered as attractive or repulsive.", "There is a felt tendency impelling people towards attractive objects and impelling them to move away from repulsive or harmful objects; a disposition to possess the object (greed), to destroy it (hatred), to flee from it (fear), to get obsessed or worried over it (anxiety), and so on.In Stoic theories, normal emotions (like delight and fear) are described as irrational impulses which come from incorrect appraisals of what is 'good' or 'bad'.", "Alternatively, there are 'good emotions' (like joy and caution) experienced by those that are wise, which come from correct appraisals of what is 'good' and 'bad'.Aristotle believed that emotions were an essential component of virtue.", "In the Aristotelian view all emotions (called passions) corresponded to appetites or capacities.", "During the Middle Ages, the Aristotelian view was adopted and further developed by scholasticism and Thomas Aquinas in particular.In Chinese antiquity, excessive emotion was believed to cause damage to ''qi'', which in turn, damages the vital organs.", "The four humors theory made popular by Hippocrates contributed to the study of emotion in the same way that it did for medicine.In the early 11th century, Avicenna theorized about the influence of emotions on health and behaviors, suggesting the need to manage emotions.Early modern views on emotion are developed in the works of philosophers such as René Descartes, Niccolò Machiavelli, Baruch Spinoza, Thomas Hobbes and David Hume.", "In the 19th century emotions were considered adaptive and were studied more frequently from an empiricist psychiatric perspective.=== Western theological ===Christian perspective on emotion presupposes a theistic origin to humanity.", "God who created humans gave humans the ability to feel emotion and interact emotionally.", "Biblical content expresses that God is a person who feels and expresses emotion.", "Though a somatic view would place the locus of emotions in the physical body, Christian theory of emotions would view the body more as a platform for the sensing and expression of emotions.", "Therefore, emotions themselves arise from the person, or that which is \"imago-dei\" or Image of God in humans.", "In Christian thought, emotions have the potential to be controlled through reasoned reflection.", "That reasoned reflection also mimics God who made mind.", "The purpose of emotions in human life is therefore summarized in God's call to enjoy Him and creation, humans are to enjoy emotions and benefit from them and use them to energize behavior.=== Evolutionary theories ===Illustration from Charles Darwin's ''The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals'' (1872)==== 19th century ====Perspectives on emotions from evolutionary theory were initiated during the mid-late 19th century with Charles Darwin's 1872 book ''The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals''.", "Darwin argued that emotions served no evolved purpose for humans, neither in communication, nor in aiding survival.", "Darwin largely argued that emotions evolved via the inheritance of acquired characters.", "He pioneered various methods for studying non-verbal expressions, from which he concluded that some expressions had cross-cultural universality.", "Darwin also detailed homologous expressions of emotions that occur in animals.", "This led the way for animal research on emotions and the eventual determination of the neural underpinnings of emotion.==== Contemporary ====More contemporary views along the evolutionary psychology spectrum posit that both basic emotions and social emotions evolved to motivate (social) behaviors that were adaptive in the ancestral environment.", "Emotion is an essential part of any human decision-making and planning, and the famous distinction made between reason and emotion is not as clear as it seems.", "Paul D. MacLean claims that emotion competes with even more instinctive responses, on one hand, and the more abstract reasoning, on the other hand.", "The increased potential in neuroimaging has also allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient parts of the brain.", "Important neurological advances were derived from these perspectives in the 1990s by Joseph E. LeDoux and Antonio Damasio.", "For example, in an extensive study of a subject with ventromedial frontal lobe damage described in the book Descartes' Error, Damasio demonstrated how loss of physiological capacity for emotion resulted in the subject's lost capacity to make decisions despite having robust faculties for rationally assessing options.", "Research on physiological emotion has caused modern neuroscience to abandon the model of emotions and rationality as opposing forces.", "In contrast to the ancient Greek ideal of dispassionate reason, the neuroscience of emotion shows that emotion is necessarily integrated with intellect.Research on social emotion also focuses on the physical displays of emotion including body language of animals and humans (see affect display).", "For example, spite seems to work against the individual but it can establish an individual's reputation as someone to be feared.", "Shame and pride can motivate behaviors that help one maintain one's standing in a community, and self-esteem is one's estimate of one's status.=== Somatic theories ===Somatic theories of emotion claim that bodily responses, rather than cognitive interpretations, are essential to emotions.", "The first modern version of such theories came from William James in the 1880s.", "The theory lost favor in the 20th century, but has regained popularity more recently due largely to theorists such as John T. Cacioppo, Antonio Damasio, Joseph E. LeDoux and Robert Zajonc who are able to appeal to neurological evidence.==== James–Lange theory ====James-Lange Theory of EmotionIn his 1884 article William James argued that feelings and emotions were ''secondary'' to physiological phenomena.", "In his theory, James proposed that the perception of what he called an \"exciting fact\" directly led to a physiological response, known as \"emotion.\"", "To account for different types of emotional experiences, James proposed that stimuli trigger activity in the autonomic nervous system, which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain.", "The Danish psychologist Carl Lange also proposed a similar theory at around the same time, and therefore this theory became known as the James–Lange theory.", "As James wrote, \"the perception of bodily changes, as they occur, ''is'' the emotion.\"", "James further claims that \"we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and either we cry, strike, or tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be.", "\"An example of this theory in action would be as follows: An emotion-evoking stimulus (snake) triggers a pattern of physiological response (increased heart rate, faster breathing, etc.", "), which is interpreted as a particular emotion (fear).", "This theory is supported by experiments in which by manipulating the bodily state induces a desired emotional state.", "Some people may believe that emotions give rise to emotion-specific actions, for example, \"I'm crying because I'm sad\", or \"I ran away because I was scared.\"", "The issue with the James–Lange theory is that of causation (bodily states causing emotions and being ''a priori''), not that of the bodily influences on emotional experience (which can be argued and is still quite prevalent today in biofeedback studies and embodiment theory).Although mostly abandoned in its original form, Tim Dalgleish argues that most contemporary neuroscientists have embraced the components of the James-Lange theory of emotions.==== Cannon–Bard theory ====Walter Bradford Cannon agreed that physiological responses played a crucial role in emotions, but did not believe that physiological responses alone could explain subjective emotional experiences.", "He argued that physiological responses were too slow and often imperceptible and this could not account for the relatively rapid and intense subjective awareness of emotion.", "He also believed that the richness, variety, and temporal course of emotional experiences could not stem from physiological reactions, that reflected fairly undifferentiated fight or flight responses.", "An example of this theory in action is as follows: An emotion-evoking event (snake) triggers simultaneously both a physiological response and a conscious experience of an emotion.Phillip Bard contributed to the theory with his work on animals.", "Bard found that sensory, motor, and physiological information all had to pass through the diencephalon (particularly the thalamus), before being subjected to any further processing.", "Therefore, Cannon also argued that it was not anatomically possible for sensory events to trigger a physiological response prior to triggering conscious awareness and emotional stimuli had to trigger both physiological and experiential aspects of emotion simultaneously.==== Two-factor theory ====Stanley Schachter formulated his theory on the earlier work of a Spanish physician, Gregorio Marañón, who injected patients with epinephrine and subsequently asked them how they felt.", "Marañón found that most of these patients felt something but in the absence of an actual emotion-evoking stimulus, the patients were unable to interpret their physiological arousal as an experienced emotion.", "Schachter did agree that physiological reactions played a big role in emotions.", "He suggested that physiological reactions contributed to emotional experience by facilitating a focused cognitive appraisal of a given physiologically arousing event and that this appraisal was what defined the subjective emotional experience.", "Emotions were thus a result of two-stage process: general physiological arousal, and experience of emotion.", "For example, the physiological arousal, heart pounding, in a response to an evoking stimulus, the sight of a bear in the kitchen.", "The brain then quickly scans the area, to explain the pounding, and notices the bear.", "Consequently, the brain interprets the pounding heart as being the result of fearing the bear.", "With his student, Jerome Singer, Schachter demonstrated that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state with an injection of epinephrine.", "Subjects were observed to express either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation (a confederate) displayed that emotion.", "Hence, the combination of the appraisal of the situation (cognitive) and the participants' reception of adrenalin or a placebo together determined the response.", "This experiment has been criticized in Jesse Prinz's (2004) ''Gut Reactions''.=== Cognitive theories ===With the two-factor theory now incorporating cognition, several theories began to argue that cognitive activity in the form of judgments, evaluations, or thoughts were entirely necessary for an emotion to occur.", "Cognitive theories of emotion emphasize that emotions are shaped by how individuals interpret and appraise situations.", "These theories highlight:# The role of cognitive appraisals in evaluating the significance of events.# The subjectivity of emotions and the influence of individual differences.# The cognitive labeling of emotional experiences.# The complexity of emotional responses, influenced by cognitive processes, physiological reactions, and situational factors.These theories acknowledge that emotions are not automatic reactions but result from the interplay of cognitive interpretations, physiological responses, and the social context.", "A prominent philosophical exponent is Robert C. Solomon (for example, ''The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life'', 1993).", "Solomon claims that emotions are judgments.", "He has put forward a more nuanced view which responds to what he has called the 'standard objection' to cognitivism, the idea that a judgment that something is fearsome can occur with or without emotion, so judgment cannot be identified with emotion.==== Cognitive Appraisal Theory ====One of the main proponents of this view was Richard Lazarus who argued that emotions must have some cognitive intentionality.", "The cognitive activity involved in the interpretation of an emotional context may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of conceptual processing.Lazarus' theory is very influential; emotion is a disturbance that occurs in the following order:# '''Cognitive appraisal''': The individual assesses the event cognitively, which cues the emotion.# '''Physiological changes''': The cognitive reaction starts biological changes such as increased heart rate or pituitary adrenal response.# '''Action''': The individual feels the emotion and chooses how to react.For example: Jenny sees a snake.# Jenny cognitively assesses the snake in her presence.", "Cognition allows her to understand it as a danger.# Her brain activates the adrenal glands which pump adrenalin through her blood stream, resulting in increased heartbeat.# Jenny screams and runs away.Lazarus stressed that the quality and intensity of emotions are controlled through cognitive processes.", "These processes underline coping strategies that form the emotional reaction by altering the relationship between the person and the environment.==== Two-Process Theory ====George Mandler provided an extensive theoretical and empirical discussion of emotion as influenced by cognition, consciousness, and the autonomic nervous system in two books (''Mind and Emotion'', 1975, and ''Mind and Body: Psychology of Emotion and Stress'', 1984)George Mandler, a prominent psychologist known for his contributions to the study of cognition and emotion, proposed the \"Two-Process Theory of Emotion.\"", "This theory offers insights into how emotions are generated and how cognitive processes play a role in emotional experiences.", "Mandler's theory focuses on the interplay between primary and secondary appraisal processes in the formation of emotions.", "Here are the key components of his theory:# '''Primary Appraisal''': This initial cognitive appraisal involves evaluating a situation for its relevance and implications for one's well-being.", "It assesses whether a situation is beneficial, harmful, or neutral.", "A positive primary appraisal may lead to positive emotions, while a negative primary appraisal may lead to negative emotions.# '''Secondary Appraisal''': Secondary appraisal follows the primary appraisal and involves an assessment of one's ability to cope with or manage the situation.", "If an individual believes they have the resources and skills to cope effectively, this may result in a different emotional response than if they perceive themselves as unable to cope.# '''Emotion Generation''': The combination of the primary and secondary appraisals contributes to the generation of emotions.", "The specific emotion experienced is determined by these appraisals.", "For instance, if a person appraises a situation as relevant to their well-being (positive or negative) and believes they have the resources to cope, this might lead to an emotion such as joy or relief.", "Conversely, if the situation is appraised negatively, and coping resources are perceived as lacking, emotions like fear or sadness may result.Mandler's Two-Process Theory of Emotion emphasizes the importance of cognitive appraisal processes in shaping emotional experiences.", "It recognizes that emotions are not just automatic reactions but result from complex evaluations of the significance of situations and one's ability to manage them effectively.", "This theory underscores the role of cognition in the emotional process and highlights the interplay of cognitive factors in the formation of emotions.==== The Affect Infusion Model (AIM) ====The Affect Infusion Model (AIM) is a psychological framework that was developed by Joseph Forgas in the 1990s.", "This model focuses on how affect, or mood and emotions, can influence cognitive processes and decision-making.", "The central idea of the AIM is that affect, whether it's a positive or negative mood, can \"infuse\" or influence various cognitive activities, including information processing and judgments.Key components and principles of the Affect Infusion Model include:# '''Affect as Information''': The AIM posits that individuals use their current mood or emotional state as a source of information when making judgments or decisions.", "In other words, people consider their emotional experiences as part of the decision-making process.# '''Information Processing Strategies''': The model suggests that affect can influence the strategies people use to process information.", "Positive affect might lead to a more heuristic or \"top-down\" processing style, whereas negative affect might lead to a more systematic, detail-oriented \"bottom-up\" processing style.# '''Affect Congruence''': The AIM suggests that when the affective state is congruent with the information being processed, it can enhance processing efficiency and lead to more favorable judgments.", "For example, a positive mood might lead to more positive evaluations of positive information.# '''Affect Infusion''': The concept of \"affect infusion\" refers to the idea that affect can \"infuse\" or bias cognitive processes, potentially leading to decision-making that is influenced by emotional factors.# '''Moderating Factors''': The model acknowledges that various factors, such as individual differences, task complexity, and the extent of attention paid to one's mood, can moderate the degree to which affect influences cognition.The Affect Infusion Model has been applied to a wide range of areas, including consumer behavior, social judgment, and interpersonal interactions.", "It emphasizes the idea that emotions and mood play a more significant role in cognitive processes and decision-making than traditionally thought.", "While it has been influential in understanding the interplay between affect and cognition, it is important to note that the AIM is just one of several models in the field of emotion and cognition that help explain the intricate relationship between emotions and thinking.", "==== Appraisal-Tendency Theory ====Source:The Appraisal-Tendency Theory, developed by Joseph P. Forgas, is a theory that focuses on how people have dispositional tendencies to appraise and interpret situations in specific ways, leading to consistent emotional reactions to particular types of situations.", "This theory suggests that certain individuals may have stable, habitual patterns of appraising and attributing emotional significance to events, and these tendencies can influence their emotional responses and judgments.Key features and concepts of the Appraisal-Tendency Theory include:# '''Cognitive Appraisals''': Appraisal tendencies refer to the habitual or characteristic ways that individuals appraise or evaluate situations.", "Appraisals involve cognitive judgments about the personal relevance, desirability, and significance of events or situations.# '''Stable and Individual Differences''': The theory posits that these appraisal tendencies are stable and relatively consistent across time.", "They are also seen as individual differences, meaning that people may differ in the specific appraisal tendencies they exhibit.# '''Emotional Responses''': Appraisal tendencies influence emotional responses to situations.", "For instance, individuals with a tendency to appraise situations as threatening may consistently experience fear or anxiety in response to a range of situations perceived as threats.# '''Influence on Social Judgments''': The theory extends beyond emotions to include the impact of appraisal tendencies on social judgments and evaluations.", "For example, individuals with a tendency to perceive events as unfair may make consistent social judgments related to fairness and justice.# '''Context Dependence''': Appraisal tendencies may interact with situational factors.", "In some situations, the tendency to appraise a situation as threatening, for instance, may lead to fear, while in different contexts, it may not produce the same emotional response.Appraisal-Tendency Theory suggests that these cognitive tendencies can shape an individual's overall emotional disposition, influencing their emotional reactions and social judgments.", "This theory has been applied in various contexts, including studies of personality, social psychology, and decision-making, to better understand how cognitive appraisal tendencies influence emotional and evaluative responses.==== Laws of Emotion ====Source:Nico Frijda was a prominent psychologist known for his work in the field of emotion and affective science.", "One of the key contributions of Frijda is his \"Laws of Emotion\", which outline a set of principles that help explain how emotions function and how they are experienced.", "Frijda's Laws of Emotion are as follows:# '''The Law of Situational Meaning''': This law posits that emotions are elicited by events or situations that have personal significance and meaning for the individual.", "Emotions are not random but are a response to the perceived meaning of the situation.# '''The Law of Concern''': Frijda suggests that emotions are fundamentally concerned with the individual's well-being and adaptation.", "Emotions serve as signals or reactions to situations that impact one's goals, needs, or values.# '''The Law of Appraisal''': This law acknowledges the role of cognitive appraisal processes in the emotional experience.", "Individuals appraise or evaluate a situation based on factors such as its relevance, congruence with goals, and coping potential, which in turn shapes the specific emotional response.# '''The Law of Readiness''': Frijda's theory suggests that emotions prepare individuals for action.", "Emotions are associated with physiological changes and action tendencies that ready the individual to respond to the situation.", "For example, fear may prepare someone to escape a threat.# '''The Law of Concerned Expectancy''': Emotions are influenced by both what is happening now and what is anticipated to occur in the future.", "Emotions can reflect an individual's expectations about the consequences of a situation.Frijda's theory emphasizes the adaptive function of emotions and the role of cognitive appraisal in shaping emotional experiences.", "It highlights that emotions are not simply reactions to external events but are intimately tied to the individual's goals, values, and perceptions of the situation's meaning.", "Frijda's work has had a significant influence on the study of emotions and has contributed to a more comprehensive understanding of how emotions operate.=== Emotion Attribution Theory ===Source:Jesse Prinz is a contemporary philosopher and cognitive scientist who has contributed to the field of emotion theory.", "One of his influential theories is the \"Emotion Attribution Theory,\" which provides a perspective on how people recognize and understand emotions in themselves and others.Emotion Attribution Theory, proposed by Jesse Prinz, focuses on the role of emotion attributions in the experience and understanding of emotions.", "Key ideas and components of Prinz's theory include:# '''Emotion Attribution''': Prinz suggests that emotions are recognized through a process of attributing specific emotional states to oneself and others based on observed or perceived cues.", "These cues can include facial expressions, body language, vocal tone, and context.# '''Basic Emotions''': Prinz's theory is associated with the idea of basic emotions, which are a limited set of universal and biologically driven emotional states.", "He argues that attributions of basic emotions are part of human cognitive architecture and that these attributions are made automatically and rapidly.# '''Social and Cultural Influence''': While basic emotions are seen as universal, Prinz acknowledges the role of social and cultural factors in shaping how emotions are expressed and interpreted.", "Culture can influence the display rules for emotions and how emotions are perceived in various contexts.# '''Emotion and Moral Evaluation''': Prinz's theory also explores the connection between emotions and moral evaluation.", "He suggests that emotions are linked to our moral judgments and evaluations of actions and events.", "Emotion attributions are crucial in the moral assessment of others' behaviors.Overall, Prinz's Emotion Attribution Theory emphasizes the role of attributions in the recognition and understanding of emotions.", "It highlights the automatic and cognitive processes involved in identifying and interpreting emotional states in oneself and others.", "This theory has implications for fields such as psychology, philosophy, and cognitive science and contributes to our understanding of the social and cultural aspects of emotions.=== Affective Events Theory (AET) ===Source:The Affective Events Theory (AET) is a psychological theory that focuses on the role of workplace events in shaping employees' emotions, attitudes, and behaviors in the context of their job.", "This theory was developed by organizational psychologists Howard M. Weiss and Russell Cropanzano in the late 1990s.", "AET primarily concerns itself with how emotional experiences at work can impact job satisfaction, performance, and other outcomes.Key concepts and principles of the Affective Events Theory include:# '''Affective Events''': AET centers on \"affective events,\" which are specific events or occurrences in the workplace that trigger emotional responses in employees.", "These events can be positive (e.g., receiving praise or a promotion) or negative (e.g., conflicts with coworkers or work-related stressors).# '''Emotion Generation''': The theory suggests that these affective events generate emotions in employees.", "These emotions can be either discrete (specific emotions like happiness, anger, or sadness) or general mood states (e.g., feeling generally positive or negative).# '''Emotion-Driven Outcomes''': AET posits that emotions generated by affective events at work have consequences for employee attitudes and behaviors.", "For example, positive emotions may lead to increased job satisfaction, improved performance, and greater commitment to the organization, while negative emotions might result in reduced job satisfaction and increased turnover intentions.# '''Moderating Factors''': AET recognizes that individual and situational factors can moderate the relationship between affective events and outcomes.", "Personal characteristics, job roles, and organizational culture can influence how employees respond to affective events.# '''Feedback Loop''': The theory also suggests that there can be a feedback loop where the emotional reactions of employees influence their perceptions of subsequent events.", "In other words, an employee's emotional state may color their perception of future events and experiences in the workplace.# '''Time Lag''': AET acknowledges that the effects of affective events may not be immediate and can manifest over time.", "The theory allows for the consideration of both short-term and long-term emotional influences on employees.AET has been influential in the field of organizational psychology and has helped shed light on how workplace events can have a significant impact on employee well-being and organizational outcomes.", "It highlights the importance of understanding and managing the emotional experiences of employees in the context of their work.=== Situated perspective on emotion ===A situated perspective on emotion, developed by Paul E. Griffiths and Andrea Scarantino, emphasizes the importance of external factors in the development and communication of emotion, drawing upon the situationism approach in psychology.", "This theory is markedly different from both cognitivist and neo-Jamesian theories of emotion, both of which see emotion as a purely internal process, with the environment only acting as a stimulus to the emotion.", "In contrast, a situationist perspective on emotion views emotion as the product of an organism investigating its environment, and observing the responses of other organisms.", "Emotion stimulates the evolution of social relationships, acting as a signal to mediate the behavior of other organisms.", "In some contexts, the expression of emotion (both voluntary and involuntary) could be seen as strategic moves in the transactions between different organisms.", "The situated perspective on emotion states that conceptual thought is not an inherent part of emotion, since emotion is an action-oriented form of skillful engagement with the world.", "Griffiths and Scarantino suggested that this perspective on emotion could be helpful in understanding phobias, as well as the emotions of infants and animals.=== Genetics ===Emotions can motivate social interactions and relationships and therefore are directly related with basic physiology, particularly with the stress systems.", "This is important because emotions are related to the anti-stress complex, with an oxytocin-attachment system, which plays a major role in bonding.", "Emotional phenotype temperaments affect social connectedness and fitness in complex social systems.", "These characteristics are shared with other species and taxa and are due to the effects of genes and their continuous transmission.", "Information that is encoded in the DNA sequences provides the blueprint for assembling proteins that make up our cells.", "Zygotes require genetic information from their parental germ cells, and at every speciation event, heritable traits that have enabled its ancestor to survive and reproduce successfully are passed down along with new traits that could be potentially beneficial to the offspring.In the five million years since the lineages leading to modern humans and chimpanzees split, only about 1.2% of their genetic material has been modified.", "This suggests that everything that separates us from chimpanzees must be encoded in that very small amount of DNA, including our behaviors.", "Students that study animal behaviors have only identified intraspecific examples of gene-dependent behavioral phenotypes.", "In voles (Microtus spp.)", "minor genetic differences have been identified in a vasopressin receptor gene that corresponds to major species differences in social organization and the mating system.", "Another potential example with behavioral differences is the FOCP2 gene, which is involved in neural circuitry handling speech and language.", "Its present form in humans differed from that of the chimpanzees by only a few mutations and has been present for about 200,000 years, coinciding with the beginning of modern humans.", "Speech, language, and social organization are all part of the basis for emotions." ], [ "Formation", "Timeline of some of the most prominent brain models of emotion in affective neuroscience=== Neurobiological explanation ===Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain.", "If distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for example, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures and postures.", "Emotions can likely be mediated by pheromones (see fear).For example, the emotion of love is proposed to be the expression of Paleocircuits of the mammalian brain (specifically, modules of the cingulate cortex (or gyrus)) which facilitate the care, feeding, and grooming of offspring.", "Paleocircuits are neural platforms for bodily expression configured before the advent of cortical circuits for speech.", "They consist of pre-configured pathways or networks of nerve cells in the forebrain, brainstem and spinal cord.Other emotions like fear and anxiety long thought to be exclusively generated by the most primitive parts of the brain (stem) and more associated to the fight-or-flight responses of behavior, have also been associated as adaptive expressions of defensive behavior whenever a threat is encountered.", "Although defensive behaviors have been present in a wide variety of species, Blanchard et al.", "(2001) discovered a correlation of given stimuli and situation that resulted in a similar pattern of defensive behavior towards a threat in human and non-human mammals.Whenever potentially dangerous stimuli are presented, additional brain structures activate that previous thought (hippocampus, thalamus, etc.).", "Thus, giving the amygdala an important role in coordinating the following behavioral input based on the presented neurotransmitters that respond to threat stimuli.", "These biological functions of the amygdala are not only limited to the \"fear-conditioning\" and \"processing of aversive stimuli\", but also are present on other components of the amygdala.", "Therefore, it can referred the amygdala as a key structure to understand the potential responses of behavior in danger like situations in human and non-human mammals.The motor centers of reptiles react to sensory cues of vision, sound, touch, chemical, gravity, and motion with pre-set body movements and programmed postures.", "With the arrival of night-active mammals, smell replaced vision as the dominant sense, and a different way of responding arose from the olfactory sense, which is proposed to have developed into mammalian emotion and emotional memory.", "The mammalian brain invested heavily in olfaction to succeed at night as reptiles slept – one explanation for why olfactory lobes in mammalian brains are proportionally larger than in the reptiles.", "These odor pathways gradually formed the neural blueprint for what was later to become our limbic brain.Emotions are thought to be related to certain activities in brain areas that direct our attention, motivate our behavior, and determine the significance of what is going on around us.", "Pioneering work by Paul Broca (1878), James Papez (1937), and Paul D. MacLean (1952) suggested that emotion is related to a group of structures in the center of the brain called the limbic system, which includes the hypothalamus, cingulate cortex, hippocampi, and other structures.", "More recent research has shown that some of these limbic structures are not as directly related to emotion as others are while some non-limbic structures have been found to be of greater emotional relevance.==== Prefrontal cortex ====There is ample evidence that the left prefrontal cortex is activated by stimuli that cause positive approach.", "If attractive stimuli can selectively activate a region of the brain, then logically the converse should hold, that selective activation of that region of the brain should cause a stimulus to be judged more positively.", "This was demonstrated for moderately attractive visual stimuli and replicated and extended to include negative stimuli.Two neurobiological models of emotion in the prefrontal cortex made opposing predictions.", "The valence model predicted that anger, a negative emotion, would activate the right prefrontal cortex.", "The direction model predicted that anger, an approach emotion, would activate the left prefrontal cortex.", "The second model was supported.This still left open the question of whether the opposite of approach in the prefrontal cortex is better described as moving away (direction model), as unmoving but with strength and resistance (movement model), or as unmoving with passive yielding (action tendency model).", "Support for the action tendency model (passivity related to right prefrontal activity) comes from research on shyness and research on behavioral inhibition.", "Research that tested the competing hypotheses generated by all four models also supported the action tendency model.==== Homeostatic/primordial emotion ====Another neurological approach proposed by Bud Craig in 2003 distinguishes two classes of emotion: \"classical\" emotions such as love, anger and fear that are evoked by environmental stimuli, and \"homeostatic emotions\" – attention-demanding feelings evoked by body states, such as pain, hunger and fatigue, that motivate behavior (withdrawal, eating or resting in these examples) aimed at maintaining the body's internal milieu at its ideal state.Derek Denton calls the latter \"primordial emotions\" and defines them as \"the subjective element of the instincts, which are the genetically programmed behavior patterns which contrive homeostasis.", "They include thirst, hunger for air, hunger for food, pain and hunger for specific minerals etc.", "There are two constituents of a primordial emotion – the specific sensation which when severe may be imperious, and the compelling intention for gratification by a consummatory act.", "\"=== Emergent explanation ===Emotions are seen by some researchers to be constructed (emerge) in social and cognitive domain alone, without directly implying biologically inherited characteristics.Joseph LeDoux differentiates between the human's defense system, which has evolved over time, and emotions such as fear and anxiety.", "He has said that the amygdala may release hormones due to a trigger (such as an innate reaction to seeing a snake), but \"then we elaborate it through cognitive and conscious processes\".Lisa Feldman Barrett highlights differences in emotions between different cultures, and says that emotions (such as anxiety) are socially constructed (see theory of constructed emotion).", "She says that they \"are not triggered; you create them.", "They emerge as a combination of the physical properties of your body, a flexible brain that wires itself to whatever environment it develops in, and your culture and upbringing, which provide that environment.\"", "She has termed this approach the theory of constructed emotion." ], [ "Disciplinary approaches", "Many different disciplines have produced work on the emotions.", "Human sciences study the role of emotions in mental processes, disorders, and neural mechanisms.", "In psychiatry, emotions are examined as part of the discipline's study and treatment of mental disorders in humans.", "Nursing studies emotions as part of its approach to the provision of holistic health care to humans.", "Psychology examines emotions from a scientific perspective by treating them as mental processes and behavior and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological processes, e.g., cognitive behavioral therapy.", "In neuroscience sub-fields such as social neuroscience and affective neuroscience, scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood.", "In linguistics, the expression of emotion may change to the meaning of sounds.", "In education, the role of emotions in relation to learning is examined.Social sciences often examine emotion for the role that it plays in human culture and social interactions.", "In sociology, emotions are examined for the role they play in human society, social patterns and interactions, and culture.", "In anthropology, the study of humanity, scholars use ethnography to undertake contextual analyzes and cross-cultural comparisons of a range of human activities.", "Some anthropology studies examine the role of emotions in human activities.", "In the field of communication studies, critical organizational scholars have examined the role of emotions in organizations, from the perspectives of managers, employees, and even customers.", "A focus on emotions in organizations can be credited to Arlie Russell Hochschild's concept of emotional labor.", "The University of Queensland hosts EmoNet, an e-mail distribution list representing a network of academics that facilitates scholarly discussion of all matters relating to the study of emotion in organizational settings.", "The list was established in January 1997 and has over 700 members from across the globe.In economics, the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, emotions are analyzed in some sub-fields of microeconomics, in order to assess the role of emotions on purchase decision-making and risk perception.", "In criminology, a social science approach to the study of crime, scholars often draw on behavioral sciences, sociology, and psychology; emotions are examined in criminology issues such as anomie theory and studies of \"toughness,\" aggressive behavior, and hooliganism.", "In law, which underpins civil obedience, politics, economics and society, evidence about people's emotions is often raised in tort law claims for compensation and in criminal law prosecutions against alleged lawbreakers (as evidence of the defendant's state of mind during trials, sentencing, and parole hearings).", "In political science, emotions are examined in a number of sub-fields, such as the analysis of voter decision-making.In philosophy, emotions are studied in sub-fields such as ethics, the philosophy of art (for example, sensory–emotional values, and matters of taste and sentimentality), and the philosophy of music (see also music and emotion).", "In history, scholars examine documents and other sources to interpret and analyze past activities; speculation on the emotional state of the authors of historical documents is one of the tools of interpretation.", "In literature and film-making, the expression of emotion is the cornerstone of genres such as drama, melodrama, and romance.", "In communication studies, scholars study the role that emotion plays in the dissemination of ideas and messages.", "Emotion is also studied in non-human animals in ethology, a branch of zoology which focuses on the scientific study of animal behavior.", "Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with strong ties to ecology and evolution.", "Ethologists often study one type of behavior (for example, aggression) in a number of unrelated animals.=== History of emotions ===The history of emotions has become an increasingly popular topic recently, with some scholars arguing that it is an essential category of analysis, not unlike class, race, or gender.", "Historians, like other social scientists, assume that emotions, feelings and their expressions are regulated in different ways by both different cultures and different historical times, and the constructivist school of history claims even that some sentiments and meta-emotions, for example schadenfreude, are learnt and not only regulated by culture.", "Historians of emotion trace and analyze the changing norms and rules of feeling, while examining emotional regimes, codes, and lexicons from social, cultural, or political history perspectives.", "Others focus on the history of medicine, science, or psychology.", "What somebody can and may feel (and show) in a given situation, towards certain people or things, depends on social norms and rules; thus historically variable and open to change.", "Several research centers have opened in the past few years in Germany, England, Spain, Sweden, and Australia.Furthermore, research in historical trauma suggests that some traumatic emotions can be passed on from parents to offspring to second and even third generation, presented as examples of transgenerational trauma.=== Sociology ===A common way in which emotions are conceptualized in sociology is in terms of the multidimensional characteristics including cultural or emotional labels (for example, anger, pride, fear, happiness), physiological changes (for example, increased perspiration, changes in pulse rate), expressive facial and body movements (for example, smiling, frowning, baring teeth), and appraisals of situational cues.", "One comprehensive theory of emotional arousal in humans has been developed by Jonathan Turner (2007: 2009).", "Two of the key eliciting factors for the arousal of emotions within this theory are expectations states and sanctions.", "When people enter a situation or encounter with certain expectations for how the encounter should unfold, they will experience different emotions depending on the extent to which expectations for Self, other and situation are met or not met.", "People can also provide positive or negative sanctions directed at Self or other which also trigger different emotional experiences in individuals.", "Turner analyzed a wide range of emotion theories across different fields of research including sociology, psychology, evolutionary science, and neuroscience.", "Based on this analysis, he identified four emotions that all researchers consider being founded on human neurology including assertive-anger, aversion-fear, satisfaction-happiness, and disappointment-sadness.", "These four categories are called primary emotions and there is some agreement amongst researchers that these primary emotions become combined to produce more elaborate and complex emotional experiences.", "These more elaborate emotions are called first-order elaborations in Turner's theory, and they include sentiments such as pride, triumph, and awe.", "Emotions can also be experienced at different levels of intensity so that feelings of concern are a low-intensity variation of the primary emotion aversion-fear whereas depression is a higher intensity variant.Attempts are frequently made to regulate emotion according to the conventions of the society and the situation based on many (sometimes conflicting) demands and expectations which originate from various entities.", "The expression of anger is in many cultures discouraged in girls and women to a greater extent than in boys and men (the notion being that an angry man has a valid complaint that needs to be rectified, while an angry women is hysterical or oversensitive, and her anger is somehow invalid), while the expression of sadness or fear is discouraged in boys and men relative to girls and women (attitudes implicit in phrases like \"man up\" or \"don't be a sissy\").", "Expectations attached to social roles, such as \"acting as man\" and not as a woman, and the accompanying \"feeling rules\" contribute to the differences in expression of certain emotions.", "Some cultures encourage or discourage happiness, sadness, or jealousy, and the free expression of the emotion of disgust is considered socially unacceptable in most cultures.", "Some social institutions are seen as based on certain emotion, such as love in the case of contemporary institution of marriage.", "In advertising, such as health campaigns and political messages, emotional appeals are commonly found.", "Recent examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaigns emphasizing the fear of terrorism.Sociological attention to emotion has varied over time.", "Émile Durkheim (1915/1965) wrote about the collective effervescence or emotional energy that was experienced by members of totemic rituals in Australian Aboriginal society.", "He explained how the heightened state of emotional energy achieved during totemic rituals transported individuals above themselves giving them the sense that they were in the presence of a higher power, a force, that was embedded in the sacred objects that were worshipped.", "These feelings of exaltation, he argued, ultimately lead people to believe that there were forces that governed sacred objects.In the 1990s, sociologists focused on different aspects of specific emotions and how these emotions were socially relevant.", "For Cooley (1992), pride and shame were the most important emotions that drive people to take various social actions.", "During every encounter, he proposed that we monitor ourselves through the \"looking glass\" that the gestures and reactions of others provide.", "Depending on these reactions, we either experience pride or shame and this results in particular paths of action.", "Retzinger (1991) conducted studies of married couples who experienced cycles of rage and shame.", "Drawing predominantly on Goffman and Cooley's work, Scheff (1990) developed a micro sociological theory of the social bond.", "The formation or disruption of social bonds is dependent on the emotions that people experience during interactions.Subsequent to these developments, Randall Collins (2004) formulated his interaction ritual theory by drawing on Durkheim's work on totemic rituals that was extended by Goffman (1964/2013; 1967) into everyday focused encounters.", "Based on interaction ritual theory, we experience different levels or intensities of emotional energy during face-to-face interactions.", "Emotional energy is considered to be a feeling of confidence to take action and a boldness that one experiences when they are charged up from the collective effervescence generated during group gatherings that reach high levels of intensity.There is a growing body of research applying the sociology of emotion to understanding the learning experiences of students during classroom interactions with teachers and other students (for example, Milne & Otieno, 2007; Olitsky, 2007; Tobin, et al., 2013; Zembylas, 2002).", "These studies show that learning subjects like science can be understood in terms of classroom interaction rituals that generate emotional energy and collective states of emotional arousal like emotional climate.Apart from interaction ritual traditions of the sociology of emotion, other approaches have been classed into one of six other categories:* evolutionary/biological theories* symbolic interactionist theories* dramaturgical theories* ritual theories* power and status theories* stratification theories* exchange theoriesThis list provides a general overview of different traditions in the sociology of emotion that sometimes conceptualize emotion in different ways and at other times in complementary ways.", "Many of these different approaches were synthesized by Turner (2007) in his sociological theory of human emotions in an attempt to produce one comprehensive sociological account that draws on developments from many of the above traditions.=== Psychotherapy and regulation ===Emotion regulation refers to the cognitive and behavioral strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience.", "For example, a behavioral strategy in which one avoids a situation to avoid unwanted emotions (trying not to think about the situation, doing distracting activities, etc.).", "Depending on the particular school's general emphasis on either cognitive components of emotion, physical energy discharging, or on symbolic movement and facial expression components of emotion different schools of psychotherapy approach the regulation of emotion differently.", "Cognitively oriented schools approach them via their cognitive components, such as rational emotive behavior therapy.", "Yet others approach emotions via symbolic movement and facial expression components (like in contemporary Gestalt therapy).=== Cross-cultural research ===Research on emotions reveals the strong presence of cross-cultural differences in emotional reactions and that emotional reactions are likely to be culture-specific.", "In strategic settings, cross-cultural research on emotions is required for understanding the psychological situation of a given population or specific actors.", "This implies the need to comprehend the current emotional state, mental disposition or other behavioral motivation of a target audience located in a different culture, basically founded on its national, political, social, economic, and psychological peculiarities but also subject to the influence of circumstances and events.=== Computer science ===In the 2000s, research in computer science, engineering, psychology and neuroscience has been aimed at developing devices that recognize human affect display and model emotions.", "In computer science, affective computing is a branch of the study and development of artificial intelligence that deals with the design of systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, and process human emotions.", "It is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer sciences, psychology, and cognitive science.", "While the origins of the field may be traced as far back as to early philosophical enquiries into emotion, the more modern branch of computer science originated with Rosalind Picard's 1995 paper on affective computing.", "Detecting emotional information begins with passive sensors which capture data about the user's physical state or behavior without interpreting the input.", "The data gathered is analogous to the cues humans use to perceive emotions in others.", "Another area within affective computing is the design of computational devices proposed to exhibit either innate emotional capabilities or that are capable of convincingly simulating emotions.", "Emotional speech processing recognizes the user's emotional state by analyzing speech patterns.", "The detection and processing of facial expression or body gestures is achieved through detectors and sensors." ], [ "Effects on memory", "Emotion affects the way autobiographical memories are encoded and retrieved.", "Emotional memories are reactivated more, they are remembered better and have more attention devoted to them.", "Through remembering our past achievements and failures, autobiographical memories affect how we perceive and feel about ourselves." ], [ "Notable theorists", "In the late 19th century, the most influential theorists were William James (1842–1910) and Carl Lange (1834–1900).", "James was an American psychologist and philosopher who wrote about educational psychology, psychology of religious experience/mysticism, and the philosophy of pragmatism.", "Lange was a Danish physician and psychologist.", "Working independently, they developed the James–Lange theory, a hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions.", "The theory states that within human beings, as a response to experiences in the world, the autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension, a rise in heart rate, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth.", "Emotions, then, are feelings which come about as a result of these physiological changes, rather than being their cause.Silvan Tomkins (1911–1991) developed the affect theory and script theory.", "The affect theory introduced the concept of basic emotions, and was based on the idea that the dominance of the emotion, which he called the affected system, was the motivating force in human life.Some of the most influential deceased theorists on emotion from the 20th century include Magda B. Arnold (1903–2002), an American psychologist who developed the appraisal theory of emotions; Richard Lazarus (1922–2002), an American psychologist who specialized in emotion and stress, especially in relation to cognition; Herbert A. Simon (1916–2001), who included emotions into decision making and artificial intelligence; Robert Plutchik (1928–2006), an American psychologist who developed a psychoevolutionary theory of emotion; Robert Zajonc (1923–2008) a Polish–American social psychologist who specialized in social and cognitive processes such as social facilitation; Robert C. Solomon (1942–2007), an American philosopher who contributed to the theories on the philosophy of emotions with books such as ''What Is An Emotion?", ": Classic and Contemporary Readings'' (2003); Peter Goldie (1946–2011), a British philosopher who specialized in ethics, aesthetics, emotion, mood and character; Nico Frijda (1927–2015), a Dutch psychologist who advanced the theory that human emotions serve to promote a tendency to undertake actions that are appropriate in the circumstances, detailed in his book ''The Emotions'' (1986); Jaak Panksepp (1943–2017), an Estonian-born American psychologist, psychobiologist, neuroscientist and pioneer in affective neuroscience; John T. Cacioppo (1951–2018), one of the founding fathers of social neuroscience; George Mandler (1924–2016), an American psychologist who wrote influential books on cognition and emotion.Influential theorists who are still active include the following psychologists, neurologists, philosophers, and sociologists:* Michael Apter – (born 1939) British psychologist who developed reversal theory, a structural, phenomenological theory of personality, motivation, and emotion* Lisa Feldman Barrett – (born 1963) neuroscientist and psychologist specializing in affective science and human emotion* Randall Collins – (born 1941) American sociologist from the University of Pennsylvania developed the interaction ritual theory which includes the emotional entrainment model* Antonio Damasio (born 1944) – Portuguese behavioral neurologist and neuroscientist who works in the US* Richard Davidson (born 1951) – American psychologist and neuroscientist; pioneer in affective neuroscience* Paul Ekman (born 1934) – psychologist specializing in the study of emotions and their relation to facial expressions* Barbara Fredrickson – Social psychologist who specializes in emotions and positive psychology.", "* Arlie Russell Hochschild (born 1940) – American sociologist whose central contribution was in forging a link between the subcutaneous flow of emotion in social life and the larger trends set loose by modern capitalism within organizations* Joseph E. LeDoux (born 1949) – American neuroscientist who studies the biological underpinnings of memory and emotion, especially the mechanisms of fear* Jesse Prinz – American philosopher who specializes in emotion, moral psychology, aesthetics and consciousness* James A. Russell (born 1947) – American psychologist who developed or co-developed the PAD theory of environmental impact, circumplex model of affect, prototype theory of emotion concepts, a critique of the hypothesis of universal recognition of emotion from facial expression, concept of core affect, developmental theory of differentiation of emotion concepts, and, more recently, the theory of the psychological construction of emotion* Klaus Scherer (born 1943) – Swiss psychologist and director of the Swiss Center for Affective Sciences in Geneva; he specializes in the psychology of emotion* Ronald de Sousa (born 1940) – English–Canadian philosopher who specializes in the philosophy of emotions, philosophy of mind and philosophy of biology* Jonathan H. Turner (born 1942) – American sociologist from the University of California, Riverside, who is a general sociological theorist with specialty areas including the sociology of emotions, ethnic relations, social institutions, social stratification, and bio-sociology* Dominique Moïsi (born 1946) – authored a book titled ''The Geopolitics of Emotion'' focusing on emotions related to globalization" ], [ "See also", "* Affect measures* Affective forecasting* Coping* Emotion and memory* ''Emotion Review''* Emotional intelligence* Emotional isolation* Emotions in virtual communication* Facial feedback hypothesis* Fuzzy-trace theory* Group emotion* Homeostatic feeling* Moral emotions* Social sharing of emotions* Two-factor theory of emotion" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Glinka, Lukasz Andrzej (2013) ''Theorizing Emotions: A Brief Study of Psychological, Philosophical, and Cultural Aspects of Human Emotions''.", "Great Abington: Cambridge International Science Publishing.", ".", "* Dana Sugu & Amita Chaterjee \"Flashback: Reshuffling Emotions\" , ''International Journal on Humanistic Ideology'', Vol.", "3 No.", "1, Spring–Summer 2010.", "* Cornelius, R. (1996).", "''The science of emotion''.", "New Jersey: Prentice Hall.", "* * González, Ana Marta (2012).", "''The Emotions and Cultural Analysis''.", "Burlington, VT : Ashgate.", "* Ekman, P. (1999). \"", "Basic Emotions\".", "In: T. Dalgleish and M. Power (Eds.).", "''Handbook of Cognition and Emotion''.", "John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Sussex, UK:.", "* Frijda, N.H. (1986).", "''The Emotions''.", "Maison des Sciences de l'Homme and Cambridge University Press* * Hogan, Patrick Colm.", "(2011).", "''What Literature Teaches Us about Emotion'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "* Hordern, Joshua.", "(2013).", "''Political Affections: Civic Participation and Moral Theology''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "* LeDoux, J.E.", "(1986).", "\"The neurobiology of emotion\".", "Chap.", "15 in J.E.", "LeDoux & W. Hirst (Eds.)", "''Mind and Brain: dialogues in cognitive neuroscience''.", "New York: Cambridge.", "* Mandler, G. (1984).", "''Mind and Body: Psychology of emotion and stress''.", "New York: Norton.", "Wayback Machine* Nussbaum, Martha C. (2001) ''Upheavals of Thought: The Intelligence of Emotions.''", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "* Plutchik, R. (1980).", "\"A general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion\".", "In R. Plutchik & H. Kellerman (Eds.", "), ''Emotion: Theory, research, and experience: Vol.", "1.Theories of emotion'' (pp. 3–33).", "New York: Academic.", "* Roberts, Robert.", "(2003).", "''Emotions: An Essay in Aid of Moral Psychology.''", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "* * * Solomon, R. (1993).", "''The Passions: Emotions and the Meaning of Life''.", "Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.", "* * Wikibook Cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience* Dror Green (2011).", "''Emotional Training, the art of creating a sense of a safe place in a changing world''.", "Bulgaria: Books" ], [ "External links", "* * * About Emotions" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Epictetus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Epictetus''' (, ; , ''Epíktētos''; 50 135 AD) was a Greek Stoic philosopher.", "He was born into slavery at Hierapolis, Phrygia (present-day Pamukkale, in western Turkey) and lived in Rome until his banishment, when he went to Nicopolis in northwestern Greece, where he spent the rest of his life.", "His teachings were written down and published by his pupil Arrian in his ''Discourses'' and ''Enchiridion''.Epictetus taught that philosophy is a way of life and not simply a theoretical discipline.", "To Epictetus, all external events are beyond our control; he argues that we should accept whatever happens calmly and dispassionately.", "However, individuals are responsible for their own actions, which they can examine and control through rigorous self-discipline." ], [ "Life", "Epictetus was born around AD 50, presumably at Hierapolis, Phrygia.", "The name his parents gave him is unknown.", "The word ''epíktētos'' (ἐπίκτητος) in Greek simply means \"gained\" or \"acquired\"; the Greek philosopher Plato, in his ''Laws'', used the term to mean property that is \"added to one's hereditary property.\"", "He spent his youth in Rome as a slave to Epaphroditus, a wealthy freedman and secretary to Nero.", "His social position was thus complicated, combining the low status of a slave with the high status of one with a personal connection to Imperial power.Early in life, Epictetus acquired a passion for philosophy and, with the permission of his wealthy master, he studied Stoic philosophy under Musonius Rufus.", "Becoming more educated in this way raised his social status.", "At some point, he became disabled.", "Celsus, quoted by Origen, wrote that this was because his leg had been deliberately broken by his master.", "Simplicius, in contrast, wrote that Epictetus had been disabled from childhood.Roman-era ruins (the Nymphaeum) at NicopolisEpictetus obtained his freedom sometime after the death of Nero in AD 68, and he began to teach philosophy in Rome.", "Around AD 93, when the Roman emperor Domitian banished all philosophers from the city, Epictetus moved to Nicopolis in Epirus, Greece, where he founded a school of philosophy.His most famous pupil, Arrian, studied under him as a young man (around AD 108) and claimed to have written his famous ''Discourses'' based on the notes he took on Epictetus's lectures.", "Arrian argued that his Discourses should be considered comparable to the Socratic literature.", "Arrian described Epictetus as a powerful speaker who could \"induce his listener to feel just what Epictetus wanted him to feel.\"", "Many eminent figures sought conversations with him.", "Emperor Hadrian was friendly with him and may have heard him speak at his school in Nicopolis.Epictetus lived a life of great simplicity, with few possessions.", "He lived alone for a long time, but in his old age, he adopted a friend's child who otherwise would have been left to die, and raised him with the aid of a woman.", "It is unclear whether Epictetus and she were married.", "He died sometime around AD 135.After his death, according to Lucian, his oil lamp was purchased by an admirer for 3,000 drachmae." ], [ "Thought", "An eighteenth century engraving of EpictetusNo writings by Epictetus are known.", "His discourses were transcribed and compiled by his pupil Arrian ().", "The main work is ''The Discourses'', four books of which have been preserved (out of the original eight).", "Arrian also compiled a popular digest, entitled the ''Enchiridion'', or ''Handbook.''", "In a preface to the ''Discourses'' that is addressed to Lucius Gellius, Arrian states that \"whatever I heard him say I used to write down, word for word, as best I could, endeavouring to preserve it as a memorial, for my own future use, of his way of thinking and the frankness of his speech.\"", "In the sixth century, the Neoplatonist philosopher Simplicius wrote an extant commentary on the ''Enchiridion''.Epictetus maintains that the foundation of all philosophy is self-knowledge; that is, the conviction of our ignorance and gullibility ought to be the first subject of our study.", "Logic provides valid reasoning and certainty in judgment, but it is subordinate to practical needs.", "The first and most necessary part of philosophy concerns the application of doctrine, for example, that people should not lie.", "The second concerns reasons, e.g., why people should not lie.", "While the third, lastly, examines and establishes the reasons.", "This is the logical part, which finds reasons, shows what is a reason, and that a given reason is a correct one.", "This last part is necessary, but only on account of the second, which again is rendered necessary by the first.===''Prohairesis''===Both the ''Discourses'' and the ''Enchiridion'' begin by distinguishing between those things in our power (''prohairetic'' things) and those things not in our power (''aprohairetic'' things).That alone is in our power, which is our own work; and in this class are our opinions, impulses, desires, and aversions.", "On the contrary, what is not in our power, are our bodies, possessions, glory, and power.", "Any delusion on this point leads to the greatest errors, misfortunes, and troubles, and to the slavery of the soul.", "The determination between what is good and what is not good is made by the capacity for choice (''prohairesis'').", "Prohairesis allows us to act, and gives us the kind of freedom that only rational animals have.", "It is determined by our reason, which of all our faculties, sees and tests itself and everything else.", "It is the correct use of the impressions (''phantasia'') that bombard the mind that is in our power:Practice then from the start to say to every harsh impression, \"You are an impression, and not at all the thing you appear to be.\"", "Then examine it and test it by these rules you have, and firstly, and chiefly, by this: whether the impression has to do with the things that are up to us, or those that are not; and if it has to do with the things that are not up to us, be ready to reply, \"It is nothing to me.", "\"We will not be troubled at any loss, but will say to ourselves on such an occasion: \"I have lost nothing that belongs to me; it was not something of mine that was torn from me, but something that was not in my power has left me.\"", "Nothing beyond the use of our opinion is properly ours.", "Every possession rests on opinion.", "What is to cry and to weep?", "An opinion.", "What is misfortune, or a quarrel, or a complaint?", "All these things are opinions; opinions founded on the delusion that what is not subject to our own choice can be either good or evil, which it cannot.", "By rejecting these opinions, and seeking good and evil in the power of choice alone, we may confidently achieve peace of mind in every condition of life.===Good and evil===Reason alone is good, the irrational is evil, and the irrational is intolerable to the rational.", "The good person should labour chiefly on their own reason; to perfect this is in our power.", "To repel evil opinions by the good is the noble contest in which humans should engage; it is not an easy task, but it promises true freedom, peace of mind (''ataraxia''), and a divine command over the emotions (''apatheia'').", "We should especially be on our guard against the opinion of pleasure because of its apparent sweetness and charms.", "The first object of philosophy, therefore, is to purify the mind.Epictetus teaches that the preconceptions (''prolepsis'') of good and evil are common to all.", "Good alone is profitable and to be desired, and evil is hurtful and to be avoided.", "Different opinions arise only from the application of these preconceptions to particular cases, and it is then that the darkness of ignorance, which blindly maintains the correctness of its own opinion, must be dispelled.", "People entertain different and conflicting opinions of good, and in their judgment of a particular good, people frequently contradict themselves.", "Philosophy should provide a standard for good and evil.", "This process is greatly facilitated because the mind and the works of the mind are alone in our power, whereas all external things that aid life are beyond our control.The essence of divinity is goodness; we have all good that could be given to us.", "The deities too gave us the soul and reason, which is not measured by breadth or depth, but by knowledge and sentiments, and by which we attain to greatness, and may equal even with the deities.", "We should, therefore, cultivate the mind with special care.", "If we wish for nothing, but what God wills, we shall be truly free, and all will come to pass with us according to our desire; and we shall be as little subject to restraint as Zeus himself.Every individual is connected with the rest of the world, and the universe is fashioned for universal harmony.", "Wise people, therefore, will pursue, not merely their own will, but also will be subject to the rightful order of the world.", "We should conduct ourselves through life fulfilling all our duties as children, siblings, parents, and citizens.For our country or friends we ought to be ready to undergo or perform the greatest difficulties.", "The good person, if able to foresee the future, would peacefully and contentedly help to bring about their own sickness, maiming, and even death, knowing that this is the correct order of the universe.", "We have all a certain part to play in the world, and we have done enough when we have performed what our nature allows.", "In the exercise of our powers, we may become aware of the destiny we are intended to fulfil.We are like travellers at an inn or guests at a stranger's table; whatever is offered we take with thankfulness, and sometimes, when the turn comes, we may refuse; in the former case we are a worthy guest of the deities, and in the latter we appear as a sharer in their power.", "Anyone who finds life intolerable is free to quit it, but we should not abandon our appointed role without sufficient reason.", "The Stoic sage will never find life intolerable and will complain of no one, neither deity nor human.", "Those who go wrong we should pardon and treat with compassion, since it is from ignorance that they err, being as it were, blind.It is only our opinions and principles that can render us unhappy, and it is only the ignorant person who finds fault with another.", "Every desire degrades us, and renders us slaves of what we desire.", "We ought not to forget the transitory character of all external advantages, even in the midst of our enjoyment of them; but always to bear in mind that they are not our own, and that therefore, they do not properly belong to us.", "Thus prepared, we shall never be carried away by opinions.The final entry of the ''Enchiridion,'' or ''Handbook,'' begins: \"Upon all occasions we ought to have these maxims ready at hand\":Conduct me, Zeus, and thou, Destiny,Wherever thy decree has fixed my lot.I follow willingly; and, did I not,Wicked and wretched would I follow still.", "(Diogenes Laërtius quoting Cleanthes; quoted also by Seneca, Epistle 107.", ")\"Whoe'er yields properly to Fate is deemedWise among men, and knows the laws of Heaven.", "(From Euripides' Fragments, 965)Crito, if it thus pleases the gods, thus let it be.", "(From Plato's ''Crito'')Anytus and Meletus may indeed kill me, but they cannot harm me.", "(From Plato's ''Apology'')" ], [ "Influence", "===''Dialogue between the Emperor Hadrian and Epictetus''===Hadrian and Epictetus, 15th century manuscript, Bodleian libraryEpictetus appears in a 2nd or 3rd century ''Dialogue between the Emperor Hadrian and Epictetus the Philosopher''.", "This short Latin text consists of seventy-three short questions supposedly posed by Hadrian and answered by Epictetus.", "This dialogue was very popular in the Middle Ages with many translations and adaptations.=== Philosophy ======= Marcus Aurelius ====The philosophy of Epictetus influenced the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (AD 121 to AD 180), who cites Epictetus in his ''Meditations''.==== Philosophers of the French Enlightenment ====Voltaire, Montesquieu, Denis Diderot and Baron d'Holbach all read the ''Enchiridion'' when they were students.=== Literature ===The philosophy of Epictetus plays a key role in the 1998 novel ''A Man in Full'' by Tom Wolfe.", "This was in part the outcome of discussions Wolfe had with James Stockdale (see below).", "The character Conrad, who through a series of mishaps finds himself in jail and accidentally acquires a copy of the ''Enchiridion of Epictetus'', the Stoic's manual, discovers a philosophy that strengthens him to endure the brutality of the prison environment.", "He experiences Joseph Campbell's 'hero's journey' call to action and becomes a strong, honorable, undefeatable protagonist.", "The importance of Epictetus' Stoicism for Stockdale, its role in ''A Man in Full'', and its significance in Ridley Scott's film ''Gladiator'' are discussed by William O. Stephens in ''The Rebirth of Stoicism?", "''.Mohun Biswas, in the novel ''A House for Mr Biswas'' (1961), by V.S.", "Naipaul, is pleased to think himself a follower of Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius; the irony is that he never actually behaves as a Stoic.", "\"Everything has two handles, the one by which it may be carried, the other by which it cannot\" is the theme of ''Disturbances in the Field'' (1983), by Lynne Sharon Schwartz.", "Lydia, the central character, turns often to ''The Golden Sayings of Epictetus'' – the latter being a modern selection from Epictetus's writings, compiled and translated by Hastings Crossley.A line from the ''Enchiridion'' is used as a title quotation in ''The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman'' by Laurence Sterne, which translates to, \"Not things, but opinions about things, trouble men.", "\"Epictetus is mentioned in ''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man'' by James Joyce: in the fifth chapter of the novel the protagonist Stephen Dedalus discusses Epictetus's famous lamp with a dean of his college.", "Epictetus also is mentioned briefly in ''Franny and Zooey'' by J. D. Salinger, and is referred to by Theodore Dreiser in his novel ''Sister Carrie''.", "Both the longevity of Epictetus's life and his philosophy are alluded to in John Berryman's poem, \"Of Suicide.", "\"Epictetus is referred to, but not mentioned by name, in Matthew Arnold's sonnet \"To a Friend\".", "Arnold provides three historical personalities as his inspiration and support in difficult times (Epictetus is preceded by Homer and succeeded by Sophocles):Much he, whose friendship I not long since won,That halting slave, who in NicopolisTaught Arrian, when Vespasian's brutal sonCleared Rome of what most shamed him.==== François Rabelais ====In the Chapter XXX of François Rabelais' ''Pantagruel'' (c. 1532), Pantagruel's tutor Epistemon had his head cut off after a battle.", "After he had his head reattached and was brought back to life, he recounts his experience of the damned in hell:=== Military ======= James Stockdale ====Prisoner of war James Stockdale receiving the Medal of Honor from American president Gerald Ford; Stockdale claims he was able to retain his sanity during capture by relying on the philosophy of EpictetusJames Stockdale, a fighter pilot who was shot down while serving in the Vietnam War, was influenced by Epictetus.", "He was introduced to his works while at Stanford University.", "In ''Courage under Fire: Testing Epictetus's Doctrines in a Laboratory of Human Behavior'' (1993), Stockdale credits Epictetus with helping him endure his seven and a half years in captivity, which included torture and four years in solitary confinement.", "When he was shot down, he reportedly said to himself \"I'm leaving the world of technology and entering the world of Epictetus!\"", "as he bailed out.Quoting Epictetus, Stockdale concludes the book with: The emotions of grief, pity, and even affection are well-known disturbers of the soul.", "Grief is the most offensive; Epictetus considered the suffering of grief an act of evil.", "It is a willful act, going against the will of God to have all men share happiness.=== Psychology ===Psychologist Albert Ellis, the founder of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, credited Epictetus with providing a foundation for his system of psychotherapy.=== Religion ===Kiyozawa Manshi, a controversial reformer within the Higashi Honganji branch of Jodo Shinshu Buddhism, cited Epictetus as one of the three major influences on his spiritual development and thought." ], [ "See also", "* List of slaves" ], [ "Notes", "* Origen's Contra Celcus, Book vii, episode is in chapter LIII, with a secondary mention of the episode in chapter LIV." ], [ "Further reading", ";Primary sources* ''All the Works of Epictetus, Which are Now Extant'', Elizabeth Carter (trans.)", "(1758) * ''The Complete Works: Handbook, Discourses, and Fragments'', Robin Waterfield (trans.)", "(2022) * ''Discourses, Fragments, Handbook'', Robin Hard (trans.", "), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.", "* ''Discourses and Selected Writings'', Robert Dobbin (trans.", "), Oxford: Penguin Classics, 2008 .", "* ''The Discourses (The Handbook, Fragments)'', Robin Hard (trans.", "), Christopher Gill (contrib.", "), Everyman Edition, 2003 .", "* ''Epictetus Discourses: Book 1'', Robert Dobbin (trans.", "), (Clarendon Later Ancient Philosophers), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998 .", "* ''The Handbook'', Nicholas P. White (trans.", "), Indianapolis: Hackett, 1983 .", "* ''Enchiridion'', George Long (trans.", "), New York: A. L. Burt, 1955 (reprint: New York: Dover, 2004) .", "* ''The Discourses,'' trans.", "W. A. Oldfather.", "2 vols.", "(Loeb Classical Library edition.)", "Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1925 and 1928..* ''Moral Discourses, Enchiridion and Fragments'', Elizabeth Carter (trans.", "), W.H.D.", "Rouse (Ed.", "), London: J.M.", "Dent & Sons, 1910.at Open Library;Studies* Jonathan Barnes, ''Logic and Imperial Stoa'', Leiden: Brill, 1997 (Chapter Three: ''Epictetuts'', pp. 24–127).", "* Adolf Friedrich Bonhoffer, '' The Ethics of the Stoic Epictetus'', William O. Stephens trans., Bern: Peter Lang, 2000 .", "* Michel Foucault, ''The Hermeneutics of the Subject: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1981–1982'', New York: Picador, 2005 .", "* Pedro P. Fuentes González.", "art. \"", "Épictète\", in R. Goulet (ed.", "), ''Dictionnaire des Philosophes Antiques'' III, Paris, CNRS, 2000, pp.", "106–151 ** Brian E. Johnson, ''The Role Ethics of Epictetus: Stoicism in Ordinary Life'', Lanham: Lexington Books, 2014 .", "* A.", "A.", "Long, ''Epictetus: A Stoic and Socratic Guide to Life'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002 .", "* Theodore Scaltsas, Andrew S. Mason (ed.", "), ''The Philosophy of Epictetus''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007 .", "* Keith Seddon, ''Epictetus' Handbook and the Tablet of Cebes: Guides to Stoic Living'', Routledge, 2005.", "* Werner Sohn, ''Epictetus: Ein erzkonservativer Bildungsroman mit liberalen Eselsohren'' (German version) Norderstedt: BoD, 2010 .", "* William O. Stephens, '' Stoic Ethics: Epictetus and Happiness as Freedom'', London: Continuum, 2007 ." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * Works by Epictetus at the Internet Classics Archive* Works by Epictetus at the Stoic Therapy eLibrary* * * ''Dialogue between Hadrian and Epictetus'' – a fictitious 2nd or 3rd century composition, translated into English in ''The Knickerbocker'' magazine, August 1857* ''Commentary on the Enchiridion of Epictetus'' by Simplicius of Cilicia (6th century)* ''Stockdale on Stoicism I: The Stoic Warrior's Triad'' by James Stockdale* Who Was Epictetus?", "* ''Stockdale on Stoicism II: Master of My Fate'' by James Stockdale* '' Epicteti dissertationes ab Arriano digestae'', Heinrich Schenkl (ed.", "), Lipsiae, in aedibus B. G. Teubneri, 1916." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Edward Lear" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edward Lear''' (12 May 1812 – 29 January 1888) was an English artist, illustrator, musician, author and poet, who is known mostly for his literary nonsense in poetry and prose and especially his limericks, a form he popularised.His principal areas of work as an artist were threefold: as a draughtsman employed to make illustrations of birds and animals; making coloured drawings during his journeys, which he reworked later, sometimes as plates for his travel books; and as a (minor) illustrator of Alfred, Lord Tennyson's poems.As an author, he is known principally for his popular nonsense collections of poems, songs, short stories, botanical drawings, recipes and alphabets.", "He also composed and published twelve musical settings of Tennyson's poetry." ], [ "Biography", "===Early years===Lear by Wilhelm MarstrandLear was born into a middle-class family at Holloway, North London, the penultimate of 21 children (and youngest to survive) of Ann Clark Skerrett and Jeremiah Lear, a stockbroker formerly working for the family sugar refining business.", "He was raised by his eldest sister, also named Ann, 21 years his senior.", "Jeremiah Lear ended up defaulting to the London Stock Exchange in the economic upheaval following the Napoleonic Wars; owing to the family's now more limited finances, Lear and his sister were required to leave the family home, Bowmans Lodge, and live together when he was aged four.", "Ann doted on Edward and continued to act as a mother for him until her death, when he was almost 50 years of age.Lear had lifelong health problems.", "From the age of six he had frequent ''grand mal'' epileptic seizures, bronchitis, asthma and, during later life, partial blindness.", "Lear experienced his first seizure at a fair near Highgate with his father.", "The event scared and embarrassed him.", "Lear felt lifelong guilt and shame for his epileptic condition.", "His adult diaries indicate that he always sensed the onset of a seizure in time to remove himself from public view.", "When Lear was about seven years old he began to show signs of depression, possibly due to the instability of his childhood.", "He had periods of severe melancholia which he referred to as \"the Morbids\".===Artist===''Masada on the Dead Sea'', Edward Lear, 1858Lear was already drawing \"for bread and cheese\" by the time he was aged 16 and soon developed into a serious \"ornithological draughtsman\" employed by the Zoological Society and from 1832 to 1836 by the Earl of Derby, who kept a private menagerie at his estate, Knowsley Hall.", "He was the first major bird artist to draw birds from real live birds, instead of skins.", "Lear's first publication, published when he was 19 years old, was ''Illustrations of the Family of Psittacidae, or Parrots'' in 1830.One of the greatest ornithological artists of his era, he taught Elizabeth Gould whilst also contributing to John Gould's works and was compared by some to the naturalist John James Audubon.", "After his eyesight deteriorated too much to work with such precision on the fine drawings and etchings of plates used in lithography, he turned to landscape painting and travel.Among other travels, he visited Greece and Egypt during 1848–49, and toured India during 1873–75, including a brief detour to Ceylon.", "While travelling he produced large quantities of coloured wash drawings in a distinctive style, which he converted later in his studio into oil and watercolour paintings, as well as prints for his books.", "His landscape style often shows views with strong sunlight, with intense contrasts of colour.Between 1878 and 1883, Lear spent his summers on Monte Generoso, a mountain on the border between the Swiss canton of Ticino and the Italian region of Lombardy.", "His oil painting ''The Plains of Lombardy from Monte Generoso'' is in the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford.Throughout his life, he continued to paint seriously.", "He had a lifelong ambition to illustrate Tennyson's poems; near the end of his life, a volume with a small number of illustrations was published.=== ''Illustrated Excursions in Italy'' (1842–47) ===Temple of Venus and Roma, RomeEngraving of CelanoIn 1842, Lear began a journey into the Italian peninsula, travelling through the Lazio, Rome, Abruzzo, Molise, Apulia, Basilicata, Calabria and Sicily.", "In personal notes, together with drawings, Lear gathered his impressions on the Italian way of life, folk traditions, and the beauty of the ancient monuments.", "Of particular interest to Lear was the Abruzzo, which he visited in 1843, through the Marsica (Celano, Avezzano, Alba Fucens, Trasacco) and the plateau of Cinque Miglia (Castel di Sangro and Alfedena), by an old sheep track of the shepherds.Lear drew a sketch of the medieval village of Albe with Mount Sirente, and described the medieval village of Celano, with the castle of Piccolomini dominating the vast plain of Lago Fucino, which was drained a few years later to promote agricultural development.", "At Castel di Sangro, Lear described the winter stillness of the mountains and the beautiful basilica.More adventurous was the voyage to the regions of southern Italy in 1847, described in Lear's ''Journals of a Landscape Painter in Southern Calabria, & c''.", "The broad Calabria section in which Lear tells his itinerary among breathtaking landscapes and often surreal characters, is thought to be among the best in his travel literature.===Composer and musician===Foss, who leapt away.Lear primarily played the piano, but he also played the accordion, flute, and small guitar.", "He composed music for many Romantic and Victorian poems, but was known mostly for his many musical settings of Tennyson's poetry.", "He published four settings in 1853, five in 1859, and three in 1860.Lear's were the only musical settings that Tennyson approved of.", "Lear also composed music for many of his nonsense songs, including \"The Owl and the Pussy-cat\", but only two of the scores have survived, the music for \"The Courtship of the Yonghy-Bonghy-Bò\" and \"The Pelican Chorus\".", "While he never played professionally, he did perform his own nonsense songs and his settings of others' poetry at countless social gatherings, sometimes adding his own lyrics (as with the song \"The Nervous Family\"), and sometimes replacing serious lyrics with nursery rhymes.===Relationships===Lear's most fervent and painful friendship was with Franklin Lushington.", "He met the young barrister in Malta in 1849 and toured southern Greece with him.", "Lear developed an infatuation for him that Lushington did not wholly reciprocate.", "Although they remained friends for almost forty years until Lear's death, the disparity of their feelings constantly tormented Lear.", "Indeed, Lear's attempts at male companionship were not always successful; the very intensity of Lear's affections may have doomed these relationships.The closest he came to marriage was two proposals, both to the same woman 46 years his junior, which were not accepted.", "For companions, he relied instead on friends and correspondents, and especially, during later life, on his Albanian Souliote chef, Giorgis, a faithful friend and (as Lear complained) a thoroughly unsatisfactory chef.", "Another trusted companion in San Remo was his cat, Foss, who died in 1887 and was buried with some ceremony in a garden at Villa Tennyson.===San Remo and death===Lear eventually settled in San Remo, on his beloved Mediterranean coast in the 1870s at a villa he named \"Villa Tennyson.", "\"Lear was known to introduce himself with a long pseudonym: \"Mr Abebika kratoponoko Prizzikalo Kattefello Ablegorabalus Ableborinto phashyph\" or \"Chakonoton the Cozovex Dossi Fossi Sini Tomentilla Coronilla PolentillaBattledore & Shuttlecock Derry down Derry Dumps\", which he based on ''Aldiborontiphoskyphorniostikos''.Lear's grave in San Remo, Italy where he is buried alongside Giorgio Cocali, ''\"A Christian Albanian of Suli\"'', ''\"He was for 39 years the faithful servant and friend of Edward Lear\"''.After a long decline in his health, Lear died at his villa in 1888 of heart disease, which he had had since at least 1870.Lear's funeral was described as a sad, lonely affair by the wife of Dr. Hassall, Lear's physician, none of Lear's many lifelong friends being able to attend.Lear is buried in the Cemetery Foce in San Remo.", "On his headstone are inscribed these lines about Mount Tomohrit (in Albania) from Tennyson's poem ''To E.L. Edward Lear, On His Travels in Greece'':The centenary of his death was marked in Britain with a set of Royal Mail stamps in 1988 and an exhibition at the Royal Academy.", "Lear's birthplace area is now marked with a plaque at Bowman's Mews, Islington, in London, and his bicentenary during 2012 was celebrated with a variety of events, exhibitions and lectures in venues across the world including an International Owl and Pussycat Day on his birth anniversary." ], [ "Author", "Lear sketches dated 15 May 1864, from Paddy Leigh Fermor's collection.In 1846, Lear published ''A Book of Nonsense,'' a volume of limericks which went through three editions and helped popularise the form and the genre of literary nonsense.", "In 1871, he published ''Nonsense Songs, Stories, Botany and Alphabets'', which included the nonsense song ''The Owl and the Pussycat,'' which he wrote for the children of his patron Edward Stanley, 13th Earl of Derby.", "Many other works followed.Lear's nonsense books were quite popular during his lifetime, but a rumour developed that \"Edward Lear\" was merely a pseudonym, and the books' true author was the man to whom Lear had dedicated the works, his patron the Earl of Derby.", "Promoters of this rumour offered as evidence that both men were named Edward, and that \"Lear\" is an anagram of \"Earl\".", "''The falls of the Kalama'', Albania 1851Lear's nonsense works are distinguished by a facility of verbal invention and a poet's delight in the sounds of words, both real and imaginary.", "A stuffed rhinoceros becomes a \"diaphanous doorscraper\".", "A \"blue Boss-Woss\" plunges into \"a perpendicular, spicular, orbicular, quadrangular, circular depth of soft mud\".", "His heroes are Quangle-Wangles, Pobbles, and Jumblies.", "One of his most famous verbal inventions, the phrase \"runcible spoon\", occurs in the closing lines of ''The Owl and the Pussycat,'' and is now found in many English dictionaries:Though known for his neologisms, Lear used a number of other devices in his works in order to defy reader expectations.", "For example, \"Cold Are the Crabs\" conforms to the sonnet tradition until its dramatically foreshortened last line.", "''A Book of Nonsense'' (c. 1875 James Miller edition) by Edward LearToday, limericks are invariably typeset as five lines.", "Lear's limericks, however, were published in a variety of formats; it appears that Lear wrote them in manuscript in as many lines as there was room for beneath the picture.", "For the first three editions, most are typeset as, respectively, two, five, and three lines.", "The cover of one edition bears an entire limerick typeset in two lines:In Lear's limericks, the first and last lines usually end with the same word rather than rhyming.", "For the most part they are truly nonsensical and devoid of any punch line or point.", "They are completely free of the bawdiness with which the verse form is now associated.", "A typical thematic element is the presence of a callous and critical \"they\".", "An example of a typical Lear limerick:Lear's self-description in verse, ''How Pleasant to know Mr. Lear,'' ends with this stanza, a reference to his own mortality:Five of Lear's limericks from the ''Book of Nonsense'', in the 1946 Italian translation by Carlo Izzo, were set to music for choir a cappella by Goffredo Petrassi in 1952." ], [ "Portrayals", "Edward Lear has been played in radio dramas by Andrew Sachs in ''The Need for Nonsense'' by Julia Blackburn (BBC Radio 4, 9 February 2009) and by Derek Jacobi in ''By the Coast of Coromandel'' by Lavinia Murray (BBC Radio 4, 21 December 2011)." ], [ "In popular culture", "Lear's written work was used extensively in the short-lived ''The Tomfoolery Show,'' a Saturday morning cartoon that was produced by Rankin-Bass and broadcast on NBC in 1970–1971." ], [ "Works", "* ''Illustrations of the Family of Psittacidae, or Parrots'' (1832)* ''Views in Rome and its Environs'' (1841)* ''Gleanings from the Menagerie at Knowsley Hall'' (1846)* ''The Book of Nonsense'' (1846)* ''Illustrated Excursions in Italy'' (1846)* ''Mount Timohorit, Albania'' (1848)* ''Journal of a Landscape Painter in Greece and Albania'' (1851)* ''The falls of the Kalama Albania (1851)* ''Journal of a Landscape Painter in Southern Calabria'' (1852)* ''Poems and Songs by Alfred Tennyson'' (1853, 1859, 1860) Twelve total musical settings published, each being for a Tennyson poem.", "* ''History of the Seven Families of the Lake Pipplepopple'' (1865), illustrated manuscript now in the British Library* ''Journal of a Landscape Painter in Corsica'' (1870)* ''Nonsense Songs and Stories'' (1870, dated 1871)* ''Tortoises, Terrapins, and Turtles'' (1872), introduction by J. E. Gray* More Nonsense Pictures, Rhymes, Botany, etc.", "(1872)* ''Laughable Lyrics'' (1877)* ''Nonsense Alphabets''* ''Argos from Mycenae'' (1884), now in the collection of Trinity College, Cambridge* ''Nonsense Botany'' (1888)* ''Tennyson's Poems, illustrated by Lear'' (1889)* ''Facsimile of a Nonsense Alphabet'' (1849, but not published until 1926)* ''The Quangle-Wangle's Hat'' (1876)* ''Edward Lear's Parrots'' by Brian Reade, Duckworth (1949), including 12 coloured plates from Lear's ''Psittacidae''* ''The Scroobious Pip'', unfinished at his death, but completed by Ogden Nash and illustrated by Nancy Ekholm Burkert (1968)* ''The Dong with a Luminous Nose'', illustrated by Edward Gorey, Young Scott Books, NY (1969)* \"Edward Lear: The Corfu Years\" (1988) * The 1970 Saturday morning cartoon ''Tomfoolery'', based on the works of Lear and Lewis Carroll" ], [ "Illustrations", "File:Ara macao -painting by Edward Lear.jpg\|Ara macao from his first book, ''Illustrations of the Family of Psittacidae, or Parrots'' 1832File:Houghton MS Typ 55.12 - Edward Lear, chimpanzee head.jpg\|Chimpanzee, 1835File:eagleowl.jpg\|''Eagle Owl'', Edward Lear, 1837File:owlpussycat.jpg\|Another Edward Lear owl, in his more familiar styleFile:EdwardLearSelfPortrait.jpg\|Lear self-portrait, illustrating a real incident when he encountered a stranger who claimed that \"Edward Lear\" was merely a pseudonym.", "Lear (on the right) is showing the stranger (left) the inside of his hat, with his name in the lining.File:Edward Lear A Book of Nonsense 73.jpg\|Illustration by Edward Lear for There was a Young Lady of HullFile:Edward Lear - A Weasel - Google Art Project.jpg\|''A Weasel''File:Melfi - Edward Lear.jpg\|Lithograph of Melfi, Italian city in the Basilicata regionFile:Howatke by Edward Lear 1867.jpg\|''Howatke'', by Edward Lear, 1867File:Edward Lear self-caricature.jpg\|Self-caricature (1870)" ], [ "See also", "* ''A Beach Full of Shells'', the 20th album by musician Al Stewart pays tribute in the song \"Mr. Lear\", celebrating Foss and many events from Lear's life.", "* Lear's macaw* List of Orientalist artists* List of wildlife artists* Literary nonsense* Orientalism" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Noakes, Vivien (ed.)", "''Edward Lear: Selected Letters'' (Clarendon Press, 1988) * Richardson, Joanna.", "''Edward Lear'' (Longmans/British Council, 1965) \"Writers and their Work\"* Uglow, Jenny.", "''Mr Lear: A Life of Art and Nonsense'' (Faber & Faber, 2017)" ], [ "External links", "* ** * * * * Edward Lear's Cat Foss* Edward Lear's Books of Nonsense* Android app of Edward Lear limericks * Scans of illustrations from the Nonsense series of books* Full text, images, and covers of several of Lear's books available as Open Access from the Baldwin Library of Historical Children's Literature* Music set to Lear's poems ''The Jumblies'' and ''The Dong with the Luminous Nose'' (and more)* A reading of Lear's ''Nonsense Songs, Stories, Botany, and Alphabets''** Works about Edward Lear in Calabria (South Italy)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Eve Arden" ], [ "Introduction", "Anthony George and Arden in \"Death by Design\", ''Checkmate'' (1961)'''Eve Arden''' (born '''Eunice Mary Quedens''', April 30, 1908 – November 12, 1990) was an American film, radio, stage and television actress.", "She performed in leading and supporting roles for nearly six decades.Beginning her film career in 1929 and on Broadway in the early 1930s, Arden's first major role was in the RKO Radio Pictures drama ''Stage Door'' (1937) opposite Katharine Hepburn, followed by roles in the comedies ''Having Wonderful Time'' (1938) and the Marx Brothers' ''At the Circus'' (1939).", "She received an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress for her role in ''Mildred Pierce'' (1945).Somewhat surprisingly for an actress of Arden's refinement and wit, she appeared to good effect in a number of films noir, some exceptionally high-profile, including ''Mildred Pierce'', ''The Unfaithful'' (1947), ''The Arnelo Affair'' (1947), ''Whiplash'' (1948), and ''Anatomy of a Murder'' (1959).Later in her career, Arden moved to television, playing a sardonic but engaging high school teacher in ''Our Miss Brooks'', for which she won the first Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series.", "She also played the school principal in the film musicals ''Grease'' (1978) and ''Grease 2'' (1982)." ], [ "Early life", "Eve Arden was born Eunice Mary Quedens on April 30, 1908, in Mill Valley, California, to Charles Peter Quedens, the son of Charles Henry Augustus Quedens and Eunice Meta Dierks, and Lucille Frank, the daughter of Bernard Frank and Louisa Mertens.", "Lucille, a milliner, divorced Charles over his gambling and went into business for herself.Although not Catholic, young Eunice was sent to a Dominican convent school in San Rafael, California.", "She then attended Tamalpais High School, a public high school in Mill Valley, until age 16.After leaving school, she joined the stock theater company of Henry \"Terry\" Duffy." ], [ "Career", "===Film===She made her film debut under her real name in the backstage musical ''Song of Love'' (1929), as a wisecracking, homewrecking showgirl who becomes a rival to the film's star, singer Belle Baker.", "The film was one of Columbia Pictures' earliest successes.", "In 1933, she relocated to New York City, where she had supporting parts in several Broadway stage productions.", "In 1934, she was cast in the ''Ziegfeld Follies'' revue, the first role where she was credited as Eve Arden.", "When she was told to adopt a stage name for the show, Arden looked at her cosmetics and \"stole my first name from Evening in Paris, and the second from Elizabeth Arden\".", "Between 1934 and 1941, she appeared in Broadway productions of ''Parade'', ''Very Warm for May'', ''Two for the Show'', and ''Let's Face It!", "''.Arden's film career began in earnest in 1937 when she signed a contract with RKO Radio Pictures and appeared in the films ''Oh Doctor'' and ''Stage Door''.", "Her ''Stage Door'' portrayal of a fast-talking, witty supporting character gained Arden considerable notice and was a template for many of Arden's future roles.In 1938, she played a supporting part in the comedy ''Having Wonderful Time'', starring Ginger Rogers and Douglas Fairbanks, Jr.", "This was followed by roles in the crime film ''The Forgotten Woman'' (1939), and the Marx Brothers comedy ''At the Circus'' (1939), a role that required her to perform acrobatics.In 1940, she appeared in support of Clark Gable and Hedy Lamarr in ''Comrade X'', followed by support in the drama ''Manpower'' (1941) opposite Marlene Dietrich, Edward G. Robinson and George Raft.", "She also had a supporting part in the Red Skelton comedy ''Whistling in the Dark'' (1941) and the romantic comedy ''Obliging Young Lady'' (1942).Her many memorable screen roles include a supporting role as Joan Crawford's wise-cracking friend in ''Mildred Pierce'' (1945), for which she received an Academy Award nomination as Best Supporting Actress; as a catty cousin turned peacemaker in The Unfaithful (1947); and as James Stewart's wistful but wry secretary in Otto Preminger's mystery ''Anatomy of a Murder'' (1959) (which also featured her husband, Brooks West).", "In 1946, exhibitors voted her the sixth-most promising \"star of tomorrow\".Arden became familiar to a new generation of filmgoers when she played Principal McGee in ''Grease'' (1978) and ''Grease 2 (1982)''.", "Arden was known for her deadpan comedic delivery.===Radio and television===Groucho Marx and Eve Arden in a scene from ''At the Circus'' (1939)Arden's ability with witty scripts made her a natural talent for radio.", "She was a regular on Danny Kaye's short-lived but memorably zany comedy-variety show in 1946, which also featured swing bandleader Harry James and gravel-voiced character actor-comedian Lionel Stander.The additional exposure of Arden's comic talent on Kaye's show led to her best-known role, that of Madison High School English teacher Connie Brooks in ''Our Miss Brooks''.", "Arden portrayed the character on radio from 1948 to 1957, in a television version of the program from 1952 to 1956, and in a 1956 feature film.", "Her character clashed with the school's principal, Osgood Conklin (played by Gale Gordon) and nursed an unrequited crush on fellow teacher Philip Boynton (played originally by future film star Jeff Chandler; and later on radio and TV by Robert Rockwell).", "Except for Chandler, the entire radio cast of Arden, Gordon, Richard Crenna (Walter Denton), Robert Rockwell (Mr. Philip Boynton), Gloria McMillan (Harriet Conklin) and Jane Morgan (landlady Margaret Davis) played the same roles on TV.Arden's portrayal of Miss Brooks was so popular that she was made an honorary member of the National Education Association, received a 1952 award from the Teachers College of Connecticut's Alumni Association \"for humanizing the American teacher\", and even received teaching job offers.", "Her well-established wisecracking, deadpan character ultimately became her public persona as a comedienne.Armed Forces Radio Service, 1940sShe won a listeners' poll by ''Radio Mirror'' magazine as the top-ranking comedienne of 1948–1949, receiving her award at the end of an ''Our Miss Brooks'' broadcast that March.", "\"I'm certainly going to try in the coming months to merit the honor you've bestowed upon me, because I understand that if I win this (award) two years in a row, I get to keep Mr. Boynton,\" she joked.", "She was also a hit with the critics: A winter 1949 poll of newspaper and magazine radio editors by ''Motion Picture Daily'' named her the year's best radio comedienne.Arden had a very brief guest appearance in a 1955 ''I Love Lucy'' episode titled \"L.A. at Last\", where she played herself.", "While awaiting their food at the Brown Derby, Lucy Ricardo (Lucille Ball) and Ethel Mertz (Vivian Vance) argue over whether a certain portrait on a nearby wall is Shelley Winters or Judy Holliday.", "Lucy urges Ethel to ask a lady occupying the next booth, who turns and replies, \"Neither.", "That's Eve Arden.\"", "As Ethel realizes she just spoke to Arden herself, Arden passes Lucy and Ethel's table to leave the restaurant while the pair gawk.Emmy Award for ''Our Miss Brooks'', February 11, 1954Desilu Productions, jointly owned by Desi Arnaz and Ball during their marriage, was the production company for the ''Our Miss Brooks'' television show, filmed during the same years as ''I Love Lucy''.", "Ball and Arden met when they costarred in the film ''Stage Door'' in 1937.Ball, according to numerous radio historians, suggested Arden for ''Our Miss Brooks'' after Shirley Booth auditioned for but failed to land the role and Ball—committed at the time to ''My Favorite Husband''—could not.Arden tried another series for CBS in the fall of 1957, ''The Eve Arden Show'', but it was canceled in spring of 1958 after 26 episodes.", "In 1966, she played Nurse Kelton in an episode of ''Bewitched''.", "She later costarred with Kaye Ballard as her neighbor and in-law, Eve Hubbard, in the 1967–1969 NBC situation comedy ''The Mothers-in-Law'', produced by Arnaz after the dissolution of Desilu Productions.", "In her later career, Arden made appearances on such television shows as ''Bewitched'', ''Alice'', ''Maude, Hart to Hart'', and ''Falcon Crest''.", "In 1985, she appeared as the wicked stepmother in the ''Faerie Tale Theatre'' production of ''Cinderella''.===Stage===Arden was one of many actresses to take on the title roles in ''Hello, Dolly!''", "and ''Auntie Mame'' in the 1960s; in 1967, she won the Sarah Siddons Award for her work in Chicago theater.", "In 1983, Arden was cast as the leading lady in what was to be her Broadway comeback, ''Moose Murders'', but she withdrew and was replaced with the much younger Holland Taylor after one preview performance, citing \"artistic differences\".", "The show went on to open and close on the same night, becoming known a legendary flop in Broadway history." ], [ "Personal life", "Arden was married to Edward Grinnell \"Ned\" Bergen 1939–47 and reportedly had a long relationship with Danny Kaye through the 1940s (likely starting from their Broadway work on ''Let's Face It!''", "in 1941).", "Arden was married to actor Brooks West from 1952 until his death in 1984 from a brain hemorrhage at age 67.She adopted her first child with Bergen and a second childas a single mother after her divorce from him; she adopted her third child with West and gave birth to her youngest (with West) at age 46 in 1954.All four children survived their parents." ], [ "Death", "On November 12, 1990, Arden died at home at age 82.According to her death certificate, she died of cardiac arrest and arteriosclerotic heart disease.", "She is buried in the Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery, Westwood, Los Angeles, California." ], [ "Legacy", "Arden published an autobiography, ''The Three Phases of Eve'', in 1985.In addition to her Academy Award nomination, Arden has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame: Radio and Television (see List of stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for addresses).", "She was inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame in 1995." ], [ "Filmography", "===Film=== Year Title Role Notes1929''Song of Love''Maisie LeRoy1933''Dancing Lady''MarciaUncredited1937''Oh, Doctor''Shirley Truman1937''Stage Door''Eve1938''Cocoanut Grove''Sophie De Lemma1938''Having Wonderful Time''Henrietta1938''Letter of Introduction''Cora Phelps1939''Women in the Wind''Kit Campbell1939''Big Town Czar''Susan Warren1939''The Forgotten Woman''Carrie Ashburn1939''Eternally Yours''Gloria1939''At the Circus''Peerless Pauline1939''''Miss Pinty1939''Slightly Honorable''Miss Ater1940''She Couldn't Say No''Alice Hinsdale1940''Comrade X''Jane Wilson1940''No, No, Nanette''Kitty1941''That Uncertain Feeling''Sally Aikens1941''Ziegfeld Girl''Patsy Dixon1941''She Knew All the Answers''Sally Long1941''San Antonio Rose''Gabby Trent1941''Whistling in the Dark'''Buzz' Baker1941''Manpower''Dolly1941''Last of the Duanes''Kate1941''Sing for Your Supper''Barbara Stevens1941''Bedtime Story''Virginia Cole1942''Obliging Young Lady'''Space' O'Shea - AKA Suwanee Rivers1943''Hit Parade of 1943''Belinda WrightAlternative title: ''Change of Heart''1943''Let's Face It''Maggie Watson1944''Cover Girl''Cornelia Jackson1944''''Sgt.", "Natalia Moskoroff1945''Pan-Americana''Helen 'Hoppy' Hopkins1945''Earl Carroll Vanities'''Tex' Donnelly1945''Patrick the Great''Jean Matthews1945''Mildred Pierce''Ida Corwin1946''My Reputation''Ginna Abbott1946''''Ann Westley1946''Night and Day''Gabrielle1947''''Paula1947''''Vivian Delwyn1947''Song of Scheherazade''Madame de Talavera1947''''Olive Lashbrooke1948''One Touch of Venus''Molly Stewart1948''Whiplash''Chris Sherwood1949''My Dream Is Yours''Vivian Martin1949''''Susan Wayne1950''Paid in Full''Tommy Thompson1950''Curtain Call at Cactus Creek''Lily Martin1950''Tea for Two''Pauline Hastings1950''Three Husbands''Lucille McCabe1951''Goodbye, My Fancy''Miss 'Woody' Woods1951''Two Tickets to Broadway''Showgirl1952''We're Not Married!", "''Katie Woodruff1953''''Gladys Jones1956''Our Miss Brooks''Connie Brooks1959''Anatomy of a Murder''Maida Rutledge1960''''Lottie Lacey1965''Sergeant Deadhead''Lt.", "Charlotte Kinsey1975''''Harriet Crumply1978''Grease''Principal McGee1981''Under the Rainbow''The Duchess1982''Pandemonium''Warden June1982''Grease 2''Principal McGee(final film appearance)=== Television === Year Title Role Notes1951''Starlight Theatre''Julie Todd\"Julie\"1952–1956''Our Miss Brooks''Connie BrooksMain role (130 episodes)1955''I Love Lucy''Herself (cameo)\"Hollywood at Last\"1957–1958''''Liza HammondMain role (26 episodes)1959–1967''''Clara ApplebyRecurring role (6 episodes)1961''Checkmate''Georgia Golden\"Death by Design\"1962''My Three Sons''Marisa Montaine\"A Holiday for Tramp\"1964''Vacation Playhouse''Claudia Cooper\"He's All Yours\"1965''Laredo''Emma Bristow\"Which Way Did They Go?", "\"1966''Bewitched''Nurse Kelton\"And Then There Were Three\"1966''Run for Your Life''Mame Huston\"Who's Watching the Fleshpot?\"1966''''Prof.", "Lillian Stemmler\"The Minus-X Affair\"1967''''Thelda Cunningham\"The Royal Follies of 1933\"1967–1969''''Eve HubbardMain role (56 episodes)1969''In Name Only''Aunt Theda ReesonTV film1972''''Hildegarde WithersTV film1972''All My Darling Daughters''Miss FreelingTV film1974''''Mrs.", "Owens\"Mother of the Bride\"1974''''Aunt Fran\"The Greening of Aunt Fran\"1974''Owen Marshall, Counselor at Law''Dr.", "Lucille Barras\"Subject: The Sterilization of Judy Simpson\"1975''Harry and Maggie''Maggie SturdivantTV pilot1975''Ellery Queen''Vera Bethune / Miss Aggie\"The Adventure of Miss Aggie's Farewell Performance\"1977''Maude''Lola Ashburn\"Maude's Aunt\"1978''''Employment ladyTV film1978''Flying High''Clarissa 'Wedgie' Wedge\"It Was Just One of Those Days\"1979''Vega$''Sarah Bancroft\"Design for Death\"1980''''CoraleeTV miniseries1980''Alice''Martha MacIntire\"Alice in TV Land\"1980''''Ms.", "Brenda Watts\"The Affair: Parts 1 & 2\"1980''B.", "J. and the Bear''Mrs.", "Jarvis\"The Girls of Hollywood High\"1980''Hart to Hart''Sophie Green\"Does She or Doesn't She?", "\"1981''Nuts and Bolts''Martha FentonTV film1983''Great Performances''Queen of Hearts\"Alice in Wonderland\"1983''Masquerade''Mrs.", "Woodman\"Diamonds\"1985''Faerie Tale Theatre''The Stepmother\"Cinderella\"1986''Amazing Stories''Jane's Mother\"Secret Cinema\"1987''Falcon Crest''Lillian Nash\"Manhunt\" (final TV appearance)" ], [ "Select stage credits", "''Private Lives'' (1933)''On Approval'' (1933)''Ziegfeld Follies of 1934'' (1934)''Ziegfeld Follies of 1936'' (1936)''Very Warm for May'' (1939)''Two for the Show'' (1940)''Let's Face It!''", "(1941)''Over 21'' (1950)''Auntie Mame'' (1958)''Goodbye Charlie'' (1960)''The Marriage-Go-Round'' (1961)''Hello, Dolly!''", "(1966)''Barefoot in the Park'' (1967)''Cactus Flower'' (1968)''Butterflies Are Free'' (1970)''Applause'' (1975)''Absurd Person Singular'' (1978)''Little Me'' (1980)" ], [ "References", "===Sources===*" ], [ "Further reading", " ** " ], [ "External links", " Official Website* * * * * * Eve Arden at Virtual History" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Elementary function" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, an '''elementary function''' is a function of a single variable (typically real or complex) that is defined as taking sums, products, roots and compositions of finitely many polynomial, rational, trigonometric, hyperbolic, and exponential functions, including possibly their inverse functions (e.g., arcsin, log, or ''x''1/''n'').All elementary functions are continuous on their domains.Elementary functions were introduced by Joseph Liouville in a series of papers from 1833 to 1841.An algebraic treatment of elementary functions was started by Joseph Fels Ritt in the 1930s." ], [ "Examples", "=== Basic examples ===Elementary functions of a single variable include:* Constant functions: etc.", "* Rational powers of : etc.", "* Exponential functions: * Logarithms: * Trigonometric functions: etc.", "* Inverse trigonometric functions: etc.", "* Hyperbolic functions: etc.", "* Inverse hyperbolic functions: etc.", "* All functions obtained by adding, subtracting, multiplying or dividing a finite number of any of the previous functions* All functions obtained by root extraction of a polynomial with coefficients in elementary functions* All functions obtained by composing a finite number of any of the previously listed functionsCertain elementary functions of a single complex variable , such as and , may be multivalued.", "Additionally, certain classes of functions may be obtained by others using the final two rules.", "For example, the exponential function composed with addition, subtraction, and division provides the hyperbolic functions, while initial composition with instead provides the trigonometric functions.=== Composite examples ===Examples of elementary functions include:* Addition, e.g.", "(+1)* Multiplication, e.g.", "(2)Polynomial functionsThe last function is equal to , the inverse cosine, in the entire complex plane.All monomials, polynomials, rational functions and algebraic functions are elementary.", "The absolute value function, for real , is also elementary as it can be expressed as the composition of a power and root of : .=== Non-elementary functions ===Some examples of functions that are ''not'' elementary: tetration* the gamma function* non-elementary Liouvillian functions, including the exponential (''Ei''), logarithmic integral (''Li'' or ''li'') and Fresnel (''S'' and ''C'') integrals.", " the error function, a fact that may not be immediately obvious, but can be proven using the Risch algorithm.", "* other Nonelementary integrals, including the Dirichlet integral and elliptic integral." ], [ "Closure", "It follows directly from the definition that the set of elementary functions is closed under arithmetic operations, root extraction and composition.", "The elementary functions are closed under differentiation.", "They are not closed under limits and infinite sums.", "Importantly, the elementary functions are closed under integration, as shown by Liouville's theorem, see Nonelementary integral.", "The Liouvillian functions are defined as the elementary functions and, recursively, the integrals of the Liouvillian functions." ], [ "Differential algebra", "The mathematical definition of an '''elementary function''', or a function in elementary form, is considered in the context of differential algebra.", "A differential algebra is an algebra with the extra operation of derivation (algebraic version of differentiation).", "Using the derivation operation new equations can be written and their solutions used in extensions of the algebra.", "By starting with the field of rational functions, two special types of transcendental extensions (the logarithm and the exponential) can be added to the field building a tower containing elementary functions.A '''differential field''' ''F'' is a field ''F''0 (rational functions over the rationals '''Q''' for example) together with a derivation map ''u'' → ∂''u''.", "(Here ∂''u'' is a new function.", "Sometimes the notation ''u''′ is used.)", "The derivation captures the properties of differentiation, so that for any two elements of the base field, the derivation is linear: and satisfies the Leibniz product rule: An element ''h'' is a constant if ''∂h = 0''.", "If the base field is over the rationals, care must be taken when extending the field to add the needed transcendental constants.A function ''u'' of a differential extension ''F''''u'' of a differential field ''F'' is an '''elementary function''' over ''F'' if the function ''u''* is algebraic over ''F'', or* is an '''exponential''', that is, ∂''u'' = ''u'' ∂''a'' for ''a'' ∈ ''F'', or* is a '''logarithm''', that is, ∂''u'' = ∂''a'' / a for ''a'' ∈ ''F''.", "(see also Liouville's theorem)" ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "***" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "* ''Elementary functions'' at Encyclopaedia of Mathematics*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Enchiridion of Epictetus" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''''Enchiridion''''' or '''''Handbook of Epictetus''''' (, ''Enkheirídion Epiktḗtou'') is a short manual of Stoic ethical advice compiled by Arrian, a 2nd-century disciple of the Greek philosopher Epictetus.", "Although the content is mostly derived from the ''Discourses of Epictetus'', it is not a summary of the ''Discourses'' but rather a compilation of practical precepts.", "Eschewing metaphysics, Arrian focuses his attention on Epictetus's work applying philosophy to daily life.", "Thus, the book is a manual to show the way to achieve mental freedom and happiness in all circumstances.The ''Enchiridion'' was well-known in the ancient world, and in the medieval period, it was specially adapted for use in Greek-speaking monasteries.", "In the 15th century it was translated into Latin, and then, with the advent of printing, into multiple European languages.", "It reached the height of popularity in the 17th century, in parallel with the Neostoicism movement." ], [ "Title", "The word \"Enchiridion\" () is an adjective meaning \"in the hand\" or \"ready to hand\".", "The word sometimes meant a handy sword, or dagger, but coupled with the word \"book\" (''biblion'', ) it means a handy book or hand-book.", "Epictetus in the ''Discourses'' often speaks of principles which his pupils should have \"ready to hand\" ().", "Common English translations of the title are '''Manual''' or '''Handbook'''." ], [ "Writing", "The work consists of fifty-three short chapters typically consisting of a paragraph or two.", "It was compiled some time in the early 2nd century.", "The 6th-century philosopher Simplicius, in his ''Commentary'' on the work, refers to a letter written by Arrian which prefaced the text.", "In this letter Arrian stated that the ''Enchiridion'' was selected from the ''Discourses of Epictetus'' according to what he considered to be most useful, most necessary, and most adapted to move people's minds.", "Around half of the material in the ''Enchiridion'' has been shown to have been derived from the surviving four books of ''Discourses'' but variously modified.", "Other parts are presumed to be derived from the lost ''Discourses''.", "Some chapters appear to be reformulations of ideas which appear throughout the ''Discourses''.There are some puzzles concerning the inclusion of two chapters.", "Chapter 29 is practically word for word identical with ''Discourse'' iii.", "15.Since it was omitted in one of the early Christian editions (''Par''), and not commented on by Simplicius, it may not have been in the original edition.", "Chapter 33 consists of a list of moral instructions, which are \"not obviously related to Epictetus' normal Stoic framework.", "\"The current division of the work into fifty-three chapters was first adopted by Johann Schweighäuser in his 1798 edition; earlier editions tended to divide the text into more chapters (especially splitting chapter 33).", "Gerard Boter in his 1999 critical edition keeps Schweighäuser's fifty-three chapters but splits chapters 5, 14, 19, and 48 into two parts." ], [ "Contents", "The ''Enchiridion'' appears to be a loosely-structured selection of maxims.", "In his 6th-century ''Commentary'', Simplicius divided the text into four distinct sections suggesting a graded approach to philosophy:# Chapters 1–21.What is up to us and not, and how to deal with external things.## Chs 1–2.What is up to us and not, and the consequences of choosing either.## Chs 3–14.How to deal with external things (reining the reader in from them).## Chs 15–21.How to use external things correctly and without disturbance.# Chapters 22–28.Advice for intermediate students.## Chs 22–25.The problems faced by intermediate students.## Chs 26–28.Miscellania: the common conceptions, badness, and shame.# Chapters 30–47.Technical advice for the discovery of appropriate actions (''kathēkonta'').## Chs 30–33.Appropriate actions towards (a) other people, (b) God, (c) divination, (d) one's own self.## Chs 34–47.Miscellaneous precepts on justice (right actions).# Chapters 48–53.Conclusions on the practice of precepts.## Ch 48.Final advice and his division of types of people.## Chs 49–52.The practice of precepts.## Ch 53.Quotations for memorisation.Chapter 29, which was probably absent from the text used by Simplicius, is a one-page ''Discourse'' which compares the training needed to become a Stoic with the rigorous approach needed to become an Olympic victor." ], [ "Themes", "The ''Enchiridion'' begins with the statement that \"Of things, some depend upon ourselves, others do not depend upon ourselves.\"", "So it starts with announcing that the business and concern of the real self is with matters subject to its own control, uninfluenced by external chance or change.", "Epictetus makes a sharp distinction between our own internal world of mental benefits and harms, and the external world beyond our control.", "Freedom is to wish for nothing which is not up to ourselves.", "When we are tried by misfortune we should never let our suffering overwhelm our sense of inward mastery and freedom.A constant vigilance is required, and one should never relax attention to one's reason, for it is judgements, not things, which disturb people.Reason is the decisive principle in everything.", "Thus we must exercise our power of assent over impressions, and wish for nothing nor avoid anything that is up to other people.To a large extent the ''Enchiridion'' suppresses many of the more amiable aspects of Epictetus which can be found in the ''Discourses'', but this reflects the nature of the compilation.", "Unlike the ''Discourses'' which seeks to encourage the student through argument and logic, the ''Enchiridion'' largely consists of a set of rules to follow.", "The work is built on the conception that the wise person, by the aid of philosophy, may reap benefit from every experience in life.", "With proper training the student can flourish in adverse situations as well as favourable ones.", "The human spirit has capacities as yet undeveloped, but which it is for our good to develop.", "Thus the book is a manual on how to make progress towards what is necessary and sufficient for happiness.Epictetus makes a vivid use of imagery, and analogies include life depicted as: a ship's voyage (Ch.", "7), an inn (Ch.", "11), a banquet (Chs.", "15, 36), and acting in a play (Ch.", "17, 37).", "He takes many examples from everyday life, including: a broken jug (Ch.", "3), a trip to the baths (Chs.", "4, 43), his own lameness (Ch.", "9), the loss of a child (Ch.", "11), and the price of lettuce (Ch.", "25)." ], [ "Subsequent history", "Latin translation by Angelo Poliziano (Basel 1554)For many centuries, the ''Enchiridion'' maintained its authority both with Pagans and Christians.", "Simplicius of Cilicia wrote a commentary upon it in the 6th century, and in the Byzantine era Christian writers wrote paraphrases of it.", "Over one hundred manuscripts of the ''Enchiridion'' survive.", "The oldest extant manuscripts of the authentic ''Enchiridion'' date from the 14th century, but the oldest Christianised ones date from the 10th and 11th centuries, perhaps indicating the Byzantine world's preference for the Christian versions.", "The ''Enchiridion'' was first translated into Latin by Niccolò Perotti in 1450, and then by Angelo Poliziano in 1479.The first printed edition (''editio princeps'') was Poliziano's Latin translation published in 1497.The original Greek was first published (somewhat abbreviated) with Simplicius's ''Commentary'' in 1528.The edition published by Johann Schweighäuser in 1798 was the major edition for the next two-hundred years.", "A critical edition was produced by Gerard Boter in 1999.The separate editions and translations of the ''Enchiridion'' are very many.", "The ''Enchiridion'' reached its height of popularity in the period 1550–1750.It was translated into most European languages, and there were multiple translations in English, French, and German.", "The first English translation was by James Sandford in 1567 (a translation of a French version) and this was followed by a translation (from the Greek) by John Healey in 1610.The ''Enchiridion'' was even partly translated into Chinese by the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci.", "The popularity of the work was assisted by the Neostoicism movement initiated by Justus Lipsius in the 16th century.", "Another Neostoic, Guillaume du Vair, translated the book into French in 1586 and popularised it in his ''La Philosophie morale des Stoiques''.In the English-speaking world it was particularly well-known in the 17th century: at that time it was the ''Enchiridion'' rather than the ''Discourses'' which was usually read.", "It was among the books John Harvard bequeathed to the newly-founded Harvard College in 1638.The work, being written in a clear distinct style, made it accessible to readers with no formal training in philosophy, and there was a wide readership among women in England.", "The writer Mary Wortley Montagu made her own translation of the ''Enchiridion'' in 1710 at the age of twenty-one.", "The ''Enchiridion'' was a common school text in Scotland during the Scottish Enlightenment—Adam Smith had a 1670 edition in his library, acquired as a schoolboy.", "At the end of the 18th century the ''Enchiridion'' is attested in the personal libraries of Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson.In the 19th century, Walt Whitman discovered the ''Enchiridion'' when he was about the age of sixteen.", "It was a book he would repeatedly return to, and late in life he called the book \"sacred, precious to me: I have had it about me so long—lived with it in terms of such familiarity.", "\"The Enchiridion gave its name to a fictional book from the cartoon Adventure Time." ], [ "The ''Commentary'' of Simplicius", "In the 6th century the Neoplatonist philosopher Simplicius wrote a huge commentary on the ''Enchiridion'', which is more than ten times the bulk of the original text.", "Chapter after chapter of the ''Enchiridion'' is dissected, discussed, and its lessons drawn out with a certain laboriousness.", "Simplicius' commentary offers a distinctly Platonist vision of the world, one which is often at odds with the Stoic content of the ''Enchiridion''.", "Sometimes Simplicius exceeds the scope of a commentary; thus his commentary on ''Enchiridion'' 27 (Simplicius ch.", "35) becomes a refutation of Manichaeism.The ''Commentary'' enjoyed its own period of popularity in the 17th and 18th centuries.", "An English translation by George Stanhope in 1694 ran through four editions in the early 18th century.", "Edward Gibbon remarked in his ''Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' that Simplicius' ''Commentary'' on Epictetus \"is preserved in the library of nations, as a classic book\" unlike the commentaries on Aristotle \"which have passed away with the fashion of the times.\"" ], [ "Christian adaptations", "The ''Enchiridion'' was adapted three different times by Greek Christian writers.", "The oldest manuscript, ''Paraphrasis Christiana'' (''Par''), dates to the 10th century.", "Another manuscript, falsely ascribed to Nilus (''Nil''), dates to the 11th century.", "A third manuscript, Vaticanus gr.", "2231 (''Vat''), dates to the 14th century.", "It is not known when the original versions of these manuscripts were first made.These guides served as a rule and guide for monastic life.", "The most obvious changes are in the use of proper names: thus the name Socrates is sometimes changed to Paul.", "All three texts follow the ''Enchiridion'' quite closely, although the ''Par'' manuscript is more heavily modified: adding or omitting words, abridging or expanding passages, and occasionally inventing new passages.In the 17th century the German monk Matthias Mittner did something similar, compiling a guide on mental tranquillity for the Carthusian Order by taking the first thirty-five of his fifty precepts from the ''Enchiridion''." ], [ "Notes", "'''a.'''", "Gerard Boter in his 1999 critical edition catalogues 59 extant manuscripts of the ''Encheiridion'' proper, and another 27 manuscripts of Simplicius' ''Commentary'' which contain the ''Encheiridion'' as ''lemmata'' (headings).", "He also lists 37 Christianised manuscripts, (24 ''Par'', 12 ''Nil'', 1 ''Vat'').", "Cf." ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Text of the Enchiridion of Epictetus by Elizabeth Carter 1758* * Text of translation by George Long, 1877, ''The Enchiridion''* Text of translation by P. E. Matheson, 1916, ''The Discourses of Epictetus, The Manual Of Epictetus''* Text of translation by William Abbott Oldfather, 1928, ''The Enchiridion''* * Simplicius of Cilicia, ''Commentary on the Enchiridion of Epictetus'', translated by George Stanhope, 1722." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Kinmei" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 29th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "His reign is said to have spanned the years from 539 to 571.Some historians regard Kinmei as the first historically verifiable Japanese emperor." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Kinmei's contemporary title would not have been ''tennō'', as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.", "Rather, it was presumably , meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\".", "Alternatively, Kinmei might have been referred to as or the \"Great King of Yamato\".===Events of Kinmei's life===Because of several chronological discrepancies in the account of Emperor Kinmei in the ''Nihon Shoki'', some believe that he was actually ruling a rival court to that of Emperors Ankan and Senka.", "Nevertheless, according to the traditional account, it was not until the death of Emperor Kinmei's older brother Emperor Senka that he gained the throne.According to this account, Emperor Senka died in 539 at the age of 73; and succession passed to the third son of Emperor Keitai.", "This Imperial Prince was the next youngest brother of Emperor Senka.", "He would come to be known as Emperor Kinmei.", "He established his court at in Yamato.The Emperor's chief counselors were:* ''Ōomi'' (Great Imperial chieftain): Soga no Iname no Sukune, also known as Soga no Iname.", "* ''Ōmuraji'' (Great Deity chieftain): Monotobe Okoshi no Muraji, also known as Mononobe no Okoshi.", "* ''Ōmuraji'' (Great Deity chieftain): Ōtomo Kanamura Maro, also known as Otomo no Kanamura.Although the imperial court was not moved to the Asuka region of Japan until 592, Emperor Kinmei's rule is considered by some to be the beginning of the Asuka period of Yamato Japan, particularly by those who associate the Asuka period primarily with the introduction of Buddhism to Japan from Baekje.According to the ''Nihon Shoki'', Emperor Kinmei received a bronze statue of Gautama Buddha as a gift from the king of Baekje King Song Myong (聖明王, ''Seimei Ō'') along with a significant envoy of artisans, monks, and other artifacts in 552.", "(However, according to the Jōgū Shōtoku Hōō Teisetsu, Buddhism was introduced in 538.)", "This episode is widely regarded as the official introduction of Buddhism to the country.With the introduction of a new religion to the court, a deep rift developed between the Mononobe clan, whose members supported the worship of Japan's traditional deities, and the Soga clan, whose members supported the adoption of Buddhism.According to the ''Nihon Shoki'', Emperor Kinmei ruled until his death in 571 and was buried in the .", "An alternate stronger theory holds that he was actually buried in the , located in .The Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Nara.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates the Nara location as Kinmei's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Hinokuma no saki Ai no misasagi''.", "However, the actual sites of the graves of the early Emperors are unclear, according to some historians and archaeologists." ], [ "Genealogy", "Emperor Kinmei's father was Emperor Keitai and his mother was Emperor Ninken's daughter, .", "In his lifetime, he was known by the name .Kinmei had six Consorts and 25 Imperial children (16 sons and 9 daughters).", "According to Nihongi, he had six wives, but the ''Kojiki'' gives only five wives; identifying the third consort to be the same as the sixth one.", "The first three were his nieces, daughters of his half-brother Emperor Senka; two others were sisters, daughters of the Omi Soga no Iname.", "Empress: Ishi-hime (石姫皇女), Emperor Senka's daughterFirst son: Second son: , later Emperor BidatsuConsort: , Emperor Senka's daughterConsort: , Emperor Senka's daughter, in the ''Kojiki'' as Consort: , Soga no Iname's daughterFourth Son: , later Prince Shōtoken, adoptive father of Prince Shōtoku, Saiō; had to resign her charge after being convicted of intrigue with her half-brother Imperial Prince Mubaragi, also , later Empress Dowager Kitano-Hime, married to Emperor Bidatsu, also **, also , married to her nephew, Prince Oshisako no Hikohito no Oe, Emperor Bidatsu's sonSixth Son: , also , also **, also , married to her nephew, Prince Maroko, Emperor Yōmei's sonEmperor Yōmei (用明天皇)Consort: , Soga no Iname's daughter, also *Third daughter: , married to her half brother, Emperor Yōmei, later married to her nephew and stepson, Prince Tame (Emperor Yōmei's son), later Kimiyori no Kimitsuhi, speculated as Emperor Senka's sonConsort: , Kasuga no Hifuri no Omi's daughter**, also" ], [ "See also", " The civil war of the Keitai and Kinmei dynasties* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D.", "697.''", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Bidatsu" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 30th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.The years of reign of Bidatsu start in 572 and end in 585; however, there are no certain dates for this emperor's life or reign.", "The names and sequence of the early emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" until the reign of Emperor Kanmu, who was the 50th monarch of the Yamato dynasty." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Historians consider details about the life of Emperor Bidatsu to be possibly legendary, but probable.", "The name Bidatsu''-tennō'' was created for him posthumously by later generations.In the ''Nihon Shoki'', he is called .His palace in Yamato Province was called Osada no Miya of Iware." ], [ "Events of Bidatsu's life", "In the 15th year of Kimmei's reign, Bidatsu was named Crown Prince.In the , the old Emperor died, and the succession was received by his second son.", "Soon after, Emperor Bidatsu is said to have acceded to the throne.Bidatsu's contemporary title would not have been ''tennō'', as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.", "Rather, it was presumably , meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\".", "Alternatively, Bidatsu might have been referred to as or the \"Great King of Yamato\".Bidatsu's reign was marked by power struggles about Buddhism.", "The two most important men in the court of Bidatsu were Soga no Umako and Mononobe no Moriya.", "Soga supported the growth of Buddhism, and Moriya wanted to stop it.Bidatsu sought to re-establish relations with Korean Kingdoms and, according to ''Nihon Shoki'', his court successfully established relations with Baekje and Silla, two of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.The Emperor died from a disease which afflicted him with sores, apparently the first royal victim of smallpox in Japan.The actual site of Bidatsu's grave is known.", "The Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Osaka.The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Bidatsu's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Kawachi no Shinaga no naka no o no misasagi''." ], [ "Genealogy", "He was the second son of Emperor Kinmei.", "His mother, Ishi-hime, was a daughter of Emperor Senka.Although he had many children, none of them would ever become Emperor.", "According to ''Gukanshō'', Bidatsu had four empresses and 16 Imperial children (6 sons and 10 daughters).Bidatsu's first empress, Hirohime, died in the fifth year of his reign.", "To replace her, he elevated one of his consorts, Princess Nukatabe, to the rank of empress.", "Nukatabe was his half-sister by their father Kinmei.", "Later she ascended to the throne in her own right and is today known as Empress Suiko.He was succeeded first by one of his brothers, Emperor Yōmei, then by another, Emperor Sushun, and then Empress Suiko, his sister and wife, before his grandson, Emperor Jomei, eventually took the throne.", "Empress: , Prince Okinaga-no-Mate's daughterFirst Son: **, SaiōEmpress: , later Empress Suiko, Emperor Kinmei's daughter, married to Prince Shōtoku, married to Prince Oshisako-no-Hikohito-no-Ōe**, father of Tachibana-no-Oiratsume (Prince Shōtoku's consort), married to Emperor Jomei*, married to Prince Oshisako-no-Hikohito-no-Ōe, later married to Prince Kume (Emperor Yomei's son)Consort: , Kasuga no Nakakimi no Omi's daughter*******Third Son: Concubine: , Ohoka no Obito no Okuma's daughter, also , married to Prince Oshisako no Hikohito no Ōe" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Hopkins, Donald R. (2002).", "''The Greatest Killer''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press.", "; ; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Annales des empereurs du Japon'' (''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran'').", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Yōmei" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 31st Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.Yōmei's reign spanned the years from 585 until his death in 587." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "He was called in the ''Kojiki''.", "He was also referred to as and after the palace in which he lived.", "He acceded to the throne after the death of his half brother, Emperor Bidatsu.The influential courtiers from Emperor Bidatsu's reign, Mononobe no Moriya, also known as Mononobe Yuge no Moriya no Muraji or as Ō-muraji Yuge no Moriya, and Soga no Umako no Sukune, both remained in their positions during the reign of Emperor Yōmei.", "Umako was the son of Soga Iname no Sukune, and therefore, he would have been one of Emperor Yōmei's cousins.", "* '''585''': In the , he died; and the succession was received by his younger brother.", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Yōmei is said to have acceded to the throne.Yōmei's contemporary title would not have been ''tennō'', as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.", "Rather, it was presumably , meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\".", "Alternatively, Yōmei might have been referred to as or the \"Great King of Yamato\".Emperor Yōmei's reign lasted only two years; and he died at the age of 46 or 47.", "* '''587''', in the 4th month: Yōmei died and his body was placed in a coffin, but not buried.", "* '''587''', in the 5th month: Armed conflict over the succession erupted.", "Shintoist, anti-Buddhist forces of Yuge no Moriya no Muraji (also known as Ō-muraji Yuge no Moriya) battled unsuccessfully against the pro-Buddhist forces of Prince Shōtoku and Soga Umako no Sukune.", "The opposition to Buddhism was entirely destroyed.", "* '''587''', in the 7th month: The body of former Emperor Yōmei was buried.Because of the brevity of his reign, Emperor Yōmei was not responsible for any radical changes in policy, but his support of Buddhism created tension with supporters of Shinto who opposed its introduction.", "According to Nihon Shoki, Emperor Yomei believed both in Buddhism and Shinto.", "Moriya, the most influential supporter of Shinto, conspired with Emperor Yōmei's brother, Prince Anahobe, and after Emperor Yomei's death they made an abortive attempt to seize the throne.", "Although Emperor Yōmei is reported to have died from illness, this incident and the brevity of his reign have led some to speculate that he was actually assassinated by Moriya and Prince Anahobe.Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Emperor Yōmei.The actual site of Yōmei's grave is known.", "The Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Osaka.The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Yōmei's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Kōchi no Shinaga no hara no misasagi''." ], [ "Genealogy", "Emperor Yōmei was the fourth son of Emperor Kinmei and his mother was Empress Hirohime, a daughter of Soga no Iname.In 586, Emperor Yōmei took his half-sister , whose mother was another of Iname's daughters, Soga no Oane Hime, as his consort.", "Princess Hashihito no Anahobe bore him four sons.Empress (''Kōgō''): , Emperor Kinmei's daughterSecond Son: , later Prince Shōtoku, regent to Empress SuikoFourth Son: Fifth Son: Sixth Son: Concubine (''Hin''): , Soga no Iname's daughterFirst Son: Consort (''Hi''): , Katsuragi no Atahe's daughterThird Son: Yomei had three Empresses and seven Imperial sons and daughters." ], [ "See also", " Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult* Japanese empire" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Sushun" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 32nd Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.Sushun's reign spanned the years from 587 through 592." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his ''imina'') was Hatsusebe''-shinnō'', also known as Hatsusebe no Waka-sazaki.His name at birth was .", "He was the twelfth son of Emperor Kinmei.", "His mother was , a daughter of Soga no Iname, who was the chief, or Ōomi, of the Soga clan.He succeeded his half-brother, Emperor Yōmei in 587, and lived in the Kurahashi Palace (Kurahashi no Miya) in Yamato.", "* '''587''': In the , the Emperor died, and despite a dispute over who should follow him as sovereign, the succession was received by another son of Emperor Kinmei, one of Yōmei's younger brothers.", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Sushun is said to have acceded to the throne.Sushun's contemporary title would not have been ''tennō'', as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.", "Rather, it was presumably , meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\".", "Alternatively, Sushun might have been referred to as or the \"Great King of Yamato\".He came to the throne with the support of the Soga clan and Empress Suiko, his half sister and the widow of Emperor Bidatsu.", "Initially, the Mononobe clan, a rival clan of the Sogas, allied with , another son of Kimmei, and attempted to have him installed as Emperor.", "At the Battle of Shigisan, Soga no Umako, who succeeded his father as Ōomi of the Soga clan, eventually killed Mononobe no Moriya, the head of the Mononobe clan, which led to its decline.", "Umako then installed Emperor Sushun on the throne.As time went on, Sushun eventually became resentful of Umako's power, and wanted him deposed.", "It is said that one day, he killed a wild boar and stated, \"As I have slain this boar, so would I slay the one I despise\".", "This angered Soga no Umako and, perhaps out of fear of being struck first, Umako hired to assassinate Sushun in 592.Emperor Sushun's reign lasted for five years before his death at the age of 72.The actual site of Sushun's grave is known.", "The Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Nara.The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Yōmei's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Kurahashi no oka no e no misasagi''." ], [ "Genealogy", "Sushun had two consorts and three Imperial children.", "Consort (''Hi'') : , Otomo-no-Nukateko's daughterThird Son: *Beauty (''Hin'') : , Soga no Umako's daughterMother Unknown*, older brother of Prince Hachiko, Nakahara clan's ancestorConcubine: , Mononobe no Moriya's younger sister" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Jochi Daigaku.", "(1989).", "''Monumenta Nipponica'', Vol.", "44.Tokyo: Sophia University Press.", "* Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Empress Suiko" ], [ "Introduction", " (554 – 15 April 628) was the 33rd monarch of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.Suiko reigned from 593 until her death in 628.In the history of Japan, Suiko was the first of eight women to take on the role of empress regnant.", "The seven female sovereigns reigning after Suiko were Kōgyoku/Saimei, Jitō, Genmei, Genshō, Kōken/Shōtoku, Meishō and Go-Sakuramachi." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Before her ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, her personal name (her ''imina'') was Mikekashiya-hime-no-mikoto, also Toyomike Kashikiya hime no Mikoto.Empress Suiko had several names including Princess Nukatabe and (possibly posthumously) Toyomike Kashikiya.", "She was a daughter of Emperor Kinmei.", "Her mother was Soga no Iname's daughter, Soga no Kitashihime.", "Suiko was the younger sister of Emperor Yōmei.===Life===A painting of Empress Suiko in the Asuka periodEmpress Suiko was a consort to her half-brother, Emperor Bidatsu, but after Bidatsu's first wife died she became his official consort and was given the title Ōkisaki (official consort of the emperor).", "She bore eight children.After Bidatsu's death, Suiko's brother, Emperor Yōmei, came to power for about two years before dying of illness.", "Upon Yōmei's death, another power struggle arose between the Soga clan and the Mononobe clan, with the Sogas supporting Prince Hatsusebe and the Mononobes supporting Prince Anahobe.", "The Sogas prevailed once again and Prince Hatsusebe acceded to the throne as Emperor Sushun in 587.However, Sushun began to resent the power of Soga no Umako, the head of the Soga clan, and Umako, perhaps out of fear that Sushun might strike first, had him assassinated by in 592.When asked to accede to the throne to fill the power vacuum that subsequently developed, Suiko became the first of what would be several examples in Japanese history where a woman was chosen to accede to the throne to avert a power struggle.", "* '''593 ''': In the 2nd year of Sushun''-tennō''s reign (崇峻天皇二年), he died; and contemporary scholars then construed that the succession (''senso'') was received by the consort of former Emperor Bidatsu.", "Shortly thereafter, Empress Suiko is said to have ascended to the throne (''sokui'').Suiko's contemporary title would not have been ''tennō'', as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.", "Rather, it was presumably ''Sumeramikoto'' or ''Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi'' (治天下大王), meaning \"the great Queen who rules all under heaven\".", "Alternatively, Suiko might have been referred to as (ヤマト大王/大君) or the \"Great Queen of Yamato\".Prince Shōtoku was appointed regent the following year.", "Although political power during Suiko's reign is widely viewed as having been wielded by Prince Shōtoku and Soga no Umako, Suiko was far from powerless.", "The mere fact that she survived and her reign endured suggests she had significant political skills.In 599, an earthquake destroyed buildings throughout Yamato Province in what is now Nara Prefecture.Suiko's refusal to grant Soga no Umako's request that he be granted the imperial territory known as Kazuraki no Agata in 624 is cited as evidence of her independence from his influence.", "Some of the many achievements under Empress Suiko's reign include the official recognition of Buddhism by the issuance of the Flourishing Three Treasures Edict in 594.Suiko was also one of the first Buddhist monarchs in Japan, and had taken the vows of a nun shortly before becoming empress.The reign of this empress was marked by the opening of relations with the Sui court in 600, the adoption of the Twelve Level Cap and Rank System in 603 and the adoption of the Seventeen-article constitution in 604.The adoption of the Sexagenary cycle calendar (''Jikkan Jūnishi'') in Japan is attributed to Empress Suiko in 604.At a time when imperial succession was generally determined by clan leaders rather than the emperor, Suiko left only vague indications of succession to two candidates while on her deathbed.", "One, Prince Tamura, was a grandson of Emperor Bidatsu and was supported by the main line of Sogas, including Soga no Emishi.", "The other, Prince Yamashiro, was a son of Prince Shōtoku and had the support of some lesser members of the Soga clan.", "After a brief struggle within the Soga clan in which one of Prince Yamashiro's main supporters was killed, Prince Tamura was chosen and he acceded to the throne as Emperor Jomei in 629.Empress Suiko ruled for 35 years.", "Although there were seven other reigning empresses, their successors were most often selected from amongst the males of the paternal Imperial bloodline, which is why some conservative scholars argue that the women's reigns were temporary and that male-only succession tradition must be maintained in the 21st century.", "Empress Genmei, who was followed on the throne by her daughter, Empress Genshō, remains the sole exception to this conventional argument.Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Empress SuikoThe actual site of Suiko's grave is known.", "This empress is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Osaka.The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Suiko's mausoleum.", "It's formally named ''Shinaga no Yamada no misasagi''." ], [ "Beginning of historical writing in Japan", "Sinologist Wm.", "Theodore de Bary believed that it was not until the reign of Suiko that \"consciously written Japanese history becomes a reality\".", "He noted the name Suiko can be translated to \"conjecture of the past\", suggesting that this posthumous title was \"bestowed on the empress because the writing of history was considered to be an outstanding achievement of her reign\".", "He commented that \"little of the material from the ancient Japanese past can be taken seriously\" and the earliest extant Japanese annals were the ''Kojiki'' and the ''Nihon Shoki'', which both date to the 8th century." ], [ "Spouse and children", "Empress Suiko, born as Princess Nukatabe (額田部皇女), was the daughter of Emperor Kinmei and his consort (Hi), Soga no Kitashihime.", "Princess Nukatabe had five full sisters and seven full brothers among which the eldest would become Emperor Yōmei.She married her eldest half-brother, Prince Nunakura Futotama-Shiki, born by her father's legal wife and empress consort.", "The couple had eight children but none would ascend the throne* Husband: Prince Nunakakura no Futo Tamashiki no Sumeramikoto (渟中倉太珠敷) later Emperor Bidatsu, Emperor Kinmei's First Daughter: Princess Uji no Shitsukahi/Uji no Kahitako (菟道貝蛸皇女, b.570), married to Crown Prince Shōtoku First Son: Prince Takeda (竹田皇子) Second Daughter: Princess Woharida (小墾田皇, b.572), married to Prince Oshisako-no-Hikohito-no-Oe Third Daughter: Princess Umori/Karu no Mori (鸕鶿守皇女) Second Son: Prince Wohari (葛城王) Third Son: Prince Owari (尾張皇子), Father of Tachibana-no-Oiratsume (Crown Prince Shōtoku's consort) Fourth Daughter: Princess Tame (田眼皇女), married to Emperor Jomei Fifth Daughter: Princess Sakurawi no Yumihari (桜井弓張皇女), married to Prince Oshisako-no-Hikohito-no-Oe, later married to Prince Kume (Emperor Yōmei's son)" ], [ "See also", "* Empress Jingū, semi-legendary, rule preceded Empress Suiko* Empress of Japan* Emperor of Japan** List of emperors of Japan* Imperial cult* Suiko period" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D.", "697.''", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Hammer, Joshua.", "(2006).", "''Yokohama Burning: The Deadly 1923 Earthquake and Fire that Helped Forge the Path to World War II.''", "New York: Simon & Schuster.", "* Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth.", "(2005).", "''Japan encyclopedia.''", "Cambridge: Harvard University Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Empress Kōgyoku" ], [ "Introduction", ", also known as , was the 35th and 37th monarch of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.Kōgyoku's reign spanned the years from 642 to 645.Her reign as Saimei encompassed 655 to 661.In other words, * 642: She ascended the throne as Kōgyoku''-tennō'', and she stepped down in response to the assassination of Soga no Iruka (see: Isshi incident).", "* 645: She abdicated in favor of her brother, who would become known as Emperor Kōtoku.", "* 654: Kōtoku died and the throne was vacant.", "* 655: She re-ascended, beginning a new reign as Saimei''-tennō''.", "* 661: Saimei ruled until her death caused the throne to be vacant again.The two reigns of this one woman spanned the years from 642 through 661.In the history of Japan, Kōgyoku/Saimei was the second of eight women to take on the role of empress regnant.", "The sole female monarch before Kōgyoku/Saimei was Suiko''-tennō''.", "The six female sovereigns reigning after Kōgyoku/Saimei were Jitō, Genmei, Genshō, Kōken/Shōtoku, Meishō, and Go-Sakuramachi." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Before her ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, her personal name (''imina'') was .", "As empress, her name would have been .Princess Takara (''Takara no miko'') was a great-granddaughter of Emperor Bidatsu.===Events in Kōgyoku's reign===During her first reign the Soga clan seized power.", "Her son Naka no Ōe planned a coup d'état and slew Soga no Iruka at the court in front of her throne.", "The Empress, shocked by this incident, abdicated the throne.Kōgyoku's contemporary title would not have been ''tennō'', as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.", "Rather, it was presumably ''Sumeramikoto'' or ''Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi'' (治天下大王), meaning \"the Great Queen who rules all under Heaven\".", "Alternatively, Kōgyoku might have been referred to as (ヤマト大王/大君) or the \"Great Queen of Yamato\".Empress Kōgyoku reigned for four years.", "The years of Kōgyoku's reign are not linked by scholars to any era or ''nengō''.", "The Taika era innovation of naming time periods – ''nengō'' – was yet to be initiated during her son's too-brief reign.In this context, Brown and Ishida's translation of ''Gukanshō'' offers an explanation about the years of Empress Jitō's reign which muddies a sense of easy clarity in the pre-Taiho time-frame: :\"The eras that fell in this reign were: (1) the remaining seven years of Shuchō (686+7=692?", "); and (2) Taika, which was four years long 695–698.", "(The first year of this era was ''kinoto-hitsuji'' 695.) ...", "In the third year of the Taka era 697, Empress Jitō yielded the throne to the Crown Prince.", "\"The years of Kōgyoku's reign are not more specifically identified by more than one era name or ''nengō'' which was an innovation of Kōtoku's brief reign.===Events in Saimei's reign===Kengoshizuka Kofun the burial site of Empress Kōgyoku.When Kōtoku died, his designated heir was Naka no Ōe.", "When Naka no Ōe's mother re-ascended, he continued in the role of her heir and crown prince.", "In this role, he could and did remain active in the political life of Japan.In the fifth year of Saimei's reign, Paekche in Korea was destroyed in 660.Japan assisted Paekche loyals in an attempt to aid the revival of Paekche dynasty.", "Early in 661, Saimei responded to the situation by leaving her capital in Yamato Province.", "Her plan was to lead a military expedition to Korea.", "The empress stayed in Ishiyu Temporary Palace in Iyo Province, today Dōgo Onsen.", "In May she arrived at Asakura Palace in the north part of Tsukushi province in Kyūshū, today a part of Fukuoka Prefecture.", "The allied army of Japan and Baekje was preparing for war against Silla, but the death of the empress thwarted those plans.", "In 661, Saimei died in the Asakura Palace before the army departed to Korea.", "In October her body was brought from Kyūshū by sea to Port Naniwa-zu (today Osaka city); and her state funeral was held in early November.Empress Saimei ruled for seven years.", "The years of Saimei's reign are not linked by scholars to any era or ''nengō''.", "The Taika era innovation of naming time periods – ''nengō'' – languished until Mommu reasserted an imperial right by proclaiming the commencement of Taihō in 701.The actual site of Kōgyoku/Saimei's grave is known, having been identified as the Kengoshizuka tomb in the village of Asuka, Nara Prefecture.", "This empress is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Nara.The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kōgyoku/Seimei's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Ochi-no-Okanoe no misasagi''.===''Kugyō''===''Kugyō'' (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time.", "These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.", "During Kōgyoku's reign, this apex of the ''Daijō-kan'' included:* ''Sadaijin''* ''Udaijin''The ''kugyō'' during Saimei's reign included:* ''Sadaijin'', Kose no Tokoda(巨勢徳太) (593–658), 649–658 * ''Udaijin'' (not appointed)* ''Naidaijin'' (内臣), Nakatomi no Kamako(中臣鎌子) (Fujiwara no Kamatari, 藤原鎌足) (614–669), 645–669" ], [ "Spouses and children", "Empress Saimei, born Princess Takara, was the daughter of Prince Chinu, a grandson of Emperor Bidatsu, and his princess consort.Firstly, she married Prince Takamuku and had a son.", "Secondly, the princess married Prince Toneri who also was Emperor Bidatsu's grandson.The marriage produce one daughter and two sons who both ascended the throne in the future.", "* First Husband: Prince Takamuku (高向王), Prince Tame's son (also Emperor Yomei’s grandson)** First Son: Prince Kara (漢皇子)* Second Husband: Prince Tamura (田村皇子), later Emperor Jomei, Prince Oshisaka-no-hikohito-no-Ōe's son (also Emperor Bidatsu's grandson) Second Son: Prince Naka no Ōe (中大兄皇子) later Emperor Tenji) First Daughter: Princess Hashihito (間人皇女, d. 665), married Emperor Kōtoku** Third Son: Prince Ōama (大海人皇子) later Emperor Tenmu" ], [ "Popular culture", "* Portrayed by Kim Min-kyung in the 2012-2013 KBS1 TV series ''Dream of the Emperor''." ], [ "See also", "* Empress of Japan* Emperor of Japan** List of emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Kōtoku" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 36th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.The years of his reign lasted from 645 through 654 (AD)." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Before Kōtoku's ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (''imina'') was or .He was a descendant of Emperor Bidatsu.", "He was a son of Chinu no ōkimi (Prince Chinu, 茅渟王) by Kibitsuhime no ōkimi (Princess Kibitsuhime, 吉備姫王).", "Empress Kōgyoku was his elder sister from the same parents.", "Chinu was a son of Prince Oshisaka hikohito no ōe, whose father was the Emperor Bidatsu.", "He had at least three consorts including his Empress, Hashihito no Himemiko (Princess Hashihito), the daughter of Emperor Jomei and his sister Empress Kōgyoku.", "In the 3rd year of Kōgyoku''-tennō''s reign (皇極天皇三年), the empress abdicated; and the succession (''senso'') was received by her younger brother.", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Kōtoku is said to have acceded to the throne (''sokui'').Kōtoku ruled from July 12, 645 (AD), until his death in 654.In 645 he ascended to the throne two days after Prince Naka no Ōe (Emperor Tenji) assassinated Soga no Iruka in the court of Kōgyoku.", "Kōgyoku abdicated in favor of her son and crown prince, Naka no Ōe, but Naka no Ōe insisted Kōtoku should ascend to the throne instead.", "Kōtoku's contemporary title would not have been ''tennō'', as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.", "Rather, it was presumably ''Sumeramikoto'' or ''Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi'' (治天下大王), meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\".", "Alternatively, Kōtoku might have been referred to as (ヤマト大王/大君) or the \"Great King of Yamato\".", "According to the ''Nihonshoki'', he was of gentle personality and was in favor of Buddhism.In 645 he created a new city in the area called Naniwa, and moved the capital from Yamato Province to this new city (see Nara).", "The new capital had a sea port and was good for foreign trade and diplomatic activities.", "In 653 Kōtoku sent an embassy to the court of the Tang dynasty in China, but some of the ships were lost ''en route''.Naka no Ōe held the rank of crown prince and was the de facto leader of the government.", "In 653 Naka no Ōe proposed to move the capital again to Yamato province.", "Kōtoku denied.", "Naka no Ōe ignored the emperor's policy and moved to the former province.", "Many courtiers of the court, including Empress Hashihito, followed him.", "Kōtoku was left in the palace.", "In the next year he died of an illness.", "After his death, Naka would not ascend to the throne.", "Instead, his mother and the sister of Kōtoku, the former Empress Kogyoku, ascended to the throne under another name, Empress Saimei.He enacted the Taika Reform edicts.", "The system of ''hasshō kyakkan'' (eight ministries and a hundred offices) was first established during the reign of Emperor Kōtoku.Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Emperor KōtokuThe actual site of Kōtoku's grave is known.", "This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Osaka.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kōtoku's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Ōsaka-no-shinaga no misasagi''.Traditionally the monk Hōdō, was born in India, and traveled to Japan via China and the Baekje kingdom in Korea.", "Hōdō cured an illness of the Emperor Kōtoku (596 – 654 AD), who then sent the monk to establish numerous Buddhist temples.", "According to legend Hōdō founded Tenjō-ji in 646 (AD).", "The monk is worshipped in the Gion faith.===''Kugyō''===''Kugyō'' (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time.", "These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.", "During Kōtoko's reign, this apex of the ''Daijō-kan'' included: * ''Sadaijin'', Abe no Kurahashi-maro (阿部倉梯麻呂) (d. 649), 645–649.", "* ''Sadaijin'', Kose no Tokoda (巨勢徳太) (593–658), 649–658.", "* ''Udaijin'', Soga no Kura-no-Yamada no Ishikawa-no-maro (蘇我倉山田石川麻呂) (d. 649), 645–649.", "* ''Udaijin'', Ōtomo no Nagatoko (大伴長徳) (d. 651), 649–651.", "* ''Naidaijin''(内臣), Nakatomi Kamako (中臣鎌子) (Fujiwara no Kamatari, 藤原鎌足) (614–669), 645–669." ], [ "Eras of Kōtoku's reign", "The years of Kōtoku's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or ''nengō''.", "* ''Taika'' (645–650)* ''Hakuchi'' (650–655)" ], [ "Consorts and children", "Empress: Princess Hashihito (間人皇女, d. 665), Emperor Jomei and Empress Kogyoku's daughter''Hi'': Abe no Otarashi-hime (阿部小足媛), Abe no Kurahashi-maro's daughter* Prince Arima (有間皇子, 640–658)''Hi'': Saga no Chi-no-iratsume (蘇我乳娘), Soga no Kura-no-Yamada no Ishikawa-no-maro's daughter" ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Tenji" ], [ "Introduction", ", known first as and later as until his accession, was the 38th emperor of Japan who reigned from 668 to 671.He was the son of Emperor Jomei and Empress Kōgyoku (Empress Saimei), and his children included Empress Jitō, Empress Genmei, and Emperor Kōbun.In 645, Tenji and Fujiwara no Kamatari defeated Soga no Emishi and Iruka.", "He established a new government and carried out political reforms.", "He then assumed real political power as the crown prince of both the Kōtoku and Saimei Emperors.", "Despite the death of Emperor Saimei, he did not accede to the throne for seven years, and came to the throne after the relocation of the capital to Ōmi in 668.He created Japan's first family register, the ''Kōgo Nenjaku'', and the first code of law, the Ōmi Code." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Poem by Emperor TenjiHe was the son of Emperor Jomei, but was preceded as ruler by his mother Empress Saimei.Prior to his accession, he was known as .===Events of Tenji's life===As prince, Naka no Ōe played a crucial role in ending the near-total control the Soga clan had over the imperial family.", "In 644, seeing the Soga continue to gain power, he conspired with Nakatomi no Kamatari and Soga no Kurayamada no Ishikawa no Maro to assassinate Soga no Iruka in what has come to be known as the Isshi Incident.", "Although the assassination did not go exactly as planned, Iruka was killed, and his father and predecessor, Soga no Emishi, committed suicide soon after.", "Following the Isshi Incident, Iruka's adherents dispersed largely without a fight, and Naka no Ōe was named heir apparent.", "He also married the daughter of his ally Soga no Kurayamada, thus ensuring that a significant portion of the Soga clan's power was on his side.===Events of Tenji's reign===Naka no Ōe reigned as Emperor Tenji from 661 to 672.", "* '''661''': In the , the empress designated her son as her heir; and modern scholars construe this as meaning that this son would have received the succession (''senso'') after her death or abdication.", "Shortly after, she died, and Emperor Tenji could be said to have acceded to the throne (''sokui'').", "* '''662''': Tenji is said to have compiled the first Japanese legal code known to modern historians.", "The Ōmi Code, consisting of 22 volumes, was promulgated in the last year of Tenji's reign.", "This legal codification is no longer extant, but it is said to have been refined in what is known as the Asuka Kiyomihara ''ritsu-ryō'' of 689; and these are understood to have been a forerunner of the Taihō ''ritsu-ryō'' of 701.", "* '''663''': Tenji invaded Korea in an attempt to support a revival of Japan's ally Paekche (one of Korea's Three Kingdoms, which had been conquered by the Korean kingdom of Silla in 660) but was seriously defeated at the Battle of Baekgang by the combined forces of Silla and Tang China.", "* '''668''': An account in becomes the first mention of petrochemical oil in Japan.", "In the , flammable water (possibly petroleum) was presented as an offering to Emperor Tenji from Echigo Province (now known as a part of Niigata Prefecture).", "This presentation coincided with the emperor's ceremonial confirmation as emperor.", "He had postponed formalities during the period that the mausoleum of his mother was being constructed; and when the work was finished, he could delay no longer.", "Up until this time, although he had been ''de facto'' monarch, he had retained the title of Crown Prince.", "* '''671''': An account in Nihon Shoki becomes the first mention of public announcement of time by rōkoku (a kind of water clock) in Japan.", "In 660 also a mention of this kind of clock exists.Tenji was particularly active in improving the military institutions which had been established during the Taika Reforms.===Death of the emperor===Memorial Shinto shrine and Following his death in 672, there ensued a succession dispute between his fourteen children (many by different mothers).", "In the end, he was succeeded by his son, Prince Ōtomo, also known as Emperor Kōbun, then by Tenji's brother Prince Ōama, also known as Emperor Tenmu.", "Almost one hundred years after Tenji's death, the throne passed to his grandson Emperor Kōnin.", ":'''Post-Meiji chronology''':* '''''In the 10th year of Tenji''''', in the 11th month (671): Emperor Tenji, in the , designated his son as his heir; and modern scholars construe this as meaning that the son would have received the succession (''senso'') after his father's death.", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Kōbun is said to have acceded to the throne (''sokui'').", "If this understanding were valid, then it would follow:::* '''''In the 1st year of Kōbun''''' (672): Emperor Kōbun, in the 1st year of his reign (弘文天皇元年), died; and his uncle Ōaomi''-shinnō'' received the succession (''senso'') after the death of his nephew.", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Tenmu could be said to have acceded to the throne (''sokui'').", ":'''Pre-Meiji chronology''':Prior to the 19th century, Ōtomo was understood to have been a mere interloper, a pretender, an anomaly; and therefore, if that commonly accepted understanding were to have been valid, then it would have followed::* '''''In the 10th year of Tenji''''', in the 11th month (671): Emperor Tenji, in the , died; and despite any military confrontations which ensued, the brother of the dead sovereign would have received the succession (''senso''); and after a time, it would have been understood that Emperor Tenmu rightfully acceded to the throne (''sokui'').The actual site of Tenji's grave is known.", "This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Yamashina-ku, Kyoto.The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Tenji's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Yamashina no misasagi''.===Poetry===The ''Man'yōshū'' includes poems attributed to emperors and empresses; and according to Donald Keene, evolving ''Man'yōshū'' studies have affected the interpretation of even simple narratives like \"The Three Hills.\"", "The poem was long considered to be about two male hills in a quarrel over a female hill, but scholars now consider that Kagu and Miminashi might be female hills in love with the same male hill, Unebi.", "This still-unresolved enigma in poetic form is said to have been composed by Emperor Tenji while he was still Crown Prince during the reign of Empress Saimei:JapaneseRōmajiEnglish香具山は畝傍ををしと耳成と相争ひき神代よりかくにあるらしいにしへもしかにあれこそうつせみも妻を争ふらしき''Kaguyama wa''''Unebi o oshi to''''Miminashi to''''Aiarasoiki''''Kamuyo yori''''Kaku ni arurashi''''Inishie mo''''Shika ni are koso''''Utsusemi mo''''Tsuma o''''Arasourashiki''Mount Kagu strove with: Mount MiminashiFor the love of: Mount Unebi.Such is love: since the age of the gods;As it was thus: in the early days,So people: strive for spouses:: even now.One of his poems was chosen by Fujiwara no Teika as the first in the popular ''Hyakunin Isshu'' anthology:JapaneseRōmajiEnglish秋の田のかりほの庵の苫をあらみわが衣手は露にぬれつつ '' Aki no ta no''''Kariho no io no''''Toma o arami''''Waga koromode wa''''Tsuyu ni nuretsutsu''Because of the coarseness of the rush-matOf the temporary-hutWhere the rice of autumn harvest isAs far as my sleeve is concernedThey are becoming wet with dew (or tears).After his death, his wife, Empress Yamato wrote a song of longing about her husband.===''Kugyo''===The top during Emperor Tenji's reign included:* ''Daijō-daijin'': , 671–672.", "* ''Naishin'' (内臣): Fujiwara no Kamatari (藤原鎌足) (614–669), 645–669.Prince Ōtomo (Ōtomo''-shinnō'') was the favorite son of Emperor Tenji; and he was also the first to be accorded the title of ''Daijō-daijin.''" ], [ "Non''-nengō'' period", "The years of Tenji's reign are not linked by scholars to any era or ''nengō''.", "The Taika era innovation of naming time periods – ''nengō'' – languished until Mommu reasserted an imperial right by proclaiming the commencement of Taihō in 701 (aside from the momentary proclamation of the Shuchō era under Emperor Tenmu in 686).", "* See Japanese era name – ''\"Non-nengo periods\"''* See Tenji period (661).In this context, Brown and Ishida's translation of ''Gukanshō'' offers an explanation about the years of Empress Jitō's reign which muddies a sense of easy clarity in the pre-Taiho time-frame:::\"The eras that fell in this reign were: (1) the remaining seven years of Shuchō (686+7=692?", "); and (2) Taika, which was four years long 695–698.", "(The first year of this era was ''kinoto-hitsuji'' 695.)", "...", "In the third year of the Taka era 697, Empress Jitō yielded the throne to the Crown Prince.\"" ], [ "Consorts and children", "Empress: Yamato Hime no Ōkimi (倭姫王), Prince Furuhito-no-Ōe's daughter (son of Emperor Jomei).", "''Hin'': Soga no Ochi-no-iratsume (蘇我遠智娘, d. ), Soga no Kura-no-yamada no Ishikawa-no-maro's daughterFirst Daughter: Princess Ōta (大田皇女), married to Emperor TenmuSecond Daughter: Princess Uno-no-sarara (鸕野讃良皇女) later Empress JitōSecond Son: Prince Takeru (建皇子, 651–658)''Hin'': Soga no Mei-no-iratsume (蘇我姪娘), Soga no Kura-no-yamada no Ishikawa-no-maro's daughterThird Daughter: Princess Minabe (御名部皇女), married to Prince TakechiFourth Daughter: Princess Abe/Ahe (阿閇皇女) later Empress Genmei, married to Prince Kusakabe''Hin'': Soga no Hitachi-no-iratsume (蘇我常陸娘), Soga no Akae's daughterPrincess Yamabe (山辺皇女), married to Prince Ōtsu''Hin'': Abe no Tachibana-no-iratsume (阿部橘娘, d. 681), Abe no Kurahashi-maro's daughterPrincess Asuka (明日香皇女), married to Prince OsakabePrincess Niitabe (新田部皇女), married to Emperor Tenmu10th son: Prince Ōama, later Emperor TenmuCourt lady: Koshi-no-michi no Iratsume (越道伊羅都売)Seventh Son: Prince Shiki (施基皇子/志貴皇子, d. 716), Father of Emperor KōninCourt lady (''Uneme''): Yakako-no-iratsume, a lower court lady from Iga (伊賀采女宅子娘) (''Iga no Uneme'')First Son: Prince Ōtomo (大友皇子) later Emperor Kōbun* Prince Abe (阿閇皇子, b.648)* Princess Aga (阿雅皇女, 648-709)Court lady: Oshinumi no Shikibuko-no-iratsume (忍海色夫古娘), Oshinumi Zokuryu's daughterThird Son: Prince Kawashima (川島皇子, 657–691)Princess Ōe (大江皇女), married to Emperor TenmuPrincess Izumi (泉皇女), Saiō in Ise Shrine (701–706)Court lady: Kurikuma no Kurohime-no-iratsume (栗隈黒媛娘), Kurikuma Tokuman's daughterPrincess Minushi (水主皇女)" ], [ "Mausoleum", "thumb is a Kofun in that is the traditional burial site of Emperor Tenji.", "Specifically, it is an .The Imperial Household Agency has limited access by the public out of respect for Emperor Tenji who they claim is buried there." ], [ "Popular culture", "* Portrayed by Ahn Hong-jin in the 2012–2013 KBS1 TV series ''Dream of the Emperor''." ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult* Kōryū-ji* Omi Shrine" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon – a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* Asakawa, Kan'ichi.", "(1903).", "''The Early Institutional Life of Japan''.", "Tokyo: Shueisha.", "; ''see'' online, multi-formatted, full-text book at openlibrary.org* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * MacCauley, Clay.", "(1900).", "\"''Hyakunin-Isshu'': Single Songs of a Hundred Poets\" in ''Transactions of the Asia Society of Japan''.", "Tokyo: Asia Society of Japan.", "...Click link for digitized, full-text copy of this book (in English)* Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai (1969).", "''The Manyoshu: The Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai Translation of One Thousand Poems''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", "* Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* * Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Kōbun" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 39th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.Kōbun's reign lasted only a few months in 672." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Emperor Kōbun was named the 39th emperor by the Meiji government in 1870; and since the late 19th century, he is known by the posthumous name accorded to him by Meiji scholars.In his lifetime, he was known as Prince Ōtomo (大友皇子, ''Ōtomo no ōji'').", "He was the favorite son of Emperor Tenji; and he was also the first to have been accorded the title of ''Daijō-daijin.", "''Contemporary historians now place the reign of Emperor Kōbun between the reigns of Emperor Tenji and Emperor Tenmu; but the ''Nihongi'', the ''Gukanshō'', and the ''Jinnō Shōtōki'' do not recognize this reign.", "Prince Ōtomo was only given his posthumous title and name in 1870.:'''Post-Meiji chronology''':* '''''In the 10th year of Tenji''''', in the 11th month (671): Emperor Tenji, in the 10th year of his reign (天智天皇十年), designated his son as his heir; and modern scholars construe this as meaning that the son would have received the succession (''senso'') after his father's death.", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Kōbun is said to have acceded to the throne (''sokui'').", "If this understanding were valid, then it would follow:::* '''''In the 1st year of Kōbun''''' (672): Emperor Kōbun, in the 1st year of his reign (弘文天皇元年), died; and his uncle Ōaomino ōji received the succession (''senso'') after the death of his nephew.", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Tenmu could be said to have acceded to the throne (''sokui'').", ":'''Pre-Meiji chronology''':Prior to the 19th century, Ōtomo was understood to have been a mere interloper, a pretender, an anomaly; and therefore, if that commonly accepted understanding were to have been valid, then it would have followed::* '''''In the 10th year of Tenji''''', in the 11th month (671): Emperor Tenji, in the 10th year of his reign (天智天皇十年), died; and despite any military confrontations which ensued, the brother of the dead sovereign would have received the succession (''senso''); and after a time, it would have been understood that Emperor Tenmu rightfully acceded to the throne (''sokui'').", ":Control of the throne was wrested by Emperor Tenchi's brother, Prince Ōama, during the Jinshin War, after which Emperor Kōbun died by suicide.", "For centuries, the hapless Prince Ōtomo was not considered to have been a part of the traditional order of succession.The actual site of Kōbun's grave is known.", "This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Shiga.The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kōbun's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Nagara no Yamasaki no misasagi''." ], [ "Non''-nengō'' period", "The years of Kōbun's reign are not linked by scholars to any era or ''nengō''.", "The Taika era innovation of naming time periods – ''nengō'' – languished until Mommu reasserted an imperial right by proclaiming the commencement of Taihō in 701.", "* See Japanese era name – ''\"Non-nengo periods\"''* See Kōbun (period) (672).In this context, Brown and Ishida's translation of ''Gukanshō'' offers an explanation about the years of Empress Jitō's reign which muddies a sense of easy clarity in the pre-Taiho time-frame: ::\"The eras that fell in this reign were: (1) the remaining seven years of Shuchō (686+7=692?", "); and (2) Taika, which was four years long 695–698.", "(The first year of this era was ''kinoto-hitsuji'' 695.) ...", "In the third year of the Taka era 697, Empress Jitō yielded the throne to the Crown Prince.", "\"===''Kugyo''===The top during Emperor Kōbun's reign included:* ''Sadaijin'', Soga no Akae (蘇我赤兄) (?–?", "), 672 (7 months)* ''Udaijin'', Nakatomi no Kane (中臣金) (d. 672), 672 (7 months)" ], [ "Consorts and children", "Consort: Princess Tōchi (十市皇女), Emperor Tenmu's daughter* First son: Prince Kadono (葛野王, 669–706)Consort: Fujiwara no Mimimotoji (藤原耳面刀自), Fujiwara no Kamatari's daughter* Princess Ichishi-hime (壱志姫王)Emperor Kōbun had another son named Prince Yota (興多王), whose mother is unknown." ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Tenmu" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 40th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "He reigned from 673 until his death in 686." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Tenmu was the youngest son of Emperor Jomei and Empress Kōgyoku, and the younger brother of the Emperor Tenji.", "His name at birth was Prince Ōama (大海人皇子:Ōama no ōji).", "He was succeeded by Empress Jitō, who was both his niece and his wife.", "During the reign of his elder brother, Emperor Tenji, Tenmu was forced to marry several of Tenji's daughters because Tenji thought those marriages would help to strengthen political ties between the two brothers.", "The nieces he married included Princess Unonosarara, today known as Empress Jitō, and Princess Ōta.", "Tenmu also had other consorts whose fathers were influential courtiers.Tenmu had many children, including his crown prince Kusakabe by Princess Unonosarara; Princess Tōchi; Prince Ōtsu and Princess Ōku by Princess Ōta (whose father also was Tenji); and Prince Toneri, the editor of the ''Nihon Shoki'' and father of Emperor Junnin.", "Through Prince Kusakabe, Tenmu had two emperors and two empresses among his descendants.", "Empress Kōken was the last of these imperial rulers from his lineage.===Events of Tenmu's life===Emperor Tenmu is the first monarch of Japan, to whom the title ''Tennō'' (Emperor of Japan) was assigned contemporaneously—not only by later generations.The only document on his life was ''Nihon Shoki''.", "However, it was edited by his son, Prince Toneri, and the work was written during the reigns of his wife and children, causing one to suspect its accuracy and impartiality.", "He is also mentioned briefly in the preface to the ''Kojiki'', being hailed as the emperor to have commissioned them.Tenmu's father died while he was young, and he grew up mainly under the guidance of Empress Saimei.", "He was not expected to gain the throne, because his brother Tenji was the crown prince, being the older son of their mother, the reigning empress.During the Tenji period, Tenmu was appointed his crown prince.", "This was because Tenji had no appropriate heir among his sons at that time, as none of their mothers was of a rank high enough to give the necessary political support.", "Tenji was suspicious that Tenmu might be so ambitious as to attempt to take the throne, and felt the necessity to strengthen his position through politically advantageous marriages.Tenji was particularly active in improving the military institutions which had been established during the Taika reforms.In his old age, Tenji had a son, Prince Ōtomo, by a low-ranking consort.", "Since Ōtomo had weak political support from his maternal relatives, the general wisdom of the time held that it was not a good idea for him to ascend to the throne, yet Tenji was obsessed with the idea.In 671 Tenmu felt himself to be in danger and volunteered to resign the office of crown prince to become a monk.", "He moved to the mountains in Yoshino, Yamato Province (now Yoshino, Nara), officially for reasons of seclusion.", "He took with him his sons and one of his wives, Princess Unonosarara, a daughter of Tenji.", "However, he left all his other consorts at the capital, Omikyō in Ōmi Province (today in Ōtsu).A year later, (in 672) Tenji died and Prince Ōtomo ascended to the throne as Emperor Kōbun.", "Tenmu assembled an army and marched from Yoshino to the east, to attack the capital of Omikyō in a counterclockwise movement.", "They marched through Yamato, Iga and Mino Provinces to threaten Omikyō in the adjacent province.", "The army of Tenmu and the army of the young Emperor Kōbun fought in the northwestern part of Mino (nowadays Sekigahara, Gifu), an incident known as the Jinshin War.", "Tenmu's army won and Kōbun committed suicide.", ":'''Post-Meiji chronology''':* '''''In the 10th year of Tenji''''', in the 11th month (671): Emperor Tenji, in the 10th year of his reign (天智天皇十年), designated his son as his heir; and modern scholars construe this as meaning that the son would have received the succession (''senso'') after his father's death.", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Kōbun is said to have acceded to the throne (''sokui'').", "If this understanding were valid, then it would follow:::* '''''In the 1st year of Kōbun''''' (672): Emperor Kōbun, in the 1st year of his reign (弘文天皇一年), died; and his uncle Ōaomi''-shinnō'' received the succession (''senso'') after the death of his nephew.", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Tenmu could be said to have acceded to the throne (''sokui'').", ":'''Pre-Meiji chronology''':Prior to the 19th century, Otomo was understood to have been a mere interloper, a pretender, an anomaly; and therefore, if that commonly accepted understanding were to have been valid, then it would have followed::* '''''In the 10th year of Tenji''''', in the 11th month (671): Emperor Tenji, in the 10th year of his reign (天智天皇十年), died; and despite any military confrontations which ensued, the brother of the dead sovereign would have received the succession (''senso''); and after a time, it would have been understood that Emperor Tenmu rightfully acceded to the throne (''sokui'').As might be expected, Emperor Tenmu was no less active than former-Emperor Tenji in improving the Taika military institutions.", "Tenmu's reign brought many changes, such as: (1) a centralized war department was organized; (2) the defenses of the Inner Country near the Capital were strengthened; (3) forts and castles were built near Capital and in the western parts of Honshū—and in Kyushu; (4) troops were reviewed; and all provincial governors were ordered to complete the collection of arms and to study tactics.Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Emperor TenmuIn 673 Tenmu moved the capital back to Yamato on the Kiymihara plain, naming his new capital Asuka.", "The ''Man'yōshū'' includes a poem written after the Jinshin War ended:At Asuka, Emperor Tenmu was enthroned.", "He elevated Unonosarara to be his empress.", "Events of his reign include:* '''674''' (''Tenmu 2''): Ambassadors of ''Tane no kuni'' were received in the Japanese court.", "* '''680''' (''Tenmu 8''): Yakushi-ji was founded in the Hakuhō period.Tenmu reigned from this capital until his death in 686.His wife, Empress Jito became the emperor until their son became the 42nd Emperor.", "The actual site of his grave is known.", "This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial shrine (''misasagi'') in Nara Prefecture.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Tenmu's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Hinokuma no Ōuchi no misasagi.", "''===Buddhism===In 675 Emperor Tenmu banned the consumption of domesticated animal meat (horse, cattle, dogs, monkeys, birds), from April 1 to September 30 each year, due to the influence of Buddhism.===Politics===The Nihon Shoki entry of April 15, 683 CE (Tenmu 12th year), mandates the use of copper coins instead of silver, suggesting that Japanese currency predates his reign.", "Excerpt of the 11th century edition.Early Japanese currency: ''Fuhonsen'' coins (富本銭), found in Asukaike (飛鳥池), thought to have been minted during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, end of 7th century, copper and antimony.", "Currency Museum of the Bank of Japan.In the ''Nihon Shoki'', Tenmu is described as a great innovator, but the neutrality of this description is doubtful, since the work was written under the control of his descendants.", "It seems clear, however, that Tenmu strengthened the power of the emperor and appointed his sons to the highest offices of his government, reducing the traditional influence of powerful clans such as the Ōtomo and Soga clans.", "He renewed the system of ''kabane'', the hereditary titles of duty and rank, but with alterations, including the abolition of some titles.", "Omi and Muraji, the highest kabane in the earlier period, were reduced in value in the new hierarchy, which consisted of eight kinds of kabane.", "Each clan received a new kabane according to its closeness to the imperial bloodline and its loyalty to Tenmu.Tenmu attempted to keep a balance of power among his sons.", "Once he traveled to Yoshino together with his sons, and there had them swear to cooperate and not to make war on each other.", "This turned out to be ineffective: one of his sons, Prince Ōtsu, was later executed for treason after the death of Tenmu.Tenmu's foreign policy favored the Korean kingdom Silla, which took over the entire Korean peninsula in 676.After the unification of Korea by Silla, Tenmu decided to break diplomatic relations with the Tang dynasty of China, evidently in order to keep on good terms with Silla.Tenmu used religious structures to increase the authority of the imperial throne.", "During his reign there was increased emphasis on the tie between the imperial household and Ise Grand Shrine (dedicated to the ancestor goddess of the emperors, Amaterasu) by sending his daughter Princess Ōku as the newly established Saiō of the shrine, and several festivals were financed from the national budget.", "He also showed favor to Buddhism, and built several large temples and monasteries.", "It is said that Tenmu asked that each household was encouraged to build an altar with a dais where a Buddha-image and a sutra could be placed so that family worshiping could be held, thus inventing the butsudan.", "On the other hand, all Buddhist priests, monks and nuns were controlled by the state, and no one was allowed to become a monk without the state's permission.", "This was aimed at preventing cults and stopping farmers from turning into priests.====''Kugyō''====''Kugyō'' () is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time.", "These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.", "During Tenmu's reign, this apex of the ''Daijō-kan'' included:* ''Sadaijin'', Soga no Akae no Omi * ''Udaijin'', Nakatomi no Kane no Muraji * ''Naidaijin''" ], [ "Era of Tenmu's reign", "The years of Tenmu's reign were marked by only one era name or ''nengō'', which was proclaimed in the final months of the emperor's life; and ''Shuchō'' ended with Tenmu's death.", "* ''Shuchō'' (686)===Non''-nengō'' period===The early years of Tenmu's reign are not linked by scholars to any era or ''nengō''.", "The Taika era innovation of naming time periods – ''nengō'' – was discontinued during these years, but it was reestablished briefly in 686.The use of ''nengō'' languished yet again after Tenmu's death until Emperor Monmu reasserted an imperial right by proclaiming the commencement of Taihō in 701.", "* See Tenmu period (673–686).In this context, Brown and Ishida's translation of ''Gukanshō'' offers an explanation about the years of Empress Jitō's reign which muddies a sense of easy clarity in the pre-Taihō time-frame:::\"The eras that fell in this reign were: (1) the remaining seven years of Shuchō (686+7=692?", "); and (2) Taika, which was four years long 695–698.", "(The first year of this era was ''kinoto-hitsuji'' 695.)", "...", "In the third year of the Taika era 697, Empress Jitō yielded the throne to the Crown Prince.\"" ], [ "Wives and children", "Empress (''Kōgō''): Princess Uno-no-sarara (鸕野讃良皇女) later Empress Jitō, Emperor Tenji's daughterSecond Son: Prince Kusakabe (草壁皇子, 662 – 10 May 689), Father of Emperor Monmu and Empress GenshōConsort (''Hi''): Princess Ōta (大田皇女), Emperor Tenji's daughterSecond daughter: Princess Ōku (大伯皇女, 12 February 661– 29 January 702 ), Saiō in Ise Shrine (673–686)Third Son: Prince Ōtsu (大津皇子, 663 – 25 October 686 )Consort (''Hi'') Princess Ōe (大江皇女), Emperor Tenji's daughterSeventh Son: Prince Naga (長皇子, d. 9 July 715)Ninth Son: Prince Yuge (弓削皇子, d. 21 August 699)Consort ''(Hi):'' Princess Niitabe (新田部皇女), Emperor Tenji's daughter*Sixth Son: Prince Toneri (舎人皇子, 676 – 2 December 735), Father of Emperor JunninMadame ''(Bunin)'': Fujiwara no Hikami-no-iratsume (藤原氷上娘, d.682), Fujiwara no Kamatari's daughter*Daughter: Princess Tajima (但馬皇女, d. 17 July 708), married to Prince TakechiMadame ''(Bunin)'': Fujiwara no Ioe-no-iratsume (藤原五百重娘), Fujiwara no Kamatari's daughter*Tenth Son: Prince Niitabe (新田部皇子, d. 20 0ctomber 735)Madame (''Bunin)'' Soga no Ōnu-no-iratsume (蘇我大蕤娘), Soga no Akae's daughterFifth Son: Prince Hozumi (穂積皇子, d. 30 August 715)Daughter: Princess Ki (紀皇女)*Daughter: Princess Takata (田形皇女, d. 18 April 728), Saiō in Ise Shrine (706–707), later married to Prince MutobeBeauty (''Hin''): Princess Nukata (額田王), Prince Kagami's daughter*First Daughter: Princess Tōchi (十市皇女, d. 3 March 678 ), married to Emperor KōbunBeauty (''Hin''): Munakata no Amako-no-iratsume (胸形尼子娘), Unakata-no-Kimi Tokuzen's daughter*First Son: Prince Takechi (高市皇子, 654 – 13 August 696)Beauty (''Hin''): Shishihito no Kajihime-no-iratsume (宍人梶媛娘), Shishihito-no-Omi Ōmaro's daughterFourth Son: Prince Osakabe (刑部/忍壁皇子, d. 2 June 705)Daughter: Princess Hatsusebe (泊瀬部皇女, d.28 March 741), married to Prince Kawashima (son of Emperor Tenji)Daughter: Princess Taki (託基皇女/多紀皇女, d. 751), Saiō in Ise Shrine (698–before 701), later married to Prince Shiki (son of Emperor Tenji) Son: Prince Shiki (磯城皇子)" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cultJapanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Asakawa, Kan'ichi.", "(1903).", "''The Early Institutional Life of Japan''.", "Tokyo: Shueisha.", "; ''see'' online, multi-formatted, full-text book at openlibrary.org* Aston, William.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai (1969).", "''The Man'yōshū: The Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai Translation of One Thousand Poems''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", "* Ponsonby-Fane, Richard.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ], [ "External links", "* Asuka Historical National Government Park: image of Mausoleum Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō , exterior view" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Empress Jitō" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 41st monarch of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.Jitō's reign spanned the years from 686 through 697.In the history of Japan, Jitō was the third of eight women to take on the role of empress regnant.", "The two female monarchs before Jitō were Suiko and Kōgyoku/Saimei.", "The five women sovereigns reigning after Jitō were Genmei, Genshō, Kōken/Shōtoku, Meishō, and Go-Sakuramachi." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Poem by Empress JitōEmpress Jitō was the daughter of Emperor Tenji.", "Her mother was Ochi-no-Iratsume, the daughter of Minister Ō-omi Soga no Yamada-no Ishikawa Maro.", "She was the wife of Tenji's full brother Emperor Tenmu, whom she succeeded on the throne.Empress Jitō's given name was , or alternately Uno.===Events of Jitō's reign===Jitō took responsibility for court administration after the death of her husband, Emperor Tenmu, who was also her uncle.", "She acceded to the throne in 687 in order to ensure the eventual succession of her son, Kusakabe-shinnō.", "Throughout this period, Empress Jitō ruled from the Fujiwara Palace in Yamato.", "In 689, Jitō prohibited ''Sugoroku'', in 690 at enthronement she performed special ritual then gave pardon and in 692 she travelled to Ise against the counsel of minister Miwa-no-Asono-Takechimaro.Prince Kusakabe was named as crown prince to succeed Jitō, but he died at a young age.", "Kusakabe's son, Karu-no-o, was then named as Jitō's successor.", "He eventually would become known as Emperor Monmu.Empress Jitō reigned for eleven years.", "Although there were seven other reigning empresses, their successors were most often selected from amongst the males of the paternal Imperial bloodline, which is why some conservative scholars argue that the women's reigns were temporary and that male-only succession tradition must be maintained in the 21st century.", "Empress Genmei, who was followed on the throne by her daughter, Empress Genshō, remains the sole exception to this conventional argument.In 697, Jitō abdicated in Monmu's favor; and as a retired sovereign, she took the post-reign title ''daijō-tennō''.", "After this, her imperial successors who retired took the same title after abdication.Jitō continued to hold power as a cloistered ruler, which became a persistent trend in Japanese politics.Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Empress JitōThe actual site of Jitō's grave is known.", "This empress is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Nara.The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Jitō's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Ochi-no-Okanoe no misasagi''.===''Kugyō''===''Kugyō'' (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time.", "These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.", "During Jitō's reign, this apex of the ''Daijō-kan'' included:* ''Daijō-daijin'', Takechi-shinnō (the 3rd son of Emperor Tenmu)* ''Sadaijin''* ''Udaijin''* ''Naidaijin''" ], [ "Non''-nengō'' period", "Jitō's reign is not linked by scholars to any era or nengō.", "The Taika era innovation of naming time periods – ''nengō'' – languished until Mommu reasserted an imperial right by proclaiming the commencement of Taihō in 701.", "* See Japanese era name – ''\"Non-nengo periods\"''* See Jitō period (687–697).However, Brown and Ishida's translation of ''Gukanshō'' offers an explanation which muddies a sense of easy clarity::\"The eras that fell in this reign were: (1) the remaining seven years of Shuchō (686+7=692?", "); and (2) Taika, which was four years long 695–698.", "(The first year of this era was ''kinoto-hitsuji'' 695.)", "...", "In the third year of the Taka era 697, Empress Jitō yielded the throne to the Crown Prince.\"" ], [ "Family", "Empress Jitō, known as Princess Uno-no-sarara (鸕野讃良皇女) in her early days, was born to Emperor Tenji and his concubine, who held of Beauty (Hin).She had two full siblings: Princess Ōta and Prince Takeru.", "Empress Jitō and her younger sister, Princess Ōta, shared the same husband, Emperor Tenmu, with whom both would have children.", "Husband: Emperor Tenmu (天武天皇, Tenmu tennō, c. 631 – October 1, 686), son of Emperor Jomei and Empress KōgyokuSon: Crown Prince Kusakabe (草壁皇子, 662 – May 10, 689)" ], [ "Poetry", "The ''Man'yōshū'' includes poems said to have been composed by Jitō.", "This one was composed after the death of the Emperor Tenmu:JapaneseRōmajiEnglishやすみしし我が大君の夕されば見したまふらし明け来れば問ひたまふらし神岳の山の黄葉を今日もかも問ひたまはまし明日もかも見したまはましその山を振り放け見つつ夕さればあやに悲しみ明け来ればうらさび暮らし荒栲の衣の袖は干る時もなし''Yasumishishi waga ōkimi no''''Yū sareba meshita furashi''''Akekureba toita furashi''''Kamuoka no yama no momichi to''''Kyō mo ka mo toita mawamashi''''Asu mo ka mo meshita mawamashi''''Sono yama o furisakemitsutsu''''Yū sareba aya ni kanashimi''''Akekureba''''Urasabikurashi''''Aratae no''''Koromo no sode wa''''Furu toki mo nashi''Oh, the autumn foliageOf the hill of Kamioka!My good Lord and SovereignWould see it in the eveningAnd ask of it in the morning.On that very hill from afarI gaze, wonderingIf he sees it to-day,Or asks of it to-morrow.Sadness I feel at eve,And heart-rending grief at morn—The sleeves of my coarse-cloth robeAre never for a moment dry.One of the poems attributed to Empress Jitō was selected by Fujiwara no Teika for inclusion in the very popular anthology ''Hyakunin Isshu'':JapaneseRōmajiEnglish春過ぎて夏来にけらし白妙の衣干すてふ天の香具山''Haru sugite''''Natsu kinikerashi''''Shirotae no''''Koromo hosu chō''''Ama no Kaguyama''The spring has passedAnd the summer come againFor the silk-white robesSo they say, are spread to dryOn Mount Kaguyama" ], [ "See also", " Empress of Japan* Emperor of Japan** List of emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * MacCauley, Clay.", "(1900).", "\"''Hyakunin-Isshu'': Single Songs of a Hundred Poets\" in ''Transactions of the Asia Society of Japan''.", "Tokyo: Asia Society of Japan.", "...Click link for digitized, full-text copy (in English)* __________.", "(1901).", "''Kokka taikan''.", "Tokyo: Teikoku Toshokan, Meiji 30–34 1897–1901.reprinted ''Shinten kokka taikan'' (新編国歌大観), 10 vols.", "+ 10 index vols., Kadokawa Shoten, Tokyo, 1983–1992.", "* Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkōkai.", "(1940).", "''Man'yōshū''.", "Tokyo: Iwanami shoten.", "reprinted by Columbia University Press, New York, 1965.. Rprinted by Dover Publications, New York, 2005.", "* Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ], [ "External links", "* Asuka Historical National Government Park: image of Mausoleum Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō , exterior view" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Monmu" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 42nd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.Monmu's reign spanned the years from 697 through 707." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (''imina'') was Karu''-shinnō''.He was a grandson of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.", "He was the second son of Prince Kusakabe.", "Monmu's mother was Princess Abe, a daughter of Emperor Tenji.", "Monmu's mother would later accede to the throne herself, and she would be known as Empress Genmei.===Events of Monmu's life===Karu''-shinnō'' was only six years old when his father, Crown Prince Kusakabe, died.", "* '''697''': In the 10th year of Jitō''-tennō''s reign (持統天皇十年), the empress abdicated; and the succession (''senso'') was received by a grandson of Emperor Tenmu.", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Monmu is said to have acceded to the throne (''sokui'').Emperor Monmu ruled until his death in 707, at which point he was succeeded by his mother, Empress Genmei, who was also his first cousin once removed and his first cousin twice removed.", "He left a young son by Fujiwara no Miyako, a daughter of Fujiwara no Fuhito: Obito no miko (Prince Obito), who eventually became Emperor Shōmu.Emperor Monmu's reign lasted 10 years.", "He died at the age of 25.The actual site of Monmu's grave is known.", "This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Nara.The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Monmu's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Hinokuma no Ako no oka no e no misasagi''.===Kugyō=== is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time.", "These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.", "During Monmu's reign, this apex of the ''Daijō-kan'' included:* ''Daijō-daijin'', Osakabe''-shinnō''.", "* ''Sadaijin''* ''Udaijin''* ''Naidaijin'', Nakatomi Kamako no Muraji.", "* ''Dainagon'', Fujiwara Fuhito." ], [ "Eras of Monmu's reign", "Conventional modern scholarship seems to have determined that the years of Monmu's reign are encompassed within more than one era name or ''nengō''.", "* ''Taihō (era)'' (701–704)* ''Keiun'' (704–708)===Non''-nengō'' period===The initial years of Monmu's reign are not linked by scholars to any era or ''nengō''.", "The Taika era innovation of naming time periods – ''nengō'' – languished until Monmu reasserted an imperial right by proclaiming the commencement of Taihō in 701.", "* See Japanese era name – ''\"Non-nengo periods\"''* See Monmu period (697–701).In this context, Brown and Ishida's translation of ''Gukanshō'' offers an explanation about the years of Empress Jitō's reign which muddies a sense of easy clarity in the pre-Taiho time-frame:::\"The eras that fell in this reign were: (1) the remaining seven years of Shuchō (686+7=692?", "); and (2) Taika, which was four years long 695–698.", "(The first year of this era was ''kinoto-hitsuji'' 695.)", "...", "In the third year of the Taka era 697, Empress Jitō yielded the throne to the Crown Prince.\"" ], [ "Consorts and children", "''Bunin'': Fujiwara no Miyako (藤原宮子, d. 754), Fujiwara no Fuhito’s daughterFirst Son: Prince Obito (首皇子) later Emperor Shōmu''Hin'': Ki no Kamado-no-iratsume (紀竃門娘)''Hin'': Ishikawa no Tone-no-iratsume (石川刀子娘)Takamado Hironari (Hiroyo)" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult* Taihō Code" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Empress Genshō" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 44th monarch of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Her reign spanned the years 715 through 724.Genshō was the fifth of eight women to take on the role of empress regnant, and the only one in the history of Japan to have inherited her title from another empress regnant rather than from a male predecessor.", "The four female monarchs before Genshō were Suiko, Kōgyoku, Jitō and Genmei; the three reigning after her were Kōken, Meishō, and Go-Sakuramachi." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Before her ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, her personal name (''imina'') was Hidaka''-hime''.Genshō was an elder sister of Emperor Monmu and daughter of Prince Kusakabe and his wife who later became Empress Genmei.", "Therefore, she was a granddaughter of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō by her father and a granddaughter of Emperor Tenji through her mother.===Events of Genshō's life===Empress Genshō's succession to the throne was intended as a regency until Prince Obito, the son of her deceased younger brother Monmu, was mature enough to ascend the throne.", "Obito would later become the Emperor Shōmu.Obito was appointed Crown Prince in 714 by Empress Genmei.", "In the next year, 715, Empress Genmei, then in her fifties, abdicated in favor of her daughter Genshō.", "Obito was then 14 years old.", "* '''715''' (''Reiki 1, 9th month''): In the 7th year of Genmei''-tennō''s reign (元明天皇七年), the empress abdicated; and the succession (''senso'') was received by her daughter, who held the throne in trust for her younger brother.", "Shortly thereafter, Empress Genshō acceded to the throne (''sokui'') as Empress Regnant.Obito remained the crown prince, heir to the new empress.", "Fujiwara no Fuhito, the most powerful courtier in Genmei's court, remained at his post until his death in 720.After his death, Prince Nagaya, a grandson of Tenmu and the Empress Genshō's cousin, seized power.", "This power shift was a background for later conflicts between Nagaya and Fuhito's four sons during the reign of Emperor Shōmu (formerly Prince Obito).Under Genshō's reign, the ''Nihon Shoki'' was finished in 720BC she died knowing she helped.", "Organization of the law system known as the ''ritsuryō'' was continued under the initiatives of Fuhito until his death in vain.", "These laws and codes were edited and enacted by Fujiwara no Nakamaro, a grandson of Fuhito, and published as ''Yōrō ritsuryō'' under the name of Fuhito after his death.", "The taxation system which had been introduced by Empress Jitō in the late 7th century began to malfunction.", "To compensate for the decreased tax revenue, the \"Act of possession in three generations\", an initiative of Prince Nagaya, was enacted in 723.Under this act, people were allowed to possess a newly cultivated field once every three generations.", "In the fourth generation, the right of possession would revert to the national government.", "This act was intended to motivate new cultivation, but it only remained in effect for about 20 years.Empress Genshō reigned for nine years.", "Although there were seven other reigning empresses, their successors were most often selected from amongst the males of the paternal Imperial bloodline, which is why some conservative scholars argue that the women's reigns were temporary and that male-only succession tradition must be maintained in the 21st century.", "Empress Genmei, who was succeeded by her daughter, remains the sole exception to this conventional argument.In 724, Genshō abdicated in favor of her nephew, who would be known as Emperor Shōmu.", "Genshō lived for 25 years after she stepped down from the throne.", "She never married and had no children.", "She died at age 65.Empress Genshō's grave is located in Nara.", "This empress is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi''), also in Nara.", "The Imperial Household Agency has designated this location as Monmu's mausoleum, and has been formally named ''Nahoyama no nishi no misasagi''.", "The Imperial tomb can be visited today in Narazaka-chō, Nara City.===Kugyō=== is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time.", "These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.", "During Genshō's reign, this apex of the ''Daijō-kan'' included:* ''Daijō-daijin'' (''Chi-daijō-kanji'' 知太政官事), Toneri''-shinnō'' (Prince Toneri) (舎人親王).", "(9th son of Emperor Tenmu) 720–735* ''Sadaijin'', Isonokami no Maro (石上麻呂).", "708–717* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Fuhito (藤原不比等).", "708–720* ''Udaijin'', Prince Nagaya (長屋王).", "721–724* ''Dainagon'', Abe no Sukunamaro (阿倍宿奈麻呂).", "718–720* ''Dainagon'', Prince Nagaya (長屋王).", "718–721* ''Dainagon'', Tajihi no Ikemori (多治比池守).", "721–730" ], [ "Eras of Genshō's reign", "The years of Genshō's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or ''nengō''.", "* ''Reiki'' (715–717)* ''Yōrō'' (717–724)* ''Jinki'' (724–729)" ], [ "Genealogy", "Empress Genshō, born Princess Hidaka (氷高皇女), was the eldest child of Empress Genmei (元明天皇) and her husband, Crown Prince Kusakabe (草壁皇子).", "She had one younger brother, Prince Karu (珂瑠皇子), later known as Emperor Monmu (文武天皇), and one younger sister, Imperial Princess Kibi (吉備内親王).Empress Genshō never got married or had children.", "The throne was inherited by her younger brother's son, Emperor Shōmu." ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "See also", "* Empress of Japan* Emperor of Japan** List of emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Empress Kōken" ], [ "Introduction", ", known as after her second accession to the throne, was the 46th (with the name Empress Kōken) and the 48th monarch of Japan (with the name Empress Shōtoku), according to the traditional order of succession.The daughter of Emperor Shōmu, Empress Kōken succeeded to the throne at the age of 31, following her father's renunciation.", "She first reigned from 749 to 758.During this period, the government was heavily influenced by her mother, the former empress consort Kōmyō, and the latter's nephew, Fujiwara no Nakamaro.", "She was eventually replaced on the throne by her relative, Emperor Junnin, whose rule was a continuation of Nakamaro's regime.", "During the intermediate period of her reigns, the retired empress Kōken is said to have become close to a monk without a noble background, named Dōkyō, by 762.Their precise relationship remains a mystery, although there is a common version that it was romantic.", "The retired empress had taken Buddhist oaths and became a nun, but retained a decisive role in politics.", "After Kōmyō's death in July 760, the growing power struggle between Kōken's and Nakamaro's opposing factions became increasingly inevitable.", "Following the suppression of the Fujiwara no Nakamaro Rebellion and his murder, Kōken reascended the throne as Empress Shōtoku in 764 and ruled until her death in 770, concentrating the government into her own hands.", "Dōkyō was appointed Grand Minister within a year.", "In 766, he was promoted to Hōō (priestly emperor) and in around 769 tried to ascend the throne himself, which led to a scandal; this was one of few recorded instances when there was an attempt to end the Yamato dynasty.", "The death of the empress, presumably from smallpox, and resistance from the aristocracy destroyed his plans.", "This incident was a reason for the later move of the Japanese capital from Nara (Heijō).", "Empress Kōken was one of the most politically powerful women in Japanese history: subsequent empresses were only ritual rulers, while the government was dominated by the shoguns (military dictators).In the history of Japan, Kōken/Shōtoku was the sixth of eight women to take on the role of empress regnant.", "The five female monarchs before her were Suiko, Kōgyoku/Saimei, Jitō, Genmei and Genshō, and the two women sovereigns reigning after Kōken/Shōtoku were Meishō and Go-Sakuramachi." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Empress Kōken's personal name (''imina'') was .", "Her father was Emperor Shōmu, and her mother was Empress Kōmyō.Kōken is traditionally venerated at her tomb; the Imperial Household Agency designates , in Nara, Nara, as the location of Kōken's mausoleum.", "The site is publicly accessible.===Events of Kōken's life===* '''August 19, 749''' (): In the 25th year of Shōmu''-tennō''s reign (聖武天皇二十五年), the emperor renounced his throne and the succession (''senso'') was received by his daughter.", "Shortly thereafter, Kōken is said to have acceded to the throne.", "* '''757''': Conspiracy to overthrow Empress Kōken was not successful.", "* '''758''': Kōken abdicated in favor of a cousin who would become known as Emperor Junnin.", "The Empress had reigned for about ten years.", "* '''764''': In the sixth year of Junnin''-tennō''s reign, the emperor was deposed by his adoptive mother, and the succession was received by former-Empress Kōken.", "* '''January 26, 765''' (): Kōken formally reascended the throne (''sokui'') as Empress Shōtoku.", "* '''August 28, 770''' (: Empress Shōtoku died at age 57, leaving the throne vacant.", "She was succeeded by her first cousin twice removed, Emperor Kōnin.", "Empress Shōtoku had reigned for five years.===Eras of her reigns===The years of Kōken's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name.", "* ''Tenpyō-kanpō'' (749)* ''Tenpyō-shōhō'' (749–757)* ''Tenpyō-hōji'' (757–765)The years of Shōtoku's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name.", "* ''Tenpyō-hōji'' (757–765)* ''Tenpyō-jingo'' (765–767)* ''Jingo-keiun'' (767–770)" ], [ "Legacy", "Koken's reign was turbulent, and she survived coup attempts by both Tachibana no Naramaro and Fujiwara no Nakamaro.", "Today, she is remembered chiefly for her alleged affair with a Buddhist monk named Dōkyō (道鏡), a man she honored with titles and power.", "An oracle from Usa Shrine, the shrine of the kami in Usa, is said to have proclaimed that the monk should be made emperor; but when the empress sent to verify the pronouncement, Hachiman decreed that only one of imperial blood should ascend to the throne.As with the seven other reigning empresses whose successors were most often selected from amongst the males of the paternal imperial bloodline, she was followed on the throne by a male cousin, which is why some conservative scholars argue that the women's reigns were temporary and that male-only succession tradition must be maintained in the 21st century.", "Empress Genmei, who was followed on the throne by her daughter, Empress Genshō, remains the sole exception to this conventional argument.She is also known for sponsoring the Hyakumantō Darani, one of the largest productions of printed works in early Japan.Otagi Nenbutsu-ji, a Buddhist temple in the Arashiyama neighborhood of Kyoto, was founded by Shōtoku in the middle of the eighth century." ], [ "Kugyō", " is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time.", "These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.", "During Kōken's reign, this apex of the ''Daijō-kan'' included:* ''Taihō'', Emi no Oshikatsu (formerly Fujiwara no Nakamaro).", "* ''Daijō-daijin''* ''Sadaijin'', Tachibana no Moroe (formerly Katsuragi''-ō'', Prince Katsuragi) (half brother of Empress Kōmyō).", "* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Toyonari (first son of Fujiwara no Muchimaro).", "* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Nakamaro (second son of Fujiwara no Muchimaro).", "* ''Naidaijin''* ''Dainagon''The ''kugyō'' during Shōtoku's reign included:* ''Daijō-daiji'', Dōkyō.", "* ''Sadaijin''* ''Udaijin'', Kibi Makibi.", "* ''Nadaijin''* ''Dainagon'', Fujiwara Matate." ], [ "Genealogy", "Empress Kōken, known as Imperial Princess Abe (阿倍内親王), was the second daughter of Emperor Shōmu born by his empress consort, Fujiwara Asukabehime.", "She had a younger brother, but he didn't survive to adulthood.Empress Kōken never married or had children." ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "See also", "* Empress of Japan* Emperor of Japan** List of emperors of Japan* Hyakumantō Darani* Virus Kingdom ''Shotokuvirae''" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* * * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Junnin" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 47th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "The seventh son of Prince Toneri and a grandson of Emperor Tenmu, his reign spanned the years 758 to 764." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Before his ascension to the throne, his name (''imina'') was Ōi''-shinnō'' (Ōi-no-ō).", "He was the seventh son of Prince Toneri, a son of Emperor Tenmu.", "And although his father died when he was three, he was not given any rank or office at the court.", "In the older Japanese documents, he is usually referred to as Haitai (廃帝), the dethroned emperor.", "The posthumous name of Emperor Junnin was given by Emperor Meiji a thousand years later.===Ascension and reign===In 757 the Empress Kōken, his third cousin appointed him to be her crown prince instead of Prince Funado, who had been appointed to this position in the will of the Emperor Shōmu.", "In the tenth year of Kōken''-tennō''s reign (), on December 7, 758 (''Tenpyō-shōhō 2, 1st day of the 8th month''), the empress abdicated and the succession (''senso'') passed to her adopted son.", "Shortly afterwards, Emperor Junnin is said to have ascended to the throne (''sokui'').", "In 760 (''Tenpyō-hōji 4''), additional coins were put into circulation—copper coins bearing the words ''Mannen Ten-hō'', silver coins bearing the words ''Teihei Genhō'', and gold coins bearing the words ''Kaiki Shōhō''.The years of Junnin's reign, 758–765, are more specifically encompassed within a single era name or ''nengō'', ''Tenpyō-hōji''.", "Junnin seemingly had very little power and was possibly a mere figurehead.", "In 764, six years after Empress Kōken had abdicated, the former empress reclaimed the throne during Fujiwara no Nakamaro's Rebellion, forcing Junnin to abdicate.===Death and mausoleum===On November 10, 765 (''Tenpyō-jingo 1, 23rd day of the 10th month''), the former emperor died while in exile.", "The site of Junnin's actual grave is unknown, and he is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Awaji.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Junnin's mausoleum: It is formally named ''Awaji no misasagi''.Though Junnin had, technically, been emperor, he was not featured on the official List of Japanese Emperors until the late nineteenth century.", "In 1870, Emperor Meiji conferred the posthumous name and title by which Emperor Junnin is now known.", "His place in the traditional order of succession was confirmed at the same time as announcements about Emperor Kōbun and Emperor Chūkyō were made public." ], [ "Kugyō", " is a collective term for the few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.", "In general, this elite group included only three or four men at a time, and they were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of their careers.", "During Junnin's reign, the ranks of this group of ''Daijō-kan'' included:* Taishi (Daijō-daijin): Fujiwara Oshikatsu, also known as Emi no Oshikatsu (恵美押勝) (formerly Fujiwara no Nakamaro) (藤原仲麻呂).", "* Taiho (Udaijin): Fujiwara Oshikatsu.", "* Sadaijin:, Fujiwara no Toyonari (藤原豊成).", "* Udaijin, Fujiwara no Toyonari (藤原豊成).", "* Naidaijin (not appointed)* Dainagon" ], [ "Consorts and children", "Consort: Awata no Morone (粟田諸姉), widow of Fujiwara no Mayori, the first son of Fujiwara no NakamaroBy Unknown woman:* Daughter: Imperial Princess Abe (安倍内親王) married Prince Isobe" ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* Appert, Georges and Hiroji Kinoshita.", "(1888).", "''Ancien japon.''", "Tokyo: Kokubunsha.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Odai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult* Japanese empresses" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Heizei" ], [ "Introduction", ", also known as ''Heijō-tennō'', was the 51st emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Heizei's reign lasted from 806 to 809." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Heizei was the eldest son of the Emperor Kanmu and empress Fujiwara no Otomuro.", "Heizei had three Empresses and seven sons and daughters.Heizei is traditionally venerated at his tomb; the Imperial Household Agency designates , in Nara, as the location of Heizei's mausoleum.", "The site is publicly accessible.", "Although one of the largest kofun monuments in Japan, archaeological investigations in 1962–1963 indicate that it was constructed in the early 5th century, and that portions of it were destroyed during the construction of Heijo-kyō, calling into question the designation by the Imperial Household Agency.===Events of Heizei's life===Before he ascended to the throne, his liaison with Fujiwara no Kusuko, the mother of his one consort, caused a scandal.", "Because of this scandal his father considered depriving him of the rank of crown prince.", "* '''785''': (): Heizei was appointed Crown Prince at the age of 12.", "* '''April 9, 806''' (): In the 25th year of Emperor Kanmu's reign, he died; and despite an ensuing dispute over who should follow him as sovereign, contemporary scholars then construed that the succession (''senso'') was received by his son.", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Heizei is said to have acceded to the throne (''sokui'').His title Heizei was derived from the official name of the capital in Nara, Heizei Kyō.During Heizei's reign, the bodyguards were reorganized; the existing Imperial Bodyguards became the Left Imperial Bodyguards, while the Middle Bodyguards became the Right Imperial Bodyguards.", "Both sides were given a new Senior Commander; at this time Heizei appointed Sakanoue no Tamuramaro (758–811) as Senior Commander of the Imperial Bodyguards of the Right.", "Under Emperor Kanmu, Tamuramaro had been appointed as ''shōgun'' of a military expedition against the Emishi.", "* '''809''' (): After a reign of four years, Heizei fell ill; and fearing that he would not survive, Heizei abdicated in favor of his younger brother, who would later come to be known as Emperor Saga.", "After abdicating, Heizei moved to Nara and was henceforth known as ''Nara no Mikado'', the \"Emperor of Nara\".", "* '''May 18, 809''' (): Emperor Saga was enthroned at age 24.", "* '''810''' (''Kōnin 1''): In Heizei's name, the former emperor's ambitious third wife, , and her brother Nakanari organized an attempted rebellion, but their forces were defeated.", "Kusuko died in poison and her brother was executed.", "Heizei took the tonsure and became a Buddhist monk.", "* '''August 5, 824''' (): Heizei died at age 51, 14 years after he had abdicated due to illness.===Era of Heizei's reign===The years of Heizei's reign are encompassed within one era name (''nengō'').", "* ''Daidō'' (806–810)" ], [ "Kugyō", " is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time.", "These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.", "During Heizei's reign, this apex of the ''Daijō-kan'' included:* ''Sadaijin'' (not appointed)* ''Udaijin'', Miwa-no-Oh or Miwa-no-Ohkimi (神王), 798–806.", "* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Uchimaro (藤原内麿), 806–812.", "* ''Naidaijin''* ''Dainagon'', Fujiwara no Otomo (藤原雄友), 806–807When the daughter of a ''chūnagon'' became the favored consort of the Crown Prince Ate (later known as Heizei''-tennō''), her father's power and position in court was affected.", "Kanmu disapproved of , former wife of Fujiwara no Tadanushi; and Kanmu had her removed from his son's household.", "After Kanmu died, Heizei restored this one-time favorite as part of his household; and this distinction had consequences.", "* ''Chūnagon'', Fujiwara no Tadanushi" ], [ "Consorts and children", "Empress (posthumously elevated ''Kōgō''): Fujiwara no Tarashiko/''Taishi'' (藤原帯子; d.794), Fujiwara no Momokawa’s daughter''Hi'': Imperial Princess Asahara (朝原内親王; 779–817), Emperor Kanmu’s daughter''Hi'': Imperial Princess Ōyake (大宅内親王; d.849), Emperor Kanmu’s daughter''Hi'': Imperial Princess Kan'nabi (甘南美内親王; 800-817), Emperor Kanmu’s daughter''Shōshi'' Court lady (''Naishi-no-kami''): , former wife of ''Chūnagon'' Fujiwara no Tadanushi and Fujiwara no Tanetsugu’s daughter''Hi'': Fujiwara Tadanushi’s daughterCourt lady: Ise no Tsuguko (伊勢継子; 772–812), Ise no Ōna’s daughterThird Prince: Imperial Prince Takaoka (高丘親王; 799–881), the Crown Prince in 809 (deposed in 810)Fourth prince: Imperial Prince Kose (巨勢親王; d. 882)Imperial Princess Kamitsukeno (上毛野内親王; d. 842)Imperial Princess Isonokami (石上内親王; d. 846)Third princess: Imperial Princess Ōhara (大原内親王; d. 863), 14th Saiō in Ise Shrine (806–809)Court lady: Fujii no Fujiko/''Tōshi'' (葛井藤子), Fujii no Michiyori’s daughterFirst Prince: Imperial Prince Abo (阿保親王)Court lady: Ki no Iokazu (紀魚員), Ki no Kotsuo’s daughterImperial Princess Enu (叡努内親王; d. 835)" ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "See also", " Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* * * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Saga" ], [ "Introduction", "''Cry for noble Saichō'' (哭最澄上人), which was written by Emperor Saga for Saichō's death.", "Saga was a scholar of the Chinese classics.", "He was also renowned as a skillful calligrapher.", "Chinese calligraphic influence had been weakened after the Heian period; this text was an example of the different way it was evolving in Japan.", "was the 52nd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Saga's reign spanned the years from 809 through 823." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Saga was the second son of Emperor Kanmu and Fujiwara no Otomuro.", "His personal name was .", "Saga was an \"accomplished calligrapher\" able to compose in Chinese who held the first imperial poetry competitions ().", "According to legend, he was the first Japanese emperor to drink tea.Saga is traditionally venerated at his tomb; the Imperial Household Agency designates , in Ukyō-ku, Kyoto, as the location of Saga's mausoleum.===Events of Saga's life===* '''806''' Saga became the crown prince at age 21.", "* '''June 17, 809''' (): In the 4th year of Emperor Heizei's reign, he fell ill and abdicated; and the succession (''senso'') was received by Kanmu's second son Saga, the eldest son having become a Buddhist priest.", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Saga is said to have acceded to the throne (''sokui'').Soon after his enthronement, Saga himself took ill. At the time the retired Heizei had quarreled with his brother over the ideal location of the court, the latter preferring the Heian capital, while the former was convinced that a shift back to the Nara plain was necessary, and Heizei, exploiting Saga's weakened health, seized the opportunity to foment a rebellion, known historically as the Kusuko Incident; however, forces loyal to Emperor Saga, led by ''taishōgun'' Sakanoue no Tamuramaro, quickly defeated the Heizei rebels which thus limited the adverse consequences which would have followed any broader conflict.", "This same Tamuramaro is remembered in Aomori's annual Nebuta Matsuri which feature a number of gigantic, specially-constructed, illuminated paper floats.", "These great lantern-structures are colorfully painted with mythical figures; and teams of men carry them through the streets as crowds shout encouragement.", "This early ninth century military leader is commemorated in this way because he is said to have ordered huge illuminated lanterns to be placed at the top of hills; and when the curious Emishi approached these bright lights to investigate, they were captured and subdued by Tamuramaro's men.", "* '''August 24, 842''' (): Saga died at the age of 57.===Eras of Saga's reign===The years of Saga's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name (''nengō'').", "* ''Daidō'' (806–810)* ''Kōnin'' (810–824)" ], [ "Legacy", "In ancient Japan, there were four noble clans, the ''Gempeitōkitsu'' (源平藤橘).", "One of these clans, the Minamoto clan are also known as Genji (源氏), and of these, the Saga Genji (嵯峨源氏) are descended from 52nd emperor Saga.", "Saga's son, Minamoto no Tōru, is thought to be an inspiration for the protagonist of the novel ''The Tale of Genji''.Emperor Saga played an important role as a stalwart supporter of the Buddhist monk Kūkai.", "The emperor helped Kūkai to establish the Shingon School of Buddhism by granting him Tō-ji Temple in the capital Heian-kyō (present-day Kyoto).=== Daikaku-ji === is a Shingon Buddhist temple in Ukyō-ku in Kyoto.", "The site was originally a residence of the emperor, and later various emperor conducted their cloistered rule from here.", "The artificial lake of the temple, Ōsawa Pond, is one of the oldest Japanese garden ponds to survive from the Heian period.The ''Saga Go-ryū'' school of ''ikebana'' has its headquarters in the temple and is named in his honour." ], [ "Kugyō", " is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time.", "These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.", "During Saga's reign (809–823), this ''kugyō'' included:* ''Sadaijin''* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Uchimaro (藤原内麿), 806–812.", "* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Sonohito (藤原園人), 812–818.", "* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu (藤原冬嗣), 821–825.", "* ''Udaijin'', Tachibana no Ujikimi.", "* ''Naidaijin''* ''Dainagon''" ], [ "Consorts and children", "Saga had 49 children with at least 30 different women.", "Many of the children received the surname Minamoto, thereby removing them from royal succession.", "Empress: Tachibana no Kachiko (橘嘉智子), also known as , Tachibana no Kiyotomo's daughter.", "Second Son: Imperial Prince Masara (正良親王) later Emperor NinmyōImperial Princess Seishi (正子内親王; 810–879), married to Emperor JunnaImperial Princess Hideko (秀子内親王; d. 850)Imperial Prince Hidera (秀良親王; 817–895)Imperial Princess Toshiko (俊子内親王; d. 826)Fifth Daughter: Imperial Princess Yoshiko (芳子内親王; d. 836)Imperial Princess Shigeko (繁子内親王; d. 865)''Hi'' (deposed): Imperial Princess Takatsu (高津内親王; d. 841), Emperor Kanmu’s daughterSecond Prince: Imperial Prince Nariyoshi (業良親王; d. 868)Imperial Princess Nariko (業子内親王; d. 815)''Hi'': Tajihi no Takako (多治比高子; 787–825), Tajihi no Ujimori's daughter''Bunin'': Fujiwara no Onatsu (藤原緒夏; d. 855), Fujiwara no Uchimaro's daughterCourt lady (''Naishi-no-kami''): Kudara no Kyomyō (百済王慶命; d. 849), Kudara no Kyōshun's daughterMinamoto no Yoshihime (源善姫; b.", "814)Minamoto no Sadamu (源定; 815–863)Minamoto no Wakahime (源若姫)Minamoto no Shizumu (源鎮; 824–881)''Nyōgo'': Kudara no Kimyō (百済貴命; d. 851), Kudara no Shuntetsu's daughterImperial Prince Motora (基良親王; d. 831)Fourth Son: Imperial Prince Tadara (忠良親王; 819–876)*Imperial Princess Motoko (基子内親王; d. 831)''Nyōgo'': Ōhara no Kiyoko (大原浄子; d. 841), Ōhara no Ietsugu's daughter*Tenth Daughter: Imperial Princess ''Ninshi'' (仁子内親王; d. 889), 15th Saiō in Ise Shrine 809–823''Koui'': Iidaka no Yakatoji (飯高宅刀自), Iidaka GakuashiMinamoto no Tokiwa (源常; 812–854)Minamoto no Akira (源明; 814–852/853)''Koui'': Akishino no Koko (秋篠高子/康子), Akishino no Yasuhito's daughterMinamoto no Kiyoshi (源清)''Koui'': Yamada no Chikako (山田近子)Minamoto no ''Hiraku(?)''", "(源啓; 829–869)Minamoto no Mituhime (源密姫)''Nyōgo'': Princess Katano (交野女王), Prince Yamaguchi's daughterEighth Daughter: Imperial Princess Uchiko (有智子内親王; 807–847), 1st Saiin in Kamo Shrine 810–831Court lady: Takashina no Kawako (高階河子), Takashina no Kiyoshina's daughter*Imperial Princess ''Sōshi'' (宗子内親王; d. 854)Court lady: Hiroi no Otona's daughter*Seventh Son: Minamoto no Makoto (源信)Court lady: Fuse no Musashiko (布勢武蔵子)Minamoto no Sadahime (源貞姫; 810–880)Minamoto no Hashihime (源端姫)Court lady: Kamitsukeno clan’s daughterMinamoto no Hiromu (源弘; 812–863)Court lady: Abe no Yanatsu's daughter*Minamoto no Yutaka (源寛; 813–876)Court lady: Kasa no Tsugiko (笠継子), Kasa no Nakamori's daughter*Minamoto no Ikeru (源生; 821–872)Court lady: Awata clan's daughter*Minamoto no Yasushi (源安; 822–853)Court lady: Ōhara no Matako (大原全子), Ōhara no Mamuro's daughterMinamoto no Tōru (源融), ''Sadaijin''Minamoto no Tsutomu (源勤; 824–881)*Minamoto no Mitsuhime (源盈姫)Court lady: Ki clan's daughter*Minamoto no Sarahime (源更姫)Court lady: Kura no Kageko (内蔵影子)Minamoto no Kamihime (源神姫)Minamoto no ''Katahime'' (源容姫)*Minamoto no Agahime (源吾姫)Court lady: Kannabi no Iseko (甘南備伊勢子)*Minamoto no Koehime (源声姫)Court lady: Fun'ya no Fumiko (文屋文子), Fun'ya no Kugamaro's daughter Imperial Princess ''Junshi'' (純子内親王; d. 863) Imperial Princess ''Seishi'' (斉子内親王; d. 853), married to Prince Fujii (son of Emperor Kanmu)** Prince Atsushi (淳王)Court lady: Tanaka clan's daughterMinamoto no ''Sumu(?)''", "(源澄)Court lady: Koreyoshi no Sadamichi's daughter*Minamoto no Masaru (源勝)Court lady: Ōnakatomi no Mineko (大中臣峯子)Court lady: Tachibana no Haruko (橘春子)Court lady: Nagaoka no Okanari's daughter*Minamoto no ''Sakashi(?)''", "(源賢)Court lady (''Nyoju''): Taima no Osadamaro's daughter Minamoto no Kiyohime (源潔姫; 810–856), married to Fujiwara no YoshifusaMinamoto no Matahime (源全姫; 812–882), Naishi-no-kami (尚侍)Lady-in-waiting: Sugawara Kanshi (菅原閑子)(from unknown women)Minamoto no ''Tsugu (?)''", "(源継)Minamoto no Yoshihime (源良姫)*Minamoto no Toshihime (源年姫)" ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "See also", "Emperor Go-SagaImperial cult" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", " 嵯峨山上* * * * " ], [ "External links", " Another photo of Emperor Saga's mausoleum" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Junna" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 53rd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Junna reigned from 823 to 833." ], [ "Traditional narrative", "Junna had six empresses and imperial consorts and 13 imperial sons and daughters.", "His personal name (''imina'') was .Junna is traditionally venerated at his tomb; the Imperial Household Agency designates , in Nishikyō-ku, Kyoto, as the location of Junna's mausoleum.===Events of Junna's life===* '''810''': After the rebellion of Emperor Heizei, he became the crown prince of Emperor Saga at 25 years of age.", "* '''30 May 823''' (): In the 14th year of Emperor Saga's reign, he abdicated; the succession (''senso'') was received by Junna, Saga's younger brother and Emperor Kanmu's third son.", "* '''22 March 833''' (): In the 10th year of Emperor Junna's reign, the emperor abdicated; and the succession (''senso'') was received by his adopted son.", "Shortly thereafter, Emperor Ninmyo is said to have acceded to the throne.", "After Junna stepped down from the throne, two former Emperors were alive.", "In this period, Saga was called the Senior Retired Emperor and Junna was known as the Junior Retired Emperor.", "* '''11 June 840''' (: Former-Emperor Junna died at the age of 55.Following his death, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa maneuvered to have Montoku, rather than the crown prince Tsunesada, put on the throne; Junna's death set the stage for the Fujiwara clan's ascendancy.===Eras of Junna's reign===The years of Junna's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name (''nengō'').", "* ''Kōnin'' (810–824)* ''Tenchō'' (824–834)" ], [ "Kugyō", " is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time.", "These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career.", "During Junna's reign, this apex of the ''Daijō-kan'' included:* ''Sadaijin'', Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu (藤原冬嗣), 825–826.", "* ''Sadaijin'', Fujiwara no Otsugu (藤原緒嗣), 832–843.", "* ''Udaijin'', Fujiwara no Otsugu (藤原緒嗣), 825–832.", "* ''Udaijin'', Kiyohara no Natsuno (清原夏野), 832–837.", "* ''Naidaijin'' (not appointed)* ''Dainagon'', Fujiwara no Otsugu (藤原緒嗣), 821–825.", "* ''Dainagon'', Yoshimine no Yasuyo (良峯安世) (half brother of Emperor Junna), 828–830.", "* ''Dainagon'', Kiyohara no Natsuno (清原夏野), 828–832* ''Dainagon'', Fujiwara no Mimori (藤原三守), 829–838" ], [ "Consorts and children", "Empress: ''Imperial Princess Shōshi''/Masako (正子内親王; 810–879), Emperor Saga's daughterSecond Son: Imperial Prince Tsunesada (恒貞親王), the Crown Prince (deposed in 842)Third Son: Imperial Prince Motosada (基貞親王; 827–869)Fourth Son: Imperial Prince Tsunefusa (恒統親王; 829-842)''Hi'' (Empress as posthumous honors): Imperial Princess Koshi (高志内親王; 789–809), Emperor Kanmu's daughterFirst Son: Imperial Prince Tsuneyo (恒世親王; 806–826)First Daughter: Imperial Princess Ujiko (氏子内親王; d.885), 16th Saiō in Ise Shrine (823–827)Imperial Princess ''Yushi'' (有子内親王; d. 862)Imperial Princess Sadako (貞子内親王: d. 834)Court lady: Princess Otsugu (緒継女王; 787–847)''Nyogō'': Nagahara no Motohime (永原原姫)''Nyogō'': Tachibana no Ujiko (橘氏子), Tachibana no Nagana's daughter Prince''Koui'': Fujiwara no Kiyoko (藤原潔子), Fujiwara no Nagaoka's daughterCourt lady: Kiyohara no Haruko (清原春子), Kiyohara no Natsuno's daughterImperial Princess ''Meishi'' (明子内親王; d. 854)Court lady: Ōnakatomi no Yasuko (大中臣安子), Ōnakatomi Fuchiio's daughterFifth Son: Imperial Prince Yoshisada (良貞親王; d. 848)Court lady: Ōno no Takako (大野鷹子), Ōno no Masao's daughterImperial Princess Hiroko (寛子内親王; d. 869)Court lady: Tachibana no Funeko (橘船子), Tachibana no Kiyono's daughterImperial Princess Takaiko (崇子内親王; d. 848)Court lady: Tajihi no Ikeko (丹犀池子), Tajihi no Kadonari's daughterImperial Princess Tomoko (同子内親王; d. 860)Unknown ladyMune no ''Chushi'' (統忠子; d. 863), removed from the Imperial Family by receiving the family name from Emperor (Shisei Kōka, 賜姓降下) in 862." ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* * * * Kasai, Masaki.", "(1991).", "Tokyo: Yamakawa Shuppan-sha.", "; ; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Sukō" ], [ "Introduction", " (May 25, 1334 – January 31, 1398) was the third of the Emperors of Northern Court during the Period of the Northern and Southern Courts in Japan.", "According to pre-Meiji scholars, his reign spanned the years from 1348 through 1351." ], [ "Genealogy", "His personal name was originally '''Masuhito''' (益仁), but was later changed to '''Okihito''' (興仁).His father was Emperor Kōgon.", "His predecessor, Emperor Kōmyō was his uncle, the younger brother of Emperor Kōgon.", "Lady-in-waiting: Niwata (Minamoto) Motoko (庭田（源）資子; d.1394), Niwata Shigemoto's daughterFirst son: Imperial Prince Fushimi-no-miya Yoshihito (1351–1416; 伏見宮栄仁親王) (Founder of Fushimi-no-miya house, collateral branch of the Imperial Family and included in the Succession to the Japanese throne until 1947)Second son: Imperial Prince Priest Koshin (1358–1391; 興信法親王)Court Lady: Anfuku-dono-Naishi (安福殿女御)Consort: Sanjō-no-Tsubone (三条局)First daughter: Princess Suiho (瑞宝女王)Third son: Imperial Prince Priest Kojo (弘助法親王)" ], [ "Events of Sukō's life", "Sukō occupied the Chrysanthemum Throne from 18 November 1348 until 22 November 1351.In 1348, he became Crown Prince.", "In the same year, he became Northern Emperor upon the abdication of Emperor Kōmyō.", "Although Emperor Kōgon ruled as a cloistered Emperor, the rivalry between Ashikaga Takauji and Ashikaga Tadayoshi began, and in 1351, Takauji returned to the allegiance of the Southern Court, forcing Emperor Sukō to abdicate.", "This was intended to reunify the Imperial Line.However, the peace soon fell apart, and in April 1352, the Southern Dynasty evacuated Kyoto, abducting with them Retired (Northern) Emperors Emperor Kōgon and Emperor Kōmyō as well as Emperor Sukō and the Crown Prince Tadahito.", "Because of this, Takauji made Emperor Kōgon's second son Imperial Prince Iyahito emperor (First Fushimi-no-miya).Returning to Kyoto in 1357, Emperor Sukō's son Imperial Prince Yoshihito began to work with the Bakufu to be named Crown Prince, but the Bakufu instead decided to make Emperor Go-Kōgon's son (the future Emperor Go-En'yū) Crown Prince instead.In 1398, Emperor Sukō died.", "But, 30 years after his death, in 1428, his great-grandson Hikohito (彦仁), as the adopted son of Emperor Shōkō, became Emperor Go-Hanazono, fulfilling Sukō's dearest wish.", "Sukō is enshrined at the ''Daikōmyōji no misasagi'' (大光明寺陵) in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto." ], [ "Eras during his reign", ":'''''Nanboku-chō'' Southern court'''Eras as reckoned by legitimate Court (as determined by Meiji rescript)** ''Shōhei'':'''''Nanboku-chō'' Northern court'''Eras as reckoned by pretender Court (as determined by Meiji rescript)* ''Jōwa''** ''Kan'ō''" ], [ "Southern Court rivals", "Emperor Go-Murakami" ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "See also", " Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac, ed.", "(1834).", "Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652, ''Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Go-Kōgon" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 4th of the Emperors of Northern Court during the Period of the Northern and Southern Courts.", "According to pre-Meiji scholars, his reign spanned the years from 1352 through 1371.This Nanboku-chō \"sovereign\" was named after his father Emperor Kōgon and ''go-'' (後), translates literally as \"later;\" and thus, he may be called the \"Later Emperor Kōgon\", or, in some older sources, may be identified as \"Emperor Kōgon, the second\", or as \"Emperor Kōgon II.\"" ], [ "Genealogy", "His personal name was Iyahito (彌仁).He was the second son of the Northern Pretender Emperor Kōgon, and brother of his predecessor, Emperor Sukō.", "His mother was Hideko (秀子), Sanjō Kinhide's daughterLady-in-waiting: Hirohashi (Fujiwara) Nakako (廣橋（藤原）仲子; 1336/9-1427) later Sukenmon’in (崇賢門院), Hirohashi Kanetsuna's daughterSecond son: Imperial Prince Ohito (緒仁親王) later Emperor Go-En'yūFifth son: Imperial Prince Priest Eijo (1362–1437; 永助入道親王)Sixth son: Imperial Prince Priest Gyōnin (堯仁法親王; 1363–1430）Twelfth son: Imperial Prince Priest Gyōsho (堯性法親王; 1371–1388)Consort: Uemon-no-Suke no Tsubone (右衛門佐局)First son: Imperial Prince Priest Ryōnin (1355–1370; 亮仁入道親王)Third son: Imperial Prince Priest Gyojo (行助法親王; 1360–1386）son: (1361–1369)Seventh son: Imperial Prince Priest Kakuzō (1363–1390; 覺増法親王)Consort: Sakyōdaibu-no-Tsubone (左京大夫局), Hōin Chōkai's daughterFirst daughter: Imperial Princess Haruko (d. 1390; 治子内親王)Fourth son: Imperial Prince Priest Kakuei (覺叡法親王; 1361–1377)Eighth son: Imperial Prince Priest Dōen (道圓入道親王; 1364–1385)Eleventh son: Imperial Prince Priest Shōjo (聖助法親王; b.1371)Consort:Shonagon-naishi (少納言内侍), Tachibana no Mochishige ‘s daughter*Tenth son: Imperial Prince Priest Myōshō (1367–1396; 明承法親王)from unknown womenNinth son: Imperial Prince Priest Kanshu (1366–1401; 寬守法親王)Thirteenth son: Imperial Prince Priest Kankyō (1373–1405; 寬教入道親王)Second daughter: Imperial Princess Kenshi (見子內親王)Fourteenth son: ?", "*Daughter: Princess Shūnin (秀仁女王)" ], [ "Events of Go-Kōgon's life", "In his own lifetime, Go-Kōgon and those around him believed that he occupied the Chrysanthemum Throne from 25 September 1352 to 9 April 1371.In 1351, Ashikaga Takauji briefly returned to the allegiance of the Southern Dynasty, causing the Southern Court to briefly consolidate control of the Imperial Line.", "However, this peace fell apart in April 1352.On this occasion, the Southern Court abducted Retired (Northern) Emperors Emperor Kōgon and Emperor Kōmyō as well as Emperor Sukō and the Crown Prince Tadahito from Kyoto to Anau, the location of the Southern Court.", "This produced a state of affairs in which there was no Emperor in Kyoto.", "Because of this, Imperial Prince Iyahito became emperor in 1352 with the support of Ashikaga Yoshiakira.During this period, the Era of the Northern and Southern Courts, because of the antagonism between the two competing dynasties, public order in Kyoto was disturbed.", "The Southern Court repeatedly recaptured Kyoto.", "Emperor Go-Kōgon was forced to repeatedly flee from Kyoto to Ōmi Province and other places.", "Around the time that Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was named ''shōgun'' (1368), the Southern Courts power weakened, and order was restored to Kyoto.", "Also around this time, the Emperor's authority began to show its weakness.On 9 April 1371, he abdicated in favor of his son, who became Emperor Go-En'yū.", "He continued to rule as Cloistered Emperor until he died of illness on 12 March 1374.He is enshrined with other emperors at the imperial tomb called ''Fukakusa no kita no misasagi'' (深草北陵) in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto." ], [ "Eras of Go-Kōgon's reign", "The years of Go-Kōgon's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or ''nengō''.", ":'''''Nanboku-chō'' Southern court'''Eras as reckoned by legitimate Court (as determined by Meiji rescript)* ''Shōhei'' (1346–1370)* ''Kentoku'' (1370–1372):'''''Nanboku-chō'' Northern court'''Eras as reckoned by pretender Court (as determined by Meiji rescript) ''Kannō'' (1350–1352)* ''Bunna'' (1352–1356)* ''Embun'' (1356–1361)* ''Kōan'' (1361–1362)* ''Jōji'' (1362–1368)* ''Ōan'' (1368–1375)" ], [ "Southern Court rivals", "Emperor Go-MurakamiEmperor Chōkei" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac, ed.", "(1834).", "Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652, ''Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Go-En'yū" ], [ "Introduction", " (11 January 1359 – 6 June 1393) was the 5th of the Emperors of Northern Court during the period of two courts in Japan.", "According to pre-Meiji scholars, his reign spanned the years from 1371 through 1382.This Nanboku-chō \"sovereign\" was named after the 10th century Emperor En'yū and ''go-'' (後), translates literally as \"later;\" and thus, he may be called the \"Later Emperor En'yū\", or, in some older sources, may be identified as \"Emperor En'yū, the second\", or as \"Emperor En'yū II.\"" ], [ "Genealogy", "His personal name was Ohito (緒仁).He was the second son of the fourth Northern Pretender Emperor Go-Kōgon.", "His mother was Fujiwara no Nakako (藤原仲子), Hirohashi Kanetsuna's daughter.", "Consort: Sanjō Itsuko (三条厳子) (also known as Fujiwara no Izuko).", "Sanjō Kintada's daughter.", "First son: Imperial Prince Motohito (幹仁親王) later Emperor Go-KomatsuFirst daughter: Imperial Princess Keiko (1381–1399; 珪子内親王)Lady-in-waiting Fujiwara no Imako (藤原今子), Shijō Takasato's daughter*Second son: Imperial Prince Priest Dōchō (1378–1446; 道朝法親王)Naishi: Ogimachi Sanjo Sanetoshi’s daughterNaishi: Azechi-no-tsubone, Tachibana Tomoshige’s daughterunknown daughter: (d.1391) daughter: ?", "??", "** son: ?", "?", "?" ], [ "Events of Go-En'yū's life", "In his own lifetime, Go-En'yū and those around him believed that he occupied the Chrysanthemum Throne from 9 April 1371 to 24 May 1382.In 1371, by Imperial Proclamation, he received the rank of ''shinnō'' (親王), or Imperial Prince (and potential heir).", "Immediately afterwards, he became emperor upon the abdication of his father, Emperor Go-Kōgon.", "There was said to be a disagreement between Go-Kōgon and the retired Northern Emperor Emperor Sukō over the Crown Prince.", "With the support of Hosokawa Yoriyuki, who controlled the Bakufu, Go-Kōgon's son became the Northern Emperor.Until 1374, Go-Kōgon ruled as cloistered emperor.", "In 1368, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was named ''shōgun'', and with his guardianship, the Imperial Court was stabilized.", "In 1382, upon abdicating to Emperor Go-Komatsu, his cloistered rule began.", "Having no actual power, he rebelled, attempting suicide and accusing Ashikaga Yoshimitsu and his consort Itsuko of adultery.In 1392, peace with the Southern Court being concluded, the Period of the Northern and Southern Courts came to an end.", "On 6 June 1393, Go-En'yū died.", "He is enshrined with other emperors at the imperial tomb called ''Fukakusa no kita no misasagi'' (深草北陵) in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto." ], [ "Eras of Go-En'yū's reign", "The years of Go-En'yū's ''Nanboku-chō'' reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or ''nengō''.", ":'''''Nanboku-chō'' Southern court'''Eras as reckoned by legitimate Court (as determined by Meiji rescript)* ''Kentoku'' (1370–1372) ''Benchū'' (1372–1375) ''Tenju'' (1375–1381)** ''Kōwa'' (1381–1384):'''''Nanboku-chō'' Northern court'''Eras as reckoned by pretender Court (as determined by Meiji rescript)* ''Ōan'' (1368–1375) ''Eiwa'' (1375–1379) ''Kōryaku'' (1379–1381)** ''Eitoku'' (1381–1384)" ], [ "Southern Court rivals", "Emperor Chōkei" ], [ "See also", " Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac, ed.", "(1834).", "Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652, ''Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Suizei" ], [ "Introduction", ", also known as , was the second legendary emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession.", "Very little is known about this Emperor due to a lack of material available for further verification and study.", "Suizei is known as a \"legendary emperor\" among historians as his actual existence is disputed.", "A legendary account from the ''Kojiki'' states that Suizei became emperor after receiving the title of crown prince by his half brother due to his bravery regarding a murder plot.", "Suizei's reign started in 581 BC, he had one wife and a sole son who supposedly became the next emperor upon his death in 549 BC.==Legendary narrative== While the ''Kojiki'' provides little information about Suizei, it does state his name, genealogy, and a record about his accession to the throne.", "He was born sometime in 632 BC, and was one of the sons of Emperor Jimmu and his chief wife Himetataraisuzu-hime.", "The account in the Kojiki states that Suizei's older brother Kamuyaimimi was originally the Crown-prince.", "When Jimmu died, another of his sons named Tagishimimi attempted to seize the throne by murdering those in his way.", "Tagishimimi was given birth to by a lesser wife named Ahiratsu-hime, and was older than Jimmu's legitimate heir.", "When Himetataraisuzu-hime learned of the plot she tried in vain to warn her sons by way of songs and poems.", "While Suizei encouraged Kamuyaimimi to slay Tagishimimi, he could not find it in him to murder his own half brother.", "Suizei pleaded with his older brother for the weapon he was going to use, and upon receiving it accomplished the deed for him.", "Kamuyawimimi ceded his rights as crown prince shortly after to Suizei as he believed his braver younger brother should be the new Emperor.Emperor Suizei's pre-ascension name remains unknown, but the ''Kojiki'' records that he ruled from the palace of at Katsuragi in what would come to be known as Yamato Province.", "While another more expansive account exists in the ''Nihon Shoki'', the section is more steeped in myth.", "Suizei is conventionally considered to have reigned from 581 to 549 BC.", "He wed Isuzuyori-hime at an unknown date, and the two had one son.", "Emperor Suizei allegedly died in 549 BC and his gravesite is formally named ''Tsukida no oka no e no misasagi''.", "He was succeeded by his only son, ''Prince Shikitsuhikotamatemi'' who became Emperor Annei." ], [ "Known information", "The existence of at least the first nine Emperors is disputed due to insufficient material available for further verification and study.", "Suizei is thus regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\", and is ranked as the first of eight Emperors without specific legends associated with them.", "The name Suizei''-tennō'' was assigned to him posthumously by later generations, and literally means \"joyfully healthy peace\".", "His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Suizei, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the ''Kojiki''.", "While the actual site of his grave is not known, an Imperial ''misasagi'' or tomb for Suizei is currently maintained in Kashihara.", "The first emperor that historians state might have actually existed is Emperor Sujin, the 10th emperor of Japan.", "Outside of the Kojiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates.", "The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD." ], [ "Consorts and children", "Empress: Isuzuyori-hime, Kotoshironushi's daughter, later Emperor Annei" ], [ "See also", " Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D.", "697.''", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Chamberlain, Basil Hall.", "(1920).", "''The Kojiki.''", "Read before the Asiatic Society of Japan on April 12, May 10, and June 21, 1882; reprinted, May, 1919.", "* Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth.", "(2005).", "''Japan encyclopedia.''", "Cambridge: Harvard University Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Annei" ], [ "Introduction", ", also known as was the third legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Very little is known about this Emperor due to a lack of material available for further verification and study.", "Annei is known as a \"legendary emperor\" among historians as his actual existence is disputed.", "Nothing exists in the ''Kojiki'' other than his name and genealogy.", "Annei's reign allegedly began in 549 BC, he had one wife and three sons.", "After his death in 511 BC, his second or third son supposedly became the next emperor." ], [ "Legendary narrative", "Emperor Annei's name appears in both the ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'' where only his genealogy are recorded.", "While the Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, no extant contemporary records have been discovered that confirm a view that this historical figure actually reigned.", "Before his accession to the throne, he was allegedly known as Prince Shikitsu-hiko Tamatemi.", "Shikitsu-hiko Tamatemi was either the eldest son or the only son of Emperor Suizei with Isuzuyori-hime.", "The ''Kojiki'' records that he ruled from the palace of at Katashiro in Kawachi in what would come to be known as Yamato Province.", "During Emperor Annei's alleged lifetime, he had one wife named \"\" and fathered three children with her.", "Annei's reign lasted from 549 BC until his death in 511 BC, his second or third son then took the throne and would later be referred to as Emperor Itoku.Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Emperor Annei." ], [ "Known information", "The existence of at least the first nine Emperors is disputed due to insufficient material available for further verification and study.", "''Annei'' is thus regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\", and is considered to have been the second of eight Emperors without specific legends associated with them.", "The name Annei''-tennō'' was assigned to him posthumously by later generations, and literally means \"steady tranquillity\".", "His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Annei, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the ''Kojiki''.", "The name \"Annei\" is first credited to Japanese scholar and writer Ōmi no Mifune, who allegedly came up with the name sometime in the latter half of the 8th century.While the actual site of Annei's grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (陵,''misasagi'') in Kashihara.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Annei's mausoleum, and is formally named ''Unebi-yama no hitsujisaru Mihodo no i no e no misasagi(畝傍山西南御陰井上陵,The royal tomb over the mihodo at the south west of mount unebi) ''.", "The first emperor that historians believe might have actually existed is Emperor Sujin, the 10th emperor of Japan.", "Outside of the Kojiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates.", "The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD." ], [ "Family tree" ], [ "Consorts and Children", "Empress: , Prince Kamo's daughter (Kotoshironushi's son)* , later Emperor Itoku" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D.", "697.''", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Chamberlain, Basil Hall.", "(1920).", "''The Kojiki.''", "Read before the Asiatic Society of Japan on April 12, May 10, and June 21, 1882; reprinted, May, 1919.", "* Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth.", "(2005).", "''Japan encyclopedia.''", "Cambridge: Harvard University Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Kōshō" ], [ "Introduction", ", also known as was the fifth legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Very little is known about this Emperor due to a lack of material available for further verification and study.", "Kōshō is known as a \"legendary emperor\" among historians as his actual existence is disputed.", "Nothing exists in the ''Kojiki'' other than his name and genealogy.", "Kōshō's reign allegedly began in 475 BC, he had one wife and two sons.", "After his death in 393 BC, his second son supposedly became the next emperor." ], [ "Legendary narrative", "In the ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'', only his name and genealogy were recorded.", "The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and an Imperial ''misasagi''(陵) or tomb for Kōshō is currently maintained; however, no extant contemporary records have been discovered that confirm a view that this historical figure actually reigned.", "Kōshō is believed to be the oldest son of Emperor Itoku, and his wife Amanotoyototsu-hime.", "His mother was the daughter of Okishimimi-no-kami.", "The ''Kojiki'' records that he ruled from the palace of at Waki-no-kami in what would come to be known as Yamato Province.", "Kōshō allegedly had a wife named ''Yosotarashi-hime'', and fathered two children with her.", "His reign lasted from 475 BC until his death in 393 BC, his second son then took the throne and would later be referred to as Emperor Kōan." ], [ "Known information", "The existence of at least the first nine Emperors is disputed due to insufficient material available for further verification and study.", "''Kōshō'' is thus regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\", and is considered to have been the fourth of eight Emperors without specific legends associated with them.", "The name Kōshō''-tennō'' was assigned to him posthumously by later generations, and literally means \"filial manifestation\".", "His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Kōshō, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the ''Kojiki''.", "While the actual site of Kōshō's grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') in Gose.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kōshō's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Waki-no-kami no Hakata no yama no e no misasagi''.", "There is a possibility that this figure could have lived instead in the 1st century (AD), however more research is needed to make any further conclusions.The first emperor that historians state might have actually existed is Emperor Sujin, the 10th emperor of Japan.", "Outside of the Kojiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates.", "The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD." ], [ "Consorts and Children", "Empress: , Owari clan's daughter* ** , later Emperor Kōan" ], [ "Family tree" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D.", "697.''", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Chamberlain, Basil Hall.", "(1920).", "''The Kojiki.''", "Read before the Asiatic Society of Japan on April 12, May 10, and June 21, 1882; reprinted, May, 1919.", "* Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth.", "(2005).", "''Japan encyclopedia.''", "Cambridge: Harvard University Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Kōan" ], [ "Introduction", " , also known as was the sixth legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Very little is known about this Emperor due to a lack of material available for further verification and study.", "Kōan is known as a \"legendary emperor\" among historians as his actual existence is disputed.", "Nothing exists in the ''Kojiki'' other than his name and genealogy.", "Kōan's reign allegedly began in 393 BC, he had one wife and two sons and reigned for more than 100 years until his death in 291 BC at the age of 137.One of his sons then supposedly became the next emperor.", "Emperor Kōan is traditionally accepted as the final emperor of the Jōmon period, which ended in 300 BC.==Legendary narrative== In the ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'', only his name and genealogy were recorded.", "The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and an Imperial ''misasagi'' or tomb for Kōan is currently maintained; however, no extant contemporary records have been discovered that confirm a view that this historical figure actually reigned.", "He is believed to be son of Emperor Kōshō; and his mother is believed to have been Yosotarashi-no-hime, who was the daughter of Okitsuyoso, and ancestress of the Owari.", "The ''Kojiki'' records Kōan was the second son of Emperor Kōshō, and that he ruled from the palace of at Muro in what would come to be known as Yamato Province.", "Kōan was allegedly an emperor who reigned for more than a hundred years, and lived to the age of 137 (according to the Kojiki).", "He allegedly had a wife named Yosotarashi-hime, and fathered two children with her.", "Kōan's reign lasted from 392 BC until his death in 291 BC, one of his sons then took the throne and would later be referred to as Emperor Kōrei." ], [ "Known information", "The existence of at least the first nine Emperors is disputed due to insufficient material available for further verification and study.", "Kōan is thus regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\", and is considered to have been the fifth of eight Emperors without specific legends associated with them.", "The name Kōan''-tennō'' was assigned to him posthumously by later generations.", "His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Kōan, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the ''Kojiki''.", "The name \"Kōan\" is first credited to Japanese scholar and writer Ōmi no Mifune, who allegedly came up with the name sometime in the latter half of the 8th century.Emperor Kōan's longevity is disputed as the oldest verified humans usually go into the mid to late 110s.", "While historian John S. Brownlee calls Kōan's alleged age of 137 at the time of his death \"too long\", he also says that this isn't unusual for mythical figures.", "He ends his narrative by saying that nobody in Japan was bothered by the longevity of the former emperors until the modern era.", "Regardless of his age, the actual site of Kōan's grave is not known.", "Kōan is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') in Tamade, Gose.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kōan's mausoleum, and its formal name is ''Tamate no oka no e no misasagi''.The first emperor that historians state might have actually existed is Emperor Sujin, the 10th emperor of Japan.", "Outside of the Kojiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates.", "The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD." ], [ "Consorts and children", "Empress: , daughter (Emperor Kōshō's son)* ** , later Emperor Kōrei" ], [ "Family tree" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D.", "697.''", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Chamberlain, Basil Hall.", "(1920).", "''The Kojiki.''", "Read before the Asiatic Society of Japan on April 12, May 10, and June 21, 1882; reprinted, May, 1919.", "* Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth.", "(2005).", "''Japan encyclopedia.''", "Cambridge: Harvard University Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Kōrei" ], [ "Introduction", ", also known as was the seventh legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Very little is known about this Emperor due to a lack of material available for further verification and study.", "Kōrei is known as a \"legendary emperor\" among historians as his actual existence is disputed.", "Nothing exists in the ''Kojiki'' other than his name and genealogy.", "Kōrei's reign allegedly began in 290 BC.", "He had one wife and three consorts with whom he fathered seven children.", "After his death in 215 BC, one of his sons supposedly became the next emperor.", "Kōrei is traditionally accepted as the first emperor of the Yayoi period, which is named after the Yayoi people who migrated to the Japanese archipelago from mainland Asia." ], [ "Legendary narrative", "In the ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'', only his name and genealogy were recorded.", "The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and an Imperial ''misasagi'' or tomb for Kōrei is currently maintained; however, no extant contemporary records have been discovered that confirm a view that this historical figure actually reigned.", "Kōrei was born in 342 BC and is believed to be the eldest son of Emperor Kōan.", "His mother is believed to have been Oshihime, who was the daughter of Ametarashihiko-Kunio-shihito-no-mikoto.", "Kōrei's pre-ascension name was Prince ''O-Yamato-Neko Hiko-futo-ni no Mikoto'', and the ''Kojiki'' records that he ruled from the palace of at Kuroda in what would come to be known as Yamato Province.", "It is noted in the Kojiki that sometime during Kōrei's reign, Kibi was conquered by the emperor.", "Kōrei was the first emperor since Jimmu to take on consorts, and fathered seven children with them along with his chief wife Empress: Kuwashi-hime.", "Kōrei is recorded as having a long life, reigning from 290 BC until his death in 215 BC.", "His eldest son was then subsequently enthroned as the next emperor." ], [ "Known information", "The existence of at least the first nine Emperors is disputed due to insufficient material available for further verification and study.", "Kōrei is thus regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\", and is considered to have been the sixth of eight Emperors without specific legends associated with them.", "The name Kōrei''-tennō'' was assigned to him posthumously by later generations.", "His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Kōrei, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the ''Kojiki''.", "As with Emperor Kōan, Kōrei's exceptional age of 127 is considered unlikely due to verification issues among other things.", "While the actual site of Kōrei's grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') in Ōji.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kōrei's mausoleum, and its formal name is ''Kataoka no Umasaka no misasagi''.Like Emperor Kōshō, there is a possibility that ''\"Kōrei\"'' could have lived instead in the 1st century (AD).", "Historian Louis Frédéric notes this idea in his book ''Japan Encyclopedia'' where he says it is \"very likely\", but this remains disputed among other researchers.", "The first emperor that historians state might have actually existed is Emperor Sujin, the 10th emperor of Japan.", "Outside of the Kojiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates.", "The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD." ], [ "Consorts and children", "Empress: , Shiki no Agatanushi Oome's daughterSon: , later Emperor KōgenConsort: *Daughter: Consort: , Wachitsumi's daughterDaughter: , buried in Hashihaka tumulus (there exists a claim that she is the shaman-queen Himiko)Son: Prince Kojiki (古事記)Son: , ancestor of Kibi clanDaughter: Consort: , Yamato no Kunikahime's sisterSon: Son: , ancestor of Kibi clanConsort: Mashita-hime (真舌媛), Toshihiko Ohihiko's daughter" ], [ "Family tree" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Chamberlain, Basil Hall.", "(1920).", "''The Kojiki''.", "Read before the Asiatic Society of Japan on April 12, May 10, and June 21, 1882; reprinted, May, 1919.", "* Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth.", "(2005).", "''Japan encyclopedia''.", "Cambridge: Harvard University Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Kōgen" ], [ "Introduction", ", also known as was the eighth legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Very little is known about this Emperor due to a lack of material available for further verification and study.", "Kōgen is known as a \"legendary emperor\" among historians as his actual existence is disputed.", "Nothing exists in the ''Kojiki'' other than his name and genealogy.", "Kōgen's reign allegedly began in 214 BC, he had one wife and two consorts whom he fathered six children with.", "After his death in 158 BC, one of his sons supposedly became Emperor Kaika." ], [ "Legendary narrative", "In the ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'', only Kōgen's name and genealogy were recorded.", "The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and an Imperial ''misasagi'' or tomb for Kōgen is currently maintained; however, no extant contemporary records have been discovered that confirm a view that this historical figure actually reigned.", "Kōgen was born sometime in 273 BC, and is recorded as being the eldest son of Emperor Kōrei.", "His empress mother was named \"''Kuwashi-hime''\", who was the daughter of Shiki no Agatanushi Oome.", "Before he was enthroned sometime in 214 BC, his pre-ascension name was ''Prince Ō-yamato-neko-hiko-kuni-kuru no Mikoto''.", "The Kojiki records that he ruled from the palace of at Karu in what would come to be known as Yamato Province.", "Emperor Kōgen had a chief wife (empress) named ''Utsushikome'', along with two consorts.", "His first son was named Prince Ōhiko, and according to the Nihon Shoki was the direct ancestor of the Abe clan.", "One of Kōgen's other sons, Prince ''Hikofutsuoshinomakoto'', was also the grandfather of the legendary Japanese hero-statesman Takenouchi no Sukune.", "Emperor Kōgen reigned until his death in 158 BC; his second son was then enthroned as the next emperor." ], [ "Known information", "The existence of at least the first nine Emperors is disputed due to insufficient material available for further verification and study.", "Kōgen is thus regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\", and is considered to have been the seventh of eight Emperors without specific legends associated with them.", "The name Kōgen''-tennō'' was assigned to him posthumously by later generations.", "His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Kōgen, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the ''Kojiki''.", "While the actual site of Kōgen's grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') in Kashihara.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kōgen's mausoleum, and its formal name is ''Tsurugi no ike no shima no e no misasagi''.The first emperor that historians state might have actually existed is Emperor Sujin, the 10th emperor of Japan.", "Outside of the Kojiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates.", "The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD." ], [ "Consorts and children", "Empress: , Oyakuchisukune's daughter, ancestor of all the Abe clan's descendants.", "*, later Emperor Kaika.", "Consort: , Ōhesoki's daughter, grandfather of .", "Consort: , Kawachi-no-Aotamakake's daughter*" ], [ "Family tree" ], [ "See also", " Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "Further reading", "* Asakawa, Kan'ichi.", "(1903).", "''The Early Institutional Life of Japan''.", "Tokyo: Shueisha.", "; ''see'' online, multi-formatted, full-text book at openlibrary.org* Aston, William.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Chamberlain, Basil Hall.", "(1920).", "''The Kojiki''.", "Read before the Asiatic Society of Japan on April 12, May 10, and June 21, 1882; reprinted, May, 1919.", "* Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth.", "(2005).", "''Japan encyclopedia.''", "Cambridge: Harvard University Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Kaika" ], [ "Introduction", ", also known as in the ''Kojiki'', and in the ''Nihon Shoki'' was the ninth legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Very little is known about this Emperor due to a lack of material available for further verification and study.", "Kaika is known as a \"legendary emperor\" among historians as his actual existence is disputed.", "Nothing exists in the ''Kojiki'' other than his name and genealogy.", "Kaika's reign allegedly began in 158 BC.", "He had one wife and three consorts whom he fathered five children with.", "After his death in 98 BC, one of his sons supposedly became Emperor Sujin." ], [ "Legendary narrative", "In the ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'', only Kaika's name and genealogy were recorded.", "The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and an Imperial ''misasagi'' or tomb for Kaika is currently maintained; however, no extant contemporary records have been discovered that confirm a view that this historical figure actually reigned.", "Kaika was born sometime in 208 BC, and is recorded as being the second son of Emperor Kōgen.", "His empress mother was named ''Utsushikome'', who was the daughter of ''Oyakuchisukune''.", "Before he was enthroned sometime in 158 BC, his pre-ascension name was ''Prince Nikohiko Ō-hibi no Mikoto''.", "The Kojiki records that he ruled from the palace of at Karu in what would come to be known as Yamato Province.", "Emperor Kaika had a chief wife (empress) named ''Ikagashikome'', along with three consorts of which he fathered five children with.", "Kaika ruled until his death in 98 BC; his second son was then enthroned as the next emperor.", "His son/heir to the throne was posthumously named ''Sujin'' by later generations, and is the first emperor that historians say might have actually existed." ], [ "Known information", "Nara.The existence of at least the first nine Emperors is disputed due to insufficient material available for further verification and study.", "Kaika is thus regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\", and is considered to have been the eighth of eight Emperors without specific legends associated with them.", "The name Kaika''-tennō'' was assigned to him posthumously by later generations.", "His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Kaika, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the ''Kojiki''.", "While the actual site of Kaika's grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') in Nara.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kaika's mausoleum, and its formal name is ''Kasuga no Izakawa no saka no e no misasagi''.Like Emperor Kōshō and Emperor Kōrei, there is a possibility that ''\"Kaika\"'' could have lived instead in the 1st century (AD).", "Historian Louis Frédéric notes this idea in his book ''Japan Encyclopedia'' where he says \"more likely early AD\", but this remains disputed among other researchers.", "The first emperor that historians state might have actually existed is Emperor Sujin, the 10th emperor of Japan.", "Outside of the Kojiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates.", "The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD." ], [ "Consorts and children", "Empress: , Oohesoki's daughter, later Emperor SujinConsort: , Taniwa no Ooagatanushi Yugori's daughterConsort: , Prince Waninishisaihito's daughterConsort: , Katsuragi no Tarumi no Sukune's daughter" ], [ "Family tree" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Chamberlain, Basil Hall.", "(1920).", "''The Kojiki''.", "Read before the Asiatic Society of Japan on April 12, May 10, and June 21, 1882; reprinted, May, 1919.", "* Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth.", "(2005).", "''Japan encyclopedia''.", "Cambridge: Harvard University Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Sujin" ], [ "Introduction", ", also known as in the , and or in the was the tenth Emperor of Japan.", "While Sujin is the first emperor whose existence historians widely accept, he is still referred to as a \"legendary emperor\" due to a lack of information available and because dates for his reign vary.", "Both the , and the (collectively known as the ''Kiki'') record events that took place during Sujin's alleged lifetime.", "This legendary narrative tells how he set up a new shrine outside of the Imperial palace to enshrine Amaterasu.", "He is also credited with initiating the worship of Ōmononushi (equated with the deity of Mount Miwa), and expanding his empire by sending generals to four regions of Japan in what became known as the legend of ''Shidō shogun''.This Emperor's reign is conventionally assigned the years of 97 BC – 30 BC.", "During his alleged lifetime, he fathered twelve children with a chief wife (empress) and two consorts.", "Sujin chose his future heir based on dreams two of his sons had; in this case, his younger son became Emperor Suinin upon Sujin's death in 30 BC.", "Like other emperors of this period, the location of Sujin's grave if it exists is unknown.", "He is traditionally venerated at the Andonyama kofun in Tenri, Nara." ], [ "Legendary narrative", "The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a kofun (tumulus) for Sujin is currently maintained.", "There remains no conclusive evidence though that supports this historical figure actually reigning.", "The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical and , which are collectively known as or ''Japanese chronicles''.", "These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time.", "The records state that Sujin was born sometime in 148 BC, and was the second son of Emperor Kaika.", "Sujin's mother was ''Ikagashikome no Mikoto'', who was also a concubine of Sujin's grandfather Emperor Kōgen.", "Before he was enthroned sometime in 97 BC, his pre-ascension name was either Prince ''Mimakiirihikoinie no Mikoto'', ''Mimakiiribikoinie no Sumeramikoto'', or ''Hatsukunishirasu Sumeramikoto''.", "The former name is used in the , while the latter two are found in the .", "Sujin was enthroned sometime in 97 BC, and during the 3rd year of his reign it is the recorded that he moved the capital to , naming it the ''Palace of Mizu-gaki'' or .===Enshrining Ōmononushi (Miwa Myōjin)===The ''Kiki'' records that pestilence struck during the 5th year of Sujin's rule, killing half the Japanese population.", "The following year peasants abandoned their fields and rebellion became rampant.", "To help relieve the suffering of his people, the Emperor turned his attention towards the gods.", "At the time, both the sun goddess Amaterasu and the god were enshrined at the Imperial Residence.", "Sujin became overwhelmed with having to cohabit with these two powerful deities and set up separate enshrinements to house them.", "Amaterasu was moved to in Yamato Province (Nara), where a Himorogi altar was built out of solid stone.", "Sujin placed his daughter in charge of the new shrine, and she would become the first Saiō.", "Yamato-no-Okunitama (the other god) was entrusted to another daughter named , but her health began to fail shortly afterward.", "It is recorded that Nunakiiri-hime became emaciated after losing all of her hair, which rendered her unable to perform her duties.", "These events still did not alleviate the ongoing plague sweeping the empire, so Sujin decreed a divination to be performed sometime during the 7th year of his reign.", "The divination involved him making a trip to the plain of Kami-asaji or , and invoking the eighty myriad deities.Sujin's aunt (daughter of 7th Emperor Emperor Kōrei) acted as a ''miko'', and was possessed by a god who identified himself as Ōmononushi.", "This god claimed responsibility for the plague, announcing that it would not stop until he was venerated.", "Although the Emperor propitiated to the god, the effects were not immediate.", "Sujin was later given guidance in the form of a dream to seek out a man named and appoint him as head priest.", "When he was found and installed, the pestilence eventually subsided, allowing five cereal crops to ripen.", "Out of an abundance of caution, the Emperor also appointed as , or one who sorts the offerings to the gods.", "To this day the Miwa sect of the Kamo clan claim to be descents from , while Ikagashikoo was a claimed ancestor of the now extinct Mononobe clan.===Four Cardinal Quarters (Shidō shogun)===The ''Four Cardinal Quarters''In his 10th year of rule, Sujin instituted four of his Generals to the ''Four Cardinal Quarters'' in what would be known as the ''Shidō shogun''.", "These areas (west, north/northwest, northeast, and east) were all centered around the capital in Yamato Province.", "Sujin instructed his generals (shogun) to quell those who would not submit to their rule.", "One of the four shoguns who had been sent to the northern region was named , who was also Emperor Kōgen's first son.", "One day a certain maiden approached Ōhiko and sang him a cryptic song, only to disappear afterwards.", "Sujin's aunt , who was skilled at clairvoyance, interpreted this to mean that Take-hani-yasu-hiko (Ōhiko's half brother) was plotting an insurrection.", "Yamatototohimomoso-hime pieced it together from overhearing news that Take-hani-yasu-hiko's wife (Ata-bime) came to , and took a clump of earth in the corner of her neckerchief.Emperor Sujin gathered his generals in a meeting upon hearing the news, but the couple had already mustered troops to the west who were ready to attack the capital.", "The Emperor responded by sending an army under the command of general ''Isaseri-hiko no Mikoto'' to fight a battle that ended with a decisive Imperial victory.", "Ata-bime was killed in combat, and her husband fled back north.", "Sujin then sent general north to Yamashiro Province to punish the rebel prince.", "There was ultimately an exchange of bowshots that resulted in Take-hani-yasu-hiko's death by an arrow through the chest.", "Eventually the Emperor would appoint 137 governors for the provinces under his Imperial rule as the empire expanded.", "In his 12th year of rule, the Emperor decreed that a census be taken of the populace \"with grades of seniority, and the order of forced labour\".", "The tax system meanwhile was set up so taxes imposed were in the form of mandatory labor.", "These taxes were known as for men and for women.", "During this period peace and prosperity ensued, and the Emperor received the title .===Choosing an heir and Divine treasures===During the 48th year of Sujin's reign (50 BC), he summoned two of his sons saying that he loved them equally and could not make up his mind which to make his heir.", "He then asked his sons to describe the dreams they had recently, so he could divine their lot by interpreting them.", "The elder son's name was , and explained to his father that he dreamt of climbing Mt.", "Mimoro (Mount Miwa).", "While facing east, he said that he thrust his spear eight times and then waved his sword eight times skywards.", "The younger prince, whose name was dreamt of climbing Mimoro and spanning ropes on four sides.", "He went on to say how he chased the sparrows that ate the millet.", "Sujin accordingly chose his younger son Ikume to become the next Crown prince, while his older son Toyoki was chosen to govern the east.", "Toyoki ultimately became the ancestor of the Kamitsuke and Shimotsuke clans.In the 60th year of Sujin's reign (38 BC), Sujin told his ministers that he wanted to look at divine treasures brought from the heavens by which were housed in the Izumo Shrine.", "was the keeper of the treasures, but at the time was away on business in Tsukushi Province.", "Furune's younger brother , accommodated the Imperial Edict on his behalf by sending his two younger brothers as carriers of these treasures to show the Emperor.", "When Furune returned, he was furious at Iiirine for parting with the treasures.", "He invited his younger brother to wade in a pool (named Yamuya) with him, where he used a sword-swapping intrigue.", "Furune exchanged his own wooden sword with his brother's real sword and commenced a battle which ended with Iiirine's death.", "When the Imperial court received news of the event, they dispatched two generals to slay Izumo Furune.===Later reign and death===Towards the end of his reign in (36 BC), both the and records indicate that Sujin started to encourage the building of artificial ponds and canals.", "During this time, was built near in Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka.", "Sujin is also credited with building which was said to be located in ''Karu'' (Kashihara, Nara).", "During his alleged lifetime, Sujin fathered twelve children with a chief wife (empress) and two consorts.", "When he died in 30 BC, his son ''Prince Ikumeirihikoisachi'' became the next emperor per Sujin's choice.", "Sujin's actual burial site is unknown, but is said to be at Mount Miwa." ], [ "Historical figure", "Andonyama kofun (alleged burial site of the Emperor)While Emperor Sujin is the first emperor whom historians state might have actually existed, he is not confirmed as an actual historical figure.", "Like his predecessors, his reign is disputed due to insufficient material available for further verification and study.", "Sujin's possible lifespan has been suggested to be as early as the 1st century AD, to as late as the fourth century AD, this is well past his conventionally assigned reign of 97 BC – 30 BC.", "Like Emperor Kōshō, Emperor Kōrei, and Emperor Kaika, historian Louis Frédéric notes an idea in his book ''Japan Encyclopedia'' that Sujin could have lived in the 1st century (AD).", "This remains disputed though, especially among researchers who have been critical of his book.", "If Sujin did in fact exist, then he may have been the founder of the Yamato dynasty.", "Historian Richard Ponsonby-Fane suggests that Sujin may have been the first emperor to perform a census and establish and regularize a system of taxation.In either case (fictional or not), the name Sujin''-tennō'' was assigned to him posthumously by later generations.", "His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Sujin, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the .", "Sujin's longevity was also written down by later compilers, who may have unrealistically extended his age to fill in time gaps.", "While the actual site of Sujin's grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at the ''Andonyama kofun'' in Tenri, Nara.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as the kofun (tumulus), and its formal name is ''''Yamanobe no michi no Magari no oka no e no misasagi''.", "Sujin's kofun is one of six that are present in the area; the mounds are thought to have built sometime between 250 and 350 AD.Outside of the , the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates.", "The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.", "The lineal ancestor of the current reigning emperor can be traced back to Emperor Kōkaku, who lived a thousand years later." ], [ "Consorts and children", "Empress: , Prince Ōhiko's daughterThird Son: , later Emperor Suinin***Consort: , Kii no Arakahatobe's daughter ancestor of Keno Clan (毛野君), first SaiōConsort: , Prince Tatehiroshinabi's daughter, ancestor of **" ], [ "Family tree" ], [ "See also", " Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "Further reading", "'''(''Nihongi / '')'''→See under for fuller bibliography.", ", alt-link English translation , searchtext resource to retrieve kanbun text vs. English tr.", "(Aston) in blocs.", ", modern Japanese translation.", " sacred texts, annotated Japanese.", "'''(Secondary sources)''' Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth.", "(2005).", "''Japan encyclopedia''.", "Cambridge: Harvard University Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Suinin" ], [ "Introduction", ", also known as was the 11th legendary Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Less is known about ''Suinin'' than his father, and likewise he is also considered to be a \"legendary emperor\".", "Both the ''Kojiki'', and the ''Nihon Shoki'' (collectively known as the ''Kiki'') record events that took place during Suinin's alleged lifetime.", "This legendary narrative tells how he ordered his daughter Yamatohime-no-mikoto to establish a new permanent shrine for Amaterasu (the Sun Goddess), which eventually became known as the Ise Grand Shrine.", "Other events that were recorded concurrently with his reign include the origins of Sumo wrestling in the form of a wrestling match involving Nomi no Sukune.Suinin's reign is conventionally considered to have been from 29 BC to AD 70.During his alleged lifetime, he fathered seventeen children with two chief wives (empress) and six consorts.", "One of his sons became the next emperor upon his death in 70 AD, but the location of his father's grave (if any) is unknown.", "Suinin is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb (''misasagi'') at Nishi-machi, Amagatsuji, Nara City." ], [ "Legendary narrative", "The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Suinin is currently maintained.", "There remains no conclusive evidence though that supports this historical figure actually reigning.", "The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'', which are collectively known as or ''Japanese chronicles''.", "These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time.", "The records state that Suinin was born sometime in 69 BC, and was the third son of Emperor Sujin.", "Suinin's empress mother was named , who is also former Emperor Kōgen's daughter.", "Before he was enthroned sometime in 29 BC, his pre-ascension name was Prince ''Ikumeiribikoisachi no Sumeramikoto''.", "He appears to have ascended the throne a year before his father's death in 30 BC, and ruled from the palace of at Makimuku in what later became Yamato Province.Suinin is best known for events that surround the founding of the Ise Grand Shrine.", "The ''Nihon Shoki'' states that around 2,000 years ago the Emperor ordered his daughter Yamatohime-no-mikoto, to find a permanent location to worship the goddess Amaterasu-ōmikami (the Sun Goddess).", "Yamatohime searched for 20 years before settling on a location in Ise, where she established Naiku, the Inner Shrine.", "She is said to have chosen the location after she heard the voice of Amaterasu say; \"(Ise) is a secluded and pleasant land.", "In this land I wish to dwell.\"", "Amaterasu had previously been enshrined and worshipped in Kasanui, which was set up by Suinin's father in an attempt to alleviate a devastating plaque.", "The ''Kojiki'' records that during the reign of Emperor Suinin, the first ''Saiō'' (High Priestess) was appointed for Ise Grand Shrine.", "This recording is also noted by ''Jien'', who was a 13th-century historian and poet.", "This remains disputed though, as the Man'yōshū (The Anthology of Ten Thousand Leaves) states that the first Saiō to serve at Ise was Princess Ōku.", "If the latter is true then it would date the Saiō appointments to the reign of Emperor Tenmu ( – 686 AD).There were other events during Suinin's reign as well that include an Asama Shrine tradition regarding Mount Fuji.", "The earliest veneration of Konohanasakuya-hime at the base of the mountain was said to be during the 3rd year of Emperor Suinin's reign.", "The ''Nihon Shoki'' also records a wrestling match in which ''Nomi no Sukune'' and ''Taima no Kehaya'' held during his era, as the origin of ''Sumai'' (Sumo wrestling).", "Meanwhile, Emperor Suinin's family grew to consist of 17 children with eight variously ranked wives.", "One of his consorts named ''Kaguya-hime-no-Mikoto'', is mentioned in the ''Kojiki'' as a possible basis for the legend of Kaguya-hime regarding the couple's love story.", "Emperor Suinin died in 70 AD at the age of 138, and his son Prince ''Ootarashihikoosirowake'' was enthroned as the next emperor the following year." ], [ "Known information", "Official mausoleum (''misasagi'') of Emperor Suinin, Nara PrefectureEmperor Suinin is regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\" as there is insufficient material available for further verification and study.", "Unlike Emperor Sujin, there is less known about Suinin to possibly support his existence.", "In either case (fictional or not), the name Suinin''-tennō'' was assigned to him posthumously by later generations.", "His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Suinin, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the ''Kojiki''.", "Suinin's longevity was also written down by later compilers, who may have unrealistically extended his age to fill in time gaps.", "While the actual site of Suinin's grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Nishi-machi, Amagatsuji, Nara City.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Suinin's mausoleum, and is formally named ''Sugawara no Fushimi no higashi no misasagi''.While the Ise Grand Shrine is traditionally said to have been established in the 1st century BC, other dates in the 3rd and 4th centuries have also been put forward for the establishment of Naikū and Gekū respectively.", "The first shrine building at Naikū was allegedly erected by Emperor Tenmu (678-686), with the first ceremonial rebuilding being carried out by his wife, Empress Jitō, in 692.Outside of the Kiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates.", "The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.==Consorts and children== Emperor Suinin had two chief wives (aka Empress), it is recorded in the Kiki that the first empress was named Saho.", "Not much is known about her other than that her father was Emperor Kaika's son and she allegedly died sometime in 34 AD.", "As with the first empress there is also not much known about Suinin's second chief wife Hibasu.", "She was the daughter Prince Tanba-no-Michinoushi, who was Prince Hikoimasu's son and Emperor Kaika's grandson.", "Hibasu's third son later became known as Emperor Keikō (the next emperor), she allegedly died sometime in 61 AD.", "Suinin also had six named consorts with an additional one remaining unknown.", "Prince Tanba-no-Michinoushi (previously mentioned), was also the father to three of Suinin's consorts.", "In all the Emperor's family consisted of 17 children with these variously ranked wives.===Spouse===Position Name Father Issue Empress (1st) Prince Hikoimasu First Son: Empress (2nd) Prince Tanba-no-Michinoushi Third Son: ===Concubines===Name Father Issue Prince Tanba-no-Michinoushi Prince Tanba-no-Michinoushi Prince Tanba-no-Michinoushi Prince Ootsutsukitarine Yamashiro no Ookuni no Fuchi Yamashiro no Ookuni no Fuchi ===Issue===Status Name Mother Comments Prince Saho-hime Prince Hibasu-hime Prince Hibasu-hime Later known as Emperor Keikō Princess Hibasu-hime Princess Hibasu-hime Possibly the first Saiō.", "Prince Hibasu-hime Prince Nubataniiri-hime Ancestor of the Wake clan (Wake no Kiyomaro).", "Princess Nubataniiri-hime Prince Azaminiiri-hime Princess Azaminiiri-hime Prince Kaguya-hime Prince Kanihatatobe Ancestor of the Mio clan (三尾氏), and maternal ancestor of Emperor Keitai.", "Princess Kanihatatobe Later married Prince Ōsu, was the mother of Emperor Chūai.", "Prince Karihatatobe Prince Karihatatobe Prince Karihatatobe Prince }" ], [ "Family tree" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Chamberlain, Basil Hall.", "(1920).", "''The Kojiki''.", "Read before the Asiatic Society of Japan on April 12, May 10, and June 21, 1882; reprinted, May, 1919.", "* Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* ____________.", "(1962).", "''Studies in Shinto and Shrines.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ], [ "External links", "* Ise Shrine - Naiku, official website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Keikō" ], [ "Introduction", ", also known as and , was the 12th legendary Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Both the ''Kojiki'', and the ''Nihon Shoki'' (collectively known as the ''Kiki'') record events that took place during Keikō's alleged lifetime.", "Keikō was recorded as being an exceptionally tall emperor who had a very large family.", "During his reign he sought to expand territorial control through conquest of local tribes.", "He had a very important son named \"Prince Ōsu\" (Yamato Takeru), who was in possession of the Kusanagi when he died.", "This treasure was later moved to Atsuta Shrine, and is now a part of the Imperial Regalia of Japan.", "There is a possibility that Keikō actually lived or reigned in the 4th century AD rather than the 1st, but more information is needed to confirm this view.Keikō's reign is conventionally considered to have been from 71 to 130 AD.", "During his alleged lifetime, he fathered at least 80 children with two chief wives (empress) and nine consorts.", "One of his sons became the next emperor upon his death in 130 AD, but the location of Keikō's grave (if any) is unknown.", "Keikō is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb (''misasagi'') at Nara." ], [ "Legendary narrative", "The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Keiko is currently maintained.", "The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'', which are collectively known as or ''Japanese chronicles''.", "These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time.", "The records state that Keikō was born sometime in 13 BC, and was given the name \"Otarashihiko-no-mikoto\".", "He was the 3rd son of Emperor Suinin, and his second empress wife \"\".", "Otarashihiko-no-mikoto was allegedly chosen as crown prince over his elder brother based on a casual question on what they both had wished for.", "In the former's case he said \"The Empire\" while his elder brother said \"Bow and arrows\".", "Otarashihiko-no-mikoto later ascended to the throne in 71 AD, coming a year after his father's death.Accounts in the ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'' are split when it comes to initial territorial expansion during Emperor Keikō's reign.", "In the ''Kojiki'', the Emperor is said to have sent his son \"Prince Ōsu\" (Yamato Takeru) to Kyūshū to conquer local tribes.", "Alternatively, the ''Nihon Shoki'' records that he went there himself and won battles against local tribes.", "Both sources agree that Keikō later sent Yamato Takeru to Izumo Province, and eastern provinces to conquer the area and spread his territory.", "According to traditional sources, Yamato Takeru died in the .", "The possessions of the dead prince were gathered together along with the sword Kusanagi; and his widow venerated his memory in a shrine at her home.", "Sometime later, these relics and the sacred sword were moved to the current location of the Atsuta Shrine.Emperor Keikō was recorded as , who had at least 80 children from multiple wives.", "This claim would put him into the category of Gigantism if verified, although as with other aspects it was more than likely exaggerated.", "Other than Yamato Takeru, at least three of Keikō's children were ancestors of notable clans.", "According to tradition, emperor Keikō died in 130 AD at the age of 143, and his son Prince ''Wakatarashihiko'' was enthroned as the next emperor the following year." ], [ "Known information", "Emperor Keikō is regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\" as there is insufficient material available for further verification and study.", "The name Keikō''-tennō'' was assigned to him posthumously by later generations.", "His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Keikō, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the ''Kojiki''.", "There is a possibility that Keikō's era was in the 4th century AD rather than the 1st.", "This period is concurrent with the Kentoshi having an audience with the Tang Emperor, more evidence is needed though to make any conclusions.", "Like his father before him, Keikō is also known to have an exaggerated lifespan which is unlikely to be factual.", "The consecutive reigns of the emperors began to be compiled in the 8th century, and it is thought that age gaps were \"filled up\" as many lacunae were present.", "For comparison, verified ages in the 110s have since been documented and recorded as the \"oldest in the world\".While the actual site of Keikō's grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Nara.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Keikō's mausoleum, and is formally named ''Yamanobe no michi no e no misasagi''.", "Outside of the ''Kiki'', the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates.", "The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.==Consorts and children== Emperor Keikō allegedly had a very large family which consisted of 2 wives, 9 concubines, and more than 80 children (51 of which are listed here).", "It is now questionable and open to debate though, if these numbers are genuine or not.", "Some of his listed children might actually be duplicates of the same person.", "The size of Keikō's family also could have been exaggerated over time through legends and word of mouth stories.===Spouse===Position Name Father Issue Empress (1st) Prince Wakatakehiko Empress (2nd) Prince Yasakairihiko ===Concubines===Name Father Issue Prince Iwatsukuwake Abe no Kogoto Prince Wakatakehiko Mononobe no Igui See below===Issue===Yamato Takeru later became a legend in his own right.Status Name Mother Comments Prince Harima no Inabi no Ōiratsume Prince Harima no Inabi no Ōiratsume Ancestor of Prince Harima no Inabi no Ōiratsume Ōsu, later known as Yamato Takeru, was the father of Emperor Chūai.", "Prince Yasakairi-hime Wakatarashihiko became the next emperor.", "(Known as \"Seimu\" posthumously) Prince Yasakairi-hime Prince Yasakairi-hime Prince Yasakairi-hime Prince Yasakairi-hime Princess Yasakairi-hime Princess Yasakairi-hime Princess Yasakairi-hime Prince Yasakairi-hime Isakiirihiko is the ancestor of Prince Yasakairi-hime Princess Yasakairi-hime Princess Yasakairi-hime Princess Mizuhanoiratsume Ionono-hime-miko was possibly also a Saiō.", "Prince Ikawa-hime Prince Ikawa-hime Prince Abenotakada-hime Prince Himuka no Kaminagaootane Prince Sonotake-hime Prince Sonotake-hime Prince Sonotake-hime Prince Himukanomihakashi-hime Ancestor of Prince Inabinowakairatsume Prince Inabinowakairatsume Prince Igoto-hime Princess Married Prince Hikohitoōe Prince Speculated as the same person with Prince Iokiirihiko Prince Prince Prince Speculated as the same person with Prince Takekunikoriwake Prince Prince Prince Speculated as the same person with Prince Oshinowake Prince Prince Prince Prince Prince Speculated as the same person with Prince Hikohitoōe Prince Prince Prince Prince Prince Prince Prince Prince Prince Prince Prince" ], [ "Family tree" ], [ "See also", "* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult* Takahashi Ujibumi" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Chamberlain, Basil Hall.", "(1920).", "''The Kojiki''.", "Read before the Asiatic Society of Japan on April 12, May 10, and June 21, 1882; reprinted, May, 1919.", "* Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* __________.", "(1953).", "''Studies in Shinto and Shrines''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Seimu" ], [ "Introduction", ", also known as , was the 13th legendary Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Both the ''Kojiki'', and the ''Nihon Shoki'' (collectively known as the ''Kiki'') record events that took place during Seimu's alleged lifetime.", "This legendary Emperor is best known for organizing his local governments by making the first appointments of their kind to provinces under his rule.", "Seimu had only one recorded wife who bore him a single child; he also had a concubine but she had no children.", "This is in stark contrast to his father, who is said to have had at least 80 children with multiple wives.Seimu's reign is conventionally considered to have been from 131 to 190 AD.", "An issue ultimately occurred when his only son allegedly died at a young age.", "Seimu appointed one of his nephews to be crown prince before his death in 190 AD, marking the first of later generations which would cede the throne to a non-direct successor.", "While the location of Seimu's grave (if any) is unknown, he is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb.", "Modern historians have come to the conclusion that the title of \"Emperor\" and the name \"Seimu\" was used by later generations to describe this legendary Emperor.", "It has also been proposed that Seimu actually reigned much later than he is attested." ], [ "Legendary narrative", "The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Seimu is currently maintained.", "The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'', which are collectively known as or ''Japanese chronicles''.", "These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time.", "The records state that Seimu was born to sometime in 84 AD, and was given the name .", "It is unknown how he was chosen as crown prince, but Wakatarashihiko later ascended to the throne in 131 AD.", "Seimu is best known for organizing his local governments by appointing the first provincial governors and district officials.", "While the details of his system of governing remain elusive, at the time Imperial princes were sent to important places in the provinces.", "These members are designated as ''wake'', which represented their status as a branch of the Imperial family.", "It has been theorized by Brinkley and Kikuchi that these appointments of local governors were designed to extend the \"prestige of the Court\".", "Those that were eligible included \"men of merit\", Imperial princes, or chiefs of aboriginal tribes.The records state that Seimu had a wife named , who was the daughter of ''Take-oshiyama-tari-ne''.", "Oho-takara bore the Emperor one child, named .", "Seimu's only son appears to have died at a young age as the Emperor appointed Yamato Takeru's son as Crown Prince, before his own death in 190 AD at the age 107 years old.", "His nephew ''Tarashinakatsuhiko'' was later enthroned as the next emperor in 192 AD.", "Seimu's death marked an end of direct lineage from legendary Emperor Jimmu, and was the first split branch of others that later followed." ], [ "Known information", "Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Emperor SeimuEmperor Seimu is regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\" as there is insufficient material available for further verification and study.", "His existence is open to debate given this lack of information.", "If Seimu did exist, there is no evidence to suggest that the title ''tennō'' was used during the time period to which his reign has been assigned.", "It is much more likely that he was a chieftain, or local clan leader, and the polity he ruled would have only encompassed a small portion of modern-day Japan.", "The name Seimu''-tennō'' was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations.", "His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Seimu, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the ''Kojiki''.", "There is a possibility that Seimu ruled during the first half of the 4th century when Japan became a unified state ruled from Yamato, making these accounts \"not improbable\".While the actual site of Seimu's grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Nara.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Seimu's mausoleum, and is formally named ''Saki no Tatanami no misasagi''.", "Outside of the ''Kiki'', the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates.", "The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD." ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Chamberlain, Basil Hall.", "(1920).", "''The Kojiki''.", "Read before the Asiatic Society of Japan on 12 April, 10 May, and 21 June 1882; reprinted May 1919.", "* Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Chūai" ], [ "Introduction", ", also known as was the 14th legendary Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Both the ''Kojiki'', and the ''Nihon Shoki'' (collectively known as the ''Kiki'') record events that took place during Chūai's alleged lifetime.", "Chūai is the first monarch to ascend the throne who was not a son of the previous Emperor as the latter's only child died young.", "He is also noted for having his capital in Kyushu, rather than Yamato like his predecessors.", "The records state that Chūai had a wife named ''Okinagatarashihime-no-Mikoto'' (later Jingū), and 2 consorts that all bore him 4 children.Chūai's reign is conventionally considered to have been from 192 to 200 AD.", "The events leading up to the Emperor's death have been subject to interpretation as they involve a vengeful Kami (spirit) indirectly killing Chūai.", "This event allegedly occurred after the Emperor disrespectfully scoffed at the Kami's request.", "His wife Jingū carried out the Kami's request which was to invade Korea, but this has since been considered legendary rather than factual.", "While the location of Chūai's grave (if any) is unknown, he is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb, and at a Hachiman shrine.Modern historians have come to the conclusion that the title of \"Emperor\" and the name \"Chūai\" were used by later generations to describe this legendary Emperor.", "It has also been proposed that Chūai actually reigned much later than he is attested.", "Emperor Chūai is traditionally listed as the last Emperor of the Yayoi period." ], [ "Legendary narrative", "The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Chūai is currently maintained.", "The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'', which are collectively known as or ''Japanese chronicles''.", "These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time.", "The records state that Chūai was born to Futaji no Iri Hime sometime in 149 AD, and was given the name .", "Chūai's father was allegedly the legendary prince, Yamato Takeru.", "He was the first Emperor who was not the child of the previous Emperor, being instead the nephew of his predecessor Emperor Seimu.", "The title of ''Crown Prince'' was given to him by his uncle before his death in 190 AD, two years later Chūai became the next Emperor.", "Unlike his predecessors who had maintained their capitals in Yamato Province, the records state his palace was first located on the northern shores of Shimonoseki Strait, then south of that in Kyushu.Emperor Chūai is described in the ''Kiki'' as having been ten feet tall, with \"a countenance of perfect beauty\".", "He had one wife who was named '' Okinagatarashi'' (aka Jingū), and two consorts who all bore him four children.", "During the start of his reign, he made progress to modern day Tsuruga, and led an expedition to Kii where he heard news of a revolt.", "Jingū accompanied him to the west to fight against a tribe in Tsukushi (located in modern-day Fukuoka Prefecture) called ''Kumaso''.", "On the eve of battle though, his wife was suddenly possessed by some unknown kami who advised Chūai to invade and conquer Korea.", "The Kami gave the reasoning that the ''Kumaso'' were not worthy of \"his steel\".", "Chūai refused with scorn for a number of reasons which included giving up a military campaign, and doubting that such a land even existed.", "It is said that the Kami was so enraged by this disrespect, that Emperor Chūai was later killed in a battle that beat down his troops.The death of the Emperor was kept quiet by Jingū, who vanquished the ''Kumaso'' soon afterwards in a fit of revenge.", "Jingū then respected the wishes of the Kami by invading Korea, and subjugated the eastern Korean kingdom of Shiragi.", "The other two Korean kingdoms at the time voluntarily submitted, and Jingū ascended to the throne as Empress.", "Jingū's occupation of the Korean Peninsula, and reign as Empress are now considered to be legendary rather than factual.", "The modern traditional view is that Chūai's son (''Homutawake'') became the next Emperor after Jingū acted as a regent.", "She would have been de facto ruler in the interim." ], [ "Known information", " the possible resting spot of Emperor ChuaiEmperor Chūai is regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\" as there is insufficient material available for further verification and study.", "The lack of this information has made his very existence open to debate.", "There is no evidence to suggest that the title ''tennō'' was used during the time to which Chūai's reign has been assigned.", "It is certainly possible that he was a chieftain or local clan leader, and that the polity he ruled would have only encompassed a small portion of modern-day Japan.", "The name Chūai''-tennō'' was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations.", "His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Chūai, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the ''Kojiki''.The manner in which Chūai died has since been broken down to at least two theories.", "In his book ''Confucianism O - Z'', professor Xinzhong Yao notes that it is possible the late Emperor could have succumbed to illness rather than death on the battlefield.", "Sources which include Yao, Francis Brinkley, and Kikuchi Dairoku also cite the enemy arrow scenario.", "While the actual site of Chūai's grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Nara.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Chūai's mausoleum, and is formally named ''Ega no Naganu no nishi no misasagi''.", "The Kami (spirit) of Chūai is also enshrined at the Tamukeyama Hachiman Shrine in Nara.", "Chūai is traditionally listed as the last Emperor of the Yayoi period, who could have in reality ruled in the 4th century.", "The next era is known as the Kofun period, where more is known about the Emperors based on modern day archaeological evidence.Outside of the ''Kiki'', the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates.", "The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD." ], [ "Consorts and children", "Empress: , later Empress Jingu, Prince Okinaga no sukune's daughter, later Emperor ŌjinConsort: , Prince Hikohitoōe's daughter (Emperor Keiko's son)Consort: , Ōsakanushi's daughter" ], [ "Family tree" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D.", "697.''", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Chamberlain, Basil Hall.", "(1920).", "''The Kojiki.''", "Read before the Asiatic Society of Japan on April 12, May 10, and June 21, 1882; reprinted, May, 1919.", "* Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Ōjin" ], [ "Introduction", ", also known as (alternatively spelled 譽田別命, 誉田別命, 品陀和気命, 譽田分命, 誉田別尊, 品陀別命) or , was the 15th (possibly legendary) Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Both the ''Kojiki'', and the ''Nihon Shoki'' (collectively known as the ''Kiki'') record events that took place during Ōjin's alleged lifetime.", "Ōjin is traditionally listed as the first emperor of the Kofun period, and is primarily known for being the controversial son of Empress Jingū.", "Historians have mixed views on his factual existence, if Ōjin was indeed a historical figure then it's assumed he reigned much later than he is attested.No firm dates can be assigned to Ōjin's life or reign, but he is traditionally considered to have reigned from 270 to 310.According to the Shinto religion and Buddhism in Japan, Emperor Ōjin is the divine spirit of the deity Hachiman (八幡神).", "While the location of Ōjin's grave (if any) is unknown, he is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb.", "Modern historians have come to the conclusion that the title of \"Emperor\" and the name \"Ōjin\" was used by later generations to describe this possibly legendary Emperor." ], [ "Legendary narrative", "The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Ōjin is currently maintained.", "The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'', which are collectively known as or ''Japanese chronicles''.", "These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time.", "The circumstances surrounding the future emperor's birth are controversial as they allegedly involve the invasion of the Korean Peninsula.", "It is said by the Kiki that Ōjin was conceived but unborn when his father Emperor Chūai died.", "Empress Jingū then became a de facto ruler who allegedly invaded a \"promised land\" (Korea) out of revenge, then returned three years later to the Japanese mainland to give birth.", "The records state that Ōjin was born to Empress Jingū in Tsukushi Province sometime in 201 AD, and was given the name .", "He became the crown prince at the age of four, but was not crowned Emperor until 270 AD at the age of 70.Emperor Ōjin supposedly lived in two palaces which are now located in present-day Osaka.", "His reign lasted 40 years until his death in 310 AD, in all he fathered 28 children with one spouse and ten consorts.", "His fourth son '' Ōosazaki'' was later enthroned as the next emperor in 313 AD." ], [ "Known information", "Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Emperor Ōjin.While the historical existence of Emperor Ōjin is debated among historians, there is a general consensus that he was \"probably real\".", "There is also an agreement that Ōjin's three year conception period is mythical and symbolic, rather than realistic.", "William George Aston has suggested that this can be interpreted as a period of less than nine months containing three \"years\" (some seasons), e.g.", "three harvests.", "If Ōjin was an actual historical figure then historians have proposed that he ruled later than attested.", "Dates of his actual reign have been proposed to be as early as 370 to 390 AD, to as late as the early 5th century AD.", "At least one Japanese historian has cast doubt on this theory though, by revising a supporting statement given in 1972.In this new narrative Louis Perez states: \"only kings and emperors after the reign of Ōjin... ...are seen as historical figures\".", "In either case there is also no evidence to suggest that the title ''tennō'' was used during the time to which Ōjin's reign has been assigned.", "It is certainly possible that he was a chieftain or local clan leader, and that the polity he ruled would have only encompassed a small portion of modern-day Japan.", "The name Ōjin''-tennō'' was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations.While the actual site of Ōjin's grave is not known, this regent is traditionally venerated at a ''kofun''-type Imperial tomb in Osaka.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Ōjin's mausoleum, and is formally named ''Eega no Mofushi no oka no misasagi''.", "At some point Ōjin was made a guardian Kami of the Hata clan, and is now also deified as Hachiman Daimyōjin.", "Outside of the ''Kiki'', the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates.", "The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.According to world-renowned linguist and Japanese language expert Alexander Vovin, due to Amenohiboko being of Korean origin, Empress Jingū and her son and successor, Ōjin might have been native speakers of the Korean language." ], [ "Family", "Emperor Ōjin's family allegedly consisted of 28 children, which include 2 unnamed princesses from a previous marriage.", "He had one spouse who bore him a son that would become the next Emperor, as well as 10 consorts.===Spouse & concubines===Nakatsuhime Kami StatuePositionName Father Issue Kōgō Homudamawaka Princess ArataPrince NetoriPrince Ōosazaki(later Emperor Nintoku) Consort Homudamawaka Prince IzanomawakaPrincess KomukutaPrince Nukata no ŌnakatsuhikoPrincess OharaPrince Ōyamamori Consort Homudamawaka Princess AhePrincess Awaji no MiharaPrincess Ki no UnoPrincess Mino no IratsumePrincess Shigehara Consort Wani no Hifure no Omi Princess MetoriPrince Uji no WakiiratsukoPrincess Yata Consort Wani no Hifure no Omi Princess Uji no Wakiiratsu-hime Consort Kawamata Nakatsuhiko Prince Wakanuke no Futamata Consort Sakuraitabe no Muraji Shimatarine Prince Hayabusawake Consort Princess Hatabi no WakairatsumePrince ŌhaePrince Ohae Consort Sumeiroōnakatsuhiko Prince KatajiPrincess Kawarata no IratsumePrincess Tama no Iratsume Consort Takenouchi no Sukune Prince Izanomawaka Consort Kibi-no-Takehiko ===Issue===Status Name Mother Comments Princess ''Nakatsu-hime'' Very little is known about this person.", "Prince ''Nakatsu-hime'' Would later become Emperor Emperor Nintoku.", "Prince ''Nakatsu-hime'' Ancestor of , married Princess Awaji no Mihara (see below).", "Prince ''Takakiiri-hime'' Ancestor of .", "Prince ''Takakiiri-hime'' Very little is known about this person.", "Prince ''Takakiiri-hime'' Ōyamamori died in 310 AD.", "Princess ''Takakiiri-hime'' Very little is known about this person.", "Princess ''Takakiiri-hime'' Very little is known about this person.", "Princess ''Oto-hime'' Very little is known about this person.", "Princess ''Oto-hime'' Married to Prince Netori Princess ''Oto-hime'' Very little is known about this person.", "Princess ''Oto-hime'' Very little is known about this person.", "Princess ''Oto-hime'' Very little is known about this person.", "Prince ''Miyanushiyaka-hime'' Uji was a Crown Prince.", "Princess ''Miyanushiyaka-hime'' Metori died in 353 AD, and was married to Prince \"Hayabusawake\" (see below).", "Princess ''Miyanushiyaka-hime'' Yata was later married to Emperor Nintoku.", "Princess ''Onabe-hime'' Uji was later married to Emperor Nintoku.", "Prince ''Okinaga Mawakanakatsu-hime'' Ancestor of , and great-grandfather of Emperor Keitai.", "Prince ''Ito-hime'' Hayabusawake was the husband of .", "Prince ''Himuka no Izumi no Naga-hime'' Very little is known about this person.", "Prince ''Himuka no Izumi no Naga-hime'' Very little is known about this person.", "Princess ''Himuka no Izumi no Naga-hime'' Hatabi was later married to Emperor Richū Princess ''Kaguro-hime'' Very little is known about this person.", "Princess ''Kaguro-hime'' Very little is known about this person.", "Prince ''Kaguro-hime'' Very little is known about this person.", "Prince ''Katsuragi no Irome'' Very little is known about this person." ], [ "Family tree" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* Hachiman* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Chamberlain, Basil Hall.", "(1920).", "''The Kojiki''.", "Read before the Asiatic Society of Japan on April 12, May 10, and June 21, 1882; reprinted, May 1919.", "* Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", "; * Wakabayashi, Tadashi.", "(1995).", "''Japanese loyalism reconstrued: Yamagata Daini's Ryūshi shinron of 1759''.", "Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Nintoku" ], [ "Introduction", ", also known as was the 16th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Due to his reputation for goodness derived from depictions in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, he is sometimes referred to as the .While his existence is generally accepted as fact, no firm dates can be assigned to Nintoku's life or reign.", "He is traditionally considered to have reigned from 313 to 399, although this date is doubted by scholars." ], [ "Legendary narrative", "The Japanese have traditionally accepted Nintoku's historical existence, and a mausoleum (''misasagi'') for Nintoku is currently maintained.", "The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'', which are collectively known as or ''Japanese chronicles''.", "These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time.", "The ''Kiki'' states that Nintoku was born to Nakatsuhime no Mikoto (仲姫命) sometime in 290 AD, and was given the name .", "According to the ''Nihon Shoki'', he was the fourth son of Emperor Ōjin." ], [ "Known information", "Nintoku is regarded by historians as a emperor or ruler of the early 5th century.", "The historical profile of Nintoku is generally accepted as fact without attributing all of the things he allegedly accomplished.", "Nintoku's contemporary title would not have been ''tennō'', as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.", "Rather, it was presumably , meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\".", "Alternatively, Nintoku might have been referred to as or the \"Great King of Yamato\".", "The name \"Nintoku\" also might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to him, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the ''Kojiki''.Although the ''Nihon Shoki'' states that Nintoku ruled from 313 to 399, research suggests those dates are likely inaccurate.", "William George Aston notes that if they were factual, Nintoku would be 312 years old in his 78th year of reign assuming that the traditional accounts are correct.", "Outside of the ''Kiki'', the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates.", "The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.Hidehiro Okada identifies him with Dei of Wa, a king who preceded the better known Five kings of Wa." ], [ "Consorts and children", "According to the ''Nihon Shoki'', he was the fourth son of Emperor Ōjin and his mother was Nakatsuhime no Mikoto (仲姫命), a great-granddaughter of Emperor Keikō.", "He was also the father of Emperors Richū, Hanzei, and Ingyō.", "His name was .Empress (''Kōgō''): , poet and daughter of (first)First Son: , later Emperor RichūThird Son: , later Emperor HanzeiFourth Son: , later Emperor IngyōEmpress (''Kōgō''): , Emperor Ōjin's daughter (second)Consort (''Hi'') : , Morokata no Kimi Ushimoroi's daughter, married to Emperor YūryakuConsort: , daughter of Emperor ŌjinConsort: , daughter of" ], [ "Nintoku's tomb", "Daisen-Kofun, the tomb of Emperor Nintoku, OsakaDaisen Kofun (the largest tomb in Japan) in Sakai, Osaka, is considered to be his final resting place.", "The actual site of Nintoku's grave is not known.The Nintoku-ryo tumulus is one of almost 50 tumuli collectively known as \"Mozu Kofungun\" clustered around the city, and covers the largest area of any tomb in the world.", "Built in the middle of the 5th century by an estimated 2,000 men working daily for almost 16 years, the Nintoku tumulus, at 486 meters long and with a mound 35 meters high, is twice as long as the base of the famous Great Pyramid of Pharaoh Khufu (Cheops) in Giza.The Imperial tomb of Nintoku's consort, Iwa-no hime no Mikoto, is said to be located in Saki-cho, Nara City.", "Both ''kofun''-type Imperial tombs are characterized by a keyhole-shaped island located within a wide, water-filled moat.Imperial tombs and mausolea are cultural properties; but they are guarded and administered by the Imperial Household Agency (IHA), which is the government department responsible for all matters relating to the Emperor and his family.", "According to the IHA, the tombs are more than a mere repository for historical artifacts; they are sacred religious sites.", "IHA construes each of the Imperial grave sites as sanctuaries for the spirits of the ancestors of the Imperial House.Nintoku is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Osaka.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as his mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Mozu no Mimihara no naka no misasagi''." ], [ "See also", " Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult* Five kings of Wa* Ujigami Shrine" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D.", "697.''", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Richū" ], [ "Introduction", ", also known as was the 17th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Both the ''Kojiki'', and the ''Nihon Shoki'' (collectively known as the ''Kiki'') recorded events that took place during Richū's alleged lifetime.", "This emperor is best known for an assassination attempt on his life by his brother ''Suminoe'' after the death of their father Emperor Nintoku.", "Although no firm dates can be assigned to his life, Richū's brief reign is conventionally considered to have been from 400 to 405.During his reign local recorders were allegedly appointed for the first time in various provinces, a royal treasury was established, and court waitresses (Uneme) first appeared.", "Richū had both a wife and a concubine during his lifetime which bore him 4 children (2 boys and 2 girls).", "None of his children would inherit the throne as Richū appointed the title of crown prince to his other brother ''Mizuhawake''.", "Richū allegedly died sometime in 405 at the age of 70, and his brother ''Mizuhawake'' was crowned as Emperor Hanzei in the following year.", "While the location of Richū's grave is unknown, he is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb.", "Modern historians have come to the conclusion that the title of \"Emperor\" and the name \"Richū\" were used by later generations to describe him.", "There is also a general consensus that Richū was not a legendary figure." ], [ "Protohistoric narrative", "The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Richū is currently maintained.", "The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'', which are collectively known as or ''Japanese chronicles''.", "These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time.", "These records state that Richū was born to sometime in 336 AD, and was given the name .", "He was the eldest son of Emperor Nintoku, and was later appointed crown prince by his father during the 31st year of his father's reign.", "(343 AD).", "When Nintoku died in 399 AD, a period of mourning was followed by a scandal that almost took the Crown Prince's life.===Assassination attempt===Sometime during the interval before Richū assumed the throne, he sent his younger brother, to make marriage arrangements for his consort .", "Prince Nakatsu instead passed himself off as his older brother Richū, and seduced Kuro-hime.", "When the act was done he carelessly left his wrist-bells behind at Kuro-hime's house.", "Richū later discovered these during his first visit to her house, assumed what his brother had done, but decided to take no action against him.", "Nakatsu on the other hand was fearful of his scandalous actions and plotted to kill his brother that night.", "He secretly raised a small group of people who surrounded his brother's palace.", "Luckily for Richū, some of his loyal retainers intervened by rescuing the heir and carrying him off to Isonokami Shrine in Yamoto.", "Nakatsu meanwhile set fire to the besieged palace not knowing of his brother's escape.Richū's other younger brother (later Emperor Hanzei) followed him to Yamoto.", "He was told by Richū though, that unless he proved his loyality by killing Nakatsu he could not be trusted.", "Mizuhawake returned to Naniwa and bribed one of Nakatsu's retainers to kill him.", "Nakatsu was utterly defenseless and unprepared as he assumed his brother had fled and disappeared.", "He was subsequently stabbed to death by his retainer, and Mizuhawake made his way back to Yamoto to report his death.", "Richū in turn gratefully granted his younger brother \"Mura-ahase granaries.===Reign===Richū was crowned emperor after his brother's failed rebellion had been put to rest in the following year (400 AD).", "During this time, those who were not executed for their participation in the rebellion were forced to undergo tattooing as a punishment.", "Kurohime was also officially appointed as a concubine later in that year.", "Although the two had two sons and a daughter, Richū appointed the title of \"Crown Prince\" to his brother Prince Mizuhawake (later Emperor Hanzei) in 401 AD.", "In the year 403 AD, \"local recorders were appointed for the first time in various provinces, who noted down statements and communicated writings of the four quarters.\"", "Kurohime died sometime in the following year (404 AD) under unclear circumstances.", "Its said that the Emperor heard a voice in the wind utter mysterious words in the \"great void\" before a messenger announced of her death.", "Richū attributed the cause to an offended deity due to the misconduct of an official regarding a shrine.", "Princess Kusakanohatabino-hime was appointed empress in the following year (405 AD), and the two gave birth to a daughter (Princess Nakashi).", "A royal treasury was also established in that year which was managed by two appointed Koreans.", "Emperor Richū's reign ended during its sixth year, when he fell ill and succumbed to disease at the age of 64 or 70.The ''kiki'' states that Richū was buried in the misasagi on the \"Plain of Mozo no Mimi\".", "His brother ''Mizuhawake'' was enthroned as the next emperor in the following year (406 AD)." ], [ "Known information", "Emperor Richū is traditionally associated with this ''kamiishizu misanzai'' in Sakai.Richū is regarded by historians as a ruler during the early 5th century whose existence is generally accepted as fact.", "Orientalist scholar James Murdoch includes Emperor Richū in the \"earliest non-legendary\" sovereigns of Japan, while academic Richard Ponsonby-Fane stated that this \"may be termed the semi-historical period\".", "Scholar Francis Brinkley lists Emperor Richū under \"Protohistoric sovereigns\", and notes that rulers from this point forward no longer have reigns of \"incredible length\".", "Others such as author ''Joshua Frydman'' cite Emperor Richū's lifespan as being realistic in length.", "Richū has also been possibly identified with King San in the ''Book of Song'' by Confucian scholars and Arai Hakuseki.", "According to Chinese records, King San sent messengers to the Liu Song dynasty at least twice in 421 and 425.Scholars William George Aston and Brinkley disagree on the introduction of local recorders.", "Aston states in his reasoning that the arrival of the Korean scholar Wani did not take place until 405 AD, and \"historians have not yet got down to time of accurate chronologically\".", "Brinkley counters this by saying that Wani's innovation was \"not the art of writing, but, in all probability, a knowledge of the Chinese classics\".", "Academic Delmer Brown wrote that during Richū's reign, court waitresses (Uneme) appeared.", "There were also storehouses (Kura) built in various provinces, and an \"Administrator of State Affairs\" from his reign on.", "It is commonly accepted among historians that Emperor Richū was in his late 60s if not 70 when he died.There is no evidence to suggest that the title ''tennō'' was used during the time to which Richū's reign has been assigned.", "It is certainly possible that he was a chieftain or local clan leader, and that the polity he ruled would have only encompassed a small portion of modern-day Japan.", "It's also possible he could have had the title of , meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\", or \"Great King of Yamato\".", "The name Richū''-tennō'' was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations.", "His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Richū, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the ''Kojiki''.While the actual site of Richū's grave is not known, this regent is traditionally venerated at a ''kofun''-type Imperial tomb in Sakai, Osaka.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Richū's mausoleum, and is formally named .", "It is also identified as the kofun.", "Outside of the ''Kiki'', the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates.", "The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD." ], [ "Consorts and children", "===Concubine/Spouse===Position Name Father Issue Concubine Katsuragi no Ashita no Sukune Empress(Kōgō) Emperor Ōjin ===Issue===Status Name Mother Comments First Son (Prince) Ichinobe was the father of Emperor Kenzō and Emperor Ninken, he allegedly died sometime in 456 AD Prince Prince Mima allegedly died sometime in 456 AD Princess Aomi's (aka Iitoyo's) lifespan was allegedly between 441 and 484 AD Princess Nakashi was married to Prince Ookusaka and then later to Emperor Ankō." ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D.", "697.''", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ], [ "External links", "* Imperial Household Agency webpage on mausoleum* Digital Burial Mound Encyclopedia entry" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Hanzei" ], [ "Introduction", " aka '''Emperor Hansho''' was the 18th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Both the ''Kojiki'', and the ''Nihon Shoki'' (collectively known as the ''Kiki'') recorded events that took place during Hanzei's alleged lifetime.", "No firm dates can be assigned to this Emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 406 CE to 410 CE.", "His family included an \"Imperial Lady\", and \"Concubine\" which bore him 4 children.", "Historians have stated that while nothing remarkable took place during Hanzei's brief reign, he did have ranked concubines which is an introduced Chinese custom.", "Hanzei died sometime in 410 AD without naming an heir to the throne which caused Imperial ministers to name a successor.", "While the location of Hanzei's grave is unknown, he is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb.", "Modern historians have come to the conclusion that the title of \"Emperor\" and the name \"Hanzei\" were used by later generations to describe him.", "There is also a general consensus regarding Hanzei's factual existence." ], [ "Protohistoric narrative", "The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Hanzei is currently maintained.", "The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'', which are collectively known as or ''Japanese chronicles''.", "These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time.", "It's recorded in the ''Kiki'' that Hanzei was born to sometime in 352 AD, and was given the name .", "He was the third son of Emperor Nintoku, and a younger brother of Emperor Richū.", "The phrase ''Mizu ha'' in the name ''Mizuhawake'' translates to ''beautiful teeth'', as he was said to have beautiful \"exceptionally large\" \"teeth like one bone\" all of the same size.", "Only the ''Kojiki'' mentions the alleged full grown height of Emperor Hanzei which is said to have been .", "Shortly after Nintoku died, his elder brother attempted to assassinate his eldest brother (Richū).", "''Mizuhawake'' was able to bribe one of Nakatsu's retainers into killing Nakatsu in order to prove his loyalty to the future emperor.According to the ''Nihon Shoki'', Richū bypassed his own children to make his younger brother Mizuhawake crown prince in 401 AD.", "The given reason is that a ''Tajihi'' flower fell into a well which gave the name of ''Mizuhawake'' as the next heir to be.", "Mizuhawake was proclaimed as \"Emperor Hanzei\" upon Richū's death in 405 AD, and was enthroned sometime in the following year.", "Shortly after his enthronement Hanzei took as an \"Imperial concubine\", and eventually her younger sister as a consort.", "The two Empresses bore him 4 children which consisted of 2 sons and 2 daughters.", "During Emperor Hanzei's reign, he ruled from the palace Shibagaki no Miya at ''Tajihi'' in the province of Kawachi (present-day Matsubara, Osaka).", "During his five year reign the country enjoyed a time of peace.", "Emperor Hanzei died peacefully in his palace sometime in 410 AD without naming an heir (crown prince).", "This issue was later settled by Imperial ministers who selected Emperor Nintoku's youngest son Ingyō as the next emperor." ], [ "Known information", "Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Emperor HanzeiHanzei is regarded by historians as a ruler during the early 5th century whose existence is generally accepted as fact.", "Scholar Francis Brinkley lists Emperor Hanzei under \"Protohistoric sovereigns\", but notes that his short reign was \"not remarkable for anything\" except for indirect evidence that Chinese customs were beginning to be adopted by the Japanese court.", "Scholar William George Aston notes in his translation of the Nihon Shoki that \"three ranks of concubines are mentioned\", which at the time were of Chinese origin (ranked concubines).", "Others such as author Ryoichi Maenosono (Kokushi Daijiten) identify Emperor Hanzei with \"King Chin of the Five kings of Wa.", "According to Chinese records, King Chin sent a tribute to the Liu Song dynasty in 438 AD.British academic and Japanologist Basil Hall Chamberlain notes in his translation of the Kojiki that no accurate information exists regarding the ancient Japanese measures used to get Hanzei's alleged height of .", "He went on to say that \"the English equivalents used in this passage correspond but approximately to the modern Japanese standards\".", "As for Hanzei's ascension, the ''Nihon Shoki'' mentions that ''Tajihi'' is now known as the itadori flower.", "Aston notes though, that the story of a ''Tajihi'' flower falling into a well is inconsistent with a later passage in the Nihon Shoki which refers to ''Tajihi'' as a location (not a flower).There is no evidence to suggest that the title ''tennō'' was used during the time to which Hanzei's reign has been assigned.", "Rather, it was presumably , meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\".", "An alternate title could have also been \"Great King of Yamato\".", "The name Hanzei''-tennō'' was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations.", "His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Hanzei, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the ''Kojiki''.While the actual site of Hanzei's grave is not known, this regent is traditionally venerated at a ''kofun''-type Imperial tomb in Sakai, Osaka.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Hanzei's mausoleum, and is formally named formally named .", "Outside of the ''Kiki'', the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates.", "The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD." ], [ "Consorts and children", "===Imperial Lady/Concubine===Position Name Father Issue Consort (''Kōkyū'') ===Issue===Status Name Mother Comments Princess Its unknown if the province of Kahi (Kai) is connected to this princess.", "Princess \"The meaning of ''Tsubura'' is obscure.\"", "Princess The name \"Takara\" symbolically means treasure.", "Prince Takabe presumably died young." ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "See also", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult* Five kings of Wa" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D.", "697.''", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Ingyō" ], [ "Introduction", " was the 19th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "Both the ''Kojiki'', and the ''Nihon Shoki'' (collectively known as the ''Kiki'') recorded events that took place during Ingyō's alleged lifetime.", "No firm dates can be assigned to this Emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 410 to 453.While the location of Ingyō's grave (if any) is unknown, he is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb." ], [ "Protohistoric narrative", "The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Ingyō is currently maintained.", "The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'', which are collectively known as or ''Japanese chronicles''.", "These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time.", "It's recorded in the ''Kiki'' that Ingyō was born to somewhere between 373 and 375 AD and was given the name .", "He was the fourth son of Emperor Nintoku, making him the youngest brother of Richū and Hanzei.", "After the death of his brother Hanzei in 410 AD Oasazuma was approached by ministers who had unanimously chosen him as the next Emperor.", "Oasazuma declined the offer stating that his brothers had \"despised him as a fool\".", "He also called himself \"unlucky\" as he claimed to be suffering from an unmentioned paralyzing illness.After more than two years had passed, Oasazuma was finally persuaded by his favorite concubine Oshisaka no Ōnakatsuhime to accept the throne.", "Oasazuma was formally enthroned as Emperor Ingyō and his concubine became the next Kōgō.", "Sometime in early 414 an envoy was sent to Silla and procured a physician for the ailing Emperor.", "The physician attributed the problem to Ingyō's legs and was able to cure him in August of that year.", "In 415 AD, Ingyō reformed the system of family and clan names.", "This had been an ongoing issue as many families either gave false names or used a clan title with a ranking they hadn't earned.", "In the middle of 416 AD, an earthquake hit Japan which disrupted the \"temporary\" burial process of Emperor Hanzei.Sometime in the winter of 418 AD, empress Oshisaka no Ōnakatsuhime unintentionally introduced her husband to her younger sister at a banquet.", "Emperor Ingyō fell deeply in love and sent a messenger afterwards to summon her.", "He learned that the woman's name was \"Otohime\" (\"youngest princess\"), but was given the designation of \"Sotohori Iratsume\" (\"clothing pass maiden\") by local men for her beauty.", "Otohime initially refused to comply as she didn't want to hurt her sister's feelings.", "Not wanting to face punishment for disobeying, the messenger stayed with Otohime until she agreed to come.", "Oshisaka was not pleased by this and refused to let Otohime into the Imperial palace.", "Ingyō thus built Otohime a separate residence nearby where he often sneaked off to.", "Empress Oshisaka no Ōnakatsuhime bore Ingyō a total of nine children (5 sons and 4 daughters).", "In 434 AD Ingyō chose to name his first son Kinashi no Karu as Crown Prince.", "This was unknowingly a controversial choice as Kinashi was later accused of an incestuous relationship with his sister, Princess Karu no Ōiratsume.", "Ingyō couldn't punish his son due to the title he had bestowed upon him, so instead chose an indirect approach by banishing his daughter Karu no Ōiratsume to Iyo.", "When Emperor Ingyō died sometime in 453 AD, the king of Silla grieved so much that he presented Japan with 80 musicians to comfort Ingyo's soul.", "Kinashi no Karu meanwhile faced a challenge as his younger brother Anaho was favored to be heir apparent." ], [ "Known information", "Ichinoyama Kofun in Fujiidera.Ingyō is regarded by historians as a ruler during the early 5th century whose existence is generally accepted as fact.", "Scholar Francis Brinkley lists Emperor Ingyō under \"Protohistoric sovereigns\" whose reign was occupied by an affair and scandal by his son.", "Other scholars identify Ingyō with King Sai in the ''Book of Song''.", "This would have been a king of Japan (referred to as ''Wa'' by contemporary Chinese scholars) who is said to have sent messengers to the Liu Song dynasty at least twice, in 443 and 451.However, there is no record in the ''Kiki'' of messengers being sent.===Titles and dating===There is no evidence to suggest that the title ''tennō'' was used during the time to which Ingyō's reign has been assigned.", "Rather, it was presumably , meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\".", "An alternate title could have also been \"Great King of Yamato\".", "The name Ingyō''-tennō'' was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations.", "His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Ingyō, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the ''Kojiki''.Outside of the ''Kiki'', the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates.", "The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.===Events during reign===Early on in his reign, Emperor Ingyō chose to send envoys to Korea for medical assistance.", "Brinkley took note of this and stated that Korea was evidently regarded as the \"home of healing science\".", "He also attributed the \"many other\" arts which were borrowed from China.", "In regard to reforms, Sholar William George Aston notes in his translation of the Nihon Shoki that when Ingyō reformed the system of family and clan names, it would have only applied to dominant caste.", "At the time the general populace of Japan kept their personal names and \"cared little for geopolitics\".", "Emperor Ingyō's later affair with \"Otohime\" is regarded as important by Brinkley as it illustrates the manners and customs at the time.", "He also suggests that the \"atmosphere of loose morality\" was in part responsible for Kinashi no Karu's incestuous relationship.It is agreed upon by Basil Hall Chamberlain's translation of the Kojiki, and Aston's translation of the Nihon Shoki that Prince Kinashi no Karu was probably appointed crown prince during his father's lifetime.", "At the time, marriage between children of the same father had always been allowed as long as the mothers involved were different.", "Marriage of children of the same mother of whom Kinashi no Karu was guilty of was considered incest.", "Aston notes in his translation of the Nihon Shoki that it's doubtful Karu no Ōiratsume was banished by her father.", "Historically women have always been more lightly punished than men for the same offense, and \"the particular character of the fault in this case makes such a discrimination all the more reasonable\".", "Francis Brinkley comments that four facts present themselves during Emperor Ingyō's reign: \"Men wore wristbands and garters to which grelots were attached, that a high value was set for pearls, that metal was used for the construction of great man's gates, and the first earthquake is said to have been experienced in 416 AD\".", "The latter of these things allegedly leveled the Imperial Palace at Kyoto from the severity of the Earth's tremors.", "Modern sources have since questioned the reliability of this \"first earthquake\", opting instead to recognize another that took place in Nara prefecture on May 28, 599 during the reign of Empress Suiko.===Gravesite===While the actual site of Ingyō's grave is not known, this regent is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine in Fujiidera Osaka.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Ingyō's mausoleum/''kofun''-type Imperial tomb.", "Formally, this tomb is called , but is also given the name .", "Another burial candidate for Emperor Ingyō's is the , which is also located in Fujiidera.", "Ingyō is also enshrined at the Imperial Palace along with other emperors and members of the Imperial Family at the Three Palace Sanctuaries." ], [ "Consorts and children", "===Spouse/Concubine===Position Name Father Issue Empress(''Kōgō'') Prince Concubine(''Hi'') Prince None===Issue===Status Name Comments Prince Prince Kinashi was later defeated by Prince Anaho (see below) Princess Prince Prince Sakai allegedly died sometime in 456 AD.", "Prince Emperor Ingyō's 3rd son later became Emperor Ankō.", "Princess \"Princess Karu\" and \"Otohime\" are synonymous in the Kojiki.", "Prince Yatsuri's lifespan was allegedly 401 to 456 AD.", "Prince Emperor Ingyō's 5th son later became Emperor Yūryaku.", "Princess Princess" ], [ "See also", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom* Imperial cult* Five kings of Wa" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D.", "697.''", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Hammer, Joshua.", "(2006).", "''Yokohama Burning: The Deadly 1923 Earthquake and Fire that Helped Forge the Path to World War II.''", "New York: Simon & Schuster.", "(cloth)* Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Ankō" ], [ "Introduction", " (401 — 456) was the 20th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 453 to 456." ], [ "Protohistoric narrative", "The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Ankō is currently maintained.", "The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'', which are collectively known as or ''Japanese chronicles''.", "These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time.", "For this particular sovereign, the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki tell different versions of what allegedly happened in regard to Emperor Ankō's older brother ''Prince Kinashi no Karu''.", "It's recorded in the ''Kiki'' that Ingyō was born to somewhere in 400 AD, and was given the name .", "While he was the third son of Emperor Ingyō, the title of \"Crown Prince\" was not bestowed upon him in his father's lifetime.===War between Anaho and Kinashi===After Emperor Ingyō’s death in 453 AD, Crown Prince ''Kinashi no Karu'' faced a mounting problem.", "The incestuous relationship with his sister, Princess Karu no Ōiratsume had caused the public to shun him and his retainers refused to follow.", "Karu chose to take up arms against his younger brother as his retainers had instead given their allegiance to him.", "Prince responded with a force of his own which prompted Karu to flee and take refuge at a noble family's residence.", "From this point on, the ''Kiki'' splits narratives that converge again with the same fatal outcome.", "In the ''Nihon Shoki's'' version of events, ''Kinashi no Karu'' takes his final stand at the residence where he commits an honorary suicide.", "The Nihon Shoki does not say what happened to Princess Karu no Ōiratsume other than her being banished to Iyo by Emperor Ingyō during his lifetime for incest.", "In the ''Kojikis'' version of events, ''Kinashi no Karu'' surrenders to his younger brother and is banished to Iyo.", "Karu no Ōiratsume follows him to Iyo afterwards and the two commit suicide together.", "===Reign===Prince was enthroned as ''Emperor Ankō'' towards the end of 453 AD.", "During this time the capital was moved to ''Isonokami'' (located in Yamoto) where the new emperor had his palace.", "One of Ankō's first decisions in the following year was to arrange a marriage between his younger brother, , and Hatahihime, who was a sister of his uncle .", "Ankō dispatched his servant to negotiate with Ookusaka, and he happily consented to the marriage.", "As a token of approval, he entrusted Ne-no-omi with a richly jeweled coronet to be presented to the Emperor.", "Unbeknownst to Ankō, his servant chose to keep the coronet for himself and lied to him by saying Ookusaka refused to comply.", "Ankō believed Ne-no-omi's words and infuriated with rage sent his soldiers to kill Ookusaka and take his wife Nakashi (Emperor Richū’s daughter) as his Kogo.", "Hatahihime was then married to Ōhatuse in accordance with the Emperor's wishes.", "Aside from his eventual demise, there isn't anything else in the ''Kiki'' which describe noteworthy events during Ankō's reign.===Death===Ankō married Nakashi whom he \"loved deeply\" in 455 AD, but before this time she already had a son named Mayowa no Ōkimi (Prince Mayowa).", "The young price (6 years old at the time) was able to escape punishment on \"his mother's account\" and was brought up in the royal palace.", "Sometime in the Autumn of 456 AD, Emperor Ankō confided to Nakashi that he was worried one day Mayowa may seek to avenge his father's death.", "Mayowa overheard this remark and creeped to the side of his step-father who was asleep in Nakashi's lap.", "He then proceeded to cut off Ankō's head with his own sword.", "At the time of his death Ankō was 56 years old, had no children of his own, and according to the Nihon Shoki was buried sometime in 459 AD.", "Prince Ōhatuse no Wakatakeru (Emperor Ingyō's youngest son) became the next Emperor towards the end of 456 AD after killing Prince Mayowa and the rest of his competition." ], [ "Known information", "Emperor Ankō's misasagiAnkō is regarded by historians as a ruler during the mid 5th century whose existence is generally accepted as fact.", "Scholar Francis Brinkley lists Emperor Ankō under \"Protohistoric sovereigns\" whose reign was \"a discreditable page of Japanese History\".", "Other scholars identify Ankō with King Kō in the ''Book of Song''.", "This would have been a king of Japan (referred to as ''Wa'' by contemporary Chinese scholars) who is said to have sent tribute to the Southern Dynasty of China in 462, during the reign of Emperor Taiwu of the Northern Wei.", "It also mentions that King Kō was appointed as the \"General of the East\".", "However, there is no record in the ''Kiki'' of any tribute being sent during this time.===Titles and dating===There is no evidence to suggest that the title ''tennō'' was used during the time to which Ankō's reign has been assigned.", "Rather, it was presumably , meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\".", "An alternate title could have also been \"Great King of Yamato\".", "The name Ankō''-tennō'' was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations.", "His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Ankō, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the ''Kojiki''.Outside of the ''Kiki'', the reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates.", "The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.===Events during reign===Emperor Ankō had a short 3-year reign which is largely confined to an event that had deadly consequences.", "Sholar William George Aston notes in his translation of the Nihon Shoki that Hatahihime and are implied in the Shukai as grandchildren rather than children of Emperor Nintoku.", "He states that the \"obvious explanation\" is that the \"chronicle is entirely untrustworthy\".", "At the point where Emperor Ankō's servant relays false information regarding Prince Ookusaka's alleged rejection, the emperor had no reason to doubt him.", "Frank Brinkley notes that it was \"not customary in those days\" to conduct investigations (in this case a servant).The exact account of Emperor Ankō's death is also questionable given that a child could conceive or commit such a thing.", "Scholar Francis Brinkley suggests that Empress Nakashi played a role in her husband's death.", "He also suggests that answer might lie with who later became Emperor Yūryaku.", "Brinkley argues that if Ōhatuse had no issue with killing several of his family members to obtain the throne, then there is no reason why he wouldn't have started with the reigning emperor.===Gravesite===While the actual site of Ankō's grave is not known, this regent is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine at the ruins of Horai Castle in Nara City.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Ankō's mausoleum/''kofun''-type Imperial tomb.", "Formally, this tomb is called , but is also given the name .", "Another possible burial theory involves the , whose owner remains unknown.", "Ankō is also enshrined at the Imperial Palace along with other emperors and members of the Imperial Family at the Three Palace Sanctuaries." ], [ "See also", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom* Five kings of Wa" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D.", "697.''", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Yūryaku" ], [ "Introduction", " (418 – 479) was the 21st Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "He is remembered as a patron of sericulture.No firm dates can be assigned to this Emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 456 to 479." ], [ "Legendary narrative", "Yūryaku was a 5th-century monarch.", "The reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD), the 29th Emperor, is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates; however, the conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not to be confirmed as \"traditional\" until the reign of Emperor Kanmu (737–806), the 50th sovereign of the Yamato dynasty.", "However, Yūryaku's existence is testified to in a gold-filled inscription on the Inariyama Sword, unearthed in Gyoda, Saitama prefecture, in what was described as the discovery of the century for Japanese history, as well as the Eta Funayama Sword.According to the ''Kojiki'', this Emperor is said to have ruled from the Thirteenth Day of the Eleventh Month of 456 (Heishin) until his death on the Seventh Day of the Eight Month of 479 (Kibi).According to ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'', Yūryaku was named at birth, literally meaning \"Wakatake (Young Warrior) of Great Hatsuse\", where \"Hatsuse\" is the old name for Sakurai, Nara.", "is a name posthumously assigned to him by a much later era, literally meaning \"Magnificent Plan\".", "He was the fifth and youngest son of Emperor Ingyō.", "After his elder brother Emperor Ankō was murdered, he won the struggle against his other brothers and became the new Emperor.Yūryaku's contemporary title would not have been ''tennō'', as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.", "Rather, it was presumably , meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\".", "He had three wives (including his consort Kusahahatahi).", "His successor, Prince Shiraka (Emperor Seinei), was his son by his wife Kazuraki no Karahime.In 463, Yūryaku Tennō invited the thunder god of the Mimuro hill to come to the Imperial Palace, and ordered Chiisakobe no muraji Sugaru to fetch the deity.", "He obliged, thinking the supernatural being would have no reason to refuse the invitation, and rode carrying a halberd with a red banner, symbolising his office of royal messenger.", "Soon enough, the thunder struck, and Sugaru enlisted the help of priests to enshrine the kami into a portable carriage, to be brought in the Emperor's presence, as a great serpent.", "But, said Emperor neglected to practice proper ritual purification and religious abstinence.", "The thunder kami then showed his displeasure through thundering and threatening fiery eyeballs, and Emperor Yūryaku fled into the interior of the Palace while covering his eyes.", "The great serpent was returned to Mimuro, and the Emperor made many offerings to appease the angry deity.", "This story is recorded in Nihongi and mentioned by William George Aston, in \"Shinto, the Ancient Religion of Japan\" as well as several other books.According to the Nihongi, Yūryaku was of ungovernable and suspicious temperament, and committed many acts of arbitrary cruelty.The actual site of Yūryaku's grave is not known.", "The Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') in Habikino, Osaka, which is designated by the Imperial Household Agency as Yūryaku's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Tajihi no Takawashi-no-hara no misasagi''." ], [ "Consorts and children", "Empress (''Kōgō'') : , Emperor Nintoku's daughterConsort (''Hi'') : , Katsuragi no Tsubura no Ōmi's daughterThird Son: , later Emperor Seinei, SaiōConsort (''Hi''): , Kibi no Kamitsumichi no Ōmi's daughter*Consort (''Hi'') : , Kasuga no Wani no Ōmi Fukame's daughter, married to Emperor Ninken" ], [ "King Bu", "Inariyama SwordAccording to the Book of Song, a King Bu (武) from Japan dispatched envoys to the Emperor of Liu Song, a Southern Chinese dynasty, in both 477 and 478.Communications included a notice that the previous ruler, an older brother, had died, and that Bu had ascended to the throne.", "The King 'Bu' in this document is believed to refer to Emperor Yūryaku, due to the fact that the character used to write the name (武) is found in the name by which Emperor Yūryaku was called during his lifetime: .The inscriptions on the Inariyama and Eta Funayama Sword, also supports the idea that Bu is an equivalent of Emperor Yūryaku.The Chinese historical records state that Bu began his rule before 477, was recognized as the ruler of Japan by the Liu Song, Southern Qi, and Liang dynasties, and continued his rule through to 502." ], [ "Poetry", "The Emperor's interest in poetry is amongst the more well-documented aspects of his character and reign.", "Poems attributed to him are included in the ''Man'yōshū'', and a number of his verses are preserved in the ''Kojiki'' and the ''Nihonshoki''." ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Eta Funayama Sword* Five kings of Wa* Imperial cult* Inariyama Sword" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D.", "697.''", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Batten, Bruce Loyd.", "(2006).", "''Gateway to Japan: Hakata in war and peace, 500–1300.''", "Honolulu:University of Hawaii Press.", "; ; OCLC\t254764602* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai (1969).", "''The Manyōshū: The Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai Translation of One Thousand Poems.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", "* Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ], [ "External links", "* Nihon Shoki Online English Translations.", "Scroll 14 - Emperor Yuryaku" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Seinei" ], [ "Introduction", " (444 — 27 February 484) was the 22nd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 480 to 484." ], [ "Legendary narrative", "Seinei was a 5th-century monarch.", "The reign of Emperor Kinmei ( – 571 AD), the 29th emperor, is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates; however, the conventionally accepted names and dates of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as \"traditional\" until the reign of Emperor Kanmu (737–806), the 50th sovereign of the Yamato dynasty.According to ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihonshoki'', he was a son of Emperor Yūryaku and his consort Katsuragi no Karahime.", "Seinei's full sister was Princess Takuhatahime.", "His name in birth was .", "It is said that the color of his hair was white since birth.", "After the death of his father, Seinei won the fight against Prince Hoshikawa, his brother, for the throne and so succeeded his father.Seinei's contemporary title would not have been ''tennō'', as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.", "Rather, it was presumably , meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\".", "Alternatively, Seinei might have been referred to as or the \"Great King of Yamato\".Seinei fathered no children; however, two grandsons of the 17th Emperor, Emperor Richū, were found—later to ascend as Prince Woke and Prince Oke.", "Seinei adopted them as his heirs.The actual site of Seinei's grave is not known.", "The emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Osaka.The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Seinei's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Kawachi no Sakado no hara no misasagi''." ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* Iitoyo (Empress Tsunuzashi)* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D.", "697.''", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai (1969).", "''The Manyōshū: The Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai Translation of One Thousand Poems.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", "* Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ], [ "External links", "* Nihon Shoki Online English Translations.", "Scroll 15 – Emperors Seinei, Kenzo, and Ninken" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Kenzō" ], [ "Introduction", " (450 — 2 June 487) was the 23rd legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 1 February 485 to 2 June 487." ], [ "Legendary narrative", ", later to become Emperor Kenzō, is said to have been the grandson of Emperor Richū, and the son of Ichinobe-no Oshiwa.", "He would have been quite young when Emperor Yūryaku shot the arrow which killed his father during a hunting expedition; and this caused both Prince Woke and his older brother, Prince Oke, to flee for their lives.", "They found refuge at Akashi in Harima Province where they hid by living in obscurity.", "Histories from that period explained that the two brothers sought to blend into this rural community by posing as common herdsmen.It is said that the Oke came by chance to Akashi; and at that time, Prince Oke revealed his true identity.", "This intermediary re-introduced the lost cousins to Emperor Seinei, who had by this time ascended to the throne after the death of his father, the former Emperor Yūryaku.", "Seinei invited both brothers to return the court; and he adopted both of them as sons and heirs.At Seinei's death, he had no other heirs than Prince Oke and Prince Woke, whose father had been killed by Yūraku.", "At this point, Woke wanted his elder brother to become Emperor; but Oke refused.", "The two could not reach an agreement.", "The great men of the court insisted that one or the other of the brothers must accept the throne; but in the end, Woke proved to be more adamant.", "Prince Woke agreed to accept the throne; and Kenzō was ultimately proclaimed as the new Emperor—which created a sense of relief for all the people who had endured this period of uncertainty.This sample page from ''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran'' (1834) represents the first published account of Emperor Kenzō's reign to become available in the West.Kenzō is considered to have ruled the country during the late-5th century, but there is a paucity of information about him.", "There is insufficient material available for further verification and study.Kenzō's contemporary title would not have been ''tennō'', as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.", "Rather, it was presumably , meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\".", "Alternatively, Kenzō might have been referred to as or the \"Great King of Yamato\"." ], [ "Kenzō's reign", "It is recorded that his capital was at in Yamato Province.", "The location of the palace is thought to have been in present-day Osaka Prefecture or Nara Prefecture.Murray reports that the only event of major consequence during Kenzō's reign had to do with the filial respect he showed for his murdered father.", "Kenzō arranged to have his father's remains retrieved and re-interred in a mausoleum appropriate for the son of an Emperor and the father of another.Kenzō died at age 37, reigning only three years.", "He too had no other heirs; so his brother would follow him on the throne.", "His Empress was , Prince Oka-no-Wakugo's daughter (also Prince Iwaki's granddaughter and Emperor Yuryaku's great granddaughter).The actual site of Kenzō's grave is not known.", "The Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Osaka.The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kenzō's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Kataoka no Iwatsuki no oka no kita no misasagi''." ], [ "Consorts and children", "Empress (''Kōgō'') : , Prince Oka-no-Wakugo's daughter (also Prince Iwaki's granddaughter and Emperor Yuryaku's great granddaughter)" ], [ "See also", "* Iitoyo (Empress Tsunuzashi)* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D.", "697.''", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Murray, David.", "(1906).", "''Japan.''", "New York: G.P.", "Putnam & Sons.", "* Ponsonby-Fane, Richard.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Annales des empereurs du Japon'' (''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran'').", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Ninken" ], [ "Introduction", " (449 — 9 September 498) was the 24th legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.", "No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 4 February 488 to 9 September 498." ], [ "Legendary narrative", "Ninken is considered to have ruled the country during the late-5th century, but there is a paucity of information about him.", "There is insufficient material available for further verification and study.In his youth, he was known as .", "Along with his younger brother, Prince Woke, Oke was raised to greater prominence when Emperor Seinei died without an heir.", "The two young princes were said to be grandsons of Emperor Richū.", "Each of these brothers would ascend the throne as adopted heirs of Seinei, although it is unclear whether they had been \"found\" in Seinei's lifetime or only after that.Oke's younger brother, who would become posthumously known as Emperor Kenzō, ascended before his elder brother.", "This unconventional sequence was in accordance with an agreement made by the two brothers." ], [ "Ninken's reign", "When Emperor Kenzo died without heirs, Prince Oke succeeded him as Emperor Ninken.Ninken's contemporary title would not have been ''tennō'', as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.", "Rather, it was presumably , meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\".", "Alternatively, Ninken might have been referred to as or the \"Great King of Yamato\".Ninken married to Emperor Yūryaku's daughter Kasuga no Ōiratsume no Himemiko, a second cousin of him.", "Their daughter Tashiraka was later married to Emperor Keitai, successor or possibly usurper after her brother, and became mother of Emperor Kinmei, a future monarch and lineal ancestor of all future monarchs of Japan.", "There apparently was also another daughter, Princess Tachibana, who in turn is recorded to have become a wife of Senka and mother of Princess Iwahime, who herself became a consort of Kimmei and bore Emperor Bidatsu, a future monarch and lineal ancestor of current monarchs of Japan.Ninken was succeeded by his son, who would accede as Emperor Buretsu.The actual site of Ninken's grave is not known.", "The Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Osaka.The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Ninken's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Hanyū no Sakamoto no misasagi''." ], [ "Consorts and children", "Empress (''Kōgō'') : , Emperor Yūryaku's daughter***, married to Emperor Keitai , married to Emperor Senka, later Emperor Buretsu*Consort (''Hi'') : , Wani Nitsume's daughter, married to Emperor Ankan" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes", "Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom" ], [ "References", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D.", "697.''", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Buretsu" ], [ "Introduction", " (489 — 7 January 507) was the 25th legendary Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.No firm dates can be assigned to this Emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 12 January 499 to 7 January 507." ], [ "Legendary narrative", "Buretsu is considered to have ruled the country during the late-fifth century and early-sixth century, but there is a paucity of information about him.", "There is insufficient material available for further verification and study.Buretsu was a son of Emperor Ninken and his mother is .", "His name was .", "He had no children." ], [ "Buretsu's reign", "Buretsu's contemporary title would not have been ''tennō'', as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.", "Rather, it was presumably , meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\".", "Alternatively, Buretsu might have been referred to as or the \"Great King of Yamato\".Buretsu is described as an extremely wicked historical figure.", "The ''Nihonshoki'' describes the 11-year-old Buretsu, in 500, cutting open the stomach of a pregnant woman and observing the embryo.", "In addition to his acts of personal cruelty, during his reign the general welfare of the nation declined severely.", "According to the ''Tenshō'', supposedly compiled by Fujiwara no Hamanari, Buretsu was admonished by Ōtomo no Kanamura.", "''Nihonshoki'' likened his debauchery to Di Xin of the Shang dynasty, but the record in ''Kojiki'' has no such indication.", "There are several theories on this difference.", "Some believe that this was to justify and praise his successor Emperor Keitai, who took over under questionable circumstances, not having been in a position of immediate succession.", "In history textbooks available before and during World War II, the negative parts of Buretsu's record were intentionally omitted.If Emperor Keitai began a new dynasty as some historians believe, then Buretsu is the last Emperor of the first recorded dynasty of Japan.The actual site of Buretsu's grave is not known.", "The Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Nara.The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Buretsu's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Kataoka no Iwatsuki no oka no kita no misasagi''." ], [ "Consorts and children", "Empress:" ], [ "See also", " Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult* Prince Junda, dispatched to Japan after a Korean emissary was taken hostage at Buretsu's initiative" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D.", "697.''", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Keitai" ], [ "Introduction", " (died 10 March 531) was the 26th legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 3 March 507 to 10 March 531." ], [ "Legendary narrative", "Keitai is considered to have ruled the country during the early 6th century, but there is a paucity of information about him.", "There is insufficient material available for further verification and study.", "Significant differences exist in the records of the ''Kojiki'' and the ''Nihon Shoki''.The ''Kojiki'' puts this emperor's birth year at 485; and his date of death is said to have been April 9, 527.In the extant account, he is called .The ''Nihon Shoki'' gives his birth year at 450; and he is said to have died on February 7, 531 or 534.In this historical record, he is said to have been called and .In other historical records, he is said to have originally been King of Koshi, a smaller tribal entity, apparently in northern parts of central Japan, perhaps as far as the coast of Sea of Japan.", "Some modern reference works of history call Keitai simply ''King Ohodo of Koshi''.Keitai's contemporary title would not have been ''tennō'', as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.", "Rather, it was presumably , meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\".", "Alternatively, Keitai might have been referred to as or the \"Great King of Yamato\".===Genealogy===Keitai was not the son of the immediate previous monarch.", "According to the ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'', Buretsu died without a successor, at which time a fifth generation grandson of Emperor Ōjin, Keitai, came and ascended the throne.If Emperor Keitai began a new dynasty as some historians believe, then Emperor Buretsu would have been the last monarch of the first recorded dynasty of Japan.According to the ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'', his father was and his mother was .", "When Buretsu died, Kanamura recommended Keitai (at the age of 58) as a possible heir to the Yamato throne.", "His mother, Furihime, was a seventh generation descendant of Emperor Suinin by his son, Prince Iwatsukuwake.", "His father was a fourth generation descendant of Emperor Ōjin by his son, Prince Wakanuke no Futamata.Genealogy information is supplemented in ''Shaku Nihongi'' which quotes from the now lost text ''Jōgūki'' (7th century).", "It says he was a son of Ushi no Ōkimi (believed to be equivalent to Hikoushi no Ōkimi), a grandson of Ohi no Ōkimi, a great-grandson of Ohohoto no Ōkimi (brother to Emperor Ingyō's consort), a great-great-grandson of Prince Wakanuke no Futamata, and a great-great-great-grandson of Emperor Ōjin.The genealogical trees of the ''Nihon Shoki'' have been lost, and the accuracy of its account of events remains unknown.", "This uncertainty raises arguable doubts about this emperor's genealogy.Although genealogical information in the ''Shaku Nihongi'' leaves room for discussion, many scholars acknowledge the blood relationship with the Okinaga clan, a powerful local ruling family or the collateral line of the Imperial family-governed Ōmi region (a part of present-day Shiga Prefecture).", "This family produced many empresses and consorts throughout history.", "According to the ''Nihon Shoki'', Ohohoto no Ōkimi, the great-grandfather of Emperor Keitai, married into the Okinaga clan.", "Keitai's mother, Furihime, was from a local ruling family in Koshi (Echizen Province), so his mother brought him to her home after his father's death.", "Abundant traditions relating to the family have been passed down by shrines and old-established families in both regions.Regardless of speculation about Keitai's genealogy, it is well settled that there was an extended period of disputes over the succession which developed after Keitai's death.", "A confrontation arose between adherents of two branches of the Yamato, pitting the supporters of sons who would become known as Emperor Ankan and Emperor Senka against those who were backers of the son who would become known as Emperor Kinmei." ], [ "Keitai's reign", "Keitai declared his ascension in Kusuba, in the northern part of Kawachi Province (present day Shijonawate, Osaka), and married a younger sister of Emperor Buretsu, Princess Tashiraka.", "It is supposed that his succession was not welcomed by everyone, and it took about 20 years for Keitai to enter Yamato Province, near Kawachi and the political center of Japan at the time.In Keitai's later years, 527 or 528, the Iwai Rebellion broke out in Tsukushi province, Kyūshū.", "Keitai assigned Mononobe no Arakabi as Shōgun and sent him to Kyūshū to put down the rebellion.Among his sons, Emperor Ankan, Emperor Senka and Emperor Kinmei ascended to the throne.The actual site of Keitai's grave is not known.", "He is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at the Ooda Chausuyama kofun in Ibaraki, Osaka.The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Keitai's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Mishima no Aikinu no misasagi''." ], [ "Consorts and children", "Empress: , Emperor Ninken's daughter, later Prince AhohikoEmperor Kinmei (欽明天皇)Consort: , Owari no Muraji Kusaka's daughterFirst Son: , later Emperor AnkanSecond son: , later Emperor SenkaConsort: , Mio no Tsunoori no Kimi's younger sisterConsort: , Prince Sakata no Ōmata's daughterConsort: , daughter of , SaiōConsort: , daughter of *Consort: , daughter of Consort: , daughter of Consort: , daughter of " ], [ "See also", " The civil war of the Keitai and Kinmei dynasties* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D.", "697.''", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Hall, John Whitney.", "(1993).", "''The Cambridge history of Japan: Ancient Japan,'' Vol.", "I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "* Kim Yong Woon (2009).", "''History and the Future are One'' (천황은 백제어로 말한다).", "Seoul.", "* Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Seeley, Christopher.", "(1991).", "''A History of Writing in Japan.''", "Leiden: Brill Publishers.", "—reprinted by University of Hawaii Press (2000).", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Ankan" ], [ "Introduction", " (466 — 25 January 536) was the 27th legendary Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.No firm dates can be assigned to this Emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 10 March 531 to 25 January 536." ], [ "Legendary narrative", "According to the ''Kojiki'', , later Emperor Ankan, was the elder son of Emperor Keitai, who is considered to have ruled the country during the early-6th century, though there is a paucity of information about him.", "When Ankan was 66 years old, Keitai abdicated in favor of him.Ankan's contemporary title would not have been ''tennō'', as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.", "Rather, it was presumably , meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\".", "Alternatively, Ankan might have been referred to as or the \"Great King of Yamato\".The most noteworthy event recorded during his reign was the construction of state granaries in large numbers throughout Japan, indicating the broad reach of imperial power at the time.Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Emperor AnkanAnkan's grave is traditionally associated with the Takayatsukiyama kofun in Habikino, Osaka." ], [ "Genealogy", "Empress: , Emperor Ninken's daughterConsort: , Kose no Ohito no Ōomi's daughterConsort: , Kose no Ohito no Ōomi's daughterConsort: , Mononobe no Itabi no Ōomuraji's daughterFirst son: Imperial Prince Ako.Second son: Prince KibuThird son: Prince Akihinohohoshika, later Emperor Kinmei" ], [ "See also", "* Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D.", "697.''", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan.''", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emperor Senka" ], [ "Introduction", " (466 — 15 March 539) was the 28th legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 25 January 536 to 15 March 539." ], [ "Legendary narrative", "Senka is considered to have ruled the country during the early-6th century, but there is a paucity of information about him.", "There is insufficient material available for further verification and study.When Emperor Ankan died, he had no offspring; and succession passed to his youngest brother , who will come to be known as Emperor Senka.", "Emperor Senka was elderly at the time of his enthronement; and his reign is said to have endured for only three years.Senka's contemporary title would not have been ''tennō'', as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.", "Rather, it was presumably , meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\".", "Alternatively, Senka might have been referred to as or the \"Great King of Yamato\".During this reign, Soga no Iname is believed to have been the first verifiable ''Omi'' (also ''Ōomi'', \"Great Minister\").The Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Nara.", "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Senka's mausoleum.", "It is formally named ''Musa no Tsukisaka no e no misasagi''; however, the actual sites of the graves of the early Emperors remain problematic, according to some historians and archaeologists." ], [ "Genealogy", "Empress: , Emperor Ninken's daughter, married to Emperor Kinmei, married to Emperor Kinmei, married to Emperor Kinmei**Child (died early, gender unknown)Consort: *Mother unknown, married to Emperor Kinmei*, speculated as Emperor Kinmei's son" ], [ "See also", " Emperor of Japan* List of Emperors of Japan* Imperial cult" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Aston, William George.", "(1896).", "''Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.", "* Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds.", "(1979).", "''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon.", "(1959).", "''The Imperial House of Japan''.", "Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.", "* Titsingh, Isaac.", "(1834).", "''Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon''.", "Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.", "* Varley, H. Paul.", "(1980).", "''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", ";" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Eastmoreland, Portland, Oregon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eastmoreland''' is an early-twentieth century, tree-filled neighborhood in inner southeast Portland, Oregon, United States.", "Eastmoreland was named for a local real estate developer, Judge J.C. Moreland." ], [ "Description", "The neighborhood is bounded on the north by SE Woodstock Boulevard.", "The western boundary is a combination of SE McLoughlin Boulevard, SE Reedway Street, and SE 26th Avenue.", "Johnson Creek serves as most of the neighborhood's southern boundary, which meets its eastern boundary between SE Tenino Street and SE Crystal Springs Boulevard., SE César E. Chávez Boulevard.", "Its northern border winds around the Reed College campus and continues on SE Steele Street until meeting its western boundary.Eastmoreland is filled with trees and lush landscaping.", "Public parks in Eastmoreland include Crystal Springs Rhododendron Garden (1923), Eastmoreland Golf Course (1916), Eastmoreland Garden (2004), Eastmoreland Playground Park (1916), and Berkeley Park (1941).", "There is also a median on Reed College Place which is owned by Portland Department of Transportation and maintained by Portland Parks & Recreation.Eastmoreland is home to two schools, Duniway Elementary School (constructed in 1926 and named for Abigail Scott Duniway) and Holy Family Catholic School." ], [ "Proposed historic district", "The Parker House, pictured in 2013, is part of Reed College and located within the proposed district's boundaries, just south of Woodstock Boulevard.A proposed Eastermoreland Historic District encompasses approximately 475 acres within southeast Portland's Eastmoreland neighborhood, and is generally bounded by Woodstock Boulevard on the north, Cesar Chavez Boulevard and 36th Avenue on the east, Berkeley Park and Crystal Springs Boulevard on the south, and 27th and 28th Avenues on the west.The proposed historic district was nominated by the Eastmoreland Neighborhood Association in an attempt to reduce the number of home demolitions and renovations.", "The bid has been contentious, as historic designation would prevent owners from being able to expand or update houses.In February 2017, the Portland Historic Landmarks Commission endorsed the association's nomination for historic status.", "One week later, the nine-person State Advisory Committee on Historic Preservation unanimously endorsed the proposal, putting the district on \"clear path toward the register\".", "Historic status may be blocked if dissenting residents submit enough notarized objections by July 1.As of February 17, 675 of the more than 1,000 required objections have been received.In April 2018, four separate home owners split their property ownership among hundreds of trusts; these owners filed more than 5,000 formal objections to the historic district proposal, possibly blocking the nomination using a technical tactic.", "952 additional objections were submitted by owners not associated with the hundreds of trusts.", "According to ''The Oregonian'', \"Without the trusts, the number of objections appears to have fallen short of a majority\".", "The neighborhood association's president described the maneuver as \"undemocratic\" and said, \"If this was an election, it would be called voter fraud.\"", "The Oregon State Historic Preservation Office said, \"According to federal rules, if more than 50% of the owners in a district submit objections, the property cannot be listed.", "\"Trust owners' being counted as eligible owners was challenged in court and a new rule for counting objections was established in 2022.A new application will be submitted to the National Park Service.File:Eastmoreland HD signage (2017) - 1.jpgFile:Eastmoreland HD signage (2017) - 2.jpgFile:Eastmoreland HD signage (2017) - 3.jpgFile:Eastmoreland HD signage (2017) - 5.jpg" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Portland Maps map of Eastmoreland* Eastmoreland Street Tree Inventory Report" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Elyssa Davalos" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Elyssa Davalos''' (born May 30, 1959, in Canoga Park, Los Angeles, California) is a former American television and movie actress.", "Her father was actor Richard Davalos and her sister is musician Dominique Davalos.", "She is the mother of actress Alexa Davalos, from her marriage to photographer Jeff Dunas.", "She is of Spanish and Finnish descent on her father's side.She would usually play tough, independent women.", "She's mostly remembered for her recurring role as Richard Dean Anderson's love interest Nikki Carpenter on the original McGyver.", "She appeared in two Disney films that were part of a franchise: The Apple Dumpling Gang Rides Again and Herbie Goes Bananas.", "On television she played Hillary Gant on the series How The West Was Won and she appeared on a final season episode of Hawaii Five-0, and starred in the TV-movie Good Against Evil." ], [ "Filmography", "===Film=== Year Title Role Notes1973''''Paula Kelly1979''''Millie Gaskill1980''Herbie Goes Bananas''Melissa1993''''Sondra Rankin1999''Tycus''Crying WomanVideo2000''Urban Chaos Theory''The MistressShort2002''Two Paths''SallyShort2003''Between the Sheets''Layla2007''Nancy Drew''Twin Palms Manager===Television=== Year Title Role Notes1975''Three for the Road''Sophie Gianelli\"Adventure in Los Angeles\"1976''ABC Afterschool Special''Linda\"Dear Lovey Hart: I Am Desperate\"1976''Charlie's Angels''Maria Bartone\"The Mexican Connection\"1977''Welcome Back, Kotter''Judy Horshack\"There Goes Number 5\"1977''Good Against Evil''Jessica GordonTV film1977''''Wendy Bonner\"The Mystery of King Tut's Tomb\"1978''Wild and Wooly''ShilohTV film1978''''Nancy Burch\"Nancy\"1978–79''How the West Was Won''Hillary GantRecurring role (seasons 2–3)1979''Hawaii Five-O''Diana Webster\"Though the Heavens Fall\"1979''Vegas''Kimberly Sarrason\"Doubtful Target\"1981''Vegas''Wendy Paige\"No Way to Treat a Victim\"1981''Riker''Marlene\"Honkytonk\"1981''Code Red''\"A Saved Life\"1983''Matt Houston''Carla / Gabrielle Delgado\"The Hunted\", \"Needle in a Haystack\"1983''Knight Rider''Julie Robinson\"Blind Spot\"1984''Mickey Spillane's Mike Hammer''Jackie Drake\"Negative Image\"1984''Riptide''Jody Kremer\"Something Fishy\"1985''Our Family Honor''\"Pilot\"1985–86''Scarecrow and Mrs. King''Leslie O'Connor\"We're Off to See the Wizard\", \"Over the Limit\", \"Dead Men Leave No Trails\"1986''Airwolf''Barbara Scarelli\"Desperate Monday\"1987''Riviera''Ashley StevensTV film1987–88''MacGyver''Lisa Kosov (two episodes)Nikki CarpenterRecurring role (season 3)1989''Beauty and the Beast''Lisa Campbell\"Arabesque\"1989''Doogie Howser, M.D.", "''Victoria Burke\"The Ice Queen Cometh\"1989''Matlock''Suzanne Cullen\"The Blues Singer\"1990''Father Dowling Mysteries''Marilyn Kemp\"The Exotic Dancer Mystery\"1990''Jake and the Fatman''Leah Champlin\"You Took Advantage of Me\"1990–91''Life Goes On''Doreen GillespieGuest role (season 2)1992''Dark Justice''\"Prime Cuts\"1993''Jericho Fever''BettinaTV film1993''Matlock''Karen Garber\"The View\"1993''Diagnosis: Murder''Ginger Shaw\"Miracle Cure\"1994''Diagnosis: Murder''Constance Wardell\"Death by Extermination\"1994''A Perry Mason Mystery: The Case of the Grimacing Governor''Violet MooreTV film1994''Matlock''Allison Darnell\"The P.I.", "\"1997''Promised Land''Patricia Conroy\"Bookworm\"1999''Touched by an Angel''Penny Woodhouse\"The Anatomy Lesson\"2004''''\"Baby, the Rain Must Fall\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Emil Theodor Kocher" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Emil Theodor Kocher''' (25 August 1841 – 27 July 1917) was a Swiss physician and medical researcher who received the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work in the physiology, pathology and surgery of the thyroid.", "Among his many accomplishments are the introduction and promotion of aseptic surgery and scientific methods in surgery, specifically reducing the mortality of thyroidectomies below 1% in his operations.He was the first Swiss citizen and first surgeon to ever receive a Nobel Prize in Medicine.", "He was considered a pioneer and leader in the field of surgery in his time." ], [ "Early life and personal life", "=== Childhood ===Kocher's father was Jakob Alexander Kocher (1814–1893), the sixth of seven children to Samuel Kocher (1771–1842), a carpenter, and Barbara Sutter (1772–1849).", "Jakob Alexander Kocher was a railway engineer and he moved in 1845 to Burgdorf, Switzerland (near Bern), because of his job as regional engineer of Emmental (''Bezirksingenieur'').", "He was named chief engineer for street and water in the canton of Bern at the age of 34 years and he moved with his family to the capital, the city of Bern.", "In 1858 he left the states service and managed several engineering projects around Bern.Theodor Kocher's mother was Maria Kocher (née Wermuth) living from 1820 to 1900.She was a very religious woman and part of the Moravian Church; together with Jakob Alexander, she raised a family of five sons and one daughter (Theodor Kocher was the second son).Theodor Kocher was born on 25 August 1841 in Bern and baptized in the local Bern Minster on 16 September 1841.Together with the family, he moved to Burgdorf in 1845 where he started school.", "Later his family moved back to Bern where he went to middle and high school (''Realschule'' and ''Literaturgymnasium'') where he was the first of his class.", "During high school, Theodor was interested in many subjects and was specifically drawn to art and classical philology but finally decided to become a doctor.=== Studies ===He started his studies after obtaining the Swiss Matura in 1858 at the University of Bern where Anton Biermer and Hermann Askan Demme were teaching, two professors that impressed him most.", "He was a studious and dedicated student but still became a member of the Schweizerischer Zofingerverein, a Swiss fraternity.He obtained his doctorate in Bern in 1865 (March 1865) or 1866 with his dissertation about ''Behandlung der croupösen Pneumonie mit Veratrum-Präparaten'' (literal English translation: ''The treatment of croupous pneumonia with Veratrum preparations.'')", "under professor Biermer with the predicate ''summa cum laude unamimiter''.In spring 1865, Kocher followed his teacher Biermer to Zürich, where Theodor Billroth was director of the hospital and influenced Kocher significantly.", "Kocher then proceeded to start a journey through Europe to meet several of the most famous surgeons of the time.", "It is not clear how Kocher financed his trip but according to Bonjour (1981) he received money from an unknown female Suisse romande philanthropist who also supported his friend Marc Dufour and was probably a member of the Moravian Church.", "In October 1865, he traveled to Berlin, passing through Leipzig and visiting an old friend from high school, Hans Blum.", "In Berlin, he studied under Bernhard von Langenbeck and applied for an assistant position with Langenbeck and Rudolf Virchow.", "Since there was no position available, in April 1867 Kocher moved on to London where he first met Jonathan Hutchinson and then worked for Henry Thompson and John Erichsen.", "Furthermore, he was interested in the work of Isaac Baker Brown and Thomas Spencer Wells, who also invited Kocher to go to the opera with his family.", "In July 1867, he traveled on to Paris to meet Auguste Nélaton, Auguste Verneuil and Louis Pasteur.", "During his travels, he did not only learn novel techniques but also got to know leading surgeons in person and learned to speak English fluently which allowed him later on to follow the scientific progress in the English speaking world with ease.Once returned to Bern, Kocher prepared for his habilitation and on 12 October 1867, he wrote a petition to the ministry of education to award him the ''venia docendi'' (Latin: ''to instruct'') which was granted to him.", "He became assistant to Georg Lücke who left Bern in 1872 to become professor in Strasbourg.", "Kocher was hoping to get his position, but at the time it was customary to appoint German professors to positions at Swiss universities.", "Accordingly, the faculty suggested Franz König before Kocher to follow Lücke.", "However, the students and assistants as well as many doctors preferred Kocher and started a petition to the Bernese government to choose Kocher.", "Also the press was in favor of Kocher and several famous foreign surgeons, such as Langenbeck from Berlin and Billroth from Vienna, wrote letters in support of Kocher.", "Under this public pressure, the Bernese government (''Regierungsrat'') chose Kocher as the successor of Lücke as Ordinary Professor of Surgery and Director of the University Surgical Clinic at the ''Inselspital'' on 16 March 1872, despite a different proposal by the faculty.=== Personal life ===In 1869, he married Marie Witschi-Courant (1841–1921) or (1850–1925).", "She was the daughter of Johannes Witschi, who was a merchant, and she had three sons together with Kocher.", "The Kochers first lived at the Marktgasse in Bern and moved in 1875 to a bigger house in the Villette.", "The house became a place for friends, colleagues and guests to gather and many patients from Kocher's clinic were invited to dine at the Villette.Like his mother, Kocher was a deeply religious man and also part of the Moravian Church.", "This was an uncommon trait that not many colleagues and co-workers shared and until his death, Kocher attributed all his successes and failures to God.", "He thought that the rise of materialism (especially in science) was a great evil, and he attributed the outbreak of the First World War.Kocher was involved in the education of his three sons and played tennis with them and went horseback riding with them.", "The eldest son Albert (1872–1941) would follow him to the surgical clinic in Bern and become Assistant Professor of Surgery.On the evening of 23 July 1917, he was called into the Inselspital for an emergency.", "Kocher executed the surgery but afterwards felt unwell and went to bed, working on scientific notes.", "He then fell unconscious and died on 27 July 1917." ], [ "Career", "The call for an ordinary professorship at the University of Bern at the age of 30 was the first big career step for Theodor Kocher.", "In the 45 years he served as professor at the university, he oversaw the re-building of the famous Bernese Inselspital, published 249 scholarly articles and books, trained numerous medical doctors and treated thousands of patients.", "He made major contributions to the fields of applied surgery, neurosurgery and, especially, thyroid surgery and endocrinology.", "For his work he received, among other honors, the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.", "According to Asher, the field of surgery has transformed radically during the time of Theodore Kocher and later generations will build on the foundations created by Kocher – if a future historian wanted to describe the state of surgery at the beginning of the 20th century, he only need mention Kocher's ''Text-Book of Operative Surgery''.", "Three main factors contributed to Kocher's success as a surgeon, according to Bonjour (1981).", "The first factor was his consequent implementation of antiseptic wound treatment which prevented infection and later death of the patients.", "The second factor, according to Erich Hintzsche, was his monitoring of the anesthesia where he used special masks and later used local anesthesia for goitre surgery which decreased or removed the dangers of anesthesia.", "As a third factor, Hintzsche mentions the minimal blood loss which Kocher achieved.", "Even the smallest source of blood during surgery was precisely controlled and inhibited by Kocher, initially because he thought that decomposing blood would constitute an infection risk for the patient.", "=== Early career ===Kocher first attained international recognition with his method to reset a dislocated shoulder published in 1870.The new procedure was much less painful and safer than the traditionally used procedure and could be performed by a single physician.", "Kocher developed the procedure through his knowledge of anatomy.", "In the same period, Kocher also studied the phenomena of bullet wounds and how they can cause bone fractures.", "From these studies resulted one public lecture in 1874 ''Die Verbesserung der Geschosse vom Standpunkt der Humanitaet'' (English: ''The improvement of the bullets from the standpoint of humanity.'')", "and an 1875 manuscript ''Ueber die Sprengwirkung der modernen Kriegsgewehrgeschosse'' (English: ''Over the explosive effect of modern war rifle bullets.'')", "He showed that small caliber bullets were less harmful and recommended to use bullets with slower speed.=== Relocation of Inselspital and call to Prague ===As soon as Kocher became professor, he wanted to modernize the practices at the Bernese Inselspital.", "He noticed that the old building did not suffice the modern standards and was too small – half of the patients seeking medical attention had to be turned away.", "In spring 1878, he visited several institutions around Europe to evaluate novel innovations for hospitals and implement them if possible in Bern.", "He wrote down his observations in a lengthy report for the Bernese government, giving instructions even for architectonic details.", "In a speech on 15 November 1878, he informed the general public about the pressing needs of a new hospital building.", "Finally, he used his call to Prague to pressure the government: He would only stay in Bern if he was either granted 75 beds in the new building or would get money to increase his facilities in the old building.", "Finally, in the winter of 1884/1885 the new building was finished and the Inselspital could be moved.At the time, Prague had the third largest university clinic in the German speaking world and it was a great honor for Kocher when he received a call as a professor to Prague in spring 1880.Many colleagues, especially international ones, urged Kocher to accept while Bernese doctors and colleagues begged him to stay.", "Kocher used this call, to demand certain improvements for the university clinic from the Bernese government.", "They accepted all his demands, the government promised him to begin building the new Inselspital building the next year, increased his credit for surgical equipment and books to 1000 franks and increased the number of beds for Kocher in the new Inselspital.", "Thus, Kocher decided to stay and many Bernese and Swiss students and professionals thanked him for it.", "He cited the affection of his students as one of his main reasons for staying.", "The university students organized a torchlight procession on 8 June 1880 in his honor.=== Aseptic surgery ===It is unclear whether Kocher directly knew Joseph Lister, who pioneered the antiseptic (using chemical means to kill bacteria) method, but Kocher was in correspondence with him.", "Kocher had recognized the importance of aseptic techniques early on, introducing them to his peers at a time when this was considered revolutionary.", "In a hospital report from 1868, he attributed the lower mortality directly to the \"antiseptic Lister's wound bandaging method\" and he could later as director of the clinic order strict adherence to the antiseptic method.", "Bonjour (1981) describes how his assistants were worried about wound infection for fear of having to explain their failure to Kocher himself.", "Kocher made it a matter of principle to investigate the cause of every wound infection and remove every potential source of infection, he also banned visitors from his surgeries for this reason.He published multiple works on aseptic treatment and surgery.=== Contributions to Neurosurgery ===Kocher also contributed significantly to the field of neurology and neurosurgery.", "In this area, his research was pioneering and covered the areas of concussion, neurosurgery and intracranial pressure (ICP).", "Furthermore, he investigated the surgical treatment of epilepsy and spinal and cranial trauma.", "He found that in some cases, the epilepsy patients had a brain tumor which could be surgically removed.", "He hypothesized that epilepsy was caused by an increase in ICP and believed that drainage of cerebrospinal fluid could cure epilepsy.The Japanese surgeon Hayazo Ito came to Bern in 1896 in order to perform experimental research on epilepsy.", "Kocher was especially interested in the ICP during experimentally induced epilepsy and after Ito returned to Japan, he performed over 100 surgeries in epilepsy patients.The American surgeon Harvey Cushing spent several months in the lab of Kocher in 1900, performing cerebral surgery and first encountering the Cushing reflex which describes the relationship between blood pressure and intracranial pressure.", "Kocher later also found that decompressive craniectomy was an effective method to lower ICP.In his surgery textbook ''Chirurgische Operationslehre'', Kocher dedicated 141 pages of 1060 pages to surgery of the nervous system.", "It included methods of exploration and decompression of the brain.=== Contributions to Thyroid surgery ===Thyroid surgery, which was mostly performed as treatment of goitre with a complete thyroidectomy when possible, was considered a risky procedure when Kocher started his work.", "Some estimates put the mortality of thyroidectomy as high as 75% in 1872.Indeed, the operation was believed to be one of the most dangerous operations and in France it was prohibited by the Academy of Medicine at the time.", "Through application of modern surgical methods, such as antiseptic wound treatment and minimizing blood loss, and the famous slow and precise style of Kocher, he managed to reduce the mortality of this operation from an already low 18% (compared to contemporary standards) to less than 0.5% by 1912.By then, Kocher had performed over 5000 thyroid excisions.", "The success of Kocher's methods, especially when compared to operations performed by Theodor Billroth who was also performing thyroidectomies at that time, was described by William Stewart Halsted as follows:Kocher and others later discovered that the complete removal of the thyroid could lead to cretinism (termed ''cachexia strumipriva'' by Kocher) caused by a deficiency of thyroid hormones.", "The phenomena was reported to Kocher first in 1874 by the general practitioner August Fetscherin and later in 1882 by Jacques-Louis Reverdin together with his assistant Auguste Reverdin (1848–1908).", "Reverdin met Kocher on 7 September in Geneva at the international hygienic congress (''internationaler Hygienekongress'') and expressed his concerns about complete removal of the thyroid to Kocher.", "Kocher then tried to contact 77 of his 102 former patients and found signs of a physical and mental decay in those cases where he had removed the thyroid gland completely.", "Ironically, it was his precise surgery that allowed Kocher to remove the thyroid gland almost completely and led to the severe side effects of cretinism.Kocher came to the conclusion that a complete removal of the thyroid (as it was common to perform at the time because the function of the thyroid was not yet clear) was not advisable, a finding that he made public on 4 April 1883 in a lecture to the German Society of Surgery and also published in 1883 under the title ''Ueber Kropfexstirpation und ihre Folgen'' (English: ''About Thyroidectomies and their consequences'').", "Reverdin had already made his findings public on 13 September 1882 and published further articles on this topic in 1883; yet still Kocher never acknowledged Reverdin's priority in this discovery.", "At the time, the reactions to Kocher's lecture were mixed, some people asserted that goitre and cretinism were different stages of same disease and that cretinism would have occurred independently of the removal of the thyroid in the cases which Kocher described.", "In the long run however, these observations contributed to a more complete understanding of thyroid function and were one of the early hints of a connection between the thyroid and congenital cretinism.", "These findings finally enabled thyroid hormone replacement therapies for a variety of thyroid related diseases.=== Further contributions to science ===Kocher published works on a number of subjects other than the thyroid gland, including hemostasis, antiseptic treatments, surgical infectious diseases, on gunshot wounds, acute osteomyelitis, the theory of strangulated hernia, and abdominal surgery.", "The Nobel Prize money he received helped him establish the Kocher Institute in Bern.", "A number of instruments (for example the craniometer) and surgical techniques (for example, the Kocher manoeuvre, and kocher incision) are named after him, as well as the Kocher-Debre-Semelaigne syndrome.", "The Kocher manoeuvre is still a standard practice in orthopaedics.", "Kocher is also credited for the invention in 1882 of the Kocher's Surgical Clamp, which he used to prevent blood loss during surgery.One of his main works, ''Chirurgische Operationslehre'' (Text-Book of Operative Surgery ), was published through six editions and translated into many languages.During his life, Kocher published 249 articles and books and supervised more than 130 doctoral candidates.", "He was rector of the university in 1878 and 1903.He was president of the Bernese and the Swiss physicians association and co-founded the Swiss society for surgery in 1913 and became its first president.In 1904 or 1905 he built a private clinic called \"Ulmenhof\" which had space for 25 patients.", "Here Kocher catered to the wealthier patients, which in many cases were international.", "He also treated the wife of Lenin, Nadezhda Krupskaya and operated on her in Bern (in 1913)." ], [ "Legacy", "Bust of Theodor Kocher (created by Karl Hänny)Kocher was also a famous and loved teacher.", "During nearly 100 semesters he taught his knowledge to about 10 000 students of the University of Bern.", "He was able to inspire students and taught them to think clearly and logically.", "Specifically, Kocher also taught a generation of Jewish-Russian students who could not study in Russia.", "This association with Russia has also led the Russian Geographical Society to name a volcano after him (in the area of Ujun-Choldongi in Manchuria ).Among his many local and international students wereCarl Arend (Bern),Oscar Bernhard (St. Moritz), Andrea Crotti (Ohio),Gustave Dardel (Bern),Carl Garré (Bonn),Gottlieb and Max Feurer (St. Gallen),Anton Fonio (Langnau), Walter Gröbly (Arbon),Carl Kaufmann (Zürich),Albert Kocher (Bern),Joseph Kopp (Luzern),Ernst Kummer (Geneva),Otto Lanz (Amsterdam), Edmond Lardy (Geneva) Jakob Lauper (Interlaken),Albert Lüthi (Thun),Hermann Matti (Bern),Charles Pettavel (Neuenburg),Paul Pfähler (Olten),Fritz de Quervain (La Chaux de Fonds / Basel / Bern),August Rickli (Langenthal),Ernst Rieben (Interlaken),August Rollier (Leysin), César Roux (Lausanne),Karl Schuler (Rorschach), Fritz Steinmann (Bern),Albert Vogel (Luzern),Hans Wildbolz (Bern) as well as the American neurosurgeon Harvey Cushing.", "Other notable students of his include Hayazo Ito (1865–1929) and S. Berezowsky which also spread his techniques in their respective home-countries (Japan and Russia).Kocher's name is living on with the Theodor Kocher Institute, the Kochergasse and the Kocher Park in Bern.", "In the Inselspital, there is a bust of Kocher, created by Karl Hänny in 1927.In the Kocher Park there is another bust, created by Max Fueter.In 1950, the Swiss historian Edgar Bonjour (1898–1991) who was married to Dora Kocher wrote a 136-page monograph on Kocher's life that was extended again in 1981.=== Named in his honor ===The Kocher lunar crater named in his memory.", "An asteroid (2087) Kocher also commemorates his name.", "The prize for outstanding young researchers in any field at the University of Berne is named Theodor Kocher Prize.", "It is awarded yearly since 1915.=== Eponyms === Kocher's forceps – a surgical instrument with serrated blades and interlocking teeth at the tips used to control bleeding* Kocher's point – common entry point for an intraventricular catheter to drain cerebral spinal fluid from the cerebral ventricles* Kocher manoeuvre – a surgical manoeuvre to expose structures in the retroperitoneum* Kocher–Debre–Semelaigne syndrome – hypothyroidism in infancy or childhood characterised by lower extremity or generalized muscular hypertrophy, myxoedema, short stature and cretinism* Kocher's incision – used in cholecystectomy* Kocher's incision II – is used in thyroid surgery* Kocher's sign – eyelid phenomenon in hyperthyroidism and Basedow's disease" ], [ "Honors", "* Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1909)* Hon FRCS (Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons, 25 July 1900)* President of the Bernese and Swiss physician societies* President of the Swiss society for surgery* President of the German society for surgery (1902)* Honorary member of the German society for surgery (1902)* Chairman of the first international surgery conference in Brussels 1905* several honorary memberships and honorary doctorates" ], [ "Works", "During his life, Kocher published 249 articles and books and supervised more than 130 doctoral candidates.", "The following is an incomplete list of his most important works:* ''Die antiseptische Wundbehandlung'' (Antiseptic wound treatment; 1881)* ''Vorlesungen über chirurgische Infektionskrankheiten'' (Lectures on surgical infections; 1895)* ''Chiruigische Operationslehre'' (1894; Eng.", "trans.", "as ''Textbook of Operative Surgery'', 2 vols., 1911)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * including the Nobel Lecture on 11 December 1909 ''Concerning Pathological Manifestations in Low-Grade Thyroid Diseases''* * " ], [ "External links", " * Theodor Kocher Institute of the University of Bern* Milestones in European Thyroidology (MET).", "Theodor Kocher (1841–1917)* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Eight queens puzzle" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''eight queens puzzle''' is the problem of placing eight chess queens on an 8×8 chessboard so that no two queens threaten each other; thus, a solution requires that no two queens share the same row, column, or diagonal.", "There are 92 solutions.", "The problem was first posed in the mid-19th century.", "In the modern era, it is often used as an example problem for various computer programming techniques.The eight queens puzzle is a special case of the more general '''''n'' queens problem''' of placing ''n'' non-attacking queens on an ''n''×''n'' chessboard.", "Solutions exist for all natural numbers ''n'' with the exception of ''n'' = 2 and ''n'' = 3.Although the exact number of solutions is only known for ''n'' ≤ 27, the asymptotic growth rate of the number of solutions is approximately (0.143 ''n'')''n''." ], [ "History", "Chess composer Max Bezzel published the eight queens puzzle in 1848.Franz Nauck published the first solutions in 1850.Nauck also extended the puzzle to the ''n'' queens problem, with ''n'' queens on a chessboard of ''n''×''n'' squares.Since then, many mathematicians, including Carl Friedrich Gauss, have worked on both the eight queens puzzle and its generalized ''n''-queens version.", "In 1874, S. Günther proposed a method using determinants to find solutions.", "J.W.L.", "Glaisher refined Gunther's approach.In 1972, Edsger Dijkstra used this problem to illustrate the power of what he called structured programming.", "He published a highly detailed description of a depth-first backtracking algorithm." ], [ "Constructing and counting solutions when ''n'' = 8", "The problem of finding all solutions to the 8-queens problem can be quite computationally expensive, as there are 4,426,165,368 possible arrangements of eight queens on an 8×8 board, but only 92 solutions.", "It is possible to use shortcuts that reduce computational requirements or rules of thumb that avoids brute-force computational techniques.", "For example, by applying a simple rule that chooses one queen from each column, it is possible to reduce the number of possibilities to 16,777,216 (that is, 88) possible combinations.", "Generating permutations further reduces the possibilities to just 40,320 (that is, 8!", "), which can then be checked for diagonal attacks.The eight queens puzzle has 92 distinct solutions.", "If solutions that differ only by the symmetry operations of rotation and reflection of the board are counted as one, the puzzle has 12 solutions.", "These are called ''fundamental'' solutions; representatives of each are shown below.A fundamental solution usually has eight variants (including its original form) obtained by rotating 90, 180, or 270° and then reflecting each of the four rotational variants in a mirror in a fixed position.", "However, one of the 12 fundamental solutions (solution 12 below) is identical to its own 180° rotation, so has only four variants (itself and its reflection, its 90° rotation and the reflection of that).", "Thus, the total number of distinct solutions is 11×8 + 1×4 = 92.All fundamental solutions are presented below:Solution 10 has the additional property that no three queens are in a straight line." ], [ "Existence of solutions", "Brute-force algorithms to count the number of solutions are computationally manageable for , but would be intractable for problems of , as 20!", "= 2.433 × 1018.If the goal is to find a single solution, one can show solutions exist for all ''n'' ≥ 4 with no search whatsoever.These solutions exhibit stair-stepped patterns, as in the following examples for ''n'' = 8, 9 and 10:The examples above can be obtained with the following formulas.", "Let (''i'', ''j'') be the square in column ''i'' and row ''j'' on the ''n'' × ''n'' chessboard, ''k'' an integer.One approach is# If the remainder from dividing ''n'' by 6 is not 2 or 3 then the list is simply all even numbers followed by all odd numbers not greater than ''n''.# Otherwise, write separate lists of even and odd numbers (2, 4, 6, 8 – 1, 3, 5, 7).# If the remainder is 2, swap 1 and 3 in odd list and move 5 to the end ('''3, 1''', 7, '''5''').# If the remainder is 3, move 2 to the end of even list and 1,3 to the end of odd list (4, 6, 8, '''2''' – 5, 7, 9, '''1, 3''').# Append odd list to the even list and place queens in the rows given by these numbers, from left to right (a2, b4, c6, d8, e3, f1, g7, h5).For this results in fundamental solution 1 above.", "A few more examples follow.", "* 14 queens (remainder 2): 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 3, 1, 7, 9, 11, 13, 5.", "* 15 queens (remainder 3): 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 2, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 1, 3.", "* 20 queens (remainder 2): 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 3, 1, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 5." ], [ "Counting solutions for other sizes ''n''", "===Exact enumeration===There is no known formula for the exact number of solutions for placing ''n'' queens on an board i.e.", "the number of independent sets of size ''n'' in an queen's graph.", "The 27×27 board is the highest-order board that has been completely enumerated.", "The following tables give the number of solutions to the ''n'' queens problem, both fundamental and all , for all known cases.", "''n''fundamentalall11120030041252106147640812929463521092724113412,680121,78714,200139,23373,7121445,752365,59615285,0532,279,184161,846,95514,772,5121711,977,93995,815,1041883,263,591666,090,62419621,012,7544,968,057,848204,878,666,80839,029,188,8842139,333,324,973314,666,222,71222336,376,244,0422,691,008,701,644233,029,242,658,21024,233,937,684,4402428,439,272,956,934227,514,171,973,73625275,986,683,743,4342,207,893,435,808,352262,789,712,466,510,28922,317,699,616,364,0442729,363,495,934,315,694234,907,967,154,122,528The number of placements in which furthermore no three queens line on any straight line is known for .=== Asymptotic enumeration ===In 2021, Michael Simkin proved that for large numbers ''n'', the number of solutions of the ''n'' queens problem is approximately .", "More precisely, the number of solutions has asymptotic growthwhere is a constant that lies between 1.939 and 1.945.", "(Here ''o''(1) represents little o notation.", ")If one instead considers a toroidal chessboard (where diagonals \"wrap around\" from the top edge to the bottom and from the left edge to the right), it is only possible to place ''n'' queens on an board if In this case, the asymptotic number of solutions is" ], [ "Related problems", ";Higher dimensions:Find the number of non-attacking queens that can be placed in a ''d''-dimensional chess of size ''n''.", "More than ''n'' queens can be placed in some higher dimensions (the smallest example is four non-attacking queens in a 3×3×3 chess space), and it is in fact known that for any ''k'', there are higher dimensions where ''n''''k'' queens do not suffice to attack all spaces.", ";Using pieces other than queens:On an 8×8 board one can place 32 knights, or 14 bishops, 16 kings or eight rooks, so that no two pieces attack each other.", "In the case of knights, an easy solution is to place one on each square of a given color, since they move only to the opposite color.", "The solution is also easy for rooks and kings.", "Sixteen kings can be placed on the board by dividing it into 2-by-2 squares and placing the kings at equivalent points on each square.", "Placements of ''n'' rooks on an ''n''×''n'' board are in direct correspondence with order-''n'' permutation matrices.", ";Chess variations:Related problems can be asked for chess variations such as shogi.", "For instance, the ''n''+''k'' dragon kings problem asks to place ''k'' shogi pawns and ''n''+''k'' mutually nonattacking dragon kings on an ''n''×''n'' shogi board.", ";Nonstandard boards:Pólya studied the ''n'' queens problem on a toroidal (\"donut-shaped\") board and showed that there is a solution on an ''n''×''n'' board if and only if ''n'' is not divisible by 2 or 3.;Domination:Given an ''n''×''n'' board, the '''domination number''' is the minimum number of queens (or other pieces) needed to attack or occupy every square.", "For ''n'' = 8 the queen's domination number is 5.;Queens and other pieces:Variants include mixing queens with other pieces; for example, placing ''m'' queens and ''m'' knights on an ''n''×''n'' board so that no piece attacks another or placing queens and pawns so that no two queens attack each other.", ";Magic squares:In 1992, Demirörs, Rafraf, and Tanik published a method for converting some magic squares into ''n''-queens solutions, and vice versa.", ";Latin squares:In an ''n''×''n'' matrix, place each digit 1 through ''n'' in ''n'' locations in the matrix so that no two instances of the same digit are in the same row or column.", ";Exact cover:Consider a matrix with one primary column for each of the ''n'' ranks of the board, one primary column for each of the ''n'' files, and one secondary column for each of the 4''n'' − 6 nontrivial diagonals of the board.", "The matrix has ''n''2 rows: one for each possible queen placement, and each row has a 1 in the columns corresponding to that square's rank, file, and diagonals and a 0 in all the other columns.", "Then the ''n'' queens problem is equivalent to choosing a subset of the rows of this matrix such that every primary column has a 1 in precisely one of the chosen rows and every secondary column has a 1 in at most one of the chosen rows; this is an example of a generalized exact cover problem, of which sudoku is another example.", "; ''n''-queens completion:The completion problem asks whether, given an ''n''×''n'' chessboard on which some queens are already placed, it is possible to place a queen in every remaining row so that no two queens attack each other.", "This and related questions are NP-complete and #P-complete.", "Any placement of at most ''n''/60 queens can be completed, while there are partial configurations of roughly ''n''/4 queens that cannot be completed." ], [ "Exercise in algorithm design", "Finding all solutions to the eight queens puzzle is a good example of a simple but nontrivial problem.", "For this reason, it is often used as an example problem for various programming techniques, including nontraditional approaches such as constraint programming, logic programming or genetic algorithms.", "Most often, it is used as an example of a problem that can be solved with a recursive algorithm, by phrasing the ''n'' queens problem inductively in terms of adding a single queen to any solution to the problem of placing ''n''−1 queens on an ''n''×''n'' chessboard.", "The induction bottoms out with the solution to the 'problem' of placing 0 queens on the chessboard, which is the empty chessboard.This technique can be used in a way that is much more efficient than the naïve brute-force search algorithm, which considers all 648 = 248 = 281,474,976,710,656 possible blind placements of eight queens, and then filters these to remove all placements that place two queens either on the same square (leaving only 64!/56!", "= 178,462,987,637,760 possible placements) or in mutually attacking positions.", "This very poor algorithm will, among other things, produce the same results over and over again in all the different permutations of the assignments of the eight queens, as well as repeating the same computations over and over again for the different sub-sets of each solution.", "A better brute-force algorithm places a single queen on each row, leading to only 88 = 224 = 16,777,216 blind placements.It is possible to do much better than this.One algorithm solves the eight rooks puzzle by generating the permutations of the numbers 1 through 8 (of which there are 8!", "= 40,320), and uses the elements of each permutation as indices to place a queen on each row.Then it rejects those boards with diagonal attacking positions.This animation illustrates backtracking to solve the problem.", "A queen is placed in a column that is known not to cause conflict.", "If a column is not found the program returns to the last good state and then tries a different column.The backtracking depth-first search program, a slight improvement on the permutation method, constructs the search tree by considering one row of the board at a time, eliminating most nonsolution board positions at a very early stage in their construction.Because it rejects rook and diagonal attacks even on incomplete boards, it examines only 15,720 possible queen placements.A further improvement, which examines only 5,508 possible queenplacements, is to combine the permutation based method with the earlypruning method: the permutations are generated depth-first, andthe search space is pruned if the partial permutation produces adiagonal attack.Constraint programming can also be very effective on this problem.min-conflicts solution to 8 queensAn alternative to exhaustive search is an 'iterative repair' algorithm, which typically starts with all queens on the board, for example with one queen per column.", "It then counts the number of conflicts (attacks), and uses a heuristic to determine how to improve the placement of the queens.", "The 'minimum-conflicts' heuristic – moving the piece with the largest number of conflicts to the square in the same column where the number of conflicts is smallest – is particularly effective: it easily finds a solution to even the 1,000,000 queens problem.Unlike the backtracking search outlined above, iterative repair does not guarantee a solution: like all greedy procedures, it may get stuck on a local optimum.", "(In such a case, the algorithm may be restarted with a different initial configuration.)", "On the other hand, it can solve problem sizes that are several orders of magnitude beyond the scope of a depth-first search.As an alternative to backtracking, solutions can be counted by recursively enumerating valid partial solutions, one row at a time.", "Rather than constructing entire board positions, blocked diagonals and columns are tracked with bitwise operations.", "This does not allow the recovery of individual solutions." ], [ "Sample program", "The following program is a translation of Niklaus Wirth's solution into the Python programming language, but does without the index arithmetic found in the original and instead uses lists to keep the program code as simple as possible.", "By using a coroutine in the form of a generator function, both versions of the original can be unified to compute either one or all of the solutions.", "Only 15,720 possible queen placements are examined.def queens(n, i, a, b, c): if i" ], [ "In popular culture", "In the game ''The 7th Guest'', the 8th Puzzle: \"The Queen's Dilemma\" in the game room of the Stauf mansion is the de facto eight queens puzzle.", "In the game Professor Layton and the Curious Village, the 130th puzzle: \"Too Many Queens 5\" () is an eight queens puzzle." ], [ "See also", "* Mathematical game* Mathematical puzzle* No-three-in-line problem* Rook polynomial* Costas array" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * ''On The Modular N-Queen Problem in Higher Dimensions'', Ricardo Gomez, Juan Jose Montellano and Ricardo Strausz (2004), Instituto de Matematicas, Area de la Investigacion Cientifica, Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico.", "* " ], [ "External links", " * Eight Queens Puzzle in Turbo Pascal for CP/M* Eight Queens Puzzle one line solution in Python* Solutions in more than 100 different programming languages (on Rosetta Code)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Enrico Bombieri" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Enrico Bombieri''' (born 26 November 1940) is an Italian mathematician, known for his work in analytic number theory, Diophantine geometry, complex analysis, and group theory.", "Bombieri is currently Professor Emeritus in the School of Mathematics at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.Bombieri won the Fields Medal in 1974 for his contributions to large sieve mathematics, conceptualized by Linnick 1941, and its application to the distribution of prime numbers." ], [ "Career", "Bombieri published his first mathematical paper in 1957 when he was 16 years old.", "In 1963 at age 22 he earned his first degree (Laurea) in mathematics from the Università degli Studi di Milano under the supervision of Giovanni Ricci and then studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, with Harold Davenport.Bombieri was an assistant professor (1963–1965) and then a full professor (1965–1966) at the Università di Cagliari, at the Università di Pisa in 1966–1974, and then at the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in 1974–1977.From Pisa he emigrated in 1977 to the United States, where he became a professor at the School of Mathematics at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.", "In 2011 he became professor emeritus.Bombieri is also known for his ''pro bono'' service on behalf of the mathematics profession, e.g.", "for serving on external review boards and for peer-reviewing extraordinarily complicated manuscripts (like the paper of Per Enflo on the invariant subspace problem)." ], [ "Research", "The Bombieri–Vinogradov theorem is one of the major applications of the large sieve method.", "It improves Dirichlet's theorem on prime numbers in arithmetic progressions, by showing that by averaging over the modulus over a range, the mean error is much less than can be proved in a given case.", "This result can sometimes substitute for the still-unproved generalized Riemann hypothesis.In 1969 Bombieri, De Giorgi, and Giusti solved Bernstein's problem.In 1976, Bombieri developed the technique known as the \"asymptotic sieve\".", "In 1980 he supplied the completion of the proof of the uniqueness of finite groups of Ree type in characteristic 3; at the time of its publication it was one of the missing steps in the classification of finite simple groups." ], [ "Awards", "Bombieri's research in number theory, algebraic geometry, and mathematical analysis have earned him many international prizes — a Fields Medal in 1974 and the Balzan Prize in 1980.He was a plenary speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians in 1974 at Vancouver.", "He is a member, or foreign member, of several learned academies, including the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei (elected 1976), the French Academy of Sciences (elected 1984), and the United States National Academy of Sciences (elected 1996).In 2002 he was made ''Cavaliere di Gran Croce al Merito della Repubblica Italiana''.", "In 2010 he received the King Faisal International Prize (jointly with Terence Tao).", "and in 2020 he was awarded the Crafoord Prize in Mathematics." ], [ "Other interests", "Bombieri, accomplished also in the arts, explored for wild orchids and other plants as a hobby in the Alps when a young man." ], [ "Selected publications", "===Sole===* E. Bombieri, ''Le Grand Crible dans la Théorie Analytique des Nombres'' (Seconde Édition).", "Astérisque 18, Paris 1987.===Joint===*** B. Beauzamy, E. Bombieri, P. Enflo and H. L. Montgomery.", "\"Product of polynomials in many variables\", ''Journal of Number Theory'', pages 219–245, 1990." ], [ "See also", "Bombieri normBombieri–Vinogradov theoremGlossary of arithmetic and Diophantine geometry – Bombieri–Lang conjecture" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "** E. Bombieri, ''Le Grand Crible dans la Théorie Analytique des Nombres'' (Seconde Édition).", "Astérisque 18, Paris 1987.", "* B. Beauzamy, E. Bombieri, P. Enflo and H. L. Montgomery.", "\"Product of polynomials in many variables\", ''Journal of Number Theory'', pages 219–245, 1990.", "" ], [ "External links", "* Enrico Bombieri, Institute for Advanced Study* Lista delle pubblicazioni di Enrico Bombieri, University of Pisa" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Eos" ], [ "Introduction", "In ancient Greek mythology and religion, '''Eos''' (; Ionic and Homeric Greek ''Ēṓs'', Attic ''Héōs'', \"dawn\", or ; Aeolic ''Aúōs'', Doric ''Āṓs'') is the goddess and personification of the dawn, who rose each morning from her home at the edge of the river Oceanus to deliver light and disperse the night.", "In Greek tradition and poetry she is characterized as a goddess with a great sexual appetite, who took numerous lovers for her own satisfaction and bore them several children.", "Like her Roman counterpart Aurora and Rigvedic Ushas, Eos continues the name of an earlier Indo-European dawn goddess, Hausos.", "Eos, or her earlier Proto-Indo-European (PIE) ancestor, also shares several elements with the love goddess Aphrodite, perhaps signifying Eos's influence on her or otherwise a common origin for the two goddesses.", "In surviving tradition, Aphrodite is the culprit behind Eos' numerous love affairs, having cursed the goddess with insatiable lust for mortal men.In Greek literature, Eos is presented as a daughter of the Titans Hyperion and Theia, the sister of the sun god Helios and the moon goddess Selene.", "In rarer traditions, she is the daughter of the Titan Pallas.", "Each day she drives her two-horse chariot, heralding the breaking of the new day and her brother's arrival.", "Thus, her most common epithet of the goddess in the Homeric epics is '''Rhododactylos''', or \"rosy-fingered\", a reference to the sky's colours at dawn, and '''Erigeneia''', \"early-born\".", "Although primarily associated with the dawn and early morning, sometimes Eos would accompany Helios for the entire duration of his journey, and thus she is even seen during dusk.Eos fell in love with mortal men several times, and would abduct them in similar manner to how male gods did mortal women.", "Her most notable mortal lover is the Trojan prince Tithonus, for whom she ensured the gift of immortality, but not eternal youth, leading to him aging without dying for an eternity.", "In another story, she carried off the Athenian Cephalus against his will, but eventually let him go for he ardently wished to be returned to his wife, though not before she denigrated her to him, leading to the couple parting ways.", "Several other lovers and romances with both mortal men and gods were attributed to the goddess by various poets throughout the centuries.Eos figures in many works of ancient literature and poetry, but despite her Proto-Indo-European origins, there is little evidence of Eos having received any cult or being the centre of worship during classical times." ], [ "Etymology", "The Proto-Greek form of ''Ἠώς'' / ''Ēṓs'' has been reconstructed as ''ἀυhώς / auhṓs''.", "It is cognate to the Vedic goddess ''Ushas'', Lithuanian goddess ''Aušrinė'', and Roman goddess ''Aurora'' (Old Latin ''Ausosa''), all three of whom are also goddesses of the dawn.", "Beekes notes that the Proto-Greek form ''ἇϝος'' (''hãwos'') is identical with the Sanskrit relative ''yāvat'', meaning 'as long as'.", "Meissner (2006) suggested an ''áwwɔ̄s'' > /aṷwɔ̄s/ > lengthening for Aeolic and /aṷwɔ̄s/ > ''āwɔ̄s'' > ''ǣwɔ̄s'' > /ǣɔ̄s/ for Attic-Ionic Greek.In Mycenaean Greek her name is also attested in the form in Linear B, ''a-wo-i-jo'' (''Āw(ʰ)oʰios''; Ἀϝohιος), found in a tablet from Pylos; it has been interpreted as a shepherd's personal name related to \"dawn\", or dative form ''Āwōiōi''.Heinrich Wilhelm Stoll offered a different (now rejected) etymology for '''', linking it to the verb , meaning \"to blow\", \"to breathe.", "\"Lycophron calls her by an archaic name, ''Tito'', meaning \"day\" and perhaps etymologically linked to \"Titan\".", "Karl Kerenyi observes that Tito shares a linguistic origin with Eos's lover Tithonus, which belonged to an older, pre-Greek language." ], [ "Origins", "=== Proto-Indo-European dawn goddess ===Eos'' by Evelyn De Morgan (1895)All four of the aforementioned goddesses sharing a linguistic connection with Eos are considered derivatives of the Proto-Indo-European stem ''h₂ewsṓs'' (later ''Ausṓs''), \"dawn\".", "The root also gave rise to Proto-Germanic ''Austrō'', Old High German ''Ōstara'' and Old English ''Ēostre / Ēastre''.", "These and other cognates led to the reconstruction of a Proto-Indo-European dawn goddess, ''h₂éwsōs''.In the Greek pantheon, Eos, Helios and Zeus are the three gods that are of impeccable Indo-European lineage in both etymology and status, although the former two were sidelined in the pantheon by non-PIE newcomers.", "A common epithet associated with this dawn goddess is ''Diwós Dhuǵh2tḗr'', the 'Daughter of Dyēus', the sky god.", "In Homeric tradition however, Eos is never stated to be the daughter of Zeus (, ), as she is instead the daughter of the Titan Hyperion, who plays little role in mythology or religion.", "Rather, a commonly occurring epithet of hers is , ''dîa'', meaning \"divine\", from earlier ''díw-ya'', which would have translated into \"belonging to Zeus\" or \"heavenly\".", "''L' Aurore'', 1693 bronze statue of Eos by Philippe Magnier (1647-1715), on display at Louvre Museum, France.Eos's characterization as a lovestruck, sexual being who took many lovers is directly inherited from her PIE precursor.", "A common and widespread theme among Hausos's descendants is their reluctance to bring the light of the new day.", "Eos (and Aurora) is sometimes seen as unwilling to leave her bed in the morning, while Uṣas is punished by Indra for attempting to forestall the day, and the Latvian Auseklis was said to be locked up in a golden chamber so she could not always rise in the morning.This probably of Proto-Indo-European origin goddess of the dawn was often conflated and equated with Hemera, the goddess of the day and daylight.", "Eos might have also played a role in Proto-Indo-European poetry.=== Connection to Aphrodite ===Eos also shares some characteristics with the love goddess Aphrodite connoting perhaps a semi-shared origin or influence of Eos/''Haéusōs'' on Aphrodite, who otherwise has a Near Eastern origin; both goddesses were known for their erotic beauty and aggressive sexuality, both had relationships with mortal lovers and both were associated with the colors red, white, and gold.", "Michael Janda etymologizes Aphrodite's name as an epithet of Eos meaning \"she who rises from the foam of the ocean\" and points to Hesiod's ''Theogony'' account of Aphrodite's birth as an archaic reflex of Indo-European myth.", "On the other hand however, it is generally accepted that Aphrodite's name etymology is Semitic in origin, and its exact meaning and derivation cannot be determined.", "Evidence is also provided by an Italic red-figure krater in which Aphrodite is shown holding a mirror beneath a solar disc while the Theban hero Cadmus slays the dragon, with a female figure nearly identical to Aphrodite being depicted on another krater labelled \"\", or ''Aṓs'', the dawn; this shows that although Aphrodite is assimilated to Astarte/Inanna, in Greek artistic tradition she is sometimes presented in a similar matter to Eos.Aphrodite, like Eos, is predator and not prey, as no tales of men assaulting Aphrodite exist, but there are many where she abducts mortal men reversing the traditional theme of gods and men pursuing maidens, in the same fashion as Eos.", "Not only does Aphrodite abduct or seduce mortal men as Eos does, but even cites Eos' own adventures with Tithonus when she seduces Anchises.", "The two goddesses are presented as both maleficent and beneficent abductors, as they confer both death (maleficent) and preservation (beneficent) to their mortal lovers.", "The two goddesses exist almost side by side in the myth of Phaethon of Syria, with Eos as his mother and Aphrodite as his lover and abductor.", "Moreover, another telling point is how the name “Aoos” is recorded as both a name for Adonis, Aphrodite’s East-originating lover, and a son of Eos by Cephalus (like Phaethon) who became king of Cyprus, an island that was regarded as Aphrodite’s birthplace.", "This suggest a mixture of Mycenaean and Phoenician religions on the island; it is possible that Aoos was originally a generic name used for Eos’ son or lover, which was then attached to Aphrodite in the form of a consort of the same name as she developed from Eos." ], [ "Description", "John Gibson (1790-1866).Eos was almost always described with rosy fingers or rosy forearms as she opened the gates of heaven for the Sun to rise.", "In Homer, her saffron-colored robe is embroidered or woven with flowers; while the singer in the ''Homeric Hymn to Helios'' calls her (), \"rosy-armed\" as does Sappho, who also describes her as having golden arms and golden sandals; rosy-fingered and with golden arms, she is pictured on Attic vases as a beautiful woman, crowned with a tiara or diadem and with the large white-feathered wings of a bird.", "Mesomedes of Crete used for her, \"she who has snow-white eyelids\", while Ovid described her as \"golden\".", "The delicate and fragile beauty of her appearance seems to be in total contrast with the carnal nature that was often attributed to her in myth and literature." ], [ "Family", "=== Parents ===Wiesbaden Kurhaus.According to Greek cosmogony, Eos is the daughter of the Titans Hyperion and Theia: Hyperion, a bringer of light, the ''One Above, Who Travels High Above the Earth'' and Theia, ''The Divine,'' also called Euryphaessa, \"wide-shining\" and Aethra, \"bright sky\".", "Eos is the sister of Helios, the god of the sun, and Selene, the goddess of the moon, ''\"who shine upon all that are on earth and upon the deathless gods who live in the wide heaven\"''.", "Out of the four authors that give her and her siblings a birth order, two make her the oldest child, the other two the youngest.", "In some accounts, Eos's father was called Pallas, who is also confirmed to the be father of Eos's sister Selene in some rare traditions.", "Even though the two goddesses are still connected as sisters in the traditions going with lineage from Pallas, their brother Helios is never included with them in those versions, being consistently the son of Hyperion.", "Mesomedes made her the daughter of Helios, who is usually her brother, by an unnamed mother.", "Some authors made her the child of Nyx, the personification of the night, who is the mother of Hemera in the ''Theogony''.=== Offspring ===Eos married the Titan Astraeus (\"of the stars\") and became the mother of the Anemoi (\"winds\") namely Zephyrus, Boreas, Notus and Eurus; of the Morning Star, Eosphoros (Venus);Pliny the Elder: ''Sidus appellatum Veneris … ante matutinum exoriens Luciferi nomen accipit … contra ab occasu refulgens nuncupatur Vesper'' (The star called Venus … when it rises in the morning is given the name Lucifer … but when it shines at sunset it is called Vesper) Natural History 2, 36 of the stars; and of the virgin goddess of justice, Astraea (\"starry one\").", "Her other notable offspring were Memnon and Emathion by the Trojan prince, Tithonus.", "Sometimes, Hesperus, Phaethon and Tithonus (different from her lover), were said to be the children of Eos by Prince Cephalus of Athens." ], [ "Mythology {{Anchor\|Eos in Greek literature}}", "=== Goddess of the dawn ===Eos in her four horse-drawn chariot, terracotta red-figure lekanis vase, late 300s BC, Canosa, Metropolitan Museum of Art.Each morning, the dawn goddess Eos would get up and open the gates so that her brother the Sun would pass and rise, bringing the new day.", "Although often her job seems to be done once she announces Helios' coming, in the Homeric epics she accompanies him throughout the whole day, and does not leave him until the sunset; hence \"Eos\" might be used in texts where one would have expected to see \"Helios\" instead.", "In Musaeus's rendition of the story of Hero and Leander in the sixth century AD, Eos is mentioned during both sunrise and sunset.==== Homer and Hesiod ====From ''The Iliad'':Now when Dawn in robe of saffron was hastening from the streams of Oceanus, to bring light to mortals and immortals, Thetis reached the ships with the armor that the god had given her.And then later:But soon as early Dawn appeared, the rosy-fingered, then gathered the folk about the pyre of glorious Hector.", "''Aurora Taking Leave of Tithonus'' by Francesco Solimena, oil on canvas, 1704, J. Paul Getty Museum.She is most often associated with her Homeric epithet \"rosy-fingered\" '''Eos Rhododactylos''' (), but Homer also calls her '''Eos Erigeneia''':That brightest of stars appeared, Eosphoros, that most often heralds the light of early-rising Dawn (Eos Erigeneia).Near the end of the ''Odyssey'', Athena, wanting to buy Odysseus some time with his wife Penelope after they have reunited with each other, orders Eos not to yoke her two horses, thus delaying the coming of the new day:And rose-fingered Dawn would have shone for the weepers had not bright-eyed goddess Athena thought of other things.", "She checked the long night in its passage, and further, held golden-throned Dawn over Ocean and didn't let her yoke her swift-footed horses, that bring daylight to men, Lampus and Phaethon, the colts that carry Dawn.In the ''Theogony'', Hesiod wrote \"and after these Erigeneia \"Early-born\" bore the star Eosphoros (\"Dawn-bringer\"), and the gleaming stars with which heaven is crowned\".", "Thus Eos is preceded by the Morning Star, and is thus seen as the genetrix of all the stars and planets; her tears are considered to have created the morning dew, personified as Ersa or Herse, who is otherwise the daughter of her sister Selene by Zeus.==== Orphic literature ====Eos pouring the morning dew dressed in a starsprinkled robe, from an antique vaseEos is addressed by the singer in one of the ''Orphic Hymns'', as the bringer of the new day:The position of the hymn in the collection at number 78 is odd, far from the Hymns to the Night (3), the Sun (8) and the Moon (9), where it would be expected to be grouped.", "While many of the Orphic hymns describe the divinities in terms on light, the hymn to Eos is the only one that calls upon the divinity to provide light to the initiates.==== Divine horses ====Eos's team of horses pull her chariot across the sky and are named in the ''Odyssey'' as \"Firebright\" and \"Daybright\".", "Quintus described her exulting in her heart over the radiant horses (Lampus and Phaëton) that drew her chariot, amidst the bright-haired Horae, the feminine Hours, the daughters of Zeus and Themis who are responsible for the changing of the seasons, climbing the arc of heaven and scattering sparks of fire.=== Lovers ===In spite of the goddess already having a husband in the face of her first cousin Astraeus, Eos is presented as a goddess who fell in love several times.", "According to Pseudo-Apollodorus, it was the jealous Aphrodite who cursed her to be perpetually in love and have an insatiable sexual desire because Eos had once lain with Aphrodite's sweetheart Ares, the god of war.", "The curse caused her to abduct a number of handsome young men.", "This explanatory myth was the reason offered for Eos' ravenous sexual desires, as this pattern of behavior of hers was noticed by the ancient Greeks.In the Odyssey, Calypso complains to Hermes about the male gods taking many mortal women as lovers, but not allowing goddesses to do the same.", "She brings up as example Eos’s love for the hunter Orion, who was killed by Artemis on the island of Ortygia.", "Apollodorus also mentions Eos’s love for Orion, and adds that she brought him to Delos, where he met Artemis and was subsequently slain by her.", "The good-looking Cleitus was snatched and made immortal by her.Eos fell in love and abducted Cephalus, a son of Hermes, who is sometimes the same as or distinct from the Cephalus that was the husband of Procris, whom she also abducted.==== Tithonus ====''Eos and Tithonus'', by Julien Simon, 1783, Musée des Beaux-Arts de Caen.The myth of Eos and Tithonus is very old, known as early as Homer, who in the ''Odyssey'' described the coming of the new morning as Eos rising from the bed she shares with Tithonus to bring her light to the world.", "The earliest (and fullest) account survives in the ''Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite'', where Aphrodite herself narrates the story to her own lover Anchises.", "Additionally, the myth is also the subject of one of the very few substantially complete works of Sappho, pieced together from different fragments discovered over a period of more than a hundred years, known as the Tithonus poem or the Old Age poem:The myth goes that Eos fell in love with and abducted Tithonus, a handsome prince from Troy, either the brother or the son of King Laomedon (the father of Priam).", "She went with a request to Zeus, asking him to make Tithonus immortal for her sake.", "Zeus agreed and granted her wish, but Eos foolishly forgot to ask for eternal youth as well for her beloved.", "So for a while the two lived happily in her palace, but their happiness eventually came to an end when Tithonus’ hair started turning grey as he aged, and Eos ceased to visit him in their bed.", "Despite that, the goddess kept him around and nourished him with food and ambrosia; Tithonus never died as he had gained immortality as Zeus promised, but he kept aging and shrivelling, and was soon unable to even move.", "In the end, Eos locked him up in a chamber, where he withered away alone, forever a helpless old man.", "Out of pity, she turned him into a small bug, a cicada (Greek , ''tettix'').In the account of Hieronymus of Rhodes from the third century BC, the blame is shifted from Eos and onto Tithonus, who asked for immortality but not agelessness from his lover, who was then unable to help him otherwise and turned him into a cicada.", "Propertius wrote that Eos did not forsake Tithonus, old and aged as he was, and would still embrace him and hold him in her arms rather than leaving him deserted in his cold chamber, while cursing the gods for his cruel fate.This myth might have been used to explain why cicadas were particularly noisy during the early hours of the morning, when the dawn appears in the sky.", "Sir James George Frazer notes that there was a widespread notion among the ancient Greeks and other ancient peoples that the creatures that shed their skin renew their youth and get to live forever.", "It could also be a reference to the fact that the high-pitched talk of old men was compared to a cicada's singing, as evidenced in a passage from the ''Iliad''.", "The ancient Greeks would use a cicada, the most musical of insects, sitting on a harp as an emblem of music.", "Cicadas were also believed to be able to survive off of dew alone, a substance closely associated with Eos.==== Cephalus ====The rape of Cephalus by Eos, Apulian red-figure Loutrophoros, ca.", "330 BCThe abduction of Cephalus had special appeal for an Athenian audience because Cephalus was a local boy, and so this myth element appeared frequently in Attic vase-paintings and was exported with them.", "In the literary myths, Eos snatched Cephalus against his will when he was hunting and took him to Syria.", "Although Cephalus was already married to Procris, Eos bore him three sons, including Phaethon and Hesperus, and in some versions the little-attested Aoos who went on to become king of Cyprus, but he then began pining for Procris, causing a disgruntled Eos to return him to Procris, but not before sowing the seeds of doubt in his mind, telling him that it was highly unlikely that Procris had stayed faithful to him this entire time.Cephalus and Aurora, John Flaxman, 1789-90, Lady Lever Art Gallery.Cephalus, troubled by her words, asked Eos to change his form into that of a stranger's, in order to secretly put Procris’s love for him to the test.", "Cephalus, now disguised, propositioned Procris, who at first declined but eventually gave in when he offered her money.", "He was hurt by her betrayal, and she left him in shame, but eventually they got back together.", "This time however it was Procris’s turn to doubt her husband’s fidelity; while hunting, he would often call upon the breeze ('Aura' in Latin, sounding similar to Eos’s Roman equivalent Aurora) to refresh his body.", "Upon hearing that, Procris followed and spied on him.", "Cephalus, mistaking her for some wild animal, threw his spear at her, killing his wife.", "The second-century CE traveller Pausanias knew of the story of Cephalus’s abduction too, though he calls Eos by the name of Hemera, goddess of day.Hyginus omits the kidnapping from the story, and has Cephalus reject Eos out of fidelity to Procris when she begs him to have sex with her.", "Eos then says to Cephalus that she would not want him to break his vows if Procris herself has not either, and alters his appearance and gives him gifts to trick Procris.", "Cephalus then goes to Procris as a stranger, and she agrees to lay with him, thereupon Eos removes the enchantment from Cephalus, revealing his identity.", "Procris, knowing she has been deceived by Eos, flees; she is eventually reunited with Cephalus, but still fearful of Eos, follows him when he goes out hunting, and ends up being accidentally killed by him.Antoninus Liberalis also largely follows the same tradition in his rendition of the myth, though his text contains a lacuna, jumping from Eos' abduction of Cephalus to him having doubts over Procris.", "The oldest extant account of the myth is attributed to Pherecydes, and the elements it contains were all kept by later poets; in his account however Eos plays no role in the myth.", "That being said, artistic evidence of Eos abducting a man that can be identified as Cephalus go as back as the early fifth century BC.=== Role in wars ===Memnon on an Attic red-figure cup, ca.", "490–480 BCE, the so-called \"Memnon Pietà\" found at Capua (Louvre).==== Gigantomachy ====Eos riding sidesaddle, detail of the Gigantomachy frieze, Pergamon Altar, Pergamon museum, BerlinEos played a small role in the battle of the earthborn Giants against the gods, known as the Gigantomachy, who rose in rebellion.", "When their mother, the earth goddess Gaia learned of a prophecy that the giants would perish at the hand of a mortal, Gaia sought to find a herb that would protect them from all harm; thus Zeus ordered Eos, as well as her siblings Selene (Moon) and Helios (Sun) not to shine so that she would not be able to seek for it, and harvested all of the plant for himself, denying Gaia the chance to make the Giants indestructible.", "Moreover, Eos is seen fighting against the Giants in the south frieze of the Pergamon Altar, which depicts the Gigantomachy, where she rides hither on either a horse or a mule right ahead of Helios, swinging herself on the back of her mount while a Giant already lies on the ground underneath her; a robe wound around her hips serves as her saddle-cloth.", "She is joined in fight against the Giants by her siblings, her mother Theia, and possibly, conjectured due to the disembodied wing to the right of Eos's shoulder, the goddess Hemera.==== Trojan War ====According to Hesiod, by her lover Tithonus, Eos had two sons, Memnon and Emathion.", "Memnon, king of Aethiopia, joined the Trojans in the Trojan War and fought against Achilles in battle.", "Much like Thetis, the mother of Achilles, did before her, Eos asked the smithing god Hephaestus with tears in her eyes to forge an armor for Memnon, and he, moved, did as told.", "Pausanias mentions images of Thetis and Eos both begging Zeus on behalf of their sons.", "In the end, it was Achilles who triumphed and slew Memnon in battle.", "Mourning greatly over the death of her son, Eos made the light of her brother, Helios the god of the sun, to fade, and begged Nyx, the goddess of the night, to come out earlier, so she could be able to freely steal her son's body undetected by the armies.", "After his death, Eos, perhaps with the help of Hypnos (Sleep) and Thanatos (Death), transported Memnon's dead body back to Aethiopia; she also asked Zeus to make her son immortal, and he granted her wish.", "Eos' role in the Trojan War saga mirrors that of Thetis herself; both are goddesses married to aging old men, both see their mortal sons die on the battlefield, and both arrange an afterlife/immortality of sorts for said sons." ], [ "Iconography", "Corinthian Black-Figure hydria, circa 575-550 BC, now in the Walters Art Museum.Eos was imagined as a woman wearing a saffron mantle as she spread dew from an upturned urn, or with a torch in hand, riding a chariot.", "Greek and Italian vases show Eos/Aurora on a chariot preceding Helios, as the morning star Eosphorus flies with her; she is winged, wearing a fine pleated tunic and mantle.", "Eos is not an uncommon figure, especially on red-figure vases; as a single figure she appears rising from the sea in, or driving, a four-horse chariot like her brother Helios, sometimes carrying two hydriae from which she pours morning dew.", "Because Hermes' rod had the power to both induce sleep to mortals and wake them up, some times he is seen preceding the chariot of Eos (and that of Helios) as the new day breaks.", "''Eos in her chariot'', red-figure potAlthough the romantic adventures of Eos is a common subject in pottery, so far as it is known, no vase depicts her with Orion or Cleitus, known lovers of hers, instead those vases fall into groups; those that depict Eos with a young hunter identified as Cephalus, and those that depict Eos with a youth holding a lyre, identified as Tithonus.", "Sometimes those vases bear inscriptions, and on a few the hunter is identified as Tithonus, while the lyre-player is Cephalus.", "Perhaps the earliest representation of this theme is found on a red-figure ''rhyton'', a statuette-vase, from circa 480-470 BC in which Eos is depicted carrying of a naked boy, perhaps Cephalus, her wings spread and her feet barely touching the ground.", "The image of Eos pursuing Tithonus was eerily repetitive in ancient art, as was that of erotic pursuit in general; Tithonus was drawn running off to the right in terror, or trying to clobber with a lyre or a spear the pursuing Eos, indicating the terrifying aspect of a mortal man being taken by a goddess.", "The image of Zeus, the active ''erastes'', pursuing Ganymede, the passive ''eromenos'', was also common, but in the case of Eos, the female figure was put in the dominant position.Other depictions of mythological scenes that include Eos are Memnon's battle with Achilles and Eos' pleading of Zeus for his safety, her seizing of Memnon's dead body, and the ''apotheosis'' of Alcmene (the mother of Heracles).", "Among Theia and Hyperion's children, she is the only one depicted with wings, as neither her brother nor her sister ever sport some in art." ], [ "Cult and temples", "Eos with two young men, red-figure stamnos, ca 470–460 BC, now in the Walters Art Museum.Eos, along with her brother and sister, is a Proto-Indo-European deity, that was side-lined by the non-PIE newcomers to the pantheon; James Davidson argues that apparently persisting on the sidelines was a primary function for them, to be the minor gods that the major gods were juxtaposed to, thus helping to keep the Greek religion Greek.", "However, whereas her brother and sister did receive minor cults, and in Helios' case even major ones, Eos does not seem to have been the focus of any worship at all.", "Thus there are no known temples, shrines, or altars to Eos.", "That being said, Ovid seems to allude to the existence of at least two shrines of Eos, as he describes them in plural, albeit few, in the lines:Although this could simply be an understated way for Eos to say that she has no temples or shrines whatsoever, nevertheless Ovid may therefore have known of at least two such shrines.", "However if Eos did indeed have a handful of shrines and altars in ancient Greece or Rome, no knowledge of them remains.The only traces of the goddess's worship can be found at Athens, where wineless offerings (or ''nephalia'') were made to Eos, along with other celestial gods and goddesses, including Eos's siblings Helios and Selene, as well as Aphrodite Urania, Mnemosyne, the Muses, and the nymphs.", "It is possible that the goddess addressed as Orthria and Aotis in a fragment by Alcman is Eos; this is highly debated, but if true, it could mean that Eos was worshipped in some capacity in Sparta during the Archaic period." ], [ "Identifications", "=== Etruscan ===''Eos the Morn'', engraving by John Flaxman.Among the Etruscans, the generative dawn-goddess was Thesan.", "Depictions of the dawn-goddess with a young lover became popular in Etruria in the fifth century, probably inspired by imported Greek vase-painting.", "Though Etruscans preferred to show the goddess as a nurturer (''Kourotrophos'') rather than an abductor of young men, the late Archaic sculptural acroterion from Etruscan Cære, now in Berlin, showing the goddess in archaic running pose adapted from the Greeks, and bearing a boy in her arms, has commonly been identified as Eos and Cephalus.", "On an Etruscan mirror Thesan is shown carrying off a young man, whose name is inscribed as Tinthu.=== Roman ===The Roman equivalent of Eos is Aurora, also a cognate showing the characteristic Latin rhotacism.", "Dawn became associated in Roman cult with Matuta, later known as Mater Matuta.", "She was also associated with the sea harbors and ports, and had a temple on the Forum Boarium.", "On June 11, the Matralia was celebrated at that temple in honor of Mater Matuta; this festival was only for women during their first marriage.=== Hemera ===Eos in her chariot flying over the sea, red-figure krater from Southern Italy, 430–420 BC, Staatliche AntikensammlungenAlthough distinct deities in early works such as Hesiod's ''Theogony'', later the tragic poets completely identified Eos with Hemera, the primordial goddess of the day; each of the three great Athenian tragedians, Euripides, Aeschylus and Sophocles, used \"Hemera\" for the goddess who abducts Tithonus or drives a chariot drawn by white horses at daybreak in some work.", "Both goddesses were said to be daughters of Nyx (Night), albeit Eos was much more commonly the daughter of Hyperion by his wife.", "Pausanias, when describing depictions of Eos's myths at Athens and Amyclae, he calls Eos by the name of Hemera.", "A scholion on the ''Odyssey'' mentions the abduction of the hunter Orion by \"Hemera\" (Eos in Homer).", "Eos, in contrast to Helios and Selene and more similarly to Hemera and Hemera's mother Nyx, embodies a part of the day and night cycle, instead of a celestial body.", "The Greek word \"eos\", meaning dawn, was some times used by writers to refer to the entire duration of the day, not just the morning.Likewise, Eos was often referred to as ''Tito'', another archaic word meaning day, and feminine equivalent to ''Titan'', which is a common epithet of her brother Helios denoting his role as the creator of the day.", "Unlike Eos however, Hemera is little more than a name in Greek literature, with few and far between refences about her and with no unique mythology outside of her parentage and the few stories appropriated from Eos." ], [ "In culture", " 221 Eos, a large main-belt asteroid, was named after this goddess.", "* The acidic compound Eosin was indirectly named after Eos." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Aurora_and_Cephalus_-_Agostino_Carracci_-_1597_-_Farnese_Gallery,_Rome.jpg\|''Aurora and Cephalus'' from ''The Loves of the Gods'' fresco.File:Eos körande fyrspann, Nordisk familjebok.png\|Eos driving a four-horse chariot, from an antique vase.File:Sarcophagus Selene Endymion Glyptothek Munich 328.jpg\|Eos in the sarcophagus of Selene and Endymion.File:Akroterion, fragments, Eos carries Cephalus, 425-417 BC, Delos, A04281, A04282, 143425.jpg\|Fragments of Eos carrying off Cephalus, from Delos.File:Pittore di lewis, skyphos con eos che rapisce tithonos e inseguimento amoroso 02.JPG\|''Eos abducts Tithonus'', Archaeological Museum of Florence.File:Ricci - Aurora and Tithonus c. 1700 - c. 1710, RCIN 907197.jpg\|Eos and Tithonus, by Sebastiano Ricci.File:Boucher - Céphale et l'Aurore, 1764.jpg\|Céphale and Aurore, François Boucher.File:Eos Kephalos Louvre LP1153.jpg\|Eos carrying off a man in a relief from Milos.File:Clock Aurora (France, middle 19 c.).jpg\|A French clock with Eos.File:Memnon vs Achilles RII1.png\|Eos watches the battle between Memnon and Achilles.File:Sebastiano Ricci (Belluno 1659-Venice 1734) - Aurora and Tithonus - RCIN 404754 - Royal Collection.jpg\|Eos and Tithonus by Sebastiano Ricci.File:Eos adbucting Tithonos-MAHG MF 140-P6130559.JPG\|Etruscan vase of Thesan (Eos) abducting Tinthu (Tithonus), circa 525–500 BC.File:1932 Goddess of Dawn, as sculpted by Jorgen C. Dreyer.jpg\|Goddess of Dawn, Jorgen Dreyer (1932)File:Fickur med boett av silver med mytologisk figurscen, 1700-tal - Hallwylska museet - 110441 cropped detail.tif\|Pocket watch with silver case with Eos and Cephalus (detail), 18th cent." ], [ "Genealogy" ], [ "See also", "* Aquarius* Cumaean Sibyl, a mortal who was granted an extended lifetime but not eternal youth* List of solar deities" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "=== Primary sources ===* Antoninus Liberalis, ''The Metamorphoses of Antoninus Liberalis'' translated by Francis Celoria (Routledge 1992).", "Online version at the Topos Text Project.", "* Aratus Solensis, ''Phaenomena'' translated by G. R. Mair.", "Loeb Classical Library Volume 129.London: William Heinemann, 1921.Online version at the Topos Text Project.", "* Aratus Solensis, ''Phaenomena''.", "G. R. Mair.", "London: William Heinemann; New York: G.P.", "Putnam's Sons.", "1921.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Diodorus Siculus, ''The Library of History'' translated by Charles Henry Oldfather.", "Twelve volumes.", "Loeb Classical Library.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989.Vol.", "3.Books 4.59–8.Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site* Diodorus Siculus, ''Bibliotheca Historica.", "Vol 1-2''.", "Immanel Bekker.", "Ludwig Dindorf.", "Friedrich Vogel.", "in aedibus B. G. Teubneri.", "Leipzig.", "1888-1890.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Gaius Julius Hyginus, ''Astronomica from The Myths of Hyginus'' translated and edited by Mary Grant.", "University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies.", "Online version at the Topos Text Project.", "* Gaius Julius Hyginus, ''Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus'' translated and edited by Mary Grant.", "University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies.", "Online version at the Topos Text Project.", "* Gaius Valerius Flaccus, ''Argonautica'' translated by Mozley, J H. Loeb Classical Library Volume 286.Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1928.Online version at theoi.com.", "* Gaius Valerius Flaccus, ''Argonauticon.''", "Otto Kramer.", "Leipzig.", "Teubner.", "1913.Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Hesiod, ''Theogony'' from ''The Homeric Hymns and Homerica'' with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "Greek text available from the same website.", "* Homer, ''The Iliad'' with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes.", "Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Homer, ''Homeri Opera'' in five volumes.", "Oxford, Oxford University Press.", "1920.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Homer, ''The Odyssey'' with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes.", "Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "Greek text available from the same website.", "* ''Homeric Hymns, Homeric Apocrypha, Lives of Homer'', edited and translated by Martin L. West, the Loeb Classical Library 496, Harvard University Press, 2003, London, England, .", "* Mimnermus in ''Greek Elegiac Poetry: From the Seventh to the Fifth Centuries BC'', edited and translated by Douglas E. Gerber, Loeb Classical Library No.", "258, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1999.. Online version at Harvard University Press.", "* Nonnus of Panopolis, ''Dionysiaca'' translated by William Henry Denham Rouse (1863-1950), from the Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1940.Online version at the Topos Text Project.", "* Nonnus of Panopolis, ''Dionysiaca.", "3 Vols.''", "W.H.D.", "Rouse.", "Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1940-1942.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Pausanias, ''Description of Greece'' with an English Translation by W.H.S.", "Jones, Litt.D., and H.A.", "Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes.", "Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library* Pausanias, ''Graeciae Descriptio.''", "''3 vols''.", "Leipzig, Teubner.", "1903.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Pindar, ''Odes'' translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien.", "1990.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Pindar, ''The Odes of Pindar'' including the Principal Fragments with an Introduction and an English Translation by Sir John Sandys, Litt.D., FBA.", "Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1937.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''The Library'' with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S.", "in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "Greek text available from the same website.", "* Propertius, ''Elegies'' in ''Roman Erotic Elegy: Selections from Tibullus, Propertius, Ovid, and Sulpicia, translated, with an Introduction, Notes, and Glossary by Jon Corelis'' (Salzburg Studies in English Literature Poetic Drama & Poetic Theory 128).", "Full text available online at romanelegyonline.", "* Publius Ovidius Naso, ''Fasti'' translated by James G. Frazer.", "Online version at the Topos Text Project.", "* Publius Ovidius Naso, ''Fasti.''", "Sir James George Frazer.", "London; Cambridge, MA.", "William Heinemann Ltd.; Harvard University Press.", "1933.Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Publius Ovidius Naso, ''Metamorphoses'' translated by Brookes More (1859-1942).", "Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Publius Ovidius Naso, ''Metamorphoses.''", "Hugo Magnus.", "Gotha (Germany).", "Friedr.", "Andr.", "Perthes.", "1892.Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Quintus Smyrnaeus, ''The Fall of Troy'' translated by Way.", "A. S. Loeb Classical Library Volume 19.London: William Heinemann, 1913.Online version at theoi.com* Quintus Smyrnaeus, ''The Fall of Troy''.", "Arthur S. Way.", "London: William Heinemann; New York: G.P.", "Putnam's Sons.", "1913.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* ''The Homeric Hymns and Homerica'' with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White.", "Homeric Hymns.", "Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "Greek text available from the same website.=== Secondary sources ===* Athanassakis, Apostolos N., and Benjamin M. Wolkow, ''The Orphic Hymns'', Johns Hopkins University Press; owlerirst Printing edition (May 29, 2013).", ".", "Google Books.", "* * Burkert, Walter (1982), ''Greek Religion''.", "* * Campbell, David A., ''Greek Lyric, Volume I: Sappho and Alcaeus'', Loeb Classical Library No.", "142, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1990.. Online version at Harvard University Press.", "* Corinne Ondine Pache, ''A Moment's Ornament: The Poetics of Nympholepsy in Ancient Greece''.", "Oxford University Press, 2011.", "* Currie, Bruno, ''Pindar and the Cult of Heroes'', Oxford University Press, 2005, .", "Google books.", "* Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), ''Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World'', New York and London: Routledge, .", "Google books.", "* Davidson, James, \"Time and Greek Religion\", in ''A Companion to Greek Religion'', edited by Daniel Ogden, John Wiley & Sons, 2010, .", "* * Dumézil, Georges (1934), ''Ouranos-Vàruna: Ètude de mythologie compáree indo-européene'', Paris: Maisonneuve.", "* Ferrari, Gloria, ''Alcman and the Cosmos of Sparta'', University of Chicago Press, 2008, .", "* Grimal, Pierre, ''The Dictionary of Classical Mythology'', Wiley-Blackwell, 1996, .", "\"Eos\" p. 146* Greene, Ellen; Paxton, Joseph, ''Reading Sappho: Contemporary Approaches'', University of California Press, 1996, .", "* Hansen, William, ''Handbook of Classical Mythology'', ABC-CLIO, 2004..* * * Keightley, Thomas, ''The Mythology of Ancient Greece and Italy'', G. Bell and Sons, 1877.", "* * * * Meagher, Robert E., ''The Meaning of Helen: In Search of an Ancient Icon'', Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, 2002..* * Nagy, Gregory, ''Greek Mythology and Poetics'', Cornell University Press, 1990, .", "* Oakley, John H.; Palagia, Olga, ''Athenian Potters and Painters Volume II'', Oxbow Books, 2009, .", "Google books.", "* Picón, Carlos A.; Hemingway, Seán, ''Pergamon and the Hellenistic Kingdoms of the Ancient World'', Yale University Press, 2016, .", "* Price, Jonathan J.; Zelnick-Abramovitz, Rachel, ''Text and Intertext in Greek Epic and Drama: Essays in Honor of Margalit Finkelberg'', Routledge, 2021, .", "Google books.", "* Reitzammer, Laurialan, ''The Athenian Adonia in Context: The Adonis Festival as Cultural Practice''.", "University of Wisconsin Press, 2016.", "* Roberts, Helene E., ''Encyclopedia of Comparative Iconography: Themes Depicted in Works of Art''.", "Volume I and II, Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, London, Chicago, 1998.", "* Savignoni L.", "1899.", "\"On Representations of Helios and of Selene\", The Journal of Hellenic Studies '''19''': pp.", "265–272.", "* Schmidt, Evamaria, ''The Great Altar of Pergamon'', 1962, Edition Leipzig.", "* Smith, William; ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', London (1873).", "John Murray: printed by Spottiswoode and Co., New-Street Square and Parliament Street.", "* Stoll, Heinrich Wilhelm, ''Handbook of the religion and mythology of the Greeks, With a Short Account of The Religious System of the Romans'', tr.", "by R.B.", "Paul, and ed.", "by T.K.", "Arnold, London, Francis & John Rivington, 1852.", "* Tsagalis Christos; Markantonatos Andreas, ''The Winnowing Oar - New Perspectives in Homeric Studies'', De Gruyter, German National Library, 2017, .", "* Walters, Henry Beauchamp, ''History of ancient pottery, Greek, Etruscan, and Roman volume II'', based on the work of Samuel Birch, 1905, London, J. Murray, New York.", "" ], [ "Further reading", " Hatto, Arthur.", "T., ''Eos: An Enquiry into the Theme of Lovers' Meetings and Partings at Dawn in Poetry'', 1965, Mouton & Co., the Hague.", "Google books.", "* Jackson, Peter.", "\"Πότνια Αὔως: The Greek Dawn-Goddess and Her Antecedent.\"", "Glotta 81 (2005): 116-23.Accessed May 10, 2020..* Lefkowitz, Mary R. \"\"Predatory\" Goddesses.\"", "Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens 71 (2002): 325-344.Accessed March 31, 2022.." ], [ "External links", "* EOS from The Theoi Project* EOS from Greek Mythology Link* EOS from greekmythology.com* EOS from Mythopedia" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Eduardo Blasco Ferrer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eduardo Blasco Ferrer''' (Barcelona, 1956 – Bastia, 12 January 2017) was a Spanish-Italian linguist and a professor at the University of Cagliari, Sardinia.", "He is best known as the author of several studies about the Paleo-Sardinian and Sardinian language." ], [ "Books", "''Grammatica storica del catalano e dei suoi dialetti con speciale riguardo all'algherese.''", "Tübingen: G. Narr, c1984.", "''La lingua sarda contemporanea : grammatica del logudorese e del campidanese : norma e varietà dell'uso : sintesi storica''.", "Cagliari : Della Torre, c1986.", "''Storia linguistica della Sardegna.''", "Tübingen : Niemeyer, 1984.", "''Le parlate dell'alta Ogliastra : analisi dialettologica : saggio di storia linguistica e culturale.''", "Cagliari : Edizioni Della Torre, 1988.", "''Ello, ellus : grammatica sarda.''", "Nuoro : Poliedro, c1994.", "''La lingua nel tempo : variazione e cambiamento in latino, italiano e sardo.''", "Cagliari : CUEC, 1995.", "* Cagliari : CUEC, 1996.", "''Pro domo : grammatica essenziale della lingua sarda.''", "Cagliari : Condaghes, 1998.", "''Italiano e tedesco : un confronto linguistico''.", "Torino : Paravia scriptorium, c1999.", "''Italiano, sardo e lingue moderne a scuola.''", "Milano : F. Angeli, 2003.", "''Storia della lingua sarda.''", "Cagliari : CUEC, 2009.*''Paleosardo.", "Le radici linguistiche della Sardegna neolitica.''", "Berlin : De Gruyter, 2010." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia

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