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[ [ "Kite" ], [ "Introduction", "Yokaichi Giant Kite Festival is held every July in Higashiomi, Shiga, Japan.", "Various kites being flownStar-shaped kite above a meadow south of Hockenheim.", "This sparless, ram-air inflated kite, has a complex bridle formed of many strings attached to the face of the wing.A '''kite''' is a tethered heavier-than-air or lighter-than-air craft with wing surfaces that react against the air to create lift and drag forces.", "A kite consists of wings, tethers and anchors.", "Kites often have a bridle and tail to guide the face of the kite so the wind can lift it.", "Some kite designs do not need a bridle; box kites can have a single attachment point.", "A kite may have fixed or moving anchors that can balance the kite.", "The name is derived from the kite, the hovering bird of prey.The lift that sustains the kite in flight is generated when air moves around the kite's surface, producing low pressure above and high pressure below the wings.", "The interaction with the wind also generates horizontal drag along the direction of the wind.", "The resultant force vector from the lift and drag force components is opposed by the tension of one or more of the lines or tethers to which the kite is attached.", "The anchor point of the kite line may be static or moving (e.g., the towing of a kite by a running person, boat, free-falling anchors as in paragliders and fugitive parakites or vehicle).The same principles of fluid flow apply in liquids, so kites can be used in underwater currents.", "Paravanes and otter boards operate underwater on an analogous principle.Man-lifting kites were made for reconnaissance, entertainment and during development of the first practical aircraft, the biplane.Kites have a long and varied history and many different types are flown individually and at festivals worldwide.", "Kites may be flown for recreation, art or other practical uses.", "Sport kites can be flown in aerial ballet, sometimes as part of a competition.", "Power kites are multi-line steerable kites designed to generate large forces which can be used to power activities such as kite surfing, kite landboarding, kite buggying and snow kiting." ], [ "History", "Woodcut print of a kite from John Bate's 1635 book ''The Mysteries of Nature and Art'' in which the kite is titled ''How to make fire Drakes''The kite has been claimed as the invention of the 5th-century BC Chinese philosophers Mozi (also Mo Di, or Mo Ti) and Lu Ban (also Gongshu Ban, or Kungshu Phan).", "Materials ideal for kite building were readily available including silk fabric for sail material; fine, high-tensile-strength silk for flying line; and resilient bamboo for a strong, lightweight framework.", "By 549 AD, paper kites were certainly being flown, as it was recorded that in that year a paper kite was used as a message for a rescue mission.", "Ancient and medieval Chinese sources describe kites being used for measuring distances, testing the wind, lifting men, signaling, and communication for military operations.", "The earliest known Chinese kites were flat (not bowed) and often rectangular.", "Later, tailless kites incorporated a stabilizing bowline.", "Kites were decorated with mythological motifs and legendary figures; some were fitted with strings and whistles to make musical sounds while flying.", "''Kite Flying'' by Suzuki Harunobu, 1766 (Metropolitan Museum of Art)After its introduction into India, the kite further evolved into the fighter kite, known as the patang in India, where thousands are flown every year on festivals such as Makar Sankranti.Kites were known throughout Polynesia, as far as New Zealand, with the assumption being that the knowledge diffused from China along with the people.", "Anthropomorphic kites made from cloth and wood were used in religious ceremonies to send prayers to the gods.", "Polynesian kite traditions are used by anthropologists to get an idea of early \"primitive\" Asian traditions that are believed to have at one time existed in Asia.Kites were late to arrive in Europe, although windsock-like banners were known and used by the Romans.", "Stories of kites were first brought to Europe by Marco Polo towards the end of the 13th century, and kites were brought back by sailors from Japan and Malaysia in the 16th and 17th centuries.", "Konrad Kyeser described dragon kites in ''Bellifortis'' about 1400 AD.", "Although kites were initially regarded as mere curiosities, by the 18th and 19th centuries they were being used as vehicles for scientific research.Boys flying a kite.", "Engraving published in Germany in 1828 by 220x220pxIn 1752, Benjamin Franklin published an account of a kite experiment to prove that lightning was caused by electricity.Kites were also instrumental in the research of the Wright brothers, and others, as they developed the first airplane in the late 1800s.", "Several different designs of man-lifting kites were developed.", "The period from 1860 to about 1910 became the European \"golden age of kiting\".In the 20th century, many new kite designs are developed.", "These included Eddy's tailless diamond, the tetrahedral kite, the Rogallo wing, the sled kite, the parafoil, and power kites.", "Kites were used for scientific purposes, especially in meteorology, aeronautics, wireless communications and photography.", "The Rogallo wing was adapted for stunt kites and hang gliding and the parafoil was adapted for parachuting and paragliding.The rapid development of mechanically powered aircraft diminished interest in kites.", "World War II saw a limited use of kites for military purposes (survival radio, Focke Achgelis Fa 330, military radio antenna kites).Kites are now mostly used for recreation.", "Lightweight synthetic materials (ripstop nylon, plastic film, carbon fiber tube and rod) are used for kite making.", "Synthetic rope and cord (nylon, polyethylene, kevlar and dyneema) are used as bridle and kite line." ], [ "Materials", "Sparless styrofoam kitesDesigns often emulate flying insects, birds, and other beasts, both real and mythical.", "The finest Chinese kites are made from split bamboo (usually golden bamboo), covered with silk, and hand painted.", "On larger kites, clever hinges and latches allow the kite to be disassembled and compactly folded for storage or transport.", "Cheaper mass-produced kites are often made from printed polyester rather than silk.Tails are used for some single-line kite designs to keep the kite's nose pointing into the wind.", "Spinners and spinsocks can be attached to the flying line for visual effect.", "There are rotating wind socks which spin like a turbine.", "On large display kites these tails, spinners and spinsocks can be long or more.Modern aerobatic kites use two or four lines to allow fine control of the kite's angle to the wind.", "Traction kites may have an additional line to de-power the kite and quick-release mechanisms to disengage flyer and kite in an emergency." ], [ "Practical uses", "Kites have been used for human flight, military applications, science and meteorology, photography, lifting radio antennas, generating power, aerodynamics experiments, and much more.===Military applications===Kites have been used for military purposes in the past, such as signaling, delivery of ammunition, and for observation, both by lifting an observer above the field of battle and by using kite aerial photography.Kites were first used in warfare by the Chinese.", "During the Song dynasty the ''Fire Crow'', a kite carrying incendiary powder, a fuse, and a burning stick of incense was developed as a weapon.According to ''Samguk Sagi'', in 647 Kim Yu-sin, a Korean general of Silla rallied his troops to defeat rebels by using flaming kites which also frightened the enemy.Russian chronicles mention Prince Oleg of Novgorod use of kites during the siege of Constantinople in 906: \"and he crafted horses and men of paper, armed and gilded, and lifted them into the air over the city; the Greeks saw them and feared them\".Walter de Milemete's 1326 ''De nobilitatibus, sapientiis, et prudentiis regum'' treatise depicts a group of knights flying kite laden with a black-powder filled firebomb over the wall of city.Kites were also used by Admiral Yi of the Joseon Dynasty (13921910) of Korea.", "During the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598), Admiral Yi commanded his navy using kites.", "His kites had specific markings directing his fleet to perform various orders.One of Cody's \"manlifter\" kites in 1908In the modern era the British Army used kites to haul human lookouts into the air for observation purposes, using the kites developed by Samuel Franklin Cody.", "Barrage kites were used to protect shipping during the Second World War.", "Kites were also used for anti-aircraft target practice.Kites and kytoons were used for lofting communications antenna.", "Submarines lofted observers in rotary kites.Palestinians from the Gaza Strip have flown firebomb kites over the Israel–Gaza barrier, setting fires on the Israeli side of the border, hundreds of dunams of Israeli crop fields were burned by firebomb kites launched from Gaza, with an estimated economic loss of several millions of shekels.===Science and meteorology===Kites have been used for scientific purposes, such as Benjamin Franklin's famous experiment proving that lightning is electricity.", "Kites were the precursors to the traditional aircraft, and were instrumental in the development of early flying craft.", "Alexander Graham Bell experimented with very large man-lifting kites, as did the Wright brothers and Lawrence Hargrave.", "Kites had a historical role in lifting scientific instruments to measure atmospheric conditions for weather forecasting.", "Francis Ronalds and William Radcliffe Birt described a very stable kite at Kew Observatory as early as 1847 that was trialled for the purpose of supporting self-registering meteorological instruments at height.===Radio aerials and light beacons===Kites can be used for radio purposes, by kites carrying antennas for MF, LF or VLF-transmitters.", "This method was used for the reception station of the first transatlantic transmission by Marconi.", "Captive balloons may be more convenient for such experiments, because kite-carried antennas require a lot of wind, which may be not always possible with heavy equipment and a ground conductor.", "It must be taken into account during experiments, that a conductor carried by a kite can lead to high voltage toward ground, which can endanger people and equipment, if suitable precautions (grounding through resistors or a parallel resonant circuit tuned to transmission frequency) are not taken.Kites can be used to carry light effects such as lightsticks or battery powered lights.===Kite traction===A quad-line traction kite, commonly used as a power source for kite surfingKites can be used to pull people and vehicles downwind.", "Efficient foil-type kites such as power kites can also be used to sail upwind under the same principles as used by other sailing craft, provided that lateral forces on the ground or in the water are redirected as with the keels, center boards, wheels and ice blades of traditional sailing craft.", "In the last two decades several kite sailing sports have become popular, such as kite buggying, kite land boarding, kite boating and kite surfing.", "Snow kiting has also become popular in recent years.Kite sailing opens several possibilities not available in traditional sailing:* Wind speeds are greater at higher altitudes* Kites may be maneuvered dynamically which increases the force available dramatically* There is no need for mechanical structures to withstand bending forces; vehicles or hulls can be very light or dispensed with all together===Underwater kites===Underwater kites are now being developed to harvest renewable power from the flow of water.", "*A '''kite''' was used in minesweeping operations from the First World War: this was a foil \"attached to a sweep-wire submerging it to the requisite depth when it is towed over a minefield\" (''OED'', 2021).", "See also paravane." ], [ "Cultural uses", "Kite festivals are a popular form of entertainment throughout the world.", "They include large local events, traditional festivals which have been held for hundreds of years and major international festivals which bring in kite flyers from other countries to display their unique art kites and demonstrate the latest technical kites.Many countries have kite museums.", "These museums may have a focus on historical kites, preserving the country's kite traditions.=== Asia ===Kite maker from India, image from ''Travels in India, including Sinde and the Punjab'' by H. E. Lloyd, 1845Kite flying is popular in many Asian countries, where it often takes the form of \"kite fighting\", in which participants try to snag each other's kites or cut other kites down.", "Fighter kites are usually small, flattened diamond-shaped kites made of paper and bamboo.", "Tails are not used on fighter kites so that agility and maneuverability are not compromised.Kathmandu ValleyIn Afghanistan, kite flying is a popular game, and is known in Dari as ''Gudiparan Bazi''.", "Some kite fighters pass their strings through a mixture of ground glass powder and glue, which is legal.", "The resulting strings are very abrasive and can sever the competitor's strings more easily.", "The abrasive strings can also injure people.", "During the Taliban rule in Afghanistan, kite flying was banned, among various other recreations.In Pakistan, kite flying is often known as Gudi-Bazi or Patang-bazi.", "Although kite flying is a popular ritual for the celebration of spring festival known as Jashn-e-Baharaan (lit.", "Spring Festival) or Basant, kites are flown throughout the year.", "Kite fighting is a very popular pastime all around Pakistan, but mostly in urban centers across the country (especially Lahore).", "The kite fights are at their highest during the spring celebrations and the fighters enjoy competing with rivals to cut-loose the string of the others kite, popularly known as \"Paecha\".", "During the spring festival, kite flying competitions are held across the country and the skies are colored with kites.", "When a competitor succeeds in cutting another's kite loose, shouts of 'wo kata' ring through the air.", "Cut kites are reclaimed by chasing after them.", "This is a popular ritual, especially among the country's youth, and is depicted in the 2007 film ''The Kite Runner'' (although that story is based in neighboring Afghanistan).", "Kites and strings are a big business in the country and several different types of string are used, including glass-coated, metal, and tandi.", "Kite flying was banned in Punjab, India due to more than one motorcyclist death caused by glass-coated or metal kite strings.", "Kup, Patang, Guda, and Nakhlaoo are some of the popular kite brands; they vary in balance, weight and speed.In Indonesia kites are flown as both sport and recreation.", "One of the most popular kite variants is from Bali.", "Balinese kites are unique and they have different designs and forms; birds, butterflies, dragons, ships, etc.", "In Vietnam, kites are flown without tails.", "Instead small flutes are attached allowing the wind to \"hum\" a musical tune.", "There are other forms of sound-making kites.", "In Bali, large bows are attached to the front of the kites to make a deep throbbing vibration, and in Malaysia, a row of gourds with sound-slots are used to create a whistle as the kite flies.", "Malaysia is also home to the Kite Museum in Malacca.Kite are also popular in Nepal, especially in hilly areas and among the Pahadi and Newar communities, although people also fly kites in Terai areas.", "Unlike India, people in Nepal fly kites in August – September period and is more popular in time of Dashain.Kites are very popular in India, with the states of Gujarat, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab notable for their kite fighting festivals.", "Highly maneuverable single-string paper and bamboo kites are flown from the rooftops while using line friction in an attempt to cut each other's kite lines, either by letting the cutting line loose at high speed or by pulling the line in a fast and repeated manner.", "During the Indian spring festival of Makar Sankranti, near the middle of January, millions of people fly kites all over northern India.", "Kite flying in Hyderabad starts a month before this, but kite flying/fighting is an important part of other celebrations, including Republic Day, Independence Day, Raksha Bandhan, Viswakarma Puja day in late September and Janmashtami.", "An international kite festival is held every year before Uttarayan for three days in Vadodara, Surat and Ahmedabad.Kites have been flown in China since ancient times.", "Weifang is home to the largest kite museum in the world.", "It also hosts an annual international kite festival on the large salt flats south of the city.", "There are several kite museums in Japan, UK, Malaysia, Indonesia, Taiwan, Thailand and the USA.", "In the pre-modern period, Malays in Singapore used kites for fishing.In Japan, kite flying is traditionally a children's play in New Year holidays and in the Boys' Festival in May.", "In some areas, there is a tradition to celebrate a new boy baby with a new kite (祝い凧).", "There are many kite festivals throughout Japan.", "The most famous one is \"Yōkaichi Giant Kite Festival\" in Higashiōmi, Shiga, which started in 1841.The largest kite ever built in the festival is wide by high and weighs .", "In the Hamamatsu Kite Festival in Hamamatsu, Shizuoka, more than 100 kites are flown in the sky over the Nakatajima Sand Dunes, one of the three largest sand dunes in Japan, which overlooks the Enshunada Sea.", "Parents who have a new baby prepare a new kite with their baby's name and fly it in the festival.", "These kites are traditional ones made from bamboo and paper.File:Malaysiakite.jpg|Making a traditional ''Wau jala budi'' kite in Malaysia.", "The bamboo frame is covered with plain paper and then decorated with multiple layers of shaped paper and foil.File:Balinese Kites 5.jpg|Various Balinese kites is on display in front of a store in Ubud, Bali, IndonesiaFile:Kite shop in Lucknow.jpg|A kite shop in Lucknow, IndiaFile:Japanese kites.jpg|Traditional Japanese kitesFile:Wt-3395EX4.5.jpg|Different kites are sold at a shop in Hội An, Vietnam=== Europe ===Bermuda kiteIn Greece and Cyprus, flying kites is a tradition for Clean Monday, the first day of Lent.", "In the British Overseas Territory of Bermuda, traditional Bermuda kites are made and flown at Easter, to symbolise Christ's ascent.", "In Fuerteventura a kite festival is usually held on the weekend nearest to 8 November lasting for 3 days.=== Polynesia ===Polynesian traditional kites are sometimes used at ceremonies and variants of traditional kites for amusement.", "Older pieces are kept in museums.", "These are treasured by the people of Polynesia.File:Charles-Barraud-maori-kite.jpg|Māori kiteFile:Peter-lynn-octopus.jpg|Launch of ram-air inflated Peter Lynn single-line kite, shaped like an octopus and long=== South America ===A kite in the shape of the flag of Kuwait.", "The size when flat is , .", "While flying it becomes a little smaller (about ) due to curvature of the edges when inflated.In Brazil, flying a kite is a very popular leisure activity for children, teenagers and even young adults.", "Mostly these are boys, and it is overwhelmingly kite fighting a game whose goal is to maneuver their own kites to cut the other persons' kites' strings during flight, and followed by kite running where participants race through the streets to take the free-drifting kites.", "As in other countries with similar traditions, injuries are common and motorcyclists in particular need to take precautions.In Chile, kites are very popular, especially during Independence Day festivities (September 18).In Peru, kites are also very popular.", "There are kite festivals in parks and beaches mostly on August.In Colombia, kites can be seen flown in parks and recreation areas during August which is calles as windy.", "It is during this month that most people, especially the young ones would fly kites.In Guyana, kites are flown at Easter, an activity in which all ethnic and religious groups participate.", "Kites are generally not flown at any other time of year.", "Kites start appearing in the sky in the weeks leading up to Easter and school children are taken to parks for the activity.", "It all culminates in a massive airborne celebration on Easter Monday especially in Georgetown, the capital, and other coastal areas.", "The history of the practice is not entirely clear but given that Easter is a Christian festival, it is said that kite flying is symbolic of the Risen Lord.", "Moore describes the phenomenon in the 19th century as follows:The exact origins of the practice of kite flying (exclusively) at Easter are unclear.", "Bridget Brereton and Kevin Yelvington speculate that kite flying was introduced by Chinese indentured immigrants to the then colony of British Guiana in the mid 19th century.", "The author of an article in the ''Guyana Chronicle'' newspaper of May 6, 2007 is more certain:" ], [ "World records", "Chinese dragon kite more than one hundred feet long which flew at the annual Berkeley, California kite festival in 2000There are many world records involving kites.", "The world's largest kites are inflatable single-line kites.", "The world record for the largest kite flown for at least 20 minutes is \"The Flag of Kuwait\".", "The world record for most kites flown simultaneously was achieved in 2011 when 12,350 kites were flown by children on Al-Waha beach in Gaza Strip.", "The single-kite altitude record is held by a triangular-box delta kite.", "On 23 September 2014 a team led by Robert Moore, flew a kite to above ground level.", "The record altitude was reached after eight series of attempts over a ten-year period from a remote location in western New South Wales, Australia.", "The tall and wide Dunton-Taylor delta kite's flight was controlled by a winch system using of ultra high strength Dyneema line.", "The flight took about eight hours from ground and return.", "The height was measured with on-board GPS telemetry transmitting positional data in real time to a ground-based computer and also back-up GPS data loggers for later analysis." ], [ "In popular culture", "* ''The Kite Runner'', a 2005 novel by Khaled Hosseini dramatizes the role of kite fighting in pre-war Kabul.", "* The ''Peanuts'' cartoon character Charlie Brown was often depicted having flown his kite into a tree as a metaphor for life's adversities.", "* \"Let's Go Fly a Kite\" is a song from the Mary Poppins film and musical.", "* In the Disney animated film ''Mulan'', kites are flown in the parade.", "* In the film ''Shooter'', a kite is used to show the wind direction and wind velocity.", "* \"Kite\" is a 1978 song celebrating kite flying and appears on Kate Bush's first album, ''The Kick Inside''." ], [ "General safety issues", "A man flying a kite on the beach, a good location for flying as winds travelling across the sea contain few up or down draughts which cause kites to fly erraticallyThere are safety issues involved in kite-flying.", "Kite lines can strike and tangle on electrical power lines, causing power blackouts and running the risk of electrocuting the kite flier.", "Wet kite lines or wire can act as a conductor for static electricity and lightning when the weather is stormy.", "Kites with large surface area or powerful lift can lift kite fliers off the ground or drag them into other objects.", "In urban areas there is usually a ceiling on how high a kite can be flown, to prevent the kite and line infringing on the airspace of helicopters and light aircraft.", "It is also possible for fighter kites to kill people, as happened in India when three spectators were killed in separate incidents during Independence Day, August, 2016—precipitating a ban on certain types of enhanced line.The government of Egypt banned kite-flying in July 2020, seizing 369 kites in Cairo and 99 in Alexandria, citing both safety and national security concerns." ], [ "Designs", "* Bermuda kite* Bowed kite, e.g.", "Rokkaku* Cellular or box kite* Chapi-chapi* Delta kite* Foil, parafoil or bow kite* Leading edge inflatable kite* Malay kite see also wau bulan (Moon kite)* Tetrahedral kite* Sled kite=== Gallery ===File:DeltaKite.JPG|This delta kite has a keel instead of a bridleFile:Japanese kite - Tokyo - 2019 10 5.webm|Giant Japanese kite launched, 2019File:Stringoperamaskkite.JPG|Train of connected kitesFile:A sketch of the Mitsui shop in Suruga street in Edo.jpg|Kites fly on top of the Mitsui Store where the craftsmen are working on top of the roof, print by HokusaiFile:Hiroshige II Enshū Akiha.jpg|Hiroshige II Enshū Akiha (1859)File:Story of the mince pie (1916) (14749678221).jpg|alt=|Illustration from the book Story of the mince pie by Josephine Scribner Gates, (1916)" ], [ "Types", "* Fighter kite* Indoor kite* Inflatable single-line kite* Kytoon - a hybrid tethered craft comprising both a lighter-than-air balloon as well as a kite lifting surface* Man-lifting kite* Rogallo parawing kite* Stunt (sport) kite* Water kite" ], [ "See also", "* Airborne wind turbine, concept for a wind generator flown as kite* Captive helicopter* Captive plane* High altitude wind power* Kite aerial photography* Kite buggying* Kite fishing* Kite ice skating* Kite landboarding* Kite shape* Kiteboating* Kitelife, an American magazine devoted to kites* Kitesurfing* Kite rig* List of kite festivals* Sea Tails, video installation* Solar balloon, a solar-heated hot air balloon that can be flown like a kite, but on windless days.", "* Uttarayan, the kite flying festival of western India* Weifang International Kite Festival" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The earliest depiction of kite flying in European literature in a panorama of Ternate (Moluccas) 1600.", "* Mathematics and aeronautical principles of kites.", "* Kitecraft and Kite Tournaments (1914)—A free public domain e-book* * ''Eyes on Brazil''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fanzine" ], [ "Introduction", "British punk and post-punk fanzines from the 1970sA '''fanzine''' (blend of ''fan'' and ''magazine'' or ''-zine'') is a non-professional and non-official publication produced by enthusiasts of a particular cultural phenomenon (such as a literary or musical genre) for the pleasure of others who share their interest.", "The term was coined in an October 1940 science fiction fanzine by Russ Chauvenet and first popularized within science fiction fandom, and from there the term was adopted by other communities.Typically, publishers, editors, writers and other contributors of articles or illustrations to fanzines are not paid.", "Fanzines are traditionally circulated free of charge, or for a nominal cost to defray postage or production expenses.", "Copies are often offered in exchange for similar publications, or for contributions of art, articles, or letters of comment (LoCs), which are then published.Some fanzines are typed and photocopied by amateurs using standard home office equipment.", "A few fanzines have developed into professional publications (sometimes known as \"prozines\"), and many professional writers were first published in fanzines; some continue to contribute to them after establishing a professional reputation.", "The term fanzine is sometimes confused with \"fan magazine\", but the latter term most often refers to commercially produced publications ''for'' (rather than ''by'') fans." ], [ "Origin", "The origins of amateur fanac \"fan\" publications are obscure, but can be traced at least back to 19th century literary groups in the United States which formed amateur press associations to publish collections of amateur fiction, poetry, and commentary, such as H. P. Lovecraft's ''United Amateur''.As professional printing technology progressed, so did the technology of fanzines.", "Early fanzines were hand-drafted or typed on a manual typewriter and printed using primitive reproduction techniques (e.g., the spirit duplicator or even the hectograph).", "Only a very small number of copies could be made at a time, so circulation was extremely limited.", "The use of mimeograph machines enabled greater press runs, and the photocopier increased the speed and ease of publishing once more.", "Today, thanks to the advent of desktop publishing and self-publication, there is often little difference between the appearance of a fanzine and a professional magazine." ], [ "Genres", "===Science fiction===When Hugo Gernsback published the first science fiction magazine, ''Amazing Stories'' in 1926, he allowed for a large letter column which printed reader's addresses.", "By 1927 readers, often young adults, would write to each other, bypassing the magazine.", "Science fiction fanzines had their beginnings in Serious & Constructive (later shortened to sercon) correspondence.", "The fans would start up clubs to ease finding others with their same interests.", "Gernsback founded the Science Fiction League in 1934, where these clubs could advertise for more users.The first science fiction fanzine, ''The Comet'', was published in 1930 by the Science Correspondence Club in Chicago and edited by Raymond A. Palmer and Walter Dennis.", "The term \"fanzine\" was coined by Russ Chauvenet in the October 1940 edition of his fanzine ''Detours''.", "\"Fanzines\" were distinguished from \"prozines\" (a term Chauvenet also invented), that is, all professional magazines.", "Prior to that, the fan publications were known as \"fanmags\".Science fiction fanzines used a variety of printing methods.", "Typewriters, school dittos, church mimeos and (if they could afford it) multi-color letterpress or other mid-to-high level printing.", "Some fans wanted their news spread, others reveled in the artistry and beauty of fine printing.", "The hectograph, introduced around 1876, was so named because it could produce (in theory) up to a hundred copies.", "Hecto used an aniline dye, transferred to a tray of gelatin, and paper would be placed on the gel, one sheet at a time, for transfer.", "Messy and smelly, the process could create vibrant colors for the few copies produced, the easiest aniline dye to make being purple (technically indigo).", "The next small but significant technological step after hectography is the spirit duplicator, essentially the hectography process using a drum instead of the gelatin.", "Introduced by Ditto Corporation in 1923, these machines were known for the next six decades as Ditto Machines and used by fans because they were cheap to use and could (with a little effort) print in color.The mimeograph machine, which forced ink through a wax paper stencil cut by the keys of a typewriter, was the standard for many decades.", "A second-hand mimeo could print hundreds of copies and (with more than a little effort) print in color.", "The electronic stencil cutter (shortened to \"electrostencil\" by most) could add photographs and illustrations to a mimeo stencil.", "A mimeo'd zine could look terrible or look beautiful, depending more on the skill of the mimeo operator than the quality of the equipment.", "Only a few fans could afford more professional printers, or the time it took them to print, until photocopying became cheap and ubiquitous in the 1970s.", "With the advent of computer printers and desktop publishing in the 1980s, fanzines began to look far more professional.", "The rise of the internet made correspondence cheaper and ''much'' faster, and the World Wide Web has made publishing a fanzine as simple as coding a web page.New technology brought various print style innovations.", "For example, there were alphanumeric contractions which are actually precursors to \"leetspeak' (a well-known example is the \"initials\" used by Forrest J. Ackerman in his fanzines from the 1930s and 1940s, namely \"4sj\".", "Fans around the world knew Ackerman by three letters \"4sj\" or even two: \"4e\" for \"Forry\").", "Fanspeak is rich with abbreviations and concatenations.", "Where teenagers labored to save typing on ditto masters, they now save keystrokes when text messaging.", "Ackerman invented nonstoparagraphing as a space-saving measure.", "When the typist comes to the end of a paragraph, they simply moved the platen down one line.Never commercial enterprises, most science fiction fanzines were (and many still are) available for \"the usual\", a sample issue will be mailed on request.", "To receive further issues, a reader sends a \"letter of comment\" (LoC) about the fanzine to the editor.", "The LoC might be published in the next issue; some fanzines consisted almost exclusively of letter columns, where discussions were conducted in much the same way as they are in internet newsgroups and mailing lists today, though at a relatively glacial pace.", "Often fanzine editors (\"faneds\") would simply swap issues with each other, not worrying too much about matching trade for trade, somewhat like being on one another's friends list.", "Without being closely connected with the rest of fandom, a budding faned could read fanzine reviews in prozines, and fanzines reviewed other fanzines.", "Recent technology has changed the speed of communication between fans and the technology available, but the basic concepts developed by science fiction fanzines in the 1930s can be seen online today.", "Blogs—with their threaded comments, personalized illustrations, shorthand in-jokes, wide variety in quality and wider variety of content—follow the structure developed in science fiction fanzines, without (usually) realizing the antecedent.Since 1937, science fiction fans have formed amateur press associations (APAs); the members contribute to a collective assemblage or bundle that contains contributions from all of them, called apazines and often containing mailing comments.", "Some APAs are still active, and some are published as virtual \"e-zines\", distributed on the Internet.", "Specific Hugo Awards are given for fanzines, fan writing and fanart.==== Media ====Media fanzines were originally merely a subgenre of SF fanzines, written by science fiction fans already familiar with apazines.", "The first media fanzine was a ''Star Trek'' fan publication called ''Spockanalia'', published in September 1967 by members of the Lunarians.", "They hoped that fanzines such as ''Spockanalia'' would be recognized by the broader science-fiction fan community in traditional ways, such as a Hugo Award for Best Fanzine.", "All five of its issues were published while the show was still on the air, and included letters from D. C. Fontana, Gene Roddenberry, and most of the cast members, and an article by future Hugo and Nebula winner Lois McMaster Bujold.Many other Star Trek 'zines followed, then slowly zines appeared for other media sources, such as ''Starsky and Hutch'', ''Man from U.N.C.L.E.''", "and ''Blake's 7''.", "By the mid-1970s, there were enough media zines being published that adzines existed just to advertise all of the other zines available.", "Although ''Spockanalia'' had a mix of stories and essays, most zines were all fiction.", "Like SF fanzines, these media zines spanned the gamut of publishing quality from digest-sized mimeos to offset printed masterpieces with four-color covers.Men wrote and edited most previous science fiction fanzines, which typically published articles reporting on trips to conventions, and reviews of books and other fanzines.", "Camille Bacon-Smith later stated that \"One thing you almost never find in a science fiction fanzine is science fiction.", "Rather ... fanzines were the social glue that created a community out of a worldwide scattering of readers.\"", "Women published most media fanzines, which by contrast also included fan fiction.", "By doing so, they \"fill the need of a mostly female audience for fictional narratives that expand the boundary of the official source products offered on the television and movie screen.\"", "In addition to long and short stories, as well as poetry, many media fanzines included illustrated stories, as well as stand alone art, often featuring portraits of the show or film's principal characters.", "The art could range from simple sketches, to reproductions of large elaborate works painted in oil or acrylic, though most are created in ink.In the late 1970s, fiction that included a sexual relationship between two of the male characters of the media source (first Kirk/Spock, then later Starsky/Hutch, Napoleon/Illya, and many others) started to appear in zines.", "These became known as slash fiction from the '/' mark used in adzines.", "The slash help to differentiate a K&S story (which would have been a Kirk and Spock friendship story) from a K/S story, which would have been one with a romantic or sexual bent between the characters.", "Slash zines eventually had their own subgenres, such as Femslash.", "By 2000, when web publishing of stories became more popular than zine publishing, thousands of media fanzines had been published; over 500 of them were k/s zines.Another popular franchise for fanzines was the \"Star Wars\" saga.", "By the time the film ''The Empire Strikes Back'' was released in 1980, Star Wars fanzines had surpassed Star Trek zines in sales.", "An unfortunate episode in fanzine history occurred in 1981 when Star Wars director George Lucas threatened to sue fanzine publishers who distributed zines featuring the Star Wars characters in sexually explicit stories or art.Comics were mentioned and discussed as early as the late 1930s in the fanzines of science fiction fandom.", "Famously, the first version of Superman (a bald-headed villain) appeared in the third issue of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster's 1933 fanzine ''Science Fiction''.", "In 1936, David Kyle published '' The Fantasy World '', possibly the first comics fanzine.", "Malcolm Willits and Jim Bradley started ''The Comic Collector's News'' in October 1947.By 1952, Ted White had mimeographed a four-page pamphlet about Superman, and James Vincent Taurasi, Sr. issued the short-lived ''Fantasy Comics''.", "In 1953, Bhob Stewart published ''The EC Fan Bulletin'', which launched EC fandom of imitative EC fanzines.", "A few months later, Stewart, White, and Larry Stark produced ''Potrzebie'', planned as a literary journal of critical commentary about EC by Stark.", "Among the wave of EC fanzines that followed, the best-known was Ron Parker's ''Hoo-Hah!''.", "After that came fanzines by the followers of Harvey Kurtzman's ''Mad'', ''Trump'' and ''Humbug''.", "Publishers of these included future underground comics stars like Jay Lynch and Robert Crumb.In 1960, Richard and Pat Lupoff launched their science fiction and comics fanzine ''Xero''.", "In the second issue, \"The Spawn of M.C.", "Gaines'\" by Ted White was the first in a series of nostalgic, analytical articles about comics by Lupoff, Don Thompson, Bill Blackbeard, Jim Harmon and others under the heading, ''All in Color for a Dime''.", "In 1961, Jerry Bails' ''Alter Ego'', devoted to costumed heroes, became a focal point for superhero comics fandom and is thus sometimes mistakenly cited as the first comics fanzine.Contacts through these magazines were instrumental in creating the culture of modern comics fandom: conventions, collecting, etc.", "Much of this, like comics fandom itself, began as part of standard science fiction conventions, but comics fans have developed their own traditions.", "Comics fanzines often include fan artwork based on existing characters as well as discussion of the history of comics.", "Through the 1960s, and 1970s, comic fanzines followed some general formats, such as the industry news and information magazine (''The Comic Reader'' was one example), interview, history, and review-based fanzines, and the fanzines which basically represented independent comic book-format exercises.", "While perceived quality varied widely, the energy and enthusiasm involved tended to be communicated clearly to the readership, many of whom were also fanzine contributors.", "Prominent comics zines of this period included ''Alter Ego'', ''The Comic Reader'', and ''Rocket's Blast Comicollector'', all started by Jerry Bails.", "During the 1970s, many fanzines (''Squa Tront'', as an example) also became partly distributed through certain comic book distributors.One of the first British comics fanzines was Phil Clarke's ''KA-POW'', launched in 1967.Prominent British comics fanzines of the 1970s and early 1980s included the long-running ''Fantasy Advertiser'', Martin Lock's ''BEM'', Richard Burton's ''Comic Media News'', Alan Austin's ''Comics Unlimited'', George Barnett's ''The Panelologist'', and Richard Ashford's ''Speakaeasy''.At times, the professional comics publishers have made overtures to fandom via 'prozines', in this case fanzine-like magazines put out by the major publishers.", "''The Amazing World of DC Comics'' and the Marvel magazine ''FOOM'' began and ceased publication in the 1970s.", "Priced significantly higher than standard comics of the period (''AWODCC'' was $1.50, ''FOOM'' was 75 cents), each house-organ magazine lasted a brief period of years.", "Since 2001 in Britain, there have been created a number of fanzines pastiching children's comics of the 1970s, and 1980s (e.g.", "''Solar Wind'', ''Pony School'', etc.).", "These adopt a style of storytelling rather than specific characters from their sources, usually with a knowing or ironic twist.===Horror film ===''Horrors of the Screen'' No.", "3, 1964As with comics zines, horror film fanzines grew from related interest within science fiction fan publications.", "''Trumpet,'' edited by Tom Reamy, was a 1960s SF zine that branched into horror film coverage.", "Alex Soma's ''Horrors of the Screen,'' Calvin T. Beck's ''Journal of Frankenstein'' (later ''Castle of Frankenstein'') and Gary Svehla's ''Gore Creatures'' were the first horror fanzines created as more serious alternatives to the popular Forrest J Ackerman 1958 magazine ''Famous Monsters of Filmland.''", "''Gore Creatures'' began in 1961 and continues today as the prozine (and specialty publisher) ''Midnight Marquee.''", "''Garden Ghouls Gazette''—a 1960s horror title under the editorship of Dave Keil, then Gary Collins—was eventually headed by the late Frederick S. Clarke (1949–2000) and in 1967 became the respected journal ''Cinefantastique.''", "It later became a prozine under journalist-screenwriter Mark A. Altman and has continued as a webzine.Mark Frank's ''Photon''—notable for the inclusion of an 8x10 photo in each issue—was another 1960s zine that lasted into the 1970s.", "Richard Klemensen's ''Little Shoppe of Horrors'', having a particular focus on \"Hammer Horrors\", began in 1972 and is still publishing as of 2023.The Baltimore-based ''Black Oracle'' (1969–1978) from writer-turned-John Waters repertory member George Stover was a diminutive zine that evolved into the larger-format ''Cinemacabre.''", "Stover's ''Black Oracle'' partner Bill George published his own short-lived zine ''The Late Show'' (1974–1976; with co-editor Martin Falck), and later became editor of the ''Cinefantastique'' prozine spinoff ''Femme Fatales''.", "In the mid-1970s, North Carolina teenager Sam Irvin published the horror/science-fiction fanzine ''Bizarre'', which included his original interviews with UK actors and filmmakers; Irvin would later become a producer-director in his own right.", "''Japanese Fantasy Film Journal'' (JFFJ) (1968–1983) from Greg Shoemaker covered Toho's ''Godzilla'' and his Asian brethren.", "''Japanese Giants'' (JG) was founded by Stephen Mark Rainey in 1974 and was published for 30 years.", "In 1993, ''G-FAN'' was published, and reached its 100th regularly published issue in Fall 2012.", "''FXRH'' (Special effects by Ray Harryhausen) (1971–1976) was a specialized zine co-created by future Hollywood FX artist Ernest D. Farino.===Rock and roll ===By the mid-1960s, several fans active in science fiction and comics fandom recognized a shared interest in rock music, and the rock fanzine was born.", "Paul Williams and Greg Shaw were two such SF-fans turned rock zine editors.", "Williams' ''Crawdaddy!''", "(1966) and Shaw's two California-based zines, ''Mojo Navigator'' (full title, \"''Mojo-Navigator Rock and Roll News''\") (1966) and ''Who Put the Bomp'', (1970), are among the most important early rock fanzines.''Crawdaddy!''", "(1966) quickly moved from its fanzine roots to become one of the first rock music \"prozines\", with paid advertisers and newsstand distribution.", "''Bomp'' remained a fanzine, featuring many writers who would later become prominent music journalists, including Lester Bangs, Greil Marcus, Ken Barnes, Ed Ward, Dave Marsh, Mike Saunders and R. Meltzer.", "''Bomp'' featured cover art by Jay Kinney and Bill Rotsler, both veterans of SF and Comics fandom.", "''Bomp'' was not alone; an August 1970 issue of ''Rolling Stone'' included an article about the explosion of rock fanzines.", "Other rock fanzines of this period include ''denim delinquent'' 1971, edited by Jymn Parrett, ''Flash,'' 1972, edited by Mark Shipper, ''Eurock Magazine'' (1973–1993) edited by Archie Patterson and ''Bam Balam,'' written and published by Brian Hogg in East Lothian, Scotland, beginning in 1974, and in the mid-1970s, ''Back Door Man''.In the post-punk era, several well-written fanzines emerged that cast an almost academic look at earlier, neglected musical forms, including Mike Stax' ''Ugly Things'', Billy Miller and Miriam Linna's ''Kicks'', Jake Austen's ''Roctober'', Kim Cooper's ''Scram'', P. Edwin Letcher's ''Garage & Beat'', and the UK's Shindig!", "and Italy's ''Misty Lane''.In the 1980s, with the rise of stadium superstars, many home-grown rock fanzines emerged.", "At the peak of Bruce Springsteen's megastardom following the ''Born in the U.S.A.'' album and Born in the U.S.A. Tour in the mid-1980s, there were no less than five Springsteen fanzines circulating at the same time in the UK alone, and many others elsewhere.", "Gary Desmond's ''Candy's Room'', coming from Liverpool, was the first in 1980, quickly followed by Dan French's ''Point Blank'', Dave Percival's ''The Fever'', Jeff Matthews' ''Rendezvous'', and Paul Limbrick's ''Jackson Cage''.", "In the US, ''Backstreets Magazine'' started in Seattle in 1980 and still continues today as a glossy publication, now in communication with Springsteen's management and official website.", "In the late 1990s, notorious fanzines and e-zines flourished about electronic and post-rock music.", "''Crème Brûlée'' fanzine was one of those that documented post-rock genre and experimental music.===Punk ===British punk fanzines from the 1970s====United Kingdom ====The punk subculture in the United Kingdom spearheaded a surge of interest in fanzines as a countercultural alternative to established print media.", "The first and still best known UK 'punk zine' was ''Sniffin' Glue'', produced by Deptford punk fan Mark Perry.", "''Sniffin' Glue'' ran for 12 photocopied issues; the first issue was produced by Perry immediately following (and in response to) the London debut of The Ramones on 4 July 1976.Other UK fanzines included ''Blam!", "'', ''Bombsite'', ''Wool City Rocker'', ''Burnt Offering'', ''Sideburns'', ''Chainsaw'', ''New Crimes'', ''Vague'', ''Jamming'', Artcore Fanzine, ''Love and Molotov Cocktails'', ''To Hell With Poverty'', ''New Youth'', ''Peroxide'', ''ENZK'', ''Juniper beri-beri'', ''No Cure'', ''Communication Blur'', ''Rox'', ''Grim Humour'', ''Spuno'', ''Cool Notes'' and ''Fumes''.", "Of these, Tony Fletcher's ''Jamming'' was the most far reaching, becoming a nationally distributed mainstream magazine for several years before its demise.====United States ====Fanzines from the Washington, D.C. punk subculture.In the United States, ''Punk'' began publication in 1976 out of New York City and played a major part in popularizing punk rock (a term coined a few years earlier in ''Creem'') as the term for the music and the bands being written about.", "''Flipside'' and ''Slash'' were important punk fanzines from the Los Angeles scene, both debuting in 1977.The San Francisco-based punk fanzine ''Search and Destroy'', which published from 1977-1979, eventually became the influential fringe-cultural magazine ''Re/Search''.", "''Maximum RocknRoll'', also from San Francisco, was a major punk fanzine, with over 300 issues published since 1982.The Washington, D.C. punk community generated several fanzines in the late 1970s and early 1980s, such as ''Capitol Crisis'', ''Vintage Violence'', ''Thrillseeker'', ''If This Goes On'', and ''Descenes''.As punk and alternative culture grew more popular throughout the 1980s and 1990s—evidenced by the success of punk and alternative rock bands like Sonic Youth, Nirvana, Fugazi, Bikini Kill, Green Day and The Offspring—thousands of other punk fanzines appeared in the United States, such as ''Punk Planet'', ''Left of the Dial'', ''Tail Spins'', ''Sobriquet'', ''Profane Existence'' and ''Slug and Lettuce''.Some punk fanzines from the 1980s, like ''No Class'' and ''Ugly American'' experienced a second life by placing all past content online for free and adding new content.", "Although fewer in number in the 21st century, punk fanzines still exist in the United States, such as ''Suburban Rebels'' and ''Razorcake'', both from California.Most punk fanzines were printed in small quantities and promoted their respective local scenes.", "They were often cheaply photocopied and many never survived beyond a few issues.", "Their greatest contribution was in promoting punk music, clothing, and lifestyle in their local communities.", "Punk bands and independent labels often sent records to the zines for review and many of the people who started the zines became critical connections for punk bands on tour.", "'''Australia'''In 1977, Bruce Milne and Clinton Walker fused their respective punk zines ''Plastered Press'' and ''Suicide Alley'' to launch ''Pulp''; Milne later went on to invent the cassette zine with ''Fast Forward'', in 1980.====After the year 2000====In the UK, ''Fracture'' and ''Reason To Believe'' were significant fanzines in the early 2000s, but both ended in late 2003.", "''Rancid News'' filled the gap left by these two zines for a short while.", "On its tenth issue ''Rancid News'' changed its name to ''Last Hours'' with 7 issues published under this title before going on hiatus.", "''Last Hours'' still operates as a webzine though with more focus on the anti-authoritarian movement than its original title.", "''Artcore Fanzine'' (established in 1986) continues to this day, recently publishing a number of 30-year anniversary issues.", "There are many smaller fanzines in existence throughout the UK that focus on punk.=====Mark Wilkins and Mystic Records=====Mark Wilkins, the promotion director for 1982 onwards US punk/thrash label Mystic Records, had over 450 US fanzines and 150 foreign fanzines he promoted to regularly.", "He and Mystic Records owner Doug Moody edited ''The Mystic News Newsletter'' which was published quarterly and went into every promo package to fanzines.", "Wilkins also published the highly successful Los Angeles punk humor zine ''Wild Times'' and when he ran out of funding for the zine syndicated some of the humorous material to over 100 US fanzines under the name of Mystic Mark.====Italy====In Perugia, Italy, ''Mazquerade'' ran from 1979 to 1981.In Basilicata, Italy, ''Raw Art Fanzine'' ran from 1995 to 2000.In Milan, Italy, ''Gorezilla'' ran from 1988 to 1991.===Mod===In the United Kingdom, the 1979 Mod revival, which was inspired by the 1960s Mod subculture, brought with it a burst of fresh creativity from fanzines, and for the next decade, the youth subculture inspired the production of dozens of independent publications.", "The most successful of the first wave was ''Maximum Speed'', which successfully captured the frenetic world of a mod revival scene that was propelling bands like Secret Affair, Purple Hearts and The Chords into the UK charts.After the genre had started to go out of fashion with mainstream audiences in 1981, the mod revival scene went underground and successfully reinvented itself through a series of clubs, bands and fanzines that breathed fresh life into the genre, culminating in another burst of creative acceptance in 1985.This success was largely driven by the network of underground fanzines, the most important and far reaching of which were ''Extraordinary Sensations'', produced by future radio DJ Eddie Piller, and ''Shadows & Reflections'', published by future national magazine editor Chris Hunt.", "The latter in particular pushed back the boundaries of fanzine production, producing glossy, professionally written and printed publications at a time (1983–1986) when most fanzines were produced via photocopier and letraset.===Local music===In the UK, there were also fanzines that covered the local music scene in a particular town or city.", "Mainly prevalent in the 1970s, and 1980s, all music styles were covered, whether the bands were playing rock, punk, metal, futurist, ska or dance.", "Featured were local gig reviews and articles that were below the radar of the mainstream music press.", "They were produced using the technology of the time, i.e.", "typewriter and Letraset.", "Examples include ''Bombsite Fanzine'' (Liverpool 1977), Wool City Rocker (Bradford 1979–1982), ''City Fun'' (Manchester), 1984, Spuno (Bath 1980) ''No Cure'' (Berkshire) and ''Town Hall Steps'' (Bolton) and more recently ''mono'' (fanzine), (Bradford) with many more across the country, such as Premonition Tapes Tapezine on cassette (Sheffield 1987) and Crime Pays (Liverpool 1988).===Role-playing-game fanzines===Another sizable group of fanzines arose in role-playing game (RPG) fandom, where fanzines allowed people to publish their ideas and views on specific games and their role-playing campaigns.", "In 1975, was released the apazine ''Alarums and Excursions''.Role-playing fanzines allowed people to communicate in the 1970s, and 1980s with complete editorial control in the hands of the players, as opposed to the game publishers.", "These early RPG fanzines were generally typed, sold mostly in an A5 format (in the UK) and were usually illustrated with abysmal or indifferent artwork.A fanzine community developed and was based on sale to a reading public and exchanges by editor/publishers.", "Many of the pioneers of RPG got their start in, or remain part of, science fiction fandom.", "This is also true of the small but still active board game fandom scene, the most prolific subset of which is centered around play-by-mail ''Diplomacy''.The UK fanzine ''Aslan'' (1988–1991) was responsible for popularization of freeform role-playing games in the UK.===Video gaming ===Video game fanzines first emerged during the second generation period at a time when gaming stores and newsletters for computer user groups were beginning to become established but had not yet receive significant recognition by purchasers and gamers.", "The earliest such publication was ''Joystick Jolter''.", "Other subscriber-based newsletters included ''8:16'' (UK, all things Atari, 1st issue Nov 1987), ''The Video Game Update'', later titled ''Computer Entertainer''.As desktop publishing tools became more accessible, there was an increase in fanzine production.", "Fanzines generally emphasized either classic gaming (e.g.", "''2600 Connection'' and ''Classic Systems & Games Monthly''), or current gaming (e.g.", "''APE'' and ''The Subversive Sprite'').", "Less commonly, some fanzines covered both topics (e.g.", "''Digital Press'' and ''Joystick & Screen'').", "The number of zines grew with the development of video game journalism as writers like Arnie Katz and Chris Bieniek used their columns in mainstream magazines like ''Video Games & Computer Entertainment'', ''EGM'', and ''Tips & Tricks'', to publish reviews of promising fanzines.", "These mainstream reviews had the effect of introducing fan editors to each other and of creating a fanzine scene.The popularity of video game fanzines diminished greatly with the rise of the internet, however some zines—particularly the classic gaming ones (e.g.", "''Classic Gamer Magazine'' and ''Video Game Collector'')—continued beyond the mid-90s.", "The rise of \"on demand\" publishing has led to a new outlet for print zines, like ''Jumpbutton'' and ''Scroll''.The video game fanzine era was biggest in the US and Canada, but zines are also produced in other countries.", "Prominent video game fanzines produced in the UK include ''Retrogamer'', ''Pixel Nation'', ''Capcom Fanzine'', ''Mercury'', and ''Super Famicom Mini Mag'' among others.", "In France fanzines like ''Revival'' were circulated, and Japan has seen the production of lavish doujin works.More recently, there has been a mini-resurgence in video game fanzines, with the launch of ''HyperPlay RPG'' in 2015 and ''Switch Player'' in 2017.Based in part on ''Super Play''s focus on role-playing games and \"any-bit\" Nintendo, ''HyperPlay RPG'' received positive reviews by the mainstream video game media.===Wargaming===Several fanzines exist within the hobby of wargaming.", "Among them is ''Charge!", "'', a leading international fanzine exclusively for miniature wargaming enthusiasts for the American Civil War period.", "Other fanzines support Warhammer and other popular rules sets.===Sport===The first association football fanzine is regarded as being ''Foul'', a publication that ran between 1972 and 1976.In the UK, most Premier League or Football League football clubs have one or more fanzines which supplement, oppose and complement the club's official magazine or matchday programme.", "A reasonably priced zine has a guaranteed audience, as is the culture of passion in being a football fan.The longest running fanzine is ''The City Gent'', produced by supporters of Bradford City FC, which first went on sale at Valley Parade in November 1984 and is now in its 26th season.", "Following close on its heels was Nike, Inc. which was first released in 1989.At the time it was not the first of its kind with ''Terrace Talk'' (York City), which was first published in November 1981 and ''Wanderers Worldwide'' (Bolton Wanderers) having already been established but since disappeared.", "In 1985 the emergent ''When Saturday Comes'' (a fanzine without a specific club focus that was subsequently launched as a mainstream magazine) promoted a 'fanzine movement' that gave birth to many more club titles during the late 1980s which was something of a glory period for fanzines.With the widespread availability of the Internet, much of the energy that was put into football fanzines subsequently went into the development of supporters' websites.", "Examples of other UK football fanzines include ''A Love Supreme'' (Sunderland), ''TOOFIF'' (Fulham), ''The Square Ball'' (Leeds United), ''4,000 Holes'' (Blackburn Rovers) and ''War of the Monster Trucks'' (a Sheffield Wednesday fanzine named after a local TV station elected not to show the final scenes of an unlikely cup victory).", "The Queen's Park Rangers fanzine 'A Kick up the Rs' was first published in August 1987 and is still issuing an average of 10 issues per season.Fanzines are not exclusive to the top tiers of football however, with Northern Counties East League side Scarborough Athletic FC having a fanzine titled ''Abandon Chip!", "'', a pun based on both the perilous situation of predecessor club Scarborough FC and that club's sponsors, McCain.And also away from the world of Football there were a number of established fanzines, for example Rugby league has such notable publications as ''Who The Hell Was St. George Anyway?''", "Rugby League fanzine, by supporters of Doncaster RLFC and ''Scarlet Turkey'' of Salford City Reds.However, due to pressure from the Internet etc.", "these publications no longer exist in printed form.", "The title of World's longest running Rugby League fanzine now belongs to ''The Aye of the Tigers'', by Castleford Tigers supporters.", "The fanzine movement has even spread to the United States, where ice hockey fans have produced several popular fanzines.", "In Chicago two examples include the formerly published ''Blue Line Magazine'' and currently ''The Committed Indian'', both produced by Chicago Blackhawks fans.", "In St. Louis there are ''Game Night Revue'' and ''St Louis Game Time'' for the St. Louis Blues.There are also a number of fanzines to be found in Ireland of which Shelbourne's ''Red Inc.'' is the longest running since 1999.In the United States, sports fanzines are relatively rare.", "In Boston they are a bit more common.", "There are two fanzines sold outside Fenway Park including ''Yawkey Way Report'', which is run by a former Marine." ], [ "Recent developments", "With the increasing availability of the Internet in the late 20th and the early 21st century, the traditional paper zine has begun to give way to the webzine (or \"e-zine\") that is easier to produce and uses the potential of the Internet to reach an ever-larger, possibly global, audience.", "Nonetheless, printed fanzines are still produced, either out of preference for the format or to reach people who do not have convenient Web access.", "Online versions of approximately 200 science fiction fanzines will be found at Bill Burns' eFanzines web site, along with links to other SF fanzine sites.", "In addition, zine festivals are held each year in American cities like Los Angeles, Chicago, and Brooklyn, as well as internationally in cities including Melbourne, Australia, and Glasgow, UK." ], [ "See also", "* alt.zines* Amateur press association* British small press comics* Desktop publishing* Dōjinshi* Fandom* Hugo Award for Best Fanzine* Hugo Award for Best Semiprozine* Literature* Minicomic Co-ops (The United Fanzine Organization)* Minicomics* Printing* Publishing* Revolutionart* Science fiction fandom* Weblog" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "**" ], [ "External links", "******************* Zine Libraries Barnard College** * Fandom-related Collections at the University of Iowa Library" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Forgotten Futures" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Forgotten Futures''''' is a role-playing game created by Marcus Rowland to allow people to play in settings inspired by Victorian and Edwardian science fiction and fantasy (i.e., steampunk).", "Most of its releases begin with these stories then add background material to explain the settings (often as alternate worlds, whose history diverges from our own), adventures, and other game material." ], [ "Game system", "Image by Stanley L. Wood often used in ''Forgotten Futures'' advertisingThe base system uses three characteristics (Body, Mind, and Soul) and a range of skills; points are used to purchase characteristics and skills based on one or more of the characteristics.", "Skills and characteristics are used by opposing them to a target (such as a difficulty number, an opponent's skill or characteristics, etc.)", "using a 2D6 dice roll.", "Subsequent revisions to the rules add options including a Magic characteristic, melodramatic character traits, and other complications, but the core system remains unchanged.Rowland is believed to have pioneered the concept of shareware tabletop role-playing games with this system, although there were earlier shareware computer games with role-playing elements.", "Users can download the rules from his web site, buy a subscription that entitles them to Forgotten Futures CDs, or buy a copy of the published version of this game.", "The CDs are also good sources for science fiction books and other period material whose copyright has expired.", "A proportion of his income from the game is donated to cancer research charities.Currently several versions of the rules are on line (complete and summary versions in HTML and PDF, and a German translation in PDF), along with a sample adventure set in a Victorian Channel Tunnel, plus eleven game collections (source material plus background worldbook, adventures, etc.", "), with an expanding collection of additional resources on line and on the CD-ROM.", "The rules and sample adventure have twice been published in print; in brief form as a booklet given away with ''Arcane Magazine'' in 1997, and at full length by Heliograph Inc. in 1999.In May 2016 Rowland announced that due to delays in the next release and changes in European tax law he would end shareware distribution of the game.", "Instead he intends to put all of the existing material on line, including the full contents of the CD, with a tip jar for voluntary contributions, and hopes to add more material.", "Users with current shareware registrations were offered a partial refund or the option to donate it to Cancer Research UK." ], [ "Versions", "; ''Forgotten Futures I: The A.B.C.", "Files'': Set in Kipling's 21st century airship utopia.", "Contains the text of \"With the Night Mail\" and \"As Easy as ABC\", a worldbook, an adventure, a spreadsheet of airship data, and numerous illustrations.", "This was the first and by far the smallest of these collections, since at that time the game was distributed on 720k disks; subsequent releases were on 1.44mb disks then CD-ROM.", "; ''Forgotten Futures II: The Log of the Astronef'': A comprehensive guide to the exploration of the Solar System in 1900 AD.", "Based on George Griffith's ''Stories of Other Worlds'', it contains six stories, the illustrations from their original publication, a worldbook taking the story forward to 1920, a spaceship design spreadsheet, five adventures, plus the novelisation ''A Honeymoon in Space''.", "The fiction and worldbook were briefly available in print from Heliograph Inc.; ''Forgotten Futures III: George E. Challenger's Mysterious World'': Adventures with Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's scientific hero, including the full text of ''The Lost World'', \"The Poison Belt\", \"When the World Screamed\", ''The Land of Mist'', \"The Horror of the Heights\", and \"The Disintegration Machine\", a worldbook, four adventures, and a wargames scenario.", "; ''Forgotten Futures IV: The Carnacki Cylinders'': Horror and the supernatural in Edwardian England, including the original text and illustrations for William Hope Hodgson's \"Carnacki, the Ghost-Finder\", a worldbook with rules for magic and the Ab-natural, three adventures and two long outlines, a story-telling card game, etc.", "Re-released as PDFs with additional material December 2022.; ''Forgotten Futures V: Goodbye Piccadilly…'': The destruction of London, as seen by a variety of authors around the end of the 19th century.", "Contents include two long adventures, numerous adventure outlines, ten stories and articles, etc.", "; ''Forgotten Futures VI: Victorian Villainy'': A source collection for melodramatic adventures, including three plays, the novel ''A Bid for Fortune'' by Guy Boothby, some of E.W.", "Hornung's ''Raffles'' stories, and more.", "; ''Forgotten Futures VII: Tsar Wars'': Based on the late 19th-century novels of George Griffith, ''Tsar Wars'' is a setting for the struggle between the anarchist Terror and the forces of oppression in the early 20th century, and the return of the Tsar's heir to the utopia of 2030 AD.", "The novels were briefly in print from Heliograph Inc.; ''Forgotten Futures VIII: Fables and Frolics'': Based on the fantasies of E. Nesbit, FF8 is a role-playing game set in a world of childhood magical adventures.", "Includes three novels, 23 short stories and some autobiographical articles by Nesbit, also rules for magic, life as a Victorian/Edwardian child, adventures, etc.", "; ''Forgotten Futures IX: It's My Own Invention'': Adventures in the worlds of weird science and engineering.", "Includes two novels by George Griffith, articles and stories by several authors, and game worlds based on flight (and a war on the supernatural), automata and calculating engines, space travel, and time travel.", "; ''Forgotten Futures X: The Tooth and Claw Role Playing Game'': A licensed RPG based on the novel ''Tooth and Claw'' by Jo Walton, set in a world with Victorian-equivalent technology which has a separate dragon nation.", "Player characters are dragons.", "The game is published in PDF and HTML versions, and is illustrated by Sue Mason and the author.", "It includes background material, revised rules catering for dragon characters, two adventures, and adventure outlines.", "; ''The Forgotten Futures Compendium'': Two long adventures, ''Curse of the Leopardmen'' by Alex Stewart and ''The League of Extraordinary Geometers'' (a crossover with ''The Original Flatland RPG'') by Marcus Rowland, plus adventure outlines based on Victorian and Edwardian advertising by Marcus Rowland.", "PDF only.", "; ''Forgotten Futures XI: Planets of Peril'': A 1930s pulp SF setting based on the stories of Stanley Weinbaum, sent to registered users on November 20, 2010, on line from December 20, 2010.Published in PDF and HTML versions and including most of Weinbaum's SF, three long adventures, and details of the worlds and technology of the setting.", "; ''In Preparation - Forgotten Futures XII: Empire of Earth'': Announced with the release of FF XI, FF XII will be a setting based on Victorian stories of interplanetary and interstellar travel and warfare, primarily \"The Struggle for Empire\" by Robert W.", "Cole.", "; ''The Original Flatland Role Playing Game'': Originally published in 1998 as an 'extra' on the Forgotten Futures CD-ROM, and relaunched as a stand-alone PDF with additional material in 2006, this game uses a streamlined version of the Forgotten Futures rules adapted to the setting of Edwin A. Abbott's ''Flatland''.", "Characters are living 2D shapes such as triangles and hexagons.", "The game includes rules, three adventures and four adventure outlines, a wargame by Matthew Hartley, a long section on the 'science' of Flatland which attempts to explain aspects of the world and its natives, and the original book.", "It is sold as a charity project in aid of Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders)." ], [ "Reception", "In the November 1994 edition of ''Pyramid'' (Issue #10), Ken and Jo Walton liked both the content of ''Forgotten Futures 2'' and the shareware concept, saying, \"This is an excellent, atmospheric, roleplaying game, made slightly unapproachable by its unusual distribution method.", "It is available only on disk; you unzip the file and print out the book for yourself.", "All text files are ASCII format, all pictures are GIFs.", "\"In the March 1998 edition of ''Dragon'' (Issue 245), Allen Varney called ''Forgotten Futures'' \"A very substantial and admirable shareware RPG from one of Britain's top designers, based on the British 'scientific romances' popular a century ago.\"", "Varney also complimented Marcus Rowland for trying to keep those old 'scientific romance' stories in circulation, saying, \"Aside from the game's real virtues, this worthy mission makes ''Forgotten Futures'' a must for any fan of science fiction's early history.\"" ], [ "Reviews", "*''Pyramid'' - CD-ROM version" ], [ "See also", "*''Space 1889''*Steampunk" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Author's website* Official website* Heliograph Inc.* ''The Original Flatland Role Playing Game''**\" The Forgotten Futures CD-Rom\" (archived), forgottenfutures.com, updated 20 November 2010" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fabritio Caroso" ], [ "Introduction", "Fabritio Caroso, a woodcut from ''Nobiltà di Dame'''''Fabritio Caroso da Sermoneta''' (1526/1535 – 1605/1620) was an Italian Renaissance dancing master and a composer or transcriber of dance music.His dance manual ''Il Ballarino'' was published in 1581, with a subsequent edition, significantly different, ''Nobiltà di Dame'', printed in 1600 and again after his death in 1630.The work has been published in English as ''Courtly Dance of the Renaissance'' by Julia Sutton.Both manuals have been printed in facsimile edition.", "Many of the dances of Fabritio Caroso's manuals are meant for two dancers with a few for four or more dancers.", "These manuals offer a great deal of information to dance historians and musicologists alike in that each description of a dance is accompanied by music examples with lute tablature and directions about how each music example is to be played.", "Many of the dances also contain dedications to noble women of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries." ], [ "Bibliography", "* Caroso, Fabritio.", "''Courtly Dance of the Renaissance: A New Translation and Edition of the Nobiltà di Dame (1600)''.", "Edited and translated by Julia Sutton.", "New York: Dover Publications, 1995" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Caroso's ''Il Ballarino''* Caroso's ''Nobiltà di Dame''*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fatah" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fatah''' (), formerly the '''Palestinian National Liberation Movement''' (), is a Palestinian nationalist and social democratic political party.", "It is the largest faction of the confederated multi-party Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and the second-largest party in the Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC).", "Mahmoud Abbas, the President of the Palestinian Authority, is the chairman of Fatah.Fatah is generally considered to have had a strong involvement in revolutionary struggle in the past and has maintained a number of militant groups.", "Fatah had been closely identified with the leadership of its founder and chairman, Yasser Arafat, until his death in 2004, when Farouk Kaddoumi constitutionally succeeded him to the position of Fatah Chairman and continued in the position until 2009, when Abbas was elected chairman.", "Since Arafat's death, factionalism within the ideologically diverse movement has become more apparent.In the 2006 election for the PLC, the party lost its majority in the PLC to Hamas.", "The Hamas legislative victory led to a conflict between Fatah and Hamas, with Fatah retaining control of the Palestinian National Authority in the West Bank through its president.", "Fatah is also active in the control of Palestinian refugee camps." ], [ "Etymology", "The full name of the movement is , meaning the \"Palestinian National Liberation Movement\".", "From this was crafted the inverted and reverse acronym (generally rendered in English as ''Fatah''), meaning \"opening\", \"conquering\", or \"victory\".", "The word is used in religious discourse to signify the Islamic expansion in the first centuries of Islamic history – as in , the \"conquering of the Levant\".", "also has religious significance in that it is the name of the 48th ''sura'' (chapter) of the Quran which, according to major Muslim commentators, details the story of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah.", "During the peaceful two years after the Hudaybiyyah treaty, many converted to Islam, increasing the strength of the Muslim side.", "It was the breach of this treaty by the Quraysh that triggered the conquest of Mecca.", "This Islamic precedent was cited by Yasser Arafat as justification for his signing the Oslo Accords with Israel." ], [ "History", "===Establishment===Yasser Arafat was the primary founder of Fatah and its leader until his 2004 death.The Fatah movement was founded in 1959 by members of the Palestinian diaspora, principally by professionals working in the Persian Gulf States who had studied in Cairo or Beirut and had been refugees in Gaza.", "The founders included Yasser Arafat, then head of the General Union of Palestinian Students (GUPS) at Cairo University; Salah Khalaf; Khalil al-Wazir; and Khaled Yashruti, then GUPS head in Beirut.", "Fatah espoused a Palestinian nationalist ideology in which Palestinian Arabs would be liberated by their own actions.Immediately after its establishment the name of the movement was first used in ''Falastinuna'' which was the official media organ of the Fatah.===1967–1993===Fatah became the dominant force in Palestinian politics after the Six-Day War in 1967.Fatah joined the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1967, and was allocated 33 of 105 seats in the PLO Executive Committee.", "Fatah's Yasser Arafat became Chairman of the PLO in 1969, after the position was ceded to him by Yahya Hammuda.", "According to the BBC, \"Mr Arafat took over as chairman of the executive committee of the PLO in 1969, a year that Fatah is recorded to have carried out 2,432 guerrilla attacks on Israel.", "\"====Battle of Karameh====Israeli troops in combat in KaramehThroughout 1968, Fatah and other Palestinian armed groups were the target of a major Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) operation in the Jordanian village of Karameh, where the Fatah headquartersas well as a mid-sized Palestinian refugee campwere located.", "The town's name is the Arabic word for \"dignity\", which elevated its symbolism to the Arab people, especially after the Arab defeat in 1967.The operation was in response to attacks against Israel, including rockets strikes from Fatah and other Palestinian militias into the occupied West Bank.", "Knowledge of the operation was available well ahead of time, and the government of Jordan (as well as a number of Fatah commandos) informed Arafat of Israel's large-scale military preparations.", "Upon hearing the news, many guerrilla groups in the area, including George Habash's newly formed group the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and Nayef Hawatmeh's breakaway organization the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP), withdrew their forces from the town.", "Fatah leaders were advised by a pro-Fatah Jordanian divisional commander to withdraw their men and headquarters to nearby hills, but on Arafat's orders, Fatah remained, and the Jordanian Army agreed to back them if heavy fighting ensued.On the night of 21 March, the IDF attacked Karameh with heavy weaponry, armored vehicles and fighter jets.", "Fatah held its ground, surprising the Israeli military.", "As Israel's forces intensified their campaign, the Jordanian Army became involved, causing the Israelis to retreat in order to avoid a full-scale war.", "By the end of the battle, nearly 150 Fatah militants had been killed, as well as twenty Jordanian soldiers and twenty-eight Israeli soldiers.", "Despite the higher Arab death toll, Fatah considered themselves victorious because of the Israeli army's rapid withdrawal.====Black September====In the late 1960s, tensions between Palestinians and the Jordanian government increased greatly; heavily armed Arab resistance elements had created a virtual \"state within a state\" in Jordan, eventually controlling several strategic positions in that country.", "After their victory in the Battle of Karameh, Fatah and other Palestinian militias began taking control of civil life in Jordan.", "They set up roadblocks, publicly humiliated Jordanian police forces, molested women and levied illegal taxes – all of which Arafat either condoned or ignored.In 1970, the Jordanian government moved to regain control over its territory, and the next day, King Hussein declared martial law.", "By 25 September, the Jordanian army achieved dominance in the fighting, and two days later Arafat and Hussein agreed to a series of ceasefires.", "The Jordanian army inflicted heavy casualties upon the Palestinians – including civilians – who suffered approximately 3,500 fatalities.", "Two thousand Fatah fighters managed to enter Syria.", "They crossed the border into Lebanon to join Fatah forces in that country, where they set up their new headquarters.", "A large group of guerrilla fighters led by Fatah field commander Abu Ali Iyad held out the Jordanian Army's offensive in the northern city of Ajlun until they were decisively defeated in July 1971.Abu Ali Iyad was executed and surviving members of his commando force formed the Black September Organization, a splinter group of Fatah.", "In November 1971, the group assassinated Jordanian prime minister Wasfi al-Tal as retaliation to Abu Ali Iyad's execution.In the 1960s and the 1970s, Fatah provided training to a wide range of European, Middle Eastern, Asian, and African militant and insurgent groups, and carried out numerous attacks against Israeli targets in Western Europe and the Middle East during the 1970s.", "Some militant groups that affiliated themselves to Fatah, and some of the ''fedayeen'' within Fatah itself, carried out civilian-aircraft hijackings and terrorist attacks, attributing them to Black September, Abu Nidal's Fatah-Revolutionary Council, Abu Musa's group, the PFLP, and the PFLP-GC.", "Fatah received weapons, explosives and training from the Soviet Union and some of the communist states of East Europe.", "China and Algeria also provided munitions.", "In 1979, Fatah aided Uganda during the Uganda–Tanzania War.", "Members of the organization fought alongside the Uganda Army and Libyan troops against the Tanzania People's Defence Force during the Battle of Lukaya and the Fall of Kampala, but were eventually forced to retreat from the country.====Lebanon====Since the death of Eljamal in 1968, the Palestinian cause had a large base of supporters in Lebanon.Although hesitant at first to take sides in the conflict, Arafat and Fatah played an important role in the Lebanese Civil War.", "Succumbing to pressure from PLO sub-groups such as the PFLP, DFLP and the Palestine Liberation Front (PLF), Fatah aligned itself with the communist and Nasserist Lebanese National Movement (LNM).", "Although originally aligned with Fatah, Syrian President Hafez al-Assad feared a loss of influence in Lebanon and switched sides.", "He sent his army, along with the Syrian-backed Palestinian factions of as-Sa'iqa and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command (PFLP-GC) led by Ahmad Jibril to fight alongside the Christian forces against the PLO and the LNM.", "The primary component of the Christian militias was the Maronite Phalangists.Phalangist forces killed twenty-six Fatah trainees on a bus in April 1975, marking the official start of the 15-year-long Lebanese civil war.", "Later that year, an alliance of Christian militias overran the Palestinian refugee camp of Karantina killing over 1,000 civilians.", "The PLO and LNM retaliated by attacking the town of Damour, a Phalangist and Tigers (Ahrar) stronghold, killing 684 civilians.", "As the civil war progressed over 2 years of urban warfare, both parties resorted to massive artillery duels and heavy use of sniper nests, while atrocities and war crimes were committed by both sides.In 1976, with strategic planning help from the Lebanese Army, the alliance of Christian militias, spearheaded by the National Liberal Party of former President Cammille Chamoun militant branch, the noumour el ahrar (NLP Tigers), took a pivotal refugee camp in the Eastern part of Beirut, the Tel al-Zaatar camp, after a six-month siege, also known as Tel al-Zaatar massacre in which hundreds perished.", "Arafat and Abu Jihad blamed themselves for not successfully organizing a rescue effort.PLO cross-border raids against Israel grew somewhat during the late 1970s.", "One of the most severeknown as the Coastal Road massacreoccurred on 11 March 1978.A force of nearly a dozen Fatah fighters landed their boats near a major coastal road connecting the city of Haifa with Tel Aviv-Yafo.", "There they hijacked a bus and sprayed gunfire inside and at passing vehicles, killing thirty-seven civilians.", "In response, the IDF launched Operation Litani three days later, with the goal of taking control of Southern Lebanon up to the Litani River.", "The IDF achieved this goal, and Fatah withdrew to the north into Beirut.Israel invaded Lebanon again in 1982.Beirut was soon besieged and bombarded by the IDF; to end the siege, the US and European governments brokered an agreement guaranteeing safe passage for Arafat and Fatahguarded by a multinational forceto exile in Tunis.", "Despite the exile, many Fatah commanders and fighters remained in Lebanon, and they faced the War of the Camps in the 1980s in their fight with the Shia Amal Movement and also in connection with internal schisms within the Palestinian factions.===After 1993===Yitzhak Rabin, Bill Clinton, and Yasser Arafat during the Oslo Accords signing ceremony at the White House on 13 September 1993Fatah leader Mahmoud Abbas with U.S. President Joe Biden at the Palestinian Presidential Palace in Bethlehem on 15 July 2022====Presidential and legislative elections====In the 1993–1995 Oslo Accords, Fatah, as part of the PLO, made some interim agreements with Israel, including recognition of Israel by the PLO.", "Until his 2004 death, Arafat headed the Palestinian National Authority, the provisional entity created as a result of those Oslo Accords.", "Soon after Arafat's death, Farouk Kaddoumi was elected to the post, which he continues to hold.Fatah nominated Mahmoud Abbas in the Palestinian presidential election of 2005.In 2005, Hamas won in nearly all the municipalities it contested.", "Political analyst Salah Abdel-Shafi told the BBC about the difficulties of Fatah leadership: \"I think it's very, very seriousit's becoming obvious that they can't agree on anything.\"", "Fatah is \"widely seen as being in desperate need of reform,\" as \"the PA's performance has been a story of corruption and incompetenceand Fatah has been tainted.", "\"====Internal discord====In December 2005, jailed Intifada leader Marwan Barghouti broke ranks with the party and announced that he had formed a new political list to run in the elections called the ''al-Mustaqbal'' (\"The Future\"), mainly composed of members of Fatah's \"Young Guard.\"", "These younger leaders have repeatedly expressed frustration with the entrenched corruption in the party, which has been run by the \"Old Guard\" who returned from exile in Tunisia following the Oslo Accords.", "Al-Mustaqbal was to campaign against Fatah in the 2006 Palestinian legislative election, presenting a list including Mohammed Dahlan, Kadoura Fares, Samir Mashharawi and Jibril Rajoub.", "However, on 28 December 2005, the leadership of the two factions agreed to submit a single list to voters, headed by Barghouti, who began actively campaigning for Fatah from his jail cell.There have been numerous other expressions of discontent within Fatah, which is just holding its first general congress in two decades.", "Because of this, the movement remains largely dominated by aging cadres from the pre-Oslo era of Palestinian politics.", "Several of them gained their positions through the patronage of Yasser Arafat, who balanced above the different factions, and the era after his death in 2004 has seen increased infighting among these groups, who jockey for influence over future development, the political line, funds, and constituencies.", "There is concern over the succession once Abbas leaves power.Palestinian enclaves in May 2023 (Area A and B under the Oslo II Accord).", "Area A (light yellow) is exclusively administered by the Fatah-controlled Palestinian National Authority.", "There have been no open splits within the older generation of Fatah politicians since the 1980s, though there is occasional friction between members of the top leadership.", "One founding member, Faruq al-Qaddumi (Abu Lutf), continues to openly oppose the post-Oslo arrangements and has intensified his campaign for a more hardline position from exile in Tunis.", "Since Arafat's death, he is formally head of Fatah's political bureau and chairman, but his actual political following within Fatah appears limited.", "He has at times openly challenged the legitimacy of Abbas and harshly criticized both him and Mohammed Dahlan, but despite threats to splinter the movement, he remains in his position, and his challenges have so far been fruitless.", "Another influential veteran, Hani al-Hassan, has also openly criticized the present leadership.Fatah's internal conflicts have also, due to the creation of the Palestinian Authority, merged with the turf wars between different PA security services, e.g., a longstanding rivalry between the West Bank (Jibril Rajoub) and Gaza (Muhammad Dahlan) branches of the powerful Preventive Security Service.", "Foreign backing for different factions contribute to conflict, e.g., with the United States generally seen as supportive of Abbas's overall leadership and of Dahlan's security influence, and Syria alleged to promote Faruq al-Qaddumi's challenge to the present leadership.", "The younger generations of Fatah, especially within the militant al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades, have been more prone to splits, and a number of lesser networks in Gaza and the West Bank have established themselves as either independent organizations or joined Hamas.", "However, such overt breaks with the movement have still been rather uncommon, despite numerous rivalries inside and between competing local Fatah groups.====2009: Sixth General Assembly====The Sixth General Assembly of the Fatah Movement began on 4 August 2009 in Bethlehem, nearly 16 years after the Oslo I Accord and 20 years since the last Fatah convention, after being repeatedly postponed over conflicts ranging from representation to venue.", "More than 2,000 delegates attended the meeting, while another 400 from the Gaza Strip were unable to attend the conference after Hamas barred them from traveling to the West Bank.The internal dissension was immediately obvious.", "Saudi King Abdullah told the delegates that divisions among the Palestinians were more damaging to their cause of an independent state than the Israeli \"enemy\".Delegates resolved not to resume Israeli-Palestinian peace talks until 14 preconditions were met.", "Among these preconditions were the release of all Israel-held Palestinian prisoners, a freeze on all Israeli settlement construction, and an end to the Gaza blockade.By affirming its option for \"armed resistance\" against Israel, Fatah appealed to Palestinians who wanted a more hardline response to Israel.Israeli deputy foreign minister Danny Ayalon said the conference was a \"serious blow to peace\" and \"was another lost opportunity for the Palestinian leadership to adopt moderate views.", "\"====Elections to Central Committee and Revolutionary Council====On 9 August 2009, new members of the Central Committee of Fatah and the Revolutionary Council were chosen.", "Delegates voted to fill 18 seats on the 23-seat Central Committee, and 81 seats on the 128-seat Revolutionary Council after a week of deliberations.", "At least 70 new members entered the latter, with 20 seats going to Fatah representatives from the Gaza Strip, 11 seats filled by women (the highest number of votes went to one woman who spent years in Israeli jails for her role in the resistance), four seats went to Christians, and one was filled by a Jewish-born convert to Islam, Uri Davis, the first Jewish-born person to be elected to the Revolutionary Council since its founding in 1958.Fatah activists from the Palestinian diaspora were also represented and included Samir Rifai, Fatah's secretary in Syria, and Khaled Abu Usba.A demonstration in support of Fatah in Gaza City in January 2013Elected to the central council was Fadwa Barghouti, the wife of Marwan Barghouti who was serving five life sentences in Israel for his role in terrorist attacks on civilians in Israel during the Second Intifada.====Reconciliation process with Hamas====A meeting of the Revolutionary Council was held in Ramallah from 18 to 19 October 2014.Many important questions were discussed, including reconciliation with Hamas.", "Opinion was divided on this issue.====2016: Seventh Congress====In December 2016, more than 1400 members of Fatah's 7th Congress elected 18 members of the Central Committee and 80 for the Revolutionary Council.", "Six new members were added to the Central Committee while 12 were reelected.", "Outgoing members included Nabil Shaath, Nabil Abu Rudeineh, Zakaria al-Agha and Tayib Abdul Rahim.Its leader Abu Ashraf Al-Armoushi and his comrades were killed in the Al-Basateen neighborhood of Ain Al-Helweh camp on 30 July 2023 during a fighting." ], [ "Ideology", "Fatah has \"Member Party\" status at the Socialist International and has \"Observer Party\" status within the Party of European Socialists.The November 1959 edition of Fatah's underground journal ''Filastinuna Nida al-Hayat'' indicated that the movement was motivated by the status of the Palestinian refugees in the Arab world::The youth of the catastrophe (''shibab al-nakba'') are dispersed... Life in the tent has become as miserable as death... To die for our beloved Motherland is better and more honorable than life, which forces us to eat our daily bread under humiliations or to receive it as charity at the cost of our honour... We, the sons of the catastrophe, are no longer willing to live this dirty, despicable life, this life which has destroyed our cultural, moral and political existence and destroyed our human dignity.Armed struggleas manifested in the 1936–39 Arab revolt in Palestine and the military role of Palestinian fighters under the leadership of Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni in the 1948 Arab–Israeli Warwas central to Fatah's initial ideology of how to liberate Palestine." ], [ "Structure", "Fatah's two most important decision-making bodies are the Central Committee and Revolutionary Council.", "The Central Committee is mainly an executive body, while the Revolutionary Council is Fatah's legislative body.===Armed factions===Fatah has maintained a number of militant groups since its founding.", "Its mainstream military branch is al-'Asifah.", "Fatah is generally considered to have had a strong involvement in terrorism in the past, though unlike its rival Islamist faction Hamas, Fatah is no longer regarded as a terrorist organization by any government.", "Fatah used to be designated terrorist under Israeli law and was considered terrorist by the United States Department of State and United States Congress until it renounced terrorism in 1988.Fatah has, since its inception, created, led or sponsored a number of armed groups and militias, some of which have had an official standing as the movement's armed wing, and some of which have not been publicly or even internally recognized as such.", "The group has also dominated various PLO and Palestinian Authority forces and security services which were/are not officially tied to Fatah, but in practice have served as wholly pro-Fatah armed units, and been staffed largely by members.", "The original name for Fatah's armed wing was al-'Asifah (\"The Storm\"), and this was also the name Fatah first used in its communiques, trying for some time to conceal its identity.", "This name has since been applied more generally to Fatah armed forces, and does not correspond to a single unit today.", "Other militant groups associated with Fatah include:*Force 17.Plays a role akin to the Presidential Guard for senior Fatah leaders.", "Created by Yasser Arafat.", "*Black September Organization.", "A group formed by leading Fatah members in 1971, following the events of the \"Black September\" in Jordan, to organize clandestine attacks with which Fatah did not want to be openly associated.", "These included strikes against leading Jordanian politicians as a means of exacting vengeance and raising the price for attacking the Palestinian movement; and also, most controversially, for \"international operations\" (e.g.", "the Munich Olympics massacre), intended to put pressure on the US, Europe and Israel, to raise the visibility of the Palestinian cause and to upstage radical rivals such as the PFLP.", "Fatah publicly disassociated itself from the group, but it is widely believed that it enjoyed Arafat's direct or tacit backing.", "It was discontinued in 1973–1974, as Fatah's political line shifted again, and the Black September operations and the strategy behind them were seen as having become a political liability, rather than an asset.", "*Fatah Hawks.", "An armed militia active mainly until the mid-1990s.*Tanzim.", "A branch of Fatah under the leadership of Marwan Barghouti, with roots in the activism of the First Intifada, which carried out armed attacks in the early days of the Second Intifada.", "It was later subsumed or sidelined by the al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades.", "*Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades.", "Created during the Second Intifada to bolster the organization's militant standing vis-à-vis the rival Hamas movement, which had taken the lead in attacks on Israel after 1993, and was gaining rapidly in popularity with the advent of the Intifada.", "The Brigades are locally organized and have been said to suffer from poor cohesion and internal discipline, at times ignoring ceasefires and other initiatives announced by the central Fatah leadership.", "They are generally seen as tied to the \"young guard\" of Fatah politics, organizing young members on the street level, but it is not clear that they form a faction in themselves inside Fatah politics; rather, different Brigades units may be tied to different Fatah factional leaders.During the Second Intifada, the group was a member of the Palestinian National and Islamic Forces.===Constitution===In August 2009, at Fatah's Sixth General Conference in Bethlehem, Fatah delegates drew up a new \"internal charter\"." ], [ "See also", "*Israeli–Palestinian conflict*List of Fatah members*List of political parties in the Palestinian National Authority*Palestinian political violence" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ***Haghshenas, Seyyed Ali, \"Social and political structure of Lebanon and its influence on the appearance of the Amal Movement\", Tehran, Iran, 2009." ], [ "External links", "** Former website (archived)* Fatah's Constitution* Al-Krama Newspaper (Fatah's PR Office)* Definition of Fatah * Interview on Radio France International with Fatah Central Committee member Abdallah Al Frangi * Collection of over 300 Fatah posters* Attacks attributed to FATAH on the START terrorism database" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Food and Agriculture Organization" ], [ "Introduction", "The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Food Price Index 1961–2021.Years 2014–2016 is 100.The '''Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations''' ('''FAO''') is a specialized agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger and improve nutrition and food security.", "Its Latin motto, , translates to \"let there be bread\".", "It was founded on 16 October 1945.The FAO comprises 195 members, including 194 countries and the European Union.", "Its headquarters is in Rome, Italy, and it maintains regional and field offices worldwide, operating in over 130 countries.", "It helps governments and development agencies coordinate their activities to improve and develop agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and land and water resources.", "It also conducts research, provides technical assistance to projects, operates educational and training programs, and collects agricultural output, production, and development data.The FAO is governed by a biennial conference representing each member country and the European Union, which elects a 49-member executive council.", "The Director-General, as of 2019 Qu Dongyu of China, serves as the chief administrative officer.", "Various committees govern matters such as finance, programs, agriculture, and fisheries." ], [ "History", "The idea of an international organization for food and agriculture emerged in the late 19th and early 20th century, advanced primarily by Polish-born American agriculturalist and activist David Lubin.", "In May–June 1905, an international conference was held in Rome, Italy, which led to the creation of the International Institute of Agriculture (IIA) by the King of Italy, Victor Emmanuel III.The IIA was the first intergovernmental organization to deal with the problems and challenges of agriculture on a global scale.", "It worked primarily to collect, compile, and publish data on agriculture, ranging from output statistics to a catalog of crop diseases.", "Among its achievements was the publication of the first agricultural census in 1930.World War II effectively ended the IIA.", "During the war, in 1943, United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt called a League of Nations Conference on Food and Agriculture, which brought representatives from forty-four governments to The Omni Homestead Resort in Hot Springs, Virginia, from 18 May to 3 June to attend the Hot Springs Conference.", "The main impetus for the conference was the British-born Australian economist Frank L. McDougall, who since 1935 had advocated for an international forum to address hunger and malnutrition.The Conference ended with a commitment to establish a permanent organization for food and agriculture, which was achieved on 16 October 1945 in Quebec City, Canada, following the Constitution of the Food and Agriculture Organization.", "The first session of the FAO Conference began the same day in the Château Frontenac in Quebec City and ended on 1 November 1945.This was led by Sir John Boyd Orr where his work on ending world hunger and creation of FAO resulted in him winning the Nobel Peace Prize in 1949.After the war, the IIA was officially dissolved by resolution of its Permanent Committee on 27 February 1948.Its functions, facilities, and mandate were then transferred to the newly established FAO, which maintained its headquarters in Rome.The FAO's initial functions supported agricultural and nutrition research and provided technical assistance to member countries to boost production in agriculture, fishery, and forestry.", "Beginning in the 1960s, it focused on efforts to develop high-yield strains of grain, eliminate protein deficiency, promote rural employment, and increase agricultural exports.", "The FAO recognized the decrease of these resources as an urgent problem in 1961 and created a joint collaboration with the International Biological Program (IBP) in 1967.To that end, it joined the UN General Assembly in creating the UN World Food Programme, the largest humanitarian organization addressing hunger and promoting food security.FAO Commemorative 1998 30th Anniv MM Programme Bronze ObverseThe FAO launched what would become the FAO Money and Medals Programme (MMP) in 1968.FAO issued collector art medals in various series to bring attention to FAO's goals and missions.", "This program was responsible for over a hundred medal designs issued to the collecting public.", "A thirtieth anniversary medal of the MMP was issued in 1998.In 1974, in response to famine in Africa, the FAO convened the first World Food Summit to address widespread hunger, malnutrition, and food insecurity.", "The meeting resulted in a proclamation that \"every man, woman, and child has the inalienable right to be free from hunger and malnutrition to develop their physical and mental faculties\" and a global commitment to eradicate these issues within a decade.", "A subsequent summit in 1996 addressed the shortcomings in achieving this goal while establishing a strategic plan for eliminating hunger and malnutrition into the 21st century.Every year, FAO publishes a number of major 'State of the World' reports related to food, agriculture, forestry, fisheries and natural resources." ], [ "Structure and finance", "Lester Bowles Pearson presiding at a plenary session of the founding conference of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization.", "October 1945.In 1951, the FAO's headquarters were moved from Washington, D.C., United States, to Rome, Italy.", "The agency is directed by the Conference of Member Nations, which meets every two years to review the work carried out by the organization and to Work and Budget for the next two-year period.", "The Conference elects a council of 49 member states (serve three-year rotating terms) that acts as an interim governing body, and the Director-General, who heads the agency.The FAO is composed of eight departments: Agriculture and Consumer Protection, Climate, Biodiversity, Land and Water Department, Economic and Social Development, Fisheries and Aquaculture, Forestry, Corporate Services and Technical Cooperation and Programme Management.Beginning in 1994, the FAO underwent the most significant restructuring since its founding, to decentralize operations, streamline procedures and reduce costs.", "As a result, savings of about US$50 million, €43 million a year were realized.===Budget===The FAO's Regular Programme budget is funded by its members, through contributions set at the FAO Conference.", "This budget covers core technical work, cooperation and partnerships including the Technical Cooperation Programme, knowledge exchange, policy and advocacy, direction and administration, governance and security.The total FAO Budget planned for 2018–2019 is US$1,005.6 million.", "The voluntary contributions provided by members and other partners support mechanical and emergency (including rehabilitation) assistance to governments for clearly defined purposes linked to the results framework, as well as direct support to FAO's core work.", "The voluntary contributions are expected to reach approximately US$1.6 billion in 2016–2017.This overall budget covers core technical work, cooperation and partnerships, leading to Food and Agriculture Outcomes at 71 percent; Core Functions at 11 percent; the Country Office Network – 5 percent; Capital and Security Expenditure – 2 percent; Administration – 6 percent; and Technical and Cooperation Program – 5 percent.===Directors-General===* John Boyd Orr, October 1945 – April 1948* Norris E. Dodd, April 1948 – December 1953* Philip V. Cardon, January 1954 – April 1956* Herbert Broadley, (acting) April 1956 – November 1956* Binay Ranjan Sen, November 1956 – December 1967* Addeke Hendrik Boerma, January 1968 – December 1975* Edouard Saouma, January 1976 – December 1993* Jacques Diouf, January 1994 – December 2011* José Graziano da Silva, January 2012 – July 2019* Qu Dongyu, August 2019 – present===Deputy Directors-General===* William Nobel Clark: 1948* Sir Herbert Broadley: 1948–1958* Friedrich Traugott Wahlen: 1958–1959* Norman C. Wright: 1959–1963* Oris V. Wells: 1963–1971* Roy I. Jackson: 1971–1978* Ralph W. Phillips: 1978–1981* Edward M. West: 1981–1985* Declan J. Walton: 1986–1987* Howard Hjort: 1992–1997* Vikram J. Shah (ad personam): 1992–1995* David A. Harcharik: 1998–2007* James G. Butler: 2008–2010* He Changchui (Operations): 2009–2011* Ann Tutwiler (Knowledge): 2011–2012* Manoj Juneja (Operations): 2011–2012* Dan Gustafson (Programmes): 2012–2020* Maria Helena Semedo: 2013–present* Laurent Thomas: 2017–2023* Beth Bechdol: 2020–present* Maurizio Martina: 2023-present" ], [ "Offices", "===FAO Headquarters===FAO Headquarters in RomeThe world headquarters is located in Rome, in the former seat of the Department of Italian East Africa.", "One of the most notable features of the building was the Axum Obelisk which stood in front of the agency seat, although just outside the territory allocated to the FAO by the Italian Government.", "It was taken from Ethiopia by Benito Mussolini's troops in 1937 as war booty and returned on 18 April 2005.===Regional Offices===* Regional Office for Africa, in Accra, Ghana* Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, in Bangkok, Thailand* Regional Office for Europe and Central Asia, in Budapest, Hungary* Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, in Brasília, Brazil* Regional Office for the Near East, in Cairo, Egypt===Sub-regional Offices===* Sub-regional Office for Central Africa (SFC), in Libreville, Gabon* Sub-regional Office for Central Asia, in Ankara, Turkey* Sub-regional Office for Eastern Africa (SFE), in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia* Sub-regional Office for Mesoamerica (SLM), in Panama City, Panama* Sub-regional Office for North Africa, in Tunis, Tunisia* Sub-regional Office for Southern Africa and East Africa, in Harare, Zimbabwe* Sub-regional Office for the Caribbean, in Bridgetown, Barbados* Sub-regional Office for the Gulf Cooperation Council States and Yemen, in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates* Sub-regional Office for the Pacific Islands, in Apia, Samoa===Liaison Offices===Liaison Office for North America in Washington, D.C.* Liaison Office for North America, in Washington, D.C., United States* Liaison Office with Japan, in Yokohama* Liaison Office with the European Union and Belgium, in Brussels* Liaison Office with the Russian Federation, in Moscow* Liaison Office with the United Nations, in Geneva, Switzerland* Liaison Office with the United Nations, in New York City, United States===Partnership and Liaison Offices===Partnership and Liaison Offices provide for stronger country participation in the FAO's work and programmes at national, sub-regional, regional, and inter-regional levels, and enhanced cooperation through unilateral trust fund projects and South–South cooperation.", "* Azerbaijan* Cameroon* Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)* Equatorial Guinea* Kazakhstan* Mexico* Republic of Korea (South Korea)" ], [ "Priority work areas", "FAO has outlined the following priorities in its fight against hunger.", "* Help eliminate hunger, food insecurity, and malnutrition – contribute to eradicating hunger by facilitating policies and political commitments to support food security and make sure that up-to-date information about hunger and nutrition challenges and solutions is available and accessible.", "* Make agriculture, forestry, and fisheries more productive and sustainable – promote evidence-based policies and practices to support highly productive agricultural sectors (crops, livestock, forestry, and fisheries) while ensuring that the natural resource base does not suffer in the process.", "* Reduce rural poverty by helping the rural poor gain access to the resources and services they need, including rural employment and social protection.", "* Enable inclusive and efficient agricultural and food systems – helping to build safe and efficient food systems that support smallholder agriculture and reduce poverty and hunger in rural areas.", "* Increase the resilience of livelihoods to threats and crises – helping countries to prepare for natural and human-caused disasters by reducing their risk and enhancing the resilience of their food and agricultural systems.Two fundamental areas of work – gender and governance – are fully integrated in the above strategic objective action plans." ], [ "Programmes and achievements", "=== Food ====== ''Codex Alimentarius'' ===FAO and the World Health Organization created the Codex Alimentarius Commission in 1961 to develop food standards, guidelines, and texts such as codes of practice under the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme.", "The programme's main aims are protecting consumer health, ensuring fair trade, and promoting co-ordination of all food standards work undertaken by intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations.==== World Food Summit ====In 1996, FAO organized the World Food Summit, attended by 112 Heads or Deputy Heads of State and Government.", "The Summit concluded with the signing of the Rome Declaration, which established the goal of halving the number of people who suffer from hunger by 2015.At the same time, 1,200 civil society organizations (CSOs) from 80 countries participated in an NGO forum.", "The forum was critical of the growing industrialization of agriculture and called upon governments – and FAO – to do more to protect the 'Right to Food' for the poor.==== TeleFood ====In 1997, FAO launched TeleFood, a campaign of concerts, sporting events, and other activities to harness the power of media, celebrities, and concerned citizens to help fight hunger.", "Since its start, the campaign has generated close to US$28 million, €15 million in donations.", "Money raised through TeleFood pays for small, sustainable projects that help small-scale farmers produce more food for their families and communities.The projects provide tangible resources, such as fishing equipment, seeds, and agricultural implements.", "They vary enormously, from helping families raise pigs in Venezuela through creating school gardens in Cape Verde and Mauritania or providing school lunches in Uganda and teaching children to grow food to raising fish in a leper community in India.==== FAO Goodwill Ambassadors ====The FAO Goodwill Ambassadors Programme was initiated in 1999.It was created to increase public awareness and disseminate information about issues related to food security and hunger in the world.==== Right to Food Guidelines ====In 2004 the Right to Food Guidelines were adopted which offer guidance to states on how to implement their obligations on the right to food.==== Response to food crisis ====In December 2007, FAO launched its Initiative on soaring food prices to help small producers raise their output and earn more.", "Under the initiative, FAO contributed to the work of the UN High-Level Task Force on the Global Food Crisis, which produced the Comprehensive Framework for Action.", "FAO has carried out projects in over 25 countries and inter-agency missions in nearly 60, scaled up its monitoring through the Global Information and Early Warning System on Food and Agriculture, provided policy advice to governments while supporting their efforts to increase food production, and advocated for more investment in agriculture as well as provided funding to distribute and multiply quality seeds in Haiti, which has significantly increased food production, thereby providing cheaper food.==== FAO–EU partnership ====In May 2009, FAO and the European Union signed an initial aid package worth €125 million to support small farmers in countries hit hard by rising food prices.", "The aid package falls under the EU's €1 billion Food Facility, set up with the UN Secretary-General's High-Level Task Force on the Global Food Crisis and FAO to focus on programmes that will have a quick but lasting impact on food security.", "FAO is receiving around €200 million for work in 25 countries, of which €15.4 million goes to Zimbabwe.==== Food security programmes ====The Special Programme for Food Security is FAO's flagship initiative for reaching the goal of halving the number of hungry in the world by 2015 (currently estimated at close to 1 billion people) as part of its commitment to the Millennium Development Goals.", "Through projects in over 100 countries worldwide, the programme promotes effective, tangible solutions to eliminating hunger, undernourishment, and poverty.", "Currently, 102 countries are engaged in the programme, and of these, approximately 30 have begun shifting from pilot to national programmes.", "To maximize the impact of its work, FAO strongly promotes national ownership and local empowerment in the countries in which it operates.==== Online campaign against hunger ====The 1billionhungry project became the EndingHunger campaign in April 2011.Spearheaded by FAO in partnership with other UN agencies and private nonprofit groups, the EndingHunger movement pushes the boundaries of conventional public advocacy.", "It builds on the success in 2010 of The 1billonhungry project and the subsequent chain of public events that led to the collection of over three million signatures on a global petition to end hunger (www.EndingHunger.org).", "The petition was originally presented to representatives of world governments at a ceremony in Rome on 30 November 2010.The web and partnerships are two pivotal and dynamic aspects of EndingHunger.", "The campaign relies on the assistance of organizations and institutions that can facilitate the project's diffusion, by placing banners on their own websites or organizing events aimed to raise awareness of the project.", "In its 2011 season, the campaign expanded its multimedia content, pursued mutual visibility arrangements with partner organizations, and sharpened its focus on 14- to 25-year-olds, who were encouraged to understand their potential as a social movement to push for the end of hunger.Moreover, the EndingHunger project is a viral communication campaign, renewing and expanding its efforts to build the movement through Facebook, Twitter and other social networks.", "Those who sign the petition can spread the link of the EndingHunger website to their friends, via social media or mail, in order to gain awareness and signatures for the petition.", "The next interim objective is to grow the EndingHunger movement's Facebook community to 1 million members.", "As with the petition, the more people who get involved, the more powerful the message to governments: \"We are no longer willing to accept the fact that hundreds of millions live in chronic hunger.\"", "Groups and individuals can also decide on their own to organize an event about the project, simply by gathering friends, whistles, T-shirts and banners (whistles and T-shirts can be ordered, and petition sign sheets downloaded, on the endinghunger.org website) and thereby alert people about chronic hunger by using the yellow whistle.The original 1billionhungry campaign borrowed as its slogan the line \"I'm as mad as hell, and I'm not going to take this anymore!", "\", used by Peter Finch in the 1976 film, ''Network''.", "Meanwhile, the yellow whistle has been the campaign symbol from the start, from 1billionhungry to Ending Hunger.", "(The creative concept was provided by the McCann Erickson Italy Communication Agency.)", "It symbolizes the fact that we are \"blowing the whistle\" on the silent disaster of hunger.", "It is both a symbol and – at many live events taking place around the world – a physical means of expressing frustration and making some noise about the hunger situation.Both The 1billionhungry and the EndingHunger campaigns have continued to attract UN Goodwill Ambassadors from the worlds of music and cinema, literature, sport, activism and government.", "Some of the well known individuals who have become involved include former Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, former presidents of Chile Ricardo Lagos and Michelle Bachelet, actress Susan Sarandon, actors Jeremy Irons and Raul Bova, singers Céline Dion and Anggun, authors Isabelle Allende and Andrea Camilleri, musician Chucho Valdés and Olympic track-and-field legend Carl Lewis.=== Agriculture ======= International Plant Protection Convention ====FAO created the International Plant Protection Convention or IPPC in 1952.This international treaty organization works to prevent the international spread of pests and plant diseases in both cultivated and wild plants.", "Among its functions are the maintenance of lists of plant pests, tracking of pest outbreaks, and coordination of technical assistance between member nations.", "As of July 2018, 183 contracting parties have ratified the treaty.====Plant Treaty (ITPGRFA)====FAO is depositary of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, also called ''Plant Treaty'', ''Seed Treaty'' or ''ITPGRFA'', entered into force on 29 June 2004.==== Alliance Against Hunger and Malnutrition ====The Alliance Against Hunger and Malnutrition (AAHM) aims to address how countries and organizations can be more effective in advocating and carrying out actions to address hunger and malnutrition.", "As a global partnership, AAHM creates global connections between local, regional, national and international institutions that share the goals of fighting hunger and malnutrition.", "The organization works to address food security by enhancing resources and knowledge sharing and strengthening hunger activities within countries and across state lines at the regional and international levels.Following the World Food Summit, the Alliance was initially created in 2002 as the 'International Alliance Against Hunger (IAAH)' to strengthen and coordinate national efforts in the fight against hunger and malnutrition.", "The mission of the Alliance originates from the first and eighth UN Millennium Development Goals; reducing the number of people that suffer from hunger in half by 2015 (preceded by the \"Rome Declaration\" in 1996) and developing a global partnership for development.", "The Alliance was founded by the Rome-based food agencies – the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), UN World Food Programme (WFP), International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), – and Bioversity International.AAHM connects top-down and bottom-up anti-hunger development initiatives, linking governments, UN organizations, and NGOs together in order to increase effectiveness through unity.==== Integrated pest management ====During the 1990s, FAO took a leading role in the promotion of integrated pest management for rice production in Asia.", "Hundreds of thousands of farmers were trained using an approach known as the Farmer Field School (FFS).", "Like many of the programmes managed by FAO, the funds for Farmer Field Schools came from bilateral Trust Funds, with Australia, Netherlands, Norway and Switzerland acting as the leading donors.", "FAO's efforts in this area have drawn praise from NGOs that have otherwise criticized much of the work of the organization.==== Trans-boundary pests and diseases ====FAO established an ''Emergency Prevention System for Transboundary Animal and Plant Pests and Diseases'' in 1994, focusing on the control of diseases like rinderpest, foot-and-mouth disease and avian flu by helping governments coordinate their responses.", "One key element is the ''Global Rinderpest Eradication Programme'', which has advanced to a stage where large tracts of Asia and Africa have now been free of the cattle disease rinderpest for an extended period of time.", "Meanwhile, the '''' monitors the worldwide locust situation and keeps affected countries and donors informed of expected developments.==== Global Partnership Initiative for Plant Breeding Capacity Building ====Food Price Index (FAO) 1990–2012|thumb|rightThe Global Partnership Initiative for Plant Breeding Capacity Building (GIPB) is a global partnership dedicated to increasing plant breeding capacity building.", "The mission of GIPB is to enhance the capacity of developing countries to improve crops for food security and sustainable development through better plant breeding and delivery systems.", "The ultimate goal is to ensure that a critical mass of plant breeders, leaders, managers and technicians, donors and partners are linked together through an effective global network.Increasing capacity building for plant breeding in developing countries is critical for the achievement of meaningful results in poverty and hunger reduction and to reverse the current worrisome trends.", "Plant breeding is a well recognized science capable of widening the genetic and adaptability base of cropping systems, by combining conventional selection techniques and modern technologies.", "It is essential to face and prevent the recurrence of crises such as thatof the soaring food prices and to respond to the increasing demands for crop based sources of energy.==== Investment in agriculture ====FAO's technical cooperation department hosts an Investment Centre that promotes greater investment in agriculture and rural development by helping developing countries identify and formulate sustainable agricultural policies, programmes and projects.", "It mobilizes funding from multilateral institutions such as the World Bank, regional development banks and international funds as well as FAO resources.==== Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS) ====The Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS) Partnership Initiative was conceptualized and presented by Parviz Koohafkan the Task Manager of Chapter 10 of Agenda 21 in Food and Agricultural Organization of United Nations, FAO in 2002 during World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa.", "This UN Partnership Initiative aims to identify, support and safeguard Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems and their livelihoods, agricultural and associated biodiversity, landscapes, knowledge systems and cultures around the world.", "The GIAHS Partnership recognizes the crucial importance of the well-being of family farming communities in an integrated approach while directing activities towards sustainable agriculture and rural development.==== Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA) ====The Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture was established in 1983 and provides a unique intergovernmental forum that specifically addresses biological diversity for food and agriculture.", "Its main objective is to ensure the sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity for food and agriculture and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits derived from its use, for present and future generations.http://www.fao.org/cgrfa/en/====Animal Genetic Resources====FAO has a unit focused on Animal Genetic Resources, which are defined as \"those animal species that are used, or may be used, for the production of food and agriculture, and the populations within each of them.", "These populations within each species can be classified as wild and feral populations, land-races and primary populations, standardized breeds, selected lines, varieties, strains and any conserved genetic material; all of which are currently categorized as Breeds.\"", "FAO assists countries in implementation of the Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic Resources.", "FAO supports a variety of ''ex situ'' and ''in situ'' conservation strategies including cryoconservation of animal genetic resources.=== Forestry ===One of FAO's strategic goals is the sustainable management of the world's forests.", "The ''Forestry Division'' works to balance social and environmental considerations with the economic needs of rural populations living in forest areas.", "FAO serves as a neutral forum for policy dialogue, as a reliable source of information on forests and trees and as a provider of expert technical assistance and advice to help countries develop and implement effective national forest programmes.FAO is both a global clearinghouse for information on forests and forest resources and a facilitator that helps building countries' local capacity to provide their own national forest data.", "In collaboration with member countries, FAO carries out periodic global assessments of forest resources, which are made available through reports, publications and the FAO's Web site.", "The ''Global Forest Resources Assessment'' provides comprehensive reporting on forests worldwide every five years.", "FRA 2020 is the most recent global assessment.", "The results, data and analyses are available online in different formats, including key findings, main report and country reports.", "Every two years, FAO publishes the ''State of the World's Forests'', a major report covering current and emerging issues facing the forestry sector.Since 1947, FAO has published the FAO Yearbook of Forest Products, a compilation of statistical data on basic forest products from over 100 countries and territories of the world.", "It contains data on the volume of production; and the volume, value and direction of trade in forest products.", "''Unasylva'', FAO's peer-reviewed journal on forestry, has been published in English, French and Spanish on a regular basis since 1947, the longest-running multilingual forestry journal in the world.The FAO is an official sponsor of International Day of Forests, on 21 March each year, as proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly on 28 November 2012.Every six years since 1926, FAO and a host member state hold the World Forestry Congress.", "It is a forum for the sharing of knowledge and experience regarding the conservation, management and use of the world's forests, and covers such issues as international dialogue, socio-economic and institutional aspects, and forest policies.The Forestry Department is also organized geographically in several groups covering the whole world's forest ecosystems.", "One of them is the Silva Mediterranean work-group, covering the pan-Mediterranean region.====Tree Cities of the World====At the World Forum on Urban Forests in October 2018, the FAO and the Arbor Day Foundation jointly launched the Tree Cities of the World programme.", "The aim of this programme is to celebrate and recognize cities and towns of all sizes throughout the world which have shown a commitment to maintaining their urban forests.", "From the end of 2019, any municipality which has responsibility for its trees was able to apply to join Tree Cities of the World.", "On 4 February 2020, 59 cities were announced as having achieved the designation of Tree City of the World.", "There were 27 in the United States, with the rest scattered across the world.=== Fisheries ===Ceylon, 1950sThe FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department is defined through its vision and mission statements:* ''Vision'': A world in which responsible and sustainable use of fisheries and aquaculture resources makes an appreciable contribution to human well-being, food security and poverty alleviation.", "* ''Mission'': To strengthen global governance and the managerial and technical capacities of members and to lead consensus-building towards improved conservation and utilization of aquatic resources.The work of the Fisheries and Aquaculture Department centers on the \"Sustainable management and use of fisheries and aquaculture resource,\" embracing normative as well as operational activities, whether implemented from headquarters or from the field.=== Statistics ==='''ESSG''' is an acronym for the '''Global Statistics Service''', the major \"section\" of the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization - Statistics Division.", "It is responsible for updating and disseminating the FAOSTAT report.", "This offers free and easy access to data for 245 countries and 35 regional areas from 1961 through the most recent year available.", "Enhanced features include browsing and analysis of data, an advanced interactive data download, and enhanced data exchange through web services.The Land and Water Division maintains a database of global water statistics, Aquastat.", "The Fisheries and Aquaculture Division maintains a database of global Fisheries and Aquaculture statistics, FishStat." ], [ "Membership", "As of 1 May 2020, the Organization has 194 Member Nations, one Member Organization, and two Associate Members.# Afghanistan# Albania# Algeria# Andorra# Angola# Antigua and Barbuda# Argentina# Armenia# Australia# Austria# Azerbaijan# Bahamas, The# Bahrain# Bangladesh# Barbados# Belarus# Belgium# Belize# Benin# Bhutan# Bolivia# Bosnia and Herzegovina# Botswana# Brazil# Brunei# Bulgaria# Burkina Faso# Burundi# Cambodia# Cameroon# Canada# Cape Verde# Central African Republic# Chad# Chile# China# Colombia# Comoros# Congo, Democratic Republic of the# Congo, Republic of the# Cook Islands# Costa Rica# Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)# Croatia# Cuba# Cyprus# Czech Republic (Czechia)# Denmark# Djibouti# Dominica# Dominican Republic# Ecuador# Egypt# El Salvador# Equatorial Guinea# Eritrea# Estonia# Eswatini (Swaziland)# Ethiopia# European Union# Faroe Islands# Fiji# Finland# France (French Republic)# Gabon# Gambia, The# Georgia# Germany# Ghana# Greece# Grenada# Guatemala# Guinea# Guinea-Bissau# Guyana# Haiti# Honduras# Hungary# Iceland# India# Indonesia# Iran# Iraq# Ireland# Israel# Italy# Jamaica# Japan# Jordan# Kazakhstan# Kenya# Kiribati# Korea, Democratic People's Republic of# Korea, Republic of# Kuwait# Kyrgyzstan# Laos# Latvia# Lebanon# Lesotho# Liberia# Libya# Lithuania# Luxembourg# Madagascar# Malawi# Malaysia# Maldives# Mali# Malta# Marshall Islands# Mauritania# Mauritius# Mexico# Micronesia, Federated States of# Moldova# Monaco# Mongolia# Montenegro# Morocco# Mozambique# Myanmar (Burma)# Namibia# Nauru# Nepal# Netherlands# New Zealand# Nicaragua# Niger# Nigeria# Niue# North Macedonia# Norway# Oman# Pakistan# Palau# Panama# Papua New Guinea# Paraguay# Peru# Philippines# Poland# Portugal# Qatar# Romania# Russian Federation# Rwanda# Saint Kitts and Nevis# Saint Lucia# Saint Vincent and the Grenadines# Samoa# San Marino# São Tomé and Príncipe# Saudi Arabia# Senegal# Serbia# Seychelles# Sierra Leone# Singapore# Slovakia# Slovenia# Solomon Islands# Somalia# South Africa# South Sudan# Spain# Sri Lanka# Sudan# Suriname# Sweden# Switzerland# Syria# Tajikistan# Tanzania# Thailand# Timor-Leste (East Timor)# Togo# Tokelau# Tonga# Trinidad and Tobago# Tunisia# Turkey# Turkmenistan# Tuvalu# Uganda# Ukraine# United Arab Emirates# United Kingdom# United States# Uruguay# Uzbekistan# Vanuatu# Venezuela# Vietnam# Yemen# Zambia# Zimbabwe Taiwan (at the time representing China), withdrew from the FAO in 1951.in 1971, the People's Republic of China was recognized as the representative of China by the FAO and the withdrawal from part of Taiwan was not taken into account.The only UN member state that is a non-member of the FAO is Liechtenstein.Both UN observer states are also non-members of the FAO: the Holy See (Vatican City) and Palestine.Some countries may denote specific representatives to the FAO, for instance the United States Ambassador to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, who has ambassador rank and is also a part of the United States Mission to the UN Agencies in Rome." ], [ "Criticism", "===1970s, 80s, 90s===There has been public criticism of FAO for at least 30 years.", "Dissatisfaction with the organization's performance was among the reasons for the creation of two new organizations after the World Food Conference in 1974, namely the World Food Council and the International Fund for Agricultural Development; by the early eighties there was intense rivalry among these organizations.", "At the same time, the World Food Programme, which started as an experimental three-year programme under FAO, was growing in size and independence, with the Directors of FAO and WFP struggling for power.Early in 1989, the organization came under attack from Heritage Foundation, an American conservative think tank, which described the FAO as becoming \"essentially irrelevant in combating hunger\" due to a \"bloated bureaucracy known for the mediocrity of its work and the inefficiency of its staff\", which had become politicized.", "In September of the same year, the journal ''Society'' published a series of articles about FAO that included a contribution from the Heritage Foundation and a response by FAO staff member, Richard Lydiker, who was later described by the Danish Minister for Agriculture (who had herself resigned from the organization) as \"FAO's chief spokesman for non-transparency\".In 1990, the U.S. State Department expressed the view that \"The Food and Agriculture Organization has lagged behind other UN organizations in responding to US desires for improvements in program and budget processes to enhance value for money spent\".A year later, in 1991, ''The Ecologist'' magazine produced a special issue under the heading \"The UN Food and Agriculture Organization: Promoting World Hunger\".", "The magazine included articles that questioned FAO's policies and practices in forestry, fisheries, aquaculture, and pest control.", "The articles were written by experts such as Helena Norberg-Hodge, Vandana Shiva, Edward Goldsmith, Miguel A. Altieri and Barbara Dinham.=== 2000s ===The 2002 Food Summit organized by FAO was considered to have been ineffectual and unproductive by the official participants.", "Social movements, farmers, fisherfolk, pastoralists, indigenous peoples, environmentalists, women's organizations, trade unions and NGOs expressed their \"collective disappointment in, and rejection of the official Declaration of the ...", "Summit\".In 2004, FAO produced a controversial report called \"Agricultural Biotechnology: meeting the needs of the poor?", "\", which claimed that \"agricultural biotechnology has real potential as a new tool in the war on hunger\".", "In response to the report, more than 650 organizations from around the world signed an open letter in which they said \"FAO has broken its commitment to civil society and peasants' organisations\".", "The letter complained that organizations representing the interests of farmers had not been consulted, that FAO was siding with the biotechnology industry and, consequently, that the report \"raises serious questions about the independence and intellectual integrity of an important United Nations agency\".", "Jacques Diouf, the Director General of FAO at that time, responded immediately, stating that decisions on biotechnology must \"be taken at the international level by competent bodies\" (in other words, not by non-governmental organizations).", "He acknowledged, however, that \"biotechnology research is essentially driven by the world's top ten transnational corporations\" and \"the private sector protects its results with patents in order to earn from its investment and it concentrates on products that have no relevance to food in developing countries\".In May 2006, a British newspaper published the resignation letter of Louise Fresco, one of eight Assistant Directors-General of FAO.", "In her letter, Fresco stated that \"the Organization has been unable to adapt to a new era\", that its \"contribution and reputation have declined steadily\" and \"its leadership has not proposed bold options to overcome this crisis\".The 32nd Session of FAO's Committee on World Food Security in 2006, attended by 120 countries, was widely criticized by non-governmental organizations, but largely ignored by the mainstream media.", "Oxfam called for an end to the talk-fests while Via Campesina issued a statement that criticised FAO's policy of Food Security.On 18 October 2007, the final report of an Independent External Evaluation of FAO was published.", "More than 400 pages in length, the evaluation was the first of its kind in the history of the Organization.", "It had been commissioned by decision of the 33rd Session of the FAO Conference in November 2005.The report concluded that \"The Organization is today in a financial and programme crisis\" but \"the problems affecting the Organization today can all be solved\".", "Among the problems noted by the IEE were: \"The Organization has been conservative and slow to adapt\"; \"FAO currently has a heavy and costly bureaucracy\", and \"The capacity of the Organization is declining and many of its core competencies are now imperilled\".", "Among the solutions offered were: \"A new Strategic Framework\", \"institutional culture change and reform of administrative and management systems\".", "In conclusion the IEE stated that, \"If FAO did not exist it would need to be invented\".The official response from FAO came on 29 October 2007.It indicated that management supported the principal conclusion in the report of the IEE on the need for \"reform with growth\" so as to have an FAO \"fit for this century\".", "Meanwhile, hundreds of FAO staff signed a petition in support of the IEE recommendations, calling for \"a radical shift in management culture and spirit, depoliticization of appointments, restoration of trust between staff and management, and setting strategic priorities of the organization\".In May 2008, while talking about the ongoing world food crisis, President Abdoulaye Wade of Senegal expressed the opinion that FAO was \"a waste of money\" and that \"we must scrap it\".", "Wade said that FAO was itself largely to blame for the price rises, and that the organization's work was duplicated by other bodies that operated more efficiently, like the UN's International Fund for Agricultural Development.", "However, this criticism may have had more to do with personal animosity between the President and the Director-General, himself a Senegalese, particularly in light of the significant differences in the work carried out by the two organizations.In June 2008, the FAO sponsored the High-Level Conference on World Food Security.", "The summit was notable for the lack of agreement over the issue of biofuels.", "The response to the summit among non-governmental organizations was mixed, with Oxfam stating that \"the summit in Rome was an important first step in tackling the food crisis but greater action is now needed\", while Maryam Rahmanian of Iran's Centre for Sustainable Development said \"We are dismayed and disgusted to see the food crisis used to further the policies that have led us to the food crisis in the first place\".", "As with previous food summits, civil society organizations held a parallel meeting and issued their own declaration to \"reject the corporate industrial and energy-intensive model of production and consumption that is the basis of continuing crises.", "\"In November 2008, a Special Conference of FAO member countries agreed a US$42.6 million (€38.6 million), three-year Immediate Plan of Action for \"reform with growth\", as recommended by the IEE.", "Under the plan US$21.8 million would be spent on overhauling the financial procedures, hierarchies and human resources management.=== 2010s ===From 2013, an English-language newspaper based in Rome, ''The Italian Insider'', made several allegations of nepotism and corruption within FAO and reported on poor management-staff relations.", "In June 2018, FAO and four of its officials took the paper and its editor, John Philips, to court alleging defamation, using a law dating back to the fascist era in Italy.", "Reporters Without Borders condemned \"the disproportionate nature of the defamation proceedings\", for which the newspaper was liable for a fine of up to Euros 100,000 and the editor at least three years in prison.", "The case was adjourned until January 2019, when it was further adjourned until May 2019.The January hearing was considered by the British satirical magazine ''Private Eye'' to have been \"one of the more surreal courtroom scenes in modern times\", involving dispute as to the meaning of an English slang word used by the ''Insider''.In 2016/17 FAO was heavily criticized for recruiting Nadine Heredia Alarcón de Humala, wife of the former president of Peru, Ollanta Humala, to a senior position, at a time when she was being investigated by Peru following corruption allegations.", "Critics included Transparency International.At the end of April 2017, FAO staff unions addressed the organization's Governing Council to complain about the practice of issuing short-term contracts that \"exploit employees without providing job security, social security and paid leave\".", "Other complaints included the increasing centralization of management processes, despite claims that FAO was being decentralized, and the failure to follow United Nations recommendations regarding increasing the retirement age.", "The staff representative also complained about the high percentage of unfilled positions, increasing the workload for others who were under pressure to deliver more with less.", "She also noted that contacts between Management and the staff bodies were becoming less and less frequent.=== 2020s ===An investigation by the German public broadcaster ARD shows that the Chinese leadership of the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation FAO has tailored it to Chinese interests since Qu Dongyu took office in 2019.According to the report, the acting director-general has instrumentalized the FAO in Beijing's interests: It is about deliveries of pesticides banned in Europe, the majority of which come from the Chinese agrochemical company Syngenta, UN projects in line with China's \"Belt and Road Initiatice\" as well as questionable investment projects." ], [ "FAO renewal", "The FAO Conference in November 2007 unanimously welcomed the IEE report and established a Conference Committee for the Follow-up to the Independent External Evaluation of FAO (CoC-IEE) to be chaired by the Independent Chairperson of Council, and open to full participation by all Members.", "The CoC-IEE was charged to review the IEE report and its recommendations and develop an Immediate Plan of Action (IPA) for their implementation.A comprehensive programme of organizational reform and culture change began in 2008 after the release of an Independent External Evaluation.", "Headquarters restructuring and delegation of decision making created a flatter more responsive structure and reduced costs.", "Modernizing and streamlining of administrative and operational processes took place.", "Improved internal teamwork and closer external partnerships coupled with upgrading of IT infrastructure and greater autonomy of FAO's decentralized offices now allows the Organization to respond quickly where needs are greatest.", "As FAO is primarily a knowledge based organization, investing in human resources is a top priority.", "Capacity building including a leadership programme, employee rotation and a new junior professional programme were established.", "Individual performance management, an ethics and ombudsman officer and an independent office of evaluation were designed to improve performance through learning and strengthened oversight.In January 2012, the Director-General José Graziano da Silva acted upon the commitment made during his campaign to bring the FAO reform to a successful and anticipated completion.", "In addition, the new Director-General shifted the focus of the reform process to realization of its benefits and mainstreaming the reform into the work of the Organization.In July 2020, the FAO Council approved a series of measures proposed by its Director-General Qu Dongyu to modernize the organisation and make it more efficient and effective.", "An important element within the approved measures is the adoption \"of a more flexible organizational structure, aimed at ensuring agility, optimal cross-sectoral collaboration and better responses to emerging needs and priorities\"." ], [ "See also", "* FAO Country Profiles* Regional Animal Health Center for North Africa* World Food Day* World Summit on Food Security 2009* World Programme for the Census of Agriculture* World Vegetable Center" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Story of the FAO Library: 65th Anniversary, 1952–2017'' (Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization, 2017).", "* \"Confronting a Hungry World: The United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization in a Historical Perspective\".", "Special Issue of ''International History Review'' 41:2 (2019): 345–458.DOI: Revisiting the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): International Histories of Agriculture, Nutrition,and Development online review * Abbott, John Cave.", "''Politics and Poverty: A Critique of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations'' (Routledge, 1992).", "* Hambidge, Gove.", "''The Story of FAO'' (1955)* Jachertz, Ruth.", "\"'To Keep Food Out of Politics': The UN Food and Agriculture Organization, 1945–1965\", in ''International Organizations and Development, 1945–1990,'' eds.", "Marc Frey, Sönke Kunkel and Corinna R. Unger (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 75–100.", "* Pernet, Corinne A., and Amalia Ribi Forclaz.", "\"Revisiting the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): International Histories of Agriculture, Nutrition, and Development\", ''International History Review'' 41:2 (2019): 345–350, historiography.", "* Pernet, Corinne A.", "\"FAO from the Field and from Below: Emma Reh and the Challenges of Doing Nutrition Work in Central America.\"", "''International History Review'' 41.2 (2019): 391–406.", "* Ribi Forclaz, Amalia.", "\"From Reconstruction to Development: The Early Years of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the Conceptualization of Rural Welfare, 1945–1955.\"", "''International History Review'' 41.2 (2019): 351–371.", "* Siegel, Benjamin.", "\"'The Claims of Asia and the Far East': India and the FAO in the Age of Ambivalent Internationalism.\"", "''International History Review'' 41.2 (2019): 427–450.", "* Staples, Amy L.S.", "''The Birth of Development: How the World Bank, Food and Agriculture Organization, and World Health Organization Changed the World, 1945–1965'' (Kent State University Press, 2006).", "* Tracy, Sarah W. \"A global journey–Ancel Keys, the FAO, and the rise of transnational heart disease epidemiology, 1949–1958.\"", "''International History Review'' 41.2 (2019): 372–390.", "* Maunder, Mike.", "\"Plant Conservation\".", "Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, vol.", "6, 2013, pp.", "76–89." ], [ "External links", "* * Aquastat, FAO database of global water usage" ] ]
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[ [ "FAO (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''FAO''', or the Food and Agriculture Organization, is an agency of the United Nations.", "'''FAO''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "*Fao, Iraq**Fao Peninsula*Fão, Portugal*Faro Airport, in Portugal, airport code FAO" ], [ "Military and insurgents", "*Al-Fao, an Iraqi artillery system*Western Armed Forces (French: ''''), a Chadian insurgent group* Fusil ametrallador Oviedo, a Spanish light machine gun" ], [ "Professions", "*Flight Activities Officer, a NASA flight controller*Foreign area officer of the United States Armed Forces" ], [ "Other uses", "*Fao (god), a god of Niue*Fao festival, in Ghana*FAO Schwarz, an American toy retailer*Faroese language, language code Fao*Football Association of Odisha, in India" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Félix Guattari" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Pierre-Félix Guattari''' ( , ; 30 March 1930 – 29 August 1992) was a French psychoanalyst, political philosopher, semiotician, social activist, and screenwriter.", "He co-founded schizoanalysis with Gilles Deleuze, and ecosophy with Arne Næss, and is best known for his literary and philosophical collaborations with Deleuze, most notably ''Anti-Oedipus'' (1972) and ''A Thousand Plateaus'' (1980), the two volumes of their theoretical work ''Capitalism and Schizophrenia''." ], [ "Biography", "===Clinic of La Borde===Guattari was born in Villeneuve-les-Sablons, a working-class suburb of northwest Paris, France.", "His father was a factory manager and he was engaged in Trotskyist political activism as a teenager, before studying and training under (and being analyzed by) the French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan in the early 1950s.", "Subsequently, he worked all his life at the experimental psychiatric clinic of La Borde under the direction of Lacan's pupil, the psychiatrist Jean Oury.", "He first met Oury at a private psychiatric clinic in Saumery in the Loire region at the suggestion of Oury's brother Fernand, who had been Guattari's high school teacher.", "Guattari followed Oury to La Borde in 1955, two years after it had been established.", "La Borde was a venue for conversation among many students of philosophy, psychology, ethnology, and social work.One particularly novel orientation developed at La Borde consisted of the suspension of the classical analyst/analysand pair in favour of an open confrontation in group therapy.", "In contrast to the Freudian school's individualistic style of analysis, this practice studied the dynamics of several subjects in complex interaction.", "It led Guattari into a broader philosophical exploration of, and political engagement with, a vast array of intellectual and cultural domains (philosophy, ethnology, linguistics, architecture, etc.", ").===1960s to 1970s===From 1955 to 1965, Guattari edited and contributed to ''La Voie Communiste'' (''Communist Way''), a Trotskyist newspaper.", "He supported anti-colonialist struggles as well as the Italian Autonomists.", "Guattari also took part in the G.T.P.S.I., which gathered many psychiatrists at the beginning of the 1960s and created the Association of Institutional Psychotherapy in November 1965.It was at the same time that he founded, along with other militants, the F.G.E.R.I.", "(Federation of Groups for Institutional Study & Research) and its review ''Recherche'' (''Research''), working on philosophy, psychoanalysis, ethnology, education, mathematics, architecture, etc.", "The F.G.E.R.I.", "came to represent aspects of the multiple political and cultural engagements of Guattari: the Group for Young Hispanics, the Franco-Chinese Friendships (in the times of the people's communes), the opposition activities with the wars in Algeria and Vietnam, the participation in the M.N.E.F., with the U.N.E.F., the policy of the offices of psychological academic aid (B.A.P.U.", "), the organization of the University Working Groups (G.T.U.", "), but also the reorganizations of the training courses with the Centers of Training to the Methods of Education Activities (C.E.M.E.A.)", "for psychiatric male nurses, as well as the formation of a Fellowship of Nurses (Amicales d'infirmiers) (in 1958), the studies on architecture and the projects of construction of a day hospital for \"students and young workers\".In 1967, he appeared as one of the founders of OSARLA (Organization of solidarity and Aid to the Latin-American Revolution).", "In 1968, Guattari met Daniel Cohn-Bendit, Jean-Jacques Lebel, and Julian Beck.", "He was involved in the large-scale French protests of May 1968, starting from the Movement of 22 March.", "It was in the aftermath of 1968 that Guattari met Gilles Deleuze at the University of Vincennes.", "Then he began to lay the groundwork for ''Anti-Oedipus'' (1972), which Michel Foucault described as \"an introduction to the non-fascist life\" in his preface to the book.", "In 1970, he created ), which developed the approach explored in the ''Recherches'' journal.", "In 1973, Guattari was tried and fined for committing an \"outrage to public decency\" for publishing an issue of ''Recherches'' on homosexuality.", "In 1977, he created the CINEL for \"new spaces of freedom\" before joining the environmental movement with his \"ecosophy\" in the 1980s.===1980s to 1990s===Grave of Guattari at Père Lachaise Cemetery, ParisGuattari viewed the primary commodity produced under capitalism as subjectivity itself.", "According to Guattari, producing consuming subjects with novel desires satisfiable through continuing purchase of commodities and experiences is the precondition to creating a consumer society.In his last book, ''Chaosmosis'' (1992), Guattari returned to the question of subjectivity: \"How to produce it, collect it, enrich it, reinvent it permanently in order to make it compatible with mutant Universes of value?\"", "This concern runs through all of his works, from ''Psychoanalysis and Transversality'' (a collection of articles from 1957 to 1972), through ''Years of Winter'' (1980–1986) and ''Schizoanalytic Cartographies'' (1989), to his collaboration with Deleuze, ''What is Philosophy?''", "(1991).", "In ''Chaosmosis'', Guattari proposes an analysis of subjectivity in terms of four functors: (1) material, energetic, and semiotic fluxes; (2) concrete and abstract machinic phyla; (3) virtual universes of value; and (4) finite existential territories.", "This scheme attempts to grasp the heterogeneity of components involved in the production of subjectivity, as Guattari understands it, which include both signifying semiotic components as well as \"a-signifying semiological dimensions\" (which work \"in parallel or independently of\" any signifying function that they may have).=== Death and posthumous publications ===On 29 August 1992, two weeks after an interview for the Greek television curated by Yiorgos Veltsos, Guattari died in La Borde from a heart attack.In 1995, the posthumous release of Guattari's ''Chaosophy'' published essays and interviews concerning Guattari's work as director of the experimental La Borde clinic and his collaborations with Deleuze.", "The collection includes essays such as \"Balance-Sheet Program for Desiring Machines,\" cosigned by Deleuze (with whom he coauthored ''Anti-Oedipus'' and ''A Thousand Plateaus''), and \"Everybody Wants To Be a Fascist.\"", "It provides an introduction to Guattari's theories on \"schizoanalysis\", a process that develops Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis but which pursues a more experimental and collective approach towards analysis.In 1996, another collection of Guattari's essays, lectures, and interviews, ''Soft Subversions'', was published, which traces the development of his thought and activity throughout the 1980s (\"the winter years\").", "His analyses of art, cinema, youth culture, economics, and power formations, develop concepts such as \"micropolitics,\" \"schizoanalysis,\" and \"becoming-woman,\" which aim to liberate subjectivity and open up new horizons for political and creative resistance to the standardizing and homogenizing processes of global capitalism (which he calls \"Integrated World Capitalism\") in the \"post-media era.\"", "For example, he used the term \"micropolitics\" to delimit a certain level of observation of social practices (the unconscious economy, where there is a certain flexibility in the expression of desire and institution) and, practically, to define, in a segregated world, the field of intervention of \"people who work to interest themselves in the discourse of the other.\"" ], [ "Works", "===Works translated into English===* Deleuze, Gilles and Félix Guattari.", "1972.''Anti-Oedipus''.", "Trans.", "Robert Hurley, Mark Seem and Helen R. Lane.", "London and New York: Continuum, 2004.Vol.", "1 of ''Capitalism and Schizophrenia''.", "2 vols.", "1972–1980.Trans.", "of ''L'Anti-Oedipe''.", "Paris: Les Editions de Minuit.", ".", "* 1975.", "''Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature''.", "Trans.", "Dana Polan.", "Theory and History of Literature 30.Minneapolis and London: U of Minnesota P, 1986.Trans.", "of ''Kafka: pour une littérature mineure''.", "Paris: Les Editions de Minuit.", ".", "* 1980.", "''A Thousand Plateaus''.", "Trans.", "Brian Massumi.", "London and New York: Continuum, 2004.Vol.", "2 of ''Capitalism and Schizophrenia''.", "2 vols.", "1972–1980.Trans.", "of ''Mille plateaux''.", "Paris: Les Editions de Minuit.", ".", "* 1991.", "''What Is Philosophy?''.", "Trans.", "Graham Burchell and Hugh Tomlinson.", "London and New York: Verso, 1994.Trans.", "of ''Qu'est-ce que la philosophie?''.", "Paris: Les Editions de Minuit.", ".", "* 1979.", "''The Machinic Unconscious: Essays in Schizoanalysis''.", "Trans.", "Taylor Adkins.", "Los Angeles, CA: Semiotext(e), 2011.Trans.", "of ''L'inconscient machinique: Essais de schizo-analyse''.", "Paris: Recherches.", "* 1977.", "''Molecular Revolution: Psychiatry and Politics''.", "Trans.", "Rosemary Sheed.", "Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984..* 1989a.", "''Schizoanalytic Cartographies''.", "Trans Andrew Goffey.", "London and New York: Bloomsbury, 2013.Trans.", "of ''Cartographies schizoanalytiques''.", "Paris: Editions Galilée .", "* 1989b.", "''The Three Ecologies''.", "Trans.", "Ian Pindar and Paul Sutton.", "London and New York: Continuum, 2000.Trans.", "of ''Les trois écologies''.", "Paris: Editions Galilée.", ".", "* 1992.", "''Chaosmosis: An Ethico-Aesthetic Paradigm''.", "Trans.", "Paul Bains and Julian Pefanis.", "Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana UP, 1995.Trans.", "of ''Chaosmose''.", "Paris: Editions Galilee.", ".", "* 1995.", "''Chaosophy (Texts and Interviews 1972 to 1977 )''.", "Ed.", "Sylvère Lotringer.", "Semiotext(e) Foreign Agents Ser.", "New York: Semiotext(e).", ".", "* 1996.", "''Soft Subversions (Texts and Interviews 1977 to 1985)''.", "Ed.", "Sylvère Lotringer.", "Trans.", "David L. Sweet and Chet Wiener.", "Semiotext(e) Foreign Agents Ser.", "New York: Semiotext(e).", ".", "* 1996.", "''The Guattari Reader''.", "Ed.", "Gary Genosko.", "Blackwell Readers ser.", "Oxford and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.", ".", "* 2006.", "''The Anti-Oedipus Papers''.", "Ed.", "Stéphane Nadaud.", "Trans.", "Kélina Gotman.", "New York: Semiotext(e).", ".", "* 2015.", "''Lines of Flight: For Another World of Possibilities''.", "Bloomsbury Academic.", ".", "* 2015.", "''Machinic Eros: Writings on Japan''.", "Eds.", "Gary Genosko and Jay Hetrick.", "Univocal Publishing.", ".", "* 2015.", "''Psychoanalysis and Transversality: Texts and Interviews 1955–1971''.", "MIT Press.", "* Guattari, Félix, and Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva.", "2003.", "''The Party Without Bosses: Lessons on Anti-Capitalism From Guattari and Lula''.", "Ed.", "Gary Genosko.", "Arbeiter Ring Publishing.", ".", "* Guattari, Félix and Toni Negri.", "1985.", "''Communists Like Us: New Spaces of Liberty, New Lines of Alliance''.", "Trans.", "Michael Ryan.", "Semiotext(e) Foreign Agents Ser.", "New York: Semiotext(e), 1990.Trans.", "of ''Nouvelles espaces de liberté''.", "Paris: Bedon.", ".", "* Guattari, Félix, and Suely Rolnik.", "1986.", "''Molecular Revolution in Brazil''.", "New York: Semiotext(e), 2008.Trans.", "of ''Micropolitica: Cartografias do Desejo''.", ".===Untranslated works===Note: Many of the essays found in these works have been individually translated and can be found in the English collections.", "* ''La révolution moléculaire'' (1977, 1980).", "The 1980 version (éditions 10/18) contains substantially different essays from the 1977 version.", "* ''Les années d'hiver, 1980-1985'' (1986).", "* ''Un Amour d'UIQ.", "Scénario pour un film qui manque'', edited and with a visual essay by Graeme Thomson & Silvia Maglioni (Paris, Editions Amsterdam, 2012.The edition contains various screenplays and a selection of unpublished archives)Other collaborations:* ''L'intervention institutionnelle'' (Paris: Petite Bibliothèque Payot, n. 382 - 1980).", "On institutional pedagogy.", "With Jacques Ardoino, G. Lapassade, Gerard Mendel, Rene Lourau.", "* ''Pratique de l'institutionnel et politique'' (1985).", "With Jean Oury and Francois Tosquelles.", "* ''Desiderio e rivoluzione.", "Intervista a cura di Paolo Bertetto'' (Milan: Squilibri, 1977).", "Conversation with Franco Berardi (Bifo) and Paolo Bertetto." ], [ "See also", "*Anti-psychiatry*Critical perspectives on psychoanalysis*Criticism of capitalism*Deinstitutionalisation*Deleuze and Guattari*History of capitalism" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*https://wikimania.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Fr%C3%A9quence_Paris_Plurielle_FPP_radio_issus_de_la_mouvance_Autonome_de_F%C3%A9lix_Guattari#link_esterno* Fractal Ontology (with unpublished, English translations of Guattari and others)* Chimeres site on Guattari (in French)* \"Desire Was Everywhere\" by Adam Shatz, ''London Review of Books'', Vol.", "32 No.", "24 · 16 December 2010" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Filioque" ], [ "Introduction", "The Holy Spirit coming from both the Father and the Son, detail of the Boulbon Altarpiece, .", "Originally from the high altar of the Chapelle Saint-Marcellin, Boulbon, France, now in the Louvre, Paris.''''''", "( ; ), a Latin term meaning \"and from the Son,\" was added to the original Nicene Creed, and has been the subject of great controversy between Eastern and Western Christianity.", "The term refers to the Son, Jesus Christ, with the Father, as the one shared origin of the Holy Spirit.", "It is not in the original text of the Creed, attributed to the First Council of Constantinople (381), which says that the Holy Spirit proceeds \"from the Father\", without additions of any kind, such as \"and the Son\" or \"alone\".In the late 6th century, some Latin Churches added the words \"and from the Son\" () to the description of the procession of the Holy Spirit, in what many Eastern Orthodox Christians have at a later stage argued is a violation of Canon VII of the Council of Ephesus, since the words were not included in the text by either the First Council of Nicaea or that of Constantinople.", "The inclusion was incorporated into the liturgical practice of Rome in 1014, but was rejected by Eastern Christianity.Whether that term is included, as well as how it is translated and understood, can have important implications for how one understands the doctrine of the Trinity, which is central to the majority of Christian churches.", "For some, the term implies a serious underestimation of God the Father's role in the Trinity; for others, its denial implies a serious underestimation of the role of God the Son in the Trinity.The term has been an ongoing source of difference between Eastern Christianity and Western Christianity, formally divided since the East–West Schism of 1054.There have been attempts at resolving the conflict.", "Among the early attempts at harmonization are the works of Maximus the Confessor, who notably was canonized independently by both Eastern and Western churches.", "Differences over this and other doctrines, and mainly the question of the disputed papal primacy, have been and remain the primary causes of the schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Western churches." ], [ "Nicene Creed", "The Nicene Creed as amended by the Second Ecumenical Council held in Constantinople in 381 includes the section:Greek originalLatin translationEnglish translation And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father, who with the Father and the Son is adored and glorified,The controversy arises from the insertion of the word (\"and the Son\") in the line:Greek originalLatin translationEnglish translation who proceeds from the Father ''''''," ], [ "Controversy", "The controversy referring to the term involves four separate disagreements:* Controversy about the term itself* Controversy about the orthodoxy of the doctrine of the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father and the Son, to which the term refers* Controversy about the legitimacy of inserting the term into the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed* Controversy about the authority of the Pope to define the orthodoxy of the doctrine or to insert the term into the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed.Although the disagreement about the doctrine preceded the disagreement about the insertion into the Creed, the two disagreements became linked to the third when the pope approved insertion of the term into the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, in the 11th century.", "Anthony Siecienski writes that \"Ultimately what was at stake was not only God's trinitarian nature, but also the nature of the Church, its teaching authority and the distribution of power among its leaders.", "\"Hubert Cunliffe-Jones identifies two opposing Eastern Orthodox opinions about the ''Filioque'', a \"liberal\" view and a \"rigorist\" view.", "The \"liberal\" view sees the controversy as being largely a matter of mutual miscommunication and misunderstanding.", "In this view, both East and West are at fault for failing to allow for a \"plurality of theologies\".", "Each side went astray in considering its theological framework as the only one that was doctrinally valid and applicable.", "Thus, neither side would accept that the dispute was not so much about conflicting dogmas as it was about different ''theologoumena'' or theological perspectives.", "While all Christians must be in agreement on questions of dogma, there is room for diversity in theological approaches.This view is vehemently opposed by those in Eastern Orthodox Church whom Cunliffe-Jones identifies as holding a \"rigorist\" view.", "According to the standard Eastern Orthodox position, as pronounced by Photius, Mark of Ephesus and 20th century Eastern Orthodox theologians such as Vladimir Lossky, the ''Filioque'' question hinges on fundamental issues of dogma and cannot be dismissed as simply one of different ''theologoumena''.", "Many in the \"rigorist\" camp consider the ''Filioque'' to have resulted in the role of the Holy Spirit being underestimated by the Western Church and thus leading to serious doctrinal error.In a similar vein, Siecienski comments that, although it was common in the 20th century to view the ''Filioque'' as just another weapon in the power struggle between Rome and Constantinople and although this was occasionally the case, for many involved in the dispute, the theological issues outweighed by far the ecclesiological concerns.", "According to Siecienski, the deeper question was perhaps whether Eastern and Western Christianity had wound up developing \"differing and ultimately incompatible teachings about the nature of God\".", "Moreover, Siecienski asserts that the question of whether the teachings of East and West were truly incompatible became almost secondary to the fact that, starting around the 8th or 9th century, Christians on both sides of the dispute began to believe that the differences ''were'' irreconcilable.From the view of the West, the Eastern rejection of the ''Filioque'' denied the consubstantiality of the Father and the Son and was thus a form of crypto-Arianism.", "In the East, the interpolation of the ''Filioque'' seemed to many to be an indication that the West was teaching a \"substantially different faith\".", "Siecienski asserts that, as much as power and authority were central issues in the debate, the strength of emotion rising even to the level of hatred can be ascribed to a belief that the other side had \"destroyed the purity of the faith and refused to accept the clear teachings of the fathers on the Spirit's procession\"." ], [ "History", "===New Testament===It is argued that in the relations between the persons of the Trinity, one person cannot \"take\" or \"receive\" () anything from either of the others except by way of procession.", "Biblical texts such as John 20:22, were seen by Fathers of the Church, especially Athanasius of Alexandria, Cyril of Alexandria and Epiphanius of Salamis as grounds for saying that the Spirit \"proceeds substantially from both\" the Father and the Son.", "Other texts that have been used include Galatians 4:6, Romans 8:9, Philippians 1:19, where the Holy Spirit is called \"the Spirit of the Son\", \"the Spirit of Christ\", \"the Spirit of Jesus Christ\", and texts in the Gospel of John on the sending of the Holy Spirit by Jesus, and John 16:7.Revelation 22:1 states that the river of the Water of Life in Heaven is \"flowing from the throne of God and of the Lamb\", which may be interpreted as the Holy Spirit proceeding from both the Father and the Son.", "Tension can be seen in comparing these two passages:* John 14:26 NASB – 26 \"But the Helper, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in My name, He will teach you all things, and bring to your remembrance all that I said to you.", "\"* John 15:26 NASB – 26 \"When the Helper comes, whom I will send to you from the Father, that is the Spirit of truth who proceeds from the Father, He will testify about Me\"Siecienski asserts that \"the New Testament does not explicitly address the procession of the Holy Spirit as later theology would understand the doctrine\", although there are \"certain principles established in the New Testament that shaped later Trinitarian theology, and particular texts that both Latins and Greeks exploited to support their respective positions vis-à-vis the \".", "In contrast, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen says that Eastern Orthodox believe that the absence of an explicit mention of the double procession of the Holy Spirit is a strong indication that the is a theologically erroneous doctrine.===Church Fathers=======Cappadocian Fathers====Basil of Caesarea wrote: \"Through the one Son the Holy Spirit is joined to the Father\".", "He also said that the \"natural goodness, inherent holiness, and royal dignity reaches from the Father through the only-begotten () to the Spirit\".", "However, Siecienski comments that \"there are passages in Basil that are certainly capable of being read as advocating something like the , but to do so would be to misunderstand the inherently soteriological thrust of his work\".Gregory of Nazianzus distinguished the coming forth () of the Spirit from the Father from that of the Son from the Father by saying that the latter is by generation, but that of the Spirit by procession (), a matter on which there is no dispute between East and West, as shown also by the Latin Father Augustine of Hippo, who wrote that although biblical exegetes had not adequately discussed the individuality of the Holy Spirit:Gregory of Nyssa stated:==== Alexandrian Fathers ====Cyril of Alexandria provides \"a host of quotations that seemingly speak of the Spirit's 'procession' from both the Father and the Son\".", "In these passages he uses the Greek verbs (like the Latin ) and (flow from), not the verb , the verb that appears in the Greek text of the Nicene Creed.Epiphanius of Salamis is stated by Bulgakov to present in his writings \"a whole series of expressions to the effect that the Holy Spirit is from the Father and the Son, out of the Father and the Son, from the Father and out of the Son, from Both, from one and the same essence as the Father and the Son, and so on\".", "Bulgakov concludes: \"The patristic teaching of the fourth century lacks that exclusivity which came to characterize Orthodox theology after Photius under the influence of repulsion from the Filioque doctrine.", "Although we do not here find the pure that Catholic theologians find, we also do not find that opposition to the that became something of an Orthodox or, rather, anti-Catholic dogma.", "\"Regarding the Greek Fathers, whether Cappadocian or Alexandrian, there is, according to Siecienski, no citable basis for the claim historically made by both sides, that they explicitly either supported or denied the later theologies concerning the procession of the Spirit from the Son.", "However, they did enunciate important principles later invoked in support of one theology or the other.", "These included the insistence on the unique hypostatic properties of each Divine Person, in particular the Father's property of being, within the Trinity, the one cause, while they also recognized that the Persons, though distinct, cannot be separated, and that not only the sending of the Spirit to creatures but also the Spirit's eternal flowing forth () from the Father within the Trinity is \"through the Son\" ().==== Latin Fathers ====Siecienski remarked that, \"while the Greek fathers were still striving to find language capable of expressing the mysterious nature of the Son's relationship to the Spirit, Latin theologians, even during Cyril's lifetime, had already found their answer – the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son ().", "The degree to which this teaching was compatible with, or contradictory to, the emerging Greek tradition remains, sixteen centuries later, subject to debate.", "\"Before the creed of 381 became known in the West and even before it was adopted by the First Council of Constantinople, Christian writers in the West, of whom Tertullian (), Jerome (347–420), Ambrose () and Augustine (354–430) are representatives, spoke of the Spirit as coming from the Father and the Son, while the expression \"from the Father through the Son\" is also found among them.In the early 3rd century Roman province of Africa, Tertullian emphasises that Father, Son, and Holy Spirit all share a single divine substance, quality and power, which he conceives of as flowing forth from the Father and being transmitted by the Son to the Spirit.", "Using the metaphor the root, the shoot, and the fruit; the spring, the river, and the stream; and the sun, the ray, and point of light for the unity with distinction in the Trinity, he adds, \"The Spirit, then, is third from God and the Son, ...\"In his arguments against Arianism, Marius Victorinus () strongly connected the Son and the Spirit.In the mid-4th century, Hilary of Poitiers wrote of the Spirit \"coming forth from the Father\" and being \"sent by the Son\"; as being \"from the Father through the Son\"; and as \"having the Father and the Son as his source\"; in another passage, Hilary points to John 16:15 (where Jesus says: \"All things that the Father has are mine; therefore I said that the Spirit shall take from what is mine and declare it to you\"), and wonders aloud whether \"to receive from the Son is the same thing as to proceed from the Father\".In the late 4th century, Ambrose of Milan asserted that the Spirit \"proceeds from () the Father and the Son\", without ever being separated from either.Ambrose adds, \"With You, Almighty God, Your Son is the Fount of Life, that is, the Fount of the Holy Spirit.", "For the Spirit is life ...\"\"None of these writers, however, makes the Spirit's mode of origin the object of special reflection; all are concerned, rather, to emphasize the equality of status of all three divine persons as God, and all acknowledge that the Father alone is the source of God's eternal being.", "\"Pope Gregory I, in Gospel Homily 26, notes that the Son is \"sent\" by the Father both in the sense of an eternal generation and a temporal Incarnation.", "Thus, the Spirit is said to be \"sent\" by the Son from the Father both as to an eternal procession and a temporal mission.", "\"The sending of the Spirit is that procession by which It proceeds from the Father and the Son.\"", "In his ''Moralia in Iob'', initially composed while he was at the imperial court of Constantinople and later edited while Pope of Rome, Gregory wrote, \"But the Mediator of God and men, the Man Christ Jesus, in all things has Him (the Holy Spirit) both always and continually present.", "For the same Spirit even in substance is brought forth from Him (.)", "And thus, though He (the Spirit) abides in the holy Preachers, He is justly said to abide in the Mediator in a special manner, for that in them He abides of grace for a particular object, but in Him He abides substantially for all ends.\"", "Later in the ''Moralia'' (xxx.iv.17), St. Gregory writes of the procession of the Holy Spirit from Father and Son while defending their co-equality.", "Thus, he wrote, \"The Son shews both how He springs from the Father not unequal to Himself, and how the Spirit of Both proceeds coeternal with Both.", "For we shall then openly behold, how That Which Is by an origin, is not subsequent to Him from Whom It springs; how He Who is produced by procession, is not preceded by Those from Whom He proceeded.", "We shall then behold openly how both The One God is divisibly Three Persons and the Three Persons indivisibly One God.", "\"Later in his ''Dialogues'', Gregory I took the doctrine for granted when he quoted John 16:17, and asked: if \"it is certain that the Paraclete Spirit always proceeds from the Father and the Son, why does the Son say that He is about to leave so that the Spirit who never leaves the Son might come?\"", "The text proposes an eternal procession from both Father and the Son by the use of the word \"always\" ().", "Gregory I's use of and is also significant for the divine procession because although the Spirit always proceeds () from the Father and the Son, the Spirit never leaves () the Son by this eternal procession.====Modern Roman Catholic theologians====Yves Congar commented, \"The walls of separation do not reach as high as heaven.\"", "And Aidan Nichols remarked that \"the controversy is, in fact, a casualty of the theological pluralism of the patristic Church\", on the one hand the Latin and Alexandrian tradition, on the other the Cappadocian and later Byzantine tradition.=== Nicene and Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creeds ===First Council of Constantinople with halo-adorned Emperor Theodosius I (miniature in ''Homilies of Gregory Nazianzus'' (879–882), Bibliothèque nationale de France)The original Nicene Creed – composed in Greek and adopted by the first ecumenical council, Nicaea I (325) – ended with the words \"and in the Holy Spirit\" without defining the procession of the Holy Spirit.", "The procession of the Holy Spirit was defined in what is also called the Nicene Creed, or more accurately the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, which was also composed in Greek.Traditionally, the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed is attributed to the First Council of Constantinople of 381, whose participants, primarily Eastern bishops, met, decided issues (legates of Pope Damasus I were present).The Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed is not documented earlier than the Council of Chalcedon (451), which referred to it as \"the creed ... of the 150 saintly fathers assembled in Constantinople\" in its acts.", "It was cited at Chalcedon I on instructions from the representative of the Emperor who chaired the meeting and who may have wished to present it as \"a precedent for drawing up new creeds and definitions to supplement the Creed of Nicaea, as a way of getting round the ban on new creeds in\" Ephesus I canon 7.The Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed was recognized and received by Leo I at Chalcedon I. Scholars do not agree on the connection between Constantinople I and the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, which was not simply an expansion of the Creed of Nicaea, and was probably based on another traditional creed independent of the one from Nicaea.The Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed is roughly equivalent to the Nicene Creed plus two additional articles: one on the Holy Spirit and another about the Church, baptism, and resurrection of the dead.", "For the full text of both creeds, see Comparison between Creed of 325 and Creed of 381.The Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed article professes:It speaks of the Holy Spirit \"proceeding from the Father\" – a phrase based on John 15:26.The Greek word () refers to the ultimate source from which the proceeding occurs, but the Latin verb (and the corresponding terms used to translate it into other languages) can apply also to proceeding through a mediate channel.", "Frederick Bauerschmidt notes that what Medieval theologians disregarded as minor objections about ambiguous terms, was in fact an \"insufficient understanding of the semantic difference\" between the Greek and Latin terms in both the East and the West.", "The West used the more generic Latin term (to move forward; to come forth) which is more synonymous with the Greek term () than the more specific Greek term (, \"to issue forth as from an origin\").", "The West traditionally used one term and the East traditionally used two terms to convey arguably equivalent and complementary meaning, that is, from the Father and from the Son.", "Moreover, the more generic Latin term, , does not have \"the added implication of the starting-point of that movement; thus it is used to translate a number of other Greek theological terms.\"", "It is used as the Latin equivalent, in the Vulgate, of not only , but also , and (four times) and is used of Jesus' originating from God in John 8:42, although at that time Greek was already beginning to designate the Holy Spirit's manner of originating from the Father as opposed to that of the Son ( — being born).=== Third Ecumenical Council ===The third Ecumenical council, Ephesus I (431), quoted the creed in its 325 form, not in that of 381, decreed in Ephesus I canon 7 that:Ephesus I canon 7 was cited at the Second Council of Ephesus (449) and at the Council of Chalcedon (451), and was echoed in the Chalcedon definition.", "This account in the 2005 publication concerning the citing by Eutyches of Ephesus I canon 7 in his defence was confirmed by Stephen H. Webb in his 2011 book ''Jesus Christ, Eternal God''.Ephesus I canon 7, against additions to the Creed of Nicaea, is used as a polemic against the addition of to the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, In any case, while Ephesus I canon 7 forbade setting up a different creed as a rival to that of Nicaea I, it was the creed attributed to Constantinople I that was adopted liturgically in the East and later a Latin variant was adopted in the West.", "The form of this creed that the West adopted had two additions: \"God from God\" () and \"and the Son\" ().", "Strictly speaking, Ephesus I canon 7 applies \"only to the formula to be used in the reception of converts.", "\"Philippe Labbe remarked that Ephesus I canons 7 and 8 are omitted in some collections of canons and that the collection of Dionysius Exiguus omitted all the Ephesus I canons, apparently considered that they did not concern the Church as a whole.=== Fourth Ecumenical Council ===At the fourth ecumenical council, Chalcedon I (451), both the Nicene Creed of 325 and the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, were read, the former at the request of a bishop, the latter, against the protests of the bishops, on the initiative of the emperor's representative, \"doubtless motivated by the need to find a precedent for drawing up new creeds and definitions to supplement the Creed of Nicaea, as a way of getting round the ban on new creeds in\" Ephesus I canon 7.The acts of Chalcedon I defined that:===Possible earliest use in the Creed===Some scholars claim that the earliest example of the clause in the East is contained in the West Syriac recension of the profession of faith of the Church of the East formulated at the Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon in Persia in 410.This council was held some twenty years before the Nestorian Schism that caused the later split between the Church of the East and the Church in the Roman Empire.", "Since wording of that recension (\"who is from the Father and the Son\") does not contain any mention of the term \"procession\" or any of the other particular terms that would describe relations between Father, Son and the Holy Spirit, the previously mentioned claim for the \"earliest use\" of clause is not universally accepted by scholars.", "Furthermore, another recension that is preserved in the East Syriac sources of the Church of the East contains only the phrase \"and in the Holy Spirit\".Various professions of faith confessed the doctrine during the patristic age.", "The (380 or 5th century), a profession of faith attributed to Pseudo-Damasus or Jerome, includes a formula of the doctrine.", "The (400), a profession of faith legislated by the Toledo I synod, includes a formula of the doctrine.", "The Athanasian Creed (5th century), a profession of faith attributed to Pseudo-Athanasius, includes a formula of the doctrine.The generally accepted first found insertion of the term into the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, in Western Christianity, is in acts of the Third Council of Toledo (Toledo III) (589), nearly two centuries later, but it may be a later interpolation.===Procession of the Holy Spirit===As early as the 4th century, a distinction was made, in connection with the Trinity, between the two Greek verbs (the verb used in the original Greek text of the 381 Nicene Creed) and .", "Gregory of Nazianzus wrote: \"The Holy Ghost is truly Spirit, coming forth () from the Father indeed, but not after the manner of the Son, for it is not by Generation but by Procession ()\".That the Holy Spirit \"proceeds\" from the Father and the Son in the sense of the Latin word and the Greek (as opposed to the Greek ) was taught by the early 5th century by Cyril of Alexandria in the East.", "The Athanasian Creed, probably composed as early as the mid 5th-century, and a dogmatic epistle of Pope Leo I, who declared in 446 that the Holy Spirit proceeds from both Father and Son.Although the Eastern Fathers were aware that the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father and the Son was taught in the West, they did not generally regard it as heretical.", "According to Sergei Bulgakov \"a whole series of Western writers, including popes who are venerated as saints by the Eastern church, confess the procession of the Holy Spirit also from the Son; and it is even more striking that there is virtually no disagreement with this theory.\"", "In 447, Leo I taught it in a letter to a Spanish bishop and an anti-Priscillianist council held the same year proclaimed it.", "The argument was taken a crucial step further in 867 by the affirmation in the East that the Holy Spirit proceeds not merely \"from the Father\" but \"from the Father \".The was inserted into the Creed as an anti-Arian addition, by the Third Council of Toledo (589), at which King Reccared I and some Arians in his Visigothic Kingdom converted to orthodox, Catholic Christianity.", "The Toledo XI synod (675) included the doctrine but not the term in its profession of faith.Other Toledo synods \"to affirm Trinitarian consubstantiality\" between 589 and 693.The clause was confirmed by subsequent synods in Toledo and soon spread throughout the West, not only in Spain, but also in Francia, after Clovis I, king of the Salian Franks, converted to Christianity in 496; and in England, where the Council of Hatfield (680), presided over by Archbishop of Canterbury Theodore of Tarsus, a Greek, imposed the doctrine as a response to Monothelitism.However, while the doctrine was taught in Rome, the term was not professed liturgically in the Creed until 1014.In the Vulgate the Latin verb , which appears in the passage of the Creed in Latin, is used to translate several Greek verbs.", "While one of those verbs, , the one in the corresponding phrase in the Creed in Greek, \"was beginning to take on a particular meaning in Greek theology designating the Spirit's unique mode of coming-to-be ... had no such connotations\".Although Hilary of Poitiers is often cited as one of \"the chief patristic source(s) for the Latin teaching on the \", Siecienski says that \"there is also reason for questioning Hilary's support for the as later theology would understand it, especially given the ambiguous nature of (Hilary's) language as it concerns the procession.", "\"However, a number of Latin Church Fathers of the 4th and 5th centuries explicitly speak of the Holy Spirit as proceeding \"from the Father and the Son\", the phrase in the present Latin version of the Nicene Creed.", "Examples are what is called the creed of Pope Damasus I, Ambrose of Milan (\"one of the earliest witnesses to the explicit affirmation of the Spirit's procession from the Father the Son\"), Augustine of Hippo (whose writings on the Trinity \"became the foundation of subsequent Latin trinitarian theology and later served as the foundation for the doctrine of the \").", "and Leo I, who qualified as \"impious\" those who say \"there is not one who begat, another who is begotten, another who proceeded from both \"; he also accepted the Council of Chalcedon, with its reaffirmation of the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, in its original \"from the Father\" form, as much later did his successor Pope Leo III who professed his faith in the teaching expressed by the , while opposing its inclusion in the Creed.Thereafter, Eucherius of Lyon, Gennadius of Massilia, Boethius, Agnellus, Bishop of Ravenna, Cassiodorus, Gregory of Tours are witnesses that the idea that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Son was well established as part of the (Western) Church's faith, before Latin theologians began to concern themselves about the Spirit proceeds from the Son.Pope Gregory I is usually counted as teaching the Spirit's procession from the Son, although Byzantine theologians, quoting from Greek translations of his work rather than the original, present him as a witness against it, and although he sometimes speaks of the Holy Spirit as proceeding from the Father without mentioning the Son.", "Siecienski says that, in view of the widespread acceptance by then that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son, it would be strange if Gregory did not advocate the teaching, \"even if he did not understand the as later Latin theology would – that is, in terms of a 'double procession'.", "\"===\"From the Father through the Son\"===Church Fathers also use the phrase \"from the Father through the Son\".", "Cyril of Alexandria, who undeniably several times states that the Holy Spirit issues from the Father the Son, also speaks of the Holy Spirit coming from the Father the Son, two different expressions that for him are complementary: the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father does not exclude the Son's mediation and the Son receives from the Father a participation in the Holy Spirit's coming.", "Cyril, in his ninth anathema against Nestorius, had stated that the Spirit was Christ's own Spirit, which led Theodoret of Cyrus to question whether Cyril was advocating the idea that \"the Spirit has his subsistence from the Son or through the Son\".", "For Theodoret this idea was both \"blasphemous and impious ... for we believe the Lord who has said: 'the Spirit of Truth who proceeds from the Father...' \".", "Cyril denied that he held this teaching, leading Theodoret to confirm the orthodoxy of Cyril's trinitarian theology, since the Church had always taught that \"the Holy Spirit does not receive existence from or through the Son, but proceeds from the Father and is called the proprium of the Son because of his consubstantiality.", "The phrase \"from the Son or through the Son\" continued to be used by Cyril, albeit in light of the clarification.", "The Roman Catholic Church accepts both phrases, and considers that they do not affect the reality of the same faith and instead express the same truth in slightly different ways.", "The influence of Augustine of Hippo made the phrase \"proceeds from the Father through the Son\" popular throughout the West, but, while used also in the East, \"through the Son\" was later, according to Philip Schaff, dropped or rejected by some as being nearly equivalent to \"from the Son\" or \"and the Son\".", "Others spoke of the Holy Spirit proceeding \"from the Father\", as in the text of the Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan Creed, which \"did not state that the Spirit proceeds from the Father \".===First Eastern opposition===Maximus the ConfessorThe first recorded objection by a representative of Eastern Christianity against the Western belief that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son occurred when Patriarch Paul II of Constantinople () made accusations against either Pope Theodore I () or Pope Martin I () for using the expression.", "Theodore I excommunicated Paul II in 647 for Monothelitism.", "In response to the attack by Paul, Maximus the Confessor, a Greek opponent of Monothelitism, declared that it was wrong to condemn the Roman use of \"and the Son\" because the Romans \"have produced the unanimous evidence of the Latin Fathers, and also of Cyril of Alexandria ... On the basis of these texts, they have shown that they have not made the Son the cause of the Spirit – they know in fact that the Father is the only cause of the Son and the Spirit, the one by begetting and the other by procession – but that they have manifested the procession through him and have thus shown the unity and identity of the essence.\"", "He also indicated that the differences between the Latin and Greek languages were an obstacle to mutual understanding, since \"they cannot reproduce their idea in a language and in words that are foreign to them as they can in their mother-tongue, just as we too cannot do\".===Claims of authenticity===At the end of the 8th and the beginning of the 9th century, the Church of Rome was faced with an unusual challenge regarding the use of Filioque clause.", "Among the Church leaders in Frankish Kingdom of that time a notion was developing that Filioque clause was in fact an authentic part of the original Creed.", "Trying to deal with that problem and its potentially dangerous consequences, the Church of Rome found itself in the middle of a widening rift between its own Daughter-Church in Frankish Kingdom and Sister-Churches of the East.", "Popes of that time, Hadrian I and Leo III, had to face various challenges while trying to find solutions that would preserve the unity of the Church.First signs of the problems were starting to show by the end of the reign of Frankish king Pepin the Short (751–768).", "Use of the clause in the Frankish Kingdom led to controversy with envoys of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine V at the Synod of Gentilly (767).", "As the practice of chanting the interpolated Latin at Mass spread in the West, the became a part of Latin liturgy throughout the Frankish Kingdom.", "The practice of chanting the Creed was adopted in Charlemagne's court by the end of the 8th century and spread through all of his realms, including some northern parts of Italy, but not to Rome, where its use was not accepted until 1014.Serious problems erupted in 787 after the Second Council of Nicaea when Charlemagne accused the Patriarch Tarasios of Constantinople of infidelity to the faith of the First Council of Nicaea, allegedly because he had not professed the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father \"and the Son\", but only \"through the Son\".", "Pope Adrian I rejected those accusations and tried to explain to the Frankish king that pneumatology of Tarasios was in accordance with the teachings of the holy Fathers.", "Surprisingly, efforts of the pope had no effect.The true scale of the problem became evident during the following years.", "The Frankish view of the was emphasized again in the , composed around 791–793.Openly arguing that the word was part of the Creed of 381, the authors of demonstrated not only the surprising lack of basic knowledge but also the lack of will to receive right advice and counsel from the Mother-Church in Rome.", "Frankish theologians reaffirmed the notion that the Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son, and rejected as inadequate the teaching that the Spirit proceeds from the Father .", "That claim was both erroneous and dangerous for the preservation of the unity of the Church.In those days, another theological problem appeared to be closely connected with the use of in the West.", "In the late 8th century, a controversy arose between Bishop Elipandus of Toledo and Beatus of Liébana over the former's teaching (which has been called Spanish Adoptionism) that Christ in his humanity was the adoptive son of God.", "Elipandus was supported by Bishop Felix of Urgel.", "In 785, Pope Hadrian I condemned the teaching of Elipandus.", "In 791, Felix appealed to Charlemagne in defense of the Spanish Adoptionist teaching, sending him a tract outlining it.", "He was condemned at the Synod of Regensburg (792) and was sent to Pope Hadrian in Rome, where he made of profession of orthodox faith, but returned to Spain and there reaffirmed Adoptionism.", "Elipandus wrote to the bishops of the territories controlled by Charlemagne in defence of his teaching, which was condemned at the Council of Frankfurt (794) and at the Synod of Friuli (796).", "The controversy encouraged those who rejected Adoptionism to introduce into the liturgy the use of the Creed, with the , to profess belief that Christ was the Son from eternity, not adopted as a son at his baptism.At the Synod of Friuli, Paulinus II of Aquileia stated that the insertion of in the 381 Creed of the First Council of Constantinople was no more a violation of the prohibition of new creeds than were the insertions into the 325 Creed of the First Council of Nicaea that were done by the First Council of Constantinople itself.", "What was forbidden, he said, was adding or removing something \"craftily ... contrary to the sacred intentions of the fathers\", not a council's addition that could be shown to be in line with the intentions of the Fathers and the faith of the ancient Church.", "Actions such as that of the First Council of Contantinople were sometimes called for in order to clarify the faith and do away with heresies that appear.", "The views of Paulinus show that some advocates of Filioque clause were quite aware of the fact that it actually was not part of the Creed.Political events that followed additionally complicated the issue.", "According to John Meyendorff, and John Romanides the Frankish efforts to get new Pope Leo III to approve the addition of to the Creed were due to a desire of Charlemagne, who in 800 had been crowned in Rome as Emperor, to find grounds for accusations of heresy against the East.", "The Pope's refusal to approve the interpolation of the into the Creed avoided arousing a conflict between East and West about this matter.", "During his reign (), and for another two centuries, there was no Creed at all in the Roman rite Mass.Reasons for the continuing refusal of the Frankish Church to adopt the positions of the Church of Rome on necessity of leaving Filioque outside of Creed remained unknown.", "Faced with another endorsement of the Filioque clause at the Frankish Council of Aachen (809) pope Leo III denied his approval and publicly posted the Creed in Rome without the Filioque, written in Greek and Latin on two silver plaques, in defense of the Orthodox Faith (810) stating his opposition to the addition of the into the Creed.", "Although Leo III did not disapprove the doctrine, the Pope strongly believed the clause should not be included into the Creed.", "In spite of the efforts of the Church of Rome, the acceptance of the Filioque clause in the Creed of the Frankish Church proved to be irreversible.In 808 or 809 apparent controversy arose in Jerusalem between the Greek monks of one monastery and the Frankish Benedictine monks of another: the Greeks reproached the latter for, among other things, singing the creed with the included.", "In response, the theology of the was expressed in the 809 local Council of Aachen (809).===Photian controversy===Around 860 the controversy over the broke out in the course of the disputes between Patriarch Photius of Constantinople and Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople.", "In 867 Photius was Patriarch of Constantinople and issued an ''Encyclical to the Eastern Patriarchs'', and called a council in Constantinople in which he charged the Western Church with heresy and schism because of differences in practices, in particular for the and the authority of the Papacy.", "This moved the issue from jurisdiction and custom to one of dogma.", "This council declared Pope Nicholas anathema, excommunicated and deposed.Photius excluded not only \"and the Son\" but also \"through the Son\" with regard to the eternal procession of the Holy Spirit: for him \"through the Son\" applied only to the temporal mission of the Holy Spirit (the sending in time).", "He maintained that the eternal procession of the Holy Spirit is \"from the Father \".", "This phrase was verbally a novelty, however, Eastern Orthodox theologians generally hold that in substance the phrase is only a reaffirmation of traditional teaching.", "Sergei Bulgakov, on the other hand, declared that Photius's doctrine itself \"represents a sort of novelty for the Eastern church\".", "Bulgakov writes: \"The Cappadocians expressed only one idea: the monarchy of the Father and, consequently, the procession of the Holy Spirit precisely from the Father.", "They never imparted to this idea, however, the exclusiveness that it acquired in the epoch of the Filioque disputes after Photius, in the sense of (from the Father alone)\"; Nichols summarized that, \"Bulgakov finds it amazing that with all his erudition Photius did not see that the 'through the Spirit' of Damascene and others constituted a different theology from his own, just as it is almost incomprehensible to find him trying to range the Western Fathers and popes on his Monopatrist side.", "\"Photius's importance endured in regard to relations between East and West.", "He is recognized as a saint by the Eastern Orthodox Church and his line of criticism has often been echoed later, making reconciliation between East and West difficult.At least three councils – Council of Constantinople (867), Fourth Council of Constantinople (Roman Catholic) (869), and Fourth Council of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox) (879) – were held in Constantinople over the actions of Emperor Michael III in deposing Ignatius and replacing him with Photius.", "The Council of Constantinople (867) was convened by Photius to address the question of Papal Supremacy over all of the churches and their patriarchs and the use of the .The council of 867 was followed by the Fourth Council of Constantinople (Roman Catholic), in 869, which reversed the previous council and was promulgated by Rome.", "The Fourth Council of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox), in 879, restored Photius to his see.", "It was attended by Western legates Cardinal Peter of St Chrysogonus, Paul Bishop of Ancona and Eugene Bishop of Ostia who approved its canons, but it is unclear whether it was ever promulgated by Rome.===Adoption in the Roman Rite===Latin liturgical use of the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed with the added term spread between the 8th and 11th centuries.Only in 1014, at the request of King Henry II of Germany (who was in Rome for his coronation as Holy Roman Emperor and was surprised by the different custom in force there) did Pope Benedict VIII, who owed to Henry II his restoration to the papal throne after usurpation by Antipope Gregory VI, have the Creed with the addition of , sung at Mass in Rome for the first time.", "In some other places was incorporated in the Creed even later: in parts of southern Italy after the Council of Bari in 1098 and at Paris seemingly not even by 1240, 34 years before the Second Council of Lyon defined that the Holy Spirit \"proceeds eternally from the Father and from the Son, not as from two principles but from a single principle, not by two spirations but by a single spiration\".Since then the phrase has been included in the Creed throughout the Latin Church except where Greek is used in the liturgy.Its adoption among the Eastern Catholic Churches (formerly known as Uniate churches) has been discouraged.===East–West controversy===Eastern opposition to the strengthened after the 11th century East–West Schism.", "According to the synodal edict, a Latin anathema, in the excommunication of 1054, against the Greeks included: \"\" (\"as pneumatomachi and theomachi, they have cut from the Creed the procession of the holy Spirit from the Son\").", "The Council of Constantinople, in a synodal edict, responded with anathemas against the Latins:\" (\"And besides all this, and quite unwilling to see that it is they claim that the Spirit proceeds from the Father, not only, but also from the Son – as if they have no evidence of the evangelists of this, and if they do not have the dogma of the ecumenical council regarding this slander.", "For the Lord our God says, \"even the Spirit of truth, which proceeds from the Father (John 15:26)\".", "But parents say this new wickedness of the Spirit, who proceeds from the Father and the Son.", "\")Two councils that were held to heal the break discussed the question.The Second Council of Lyon (1274) accepted the profession of faith of Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos: \"We believe also the Holy Spirit, fully, perfectly and truly God, proceeding from the Father and the Son, fully equal, of the same substance, equally almighty and equally eternal with the Father and the Son in all things.\"", "and the Greek participants, including Patriarch Joseph I of Constantinople sang the Creed three times with the clause.", "Most Byzantine Christians feeling disgust and recovering from the Latin Crusaders' conquest and betrayal, refused to accept the agreement made at Lyon with the Latins.", "Michael VIII was excommunicated by Pope Martin IV in November 1281, and later died, after which Patriarch Joseph I's successor, Patriarch John XI of Constantinople, who had become convinced that the teaching of the Greek Fathers was compatible with that of the Latins, was forced to resign, and was replaced by Patriarch Gregory II of Constantinople, who was strongly of the opposite opinion.Lyons II did not require those Christians to change the recitation of the creed in their liturgy.Lyons II stated \"that the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally from the Father and the Son, not as from two principles, but one, not from two spirations but by only one,\" is \"the unchangeable and true doctrine of the orthodox Fathers and Doctors, both Latin and Greek.\"", "So, it \"condemn and disapprove those who deny that the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally from Father and Son or who assert that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son as from two principles, not from one.", "\"John VIII Palaiologos by Benozzo GozzoliAnother attempt at reunion was made at the 15th century Council of Florence, to which Emperor John VIII Palaiologos, Ecumenical Patriarch Joseph II of Constantinople, and other bishops from the East had gone in the hope of getting Western military aid against the looming Ottoman Empire.", "Thirteen public sessions held in Ferrara from 8 October to 13 December 1438 the question was debated without agreement.", "The Greeks held that any addition whatever, even if doctrinally correct, to the Creed had been forbidden by Ephesus I, while the Latins claimed that this prohibition concerned meaning, not words.During the Council of Florence in 1439, accord continued to be elusive, until the argument prevailed among the Greeks themselves that, though the Greek and the Latin saints expressed their faith differently, they were in agreement substantially, since saints cannot err in faith; and by 8 June the Greeks accepted the Latin statement of doctrine.", "Joseph II died on 10 June.", "A statement on the question was included in the decree of union, which was signed on 5 July 1439 and promulgated the next day – Mark of Ephesus was the only bishop not to sign the agreement.The Eastern Church refused to consider the agreement reached at Florence binding, since the death of Joseph II had for the moment left it without a Patriarch of Constantinople.", "There was strong opposition to the agreement in the East, and when in 1453, 14 years after the agreement, the promised military aid from the West still had not arrived and Constantinople fell to the Turks, neither Eastern Christians nor their new rulers wished union between them and the West.===Councils of Jerusalem, AD 1583 and 1672===The Synod of Jerusalem (1583) condemned those who do not believe the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father alone in essence, and from Father and Son in time.", "In addition, this synod re-affirmed adherence to the decisions of Nicaea I.", "The Synod of Jerusalem (1672) similarly re-affirmed procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father alone.===Reformation===Although the Protestant Reformation challenged a number of church doctrines, they accepted the without reservation.", "However, they did not have a polemical insistence on the Western view of the Trinity.", "In the second half of the 16th century, Lutheran scholars from the University of Tübingen initiated a dialogue with the Patriarch Jeremias II of Constantinople.", "The Tübingen Lutherans defended the arguing that, without it, \"the doctrine of the Trinity would lose its epistemological justification in the history of revelation.\"", "In the centuries that followed, the was considered by Protestant theologians to be a key component of the doctrine of the Trinity, although it was never elevated to being a pillar of Protestant theology.", "Zizioulas characterize Protestants as finding themselves \"in the same confusion as those fourth century theologians who were unable to distinguish between the two sorts of procession, 'proceeding from' and 'sent by'.\"" ], [ "Present position of various churches", "=== Catholic Church ===The Catholic Church holds, as a truth dogmatically defined since as far back as Pope Leo I in 447, who followed a Latin and Alexandrian tradition, that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son.", "It rejects the notion that the Holy Spirit proceeds jointly and equally from two principles (Father and Son) and teaches dogmatically that \"the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally from the Father and the Son, not as from two principles but as from one single principle\".", "It holds that the Father, as the \"principle without principle\", is the first origin of the Spirit, but also that he, as Father of the only Son, is with the Son the single principle from which the Spirit proceeds.It also holds that the procession of the Holy Spirit can be expressed as \"from the Father through the Son\".", "The agreement that brought about the 1595 Union of Brest expressly declared that those entering full communion with Rome \"should remain with that which was handed down to (them) in the Holy Scriptures, in the Gospel, and in the writings of the holy Greek Doctors, that is, that the Holy Spirit proceeds, not from two sources and not by a double procession, but from one origin, from the Father through the Son\".The Catholic Church recognizes that the Creed, as confessed at the First Council of Constantinople, did not add \"and the Son\", when it spoke of the Holy Spirit as proceeding from the Father, and that this addition was admitted to the Latin liturgy between the 8th and 11th centuries.", "When quoting the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, as in the 2000 document ''Dominus Iesus'', it does not include ''Filioque''.", "It views as complementary the Eastern-tradition expression \"who proceeds from the Father\" (profession of which it sees as affirming that the Spirit comes from the Father through the Son) and the Western-tradition expression \"who proceeds from the Father and the Son\", with the Eastern tradition expressing firstly the Father's character as first origin of the Spirit, and the Western tradition giving expression firstly to the consubstantial communion between Father and Son.The monarchy of the Father is a doctrine upheld not only by those who, like Photius, speak of a procession from the Father alone.", "It is also asserted by theologians who speak of a procession from the Father through the Son or from the Father and the Son.", "Examples cited by Siecienski include Bessarion, Maximus the Confessor, Bonaventure, and the Council of Worms (868), The same remark is made by Jürgen Moltmann.", "The Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity (PCPCU) also stated that not only the Eastern tradition, but also the Latin ''Filioque'' tradition \"recognize that the 'Monarchy of the Father' implies that the Father is the sole Trinitarian Cause () or Principle ('''') of the Son and of the Holy Spirit\".The Catholic Church recognizes that, in the Greek language, the term used in the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed (, \"proceeding\") to signify the proceeding of the Holy Spirit cannot appropriately be used with regard to the Son, but only with regard to the Father, a difficulty that does not exist in other languages.", "For this reason, even in the liturgy of Latin Church Catholics, it does not add the phrase corresponding to ''Filioque'' () to the Greek language text of the Creed containing the word .", "Even in languages other than Greek, it encourages Eastern Catholic Churches to omit the ''Filioque'' from their recitation of the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, even in Eastern Catholic liturgies that previously included it.===Anglicanism===The 1978 and 1988 Lambeth Conferences advised the Anglican Communion to omit printing the ''Filioque'' in the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed.", "In 1993, a joint meeting of the Anglican Primates and Anglican Consultative Council, passed a resolution urging Anglican churches to comply with the request to print the liturgical Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed without the ''Filioque'' clause.", "The recommendation was not specifically renewed in the 1998 and 2008 Lambeth Conferences and has not been implemented.In 1985 the General Convention of The Episcopal Church (USA) recommended that the ''Filioque'' clause should be removed from the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, if this were endorsed by the 1988 Lambeth Council.", "Accordingly, at its 1994 General Convention, the Episcopal Church reaffirmed its intention to remove the ''Filioque'' clause from the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed in the next revision of its Book of Common Prayer.", "The Episcopal Book of Common Prayer was last revised in 1979, and has not been revised since the resolution.The Scottish Episcopal Church no longer prints the ''Filioque'' clause in its modern language liturgies.===Protestantism===Among 20th century Protestant theologians, Karl Barth was perhaps the staunchest defender of the ''Filioque'' doctrine.", "Barth was harshly critical of the ecumenical movement which advocated dropping the ''Filioque'' in order to facilitate reunification of the Christian churches.", "Barth's vigorous defense of the ''Filioque'' ran counter to the stance of many Protestant theologians of the latter half of the 20th century who favored abandoning the use of the ''Filioque'' in the liturgy.The Moravian Church has never used the ''Filioque''.===Eastern Orthodoxy===There has never been a specific conciliar statement in the Orthodox Church which defined the ''filioque'' as heresy.The Eastern Orthodox interpretation is that the Holy Spirit originates, has his cause for existence or being (manner of existence) from the Father alone as \"One God, One Father\",Lossky insisted that any notion of a double procession of the Holy Spirit from both the Father and the Son was incompatible with Eastern Orthodox theology.", "For Lossky, this incompatibility was so fundamental that \"whether we like it or not, the question of the procession of the Holy Spirit has been the sole dogmatic grounds of the separation of East and West\".", "Eastern Orthodox scholars who share Lossky's view include Dumitru Stăniloae, John Romanides, Christos Yannaras, and Michael Pomazansky.", "Sergei Bulgakov, however, was of the opinion that the ''Filioque'' did not represent an insurmountable obstacle to reunion of the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches.====Views of Eastern Orthodox saints====Although Maximus the Confessor declared that it was wrong to condemn the Latins for speaking of the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father and the Son, the addition of the ''Filioque'' to the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed was condemned as heretical by other saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church, including Photius the Great, Gregory Palamas and Mark of Ephesus, sometimes referred to as the Three Pillars of Orthodoxy.", "However, the statement \"The Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son\" can be understood in an orthodox sense if it is clear from the context that \"procession from the Son\" refers to the sending forth of the Spirit ''in time'', not to an eternal, double procession within the Trinity itself which gives the Holy Spirit existence or being.", "Hence, in Eastern Orthodox thought, Maximus the Confessor justified the Western use of the ''Filioque'' in a context other than that of the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed.", "and \"defended as a legitimate variation of the Eastern formula that the Spirit proceeds from the Father ''through'' the Son\".", "Saint Theophylact of Ohrid likewise maintained that the difference was linguistic in nature and not really theological, urging a spirit of conciliation on both sides over a matter of customs.According to Metropolitan Hierotheos (Vlachos) of Nafpaktos, an Eastern Orthodox tradition is that Gregory of Nyssa composed the section of the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed referring to the Holy Spirit adopted by the Second Ecumenical Council at Constantinople in 381.Siecienski doubts that Gregory of Nyssa would have endorsed the addition of the ''Filioque'', as later understood in the West, into the Creed, notwithstanding that Gregory of Nyssa reasoned \"there is an eternal, and not simply economic, relationship of the Spirit to the Son\".====Eastern Orthodox view of Roman Catholic theology====Eastern Orthodox theologians (e.g.", "Pomazansky) say that the Nicene Creed as a Symbol of Faith, as dogma, is to address and define church theology specifically the Orthodox Trinitarian understanding of God.", "In the hypostases of God as correctly expressed against the teachings considered outside the church.", "The Father hypostasis of the Nicene Creed is the origin of all.", "Eastern Orthodox theologians have stated that New Testament passages (often quoted by the Latins) speak of the economy rather than the ontology of the Holy Spirit, and that in order to resolve this conflict Western theologians made further doctrinal changes, including declaring all persons of the Trinity to originate in the essence of God (the heresy of Sabellianism).", "Eastern Orthodox theologians see this as teaching of philosophical speculation rather than from actual experience of God via ''theoria''.The Father is the eternal, infinite and uncreated reality, that the Christ and the Holy Spirit are also eternal, infinite and uncreated, in that their origin is not in the ''ousia'' of God, but that their origin is in the hypostasis of God called the Father.", "The double procession of the Holy Spirit bears some resemblance to the teachings of Macedonius I of Constantinople and his sect called the Pneumatomachians in that the Holy Spirit is created by the Son and a servant of the Father and the Son.", "It was Macedonius' position that caused the specific wording of the section on the Holy Spirit by St Gregory of Nyssa in the finalized Nicene creed.The following are some Roman Catholic dogmatic declarations of the ''Filioque'' which are in contention with Eastern Orthodoxy:# The Fourth Council of the Lateran (1215): \"The Father is from no one, the Son from the Father only, and the Holy Spirit equally from both.", "\"# The Second Council of Lyon, session 2 (1274): \" the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally from Father and Son, not as from two principles, but as from one, not by two spirations, but by one only.", "\"# The Council of Florence, session 6 (1439): \"We declare that when holy doctors and fathers say that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father through the Son, this bears the sense that thereby also the Son should be signified, according to the Greeks indeed as cause, and according to the Latins as principle of the subsistence of the Holy Spirit, just like the Father.", "\"# The Council of Florence, session 8 in ''Laetentur Caeli'' (1439), on union with the Greeks: \"The Holy Spirit is eternally from Father and Son; He has his nature and subsistence at once (simul) from the Father and the Son.", "He proceeds eternally from both as from one principle and through one spiration.", "... And, since the Father has through generation given to the only-begotten Son everything that belongs to the Father, except being Father, the Son has also eternally from the Father, from whom he is eternally born, that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Son.", "\"# The Council of Florence, session 11 (1442), in ''Cantate Domino'', on union with the Copts and Ethiopians: \"Father, Son and Holy Spirit; one in essence, three in persons; unbegotten Father, Son begotten from the Father, holy Spirit proceeding from the Father and the Son; ... the Holy Spirit alone proceeds at once from the Father and the Son.", "... Whatever the Holy Spirit is or has, he has from the Father together with the Son.", "But the Father and the Son are not two principles of the Holy Spirit, but one principle, just as the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit are not three principles of creation but one principle.", "\"# In particular the condemnation, made at the Second Council of Lyons, session 2 (1274), of those \"who deny that the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally from the Father and the Son or who assert that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son as from two principles, not from one.", "\"In the judgment of these Orthodox, the Roman Catholic Church is in fact teaching as a matter of Roman Catholic dogma that the Holy Spirit derives his origin and being (equally) from both the Father and the Son, making the ''Filioque'' a double procession..They perceive the West as teaching through more than one type of theological ''Filioque'' a different origin and cause of the Holy Spirit; that through the dogmatic Roman Catholic ''Filioque'' the Holy Spirit is subordinate to the Father and the Son and not a free, independent and equal to the Father hypostasis that receives his uncreatedness from the origin of all things, the Father hypostasis.", "Trinity expresses the idea of message, messenger and revealer, or mind, word and meaning.", "Eastern Orthodox Christians believe in one God the Father, whose person is uncaused and unoriginate, who, because He is love and communion, always exists with His Word and Spirit.====Eastern Orthodox theology====In Eastern Orthodox Christianity theology starts with the Father hypostasis, not the essence of God, since the Father is the God of the Old Testament.", "The Father is the origin of all things and this is the basis and starting point of the Orthodox trinitarian teaching of one God in Father, one God, of the essence of the Father (as the uncreated comes from the Father as this is what the Father is).", "In Eastern Orthodox theology, God's uncreatedness or being or essence in Greek is called ''ousia''.", "Jesus Christ is the Son (God Man) of the uncreated Father (God).", "The Holy Spirit is the Spirit of the uncreated Father (God).God has existences (hypostases) of being; this concept is translated as the word \"person\" in the West.", "Each hypostasis of God is a specific and unique existence of God.", "Each has the same essence (coming from the origin, without origin, Father (God) they are uncreated).", "Each specific quality that constitutes an hypostasis of God, is non-reductionist and not shared.", "The issue of ontology or being of the Holy Spirit is also complicated by the ''Filioque'' in that the Christology and uniqueness of the hypostasis of Jesus Christ would factor into the manifestation of the Holy Spirit.", "In that Jesus is both God and Man, which fundamentally changes the hypostasis or being of the Holy Spirit, as Christ would be giving to the Holy Spirit an origin or being that was both God the Father (Uncreated) and Man (createdness).The immanence of the Trinity that was defined in the finalized Nicene Creed.", "The economy of God, as God expresses himself in reality (his energies) was not what the Creed addressed directly.", "The specifics of God's interrelationships of his existences, are not defined within the Nicene Creed.", "The attempt to use the Creed to explain God's energies by reducing God existences to mere energies (actualities, activities, potentials) could be perceived as the heresy of semi-Sabellianism by advocates of Personalism, according to Meyendorff.", "Eastern Orthodox theologians have complained about this problem in the Roman Catholic dogmatic teaching of ''actus purus''.==== Modern theology ====Modern Orthodox theological scholarship is split, according to William La Due, between a group of scholars that hold to a \"strict traditionalism going back to Photius\" and other scholars \"not so adamantly opposed to the ''filioque''\".", "The \"strict traditionalist\" camp is exemplified by the stance of Lossky who insisted that any notion of a double procession of the Holy Spirit from both the Father and the Son was incompatible with Orthodox theology.", "For Lossky, this incompatibility was so fundamental that, \"whether we like it or not, the question of the procession of the Holy Spirit has been the sole dogmatic grounds of the separation of East and West\".", "Bulgakov, however, was of the opinion that the ''Filioque'' did not represent an insurmountable obstacle to reunion of the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches, an opinion shared by .Not all Orthodox theologians share the view taken by Lossky, Stăniloae, Romanides and Pomazansky, who condemn the ''Filioque''.", "Kallistos Ware considers this the \"rigorist\" position within the Orthodox Church.", "Ware states that a more \"liberal\" position on this issue \"was the view of the Greeks who signed the act of union at Florence.", "It is a view also held by many Orthodox at the present time\".", "He writes that \"according to the 'liberal' view, the Greek and the Latin doctrines on the procession of the Holy Spirit may both alike be regarded as theologically defensible.", "The Greeks affirm that the Spirit proceeds from the Father ''through'' the Son, the Latins that He proceeds from the Father ''and'' from the Son; but when applied to the relationship between Son and Spirit, these two prepositions 'through' and 'from' amount to the same thing.\"", "The ''Encyclopedia of Christian Theology'' lists Bolotov, Paul Evdokimov, I. Voronov and S. Bulgakov as seeing the ''Filioque'' as a permissible theological opinion or \"theologoumenon\".", "Bolotov defined theologoumena as theological opinions \"of those who for every catholic are more than just theologians: they are the theological opinions of the holy fathers of the one undivided church\", opinions that Bolotov rated highly but that he sharply distinguished from dogmas.Bulgakov wrote, in ''The Comforter'', that:Karl Barth considered that the view prevailing in Eastern Orthodoxy was that of Bolotov, who pointed out that the Creed does not deny the ''Filioque'' and who concluded that the question had not caused the division and could not constitute an absolute obstacle to intercommunion between the Eastern Orthodox and the Old Catholic Church.", "David Guretzki wrote, in 2009, that Bolotov's view is becoming more prevalent among Orthodox theologians; and he quotes Orthodox theologian Theodore Stylianopoulos as arguing that \"the theological use of the ''filioque'' in the West against Arian subordinationism is fully valid according to the theological criteria of the Eastern tradition\".Yves Congar stated in 1954 that \"the greater number of the Orthodox say that the ''Filioque'' is not a heresy or even a dogmatic error but an admissible theological opinion, a 'theologoumenon; and he cited 12th century bishop Nicetas of Nicomedia; 19th century philosopher Vladimir Solovyov; and 20th century writers Bolotov, Florovsky, and Bulgakov.===Oriental Orthodox Churches===All Oriental Orthodox Churches (Coptic, Syriac, Armenian, Ethiopian, Eritrean, Malankaran) use the original Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, without the Filioque clause.===Church of the East===Two of the present-day churches derived from the Church of the East, the Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East, do not use \"and the Son\" when reciting the Nicene Creed.", "A third, the Chaldean Catholic Church, a ''sui iuris'' Eastern Catholic Church, in 2007 at the request of the Holy See, removed \"and the Son\" from its version of the Nicene Creed." ], [ "Recent theological perspectives", "===Linguistic issues===Ware suggests that the problem is of semantics rather than of basic doctrinal differences.", "The English Language Liturgical Consultation commented that \"those who strongly favor retention of the ''Filioque'' are often thinking of the Trinity as revealed and active in human affairs, whereas the original Greek text is concerned about relationships within the Godhead itself.", "As with many historic disputes, the two parties may not be discussing the same thing.", "\"In 1995, the pointed out an important difference in meaning between the Greek verb and the Latin verb '''', both of which are commonly translated as \"proceed\".", "It stated that the Greek verb indicates that the Spirit \"takes his origin from the Father ... in a principal, proper and immediate manner\", while the Latin verb, which corresponds rather to the verb in Greek, can be applied to proceeding even from a mediate channel.", "Therefore, (\"who proceeds\"), used in the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed to signify the proceeding of the Holy Spirit, cannot be appropriately used in the Greek language with regard to the Son, but only with regard to the Father, a difficulty that does not exist in Latin and other languages.Metropolitan John Zizioulas, while maintaining the explicit Orthodox position of the Father as the single origin and source of the Holy Spirit, declared that shows positive signs of reconciliation.", "Zizioulas states: \"Closely related to the question of the single cause is the problem of the exact meaning of the Son's involvement in the procession of the Spirit.", "Gregory of Nyssa explicitly admits a 'mediating' role of the Son in the procession of the Spirit from the Father.", "Is this role to be expressed with the help of the preposition (through) the Son (), as Maximus and other Patristic sources seem to suggest?\"", "Zizioulas continues: \"The Vatican statement notes that this is 'the basis that must serve for the continuation of the current theological dialogue between Catholic and Orthodox'.", "I would agree with this, adding that the discussion should take place in the light of the 'single cause' principle to which I have just referred.\"", "Zizioulas adds that this \"constitutes an encouraging attempt to clarify the basic aspects of the 'Filioque' problem and show that a rapprochement between West and East on this matter is eventually possible\".===Some Orthodox reconsideration of the ''Filioque''===Russian theologian Boris Bolotov asserted in 1898 that the ''Filioque'', like Photius's \"from the Father ''alone''\", was a permissible theological opinion (a theologoumenon, not a dogma) that cannot be an absolute impediment to reestablishment of communion.", "Bolotov's thesis was supported by Orthodox theologians Bulgakov, Paul Evdokimov and I. Voronov, but was rejected by Lossky.In 1986, Theodore Stylianopoulos provided an extensive, scholarly overview of the contemporary discussion.", "Ware said that he had changed his mind and had concluded that \"the problem is more in the area of semantics and different emphases than in any basic doctrinal differences\": \"the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father alone\" and \"the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son\" may ''both'' have orthodox meanings if the words translated \"proceeds\" actually have different meanings.", "For some Orthodox, then, the ''Filioque'', while still a matter of conflict, would not impede full communion of the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches if other issues were resolved.", "But 19th century Russian Slavophile theologian Aleksey Khomyakov considered the ''Filioque'' as an expression of formalism, rationalism, pride and lack of love for other Christians, and that it is in flagrant contravention of the words of Christ in the Gospel, has been specifically condemned by the Orthodox Church, and remains a fundamental heretical teaching which divides East and West.Romanides too, while personally opposing the ''Filioque'', stated that Constantinople I was not ever interpreted \"as a condemnation\" of the doctrine \"outside the Creed, since it did not teach that the Son is 'cause' or 'co-cause' of the existence of the Holy Spirit.", "This could not be added to the Creed where 'procession' means 'cause' of existence of the Holy Spirit.", "\"===Inclusion in the Nicene Creed===Eastern Orthodox Christians object that, even if the teaching of the ''Filioque'' can be defended, its medieval interpretation and unilateral interpolation into the Creed is anti-canonical and unacceptable.", "\"The Catholic Church acknowledges the conciliar, ecumenical, normative and irrevocable value, as expression of the one common faith of the Church and of all Christians, of the Symbol professed in Greek at Constantinople in 381 by the Second Ecumenical Council.", "No profession of faith peculiar to a particular liturgical tradition can contradict this expression of the faith taught and professed by the undivided Church.\"", "The Catholic Church allows liturgical use of the Apostles' Creed as well of the Nicene Creed, and sees no essential difference between the recitation in the liturgy of a creed with orthodox additions and a profession of faith outside the liturgy such that of Patriarch Tarasios of Constantinople, who developed the Nicene Creed with an addition as follows: \"the Holy Spirit, the Lord and giver of life, who proceeds from the Father ''through the Son''\".", "It sees the addition of \"and the Son\" in the context of the Latin '''' (who proceeds from the Father) as an elucidation of the faith expressed by the Church Fathers, since the verb '''' signifies \"the communication of the consubstantial divinity from the Father to the Son and from the Father, through and with the Son, to the Holy Spirit\".Most Oriental Orthodox churches have not added the ''Filoque'' to their creeds but the Armenian Apostolic Church has added elucidations to the Nicene Creed.", "Another change made to the text of the Nicene Creed by both the Latins and the Greeks is to use the singular \"I believe\" in place of the plural \"we believe\", while all the Churches of Oriental Orthodoxy, not only the Armenian, but also the Coptic Orthodox Church, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, the Malankara Orthodox Church, and the Syriac Orthodox Church, have on the contrary preserved the \"we believe\" of the original text.===Focus on Saint Maximus as a point of mutual agreement===Recently, theological debate about the ''Filioque'' has focused on the writings of Maximus the Confessor.", "Siecienski writes that \"Among the hundreds of figures involved in the filioque debates throughout the centuries, Maximus the Confessor enjoys a privileged position.\"", "During the lengthy proceedings at Ferrara-Florence, the Orthodox delegates presented a text from Maximus the Confessor that they felt could provide the key to resolving the theological differences between East and West.The states that, according to Maximus, the phrase \"and from the Son\" does not contradict the Holy Spirit's procession from the Father as first origin (ἐκπόρευσις), since it concerns only the Holy Spirit's coming (in the sense of the Latin word '''' and Cyril of Alexandria's ) from the Son in a way that excludes any idea of subordinationism.Orthodox theologian and Metropolitan of Pergamon, John Zizioulas, wrote that for Maximus the Confessor \"the Filioque was not heretical because its intention was to denote not the () but the () of the Spirit\".Zizioulas also wrote that \"Maximus the Confessor insisted, however, in defence of the Roman use of the Filioque, the decisive thing in this defence lies precisely in the point that in using the Filioque the Romans do not imply a \"cause\" other than the Father.", "The notion of \"cause\" seems to be of special significance and importance in the Greek Patristic argument concerning the Filioque.", "If Roman Catholic theology would be ready to admit that the Son in no way constitutes a \"cause\" (aition) in the procession of the Spirit, this would bring the two traditions much closer to each other with regard to the Filioque.\"", "This is precisely what Maximus said of the Roman view, that \"they have shown that they have not made the Son the cause of the Spirit – they know in fact that the Father is the only cause of the Son and the Spirit, the one by begetting and the other by procession\".The upholds the monarchy of the Father as the \"sole Trinitarian Cause ''aitia'' or principle ''principium'' of the Son and the Holy Spirit\".", "While the Council of Florence proposed the equivalency of the two terms \"cause\" and \"principle\" and therefore implied that the Son is a cause (''aitia'') of the subsistence of the Holy Spirit, the distinguishes \"between what the Greeks mean by 'procession' in the sense of taking origin from, applicable only to the Holy Spirit relative to the Father (''ek tou Patros ekporeuomenon''), and what the Latins mean by 'procession' as the more common term applicable to both Son and Spirit (''''; ''ek tou Patros kai tou Huiou proion'').", "This preserves the monarchy of the Father as the sole origin of the Holy Spirit while simultaneously allowing for an intratrinitarian relation between the Son and Holy Spirit that the document defines as 'signifying the communication of the consubstantial divinity from the Father to the Son and from the Father through and with the Son to the Holy Spirit'.", "\"Roman Catholic theologian Avery Dulles wrote that the Eastern fathers were aware of the currency of the ''Filioque'' in the West and did not generally regard it as heretical: Some, such as Maximus the Confessor, \"defended it as a legitimate variation of the Eastern formula that the Spirit proceeds from the Father through the Son\".Pomazansky and Romanides hold that Maximus' position does not defend the actual way the Roman Catholic Church justifies and teaches the ''Filioque'' as dogma for the whole church.", "While accepting as a legitimate and complementary expression of the same faith and reality the teaching that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father through the Son, Maximus held strictly to the teaching of the Eastern Church that \"the Father is the only cause of the Son and the Spirit\": and wrote a special treatise about this dogma.", "The Roman Catholic Church cites Maximus as in full accord with the teaching on the ''Filioque'' that it proposes for the whole Church as a dogma that is in harmony with the formula \"from the Father through the Son\", for he explained that, by ''ekporeusis'', \"the Father is the sole cause of the Son and the Spirit\", but that, by , the Greek verb corresponding to '''' (proceed) in Latin, the Spirit comes through the Son.", "Later again the Council of Florence, in 1438, declared that the Greek formula \"from the Father through the Son\" was equivalent to the Latin \"from the Father and the Son\", not contradictory, and that those who used the two formulas \"were aiming at the same meaning in different words\".===''Per Filium''===Recently, some Orthodox theologians have proposed the substitution of the formula ''ex Patre per Filium'' / ''εκ του Πατρός δια του Υιού'' (from the Father through the Son) instead of ''ex Patre Filioque'' (from the Father and the Son)." ], [ "Recent attempts at reconciliation", "Starting in the latter half of the nineteenth century, ecumenical efforts have gradually developed more nuanced understandings of the issues underlying the ''Filioque'' controversy and worked to remove them as an obstruction to Christian unity.", "Lossky insists that the ''Filioque'' is so fundamentally incompatible with Orthodox Christianity as to be the central issue dividing the two churches.Western churches have arrived at the position that, although the ''Filioque'' is doctrinally sound, the way that it was inserted into the Nicene Creed has created an unnecessary obstacle to ecumenical dialogue.", "Thus, without abandoning the ''Filioque'', some Western churches have come to accept that it could be omitted from the Creed without violating any core theological principles.", "This accommodation on the part of Western Churches has the objective of allowing both East and West to once again to share a common understanding of the Creed as the traditional and fundamental statement of the Christian faith.===Old Catholic Church===Immediately after the Old Catholic Church separated from the Catholic Church in 1871, its theologians initiated contact with the Orthodox Church.", "In 1874–75, representatives of the two churches held \"union conferences\" in Bonn with theologians of the Anglican Communion and the Lutheran Church in attendance in an unofficial capacity.", "The conferences discussed a number of issues including the filioque controversy.", "From the outset, Old Catholic theologians agreed with the Orthodox position that the ''Filioque'' had been introduced in the West in an unacceptably non-canonical way.", "It was at these Bonn conferences that the Old Catholics became the first Western church to omit the ''Filioque'' from the Nicene Creed.===Anglican Communion===Three Lambeth Conferences (1888, 1978 and 1988) have recommended that the ''Filioque'' be dropped from the Nicene Creed by churches that belong to the Anglican Communion.The 1930 Lambeth Conference initiated formal theological dialogue between representatives of the Anglican and Orthodox churches.", "In 1976, the Agreed Statement of the Anglican-Orthodox Joint Doctrinal Commission recommended that the ''Filioque'' should be omitted from the Creed because its inclusion had been effected without the authority of an Ecumenical Council.In 1994, the General Convention of the Episcopal Church (US) resolved that the ''Filioque'' should be deleted from the Nicene Creed in the next edition of the Prayer Book.", "The enthronement ceremonies of four recent archbishops of Canterbury (Robert Runcie, George Carey, Rowan Williams, Justin Welby) included recitations of the Nicene Creed that omitted the ''Filioque''; this has been considered to have been \"a gesture of friendship toward Orthodox guests and their Communions\".At the end of October 2017 theologians from the Anglican Communion and Oriental Orthodox Churches signed an agreement on the Holy Spirit.", "This is the culmination of discussions which began in 2015.The statement of agreement confirms the omission of the Filioque clause.===World Council of Churches===In 1979, a study group of the World Council of Churches examined the ''Filioque'' question and recommended that \"the original form of the Creed, without the ''Filioque'', should everywhere be recognized as the normative one and restored, so that the whole Christian people may be able ... to confess their common faith in the Holy Spirit\".", "However, nearly a decade later, the WCC lamented that very few member churches had implemented this recommendation.===Roman Catholic Church===Popes John Paul II and Benedict XVI have recited the Nicene Creed jointly with Patriarchs Demetrius I and Bartholomew I in Greek without the ''Filioque'' clause.===Joint statement of Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic theologians===The ''Filioque'' was discussed at the 62nd meeting of the North American Orthodox–Catholic Theological Consultation, in 2002.As a result of these contemporary discussions between both churches, it has been suggested that the orthodox could accept an \"economic\" filioque that states that the Holy Spirit, who originates in the Father alone, was sent to the Church \"through the Son\" (as the Paraclete), but it would not be the official orthodox doctrine, but what the Fathers called a theologoumenon, a theological opinion.In October 2003, the Consultation issued an agreed statement, ''The Filioque: a Church-dividing issue?", "'', which provides an extensive review of Scripture, history, and theology.", "The recommendations include:# That all involved in such dialogue expressly recognize the limitations of our ability to make definitive assertions about the inner life of God.# That, in the future, because of the progress in mutual understanding that has come about in recent decades, Orthodox and Catholics refrain from labeling as heretical the traditions of the other side on the subject of the procession of the Holy Spirit.# That Orthodox and Catholic theologians distinguish more clearly between the divinity and hypostatic identity of the Holy Spirit (which is a received dogma of our Churches) and the manner of the Spirit's origin, which still awaits full and final ecumenical resolution.# That those engaged in dialogue on this issue distinguish, as far as possible, the theological issues of the origin of the Holy Spirit from the ecclesiological issues of primacy and doctrinal authority in the Church, even as we pursue both questions seriously, together.# That the theological dialogue between our Churches also give careful consideration to the status of later councils held in both our Churches after those seven generally received as ecumenical.# That the Catholic Church, as a consequence of the normative and irrevocable dogmatic value of the Creed of 381, use the original Greek text alone in making translations of that Creed for catechetical and liturgical use.# That the Catholic Church, following a growing theological consensus, and in particular the statements made by Pope Paul VI, declare that the condemnation made at the Second Council of Lyons (1274) of those \"who presume to deny that the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally from the Father and the Son\" is no longer applicable.In the judgment of the consultation, the question of the ''Filioque'' is no longer a \"Church-dividing\" issue, which would impede full reconciliation and full communion.", "It is for the bishops of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches to review this work and to make whatever decisions would be appropriate." ], [ "Summary", "While the Filioque doctrine was traditional in the West, being declared dogmatically in 447 by Pope Leo I, the Pope whose ''Tome'' was approved at the Council of Chalcedon, its inclusion in the Creed appeared in the anti-Arian situation of 7th-century Spain.", "However, this dogma was never accepted in the East.", "The ''Filioque'', included in the Creed by certain anti-Arian councils in Spain, was a means to affirm the full divinity of the Son in relation to both the Father and the Spirit.A similar anti-Arian emphasis also strongly influenced the development of the liturgy in the East, for example, in promoting prayer to \"Christ Our God\", an expression which also came to find a place in the West, where, largely as a result of \"the Church's reaction to Teutonic Arianism\", Christ our God' ... gradually assumes precedence over 'Christ our brother.", "In this case, a common adversary, namely Arianism, had profound, far-reaching effects, in the orthodox reaction in both East and West.Church politics, authority conflicts, ethnic hostility, linguistic misunderstanding, personal rivalry, forced conversions, large scale wars, political intrigue, unfilled promises and secular motives all combined in various ways to divide East and West.The doctrine expressed by the phrase in Latin (in which the word \"procedit\" that is linked with \"Filioque\" does not have exactly the same meaning and overtones as the word used in Greek) is definitively upheld by the Western Church, having been dogmatically declared by Leo I, and upheld by councils at Lyon and Florence that the Western Church recognizes as ecumenical, by the unanimous witness of the Latin Church Fathers (as Maximus the Confessor acknowledged) and even by Popes who, like Leo III, opposed insertion of the word into the Creed.That the doctrine is heretical is something that not all Orthodox now insist on.", "According to Ware, many Orthodox (whatever may be the doctrine and practice of the Eastern Orthodox Church itself) hold that, in broad outline, to say the Spirit proceeds from the Father ''and'' the Son amounts to the same thing as to say that the Spirit proceeds from the Father ''through'' the Son, a view accepted also by the Greeks who signed the act of union at the Council of Florence.", "For others, such as Bolotov and his disciples, the ''Filioque'' can be considered a Western ''theologoumenon'', a theological opinion of Church Fathers that falls short of being a dogma.", "Bulgakov also stated: \"There is no dogma of the relation of the Holy Spirit to the Son and therefore particular opinions on this subject are not heresies but merely dogmatic hypotheses, which have been transformed into heresies by the schismatic spirit that has established itself in the Church and that eagerly exploits all sorts of liturgical and even cultural differences.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Social trinitarianism*Divine filiation" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * – also via '' ccel.org''.", "* * A close examination of Karl Barth's defense of the filioque and why his position is closer to an Eastern perspective than has typically been assumed.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *** * * Chapter was first published in* * * * * ** ** ** * * * * * * * * * * * Also archived as from ''scoba.us''.", "New York: Standing Conference of Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas.", "* * * * * * – also via '' ccel.org''.", "* * * * * * * * * * * – also archived from ''goecities.com'' transcription of * * * * * * * * Transcribed in Commentary on ===Further reading===* Bradshaw, David.", "''Aristotle East and West: Metaphysics and the Division of Christendom''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004, pp. 214–220.", "* Farrell, Joseph P. '' God, History, & Dialectic: The Theological Foundations of the Two Europes and Their Cultural Consequences''.", "Bound edition 1997.Electronic edition 2008.", "* Groppe, Elizabeth Teresa.", "''Yves Congar's Theology of the Holy Spirit''.", "New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.See esp.", "pp.", "75–79, for a summary of Congar's work on the ''Filioque''.", "Congar is widely considered the most important Roman Catholic ecclesiologist of the twentieth century.", "He was influential in the composition of several Vatican II documents.", "Most important of all, he was instrumental in the association in the West of pneumatology and ecclesiology, a new development.", "* Haugh, Richard.", "''Photius and the Carolingians: The Trinitarian Controversy''.", "Belmont, MA: Nordland Publishing Company, 1975.", "* John St. H. Gibaut, \"The ''Cursus Honorum'' and the Western Case Against Photius\", ''Logos'' 37 (1996), 35–73.", "* * Jungmann, Joseph.", "''Pastoral Liturgy''.", "London: Challoner, 1962.See \"Christ our God\", pp. 38–48.", "* Likoudis, James.", "''Ending the Byzantine Greek Schism''.", "New Rochelle, New York: 1992.An apologetic response to polemical attacks.", "A useful book for its inclusion of important texts and documents; see especially citations and works by Thomas Aquinas, O.P., Demetrios Kydones, Nikos A. Nissiotis, and Alexis Stawrowsky.", "The select bibliography is excellent.", "The author demonstrates that the ''Filioque'' dispute is only understood as part of a dispute over papal primacy and cannot be dealt with apart from ecclesiology.", "* Marshall, Bruce D. \"''Ex Occidente Lux?''", "Aquinas and Eastern Orthodox Theology\", ''Modern Theology'' 20:1 (January 2004), 23–50.Reconsideration of the views of Aquinas, especially on deification and grace, as well as his Orthodox critics.", "The author suggests that Aquinas may have a more accurate perspective than his critics, on the systematic questions of theology that relate to the ''Filioque'' dispute.", "* Reid, Duncan.", "''Energies of the Spirit: Trinitarian Models in Eastern Orthodox and Western Theology''.", "Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press, 1997.", "* Smith, Malon H. ''And Taking Bread: Cerularius and the Azyme Controversy of 1054''.", "Paris: Beauschesne, 1978.This work is still valuable for understanding cultural and theological estrangement of East and West by the turn of the millennium.", "Now, it is evident that neither side understood the other; both Greek and Latin antagonists assumed their own practices were normative and authentic.", "* Webb, Eugene.", "''In Search of The Triune God: The Christian Paths of East and West''.", "Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2014.", "* Ware, Timothy (Kallistos).", "''The Orthodox Way''.", "Revised edition.", "Crestwood, New York: 1995, pp.", "89–104." ] ]
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[ [ "FIPS" ], [ "Introduction", "'''FIPS''' or '''Fips''' may refer to:" ], [ "Computing", "*FIPS (computer program), First nondestructive Interactive Partition Splitter, a disk partitioner*Federal Information Processing Standards, United States government standards" ], [ "People", "*Werner Fürbringer (1888–1982), German U-boat commander*Philipp Rupprecht (1900–1975), pen name of the German cartoonist" ], [ "Games", "* Fips or Fipsen, a north German card game." ], [ "See also", "*FIP (disambiguation)* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Federal Information Processing Standards" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Federal Information Processing Standards''' ('''FIPS''') of the United States are a set of publicly announced standards that the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has developed for use in computer systems of non-military United States government agencies and contractors.", "FIPS standards establish requirements for ensuring computer security and interoperability, and are intended for cases in which suitable industry standards do not already exist.", "Many FIPS specifications are modified versions of standards the technical communities use, such as the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)." ], [ "Specific areas of FIPS standardization", "The U.S. government has developed various FIPS specifications to standardize a number of topics including:* Codes, e.g., FIPS county codes or codes to indicate weather conditions or emergency indications.", "In 1994, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) began broadcasting FIPS codes along with their standard weather broadcasts from local stations.", "These codes identify the type of emergency and the specific geographic area, such as a county, affected by the emergency.", "* Encryption standards, such as AES (FIPS 197), and its predecessor, the withdrawn 56-bit DES (FIPS 46-3)." ], [ "Data security standards", "Some FIPS standards are related to the security of data processing systems.", "Some of these include the use of key escrow systems." ], [ "Withdrawal of geographic codes", "Some examples of FIPS Codes for geographical areas include FIPS 10-4 for country codes or region codes and FIPS 5-2 for state codes.", "These codes were similar to or comparable with, but not the same as, ISO 3166, or the NUTS standard of the European Union.", "In 2002, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) withdrew several geographic FIPS code standards, including those for countries (FIPS 10-4), U.S. states (FIPS 5-2), and counties (FIPS 6-4).", "These are to be replaced by ISO 3166 and INCITS standards 38 and 31, respectively.", "Some of the codes maintain the previous numerical system, particularly for states.In 2008, NIST withdrew the FIPS 55-3 database.", "This database included 5-digit numeric place codes for cities, towns, and villages, or other centers of population in the United States.", "The codes were assigned alphabetically to places within each state, and as a result changed frequently in order to maintain the alphabetical sorting.", "NIST replaced these codes with the more permanent GNIS Feature ID, maintained by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names.", "The GNIS database is the official geographic names repository database for the United States, and is designated the only source of geographic names and locative attributes for use by the agencies of the Federal Government.", "FIPS 8-6 \"Metropolitan Areas\" and 9-1 \"Congressional Districts of the U.S.\" were also withdrawn in 2008, to be replaced with INCITS standards 454 and 455, respectively.The U.S. Census Bureau used FIPS place codes database to identify legal and statistical entities for county subdivisions, places, and American Indian areas, Alaska Native areas, or Hawaiian home lands when they needed to present census data for these areas.In response to the NIST decision, the Census Bureau is in the process of transitioning over to the GNIS Feature ID, which will be completed after the 2010 Census.", "Until then, previously issued FIPS place codes, renamed \"Census Code\", will continue to be used, with the Census bureau assigning new codes as needed for their internal use during the transition." ], [ "See also", "* Federal Information Security Management Act of 2002 (FISMA)* FIPS 137 (Federal Standard for Linear Predictive Coding)* FIPS 140 (''Security requirements for cryptography modules'')* FIPS 153 (3D graphics)* FIPS 197 (Rijndael / AES cipher)* FIPS 199 (''Standards for Security Categorization of Federal Information and Information Systems'')* FIPS 201 (''Personal Identity Verification for Federal Employees and Contractors'')* List of FIPS region codes* List of FIPS state codes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Fiqh" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Fiqh''''' (; ) is Islamic jurisprudence.", "''Fiqh'' is often described as the human understanding and practices of the sharia, that is human understanding of the divine Islamic law as revealed in the Quran and the sunnah (the teachings and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his companions).", "Fiqh expands and develops Shariah through interpretation (''ijtihad'') of the Quran and ''Sunnah'' by Islamic jurists (''ulama'') and is implemented by the rulings (''fatwa'') of jurists on questions presented to them.", "Thus, whereas ''sharia'' is considered immutable and infallible by Muslims, ''fiqh'' is considered fallible and changeable.", "''Fiqh'' deals with the observance of rituals, morals and social legislation in Islam as well as economic and political system.", "In the modern era, there are four prominent schools (''madh'hab'') of ''fiqh'' within Sunni practice, plus two (or three) within Shi'a practice.", "A person trained in ''fiqh'' is known as a ''faqīh'' (: ''fuqaha'').Figuratively, ''fiqh'' means knowledge about Islamic legal rulings from their sources.", "Deriving religious rulings from their sources requires the ''mujtahid'' (an individual who exercises ''ijtihad'') to have a deep understanding in the different discussions of jurisprudence.", "A ''faqīh'' must look deep down into a matter and not content himself with just the apparent meaning, and a person who only knows the appearance of a matter is not qualified as a ''faqīh''.The studies of ''fiqh'', are traditionally divided into ''Uṣūl al-fiqh'' (principles of Islamic jurisprudence, lit.", "the roots of fiqh, alternatively transliterated as ''Usool al-fiqh''), the methods of legal interpretation and analysis; and ''Furūʿ al-fiqh'' (lit.", "the branches of fiqh), the elaboration of rulings on the basis of these principles.", "''Furūʿ al-fiqh'' is the product of the application of ''Uṣūl al-fiqh'' and the total product of human efforts at understanding the divine will.", "A ''hukm'' (: ''aḥkām'') is a particular ruling in a given case." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''fiqh'' is an Arabic term meaning \"deep understanding\" or \"full comprehension\".", "Technically it refers to the body of Islamic law extracted from detailed Islamic sources (which are studied in the principles of Islamic jurisprudence) and the process of gaining knowledge of Islam through jurisprudence.", "The historian Ibn Khaldun describes ''fiqh'' as \"knowledge of the rules of God which concern the actions of persons who own themselves connected to obey the law respecting what is required (''wajib''), sinful (''haraam''), recommended (''mandūb''), disapproved (''makrūh''), or neutral (''mubah'')\".", "This definition is consistent amongst the jurists.In Modern Standard Arabic, ''fiqh'' has also come to mean Islamic jurisprudence.", "It is not thus possible to speak of Chief Justice John Roberts as an expert in the common law ''fiqh'' of the United States, or of Egyptian legal scholar Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri as an expert in the civil law ''fiqh'' of Egypt.Muslim scholars of jurisprudence have been responsible for much elaboration of the \"ifs and buts\" in Islamic law, and these meaningless \"ifs and buts\" elaborations reflect a misunderstanding of the purpose of Islamic law and its role in religion.", "Islamic law is very important, but Islam is much bigger than its legal system.", "Similarly, a student of Islamic jurisprudence should study all aspects of the religion and not just its legal system.But the reality is that we have lost contact with the essence and spirit of Islam described by Al-Quran e Kareem and have been engaged in superficial issues for centuries.", "We have left the heart to the body, the brain to the sectarians and thoughts to the ancient lifeless, baseless, meaningless teachings and the eternal religion to the understanding of our ancestors more than a thousand years ago.Over the centuries, 99% of the questions and problems discussed in the books of Islamic jurisprudence are hypotheses and their answers are only mental indulgences, they have no relation to reality.", "This practice of mental debauchery is becoming very slow now." ], [ "History", "According to Sunni Islamic history, Sunni law followed a chronological path of:*Allah → Muhammad → Companions → Followers → ''Fiqh''.The commands and prohibitions chosen by God were revealed through the agency of the Prophet in both the Quran and the Sunnah (words, deeds, and examples of the Prophet passed down as hadith).", "The first Muslims (the Sahabah or Companions) heard and obeyed, and passed this essence of Islam to succeeding generations (''Tabi'un'' and ''Tabi' al-Tabi'in'' or successors/followers and successors of successors), as Muslims and Islam spread from West Arabia to the conquered lands north, east, and west, where it was systematized and elaborated The history of Islamic jurisprudence is \"customarily divided into eight periods\":*the first period ending with the death of Muhammad in 11 AH.", "*second period \"characterized by personal interpretations\" of the canon by the ''Sahabah'' or companions of Muhammad, lasting until 50 AH.", "*from 50 AH until the early second century AH there was competition between \"a traditionalist approach to jurisprudence\" in western Arabia where Islam was revealed and a \"rationalist approach in Iraq\".", "*the \"golden age of classical Islamic jurisprudence\" from the \"early second to the mid-fourth century when the eight \"most significant\" schools of Sunni and Shi'i jurisprudence emerged.", "\"*from the mid-fourth century to mid-seventh AH Islamic jurisprudence was \"limited to elaborations within the main juristic schools\".", "*the \"dark age\" of Islamic jurisprudence stretched from the fall of Baghdad in the mid-seventh AH (1258 CE) to 1293 AH/1876 CE.", "*In 1293 AH (1876 CE) the Ottomans codified Hanafi jurisprudence in the ''Majallah el-Ahkam-i-Adliya''.", "Several \"juristic revival movements\" influenced by \"exposure to Western legal and technological progress\" followed until the mid-20th century CE.", "Muhammad Abduh and Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri were products of this era.However, Abduh and El-Sanhuri were modernists.", "19th century Ottoman Shariah Code was built on the views of the Hanafi school.", "*The most recent era has been that of the \"Islamic revival\", which has been \"predicated on rejection of Western social and legal advances\" and the development of specifically Islamic states, social sciences, economics, and finance.The formative period of Islamic jurisprudence stretches back to the time of the early Muslim communities.", "During this period, jurists were more concerned with issues of authority and teaching than with theory and methodology.Progress in theory and methodology happened with the coming of the early Muslim jurist Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i (767–820), who codified the basic principles of Islamic jurisprudence in his book ''ar-Risālah''.", "The book details the four roots of law (Qur'an, sunnah, ''ijma'', and ''qiyas'') while specifying that the primary Islamic texts (the Qur'an and the hadith) be understood according to objective rules of interpretation derived from scientific study of the Arabic language.Secondary sources of law were developed and refined over the subsequent centuries, consisting primarily of juristic preference (''istihsan''), laws of the previous prophets (''shara man qablana''), continuity (''istishab''), extended analogy (''maslaha mursala''), blocking the means (''sadd al-dhari'ah''), local customs (''urf''), and sayings of a companion of the Prophet (''qawl al-sahabi'').=== Diagram of early scholars ===Islamic schools of thoughtThe Quran set the rights, responsibilities, and rules for people and societies to adhere to, such as dealing in interest.", "Muhammad then provided an example, which is recorded in the hadith books, showing people how he practically implemented these rules in a society.", "After the passing of Muhammad, there was a need for jurists, to decide on new legal matters where there is no such ruling in the Quran or the hadith, example of Islamic prophet Muhammad regarding a similar case.In the years proceeding Muhammad, the community in Madina continued to use the same rules.", "People were familiar with the practice of Muhammad and therefore continued to use the same rules.The scholars appearing in the diagram below were taught by Muhammad's companions, many of whom settled in Madina.", "''Muwatta'' by Malik ibn Anas was written as a consensus of the opinion, of these scholars.", "''Muwatta'' by Malik ibn Anas quotes 13 hadiths from Imam Jafar al-Sadiq.Aisha also taught her nephew Urwah ibn Zubayr.", "He then taught his son Hisham ibn Urwah, who was the main teacher of Malik ibn Anas whose views many Sunni follow and also taught by Jafar al-Sadiq.", "Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, Hisham ibn Urwah and Muhammad al-Baqir taught Zayd ibn Ali, Jafar al-Sadiq, Abu Hanifa, and Malik ibn Anas.Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, Imam Abu Hanifa and Malik ibn Anas worked together in Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina.", "Along with Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, Muhammad al-Baqir, Zayd ibn Ali and over 70 other leading jurists and scholars.Al-Shafi‘i was taught by Malik ibn Anas.", "Ahmad ibn Hanbal was taught by Al-Shafi‘i.", "Muhammad al-Bukhari travelled everywhere collecting hadith and his father Ismail ibn Ibrahim was a student of Malik ibn Anas.In the books actually written by these original jurists and scholars, there are very few theological and judicial differences between them.", "Imam Ahmad rejected the writing down and codifying of the religious rulings he gave.", "They knew that they might have fallen into error in some of their judgements and stated this clearly.", "They never introduced their rulings by saying, \"Here, this judgement is the judgement of God and His prophet.\"", "There is also very little text actually written down by Jafar al-Sadiq himself.", "They all give priority to the Qur'an and the hadith (the practice of Muhammad).", "They felt that the Quran and the Hadith, the example of Muhammad provided people with almost everything they needed.", "\"This day I have perfected for you your religion and completed My favor upon you and have approved for you Islam as religion\" Quran 5:3.These scholars did not distinguish between each other.", "They were not Sunni or Shia.", "They felt that they were following the religion of Abraham as described in the Quran \"Say: Allah speaks the truth; so follow the religion of Abraham, the upright one.", "And he was not one of the polytheists\" (Qur'an 3:95).Most of the differences are regarding Sharia laws devised through Ijtihad where there is no such ruling in the Quran or the hadiths of Islamic prophet Muhammad regarding a similar case.", "As these jurists went to new areas, they were pragmatic and continued to use the same ruling as was given in that area during pre-Islamic times, if the population felt comfortable with it, it was just and they used Ijtihad to deduce that it did not conflict with the Quran or the Hadith.", "As explained in the ''Muwatta'' by Malik ibn Anas.", "This made it easier for the different communities to integrate into the Islamic State and assisted in the quick expansion of the Islamic State.To reduce the divergence, ash-Shafi'i proposed giving priority to the Qur'an and the Hadith (the practice of Muhammad) and only then look at the consensus of the Muslim jurists (''ijma'') and analogical reasoning (''qiyas'').", "This then resulted in jurists like Muhammad al-Bukhari dedicating their lives to the collection of the correct hadith, in books like Sahih al-Bukhari.", "Sahih translates as authentic or correct.", "They also felt that Muhammad's judgement was more impartial and better than their own.These original jurists and scholars also acted as a counterbalance to the rulers.", "When they saw injustice, all these scholars spoke out against it.", "As the state expanded outside Madina, the rights of the different communities, as they were constituted in the Constitution of Medina still applied.", "The Quran also gave additional rights to the citizens of the state and these rights were also applied.", "Ali, Hassan and Husayn ibn Ali gave their allegiance to the first three caliphs because they abided by these conditions.", "Later Ali the fourth caliph wrote in a letter \"I did not approach the people to get their oath of allegiance but they came to me with their desire to make me their Amir (ruler).", "I did not extend my hands towards them so that they might swear the oath of allegiance to me but they themselves extended their hands towards me.\"", "But later as fate would have it (Predestination in Islam) when Yazid I, an oppressive ruler took power, Husayn ibn Ali the grandson of Muhammad felt that it was a test from God for him and his duty to confront him.", "Then Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr's cousin confronted the Umayyad rulers after Husayn ibn Ali was betrayed by the people of Kufa and killed by Syrian Roman Army now under the control of the Yazid I the Umayyad ruler.", "Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr then took on the Umayyads and expelled their forces from Hijaz and Iraq.", "But then his forces were depleted in Iraq, trying to stop the Khawarij.", "The Umayyads then moved in.", "After a lengthy campaign, in his last hour Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr asked his mother Asma' bint Abu Bakr the daughter of Abu Bakr the first caliph for advice.", "Asma' bint Abu Bakr replied to her son, she said: \"You know better in your own self, that if you are upon the truth and you are calling towards the truth go forth, for people more honourable than you have been killed and if you are not upon the truth, then what an evil son you are and you have destroyed yourself and those who are with you.", "If you say, that if you are upon the truth and you will be killed at the hands of others, then you will not truly be free.\"", "Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr left and was later also killed and crucified by the Syrian Roman Army now under the control of the Umayyads and led by Hajjaj.", "Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr the son of Abu Bakr the first caliph and raised by Ali the fourth caliph was also killed by the Umayyads.", "Aisha then raised and taught her son Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr who later taught his grandson Jafar al-Sadiq.Al Mausu'ah Al Fiqhiyah Al Kuwaitiyah'', is the largest printed Fiqh Encyclopedia; it took 40 years to complete and was later translated into Urdu, Tamil, Persian, Malay & Bengali language.During the early Umayyad period, there was more community involvement.", "The Quran and Muhammad's example was the main source of law after which the community decided.", "If it worked for the community, was just and did not conflict with the Quran and the example of Muhammad, it was accepted.", "This made it easier for the different communities, with Roman, Persian, Central Asia and North African backgrounds to integrate into the Islamic State and that assisted in the quick expansion of the Islamic State.", "The scholars in Madina were consulted on the more complex judicial issues.", "The Sharia and the official more centralized schools of fiqh developed later, during the time of the Abbasids." ], [ "Components", "Legal systems of the worldThe sources of Sharia in order of importance arePrimary sources#Qur'an#HadithSecondary sources:3.Ijma, i.e.", "collective reasoning and consensus amongst authoritative Muslims of a particular generation, and its interpretation by Islamic scholars.", ":4.Ijtihad, i.e.", "independent legal reasoning by Islamic juristsMajority of Sunni Muslims view ''Qiyas'' as a central Pillar of ''Ijtihad''.", "On the other hand; Zahirites, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Al-Bukhari, early Hanbalites, etc.", "rejected ''Qiyas'' amongst the Sunnis.", "Similarly, the ''Shi’a'' jurists almost unanimously reject both pure reason and analogical reason; viewing both these methods as subjective.The Qur'an gives clear instructions on many issues, such as how to perform the ritual purification ('''') before the obligatory daily prayers ('''').", "On other issues, for example, the Qur'an states one needs to engage in daily prayers ('''') and fast ('''') during the month of Ramadan but further instructions and details on how to perform these duties can be found in the traditions of Muhammad, so Qur'an and Sunnah are in most cases the basis for ('''').Some topics are without precedent in Islam's early period.", "In those cases, Muslim jurists ('''') try to arrive at conclusions by other means.", "Sunni jurists use historical consensus of the community (''''); a majority in the modern era also use analogy ('''') and weigh the harms and benefits of new topics (''''), and a plurality utilizes juristic preference ('''').", "The conclusions arrived at with the aid of these additional tools constitute a wide array of laws, and its application is called '''fiqh'''.", "Thus, in contrast to the ''sharia'', ''fiqh'' is not regarded as sacred and the schools of thought have differing views on its details, without viewing other conclusions as sacrilegious.", "This division of interpretation in more detailed issues has resulted in different schools of thought ('''').This wider concept of '''Islamic jurisprudence''' is the source of a range of laws in different topics that guide Muslims in everyday life.=== Component categories ===Islamic jurisprudence (''fiqh'') covers two main areas:# Rules in relation to actions, and,# Rules in relation to circumstances surrounding actions.These types of rules can also fall into two groups:# Worship (Ibadaat)# Dealings and transactions (with people) (Mu`amalaat)Rules in relation to actions ('''amaliyya'' — عملية) or \"decision types\" comprise:# Obligation (''fardh'')# Recommendation (''mustahabb'')# Permissibility (''mubah'')# Disrecommendation (''makrooh'')# Prohibition (''haraam'')Rules in relation to circumstances (''wadia''') comprise:# Condition (''shart'')# Cause (''sabab'')# Preventor (''mani'')# Permit / Enforced (''rukhsah, azeemah'')# Valid / Corrupt / Invalid (''sahih, fasid, batil'')# In time / Deferred / Repeat (''adaa, qadaa, i'ada'')=== Methodologies of jurisprudence ===The modus operandi of the Muslim jurist is known as ''usul al-fiqh'' (\"principles of jurisprudence\").There are different approaches to the methodology used in jurisprudence to derive Islamic rulings from the primary sources of ''sharia'' (Islamic law).", "The main methodologies are those of the Sunni, Shi'a and Ibadi denominations.", "While both Sunni and Shi'ite (Shia) are divided into smaller sub-schools, the differences among the Shi'ite schools is considerably greater.", "Ibadites only follow a single school without divisions.", ";FatawaWhile using court decisions as legal precedents and case law are central to Western law, the importance of the institution of fatawa (non-binding answers by Islamic legal scholars to legal questions) has been called \"central to the development\" of Islamic jurisprudence.", "This is in part because of a \"vacuum\" in the other source of Islamic law, ''qada`'' (legal rulings by state appointed Islamic judges) after the fall of the last caliphate the Ottoman Empire.", "While the practice in Islam dates back to the time of Muhammad, according to at least one source (Muhammad El-Gamal), it is \"modeled after the Roman system of ''responsa'',\" and gives the questioner \"decisive primary-mover advantage in choosing the question and its wording.", "\";Arguments for and against reformEach school (''madhhab'') reflects a unique ''al-urf'' or culture (a cultural practice that was influenced by traditions), that the classical jurists themselves lived in, when rulings were made.", "Some suggest that the discipline of ''isnad'', which developed to validate ''hadith'' made it relatively easy to record and validate also the rulings of jurists.", "This, in turn, made them far easier to imitate (''taqlid'') than to challenge in new contexts.", "The argument is, the schools have been more or less frozen for centuries, and reflect a culture that simply no longer exists.", "Traditional scholars hold that religion is there to regulate human behavior and nurture people's moral side and since human nature has not fundamentally changed since the beginning of Islam a call to modernize the religion is essentially one to relax all laws and institutions.Early ''shariah'' had a much more flexible character, and some modern Muslim scholars believe that it should be renewed, and that the classical jurists should lose special status.", "This would require formulating a new fiqh suitable for the modern world, e.g.", "as proposed by advocates of the Islamization of knowledge, which would deal with the modern context.", "This modernization is opposed by most conservative ''ulema''.", "Traditional scholars hold that the laws are contextual and consider circumstance such as time, place and culture, the principles they are based upon are universal such as justice, equality and respect.", "Many Muslim scholars argue that even though technology may have advanced, the fundamentals of human life have not.=== Fields of jurisprudence ===*Criminal*Economics*Etiquette*Family*Hygienical*Inheritance*Marital*Military*Political*Theological=== Schools of jurisprudence ===There are several schools of fiqh thought ( ''''; pl.", "'''')madhhabsThe schools of Sunni Islam are each named by students of the classical jurist who taught them.", "The Sunni schools (and where they are commonly found) are*Hanafi (Turkey, Egypt, Balkans, Levant, Central Asia, South Asia, China, North Caucasus, and Tatarstan)*Maliki (North Africa, West Africa, and Eastern Arabia)*Shafi'i (Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Kurdistan, Egypt, East Africa, Yemen, Kerala, and Maldives)*Hanbali (Saudi Arabia) see Wahhabism*Zahiri (minority communities in Morocco and Pakistan)*Ahl al-Hadith*Jariri, Laythi, Awza'i, Thawri, and Qurtubi no longer exist.The schools of Shia Islam comprise:*Ja'fari Twelver (Iran, Azerbaijan, Iraq, and Lebanon) *Ja'fari Isma'ili (minority communities in India, Central Asia, Levant, Yemen, and Pakistan)*Zaydi (minority communities in Yemen)Entirely separate from both the Sunni and Shia traditions, Khawarij Islam has evolved its own distinct school.", "*Ibadi (Oman)These schools share many of their rulings, but differ on the particular hadiths they accept as authentic and the weight they give to analogy or reason (qiyas) in deciding difficulties.The relationship between (at least the Sunni) schools of jurisprudence and the conflict between the unity of the Shariah and the diversity of the schools, was expressed by the 12th century Hanafi scholar Abu Hafs Umar al-Nasafi, who wrote: \"Our school is correct with the possibility of error, and another school is in error with the possibility of being correct.\"" ], [ "Influence on Western laws", "A number of important legal institutions were developed by Muslim jurists during the classical period of Islam, known as the Islamic Golden Age.", "One such institution was the ''Hawala'', an early informal value transfer system, which is mentioned in texts of Islamic jurisprudence as early as the 8th century.", "''Hawala'' itself later influenced the development of the agency in common law and in civil laws such as the ''aval'' in French law and the ''avallo'' in Italian law.The ''Waqf'' in Islamic law, which developed during the 7th–9th centuries, bears a notable resemblance to the trusts in the English trust law.", "For example, every ''Waqf'' was required to have a ''waqif'' (settlor), ''mutawillis'' (trustee), ''qadi'' (judge) and beneficiaries.", "The trust law developed in England at the time of the Crusades, during the 12th and 13th centuries, was introduced by Crusaders who may have been influenced by the ''Waqf'' institutions they came across in the Middle East.In classical Islamic jurisprudence, litigants in court may obtain notarized statements from between three and twelve witnesses.", "When the statements of all witnesses are consistent, the notaries will certify their unanimous testimony in a legal document, which may be used to support the litigant's claim.", "The notaries serve to free the judge from the time-consuming task of hearing the testimony of each eyewitness himself, and their documents serve to legally authenticate each oral testimony.", "The Maliki school requires two notaries to collect a minimum of twelve eyewitness statements in certain legal cases, including those involving unregistered marriages and land disputes.", "John Makdisi has compared this group of twelve witness statements, known as a ''lafif'', to English Common Law jury trials under Henry II, surmising a link between the king’s reforms and the legal system of the Kingdom of Sicily.", "The island had previously been ruled by various Islamic dynasties.", "Several other fundamental common law institutions may have been adapted from similar legal institutions in Islamic law and jurisprudence, and introduced to England by the Normans after the Norman conquest of England and the Emirate of Sicily, and by Crusaders during the Crusades.", "In particular, the \"royal English contract protected by the action of debt is identified with the Islamic ''Aqd'', the English assize of novel disseisin is identified with the Islamic ''Istihqaq'', and the English jury is identified with the Islamic ''lafif''.\"", "John Makdisi speculated that English legal institutions such as \"the scholastic method, the licence to teach\", the \"law schools known as Inns of Court in England and ''Madrasas'' in Islam\" and the \"European commenda\" (Islamic ''Qirad'') may have also originated from Islamic law.", "The methodology of legal precedent and reasoning by analogy (''Qiyas'') are also similar in both the Islamic and common law systems.", "These influences have led some scholars to suggest that Islamic law may have laid the foundations for \"the common law as an integrated whole\"." ], [ "See also", "* Abdallah al-Harari* Traditionalist theology* ''Bahar-e-Shariat''* Glossary of Islam* Index of Islam-related articles* Ja'fari jurisprudence* Outline of Islam* List of Islamic terms in Arabic* ''Ma'ruf''* ''Mizan'' – a comprehensive treatise on the contents of Islam written by Javed Ahmed Ghamidi* Palestinian law* Schools of Islamic theology* Sources of Islamic law* ''Urf''" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations====== Bibliography ===* *Doi, Abd ar-Rahman I., and Clarke, Abdassamad (2008).", "''Shari'ah: Islamic Law''.", "Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd., (hardback)* Cilardo, Agostino, \"Fiqh, History of\", in ''Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God'' (2 vols.", "), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014, Vol I, pp. 201–206.", "* *******" ], [ "Further reading", "*Potz, Richard, Islamic Law and the Transfer of European Law, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011.", "(Retrieved 28 November 2011.", ")*Saeed, Abu Hayyan, Jurisprudence of Islam (December 3, 2023).", "Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4651796 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4651796" ], [ "External links", "* Types of Hanafi Legal Rulings (Ahkam)* Saeed, Abu Hayyan, Jurisprudence of Islam (December 3, 2023).", "Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4651796 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4651796*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Flank" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Flank''' may refer to:* Flank (anatomy), part of the abdomen** Flank steak, a cut of beef** Part of the external anatomy of a horse* Flank speed, a nautical term* Flank opening, a chess opening* A term in Australian rules football* The side of a military unit, as in a flanking maneuver* Flanking, a sound path in architectural acoustics* Flanking region, a region of DNA in directionality* Rift flank (synonymous of rift shoulder), mountains belt on the sides of extensional rift basins" ], [ "See also", "* Flanker (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "First Council of Nicaea" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''First Council of Nicaea''' ( ; ) was a council of Christian bishops convened in the Bithynian city of Nicaea (now İznik, Turkey) by the Roman Emperor Constantine I.", "The Council of Nicaea met from May to the end of July 325.This ecumenical council was the first of many efforts to attain consensus in the church through an assembly representing all Christendom.", "Hosius of Corduba may have presided over its deliberations.", "Its main accomplishments were settlement of the Christological issue of the divine nature of God the Son and his relationship to God the Father, the construction of the first part of the Nicene Creed, mandating uniform observance of the date of Easter, and promulgation of early canon law." ], [ "Ecumenical Council", "The First Council of Nicaea was the first ecumenical council of the church.", "Nicaea \"was the first time that any attempt had been made to summon a general council of the whole church at which, at least in theory, the church in every part of the Roman Empire should be represented\".", "Derived from Greek (), \"ecumenical\" means \"worldwide\" but generally is assumed to be limited to the known inhabited Earth, and at this time in history is nearly synonymous with the Roman Empire.", "The earliest extant uses of the term for a council are Eusebius' ''Life of Constantine'' around 338, which states \"he convoked an ecumenical council\" (, ) and a letter in 382 to Pope Damasus I and the Latin bishops from the First Council of Constantinople.Historically significant as the first effort to attain consensus in the church through an assembly representing all of Christendom, the Council was the first occasion where the technical aspects of Christology were discussed.", "Through it a precedent was set for subsequent general councils to adopt creeds and canons.", "This Council is generally considered the beginning of the period of the first seven ecumenical councils in the history of Christianity." ], [ "Attendees", "Constantine had invited all 1,800 bishops of the Christian church within the Roman Empire (about 1,000 in the East and 800 in the West), but a smaller and unknown number attended.", "Eusebius of Caesarea counted more than 250, Athanasius of Alexandria counted 318, and Eustathius of Antioch estimated \"about 270\" (all three were present at the Council).", "Later, Socrates Scholasticus recorded more than 300, and Evagrius, Hilary of Poitiers, Jerome, Dionysius Exiguus, and Rufinus each recorded 318.This number 318 is preserved in the liturgies of the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Coptic Orthodox Church.", "For some, the number is suspicious as it is the number of Abraham's servants in Genesis 14:14, and there was a polemical reason for the Nicene Fathers to imply that they were servants of Abraham, the father of the Faith.", "Considering this, Hanson concludes, \"The number of bishops at the Council of Nicaea probably fell between 250 and 300.\"", "(RH, 156)The bishops did not come alone; each one had permission to bring with him two priests and three deacons, so the total number of attendees could have been above 1,800.Eusebius speaks of an almost innumerable host of accompanying priests, deacons, and acolytes.", "A Syriac manuscript lists the names of the eastern bishops which included 22 from Coele-Syria, 19 from Syria Palaestina, 10 from Phoenicia, 6 from Arabia, others from Assyria, Mesopotamia, Persia, etc., but the distinction of bishops from presbyters had not yet formed.Delegates came from every region of the Roman Empire and from the Christian churches extant within the Sassanid Empire.", "However, \"the Council was overwhelmingly Eastern, and only represented the Western Church in a meagre way.\"", "(RH, 156) Referring to an event in 335, Ayres says that “the Western bishops … had hitherto remained on the periphery of the controversy.\"", "(LA, 272) \"Hilary, for instance, never really understood the Arian Controversy till he reached the East as a result of being exiled.\"", "(RH, 170) Many of the assembled fathers—for instance, Paphnutius of Thebes, Potamon of Heraclea, and Paul of Neocaesarea—had stood forth as confessors of the faith and came to the Council with the marks of persecution on their faces.", "This position is supported by patristic scholar Timothy Barnes in his book ''Constantine and Eusebius''.", "Historically, the influence of these marred confessors has been seen as substantial, but recent scholarship has called this into question.", "Of the Eastern bishops, the first rank was held by the patriarchs: Alexander of Alexandria and Eustathius of Antioch.", "\"Marcellus, Eustathius and Alexander were able to make common cause against the Eusebians.\"", "(LA, 69) \"If we are to take the creed N at its face value, the theology of Eustathius and Marcellus was the theology which triumphed at Nicaea.", "That creed admits the possibility of only ''one ousia and one hypostasis''.", "This was the hallmark of the theology of these two men.\"", "(RH, 235) Other notable attendees were Eusebius of Nicomedia and Eusebius of Caesarea, the purported first church historian.", "Circumstances suggest that Nicholas of Myra attended (his life was the seed of the Santa Claus legends); Macarius of Jerusalem, later a staunch defender of Athanasius; Aristaces of Armenia (son of Saint Gregory the Illuminator); Leontius of Caesarea; Jacob of Nisibis, a former hermit; Hypatius of Gangra; Protogenes of Sardica; Melitius of Sebastopolis; Achilleus of Larissa (considered the Athanasius of Thessaly); and Spyridon of Trimythous, who even while a bishop made his living as a shepherd.", "From foreign places came John, bishop of Persia and India, Theophilus, a Gothic bishop, and Stratophilus, bishop of Pitiunt in Georgia.", "The Latin-speaking provinces sent at least five representatives: Marcus of Calabria from Italia, Cecilian of Carthage from Africa, Hosius of Córdoba from Hispania, Nicasius of Die from Gaul, and Domnus of Sirmium from the province of the Danube.", ".", "Alexander of Constantinople, then a presbyter, was also present as representative of his aged bishop.", "\"Athanasius was certainly present as a deacon accompanying Alexander of Alexandria.", "… But it is equally certain that he can have taken no prominent nor active part, in spite of later legends to this effect and the conviction of some scholars that he was the moving spirit in the Council.\"", "(RH, 157) Athanasius eventually spent most of his life battling against ArianismThe supporters of Arius included Secundus of Ptolemais, Theonus of Marmarica, Zephyrius (or Zopyrus), and Dathes, all of whom hailed from the Libyan Pentapolis.", "Other supporters included Eusebius of Nicomedia, Paulinus of Tyrus, Actius of Lydda, Menophantus of Ephesus, and Theognus of Nicaea." ], [ "Arian Controversy", "The main purpose of the Council was to resolve disagreements brought about by the Arian controversy in the Greek-speaking east.", "A dispute arose from within the Church of Alexandria over the nature of Jesus in his relationship to the Father: in particular, whether the Son had been 'begotten' by the Father from his own being, and therefore having no beginning, or else created out of nothing, and therefore having a beginning.", "St. Alexander of Alexandria and Athanasius took the first position; the popular presbyter Arius, from whom the term Arianism comes, took the second.", "To most bishops, the teachings of Arius were heretical and dangerous to the salvation of souls.", "The Council decided against the Arians overwhelmingly (of the estimated 250–300 attendees, all but two agreed to sign the creed, and these two, along with Arius, were banished to Illyria).=== The Nicene Creed ===Most significantly, this council formulated the Nicene Creed.", "With the creation of the creed, a precedent was established for subsequent local and regional councils of bishops (synods) to create statements of belief and canons of doctrinal orthodoxy—the intent being to define unity of beliefs for the whole of Christendom.=== Easter ===Another result of the Council was an agreement on when to celebrate Easter, the most important feast of the ecclesiastical calendar, decreed in an epistle to the Church of Alexandria in which is simply stated:We also send you the good news of the settlement concerning the holy pasch, namely that in answer to your prayers this question also has been resolved.", "All the brethren in the East who have hitherto followed the Jewish practice will henceforth observe the custom of the Romans and of yourselves and of all of us who from ancient times have kept Easter together with you." ], [ "Constantine's role", "=== Before Nicaea ===In the first place, Constantine legalized Christianity.", "During the first three centuries, the Roman authorities persecuted Christianity.", "The Diocletianic Persecution of 303-313 was the most severe persecution of Christians up to that point in history.", "Diocletian's first edict commanded churches and holy sites razed to the ground, sacred articles burned, and believers jailed.", "However, in 313, the Western Roman Emperor Constantine (306–337) legalized Christianity through the Edict of Milan.", "He granted Christians \"the right of open and free observance of their worship.", "\"“In 324 the Emperor Constantine … (who recently) assumed control of the whole empire, took an interest in the dispute.", "Constantine wrote to Alexander and Arius telling them to stop quarrelling about what seemed to him to be such a small matter.” Constantine wrote:“For as long as you continue to contend about these small and very insignificant questions, I believe it indeed to be not merely unbecoming, but positively evil, that so large a portion of God’s people which belong to your jurisdiction should be thus divided.”Constantine, therefore, attempted to intervene even before he understood what this dispute was about.", "“It initially took the efforts of bishops like Ossius and Alexander of Alexandria to persuade him that anything significant was at issue in Alexandria.”A few months before the Council of Nicaea, “early in 325,” an “anti-Arian Council” was held in Antioch, consisting mainly of those who sympathized with Alexander.", "“In normal circumstances the Metropolitan of the area in which the Council met would have presided … But Constantine's representative, Ossius, took precedence … over Eustathius.” Ossius was “the Emperor's representative” and Constantine’s “agent.” He was “Constantine's chief adviser and agent in matters concerning the Christian church.” This implies that the meeting took place with the approval of the emperor, which means that, even before Nicaea, \"Constantine had taken Alexander's part\" in his dispute with Arius.=== Calling the council ===Constantine’s letter failed to unite the warring factions.", "Consequently.", "In the year 325, “Constantine himself summoned the bishops” to end this dispute.", "The council was not called by a church official and nobody asked Constantine to call this meeting.", "It was his initiative.", "“It was then certainly Constantine who convoked the Council of Nicaea.” “Religious partisanship has in the past led some scholars to suggest that Silvester, bishop of Rome, convoked the Council of Nicaea, but modern Roman Catholic scholars honourably dismiss this idea.”As stated above, Nicaea was the first 'general' or 'ecumenical' council of the church.", "It was the Roman Emperor Constantine who introduced this concept to the church:“The procedures of a council modelled on methods of Roman governance would have been familiar to Constantine, and we can assume that he saw it as the natural means to achieve consensus within the Church.”Furthermore, without the assistance of the emperor, the church was unable to call a general council.", "Only the emperor could call a general council.", "“Even Damasus a later bishop of Rome would have admitted that he could not call a general council on his own authority.” “Everybody recognised the right of an Emperor to call a council, or even to veto or quash its being called.”As his letter to Arius and Alexander shows, Constantine did not call the Nicene Council because he was concerned about right doctrine.", "“Constantine himself of course neither knew nor cared anything about the matter in dispute.” Rather, “the Council of Nicea was first and foremost an attempt by the Roman emperor Constantine the Great to keep his empire from splitting.” “Constantine himself had become sole emperor only in 324 (after having ruled the western half since 310–12), and he seems to have promoted Christianity as a unifying religion '''for the empire'''.” “Constantine's attitude reflects deeply embedded Roman attitudes about the social function of religion.”Constantine summoned the bishops of all provinces were to Nicaea, a place reasonably accessible to many delegates.Constantine gave the participating bishops free travel to and from their episcopal sees to the Council, as well as lodging.=== Presiding officer ===“The evidence weighs strongly in favour of the view that Ossius … presided at Nicaea.” “In normal circumstances the Metropolitan of the area in which the Council met would have presided, and in this case it would have been Eusebius of Nicomedia.” Ossius was “Constantine's chief adviser and agent in matters concerning the Christian church.” Ossius presided “as the Emperor's representative” and as Constantine’s “agent.” “Ossius … represented the policy of Constantine”=== Constantine's entrance ===\"Resplendent in purple and gold, Constantine made a ceremonial entrance at the opening of the Council, probably in early June, but respectfully seated the bishops ahead of himself.\"", "As Eusebius describes, Constantine \"himself proceeded through the midst of the assembly, like some heavenly messenger of God, clothed in raiment which glittered as it were with rays of light, reflecting the glowing radiance of a purple robe, and adorned with the brilliant splendor of gold and precious stones.", "\"=== Condemnation of Arianism ===“It became evident very early on that the condemnation of Arius was practically inevitable” (RW, 68).", "The Nicene Creed “was constructed as a deliberately anti-Arian document.” (RH, 164) “All the more obnoxious doctrines of Arius and his followers are struck at in N in the most impressive way.” (RH, 165)In spite of the support that Arius enjoyed, only Arius and two of his friends refused to sign, for which they were excommunicated.\"", "“In older narratives of the fourth century it was reasonably easy to understand why the Nicene creed was agreed with little dissent: only the few ‘heretics’ would refuse such a clear acknowledgement of the Church's constant faith.", "Without this older narrative, matters are more complex.”At the Council of Antioch a few months before Nicaea, the leader of the Eusebians (Eusebius of Caesarea) was provisionally excommunicated.", "The 'Eusebians' are the larger group that opposed the theology of Alexander and that include Arius and his direct supporters.", "See - The Eusebians The anti-Arian nature of the Council at Antioch and the excommunication of Eusebius show that, already before Nicaea, \"Constantine had taken Alexander's part.” At Nicaea, “this imperial pressure coupled with the role of his advisers in broadly supporting the agenda of Alexander must have been a powerful force.”=== Homoousios ===At the time, the term homoousios (same substance) was the most controversial term in the Nicene Creed.", "Most delegates at the Council had considerable reservations about the term because, before Nicaea, that term was only preferred by Sabellians, the Bible never says anything about God’s substance (ousia), the term was not part of the standard Christian language at the time, but was “borrowed from the pagan philosophy of the day.” (RH, 846) Constantine’s domination of the Nicene Council, therefore, is particularly revealed by the fact that he was able to force the inclusion of the word homoousios.", "“’Homoousios’ and ‘from the essence of the Father’ were added to the creed by Constantine himself, bearing witness to the extent of his influence at the council.” Constantine \"pressed for its inclusion.\"", "“Overawed by the emperor, the bishops, with two exceptions only, signed the creed, many of them much against their inclination.”“Constantine took part in the Council of Nicaea and ensured that it reached the kind of conclusion which he thought best.” The emperor was present as an overseer and presider but did not cast any official vote.", "Constantine organized the Council along the lines of the Roman Senate." ], [ "Agenda", "The agenda of the synod included the following issues:# With respect to the Arian question, the large portion of the Nicene Creed that is devoted to Christ (more than 80%) indicates that the main issue before the Council was about Jesus Christ; not about the Father or about the Holy Spirit.", "What the main issue was more exactly can be seen by comparing the condemnations at the end of the decree—reflecting Arius' views—with the council's affirmations as contained in the body of the creed:##While Arius claimed that Jesus Christ was created, the Council concluded, since He was begotten, that He was not made.##While Arius argued that Jesus Christ was created out of nothing or out of something else, the council affirmed that he was begotten out of the substance (essence) of the Father.##Since the statement in the creed that Jesus Christ is homoousion with the Father (of the same substance) does not counter any of Arius' claims, as reflected in the condemnation.", "The debate was not about what his substance is but out of what substance he was generated.", "The term ''homo-ousios'' was added only because Emperor Constantine proposed and insisted on its inclusion.", "Both Fortman and Erickson mention that the main issue before the council was \"not the unity of the Godhead\" but the Son's \"full divinity\".# The date of celebration of Pascha/Easter# The Meletian schism# Various matters of church discipline, which resulted in twenty canons## Organizational structure of the Church: focused on the ordering of the episcopacy## Dignity standards for the clergy: issues of ordination at all levels and of suitability of behavior and background for clergy## Reconciliation of the lapsed: establishing norms for public repentance and penance## Readmission to the Church of heretics and schismatics: including issues of when reordination and/or rebaptism were to be required## Liturgical practice: including the place of deacons and the practice of standing at prayer during liturgy" ], [ "Procedure", "The Council was formally opened 20 May 325, in the central structure of the imperial palace at Nicaea, with preliminary discussions of the Arian question.", "Emperor Constantine arrived nearly a month later on 14 June.", "=== Arian presentation ===In these discussions, some dominant figures were Arius, with several adherents.", "\"Some 22 of the bishops at the Council, led by Eusebius of Nicomedia, came as supporters of Arius.", "But when some of the more shocking passages from his writings were read, they were almost universally seen as blasphemous.\"", "Bishops Theognis of Nicaea and Maris of Chalcedon were among the initial supporters of Arius.=== Eusebius' creed ===Eusebius of Caesarea called to mind the baptismal creed of his own diocese at Caesarea at Palestine, as a form of reconciliation.", "The majority of the bishops agreed.", "For some time, scholars thought that the original Nicene Creed was based on this statement of Eusebius.", "Today, most scholars think that the creed is derived from the baptismal creed of Jerusalem, as Hans Lietzmann proposes.=== The Nicene Creed ===The orthodox bishops won approval of every one of their proposals regarding the creed.", "After being in session for an entire month, the Council promulgated on 19 June the original Nicene Creed.", "This profession of faith was adopted by all the bishops \"but two from Libya who had been closely associated with Arius from the beginning\".", "No explicit historical record of their dissent actually exists; the signatures of these bishops are simply absent from the creed.", "The sessions continued to deal with minor matters until 25 August." ], [ "Arian controversy", "=== The two views ===The synod of Nicaea, Constantine and the condemnation and burning of Arian books, illustration from a northern Italian compendium of canon law, The Arian controversy arose in Alexandria when the newly reinstated presbyter Arius began to spread doctrinal views that were contrary to those of his bishop, Alexander of Alexandria.", "The disputed issues centered on the natures and relationship of God (the Father) and the Son of God (Jesus).", "The disagreements sprang from different ideas about the Godhead and what it meant for Jesus to be God's Son.", "Alexander maintained that the Son was divine in just the same sense that the Father is, coeternal with the Father, else he could not be a true Son.Arius emphasized the supremacy and uniqueness of God the Father, meaning that the Father alone is almighty and infinite, and that therefore the Father's divinity must be greater than the Son's.", "Arius taught that the Son had a beginning and that he possessed neither the eternity nor the true divinity of the Father, but was rather made \"God\" only by the Father's permission and power, and that the Son was rather the first and the most perfect of God's creatures.A grafitti in Belgrade, Serbia, depicting apocryphal events at the First Council of Nicaea.", "The text reads \"St. Nicholas at the council in Nicaea in the year 325 stops the great lie of the heretic Arius who convinced the people that Jesus Christ is not God\".", "The Arian discussions and debates at the Council extended from about 20 May through about 19 June.", "According to legendary accounts, debate became so heated that at one point, Arius was struck in the face by Nicholas of Myra, who would later be canonized.", "This account is almost certainly apocryphal, as Arius would not have been present in the council chamber because he was not a bishop.Much of the debate hinged on the difference between being \"born\" or \"created\" and being \"begotten\".", "Arians saw these as essentially the same; followers of Alexander did not.", "The exact meaning of many of the words used in the debates at Nicaea were still unclear to speakers of other languages.", "Greek words like \"essence\" (), \"substance\" (), \"nature\" (), \"person\" () bore a variety of meanings drawn from pre-Christian philosophers, which could not but entail misunderstandings until they were cleared up.", "The word , in particular, was initially disliked by many bishops because of its associations with Gnostics (who used it in their theology), and because their beliefs had been condemned at the 264–268 Synods of Antioch.=== Arguments for Arianism ===According to surviving accounts, the presbyter Arius argued for the supremacy of God the Father, and maintained that the Son of God was created as an act of the Father's will, and therefore that the Son was a creature made by God, begotten directly of the infinite eternal God.", "Arius's argument was that the Son was God's first production, before all ages, the position being that the Son had a beginning, and that only the Father has no beginning.", "Arius argued that everything else was created through the Son.", "Thus, said the Arians, only the Son was directly created and begotten of God; and therefore there was a time that he had no existence.", "Arius believed that the Son of God was capable of his own free will of right and wrong, and that \"were He in the truest sense a son, He must have come after the Father, therefore the time obviously was when He was not, and hence He was a finite being\", and that he was under God the Father.", "Therefore, Arius insisted that the Father's divinity was greater than the Son's.", "The Arians appealed to Scripture, quoting biblical statements such as \"the Father is greater than I\" (John 14:28), and also that the Son is \"firstborn of all creation\" (Colossians 1:15).=== Arguments against Arianism ===The opposing view stemmed from the idea that begetting the Son is itself in the nature of the Father, which is eternal.", "Thus, the Father was always a Father, and both Father and Son existed always together, eternally, coequally and consubstantially.", "The anti-Arian argument thus stated that the Logos was \"eternally begotten\", therefore with no beginning.", "Those in opposition to Arius believed that to follow the Arian view destroyed the unity of the Godhead and made the Son unequal to the Father.", "They insisted that such a view was in contravention of such Scriptures as \"I and the Father are one\" (John 10:30) and \"the Word was God\" (John 1:1).", "They declared, as did Athanasius, that the Son had no beginning but had an \"eternal derivation\" from the Father and therefore was coeternal with him and equal to God in all aspects.=== Result of the debate ===Manasses Chronicle.The Council declared that the Son was true God, coeternal with the Father and begotten from his same substance, arguing that such a doctrine best codified the Scriptural presentation of the Son as well as traditional Christian belief about him handed down from the Apostles.", "This belief was expressed by the bishops in the Creed of Nicaea, which would form the basis of what has since been known as the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed." ], [ "Nicene Creed", "the Emperor Constantine and the bishops of the First Council of Nicaea (325) holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381The Council formulated a creed, a declaration and summary of the Christian faith.", "Several creeds were already in existence; many creeds were acceptable to the members of the Council, including Arius.", "From earliest times, various creeds served as a means of identification for Christians, as a means of inclusion and recognition, especially at baptism.", "In Rome, for example, the Apostles' Creed was popular, especially for use in Lent and the Easter season.", "In the Council of Nicaea, one specific creed was used to define the Church's faith clearly, to include those who professed it, and to exclude those who did not.The original Nicene Creed read as follows:The creed was amended by the First Council of Constantinople in 381.=== Distinctive elements ===Some distinctive elements in the Nicene Creed, perhaps from the hand of Hosius of Cordova, were added, some specifically to counter the Arian point of view.# Jesus Christ is described as \"Light from Light, true God from true God\", proclaiming his divinity.# Jesus Christ is said to be \"begotten, not made\", asserting that he was not a mere creature, brought into being out of nothing, but the true Son of God, brought into being \"from the substance of the Father\".# He is said to be \"of one substance with the Father\", proclaiming that although Jesus Christ is \"true God\" and God the Father is also \"true God\", they are \"of one substance\".", "The Greek term ''homoousios'', consubstantial (i.e.", "of the ''same'' substance) is ascribed by Eusebius of Caesarea to Constantine who, on this particular point, may have chosen to exercise his authority.", "The significance of this clause, however, is ambiguous as to the extent in which Jesus Christ and God the Father are \"of one substance\", and the issues it raised would be seriously controverted in the future.=== Anathemas ===At the end of the creed came a list of anathemas, designed to repudiate explicitly the Arians' stated claims.# The view that \"there was once when he was not\" was rejected to maintain the coeternity of the Son with the Father.# The view that he was \"mutable or subject to change\" was rejected to maintain that the Son just like the Father was beyond any form of weakness or corruptibility, and most importantly that he could not fall away from absolute moral perfection.Thus, instead of a baptismal creed acceptable to both the Arians and their opponents, the Council promulgated one which was clearly opposed to Arianism and incompatible with the distinctive core of their beliefs.", "The text of this profession of faith is preserved in a letter of Eusebius to his congregation, in Athanasius' works, and elsewhere.", "The Homoousians (from the Koine Greek word translated as \"of same substance\" which was condemned at the Council of Antioch in 264–268) were the most vocal of anti-Arians and were able to advance the use of the term, thus the creed was accepted by the Council.=== Pro-Nicene leaders ===Bishop Hosius of Cordova, one of the firm Homoousians, may well have helped bring the Council to consensus.", "At the time of the Council, he was the confidant of the emperor in all Church matters.", "Hosius stands at the head of the lists of bishops, and Athanasius ascribes to him the actual formulation of the creed.", "Leaders such as Eustathius of Antioch, Alexander of Alexandria, Athanasius, and Marcellus of Ancyra all adhered to the Homoousian position.=== Arius' supporters ===In spite of his sympathy for Arius, Eusebius of Caesarea adhered to the decisions of the Council, accepting the entire creed.", "The initial number of bishops supporting Arius was small perhaps only around 18.After a month of discussion, on 19 June, there were only two left: Theonas of Marmarica in Libya and Secundus of Ptolemais.", "Maris of Chalcedon, who initially supported Arianism, agreed to the whole creed but not the anathemas.", "Similarly, Eusebius of Nicomedia and Theognis of Nice also agreed, except for certain statements.=== Exiled ===The emperor carried out his earlier statement: everybody who refused to endorse the creed would be exiled.", "Arius, Theonas, and Secundus refused to adhere to the creed and were thus exiled to Illyria, in addition to being excommunicated.", "The works of Arius were ordered to be confiscated and consigned to the flames, while his supporters were considered as \"enemies of Christianity\".", "Nevertheless, the controversy continued in various parts of the empire." ], [ "Separation of Easter computation from Jewish calendar", "The feast of Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread, as Christians believe that the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus occurred at the time of those observances.", "As early as Pope Sixtus I in the 2nd century, some Christians had set Easter to a Sunday in the lunar month of Nisan.", "To determine which lunar month was to be designated as Nisan, Christians relied on the Jewish community.", "By the late 3rd century some Christians began to express dissatisfaction with what they took to be the disorderly state of the Jewish calendar.", "They argued that contemporary Jews were identifying the wrong lunar month as the month of Nisan, choosing a month whose 14th day fell before the spring equinox.Christians, these thinkers argued, should abandon the custom of relying on Jewish informants and instead do their own computations to determine which month should be styled Nisan, setting Easter within this independently computed, Christian Nisan, which would always locate the festival after the equinox.", "They justified this break with tradition by arguing that it was in fact the contemporary Jewish calendar that had broken with tradition by ignoring the equinox and that in former times the 14th of Nisan had never preceded the equinox.", "Others felt that the customary practice of reliance on the Jewish calendar should continue, even if the Jewish computations were in error from a Christian point of view.The controversy between those who argued for independent computations and those who argued for continued reliance on the Jewish calendar was formally resolved by the Council, which endorsed the independent procedure that had been in use for some time at Rome and Alexandria.", "Easter was henceforward to be a Sunday in a lunar month chosen according to Christian criteria—in effect, a Christian Nisan—not in the month of Nisan as defined by Jews.", "Those who argued for continued reliance on the Jewish calendar (called \"protopaschites\" by later historians) were urged to come around to the majority position.", "That they did not all immediately do so is revealed by the existence of sermons, canons, and tracts written against the protopaschite practice in the late 4th century.These two rules—independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity—were the only rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the Council.", "No details for the computation were specified; these were worked out in practice, a process that took centuries and generated numerous controversies, some of which remain unresolved.", "In particular, the Council did not seem to decree that Easter must fall on Sunday.", "This was unnecessary as it resolved against the ''Quartodecimani'', who celebrated on any day of the week, in favour of the Churches who postponed the celebration to the following Sunday.", "See the extract from the ''Letter of the Council of Nicaea to the Egyptian Church'', cited above.Nor did the Council decree that Easter must never coincide with Nisan 15 (the first Day of Unleavened Bread, now commonly called \"Passover\") in the Hebrew calendar.", "By endorsing the move to independent computations, the Council had separated the Easter computation from all dependence, positive or negative, on the Jewish calendar.", "The \"Zonaras proviso\", the claim that Easter must always follow Nisan 15 in the Hebrew calendar, was not formulated until after some centuries.", "This was formulated not as a matter of doctrine but to avoid the anachronism which would otherwise result.", "By that time, the accumulation of errors in the Julian solar and lunar calendars had made it the ''de facto'' state of affairs that Julian Easter always followed Hebrew Nisan 15." ], [ "Melitian schism", "The suppression of the Melitian schism, an early breakaway sect, was another important matter that came before the Council of Nicaea.", "Melitius, it was decided, should remain in his own city of Lycopolis in Egypt but without exercising authority or the power to ordain new clergy; he was forbidden to go into the environs of the town or to enter another diocese for the purpose of ordaining its subjects.", "Melitius retained his episcopal title, but the ecclesiastics ordained by him were to receive again the laying on of hands, the ordinations performed by Melitius being therefore regarded as invalid.", "Clergy ordained by Melitius were ordered to yield precedence to those ordained by Alexander, and they were not to do anything without the consent of Bishop Alexander.In the event of the death of a non-Melitian bishop or ecclesiastic, the vacant see might be given to a Melitian, provided he was worthy and the popular election were ratified by Alexander.", "Melitius' episcopal rights and prerogatives were taken from him.", "These mild measures, however, were in vain; the Melitians joined the Arians and caused more dissension than ever, being among the worst enemies of Athanasius.", "The Melitians ultimately died out around the middle of the 5th century." ], [ "Promulgation of canon law", "The Council promulgated twenty new church laws, called ''canons'' (though the exact number is subject to debate), that is, rules of discipline.", "The twenty as listed in the works of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers are as follows:# prohibition of self-castration for clergy# establishment of a minimum term for catechumens (persons studying for baptism)# prohibition of a man and a woman who have both taken vows of chastity to live together in a chaste and non-legalized partnership (the so called ''virgines subintroductae'', who practiced syneisaktism)# ordination of a bishop in the presence of at least three provincial bishops and confirmation by the metropolitan bishop# provision for two provincial synods to be held annually# confirmation of ancient customs giving jurisdiction over large regions to the bishops of Alexandria, Rome, and Antioch# recognition of the honorary rights of the see of Jerusalem# provision for agreement with the Novatianists, an early sect# elders who had been ordained without sufficient examination were not to be recognized# elders who had lapsed but had not been found out were to be deposed# mercy was enjoined toward those who had lapsed without compulsion, even though it was recognized that they did not deserve it# those who had left the military but later sought out to be restored to their military position were to be excommunicated; depending on the sincerity of their repentance, they could be readmitted to communion earlier# those who were fulfilling penance could receive communion if they were dying, but if they got well again, they were to finish their penance# catechumens who lapsed were to have three years as hearers before being allowed to become catechumens again# bishops, presbyters, and deacons were not to wander into neighboring cities to officiate# clergy who refused to return to their home church were to be excommunicated, and the ordinations of those who were ordained by these wandering clergy were to be considered null and void# prohibition of usury among the clergy# precedence of bishops and presbyters before deacons in receiving the Eucharist (Holy Communion)# declaration of the invalidity of baptism by Paulian heretics# prohibition of kneeling on Sundays and during the Pentecost (the fifty days commencing on Easter).", "Standing was the normative posture for prayer at this time, as it still is among the Eastern Christians.", "Kneeling was considered most appropriate to penitential prayer, as distinct from the festive nature of Eastertide and its remembrance every Sunday.", "The canon was designed only to ensure uniformity of practice at the designated times." ], [ "Effects", "Vatican's Sixtine SalonIn the short-term, the Council did not completely solve the problems it was convened to discuss, and a period of conflict and upheaval continued for some time.", "Constantine was succeeded by two Arian emperors in the Eastern Empire: his son, Constantius II, and Valens.", "Valens could not resolve the outstanding ecclesiastical issues and unsuccessfully confronted St.", "Basil over the Nicene Creed.Pagan powers within the empire sought to maintain and at times re-establish paganism into the seat of the emperor (see Arbogast and Julian the Apostate).", "Arians and Meletians soon regained nearly all of the rights they had lost, and consequently Arianism continued to spread and be a subject of debate within the Church during the remainder of the 4th century.", "Almost immediately, Eusebius of Nicomedia, an Arian bishop and cousin to Constantine I, used his influence at court to sway Constantine's favor from the proto-orthodox Nicene bishops to the Arians.Eustathius of Antioch was deposed and exiled in 330.Athanasius, who had succeeded Alexander as Bishop of Alexandria, was deposed by the First Synod of Tyre in 335, and Marcellus of Ancyra followed him in 336.Arius returned to Constantinople to be readmitted into the Church but died shortly before he could be received.", "Constantine died the next year, after finally receiving baptism from Arian Bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, and \"with his passing the first round in the battle after the Council of Nicaea was ended\"." ], [ "Role of Constantine", "Christianity had only recently been legalised in the empire, the Diocletianic Persecution having ended in 311 under Galerius.", "Although Galerius stopped the Persecution, Christianity was not legally protected until 313, when the emperors Constantine and Licinius agreed to what became known as the Edict of Milan, guaranteeing Christians legal protection and tolerance.", "However, Nicene Christianity did not become the state religion of the Roman Empire until the Edict of Thessalonica in 380.In the meantime, paganism remained legal and present in public affairs.", "Constantine's coinage and other official motifs, until the Council of Nicaea, had affiliated him with the pagan cult of Sol Invictus.", "At first, Constantine encouraged the construction of new temples and tolerated traditional sacrifices.", "Later in his reign, he gave orders for the pillaging and the tearing down of Roman temples.Constantine's role regarding Nicaea was that of supreme civil leader and authority in the empire.", "As Emperor, the responsibility for maintaining civil order was his, and he sought that the Church be of one mind and at peace.", "When first informed of the unrest in Alexandria due to the Arian disputes, he was \"greatly troubled\" and, \"rebuked\" both Arius and Bishop Alexander for originating the disturbance and allowing it to become public.", "Aware also of \"the diversity of opinion\" regarding the celebration of Easter and hoping to settle both issues, he sent the \"honored\" Bishop Hosius of Cordova (Hispania) to form a local church council and \"reconcile those who were divided\".", "When that embassy failed, he turned to summoning a synod at Nicaea, inviting \"the most eminent men of the churches in every country\".Constantine assisted in assembling the Council by arranging that travel expenses to and from the bishops' episcopal sees, as well as lodging at Nicaea, be covered out of public funds.", "He also provided and furnished a \"great hall ... in the palace\" as a place for discussion so that the attendees \"should be treated with becoming dignity\".", "In addressing the opening of the Council, he \"exhorted the Bishops to unanimity and concord\" and called on them to follow the Holy Scriptures with: \"Let, then, all contentious disputation be discarded; and let us seek in the divinely-inspired word the solution of the questions at issue.", "\"Thereupon, the debate about Arius and church doctrine began.", "\"The emperor gave patient attention to the speeches of both parties\" and \"deferred\" to the decision of the bishops.", "The bishops first pronounced Arius' teachings to be anathema, formulating the creed as a statement of correct doctrine.", "When Arius and two followers refused to agree, the bishops pronounced clerical judgement by excommunicating them from the Church.", "Respecting the clerical decision, and seeing the threat of continued unrest, Constantine also pronounced civil judgement, banishing them into exile.", "This was the beginning of the practice of using secular power to establish doctrinal orthodoxy within Christianity, an example followed by all later Christian emperors, which led to a circle of Christian violence, and of Christian resistance couched in terms of martyrdom." ], [ "Misconceptions", "=== Biblical canon ===There is no record of any discussion of the biblical canon at the council.", "The development of the biblical canon was nearly complete (with exceptions known as the Antilegomena, written texts whose authenticity or value is disputed) by the time the Muratorian fragment was written.", "The main source of the idea that the canon was created at the Council of Nicaea seems to be Voltaire, who popularised a story that the canon was determined by placing all the competing books on an altar during the Council and then keeping the ones that did not fall off.", "The original source of this \"fictitious anecdote\" is the ''Synodicon Vetus'', a pseudo-historical account of early Church councils from 887.In 331, Constantine commissioned fifty Bibles for the use of the Bishop of Constantinople, but little else is known (in fact, it is not even certain whether his request was for fifty copies of the entire Old and New Testaments, only the New Testament, or merely the Gospels).", "Some scholars believe that this request provided motivation for canon lists.", "In Jerome's ''Prologue to Judith'', he claims that the Book of Judith was \"found by the Nicene Council to have been counted among the number of the Sacred Scriptures\".", "However, modern scholars such as Edmon Gallagher have doubted that this indicates any canon selection in the council.=== Trinity ===The Council of Nicaea dealt primarily with the issue of the deity of Christ.", "The term \"Trinity\" was already in use, with the earliest existing reference being by Theophilus of Antioch (AD 115–181), referring to God, the Logos, and Sophia (Father, Son and Holy Spirit, as the Holy Spirit was referred to by several Church fathers), though many scholars believe that the way the term was used indicates that it was known previously to his readers.", "Also, over a century before, the term \"Trinity\" ( in Greek; in Latin) was used in the writings of Origen and Tertullian, and a general notion of a \"divine three\", in some sense, was expressed in the 2nd-century writings of Polycarp, Ignatius, and Justin Martyr.", "In Nicaea, questions regarding the Holy Spirit were left largely unaddressed until after the relationship between the Father and the Son was settled around the year 362.The doctrine in a more full-fledged form was not formulated until the Council of Constantinople in 381 and a final form formulated primarily by Gregory of Nyssa.=== Constantine ===While Constantine had sought a unified church after the Council, he did not force the homoousian view of Christ's nature on the council.", "Constantine did not commission any Bibles at the Council.", "Despite Constantine's sympathetic interest in the Church, he was not baptized until some 11 or 12 years after the council, putting off baptism as long as he did so as to be absolved from as much sin as possible." ], [ "Disputed matters", "According to Protestant theologian Philip Schaff: \"The Nicene fathers passed this canon not as introducing anything new, but merely as confirming an existing relation on the basis of church tradition; and that, with special reference to Alexandria, on account of the troubles existing there.", "Rome was named only for illustration; and Antioch and all the other eparchies or provinces were secured their admitted rights.", "The bishoprics of Alexandria, Rome, and Antioch were placed substantially on equal footing.\"", "Thus, according to Schaff, the Bishop of Alexandria was to have jurisdiction over the provinces of Egypt, Libya and the Pentapolis, just as the Bishop of Rome had authority \"with reference to his own diocese.", "\"However, according to Fr.", "James F. Loughlin, there is an alternative Catholic interpretation.", "It involves five different arguments \"drawn respectively from the grammatical structure of the sentence, from the logical sequence of ideas, from Catholic analogy, from comparison with the process of formation of the Byzantine Patriarchate, and from the authority of the ancients\" in favor of an alternative understanding of the canon.", "According to this interpretation, the canon shows the role the Bishop of Rome had when he, by his authority, confirmed the jurisdiction of the other patriarchs—an interpretation which is in line with the Catholic understanding of the Pope.", "Thus, the Bishop of Alexandria presided over Egypt, Libya and the Pentapolis, while the Bishop of Antioch \"enjoyed a similar authority throughout the great diocese of Oriens,\" and all by the authority of the Bishop of Rome.", "To Loughlin, that was the only possible reason to invoke the custom of a Roman Bishop in a matter related to the two metropolitan bishops in Alexandria and Antioch.However, Protestant and Catholic interpretations have historically assumed that some or all of the bishops identified in the canon were presiding over their own dioceses at the time of the Council—the Bishop of Rome over the Diocese of Italy, as Schaff suggested, the Bishop of Antioch over the Diocese of Oriens, as Loughlin suggested, and the Bishop of Alexandria over the Diocese of Egypt, as suggested by Karl Josef von Hefele.", "According to Hefele, the Council had assigned to Alexandria, \"the whole (civil) Diocese of Egypt.\"", "Yet those assumptions have since been proven false.", "At the time of the Council, the Diocese of Egypt did exist but was known as the Diocese of Alexandria, so the Council could have assigned it to Alexandria.", "Antioch and Alexandria were both located within the civil Diocese of Oriens, Antioch being the chief metropolis, but neither administered the whole.", "Likewise, Rome and Milan were both located within the civil Diocese of Italy, Milan being the chief metropolis.This geographic issue related to Canon 6 was highlighted by Protestant writer Timothy F. Kauffman, as a correction to the anachronism created by the assumption that each bishop was already presiding over a whole diocese at the time of the Council.", "According to Kauffman, since Milan and Rome were both located within the Diocese of Italy, and Antioch and Alexandria were both located within the Diocese of Oriens, a relevant and \"structural congruency\" between Rome and Alexandria was readily apparent to the gathered bishops: both had been made to share a diocese of which neither was the chief metropolis.", "Rome's jurisdiction within Italy had been defined in terms of several of the city's adjacent provinces since Diocletian's reordering of the empire in 293, as the earliest Latin version of the canon indicates.That provincial arrangement of Roman and Milanese jurisdiction within Italy therefore was a relevant precedent, and provided an administrative solution to the problem facing the Council—namely, how to define Alexandrian and Antiochian jurisdiction within the Diocese of Oriens.", "In canon 6, the Council left most of the diocese under Antioch's jurisdiction, and assigned a few provinces of the diocese to Alexandria, \"since the like is customary for the Bishop of Rome also.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Ancient church councils (pre-ecumenical) – church councils before the First Council of Nicaea" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "=== Primary sources ===Note: NPNF2 = , see also Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers* ** ** * ** ** * ** ** ** * ** ** ** * ** * ** ** ** ** * * * * * * * === Secondary sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "** The Road to Nicaea A descriptive overview of the events of the Council, by John Anthony McGuckin.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Canons of the Council of Nicaea, sponsored by Wisconsin Lutheran College and Asia Lutheran Seminary.", "* Updated English Translations of the Council proceedings, Creed, Rulings (Canons), and Letters Connected to the Council, from the above site." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "February 5" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===**2 BC – Caesar Augustus is granted the title ''pater patriae'' by the Roman Senate.", "*62 – Earthquake in Pompeii, Italy.", "*756 – Chinese New Year; An Lushan proclaims himself Emperor of China and founds the short-lived state of Yan.", "*1576 – Henry of Navarre abjures Catholicism at Tours and rejoins the Protestant forces in the French Wars of Religion.", "*1597 – A group of early Japanese Christians are killed by the new government of Japan for being seen as a threat to Japanese society.===1601–1900===*1783 – In Calabria, a sequence of strong earthquakes begins.", "*1810 – Peninsular War: Siege of Cádiz begins.", "*1818 – Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte ascends to the thrones of Sweden and Norway.", "*1852 – The New Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, Russia, one of the largest and oldest museums in the world, opens to the public.", "*1859 – Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Prince of Moldavia, is also elected as prince of Wallachia, joining the two principalities as a personal union called the United Principalities, an autonomous region within the Ottoman Empire, which ushered in the birth of the modern Romanian state.", "*1869 – The largest alluvial gold nugget in history, called the \"Welcome Stranger\", is found in Moliagul, Victoria, Australia.", "*1885 – King Leopold II of Belgium establishes the Congo as a personal possession.===1901–present===*1901 – J. P. Morgan incorporates U.S. Steel in the state of New Jersey, although the company would not start doing business until February 25 and the assets of Andrew Carnegie's Carnegie Steel Company, Elbert H. Gary's Federal Steel Company, and William Henry Moore's National Steel Company were not acquired until April 1.", "*1905 – In Mexico, the General Hospital of Mexico is inaugurated, started with four basic specialties.", "*1907 – Belgian chemist Leo Baekeland announces the creation of Bakelite, the world's first synthetic plastic.", "*1913 – Greek military aviators, Michael Moutoussis and Aristeidis Moraitinis perform the first naval air mission in history, with a Farman MF.7 hydroplane.", "* 1913 – Claudio Monteverdi's last opera ''L'incoronazione di Poppea'' was performed theatrically for the first time in more than 250 years.", "*1917 – The current constitution of Mexico is adopted, establishing a federal republic with powers separated into independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches.", "* 1917 – The Congress of the United States passes the Immigration Act of 1917 over President Woodrow Wilson's veto.", "*1918 – Stephen W. Thompson shoots down a German airplane; this is the first aerial victory by the U.S.", "military.", "* 1918 – is torpedoed off the coast of Ireland; it is the first ship carrying American troops to Europe to be torpedoed and sunk.", "*1919 – Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks, and D. W. Griffith launch United Artists.", "*1924 – The Royal Greenwich Observatory begins broadcasting the hourly time signals known as the Greenwich Time Signal.", "*1933 – Mutiny on Royal Netherlands Navy warship HNLMS ''De Zeven Provinciën'' off the coast of Sumatra, Dutch East Indies.", "*1939 – Generalísimo Francisco Franco becomes the 68th \"''Caudillo de España''\", or Leader of Spain.", "*1941 – World War II: Allied forces begin the Battle of Keren to capture Keren, Eritrea.", "*1945 – World War II: General Douglas MacArthur returns to Manila.", "*1958 – Gamal Abdel Nasser is nominated to be the first president of the United Arab Republic.", "* 1958 – A hydrogen bomb known as the Tybee Bomb is lost by the US Air Force off the coast of Savannah, Georgia, never to be recovered.", "*1962 – French President Charles de Gaulle calls for Algeria to be granted independence.", "*1963 – The European Court of Justice's ruling in ''Van Gend en Loos v Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen'' establishes the principle of direct effect, one of the most important, if not the most important, decisions in the development of European Union law.", "*1967 – Cultural Revolution: The Shanghai People's Commune is formally proclaimed, with Yao Wenyuan and Zhang Chunqiao being appointed as its leaders.", "*1971 – Astronauts land on the Moon in the Apollo 14 mission.", "*1975 – Riots break out in Lima, Peru after the police forces go on strike the day before.", "The uprising (locally known as the ''Limazo'') is bloodily suppressed by the military dictatorship.", "*1981 – Operation Soap: The Metropolitan Toronto Police Force raids four gay bathhouses in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, arresting just under 300, triggering mass protest and rallies.", "*1985 – Ugo Vetere, then the mayor of Rome, and Chedli Klibi, then the mayor of Carthage, meet in Tunis to sign a treaty of friendship officially ending the Third Punic War which lasted 2,131 years.", "*1988 – Manuel Noriega is indicted on drug smuggling and money laundering charges.", "*1994 – Byron De La Beckwith is convicted of the 1963 murder of civil rights leader Medgar Evers.", "* 1994 – Markale massacres, more than 60 people are killed and some 200 wounded as a mortar shell explodes in a downtown marketplace in Sarajevo.", "*1997 – The so-called Big Three banks in Switzerland announce the creation of a $71 million fund to aid Holocaust survivors and their families.", "*2000 – Russian forces massacre at least 60 civilians in the Novye Aldi suburb of Grozny, Chechnya.", "*2004 – Rebels from the Revolutionary Artibonite Resistance Front capture the city of Gonaïves, starting the 2004 Haiti rebellion.", "*2008 – A major tornado outbreak across the Southern United States kills 57.", "*2019 – Pope Francis becomes the first Pope in history to visit and perform papal mass in the Arabian Peninsula during his visit to Abu Dhabi.", "*2020 – United States President Donald Trump is acquitted by the United States Senate in his first impeachment trial.", "*2021 – Police riot in Mexico City as they try to break up a demonstration by cyclists who were protesting after a bus ran over a bicyclist.", "Eleven police officers are arrested." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 976 – Sanjō, emperor of Japan (d. 1017)*1321 – John II, marquess of Montferrat (d. 1372)*1438 – Philip II, duke of Savoy (d. 1497)*1505 – Aegidius Tschudi, Swiss statesman and historian (d. 1572)*1519 – René of Châlon, prince of Orange (d. 1544)*1525 – Juraj Drašković, Croatian Catholic cardinal (d. 1587)*1533 – Andreas Dudith, Croatian-Hungarian nobleman and diplomat (d. 1589)*1534 – Giovanni de' Bardi, Italian soldier, composer, and critic (d. 1612)*1589 – Esteban Manuel de Villegas, Spanish poet and educator (d. 1669)*1594 – Biagio Marini, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1663)===1601–1900===*1608 – Gaspar Schott, German mathematician and physicist (d. 1666)*1626 – Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, marquise de Sévigné, French author (d. 1696)*1650 – Anne Jules de Noailles, French general (d. 1708)*1703 – Gilbert Tennent, Irish-American minister (d. 1764)*1723 – John Witherspoon, Scottish-American minister and academic (d. 1794)*1725 – James Otis, Jr., American lawyer and politician (d. 1783)*1748 – Christian Gottlob Neefe, German composer and conductor (d. 1798)*1788 – Robert Peel, English lieutenant and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1850)*1795 – Wilhelm Karl Ritter von Haidinger, Austrian mineralogist, geologist, and physicist (d. 1871)*1804 – Johan Ludvig Runeberg, Finnish poet and hymn-writer (d. 1877)*1808 – Carl Spitzweg, German painter and poet (d. 1885)*1810 – Ole Bull, Norwegian violinist and composer (d. 1880)*1827 – Peter Lalor, Irish-Australian activist and politician (d. 1889)*1837 – Dwight L. Moody, American evangelist and publisher, founded Moody Church, Moody Bible Institute, and Moody Publishers (d. 1899)*1840 – John Boyd Dunlop, Scottish businessman, co-founded Dunlop Rubber (d. 1921)* 1840 – Hiram Maxim, American engineer, invented the Maxim gun (d. 1916)*1847 – Eduard Magnus Jakobson, Estonian missionary and engraver (d. 1903)*1848 – Joris-Karl Huysmans, French author and critic (d. 1907)* 1848 – Ignacio Carrera Pinto, Chilean lieutenant (d. 1882)*1852 – Terauchi Masatake, Japanese field marshal and politician, 9th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1919)*1866 – Domhnall Ua Buachalla, Irish politician, 3rd and last Governor-General of the Irish Free State (d. 1963)*1870 – Charles Edmund Brock, British painter and book illustrator (d. 1938)*1876 – Ernie McLea, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1931)*1878 – André Citroën, French engineer and businessman, founded Citroën (d. 1935)*1880 – Gabriel Voisin, French pilot and engineer (d. 1973)*1889 – Patsy Hendren, English cricketer and footballer (d. 1962)* 1889 – Ernest Tyldesley, English cricketer (d. 1962)* 1889 – Recep Peker, Turkish officer and politician (d. 1950)*1891 – Renato Petronio, Italian rower (d. 1976)*1892 – Elizabeth Ryan, American tennis player (d. 1979)*1897 – Dirk Stikker, Dutch businessman and politician, 3rd Secretary General of NATO (d. 1979)*1900 – Adlai Stevenson II, American soldier, politician, and diplomat, 5th United States Ambassador to the United Nations (d. 1965)===1901–present===*1903 – Koto Matsudaira, Japanese diplomat, ambassador to the United Nations (d. 1994)* 1903 – Joan Whitney Payson, American businesswoman and philanthropist (d. 1975)*1906 – John Carradine, American actor (d. 1988)*1907 – Birgit Dalland, Norwegian politician (d. 2007)* 1907 – Pierre Pflimlin, French politician, Prime Minister of France (d. 2000)*1908 – Marie Baron, Dutch swimmer and diver (d. 1948)* 1908 – Peg Entwistle, Welsh-American actress (d. 1932)* 1908 – Eugen Weidmann, German criminal (d. 1939)*1909 – Grażyna Bacewicz, Polish violinist and composer (d. 1969)*1910 – Charles Philippe Leblond, French-Canadian biologist and academic (d. 2007)* 1910 – Francisco Varallo, Argentinian footballer (d. 2010)*1911 – Jussi Björling, Swedish tenor (d. 1960)*1914 – William S. Burroughs, American novelist, short story writer, and essayist (d. 1997)* 1914 – Alan Lloyd Hodgkin, English physiologist, biophysicist, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998)*1915 – Robert Hofstadter, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1990)*1917 – Edward J. Mortola, American academic and president of Pace University (d. 2002)* 1917 – Isuzu Yamada, Japanese actress (d. 2012)*1919 – Red Buttons, American actor (d. 2006)* 1919 – Tim Holt, American actor (d. 1973)* 1919 – Andreas Papandreou, Greek economist and politician, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1996)*1921 – Ken Adam, German-born English production designer and art director (d. 2016)*1923 – Claude King, American country music singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013)* 1923 – James E. Bowman, American physician and academic (d. 2011)*1924 – Duraisamy Simon Lourdusamy, Indian cardinal (d. 2014)*1927 – Robert Allen, American pianist and composer (d. 2000)* 1927 – Jacob Veldhuyzen van Zanten, Dutch captain and pilot (d. 1977)*1928 – Hristu Cândroveanu, Romanian editor, literary critic and writer (d. 2013)* 1928 – Tage Danielsson, Swedish author, actor, and director (d. 1985)* 1928 – Andrew Greeley, American priest, sociologist, and author (d. 2013)* 1928 – P. J. Vatikiotis, Israeli-American historian and political scientist (d. 1997)*1929 – Hal Blaine, American session drummer (d. 2019)* 1929 – Luc Ferrari, French pianist and composer (d. 2005)* 1929 – Fred Sinowatz, Austrian politician, 19th Chancellor of Austria (d. 2008)*1932 – Cesare Maldini, Italian footballer and manager (d. 2016)*1933 – Jörn Donner, Finnish director and screenwriter (d. 2020)* 1933 – B. S. Johnson, English author, poet, and critic (d. 1973)*1934 – Hank Aaron, American baseball player (d. 2021)* 1934 – Don Cherry, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and sportscaster*1935 – Alex Harvey, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1982)* 1935 – Johannes Geldenhuys, South African military commander (d. 2018)*1936 – K. S. Nissar Ahmed, Indian poet and academic (d. 2020)*1937 – Stuart Damon, American actor and singer (d. 2021)* 1937 – Larry Hillman, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2022)* 1937 – Gaston Roelants, Belgian runner* 1937 – Alar Toomre, Estonian-American astronomer and mathematician* 1937 – Wang Xuan, Chinese computer scientist and academic (d. 2006)*1938 – Rafael Nieto Navia, Colombian lawyer, jurist, and diplomat*1939 – Brian Luckhurst, English cricketer (d. 2005)*1940 – H. R. Giger, Swiss painter, sculptor, and set designer (d. 2014)* 1940 – Luke Graham, American wrestler (d. 2006)*1941 – Stephen J. Cannell, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2010)* 1941 – Henson Cargill, American country music singer (d. 2007)* 1941 – David Selby, American actor and playwright* 1941 – Barrett Strong, American soul singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2023)* 1941 – Kaspar Villiger, Swiss engineer and politician, 85th President of the Swiss Confederation* 1941 – Cory Wells, American pop-rock singer (d. 2015)*1942 – Roger Staubach, American football player, sportscaster, and businessman*1943 – Nolan Bushnell, American engineer and businessman, founded Atari, Inc.* 1943 – Michael Mann, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1943 – Craig Morton, American football player and sportscaster* 1943 – Dušan Uhrin, Czech and Slovak footballer and manager*1944 – J. R. Cobb, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2019)* 1944 – Henfil, Brazilian journalist, author, and illustrator (d. 1988)* 1944 – Al Kooper, American singer-songwriter and producer * 1944 – Tamanoumi Masahiro, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 51st Yokozuna (d. 1971)*1945 – Douglas Hogg, English lawyer and politician, Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food*1946 – Amnon Dankner, Israeli journalist and author (d. 2013)* 1946 – Charlotte Rampling, English actress*1947 – Mary L. Cleave, American engineer and astronaut (d. 2023)* 1947 – Clemente Mastella, Italian politician, Italian Minister of Justice* 1947 – Darrell Waltrip, American race car driver and sportscaster*1948 – Sven-Göran Eriksson, Swedish footballer and manager* 1948 – Christopher Guest, American actor and director* 1948 – Barbara Hershey, American actress* 1948 – Errol Morris, American director and producer* 1948 – Tom Wilkinson, English actor (d. 2023)*1949 – Kurt Beck, German politician* 1949 – Maidarjavyn Ganzorig, Mongolian cosmonaut and academic (d. 2021)* 1949 – Yvon Vallières, Canadian educator and politician*1950 – Jonathan Freeman, American actor and singer* 1950 – Rafael Puente, Mexican footballer*1951 – Nikolay Merkushkin, Mordovian engineer and politician, 1st Head of the Republic of Mordovia*1952 – Daniel Balavoine, French singer-songwriter and producer (d. 1986)* 1952 – Vladimir Moskovkin, Ukrainian-Russian geographer, economist, and academic*1953 – Freddie Aguilar, Filipino singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1953 – John Beilein, American basketball player and coach* 1953 – Gustavo Benítez, Paraguayan footballer and manager*1954 – Cliff Martinez, American drummer and songwriter * 1954 – Frank Walker, Australian journalist and author*1955 – Mike Heath, American baseball player and manager*1956 – Vinnie Colaiuta, American drummer* 1956 – Héctor Rebaque, Mexican race car driver* 1956 – David Wiesner, American author and illustrator* 1956 – Mao Daichi, Japanese actress*1957 – Jüri Tamm, Estonian hammer thrower and politician (d. 2021)*1959 – Jennifer Granholm, Canadian-American lawyer and politician, 47th Governor of Michigan*1960 – Aris Christofellis, Greek soprano and musicologist* 1960 – Bonnie Crombie, Canadian businesswoman and politician, 6th Mayor of Mississauga* 1960 – Micky Hazard, English footballer *1961 – Savvas Kofidis, Greek footballer and manager* 1961 – Tim Meadows, American actor and screenwriter*1962 – Jennifer Jason Leigh, American actress, screenwriter, producer and director*1963 – Steven Shainberg, American film director and producer*1964 – Laura Linney, American actress* 1964 – Ha Seung-moo, Korean poet, pastor, historical theologian* 1964 – Duff McKagan, American singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer*1965 – Tarik Benhabiles, Algerian-French tennis player and coach* 1965 – Gheorghe Hagi, Romanian footballer and manager * 1965 – Keith Moseley, American bass player and songwriter * 1965 – Quique Sánchez Flores, Spanish footballer and manager*1966 – José María Olazábal, Spanish golfer* 1966 – Rok Petrovič, Slovenian skier (d. 1993)*1967 – Chris Parnell, American actor and comedian*1968 – Roberto Alomar, Puerto Rican-American baseball player and coach* 1968 – Marcus Grönholm, Finnish race car driver*1969 – Bobby Brown, American singer-songwriter, dancer, and actor* 1969 – Michael Sheen, Welsh actor and director* 1969 – Derek Stephen Prince, American voice actor*1970 – Jean-Marc Jaumin, Belgian basketball player and coach* 1970 – Darren Lehmann, Australian cricketer and coach* 1970 – Jeremy Rockliff, Australian politician, 47th Premier of Tasmania*1971 – Michel Breistroff, French ice hockey player (d. 1996)* 1971 – Sara Evans, American country singer*1972 – Queen Mary of Denmark* 1972 – Brad Fittler, Australian rugby league player, coach, and sportscaster*1973 – Richard Matvichuk, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1973 – Trijntje Oosterhuis, Dutch singer-songwriter* 1973 – Luke Ricketson, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster*1974 – Michael Maguire, Australian rugby league player and coach*1975 – Giovanni van Bronckhorst, Dutch footballer and manager*1976 – John Aloisi, Australian footballer and manager* 1976 – Abhishek Bachchan, Indian actor*1977 – Ben Ainslie, English sailor* 1977 – Adam Dykes, Australian rugby league player* 1977 – Adam Everett, American baseball player and coach*1978 – Brian Russell, American football player* 1978 – Samuel Sánchez, Spanish cyclist*1979 – Nate Holzapfel, American entrepreneur and television personality*1980 – Brad Fitzpatrick, American programmer, created LiveJournal* 1980 – Jo Swinson, Scottish politician*1981 – Mia Hansen-Løve, French director and screenwriter * 1981 – Loukas Vyntra, Czech-Greek footballer*1982 – Laura del Río, Spanish footballer* 1982 – Kevin Everett, American football player* 1982 – Tomáš Kopecký, Slovak ice hockey player* 1982 – Rodrigo Palacio, Argentinian footballer*1983 – Anja Hammerseng-Edin, Norwegian handball player*1984 – Carlos Tevez, Argentinian footballer*1985 – Lloyd Johansson, Australian rugby player* 1985 – Laurence Maroney, American football player* 1985 – Paul Vandervort, American actor, film producer, and former model* 1985 – Cristiano Ronaldo, Portuguese footballer*1986 – Vedran Ćorluka, Croatian footballer* 1986 – Kevin Gates, American rapper, singer, and entrepreneur* 1986 – Sekope Kepu, Australian rugby player* 1986 – Billy Sharp, English footballer* 1986 – Reed Sorenson, American race car driver* 1986 – Carlos Villanueva, Chilean footballer*1987 – Darren Criss, American actor, singer, and entrepreneur* 1987 – Curtis Jerrells, American basketball player* 1987 – Alex Kuznetsov, Ukrainian-American tennis player* 1987 – Linus Omark, Swedish ice hockey player* 1987 – Donald Sanford, American-Israeli sprinter*1988 – Karin Ontiveros, Mexican model*1989 – Marina Melnikova, Russian tennis player*1990 – Dmitry Andreikin, Russian chess player* 1990 – Bhuvneshwar Kumar, Indian cricketer* 1990 – Jordan Rhodes, Scottish footballer*1991 – Nabil Bahoui, Swedish footballer* 1991 – Gerald Tusha, Albanian footballer*1992 – Stefan de Vrij, Dutch footballer* 1992 – Neymar, Brazilian footballer*1993 – Leilani Latu, Australian rugby league player* 1993 – Ty Rattie, Canadian ice hockey player*1995 – Adnan Januzaj, Belgian-Albanian footballer*1996 – Stina Blackstenius, Swedish footballer *1997 – Patrick Roberts, English footballer*2016 – Jigme Namgyel Wangchuck, Bhutanese prince" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 523 – Avitus of Vienne, Gallo-Roman bishop* 994 – William IV, duke of Aquitaine (b.", "937)*1015 – Adelaide, German abbess and saint*1036 – Alfred Aetheling, Anglo-Saxon prince*1146 – Zafadola, Arab emir of Zaragoza*1578 – Giovanni Battista Moroni, Italian painter (b.", "1520)===1601–1900===*1661 – Shunzhi, Chinese emperor of the Qing Dynasty (b.", "1638)*1705 – Philipp Spener, German theologian and author (b.", "1635)*1751 – Henri François d'Aguesseau, French jurist and politician, Chancellor of France (b.", "1668)*1754 – Nicolaas Kruik, Dutch astronomer and cartographer (b.", "1678)*1766 – Count Leopold Joseph von Daun, Austrian field marshal (b.", "1705)*1775 – Eusebius Amort, German theologian and academic (b.", "1692)*1790 – William Cullen, Scottish physician and chemist (b.", "1710)*1807 – Pasquale Paoli, Corsican commander and politician (b.", "1725)*1818 – Charles XIII, king of Sweden (b.", "1748)*1881 – Thomas Carlyle, Scottish philosopher, historian, and academic (b.", "1795)*1882 – Adolfo Rivadeneyra, Spanish orientalist and diplomat (b.", "1841)*1892 – Emilie Flygare-Carlén, Swedish author (b.", "1807)===1901–present===*1915 – Ross Barnes, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1850)*1917 – Jaber II Al-Sabah, Kuwaiti ruler (b.", "1860)*1922 – Slavoljub Eduard Penkala, Croatian engineer, invented the mechanical pencil (b.", "1871)*1927 – Inayat Khan, Indian mystic and educator (b.", "1882)*1931 – Athanasios Eftaxias, Greek politician, 118th Prime Minister of Greece (b.", "1849)*1933 – Josiah Thomas, English-Australian miner and politician (b.", "1863)*1937 – Lou Andreas-Salomé, Russian-German psychoanalyst and author (b.", "1861)*1938 – Hans Litten, German lawyer and jurist (b.", "1903)*1941 – Banjo Paterson, Australian journalist, author, and poet (b.", "1864)* 1941 – Otto Strandman, Estonian lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Estonia (b.", "1875)*1946 – George Arliss, English actor and playwright (b.", "1868)*1948 – Johannes Blaskowitz, German general (b.", "1883)*1952 – Adela Verne, English pianist and composer (b.", "1877)*1954 – Hossein Sami'i, Iranian politician, diplomat, writer and poet (b.", "1876)*1955 – Victor Houteff, Bulgarian religious reformer and author (b.", "1885)*1957 – Sami Ibrahim Haddad, Lebanese surgeon and author (b.", "1890)*1962 – Jacques Ibert, French-Swiss composer (b.", "1890)*1967 – Leon Leonwood Bean, American businessman, founded L.L.Bean (b.", "1872)*1969 – Thelma Ritter, American actress (b.", "1902)*1970 – Rudy York, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1913)*1972 – Marianne Moore, American poet, author, critic, and translator (b.", "1887)*1976 – Rudy Pompilli, American saxophonist (Bill Haley & His Comets) (b.", "1926)*1977 – Oskar Klein, Swedish physicist and academic (b.", "1894)*1981 – Ella Grasso, American politician, 83rd Governor of Connecticut (b.", "1919)*1982 – Neil Aggett, Kenyan-South African physician and union leader (b.", "1953)*1983 – Margaret Oakley Dayhoff, American chemist and academic (b.", "1925)*1987 – William Collier Jr., American actor and producer (b.", "1902)*1989 – Joe Raposo, American pianist and composer (b.", "1937)*1991 – Dean Jagger, American actor (b.", "1903)*1992 – Miguel Rolando Covian, Argentinian-Brazilian physiologist and academic (b.", "1913)*1993 – Seán Flanagan, Irish footballer and politician, 7th Irish Minister for Health (b.", "1922)* 1993 – Joseph L. Mankiewicz, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1909)* 1993 – William Pène du Bois, American author and illustrator (b.", "1916)*1995 – Doug McClure, American actor (b.", "1935)*1997 – Pamela Harriman, English-American diplomat, 58th United States Ambassador to France (b.", "1920)* 1997 – René Huyghe, French historian and author (b.", "1906)*1998 – Tim Kelly, American guitarist (b.", "1963)*1999 – Wassily Leontief, Russian-American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1906)*2000 – Claude Autant-Lara, French director and screenwriter (b.", "1901)*2004 – John Hench, American animator (b.", "1908)*2005 – Gnassingbé Eyadéma, Togolese general and politician, President of Togo (b.", "1937)* 2005 – Michalina Wisłocka, Polish gynecologist and sexologist (b.", "1921)*2006 – Norma Candal, Puerto Rican-American actress (b.", "1927)*2007 – Leo T. McCarthy, New Zealand-American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 43rd Lieutenant Governor of California (b.", "1930)*2008 – Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Indian guru, founded Transcendental Meditation (b.", "1918)*2010 – Brendan Burke, Canadian ice hockey player and activist (b.", "1988)* 2010 – Harry Schwarz, South African lawyer, anti-apartheid leader, and diplomat, 13th South Africa Ambassador to United States (b.", "1924)*2011 – Brian Jacques, English author and radio host (b.", "1939)* 2011 – Peggy Rea, American actress and casting director (b.", "1921)*2012 – Sam Coppola, American actor (b.", "1932)* 2012 – Al De Lory, American keyboard player, conductor, and producer (b.", "1930)* 2012 – John Turner Sargent Sr., American publisher (b.", "1924)* 2012 – Jo Zwaan, Dutch sprinter (b.", "1922)*2013 – Reinaldo Gargano, Uruguayan journalist and politician, Minister of Foreign Affairs for Uruguay (b.", "1934)* 2013 – Egil Hovland, Norwegian composer and conductor (b.", "1924)* 2013 – Tom McGuigan, New Zealand soldier and politician, 23rd New Zealand Minister of Health (b.", "1921)*2014 – Robert Dahl, American political scientist and academic (b.", "1915)*2015 – K. N. Choksy, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, Minister of Finance of Sri Lanka (b.", "1933)* 2015 – Marisa Del Frate, Italian actress and singer (b.", "1931)* 2015 – Val Logsdon Fitch, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1923)* 2015 – Herman Rosenblat, Polish-American author (b.", "1929)*2016 – Ciriaco Cañete, Filipino martial artist (b.", "1919)*2020 – Kirk Douglas, American actor (b.", "1916)*2021 – Christopher Plummer, Canadian actor (b.", "1929)*2023 – Pervez Musharraf, Pakistani military officer and politician, 10th President of Pakistan (b.", "1943)*2024 – Toby Keith, American country singer (b.", "1961)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day:** Adelaide of Vilich** Agatha of Sicily** Avitus of Vienne** Bertulf (Bertoul) of Renty** Ingenuinus (Jenewein)** Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson (Episcopal Church (United States))** 26 Martyrs of Japan (in Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and Anglican Church in Japan)** February 5 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Kashmir Solidarity Day (Pakistan)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 5" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fox News" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Fox News Channel''' ('''FNC'''), commonly known as '''Fox News''', is an American multinational conservative news and political commentary television channel and website based in New York City.", "It is owned by Fox News Media, which itself is owned by the Fox Corporation.", "It is the most-watched cable news network in the U.S., and as of 2023 generates approximately 70% of its parent company's pre-tax profit.", "The channel broadcasts primarily from studios at 1211 Avenue of the Americas in Midtown Manhattan.", "Fox News provides a service to 86 countries and territories, with international broadcasts featuring Fox Extra segments during advertising breaks.The channel was created by Australian-American media mogul Rupert Murdoch in 1996 to appeal to a conservative audience, hiring former Republican media consultant and CNBC executive Roger Ailes as its founding CEO.", "It launched on October 7, 1996, to 17 million cable subscribers.", "Fox News grew during the late 1990s and 2000s to become the dominant United States cable news subscription network.", "By September 2018, 87 million U.S. households (91 percent of television subscribers) could receive Fox News.", "In 2019, it was the top-rated cable network, averaging 2.5 million viewers in prime time.", "Murdoch, the executive chairman since 2016, said in 2023 that he would step down and hand responsibilities to his son, Lachlan.", "Suzanne Scott has been the CEO since 2018.Fox News controversies have included biased reporting in favor of the Republican Party, its politicians, and conservative causes, while portraying the Democratic Party in a negative light.", "Critics have argued that the channel is damaging to the integrity of news overall.", "In 2009, Fox News denied bias in its news reporting.", "The channel's official position was that its reporting operates independently of its opinion journalism.After Dominion Voting Systems initiated a defamation lawsuit against Fox regarding their reporting on the 2020 U.S. election, Fox's internal communications were released, showing that its presenters and senior executives privately doubted claims of a stolen election, while Fox continued to broadcast such claims.", "Other communications showed Fox CEO Suzanne Scott stating that fact-checking such claims would alienate Fox viewers.", "Fox settled the lawsuit in 2023 by agreeing to pay Dominion $787.5 million and acknowledging the court ruling that Fox spread falsehoods about Dominion.According to Pew Research Center, in 2019, 65 percent of Republicans and people who lean Republican trusted Fox News." ], [ "History", "In May 1985, Australian publisher Rupert Murdoch announced that he and American industrialist and philanthropist Marvin Davis intended to develop \"a network of independent stations as a fourth marketing force\" to compete directly with CBS, NBC, and ABC through the purchase of six television stations owned by Metromedia.", "In July 1985, 20th Century Fox announced Murdoch had completed his purchase of 50% of Fox Filmed Entertainment, the parent company of 20th Century Fox Film Corporation.Subsequently, and prior to founding FNC, Murdoch had gained experience in the 24-hour news business when News Corporation's BSkyB subsidiary began Europe's first 24-hour news channel (Sky News) in the United Kingdom in 1989.With the success of his efforts establishing Fox as a TV network in the United States, experience gained from Sky News and the turnaround of 20th Century Fox, Murdoch announced on January 30, 1996, that News Corp. would launch a 24-hour news channel on cable and satellite systems in the United States as part of a News Corp. \"worldwide platform\" for Fox programming: \"The appetite for news – particularly news that explains to people how it affects them – is expanding enormously\".In February 1996, after former U.S. Republican Party political strategist and NBC executive Roger Ailes left cable television channel America's Talking (now MSNBC), Murdoch asked him to start Fox News Channel.", "Ailes demanded five months of 14-hour workdays and several weeks of rehearsal shows before its launch on October 7, 1996.At its debut 17 million households were able to watch FNC; however, it was absent from the largest U.S. media markets of New York City and Los Angeles.", "Rolling news coverage during the day consisted of 20-minute single-topic shows such as ''Fox on Crime'' or ''Fox on Politics'', surrounded by news headlines.", "Interviews featured facts at the bottom of the screen about the topic or the guest.", "The flagship newscast at the time was ''The Schneider Report'', with Mike Schneider's fast-paced delivery of the news.", "During the evening, Fox featured opinion shows: ''The O'Reilly Report'' (later ''The O'Reilly Factor''), ''The Crier Report'' (hosted by Catherine Crier) and ''Hannity & Colmes''.", "From the beginning, FNC has placed heavy emphasis on visual presentation.", "Graphics were designed to be colorful and gain attention; this helped the viewer to grasp the main points of what was being said, even if they could not hear the host (with on-screen text summarizing the position of the interviewer or speaker, and \"bullet points\" when a host was delivering commentary).", "Fox News also created the \"Fox News Alert\", which interrupted its regular programming when a breaking news story occurred.Fox News Studios in 2009To accelerate its adoption by cable providers, Fox News paid systems up to $11 per subscriber to distribute the channel.", "This contrasted with the normal practice, in which cable operators paid stations carriage fees for programming.", "When Time Warner bought Ted Turner's Turner Broadcasting System, a federal antitrust consent decree required Time Warner to carry a second all-news channel in addition to its own CNN on its cable systems.", "Time Warner selected MSNBC as the secondary news channel, not Fox News.", "Fox News claimed this violated an agreement (to carry Fox News).", "Citing its agreement to keep its U.S. headquarters and a large studio in New York City, News Corporation enlisted the help of Mayor Rudolph Giuliani's administration to pressure Time Warner Cable (one of the city's two cable providers) to transmit Fox News on a city-owned channel.", "City officials threatened to take action affecting Time Warner's cable franchises in the city.During the September 11, 2001, attacks, Fox News was the first news organization to run a news ticker on the bottom of the screen to keep up with the flow of information that day.", "The ticker has remained, informing viewers about additional news which reporters may not mention on-screen and repeating news mentioned during a broadcast; it has proven popular with viewers.", "In January 2002, Fox News surpassed CNN in ratings for the first time.In 2023, ''The Economist'' reported that Murdoch had \"ditched a plan\" to remerge News Corporation with Fox because it \"faced resistance from News Corp investors unhappy at the prospect of being lumped together with Fox News, which they consider a toxic brand.\"", "Later that year, Murdoch, then 92, said he would step down and that his son Lachlan would take over both Fox Corporation and News Corp." ], [ "Political alignment", "Fox News has been described as practicing partisan reporting in favor of the Republican Party, the George W. Bush and Donald Trump administrations, and conservative causes, while portraying the Democratic Party in a negative light.", "Critics have argued that the channel is damaging to the integrity of news overall.", "Fox News has denied bias in its news reporting and the channel's official position is that its news reporting operates independently of its opinion journalism.", "Under oath following lawsuits regarding Fox News' coverage of the 2020 presidential election, Fox News owner Rupert Murdoch testified that Fox anchors endorsed conservative conspiracy theories about the election.In the 2004 documentary ''Outfoxed'', four people identified as former employees said that Fox News made them \"slant the news in favor of conservatives\".", "Fox News said that the film misrepresented the employment of these employees.In early 2024 Fox News developed a conspiracy theory involving Taylor Swift, Travis Kelce, and the American Democratic party in hopes to influence voters ahead of the U.S. presidential primary season." ], [ "Outlets", "newsstand at Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport|alt=Fox News airport newsstandFNC's alt=Television news studioFNC maintains an archive of most of its programs.", "This archive also includes Movietone News series of newsreels from its now Disney-owned namesake movie studio, 20th Century Fox.", "Licensing for the Fox News archive is handled by ITN Source, the archiving division of ITN.===Television===FNC presents a variety of programming, with up to 15 hours of live broadcasting per day in addition to programming and content for the Fox Broadcasting Company.", "Most programs are broadcast from Fox News headquarters in New York City (at 1211 Avenue of the Americas), in its streetside studio on Sixth Avenue in the west wing of Rockefeller Center, sharing its headquarters with sister channel Fox Business Network.", "Fox News Channel has eight studios at its New York City headquarters that are used for its and Fox Business' programming: Studio B (used for Fox Business programming), Studio D (which has an area for studio audiences; no longer in current use), Studio E (used for ''Gutfeld!''", "and ''The Journal Editorial Report''), Studio F (used for ''The Story with Martha MacCallum'', ''The Five'', Fox Democracy 2020, ''Fox & Friends'', ''Outnumbered'', ''The Faulkner Focus'', and ''Fox News Primetime''), Studio G (which houses Fox Business shows, ''The Fox Report'', ''Your World with Neil Cavuto'', and ''Cavuto Live''), Studio H (Fox News Deck used for breaking news coverage, no longer in current use), Studio J (used for ''America's Newsroom'', ''Hannity'', ''Fox News Live'', ''Fox & Friends First'', and ''Sunday Morning Futures'') Starting in , ''Thursday Night Football'' had its pregame show, ''Fox NFL Thursday'', originating from Studio F. Another Fox Sports program, ''First Things First'', also broadcasts from Studio E.Other such programs (such as ''Special Report with Bret Baier'', ''The Ingraham Angle'', ''Fox News @ Night'', ''Media Buzz'', and editions of ''Fox News Live'' not broadcast from the New York City studios) are broadcast from Fox News's Washington, D.C. studios, located on Capitol Hill across from Union Station in a secured building shared by a number of other television networks (including NBC News and C-SPAN).", "''The Next Revolution'' is broadcast from Fox News' Los Angeles bureau studio, which is also used for news updates coming from L.A.. ''Life, Liberty, & Levin'' is done from Levin's personal studio in Virginia.", "Audio simulcasts of the channel are aired on SiriusXM Satellite Radio.In an October 11, 2009, in a ''New York Times'' article, Fox said its hard-news programming runs from \"9 AM to 4 PM and 6 to 8 PM on weekdays\".", "However, it makes no such claims for its other broadcasts, which primarily consist of editorial journalism and commentary.Fox News Channel began broadcasting in the 720p resolution format on May 1, 2008.This format is available on all major cable and satellite providers.Fox News Media produces ''Fox News Sunday'', which airs on Fox Broadcasting and re-airs on FNC.", "Fox News also produces occasional special event coverage that is broadcast on FBC.===Radio===With the growth of the FNC, the company introduced a radio division, Fox News Radio, in 2003.Syndicated throughout the United States, the division provides short newscasts and talk radio programs featuring personalities from the television and radio divisions.", "In 2006, the company also introduced Fox News Talk, a satellite radio station featuring programs syndicated by (and featuring) Fox News personalities.===Online===Introduced in December 1995, the Fox News website features news articles and videos about national and international news.", "Content on the website is divided into politics, media, U.S., and business.", "Fox News' articles are based on the network's broadcasts, reports from Fox affiliates and articles produced by other news agencies, such as the Associated Press.", "Articles are usually accompanied by a video related to the article.", "Fox News Latino is the version aimed at a Hispanic audience, although presented almost entirely in English, with a Spanish section.According to NewsGuard, \"Much of FoxNews.com's content, particularly articles produced by beat reporters and broadcasts produced by network correspondents, is accurate and well-sourced ...", "However, FoxNews.com has regularly advanced false and misleading claims on topics including the Jan. 6, 2021, attack on the U.S. Capitol, the Russo-Ukrainian War, COVID-19, and U.S. elections\".In September 2008, FNC joined other channels in introducing a live streaming segment to its website: ''The Strategy Room'', designed to appeal to older viewers.", "It airs weekdays from 9 AM to 5 PM and takes the form of an informal discussion, with running commentary on the news.", "Regular discussion programs include ''Business Hour'', ''News With a View'' and ''God Talk''.", "In March 2009, ''The Fox Nation'' was launched as a website intended to encourage readers to post articles commenting on the news.", "Fox News Mobile is the portion of the FNC website dedicated to streaming news clips formatted for video-enabled mobile phones.=== Fox Nation ===In 2018, FNC announced that it would launch a subscription video on demand service known as Fox Nation.", "It serves as a companion service to FNC, carrying original and acquired talk, documentary, and reality programming designed to appeal to Fox News viewers.", "Some of its original programs feature Fox News personalities and contributors.''''" ], [ "Ratings and reception", "In 2003, Fox News saw a large ratings jump during the early stages of the U.S. invasion of Iraq.", "At the height of the conflict, according to some reports, Fox News had as much as a 300% increase in viewership (averaging 3.3 million viewers daily).", "In 2004, Fox News' ratings for its broadcast of the Republican National Convention exceeded those of the three major broadcast networks.", "During President George W. Bush's address, Fox News attracted 7.3 million viewers nationally; NBC, ABC, and CBS had a viewership of 5.9 million, 5.1 million, and 5.0 million respectively.Between late 2005 and early 2006, Fox News saw a brief decline in ratings.", "One was in the second quarter of 2006, when it lost viewers for every prime-time program compared with the previous quarter.", "The audience for ''Special Report with Brit Hume'', for example, dropped 19%.", "Several weeks later, in the wake of the 2006 North Korean missile test and the 2006 Lebanon War, Fox saw a surge in viewership and remained the top-rated cable news channel.", "Fox produced eight of the top ten most-watched nightly cable news shows, with ''The O'Reilly Factor'' and ''Hannity & Colmes'' finishing first and second respectively.FNC ranked No.", "8 in viewership among all cable channels in 2006, and No.", "7 in 2007.The channel ranked number one during the week of Barack Obama's election (November 3–9) in 2008, and reached the top spot again in January 2010 (during the week of the special Senate election in Massachusetts).", "Comparing Fox to its 24-hour-news-channel competitors, in May 2010, the channel drew an average daily prime-time audience of 1.8 million viewers (versus 747,000 for MSNBC and 595,000 for CNN).In September 2009, the Pew Research Center published a report on the public view of national news organizations.", "In the report, 72 percent of polled Republican Fox viewers rated the channel as \"favorable\", while 43 percent of polled Democratic viewers and 55 percent of all polled viewers shared that opinion.", "However, Fox was given the highest \"unfavorable\" rating of all national outlets studied (25 percent of all polled viewers).", "The report went on to say that \"partisan differences in views of Fox News have increased substantially since 2007\".In 2010, the Wikipedia community had its first major discussion on Fox News' reliability.", "The community decided that Fox News was politically biased, but generally reliable.A Public Policy Polling poll concluded in 2013 that positive perceptions of FNC had declined from 2010.41% of polled voters said they trust it, down from 49% in 2010, while 46% said they distrust it, up from 37% in 2010.It was also called the \"most trusted\" network by 34% of those polled, more than had said the same of any other network.Then-Fox anchor Megyn Kelly covering the 2012 Democratic National ConventionOn the night of October 22, 2012, Fox set a record for its highest-rated telecast, with 11.5 million viewers for the third U.S. presidential debate.", "In prime time the week before, Fox averaged almost 3.7 million viewers with a total day average of 1.66 million viewers.In prime time and total day ratings for the week of April 15 to 21, 2013, Fox News, propelled by its coverage of the Boston Marathon bombing, was the highest-ranked network on U.S. cable television, for the first time since August 2005, when Hurricane Katrina hit the Gulf Coast of the United States.", "January 2014 marked Fox News's 145th consecutive month as the highest-rated cable news channel.", "During that month, Fox News beat CNN and MSNBC combined in overall viewers in both prime time hours and the total day.", "In the third quarter of 2014, the network was the most-watched cable channel during prime time hours.", "During the final week of the campaign for the United States elections, 2014, Fox News had the highest ratings of any cable channel, news or otherwise.", "On election night itself, Fox News' coverage had higher ratings than that of any of the other five cable or network news sources among viewers between 25 and 54 years of age.", "The network hosted the first prime-time GOP candidates' forum of the 2016 campaign on August 6.The debate reached a record-breaking 24 million viewers, by far the largest audience for any cable news event.A 2017 study by the Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University found that Fox News was the third most-shared source among supporters of Donald Trump on Twitter during the 2016 presidential election, behind ''The Hill'' and ''Breitbart News''.In 2018, Fox News was rated by Nielsen as America's most watched cable network, averaging a record 2.4 million viewers in prime time and total day during the period of January 1 to December 30, 2018.In an October 2018 Simmons Research survey of the trust in 38 news organizations, Fox News was ranked roughly in the center, with 44.7% of surveyed Americans saying they trusted it.The COVID-19 pandemic led to increased viewership for all cable news networks.", "For the first calendar quarter of 2020 (January 1 – March 31), Fox News had their highest-rated quarter in the network's history, with Nielsen showing a prime time average total audience of 3.387 million viewers.", "Sean Hannity's program, ''Hannity'', weeknights at 9 pm ET was the top-rated show in cable news for the quarter averaging 4.2 million viewers, a figure that not only beat out all of its cable news competition but also placed it ahead of network competition in the same time slot.", "Fox ended the quarter with the top five shows in prime time, with Fox's ''Tucker Carlson Tonight'' finishing the quarter in second overall with an average audience of 4.2 million viewers, followed by ''The Five'', ''The Ingraham Angle'', and ''Special Report with Bret Baier''.", "''The Rachel Maddow Show'' was the highest non-Fox show on cable, coming in sixth place.", "Finishing the quarter in 22nd place was ''The Lead with Jake Tapper'', CNN's highest rated show.", "According to a Fox News article on the subject, ''Fox & Friends'' averaged 1.8 million viewers, topping CNN's ''New Day'' and MSNBC's ''Morning Joe'' combined.", "The same Fox News article said that the Fox Business Network also had its highest-rated quarter in history and that Fox News finished March as the highest-rated network in cable for the 45th consecutive month.In July 2020, the Wikipedia community announced that Fox News would no longer be considered \"generally reliable\" in its reporting of science and politics, and that it \"should be used with caution to verify contentious claims\" for those topics.", "The decision was made due to Fox News downplaying the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as allegations of Fox News spreading misinformation about climate change and reporting on the false concept of \"no-go zones\" for non-Muslims in British cities.", "The decision did not affect Fox News' reliability on other topics.According to the ''Los Angeles Times'' on August 19, 2020: \"Fox News Channel had six of last week's 11 highest-rated prime-time programs to finish first in the network ratings race for the third time since June\" 2020.A Morning Consult survey the week after Election Day 2020 showed 30 percent of Republicans in the United States had an unfavorable opinion of Fox News, while 54 percent of Republicans viewed the network favorably, compared to 67 percent before the election.", "A McClatchy news story suggested criticism from Donald Trump as a major reason, as well as the network's early calling of Arizona for Joe Biden, and later joining other networks in declaring Biden the winner of the 2020 election.Ratings were also down for Fox News.", "Although it remained ahead of other networks overall, its morning show fell out of first place for the first time since 2001.Trump recommended OANN, which was gaining viewers.", "Newsmax was also increasing in popularity.Following a decline in ratings post-2020 U.S. presidential election, in 2021, Fox News regained its lead in cable news ratings ahead of CNN and MSNBC.In 2022, the Wikipedia community announced that Fox News would now be considered \"marginally reliable\" in its reporting of science and politics, that Fox News cannot be used as a source for \"exceptional claims\", and that its reliability would be decided on an individual case-by-case basis for other scientific and political claims.", "The decision only applies to news articles on Fox News' website and does not apply to Fox News articles about topics that are not scientific or political.===Demographics===As indicated by a ''New York Times'' article, based on Nielsen statistics, Fox appears to have a mostly aged demographic.", "In 2008, in the 25–54 age group, Fox News had an average of 557,000 viewers, but dropped to 379,000 in 2013 while increasing its overall audience from 1.89 million in 2010 to 2.02 million in 2013.The median age of a prime-time viewer was 68 .", "A 2019 Pew Research Center survey showed that among those who named Fox News as their main source for political news, 69% are aged 50 or older.According to a 2013 Gallup poll, 94% of Fox viewers \"either identify as or lean Republican\".", "The 2019 Pew survey showed that among people who named Fox News as their main source for political and election news, 93% identify as Republicans.", "Among the top eight political news sources named by at least 2% of American adults, the results show Fox News and MSNBC as the two news channels with the most partisan audiences." ], [ "Slogan", "Fox News Channel originally used the slogan \"Fair and Balanced\", which was coined by network co-founder Roger Ailes while the network was being established.", "''The New York Times'' described the slogan as being a \"blunt signal that Fox News planned to counteract what Mr. Ailes and many others viewed as a liberal bias ingrained in television coverage by establishment news networks\".", "In a 2013 interview with Peter Robinson of the Hoover Institution, Rupert Murdoch defended the company's \"Fair and Balanced\" slogan saying \"In fact, you'll find just as many Democrats as Republicans on and so on\".In August 2003, Fox News sued comedian Al Franken over his use of the slogan as a subtitle for his book, ''Lies and the Lying Liars Who Tell Them: A Fair and Balanced Look at the Right'', which is critical of Fox News Channel.", "The lawsuit was dropped three days later, after Judge Denny Chin refused its request for an injunction.", "In his decision, Chin ruled the case was \"wholly without merit, both factually and legally\".", "He went on to suggest that Fox News' trademark on the phrase \"fair and balanced\" could be invalid.", "In December 2003, FNC won a legal battle concerning the slogan, when AlterNet filed a cancellation petition with the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) to have FNC's trademark rescinded as inaccurate.", "AlterNet included Robert Greenwald's documentary film ''Outfoxed'' (2004) as supporting evidence in its case.", "After losing early motions, AlterNet withdrew its petition; the USPTO dismissed the case.", "In 2008, FNC used the slogan \"We Report, You Decide\", referring to \"You Decide 2008\" (FNC's original slogan for its coverage of election issues).In August 2016, Fox News Channel began to quietly phase out the \"Fair and Balanced\" slogan in favor of \"Most Watched, Most Trusted\"; when these changes were reported in June 2017 by Gabriel Sherman (a writer who had written a biography on Ailes), a network executive said the change \"has nothing to do with programming or editorial decisions\".", "It was speculated by media outlets that Fox News Channel was wishing to distance itself from Ailes' tenure at the network.", "In March 2018, the network introduced a new ad campaign, ''Real News.", "Real Honest Opinion.''", "The ad campaign is intended to promote the network's opinion-based programming and counter perceptions surrounding \"fake news\".In mid-November 2020, following the election, Fox News began to use the slogan \"Standing Up For What's Right\" to promote its primetime lineup." ], [ "Content", "===Benghazi attack and aftermath===Fox News provided extensive coverage of the 2012 Benghazi attack, which host Sean Hannity described in December 2012 as \"the story that the mainstream media ignores\" and \"obviously, a cover-up.", "And we will get to the bottom of it.\"", "Programming analysis by media watchdog Media Matters, which has declared a \"War on Fox News\", found that during the twenty months following the Benghazi attacks, FNC ran 1,098 segments on the issue, including:* 478 segments involving Susan Rice's September 16, 2012, Sunday news show appearances, during which she was falsely accused of lying* 382 segments on ''Special Report'', the network's flagship news program* 281 segments alleging a \"cover-up\" by the Obama administration* 144 interviews of GOP members of Congress, but five interviews of Democratic members of Congress and Obama administration officials* 120 comparisons to Iran-Contra, Watergate, and the actions of the Nixon administration* 100 segments falsely suggesting the administration issued a \"stand-down order\" to prevent a rescue operation in BenghaziOver nearly four years after the Benghazi attack, there were ten official investigations, including six by Republican-controlled House committees.", "None of the investigations found any evidence of scandal, cover-up or lying by Obama administration officials.===Uranium One===From 2015 into 2018, Fox News broadcast extensive coverage of an alleged scandal surrounding the sale of Uranium One to Russian interests, which host Sean Hannity characterized as \"one of the biggest scandals in American history\".", "According to Media Matters, the Fox News coverage extended throughout the programming day, with particular emphasis by Hannity.", "The network promoted an ultimately unfounded narrative asserting that, as Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton personally approved the Uranium One sale in exchange for $145 million in bribes paid to the Clinton Foundation.", "Donald Trump repeated these allegations as a candidate and as president.", "No evidence of wrongdoing by Clinton had been found after four years of allegations, an FBI investigation, and the 2017 appointment of a Federal attorney to evaluate the investigation.", "In November 2017, Fox News host Shepard Smith concisely debunked the alleged scandal, infuriating viewers who suggested he should work for CNN or MSNBC.", "Hannity later called Smith \"clueless\", while Smith stated: \"I get it, that some of our opinion programming is there strictly to be entertaining.", "I get that.", "I don't work there.", "I wouldn't work there.", "\"===Pro-Republican and pro-Trump bias===Fox News Channel has been described as a conservative media, and as providing biased reporting in favor of conservative political positions, the Republican Party, and President Donald Trump.", "Political scientist Jonathan Bernstein described Fox News as an expanded part of the Republican Party.", "Political scientists Matt Grossmann and David A. Hopkins wrote that Fox News helped \"Republicans communicate with their base and spread their ideas, and they have been effective in mobilizing voters to participate in midterm elections (as in 2010 and 2014).\"", "Prior to 2000, Fox News lacked an ideological tilt, and had more Democrats watch the channel than Republicans.", "During the 2004 United States presidential election, Fox News was markedly more hostile in its coverage of Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry, and distinguished itself among cable news outlets for heavy coverage of the Swift Boat smear campaign against Kerry.", "During President Obama's first term in office, Fox News helped launch and amplify the Tea Party movement, a conservative movement within the Republican Party that organized protests against Obama and his policies.During the Republican primaries, Fox News was perceived as trying to prevent Trump from clinching the nomination.", "Under Trump's presidency, Fox News remade itself into his image, as hardly any criticism of Trump could be heard on Fox News' prime-time shows.", "In Fox News' news reporting, the network dedicated far more coverage to Hillary Clinton-related stories, which critics argued was intended to deflect attention from the investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections.", "Trump provided significant access to Fox News during his presidency, giving 19 interviews to the channel while only 6 in total to other news channels by November 2017; ''The New York Times'' described Trump's Fox News interviews as \"softball interviews\" and some of the interviewers' interview styles as \"fawning\".", "In July 2018, ''The Economist'' has described the network's coverage of Trump's presidency as \"reliably fawning\".", "From 2015 to 2017, the Fox News prime-time lineup changed from being skeptical and questioning of Trump to a \"Trump safe space, with a dose of Bannonist populism once considered on the fringe\".", "The Fox News website has also become more extreme in its rhetoric since Trump's election; according to Columbia University's Tow Center for Digital Journalism, the Fox News website has \"gone a little ''Breitbart''\" over time.", "At the start of 2018, Fox News mostly ignored high-profile scandals in the Trump administration which received ample coverage in other national media outlets, such as White House Staff Secretary Rob Porter's resignation amid domestic abuse allegations, the downgrading of Jared Kushner's security clearance, and the existence of a non-disclosure agreement between Trump and the porn star Stormy Daniels.In March 2019, Jane Mayer reported in ''The New Yorker'' that Fox News.com reporter Diana Falzone had the story of the Stormy Daniels–Donald Trump scandal before the 2016 election, but that Fox News executive Ken LaCorte told her: \"Good reporting, kiddo.", "But Rupert Murdoch wants Donald Trump to win.", "So just let it go.\"", "The story was killed; LaCorte denied making the statement to Falzone, but conceded: \"I was the person who made the call.", "I didn't run it upstairs to Roger Ailes or others.", "...", "I didn't do it to protect Donald Trump.\"", "She added that \"Falzone had put up a story that just wasn't anywhere close to being something I was comfortable publishing.\"", "Nik Richie, who claimed to be one of the sources for the story, called LaCorte's account \"complete bullshit\", adding that \"Fox News was culpable.", "I voted for Trump, and I like Fox, but they did their own 'catch and kill' on the story to protect him.", "\"A 2008 study found Fox News gave disproportionate attention to polls suggesting low approval for President Bill Clinton.", "A 2009 study found Fox News was less likely to pick up stories that reflected well on Democrats, and more likely to pick up stories that reflected well on Republicans.", "A 2010 study comparing Fox News Channel's ''Special Report With Brit Hume'' and NBC's ''Nightly News'' coverage of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan during 2005 concluded \"Fox News was much more sympathetic to the administration than NBC\", suggesting \"if scholars continue to find evidence of a partisan or ideological bias at FNC ... they should consider Fox as alternative, rather than mainstream, media\".Research finds that Fox News increases Republican vote shares and makes Republican politicians more partisan.", "A 2007 study, using the introduction of Fox News into local markets (1996–2000) as an instrumental variable, found that in the 2000 presidential election \"Republicans gained 0.4 to 0.7 percentage points in the towns that broadcast Fox News\", suggesting \"Fox News convinced 3 to 28 percent of its viewers to vote Republican, depending on the audience measure\".", "These results were confirmed by a 2015 study.", "A 2014 study, using the same instrumental variable, found congressional \"representatives become less supportive of President Clinton in districts where Fox News begins broadcasting than similar representatives in similar districts where Fox News was not broadcast.\"", "Another 2014 paper found Fox News viewing increased Republican vote shares among voters who identified as Republican or independent.", "A 2017 study, using channel positions as an instrumental variable, found \"Fox News increases Republican vote shares by 0.3 points among viewers induced into watching 2.5 additional minutes per week by variation in position.\"", "This study used a different metodhology for a later period and found an ever bigger effect and impact, leading Matthew Yglesias to write in the ''Political Communication'' academic journal that they \"suggest that conventional wisdom may be greatly underestimating the significance of Fox as a factor in American politics.", "\"Fox News publicly denies it is biased, with Murdoch and Ailes saying to have included Murdoch's statement that Fox has \"given room to both sides, whereas only one side had it before\".", "In June 2009, Fox News host Chris Wallace said: \"I think we are the counter-weight to NBC News ... they have a liberal agenda, and we tell the other side of the story.\"", "In 2004, Robert Greenwald's documentary film ''Outfoxed: Rupert Murdoch's War on Journalism'' argued Fox News had a conservative bias and featured clips from Fox News and internal memos from editorial vice president John Moody directing Fox News staff on how to report certain subjects.A leaked memo from Fox News vice president Bill Sammon to news staff at the height of the health care reform in the United States debate has been cited as an example of the pro-Republican Party bias of Fox News.", "His memo asked the staff to \"use the term 'government-run health insurance,' or, when brevity is a concern, 'government option,' whenever possible\".", "The memo was sent shortly after Republican pollster Frank Luntz advised Sean Hannity on his Fox show: \"If you call it a public option, the American people are split.", "If you call it the government option, the public is overwhelmingly against it.", "\"Surveys suggest Fox News is widely perceived to be ideological.", "A 2009 Pew survey found Fox News is viewed as the most ideological channel in America, with 47 percent of those surveyed said Fox News is \"mostly conservative\", 14 percent said \"mostly liberal\" and 24 percent said \"neither\".", "In comparison, MSNBC had 36 percent identify it as \"mostly liberal\", 11 percent as \"mostly conservative\" and 27 percent as \"neither\".", "CNN had 37 percent describe it as \"mostly liberal\", 11 percent as \"mostly conservative\" and 33 percent as \"neither\".", "A 2004 Pew Research Center survey found FNC was cited (unprompted) by 69 percent of national journalists as a conservative news organization.", "A Rasmussen poll found 31 percent of Americans felt Fox News had a conservative bias, and 15 percent that it had a liberal bias.", "It found 36 percent believed Fox News delivers news with neither a conservative or liberal bias, compared with 37 percent who said NPR delivers news with no conservative or liberal bias and 32 percent who said the same of CNN.David Carr, media critic for ''The New York Times'', praised the 2012 United States presidential election results coverage on Fox News for the network's response to Republican adviser and Fox News contributor Karl Rove challenging its call that Barack Obama would win Ohio and the election.", "Fox's prediction was correct.", "Carr wrote: \"Over many months, Fox lulled its conservative base with agitprop: that President Obama was a clear failure, that a majority of Americans saw Mitt Romney|Mitt Romney as a good alternative in hard times, and that polls showing otherwise were politically motivated and not to be believed.", "But on Tuesday night, the people in charge of Fox News were confronted with a stark choice after it became clear that Mr. Romney had fallen short: was Fox, first and foremost, a place for advocacy or a place for news?", "In this moment, at least, Fox chose news.", "\"A May 2017 study conducted by Harvard University's Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy examined coverage of Trump's first 100 days in office by several major mainstream media outlets including Fox.", "It found Trump received 80% negative coverage from the overall media, and received the least negative coverage on Fox – 52% negative and 48% positive.On March 14, 2017, Andrew Napolitano, a Fox News commentator, claimed on ''Fox & Friends'' that British intelligence agency GCHQ had wiretapped Trump on behalf of Barack Obama during the 2016 United States presidential election.", "On March 16, 2017, White House spokesman Sean Spicer repeated the claim.", "When Trump was questioned about the claim at a news conference, he said \"All we did was quote a certain very talented legal mind who was the one responsible for saying that on television.", "I didn't make an opinion on it.\"", "On March 17, 2017, Shepard Smith, a Fox News anchor, admitted the network had no evidence that Trump was under surveillance.", "British officials said the White House was backing off the claim.", "Napolitano was later suspended by Fox News for making the claim.In June 2018, Fox News executives instructed producers to head off inappropriate remarks made on the shows aired by the network by hosts and commentators.", "The instructions came after a number of Fox News hosts and guests made incendiary comments about the Trump administration's policy of separating migrant children from their parents.", "Fox News host Laura Ingraham had likened the child detention centers that the children were in to \"summer camps\".", "Guest Corey Lewandowski mocked the story of a 10-year-old child with Down syndrome being separated from her mother; the Fox News host did not address Lewandowski's statement.", "Guest Ann Coulter falsely claimed that the separated children were \"child actors\"; the Fox News host did not challenge her claim.", "In a segment on Trump's alleged use of racial dog whistles, one Fox News contributor told an African-American whom he was debating: \"You're out of your cotton-picking mind.", "\"According to the 2016 book ''Asymmetric Politics'' by political scientists Matt Grossmann and David A. Hopkins, \"Fox News tends to raise the profile of scandals and controversies involving Democrats that receive scant attention in other media, such as the relationship between Barack Obama and William Ayers ... Hillary Clinton's role in the fatal 2012 attacks on the American consulate in Benghazi, Libya; the gun-running scandal known as 'Fast and Furious'; the business practices of federal loan guarantee recipient Solyndra; the past activism of Obama White House operative Van Jones; the 2004 attacks on John Kerry by the Swift Boat Veterans for Truth; the controversial sermons of Obama's Chicago pastor Jeremiah Wright; the filming of undercover videos of supposed wrongdoing by the liberal activist group ACORN; and the 'war on Christmas' supposedly waged every December by secular, multicultural liberals.", "\"In October 2018, Fox News ran laudatory coverage of a meeting between Trump-supporting rapper Kanye West and President Trump in the Oval Office.", "Fox News had previously run negative coverage of rappers and their involvement with Democratic politicians and causes, such as when Fox News ran headlines describing conscious hip-hop artist Common as \"vile\" and a \"cop-killer rapper\", and when Fox News ran negative coverage of Kanye West before he became a Trump supporter.On November 4, 2018, Trump's website, DonaldJTrump.com, announced in a press release that Fox News host Sean Hannity would make a \"special guest appearance\" with Trump at a midterm campaign rally the following night in Cape Girardeau, Missouri.", "The following morning, Hannity tweeted \"To be clear, I will not be on stage campaigning with the President.\"", "Hannity appeared at the president's lectern on stage at the rally, immediately mocking the \"fake news\" at the back of the auditorium, Fox News reporters among them.", "Several Fox News employees expressed outrage at Hannity's actions, with one stating that \"a new line was crossed\".", "Hannity later asserted that his action was not pre-planned, and Fox News stated it \"does not condone any talent participating in campaign events\".", "Fox News host Jeanine Pirro also appeared on stage with Trump at the rally.", "The Trump press release was later removed from Trump's website.Fox News released a poll of registered voters, jointly conducted by two polling organizations, on June 16, 2019.The poll found some unfavorable results for Trump, including a record high 50% thought the Trump campaign had coordinated with the Russian government, and 50% thought he should be impeached – 43% saying he should also be removed from office – while 48% said they did not favor impeachment.", "The next morning on ''Fox & Friends First'', host Heather Childers twice misrepresented the poll results, stating \"a new Fox News poll shows most voters don't want impeachment\" and \"at least half of U.S. voters do not think President Trump should be impeached,\" while the on-screen display of the actual poll question was also incorrect.", "Later that morning on ''America's Newsroom'', the on-screen display showed the correct poll question and results, but highlighted the 48% of respondents who opposed impeachment rather than the 50% who supported it (the latter being broken-out into two figures).", "As host Bill Hemmer drew guest Byron York's attention to the 48% opposed figure, they did not discuss the 50% support figure, while the on-screen chyron read: \"Fox News Poll: 43% Support Trump's Impeachment and Removal, 48% Oppose.\"", "Later that day, Trump tweeted: \"@FoxNews Polls are always bad for me...Something weird going on at Fox.", "\"In April 2017, it became known that former Obama administration national security advisor Susan Rice sought the unmasking of Trump associates who were unidentified in intelligence reports, notably Trump's incoming national security advisor Michael Flynn, during the presidential transition.", "In May 2020, acting Director of National Intelligence Richard Grenell, a Trump loyalist, declassified a list of Obama administration officials who had also requested unmasking of Trump associates, which was subsequently publicly released by Republican senators.", "That month, attorney general Bill Barr appointed federal prosecutor John Bash to examine the unmaskings.", "Fox News primetime hosts declared the unmaskings a \"domestic spying operation\" for which the Obama administration was \"exposed\" in the \"biggest abuse of power\" in American history.", "The Bash inquiry closed months later with no findings of substantive wrongdoing.However, certain Fox personalities have not had as much of a favorable reception from Trump: news anchors Shepard Smith (who retired from Fox in 2019) and Chris Wallace have been criticized by Trump for allegedly being adversarial, alongside Fox analyst Andrew Napolitano, who said Trump's actions in the Trump–Ukraine scandal were \"both criminal and impeachable behavior\".", "Trump was also critical of the network hiring former DNC chair Donna Brazile, in 2019.The relationship between Trump and Fox News, as well as other Rupert Murdoch-controlled outlets, soured following the 2020 United States presidential election, as Trump refused to concede that Joe Biden had been elected President-elect.", "This negative tonal shift led to increased viewership of Newsmax and One America News among Trump and his supporters due to their increased antipathy towards Fox; and as a result, Fox released promotional videos of their opinion hosts disputing the election results, promoting a Trump-affiliated conspiracy theory about voter fraud.", "By one measure, Newsmax saw a 497% spike in viewership, while Fox News saw a 38% decline.Writing for the Poynter Institute for Media Studies in February 2021, senior media writer Tom Jones argued that the primary distinction between Fox News and MSNBC is not right bias vs. left bias, but rather that much of the content on Fox News, especially during its primetime programs, \"is not based in truth.", "\"The ''Tampa Bay Times'' reported in August 2021 that it had reviewed four months of emails indicating Fox News producers had coordinated with aides of Florida governor Ron DeSantis to promote his political prospects by inviting him for frequent network appearances, exchanging talking points and, in one case, helping him to stage an exclusive news event.In February 2024, Alan Rosenblatt of Johns Hopkins University said that Fox News \"is an entertainment company that has a news division, not a news company\", adding that it \"not only does not provide that distinction, it goes out of its way to make it difficult to see the difference.", "They make their opinion programs look like news programs, and they incorporate enough opinion content on their news programs to further that deception.", "\"Fox News has published headlines accusing the English Wikipedia of having a left-wing and socialist bias.=== Coverage of Russia investigation ===On October 30, 2017, when special counsel Robert Mueller indicted Paul Manafort and Rick Gates, and revealed George Papadopoulos had pleaded guilty (all of whom were involved in the Trump 2016 campaign), this was the focus of most media's coverage, except Fox News'.", "Hosts and guests on Fox News called for Mueller to be fired.", "Sean Hannity and Tucker Carlson focused their shows on unsubstantiated allegations that Clinton sold uranium to Russia in exchange for donations to the Clinton Foundation and on the Clinton campaign's role in funding the Steele dossier.", "Hannity asserted: \"The very thing they are accusing President Trump of doing, they did it themselves.\"", "During the segment, Hannity mistakenly referred to Clinton as President Clinton.", "Fox News dedicated extensive coverage to the uranium story, which Democrats said was an attempt to distract from Mueller's intensifying investigation.", "CNN described the coverage as \"a tour de force in deflection and dismissal\".", "On October 31, CNN reported Fox News employees were dissatisfied with their outlet's coverage of the Russia investigation, with employees calling it an \"embarrassment\", \"laughable\", and saying it \"does the viewer a huge disservice and further divides the country\" and that it is \"another blow to journalists at Fox who come in every day wanting to cover the news in a fair and objective way\".When the investigation by special counsel Robert Mueller into Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election intensified in October 2017, the focus of Fox News coverage turned \"what they see as the scandal and wrongdoing of President Trump's political opponents.", "In reports like these, Bill and Hillary Clinton are prominent and recurring characters because they are considered the real conspirators working with the Russians to undermine American democracy.\"", "Paul Waldman of ''The Washington Post'' described the coverage as \"No puppet.", "You're the puppet\", saying it was a \"careful, coordinated, and comprehensive strategy\" to distract from Mueller's investigation.", "German Lopes of ''Vox'' said Fox News' coverage has reached \"levels of self-parody\" as it dedicated coverage to low-key stories, such as a controversial ''Newsweek'' op-ed and hamburger emojis, while other networks had wall-to-wall coverage of Mueller's indictments.A ''FiveThirtyEight'' analysis of Russia-related media coverage in cable news found most mentions of Russia on Fox News were spoken in close proximity to \"uranium\" and \"dossier\".", "On November 1, 2017, ''Vox'' analyzed the transcripts of Fox News, CNN and MSNBC, and found Fox News \"was unable to talk about the Mueller investigation without bringing up Hillary Clinton\", \"talked significantly less about George Papadopoulos—the Trump campaign adviser whose plea deal with Mueller provides the most explicit evidence thus far that the campaign knew of the Russian government's efforts to help Trump—than its competitors\", and \"repeatedly called Mueller's credibility into question\".In December 2017, Fox News escalated its attacks on the Mueller investigation, with hosts and guest commentators suggesting the investigation amounted to a coup.", "Guest co-host Kevin Jackson referred to a right-wing conspiracy theory claiming Strzok's messages are evidence of a plot by FBI agents to assassinate Trump, a claim which the other Fox co-hosts quickly said is not supported by any credible evidence.", "Fox News host Jeanine Pirro called the Mueller investigation team a \"criminal cabal\" and said the team ought to be arrested.", "Other Fox News figures referred to the investigation as \"corrupt\", \"crooked\", and \"illegitimate\", and likened the FBI to the KGB, the Soviet-era spy organization that routinely tortured and summarily executed people.", "Political scientists and scholars of coups described the Fox News rhetoric as scary and dangerous.", "Experts on coups rejected that the Mueller investigation amounted to a coup; rather, the Fox News rhetoric was dangerous to democracy and mirrored the kind of rhetoric that occurs before purges.", "A number of observers argued the Fox News rhetoric was intended to discredit the Mueller investigation and sway President Donald Trump to fire Mueller.In August 2018, Fox News was criticized for giving more prominent coverage of a murder committed by an undocumented immigrant than the convictions of Donald Trump's former campaign manager, Paul Manafort, and his long-term personal attorney, Michael Cohen.", "At the same time, most other national mainstream media gave wall-to-wall coverage of the convictions.", "Fox News hosts Dana Perrino and Jason Chaffetz argued that voters care far more about the murder than the convictions of the President's former top aides, and hosts Tucker Carlson and Sean Hannity downplayed the convictions.=== False claims about other media ======= CNN's Jake Tapper ====In November 2017, following the 2017 New York City truck attack wherein a terrorist shouted \"Allahu Akbar\", Fox News distorted a statement by Jake Tapper to make it appear as if he had said \"Allahu Akbar\" can be used under the most \"beautiful circumstances\".", "Fox News omitted that Tapper had said the use of \"Allahu Akbar\" in the terrorist attack was not one of these beautiful circumstances.", "A headline on FoxNews.com was preceded by a tag reading \"OUTRAGEOUS\".", "The Fox News Twitter account distorted the statement even more, saying \"Jake Tapper Says 'Allahu Akbar' Is 'Beautiful' Right After NYC Terror Attack\" in a tweet that was later deleted.", "Tapper chastised Fox News for choosing to \"deliberately lie\" and said \"there was a time when one could tell the difference between Fox and the nutjobs at ''Infowars''.", "It's getting tougher and tougher.", "Lies are lies.\"", "In 2009, Tapper had come to the defense of Fox News while he was a White House correspondent for ABC News, after the Obama administration claimed that the network was not a legitimate news organization.Fox News guest host Jason Chaffetz apologized to Tapper for misrepresenting his statement.", "After Fox News had deleted the tweet, Sean Hannity repeated the misrepresentation and called Tapper \"liberal fake news CNN's fake Jake Tapper\" and mocked his ratings.==== ''The New York Times'' ====In July 2017, a report by ''Fox & Friends'' falsely said ''The New York Times'' had disclosed intelligence in one of its stories and that this intelligence disclosure helped Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, the leader of the Islamic State, to evade capture.", "The report cited an inaccurate assertion by Gen. Tony Thomas, the head of the United States Special Operations Command, that a major newspaper had disclosed the intelligence.", "Fox News said it was ''The New York Times'', repeatedly running the chyron \"NYT Foils U.S. Attempt To Take Out Al-Bahgdadi\".", "Pete Hegseth, one of the show's hosts, criticized the \"failing ''New York Times''\".", "President Donald Trump tweeted about the ''Fox & Friends'' report shortly after it first aired, saying \"The Failing ''New York Times'' foiled U.S. attempt to kill the single most wanted terrorist, Al-Baghdadi.", "Their sick agenda over National Security.\"", "Fox News later updated the story, but without apologizing to ''The New York Times'' or responding directly to the inaccuracies.In a ''Washington Post'' column, Erik Wemple said Chris Wallace had covered ''The New York Times'' story himself on ''Fox News Sunday'', adding: \"Here's another case of the differing standards between Fox News's opinion operation\", which has given \"a state-run vibe on all matters related to Trump\", compared to Fox News's news operation, which has provided \"mostly sane coverage\".===Climate change===Fox News has often been described as a major platform for climate change denial.", "According to the fact-checking website Climate Feedback, Fox News is part of \"a network of unreliable outlets for climate news.\"", "A 2011 study by Lauren Feldman and Anthony Leiserowitz found Fox News \"takes a more dismissive tone toward climate change than CNN and MSNBC\".", "A 2008 study found Fox News emphasized the scientific uncertainty of climate change more than CNN, was less likely to say climate change was real, and more likely to interview climate change skeptics.", "Leaked emails showed that in 2009 Bill Sammon, the Fox News Washington managing editor, instructed Fox News journalists to dispute the scientific consensus on climate change and \"refrain from asserting that the planet has warmed (or cooled) in any given period without IMMEDIATELY pointing out that such theories are based upon data that critics have called into question.", "\"According to climate scientist Michael E. Mann, Fox News \"has constructed an alternative universe where the laws of physics no longer apply, where the greenhouse effect is a myth, and where climate change is a hoax, the product of a massive conspiracy among scientists, who somehow have gotten the polar bears, glaciers, sea levels, superstorms, and megadroughts to play along.\"", "According to James Lawrence Powell's 2011 study of the climate science denial movement, Fox News provides \"the deniers with a platform to say whatever they like without fear of contradiction.\"", "Fox News employs Steve Milloy, a prominent climate change denier with close financial and organizational ties to oil companies, as a contributor.", "In his columns about climate change for ''FoxNews.com'', Fox News has failed to disclose his substantial funding from oil companies.In 2011, the hosts of ''Fox & Friends'' described climate change as \"unproven science\", a \"disputed fact\", and criticized the Department of Education for working together with the children's network Nickelodeon to teach children about climate change.", "In 2001, Sean Hannity described the scientific consensus on climate change as \"phony science from the left\".", "In 2004, he falsely alleged that \"scientists still can't agree on whether the global warming is scientific fact or fiction\".", "In 2010, Hannity said the so-called \"Climategate\" – the leaking of e-mails by climate scientist that climate change skeptics claimed demonstrated scientific misconduct but which all subsequent enquiries have found no evidence of misconduct or wrongdoing – a \"scandal\" that \"exposed global warming as a myth cooked up by alarmists\".", "Hannity frequently invites contrarian fringe scientists and critics of climate change to his shows.", "In 2019, a widely shared Fox News news report falsely claimed that new climate science research showed that the Earth might be heading to a new Ice Age; the author of the study that Fox News cited said that Fox News \"utterly misrepresents our research\" and the study did not in any way suggest that Earth was heading to an Ice Age.", "Fox News later corrected the story.Shepard Smith drew attention for being one of few voices formerly on Fox News to forcefully state that climate change is real, that human activities are a primary contributor to it and that there is a scientific consensus on the issue.", "His acceptance of the scientific consensus on climate change drew criticism from Fox News viewers and conservatives.", "Smith left Fox News in October 2019.In a 2021 interview with Christiane Amanpour on her eponymous show in CNN, he stated that his presence on Fox had become \"untenable\" due to the \"falsehoods\" and \"lies\" intentionally spread on the network's opinion shows.=== Murder of Seth Rich conspiracy ===On May 16, 2017, a day when other news organizations were extensively covering Donald Trump's revelation of classified information to Russia, Fox News ran a lead story about a private investigator's uncorroborated claims about the murder of Seth Rich, a DNC staffer.", "The private investigator said he had uncovered evidence that Rich was in contact with WikiLeaks and law enforcement were covering it up.", "The killing of Rich has given rise to conspiracy theories in right-wing circles that Hillary Clinton and the Democratic Party had Seth Rich killed allegedly because he was the source of the DNC leaks.", "U.S. intelligence agencies determined Russia was the source of the leaks.", "In reporting the investigator's claims, the Fox News report reignited right-wing conspiracy theories about the killing.The Fox News story fell apart within hours.", "Other news organizations quickly revealed the investigator was a Donald Trump supporter and had according to NBC News \"developed a reputation for making outlandish claims, such as one appearance on Fox News in 2007 in which he warned that underground networks of pink pistol-toting lesbian gangs were raping young women.\"", "The family of Seth Rich, the Washington D.C. police department, the Washington D.C. mayor's office, the FBI, and law enforcement sources familiar with the case rebuked the investigator's claims.", "Rich's relatives said: \"We are a family who is committed to facts, not fake evidence that surfaces every few months to fill the void and distract law enforcement and the general public from finding Seth's murderers.\"", "The spokesperson for the family criticized Fox News for its reporting, alleging the outlet was motivated by a desire to deflect attention from the Trump-Russia story: \"I think there's a very special place in hell for people that would use the memory of a murder victim in order to pursue a political agenda.\"", "The family has called for retractions and apologies from Fox News for the inaccurate reporting.", "Over the course of the day, Fox News altered the contents of the story and the headline, but did not issue corrections.", "When CNN contacted the private investigator later that day, the investigator said he had no evidence that Rich had contacted WikiLeaks.", "The investigator claimed he only learned about the possible existence of the evidence from a Fox News reporter.", "Fox News did not respond to inquiries by CNN, and the Washington Post.", "Fox News later on May 23, seven days after the story was published, retracted its original report, saying the original report did not meet its standards.Nicole Hemmer, then assistant professor at the Miller Center of Public Affairs, wrote that the promotion of the conspiracy theory demonstrated how Fox News was \"remaking itself in the image of fringe media in the age of Trump, blurring the lines between real and fake news.\"", "Max Boot of the Council on Foreign Relations said while intent behind Fox News, as a counterweight to the liberal media was laudable, the culmination of those efforts have been to create an alternative news source that promotes hoaxes and myths, of which the promotion of the Seth Rich conspiracy is an example.", "Fox News was also criticized by conservative outlets, such as ''The Weekly Standard'', ''National Review'', and conservative columnists, such as Jennifer Rubin, Michael Gerson, and John Podhoretz.Rich's parents, Joel and Mary Rich, sued Fox News for the emotional distress it had caused them by its false reporting.", "In 2020, Fox News settled with Rich family, making a payment that was not officially disclosed but which was reported to be in the seven figures.", "Although the settlement had been agreed to earlier in the year, Fox News arranged to delay the public announcement until after the 2020 presidential election.=== Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville ===Fox News hosts and contributors defended Trump's remarks that \"many sides\" were to blame for violence at a gathering of hundreds of white nationalists in Charlottesville, Virginia.", "Some criticized Trump.", "In a press conference on August 15, Trump used the term \"alt-left\" to describe counterprotesters at the white supremacist rally, a term which had been used in Fox News' coverage of the white supremacist rally.", "Several of Trump's comments at the press conference mirrored those appearing earlier on Fox News.According to Dylan Byers of CNN, Fox News' coverage on the day of the press conference \"was heavy with \"whataboutism\".", "The average Fox viewer was likely left with the impression that the media's criticism of Trump and leftist protestors' toppling of some Confederate statues were far greater threats to America than white supremacism or the president's apparent defense of bigotry.\"", "Byers wrote \"it showed that if Fox News has a line when it comes to Trump's presidency, it was not crossed on Tuesday.", "\"=== Glenn Beck's comments about George Soros ===During Glenn Beck's tenure at Fox News, he became one of the most high-profile proponents of conspiracy theories about George Soros, a Jewish Hungarian-American businessman and philanthropist known for his donations to American liberal political causes.", "Beck regularly described Soros as a \"puppet-master\" and used common anti-Semitic tropes to describe Soros and his activities.", "In a 2010 three-part series, Beck depicted George Soros as a cartoonish villain trying to \"form a shadow government, using humanitarian aid as a cover,\" and that Soros wanted a one-world government.", "Beck promoted the false and anti-Semitic conspiracy theory that Soros was a Nazi collaborator as a 14-year-old in Nazi-occupied Hungary.", "Beck also characterized Soros's mother as a \"wildly anti-Semitic\" Nazi collaborator.", "According to ''The Washington Post'': \"Beck's series was largely considered obscene and delusional, if not outright anti-Semitic\", but Beck's conspiracy theory became common on the right-wing of American politics.", "Amid criticism of Beck's false smears, Fox News defended Beck, stating \"information regarding Mr. Soros's experiences growing up were taken directly from his writings and from interviews given by him to the media, and no negative opinion was offered as to his actions as a child.\"", "Roger Ailes, then-head of Fox News, dismissed criticism levied at Beck by hundreds of rabbis, saying that they were \"left-wing rabbis who basically don't think that anybody can ever use the word, Holocaust, on the air.", "\"=== COVID-19 pandemic ===During the first few weeks of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, Fox News was considerably more likely than other mainstream news outlets to promote misinformation about COVID-19.The network promoted the narrative that the emergency response to the pandemic was politically motivated or otherwise unwarranted, with Sean Hannity explicitly calling it a \"hoax\" (he later denied doing so) and other hosts downplaying it.", "This coverage was consistent with the messaging of Trump at the time.", "Only in mid March did the network change the tone of its coverage, after President Trump declared a national emergency.", "At the same time that Fox News commentators downplayed the threat of the virus in public, Fox's management and the Murdoch family took a broad range of internal measures to protect themselves and their employees against it.Sean Hannity and Laura Ingraham, two of Fox News's primetime hosts, promoted use of the drug hydroxychloroquine for the treatment of COVID-19, an off-label usage which at the time was supported only by anecdotal evidence, after it was touted by Trump as a possible cure.", "Fox News promoted a conspiracy theory that coronavirus death toll numbers were inflated with people who would have died anyway from preexisting conditions.", "This was disputed by White House coronavirus task force members Anthony Fauci and Deborah Birx, with Fauci describing conspiracy theories as \"nothing but distractions\" during public health crises.", "Later in the pandemic, Hannity, Ingraham and Carlson promoted the use of livestock dewormer ivermectin as a possible COVID-19 treatment.Studies have linked trust in Fox News, as well as viewership of Fox News, with fewer preventive behaviors and more risky behaviors related to COVID-19.Once a COVID-19 vaccine became widely available, Fox News consistently questioned the efficacy and safety of the vaccine, celebrated evidence-free skepticism, and blasted attempts to promote vaccinations.", "More than 90% of Fox Corporation's full-time employees had been fully vaccinated by September 2021.===2020 election fraud allegations and lawsuits by Dominion and Smartmatic ===After Trump's defeat in the 2020 presidential election, Fox News host Jeanine Pirro promoted baseless allegations on her program that voting machine company Smartmatic and its competitor Dominion Voting Systems had conspired to rig the election against Trump.", "Hosts Lou Dobbs and Maria Bartiromo also promoted the allegations on their programs on sister network Fox Business.", "In December 2020, Smartmatic sent a letter to Fox News demanding retractions and threatening legal action, specifying that retractions \"must be published on multiple occasions\" so as to \"match the attention and audience targeted with the original defamatory publications.\"", "Days later, each of the three programs aired the same three-minute video segment consisting of an interview with an election technology expert who refuted the allegations promoted by the hosts, responding to questions from an unseen and unidentified man.", "None of the three hosts personally issued retractions.", "Smartmatic filed a $2.7 billion defamation suit against the network, the three hosts, Powell and Trump attorney Rudy Giuliani in February 2021.In an April 2021 court brief seeking dismissal of the suit, Fox attorney Paul Clement argued that the network was simply \"reporting allegations made by a sitting President and his lawyers.\"", "A New York State Supreme Court judge ruled in March 2022 that the suit could proceed, though he dismissed allegations against Sidney Powell and Pirro, and some claims against Giuliani.", "The judge allowed allegations against Bartiromo and Dobbs to stand.", "The New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division unanimously rejected a Fox News bid to dismiss the Smartmatic suit in February 2023.The court reinstated defamation allegations against Giuliani and Pirro.In December 2020, Dominion Voting Systems sent a similar letter demanding retractions to Trump attorney Sidney Powell, who had promoted the allegations on Fox programs.", "On March 26, 2021, Dominion filed a $1.6billion defamation lawsuit against Fox News, alleging that Fox and some of its pundits spread conspiracy theories about Dominion, and allowed guests to make false statements about the company.", "On May 18, 2021, Fox News filed a motion to dismiss the Dominion Voting Systems lawsuit, asserting a First Amendment right \"to inform the public about newsworthy allegations of paramount public concern.\"", "The motion to dismiss was denied on December 16, 2021, by a Delaware Superior Court judge.", "In addition to Bartiromo, Dobbs, and Pirro, the suit also names primetime hosts Tucker Carlson and Sean Hannity.", "Venezuelan businessman Majed Khalil sued Fox, Dobbs and Powell for $250 million in December 2021, alleging they had falsely implicated him in rigging Dominion and Smartmatic machines.", "Dobbs and Fox News reached a confidential settlement with Khalil in April 2023.Fox News was the only major network or cable news outlet to not carry the first televised prime time hearing of the January 6 committee live; its regular programming of ''Tucker Carlson Tonight'' and ''Hannity'' was aired without commercial breaks.", "During the weeks following the election, Carlson and Hannity often amplified Trump's election falsehoods on their programs; previously disclosed text messages between Hannity and White House press secretary Kayleigh McEnany were presented during the hearing.", "Hannity told his audience, \"Unlike this committee and their cheerleaders in the media mob, we will actually be telling you the truth,\" while Carlson said, \"This is the only hour on an American news channel that won't be covering their propaganda live.", "They are lying and we are not going to help them do it.", "\"In June 2022, a Delaware Superior Court judge again declined to dismiss the Dominion suit against Fox News, and also allowed Dominion to sue the network's corporate parent, Fox Corporation.", "The judge ruled that Rupert and Lachlan Murdoch may have acted with actual malice because there was a reasonable inference they \"either knew Dominion had not manipulated the election or at least recklessly disregarded the truth when they allegedly caused Fox News to propagate its claims about Dominion.\"", "He noted a report that Rupert Murdoch spoke with Trump a few days after the election and informed him that he had lost.", "''The New York Times'' reported in December 2022 that Dominion had acquired communications between Fox News executives and hosts, and between a Fox Corporation employee and the Trump White House, showing they knew that what the network was reporting was untrue.", "Dominion attorneys said hosts Sean Hannity and Tucker Carlson, and Fox executives, attested to this in sworn depositions.", "In November 2020, Hannity hosted Sidney Powell, who asserted Dominion machines had been rigged, but said in his deposition, \"I did not believe it for one second.\"", "A February 2023 Dominion court filing showed Fox News primetime hosts messaging each other to insult and mock Trump advisers, indicating the hosts knew the allegations made by Powell and Giuliani were false.", "Rupert Murdoch messaged that Trump's voter fraud claims were \"really crazy stuff,\" telling Fox News CEO Suzanne Scott that it was \"terrible stuff damaging everybody, I fear.\"", "As a January 2021 Georgia runoff election approached that would determine party control of the U.S. Senate, Murdoch told Scott, \"Trump will concede eventually and we should concentrate on Georgia, helping any way we can.", "\"After the 2016 election, the network developed a cutting-edge system to call elections, which proved very successful during the 2018 midterm elections.", "The network was the first to call the 2020 Arizona race for Biden, angering many viewers.", "Washington managing editor Bill Sammon supervised the network's Decision Desk that made the call.", "Bret Baier and Martha MacCallum, the network's main news anchors, suggested during a high-level conference call that relying solely on data to make the call was inadequate and that viewer reaction should also be considered; MacCallum said, \"in a Trump environment, the game is just very, very different.\"", "Sammon stood by the 2020 call and was fired by the network after the January 2021 Georgia runoff.In 2023, Rupert Murdoch was deposed and testified that some Fox News commentators were endorsing election fraud claims they knew were false.In February 2023, Fox's internal communications were released, showing that its presenters and senior executives privately doubted Donald Trump's claims of a stolen election.", "Chairman Rupert Murdoch once described Trump's voter fraud claims as \"really crazy stuff\", and also said that Trump advisers Rudy Giuliani and Sidney Powell's television appearances were \"terrible stuff damaging everybody\".", "One November 2020 exchange showed Tucker Carlson accusing Powell of \"lying ...", "I caught her.", "It's insane\", with Laura Ingraham responding that \"Sidney is a complete nut.", "No one will work with her.", "Ditto with Rudy\".", "In another exchange that month, Carlson called for Fox journalist Jacqui Heinrich to be \"fired\" because she fact-checked Trump and said that there was no evidence of voter fraud from Dominion.", "Carlson said that Heinrich's actions \"needs to stop immediately, like tonight.", "It's measurably hurting the company.", "The stock price is down\", while Heinrich deleted the fact-check the next morning.In March 2023, more of Fox's internal communications were released.", "One November 2020 communication showed Fox CEO Suzanne Scott criticizing fact-checking, stating that she cannot \"keep defending these reporters who don't understand our viewers and how to handle stories ...", "The audience feels like we crapped on\" them, and Fox was losing their audience's \"trust and belief\" in them.", "Another December 2020 communication showed Scott responding to Fox presenter Eric Shawn's fact-checking of Donald Trump's false 2020 election claims by demanding that the fact-checking \"has to stop now ...", "This is bad business ...", "The audience is furious.", "\"On March 31, 2023, Delaware Superior Court judge Eric Davis ruled in a summary judgment that it \"is CRYSTAL clear that none of the statements relating to Dominion about the 2020 election are true\" and ordered for the case to go to trial.On April 18, 2023, Fox News reached a settlement with Dominion just before the trial started, concluding the lawsuit; Fox agreed to pay Dominion $787.5 million, and further stated: \"We acknowledge the Court's rulings finding certain claims about Dominion to be false\".===Compulsory reductions in meat consumption===In April 2021, at least five Fox News and Fox Business personalities amplified a story published by the ''Daily Mail'', a British tabloid, that incorrectly linked a university study to President Joe Biden's climate change agenda, to falsely assert that Americans would be compelled to dramatically reduce their meat consumption to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions caused by flatulence.", "Fox News aired a graphic detailing the supposed compulsory reductions, falsely indicating the information came from the Agriculture Department, which numerous Republican politicians and commentators tweeted.", "Fox News anchor John Roberts reported to \"say goodbye to your burgers if you want to sign up to the Biden climate agenda.\"", "Days later, Roberts acknowledged on air that the story was false.===Report that Biden administration was building Trump wall===According to analysis by Media Matters, on May 12, 2021, Fox News reported on its website: \"Biden resumes border wall construction after promising to halt it\".", "Correspondent Bill Melugin then appeared on ''Special Report with Bret Baier'' to report \"the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is actually going to be restarting border wall construction down in the Rio Grande Valley\" after \"a lot of blowback and pressure from local residents and local politicians.\"", "After the Corps of Engineers tweeted a clarification, Melugin deleted a tweet about the story and tweeted an \"update\" clarifying that a levee wall was being constructed to mitigate damage to flood control systems caused by uncompleted wall construction, and the website story headline was changed to \"Biden administration to resume border wall levee construction as crisis worsens.\"", "Later on ''Fox News Primetime'', host Brian Kilmeade briefly noted the levee but commented to former Trump advisor Stephen Miller: \"They're going to restart building the wall again, Stephen.\"", "Fox News host Sean Hannity later broadcast the original Melugin story without any mention of the levee." ], [ "Controversies", "===Sexual harassment===The network has been accused of permitting sexual harassment and racial discrimination by on-air hosts, executives, and employees, paying out millions of dollars in legal settlements.", "Prominent Fox News figures such as Roger Ailes, Bill O'Reilly and Eric Bolling were fired after many women accused them of sexual harassment.", "At least four lawsuits alleged Fox News co-president Bill Shine ignored, enabled or concealed Roger Ailes' alleged sexual harassment.", "Fox News CEO Rupert Murdoch has dismissed the high-profile sexual misconduct allegations as \"largely political\" and speculated they were made \"because we are conservative\".Bill O'Reilly and Fox News settled six agreements, totaling $45 million, with women who accused O'Reilly of sexual harassment.", "In January 2017, shortly after Bill O'Reilly settled a sexual harassment lawsuit for $32 million (\"an extraordinarily large amount for such cases\"), Fox News renewed Bill O'Reilly's contract.", "Fox News's parent company, 21st Century Fox, said it was aware of the lawsuit.", "The contract between O'Reilly and Fox News read he could not be fired from the network unless sexual harassment allegations were proven in court.Fox News's extensive coverage of the Harvey Weinstein scandal in October 2017 was seen by some as hypocritical.", "Fox News dedicated at least 12 hours of coverage to the Weinstein scandal, yet only dedicated 20 minutes to Bill O'Reilly, who just like Weinstein had been accused of sexual harassment by a multitude of women.", "A few weeks later, when a number of females under the age of 18, including a 14-year-old, accused Alabama Senate candidate Roy Moore of making sexual advances, Hannity dismissed the sexual misconduct allegations and dedicated coverage on his TV show to casting doubt on the accusers.", "Other prime-time Fox News hosts Tucker Carlson and Laura Ingraham queried ''The Washington Post''s reporting or opted to bring up sexual misconduct allegations regarding show business figures such as Harvey Weinstein and Louis C.K.", "Fox News figures Jeanine Pirro and Gregg Jarrett questioned both the validity of ''The Washington Post''s reporting and that of the women.", "In December 2017, a few days before the Alabama Senate election, Fox News, along with the conspiracy websites ''Breitbart News'' and ''The Gateway Pundit'', ran an inaccurate headline which claimed one of Roy Moore's accusers admitted to forging an inscription by Roy Moore in her yearbook; Fox News later added a correction to the story.A number of Fox News hosts have welcomed Bill O'Reilly to their shows and paid tributes to Roger Ailes after his death.", "In May 2017, Hannity called Ailes \"a second father\" and said to Ailes's \"enemies\" that he was \"preparing to kick your a** in the next life\".", "Ailes had the year before been fired from Fox News after women alleged he sexually harassed them.", "In September 2017, several months after Bill O'Reilly was fired from Fox News in the wake of women alleging he sexually harassed them, Hannity hosted O'Reilly on his show.", "Some Fox News employees criticized the decision.", "According to CNN, during the interview, Hannity found kinship with O'Reilly as he appeared \"to feel that he and O'Reilly have both become victims of liberals looking to silence them.", "\"===Obama administration conflict===In September 2009, the Obama administration engaged in a verbal conflict with Fox News Channel.", "On September 20, President Barack Obama appeared on all major news programs except Fox News, a snub partially in response to remarks about him by commentators Glenn Beck and Sean Hannity and Fox coverage of Obama's health-care proposal.In late September 2009, Obama's senior advisor David Axelrod and Roger Ailes met in secret to attempt to smooth out tensions between the two camps.", "Two weeks later, White House chief of staff Rahm Emanuel referred to FNC as \"not a news network\" and communications director Anita Dunn said \"Fox News often operates as either the research arm or the communications arm of the Republican Party\".", "Obama commented: \"If media is operating basically as a talk radio format, then that's one thing, and if it's operating as a news outlet, then that's another.\"", "Emanuel said it was important \"to not have the CNNs and the others in the world basically be led in following Fox\".Within days, it was reported that Fox had been excluded from an interview with administration official Ken Feinberg, with bureau chiefs from the White House press pool (ABC, CBS, NBC, and CNN) coming to Fox's defense.", "A bureau chief said: \"If any member had been excluded it would have been the same thing, it has nothing to do with Fox or the White House or the substance of the issues.\"", "Shortly after the story broke, the White House admitted to a low-level mistake, saying Fox had not made a specific request to interview Feinberg.", "Fox White House correspondent Major Garrett said he had not made a specific request, but had a \"standing request from me as senior White House correspondent on Fox to interview any newsmaker at the Treasury at any given time news is being made\".On November 8, 2009, the ''Los Angeles Times'' reported an unnamed Democratic consultant was warned by the White House not to appear on Fox News again.", "According to the article, Dunn claimed in an e-mail to have checked with colleagues who \"deal with TV issues\" who denied telling anyone to avoid Fox.", "Patrick Caddell, a Fox News contributor and former pollster for President Jimmy Carter, said he had spoken with other Democratic consultants who had received similar warnings from the White House.On October 2, 2013, Fox News host Anna Kooiman cited on the air a fake story from the ''National Report'' parody site, which claimed Obama had offered to keep the International Museum of Muslim Cultures open with cash from his own pocket.=== Journalistic ethical standards ===Fox News attracted controversy in April 2018 when it was revealed primetime host Sean Hannity had defended Trump's then personal attorney Michael Cohen on air without disclosing Cohen was his lawyer.", "On April 9, 2018, federal agents from the U.S. Attorney's office served a search warrant on Cohen's office and residence.", "On the air, Hannity defended Cohen and criticized the federal action, calling it \"highly questionable\" and \"an unprecedented abuse of power\".", "On April 16, 2018, in a court hearing, Cohen's lawyers told the judge that Cohen had ten clients in 2017–2018 but did \"traditional legal tasks\" for only three: Trump, Elliott Broidy, and a \"prominent person\" who did not wish to be named for fear of being \"embarrassed\".", "The federal judge ordered the revelation of the third client, whom Cohen's lawyers named as Hannity.Hannity was not sanctioned by Fox News for this breach of journalistic ethics, with Fox News releasing a statement that the channel was unaware of Hannity's relationship to Cohen and that it had \"spoken to Sean and he continues to have our full support.\"", "Media ethics experts said that Hannity's disclosure failure was a major breach of journalistic ethics and that the network should have suspended or fired him for it.=== NYC Human Rights Law violations ===In mid-2021, Fox News agreed to pay a $1 million settlement to New York City after its Commission on Human Rights cited \"a pattern of violating the NYC Human Rights Law\".", "A Fox News spokesperson claimed that \"FOX News Media has already been in full compliance across the board, but settled to continue enacting extensive preventive measures against all forms of discrimination and harassment.", "\"=== Climate denial and misinformation ===During the May 22, 2023, episode of Fox News Tonight, discussing Roman climate protesters drawing attention on drought and floods in Italy, the correspondent Trace Gallagher downplayed the role of climate change for the recent meteorological situation pointing at Italian history." ], [ "International transmission", "alt=World map, with countries carrying terrestrial FNC in red and satellite providers in orangeThe Fox News Channel feed has international availability via multiple providers, while ''Fox Extra'' segments provide alternate programming.", "Fox News is carried in more than 40 countries.===Australia===In Australia, FNC is broadcast on the dominant pay television provider Foxtel, which is 65% owned by News Corp Australia, the Australian arm of News Corp and the sister company of FNC-owner Fox Corporation.", "Local cable news channel Sky News Australia is wholly owned by News Corp Australia and is therefore FNC's de facto sister channel, although has formal partnerships with FNC competitor CNN as well as both ABC News and CBS News.===Brazil===Since 2002, FNC has been broadcast to Brazil; however, commercials are replaced with ''Fox Extra''.", "It is available in packages of Vivo TV.===Canada===Fox had initially planned to launch a joint venture with Canwest's Global Television Network, tentatively named Fox News Canada, which would have featured a mixture of U.S. and Canadian news programming (MSNBC had backed a similar venture with Rogers and Shaw).", "As a result, the CRTC denied a 2003 application requesting permission for Fox News Channel to be carried in Canada.", "However, in March 2004, a Fox executive said the venture had been shelved; in November of that year, the CRTC added Fox News to its whitelist of foreign channels that may be carried by television providers.In May 2023, the CRTC announced that it would open a public consultation regarding the channel's carriage in Canada, acting upon complaints by the LGBT advocacy group Egale Canada surrounding a March 2023 episode of ''Tucker Carlson Tonight'' that contained content described as \"malicious misinformation\" regarding trans, non-binary, gender non-conforming, and two-spirit communities, including \"the inflammatory and false claim that trans people are 'targeting' Christians.", "\"===France===Fox News is available on cable through French Internet provider Free on channel 352.As of Spring 2017, the channel was no longer found on the provider Orange's lineup.===India===It is available through streaming service Disney+ Hotstar (formerly owned by FNC parent company 21st Century Fox).===Indonesia===In Indonesia, It is available in Channel 397 in pay TV provider First Media.===Ireland===:''See: United Kingdom & Ireland.", "''===Israel===In Israel, FNC is broadcast on Channel 105 of the satellite provider Yes, as well as being carried on Cellcom TV and Partner TV.", "It is also broadcast on channel 200 on cable operator HOT.===Italy===In Italy, FNC is broadcast on Sky Italia.", "Fox News was launched on Stream TV in 2001, and moved to Sky Italia in 2003.=== Japan ===Although service to Japan ceased in summer 2003, it can still be seen on Americable (distributor for American bases), Mediatti (Kadena Air Base) and Pan Global TV Japan.===Mexico===The channel's international feed is being carried by cable provider Izzi Telecom.===Netherlands===In the Netherlands, Fox News has been carried by cable providers UPC Nederland and CASEMA, and satellite provider Canaldigitaal; all have dropped the channel in recent years.", "At this time, only cable provider Caiway (available in a limited number of towns in the central part of the country) is broadcasting the channel.", "The channel was also carried by IPTV provider KNIPPR (owned by T-Mobile).===New Zealand===In New Zealand, FNC is broadcast on Channel 088 of pay satellite operator SKY Network Television's digital platform.", "It was formerly broadcast overnight on free-to-air UHF New Zealand TV channel Prime (owned by SKY); this was discontinued in January 2010, reportedly due to an expiring broadcasting license.", "Fox News' former parent company News Corporation had a stake in both SKY and Prime until 2014.===Pakistan===In Pakistan, Fox News Channel is available on PTCL Smart TV and a number of cable and IPTV operators.===Philippines===In the Philippines, Fox News Channel is available on Sky Cable Channels 138 (Metro Manila) and 510 (Regional), Cablelink Channel 224 (Metro Manila) and G Sat Channel 50.It was available on Cignal Channel 131 until January 1, 2021, due to contract expiration; however, the channel returned on June 16, 2022.=== Portugal ===In Portugal, Fox News was available on Meo.", "The channel is however no longer available on the operator and it is not carried by other Portuguese TV operators.===Scandinavia===Between 2003 and 2006, in Sweden and the other Scandinavian countries, FNC was broadcast 16 hours a day on TV8 (with ''Fox News Extra'' segments replacing U.S. advertising).", "Fox News was dropped by TV8 and replaced by German news channel Deutsche Welle in September 2006.===Singapore===In Singapore, FNC is broadcast on Channel 702 on pay-TV operator StarHub TV, as well on Channel 165 on Singtel TV.", "Both providers also broadcast its sister channel, Sky News.===South Africa===In South Africa, FNC is broadcast on StarSat.The most popular pay television operator, DStv, does not offer FNC in its channel bouquet.=== Spain ===In Spain, Fox News is available on Movistar Plus+.", "The channel has been always part of the operator since its first encarnation as Canal Satellite Digital in the early 2000s.===United Kingdom and Ireland===FNC was carried in the United Kingdom by Sky, which was 40-percent owned by 21st Century Fox at the time, and operates its own domestic news channel Sky News.", "On August 29, 2017, Sky dropped Fox News; the broadcaster said its carriage was not \"commercially viable\" due to average viewership of fewer than 2,000 viewers per day.", "The company said the decision was unrelated to 21st Century Fox's proposed acquisition of the remainder of Sky plc (which ultimately led to a bidding war that resulted in its acquisition by Comcast instead).The potential co-ownership had prompted concerns from critics of the deal, who felt Sky News could similarly undergo a shift to an opinionated format with a right-wing viewpoint.", "However, such a move would violate Ofcom broadcast codes, which requires all news programming to show due impartiality.", "The channel's broadcasts in the country have violated this rule on several occasions, while the channel also violated election silence rules by broadcasting analysis of the 2016 Brexit referendum while polls were still open (the channel was blacked out while polls were open during the 2017 general election to comply with the rule)." ], [ "Notable personalities", "===Program hosts===* Bret Baier* Maria Bartiromo* Jedediah Bila* Shannon Bream* Will Cain* Neil Cavuto* Emily Compagno* Steve Doocy* Ainsley Earhardt* Harris Faulkner* Paul Gigot* Trey Gowdy* Greg Gutfeld* Sean Hannity* Pete Hegseth* Bill Hemmer* Steve Hilton* Laura Ingraham* Brian Kilmeade* Howard Kurtz* Mark Levin* Martha MacCallum* Jillian Mele* Arthel Neville* Dana Perino* Jeanine Pirro* John Roberts* Jon Scott* Eric Shawn* Sandra Smith* Stuart Varney* Leland Vittert* Jesse Watters* Juan Williams===Correspondents and substitute anchors===* Manny Alvarez* Julie Banderas* Christine Clayburg* Kevin Corke* Claudia Cowan* Janice Dean* Peter Doocy* Mike Emanuel* Kristin Fisher* Lea Gabrielle* Trace Gallagher* Anna Gilligan* Lauren Green* Jennifer Griffin* Benjamin Hall* Molly Henneberg* Brit Hume* Phil Keating* Kennedy* Molly Line* Bryan Llenas* Dagen McDowell* Hollie McKay* Kate Obenshain* Charles Payne* Katie Pavlich* Carley Shimkus===Regular guests and contributors===* Keith Ablow* Charly Arnolt* Mike Baker* Guy Benson* Tammy Bruce* Rachel Campos-Duffy* Jason Chaffetz* Mo Elleithee* Ezekiel Emanuel* Nigel Farage* Ari Fleischer* Harold Ford Jr.* Steve Forbes* Newt Gingrich* Bernard Goldberg* Jonah Goldberg* Marie Harf* Aishah Hasnie* Stephen Hayes* Mollie Hemingway* Philip A. Holloway* Mike Huckabee* Charles Hurt* Santita Jackson* Robert Jeffress* Jack Keane* Dennis Kucinich* Tomi Lahren* Larry Elder* Leo Terrell* John Layfield* Rich Lowry* Frank Luntz* Leslie Marshall* Kayleigh McEnany* Dennis Miller* Judith Miller* Jonathan Morris* Janette Nesheiwat, MD* Oliver North* Burgess Owens* Candace Owens* Katie Pavlich* Charles Payne* Karl Rove* Nicole Saphier* Mercedes Schlapp* Douglas Schoen* Ben Shapiro* Marc Siegel* Ben Stein* Katherine Timpf* Joe Trippi* Jonathan Turley* Tyrus* Brett Velicovich* Jason Whitlock* Lis Wiehl* Byron York===Former hosts and contributors===* Jim Angle (deceased)* Louis Aguirre (former morning host, now at WPLG in Miami)* Jennifer Ashton (now at ABC News)* Ellison Barber (now with NBC News)* Tiki Barber (now with CBS Sports Network)* Fred Barnes* Rudi Bakhtiar (now PR Director for the Public Affairs Alliance of Iranian Americans)* Glenn Beck (former afternoon host; now on TheBlaze)* Bob Beckel (terminated amid racist remarks, deceased)* Lisa Bernhard (entertainment correspondent)* Tony Blankley (deceased)* Dan Bongino * Eric Bolling (terminated amid sexual harassment allegations)* John R. Bolton (left to become U.S. National Security Advisor)* Donna Brazile (now at ABC News)* Dave Briggs (now at CNN)* Patti Ann Browne* Scott Brown* Eric Burns (not renewed)* Brenda Buttner (deceased)* Patrick Caddell (deceased)* Joseph A. Cafasso (stepped down over allegations he overrepresented his military record)* Herman Cain (deceased)* Carl Cameron (retired in August 2017)* Alisyn Camerota (now at CNN)* Gretchen Carlson* Tucker Carlson * Ben Carson (joined Trump cabinet)* Steve Centanni (retired in August 2014)* Heather Childers (terminated, now at Newsmax TV)* Liz Cheney (now in public service)* Kiran Chetry (later worked for CNN)* Wesley Clark (now at CNN)* Alan Colmes (deceased)* Rita Cosby (later worked at MSNBC)* Catherine Crier (now at TruTV)* Monica Crowley* S. E. Cupp (now at CNN)* Stacey Dash (not renewed)* Lou Dobbs* Jill Dobson* Laurie Dhue (not renewed)* Matt Drudge* Darby Dunn (now at CNBC)* Erick Erickson (now at WSB Radio in Atlanta)* Donna Fiducia (no longer active in cable news industry, went into Georgia real estate)* Rick Folbaum (now at WANF)* Melissa Francis (not renewed)* Courtney Friel (now at KTLA-TV)* Neal Gabler* Major Garrett (now at CBS News)* John Gibson* Alexis Glick (left Fox Business in December 2009; now at CNN)* Wendell Goler (deceased)* Kimberly Guilfoyle* Jane Hall* Mary Katharine Ham (now at CNN)* Elisabeth Hasselbeck* Ed Henry (terminated amid sexual harassment allegations)* Catherine Herridge (now at CBS News)* E. D. Hill (now at CNN)* Marc Lamont Hill (now at BET and CNN)* Kit Hoover (now at TLC)* Margaret Hoover (now at PBS and CNN)* Page Hopkins (left network September 26, 2008; now at MSNBC)* Adam Housley* Juliet Huddy (now at WABC Radio)* Abby Huntsman (now on ''The View'' on ABC)* Carol Iovanna (now runs production company)* Marvin Kalb (not renewed)* John Kasich (later served two terms as Governor of Ohio from 2011 to 2019)* Terry Keenan (deceased)* Greg Kelly (now at Newsmax TV)* Megyn Kelly (moved to NBC News; left NBC in January 2019)* Mort Kondracke* Anna Kooiman (now at Network 10)* Charles Krauthammer (deceased)* Bill Kristol* Jenna Lee* Rick Leventhal* Harvey Levin* Andy Levy (now at HLN)* Dana Lewis (now at WSAW-TV in Wausau)* G. Gordon Liddy (deceased)* Rachel Marsden (contributor and ''Red Eye'' panelist; now lives in France)* Meghan McCain* Bill McCuddy* Zell Miller* Maria Molina* Clayton Morris* Dick Morris (contributor, not renewed)* Andrew Napolitano* Heather Nauert (now Senior Fellow at the Hudson Institute)* Scottie Nell Hughes (terminated)* Joanne Nosuchinsky* Robert Novak (deceased)* Bill O'Reilly (terminated amid sexual harassment allegations)* Barbara Olson (killed in the September 11 attacks in 2001)* Morgan Ortagus (now U.S. State Department Spokesperson)* Lt. Col. Ralph Peters* Uma Pemmaraju (deceased)* Julian Phillips* Kirsten Powers (now at CNN)* Elizabeth Prann (now at HLN)* Judith Regan* Geraldo Rivera* Julie Roginsky* Ed Rollins (not renewed)* James Rosen (now at the Sinclair Broadcast Group)* Sarah Huckabee Sanders (contributor, terminated)* Rick Santorum (now with CNN)* Rob Schmitt (now at Newsmax TV)* Mike Schneider (left for Bloomberg Television, most recently at NJTV)* Laura Schwartz* Bob Sellers (was morning co-anchor at WZTV in Nashville until 2016)* Suzanne Sena* David Shuster (now at i24NEWS)* Jane Skinner* Shepard Smith (left for CNBC)* Tony Snow (became White House Press Secretary, deceased)* John Stossel* Andrea Tantaros* Cal Thomas (not renewed)* Greta Van Susteren (left for MSNBC, now at Gray Television)* Linda Vester* Chris Wallace (now at CNN)* George Will (now at NBC News and MSNBC)* Brian Wilson (presently morning drive time host on WMAL-FM)* Paula Zahn (left for CNN, now at Investigation Discovery)" ], [ "See also", "* ''The Fox Effect''* Fox Music* The Fox Nation" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Freeciv" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Freeciv''''' is a single- and multiplayer turn-based strategy game for workstations and personal computers inspired by the proprietary ''Sid Meier's Civilization'' series.", "It is available for most desktop computer operating systems and available in an online browser version.", "Released under the GNU GPL-2.0-or-later, Freeciv is free and open-source software.", "The game's default settings are closest to ''Civilization II'', in both gameplay and graphics, including the units and the isometric grid.", "However, with a lot of multiplayer games being played in longturn communities, rulesets and additional variants have evolved away from the original ruleset.", "Freeciv is playable online at Longturn.net, fciv.net, freecivweb.org and some temporary private servers.Players take the role of tribal leaders in 4000 B.C.", "who must guide their peoples through the centuries.", "Over time, new technologies are discovered, which allow the construction of new city buildings and the deployment of new units.", "Players can wage war on one another or form diplomatic relationships.The game ends when one civilization has eradicated all others or accomplished the goal of space colonization, or at a given deadline.", "If more than one civilization remains at the deadline, the player with the highest score wins.", "Points are awarded for the size of a civilization, its wealth, and cultural and scientific advances." ], [ "History", "At the computer science department at Aarhus University, three students, avid players of ''XPilot'' and of Sid Meier's ''Civilization'', which was a stand-alone PC game for MS-DOS, decided to find out whether the two could be fused into an X-based multiplayer ''Civilization''-like strategy game.", "The students—Peter Unold, Claus Leth Gregersen and Allan Ove Kjeldbjerg—started development in November 1995; the first playable version was released in January 1996, with bugfixing and small enhancements until April.", "The rules of the game were close to ''Civilization'', while the client/server architecture was basically that of ''XPilot''.A ''Freeciv'' game with full world map revealed (''Freeciv'' version 1.11.5, GTK+ client, tinydent tileset, islands map generator)For the developers, ''Freeciv'' 1.0 was a successful proof of concept, but a rather boring game, so they went back to ''XPilot''.", "Other players and developers took over; they made the game available on many other operating systems, including Linux, Solaris, Ultrix, AmigaOS, and Microsoft Windows.", "Linux distributions started to include ''Freeciv''.The main development goal remained to make a ''Civilization''-like game playable over the Internet, with participants on different continents, even when connected with 14400 bit/s modems.", "''Freeciv'' achieved this by using an asynchronous client-server protocol: during each turn, human users play concurrently, and their actions are sent to the server for processing without awaiting the results.", "This kept the game playable with network latency up to a few hundreds of milliseconds.", "In 1998, computer players were added; they could soon beat newcomers to the game with ease, using only minor forms of cheating.", "Computer players are implemented directly in the server; they do not play concurrently with human players, but separately, in between turns.The game grew in popularity.", "A public server was installed on which games could be played around the clock; it retained the games and published a post-game analysis webpage with per-player statistics and an animated map replay.Subsequent 1.x releases improved the GUI, improved the gameplay, optimized playability over poor connections, and added many small features.", "Over time, the winning strategy proved to be ''city smallpox'', i.e.", "sprawling the map with many small cities as fast as possible; whoever could develop fastest would win the game, and growing and developing individual cities was not worthwhile.In practice, from around 2002, experienced players would form teams at the start of the game; a fork of ''Freeciv'' included specific features for team play.Version 2.0, released in 2005, introduced several important changes.", "New team playing features and advanced diplomacy made cooperative gaming more attractive.", "Adjustments to various costs and benefits put an end to the dominance of the city smallpox strategy that left many of the game's features unused; developing one's empire now necessitated a careful plan for city development, including the used of trade routes and phases of ''rapture'', in which city populations grow quickly, under relatively peaceful conditions.", "As a result, multiplayer games were almost always played in teams and typically took longer to finish when compared to 1.x games.In 2006, TCP and UDP port number 5556 was assigned to ''Freeciv'' by IANA.", "In 2017, after being hosted on Gna!", "for 15 years, ''Freeciv'' moved its source repository to GitHub.===Reception and impact===In 2000, CNN placed ''Freeciv'' among the \"Top 10 Linux games for the holidays\".", "In 2005, in an O'Reilly article on \"Open Source Mac Gaming\", ''Freeciv'' was recommended.", "In 2008, ''APC'' named Freeciv among the \"Top 5 best (free) open source games\".", "''Linux Format'' selected it as \"HotPick\" in April 2010 and in October 2014.", "''Freeciv'' was described as an example in ''The Art of Unix Programming'' by Eric S. Raymond.", "Studies and courses have used ''Freeciv'' as a platform for experimenting with the design and programming of intelligent agents." ], [ "Design", "Freeciv is very configurable, down to the specific rules, so it can be played in Freeciv (default) mode, ''Civilization'' mode, ''Civilization II'' mode, or a custom mode.", "One or several players act as game administrators and can configure the game rules.", "Typically modified rules are:* Number of players required before the game can be started.", "The maximum number of players is 126 in the latest version of Freeciv.", "* Speed of technological development* Whether there should be computer controlled players* Whether (computer controlled) barbarians should invade player settlements* How close cities can be built to one another* How continents and islands are generated and distributed over the map* The map size, where the maximum map size is 2,048,000 map tiles (128,000 before 2.4.0)* Map topology (rectangular or hexagonal tiling; whether it wraps horizontally and/or vertically)In order to play a game of Freeciv, a user must start up a Freeciv client and connect it to a Freeciv server.", "Initially, the server is in pre-game phase; in this phase, clients can connect and game configuration parameters can be changed.", "At some point, the server may be ordered to start a game; in response, it creates game players (nations) and the game map, and assigns every player to either a Freeciv client or a computer player, as specified by the configuration.", "From that point on, the game will run until it ends or is terminated; the server can never get back into pre-game state.", "The user can also start a game directly from the client: this automatically starts a Freeciv server, connects to it and starts the game." ], [ "Features", "Simplified Chinese in version 2.1Freeciv's graphics system is configurable: originally, map display was always in overhead mode (like in ''Civ I'').", "Isometric mode (like in ''Civ II'' and ''III'') and optionally hexagonal tiling (like in ''Civ V'' and ''VI'') were added later.", "In both modes, look can be further customized by switching to an alternative set of graphics (called a ''tileset'').", "The sounds can be replaced as well.", "Freeciv supports human-to-human multiplayer gameplay and artificial intelligence (AI) computer players.", "While the game is turn based, human players move simultaneously.", "The AI players move separately, partly at the start of a turn, partly at the end.In releases before 2.0, AI players could not engage in diplomatic relationships with human players.", "Under the current releases, AI players will engage in a very predictable, rules-based diplomacy.", "Version 2.2.0 included a map editor, termed Civworld.", "It can create new scenarios, as well as edit the map currently being played.", "Basic scripting is available with Freeciv, but is not available in Civworld.", "Version 2.3 increased the limit of players from 30 to 126.Dawning fanfareThere are different clients available SDL, GTK+ (version3) and Xaw3D A Qt client was added in version 2.5.The Freeciv interface is available in over 30 different languages.", "The addition of Gaelic was covered on BBC TV." ], [ "Ports and variants", "Originally developed on IRIX, Freeciv has been ported to many different operating systems: it is distributed with many Linux distributions, offers installers for Microsoft Windows, and has been known to run on Mac OS X, MorphOS, Solaris, Ultrix, QNX, OS/2, Cygwin, AmigaOS, AROS, RISC OS, Maemo, ZETA, SkyOS, various BSDs, and smartphones and tablets running Android.As of version 2.4, Mac OS X, and as of version 2.3, Windows versions older than Windows XP SP3 are no longer supported.", "Freeciv is available in the PortableApps format.===Freeciv21===Freeciv21 is a fork of the original Freeciv project started with the intention of modernizing the code and the client interface, and also adjusting the software more to the needs of multiplayer longturn variant.", "It was started by enthusiasts within the Longturn.net community.", "As of January 2023 it is in late developing stage.", "The first standard Longturn game played on Fc21 software was LT75, started in November 2022.===FCIV.NET===Screenshot of FCIV.NET of a trireme unitScreenshot of FCIV.NET 3D version at www.fciv.netFCIV.NET is a variant of Freeciv which focuses on 3D graphics and is playable for free on www.fciv.net.", "It uses the Three.js 3D engine.", "===Freeciv-web===Screenshot of Freeciv WebGL 3D running on play.freeciv.orgFreeciv-web is a version of Freeciv playable online in any modern web browser.", "It supports 2D isometric graphics or 3D graphics using WebGL.", "The game is a fork of the Freeciv project, with the goal of redesigning the desktop game into a version which can be played online.", "Freeciv-web introduced several new features, such as play-by-email support freely available to anyone online, and support for playing the game on any real-world map location by choosing a map using Mapbox, which is not available in commercial games in the genre.", "The game's default settings are closest to ''Civilization II'', both in gameplay and graphics (including the units and the isometric grid).", "The proposal to create a web-version of Freeciv was made 6 April 2007 on the Freeciv mailing lists, and documented on the Freeciv.org wiki.", "Freeciv-web was originally created by Andreas Røsdal, but is now maintained by several Freeciv developers on GitHub.Freeciv-web is free and open-source software.", "The Freeciv C server is released under the GNU General Public License, while the Freeciv-web client is released under the GNU Affero General Public License.", "Freeciv-web supports human-to-human multiplayer gameplay and artificial intelligence (AI) computer players.", "Its features are similar to the Freeciv C client, although not all of the user-interface has been ported from the C client yet.The Freeciv-web server on play.freeciv.org was shut down in March 2018, but the project was revived by a group of volunteers on freecivweb.org.", "Freeciv-web can be played online at a number of servers such as freecivweb.org.", "All the features required to play a full game of Freeciv are in place.", "Most servers offer multiple varieties of the game: single-player, multiplayer free-for-all, play-by-email and longturn.===Longturn variants===Greatturn Earth World rendering – match GT05Freeciv ''Longturn'' is a specialized large-group-multiplayer-online-strategy variant of Freeciv featuring daylong game turns with large amounts of human opponents per map, allowing for optimal timing to build up strategic plans and readapt them to the circumstances of each turn.", "Matches can last anytime from a few weeks to months, and commonly involve 20 to 30 players in each one.Longturn's first game, now called LT0, started around 2004 on the Polish Civilization fanpage civ.org.pl and is now conducted at Longturn.net.", "It was decided that the game is a bit too slow-paced, so a new \"3X movement\" ruleset was devised – basically, all units had their movement points and vision radius tripled.", "As of December 2022, the latest game was LT76.Changes to settings or rulesets are discussed in the Longturn forum.", "and, recently, Longturn Discord server where the community is currently centered.", "There is ongoing development of a few non-standard rulesets specifically adjusted for longturn multiplayer games, diverging from the rules of the original Civilization which was created as a single-player game.", "''Greatturn'' was a similar concept on another server.", "''FreeCivWeb.org'' also offers longturn games (more than fifty have been played before mid-2021) with a multiplayer ruleset which is documented in great detail.", "''Power of Planets – Earth'' (formerly known as ''GaCivs'') is a free-to-play MMO-RTS variant based on FreeCiv.", "The ruleset was devised to support long-term time-based gameplay instead of turn-based strategy." ], [ "See also", "* List of free and open-source software packages* List of open-source video games" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fornax" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fornax''' () is a constellation in the southern celestial hemisphere, partly ringed by the celestial river Eridanus.", "Its name is Latin for furnace.", "It was named by French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille in 1756.Fornax is one of the 88 modern constellations.The three brightest stars—Alpha, Beta and Nu Fornacis—form a flattened triangle facing south.", "With an apparent magnitude of 3.91, Alpha Fornacis is the brightest star in Fornax.", "Six star systems have been found to have exoplanets.", "The Fornax Dwarf galaxy is a small faint satellite galaxy of the Milky Way.", "NGC 1316 is a relatively close radio galaxy.", "The Hubble's Ultra-Deep Field is located within the Fornax constellation.", "It is the 41st largest constellation in the night-sky, occupying an area of 398 square degrees.", "It is located in the first quadrant of the southern hemisphere (SQ1) and can be seen at latitudes between +50° and -90° during the month of December." ], [ "History", "Cetus in this card from ''Urania's Mirror'' (1825).The French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille first described the constellation in French as ''le Fourneau Chymique'' (the Chemical Furnace) with an alembic and receiver in his early catalogue, before abbreviating it to ''le Fourneau'' on his planisphere in 1752, after he had observed and catalogued almost 10,000 southern stars during a two-year stay at the Cape of Good Hope.", "He devised fourteen new constellations in uncharted regions of the Southern Celestial Hemisphere not visible from Europe.", "All but one honoured instruments that symbolised the Age of Enlightenment.", "Lacaille Latinised the name to ''Fornax Chimiae'' on his 1763 chart." ], [ "Characteristics", "The constellation Eridanus borders Fornax to the east, north and south, while Cetus, Sculptor and Phoenix gird it to the north, west and south respectively.", "Covering 397.5 square degrees and 0.964% of the night sky, it ranks 41st of the 88 constellations in size, The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is \"For\".", "The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 8 segments (''illustrated in infobox'').", "In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −23.76° and −39.58°.", "The whole constellation is visible to observers south of latitude 50°N." ], [ "Features", "The constellation Fornax as it can be seen by the naked eye.===Stars===Lacaille gave Bayer designations to 27 stars now named Alpha to Omega Fornacis, labelling two stars 3.5 degrees apart as Gamma, three stars Eta, two stars Iota, two Lambda and three Chi.", "Phi Fornacis was added by Gould, and Theta and Omicron were dropped by Gould and Baily respectively.", "Upsilon, too, was later found to be two stars and designated as such.", "Overall, there are 59 stars within the constellation's borders brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6.5.However, there are no stars brighter than the fourth magnitude.The three brightest stars form a flattish triangle, with Alpha (also called Dalim) and Nu Fornacis marking its eastern and western points and Beta Fornacis marking the shallow southern apex.", "Originally designated 12 Eridani by John Flamsteed, Alpha Fornacis was named by Lacaille as the brightest star in the new constellation.", "It is a binary star that can be resolved by small amateur telescopes.", "With an apparent magnitude of 3.91, the primary is a yellow-white subgiant 1.21 times as massive as the Sun that has begun to cool and expand after exhausting its core hydrogen, having swollen to 1.9 times the Sun's radius.", "Of magnitude 6.5, the secondary star is 0.78 times as massive as the Sun.", "It has been identified as a blue straggler, and has either accumulated material from, or merged with, a third star in the past.", "It is a strong source of X-rays.", "The pair is 46.4 ± 0.3 light-years distant from Earth.Beta Fornacis is a yellow-hued giant star of spectral type G8IIIb of magnitude 4.5 that has cooled and swelled to 11 times the Sun's diameter, 178 ± 2 light-years from Earth.", "It is a red clump giant, which means it has undergone helium flash and is currently generating energy through the fusion of helium at its core.Nu Fornacis is 370 ± 10 light-years distant from Earth.", "It is a blue giant star of spectral type B9.5IIIspSi that is 3.65 ± 0.18 times as massive and around 245 times as luminous as the Sun, with 3.2 ± 0.4 times its diameter.", "It varies in luminosity over a period of 1.89 days—the same as its rotational period.", "This is because of differences in abundances of metals in its atmosphere; it belongs to a class of star known as an Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variable.Shining with an apparent magnitude of 5.89, Epsilon Fornacis is a binary star system located 104.4 ± 0.3 light-years distant from Earth.", "Its component stars orbit each other every 37 years.", "The primary star is around 12 billion years old and has cooled and expanded to 2.53 times the diameter of the Sun, while having only 91% of its mass.", "Omega Fornacis is a binary star system composed of a blue main-sequence star of spectral type B9.5V and magnitude 4.96, and a white main sequence star of spectral type A7V and magnitude 7.88.The system is 470 ± 10 light-years distant from Earth.Kappa Fornacis is a triple star system composed of a yellow giant and a pair of red dwarfs.R Fornacis is a long-period variable and carbon star.LP 944-20 is a brown dwarf of spectral type M9 that has around 7% the mass of the Sun.", "Approximately 21 light-years distant from Earth, it is a faint object with an apparent magnitude of 18.69.Observations published in 2007 showed that the atmosphere of LP 944-20 contains much lithium and that it has dusty clouds.", "Smaller and less luminous still is 2MASS 0243-2453, a T-type brown dwarf of spectral type T6.With a surface temperature of 1040–1100 K, it has 2.4–4.1% the mass of the Sun, a diameter 9.2 to 10.6% of that of the Sun, and an age of 0.4–1.7 billion years.Six star systems in Fornax have been found to have planets:* Lambda2 Fornacis is a star about 1.2 times as massive as the Sun with a planet about as massive as Neptune, discovered by doppler spectroscopy in 2009.The planet has an orbit of around 17.24 days.", "* HD 20868 is an orange dwarf with a mass around 78% that of the Sun, 151 ± 10 light-years away from Earth.", "It was found to have an orbiting planet approximately double the mass of Jupiter with a period of 380 days.", "* WASP-72 is a star around 1.4 times as massive that has begun to cool and expand off the main sequence, reaching double the Sun's diameter.", "It has a planet around as massive as Jupiter orbiting it every 2.2 days.", "* HD 20781 and HD 20782 are a pair of sunlike yellow main sequence stars that orbit each other.", "Each has been found to have planets.", "* HR 858 is a near naked eye visible star in Fornax, 31.3 parsecs away.", "In May 2019, it was announced to have at least 3 exoplanets as observed by transit method of the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite.===Deep-sky objects===Four globular clusters in Fornax.", "'''Local Group'''NGC 1049 is a globular cluster 500,000 light-years from Earth.", "It is in the Fornax Dwarf Galaxy.", "NGC 1360 is a planetary nebula in Fornax with a magnitude of approximately 9.0, 1,280 light-years from Earth.", "Its central star is of magnitude 11.4, an unusually bright specimen.", "It is five times the size of the famed Ring Nebula in Lyra at 6.5 arcminutes.", "Unlike the Ring Nebula, NGC 1360 is clearly elliptical.The Fornax Dwarf galaxy is a dwarf galaxy that is part of the Local Group of galaxies.", "It is not visible in amateur telescopes, despite its relatively small distance of 500,000 light-years.Helmi stream is a small galactic stream in Fornax.", "This small galaxy was destroyed by Milky Way 6 billion years ago.", "There was candidate for extragalactic planet, HIP 13044 b.", "'''Outside'''NGC 1097 is a barred spiral galaxy in Fornax, about 45 million light-years from Earth.", "At magnitude 9, it is visible in medium amateur telescopes.", "It is notable as a Seyfert galaxy with strong spectral emissions indicating ionized gases and a central supermassive black hole.", "'''Fornax Cluster'''Galaxies in the Fornax ClusterThe '''Fornax Cluster''' is a cluster of galaxies lying at a distance of 19 megaparsecs (62 million light-years).", "It is the second richest galaxy cluster within 100 million light-years, after the considerably larger Virgo Cluster, and may be associated with the nearby Eridanus Group.", "It lies primarily in the constellation Fornax, with its southern boundaries partially crossing into the constellation of Eridanus, and covers an area of sky about 6° across or about 28 sq degrees.", "The Fornax cluster is a part of larger Fornax Wall.", "Down are some famous objects in this cluster:NGC 1365 is another barred spiral galaxy located at a distance of 56 million light-years from Earth.", "Like NGC 1097, it is also a Seyfert galaxy.", "Its bar is a center of star formation and shows extensions of the spiral arms' dust lanes.", "The bright nucleus indicates the presence of an active galactic nucleus – a galaxy with a supermassive black hole at the center, accreting matter from the bar.", "It is a 10th magnitude galaxy associated with the Fornax Cluster.Fornax A is a radio galaxy with extensive radio lobes that corresponds to the optical galaxy NGC 1316, a 9th-magnitude galaxy.", "One of the closer active galaxies to Earth at a distance of 62 million light-years, Fornax A appears in the optical spectrum as a large elliptical galaxy with dust lanes near its core.", "These dust lanes have caused astronomers to discern that it recently merged with a small spiral galaxy.", "Because it has a high rate of type Ia supernovae, NGC 1316 has been used to determine the size of the universe.", "The jets producing the radio lobes are not particularly powerful, giving the lobes a more diffuse, knotted structure due to interactions with the intergalactic medium.", "Associated with this peculiar galaxy is an entire cluster of galaxies.NGC 1399 is a large elliptical galaxy in the Southern constellation Fornax, the central galaxy in the Fornax cluster.The galaxy is 66 million light-years away from Earth.", "With a diameter of 130 000 light-years, it is one of the largest galaxies in the Fornax cluster and slightly larger than Milky Way.", "William Herschel discovered this galaxy on October 22, 1835.NGC 1386 is a spiral galaxy located in the constellation Eridanus.", "It is located at a distance of circa 53 million light years from Earth and has apparent dimensions of 3.89' x 1.349'.", "It is a Seyfert galaxy, the only one in Fornax Cluster.NGC 1427A is an irregular galaxy in the constellation Eridanus.", "Its distance modulus has been estimated using the globular cluster luminosity function to be 31.01 ± 0.21 which is about 52 Mly.", "It is the brightest dwarf irregular member of the Fornax cluster and is in the foreground of the cluster's central galaxy NGC 1399.NGC 1460 is a barred lenticular galaxy in the constellation Eridanus.", "It was discovered by John Herschel on November 28, 1837.It is moving away from the Milky Way 1341 km/s.", "NGC 1460 has a Hubble classification of SB0, which indicates it is a barred lenticular galaxy.", "But, this one contains a huge bar at its core.", "The bar is spreading from center to the edge of the galaxy, as seen on Hubble image in the box.", "This bar is one of the largest seen in barred lenticular galaxies.There are also first ultracompact dwarf galaxies discovered.", "'''Distant universe'''The Hubble Ultra Deep Field seen with MUSE.A video introduce the Hubble Ultra Deep Field and its location near FornaxFornax has been the target of investigations into the furthest reaches of the universe.", "The Hubble Ultra Deep Field is located within Fornax, and the Fornax Cluster, a small cluster of galaxies, lies primarily within Fornax.", "At a meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society in Britain, a team from University of Queensland described 40 unknown \"dwarf\" galaxies in this constellation; follow-up observations with the Hubble Space Telescope and the European Southern Observatory's Very Large Telescope revealed that ultra compact dwarfs are much smaller than previously known dwarf galaxies, about across.`UDFj-39546284 is a candidate protogalaxy located in Fornax, although recent analyses have suggested it is likely to be a lower redshift source.GRB 190114C was a notable gamma ray burst explosion from a galaxy 4.5 billion light years away near the Fornax constellation, that was initially detected in January 2019.According to astronomers, \"the brightest light ever seen from Earth to date ... the biggest explosion in the Universe since the Big Bang\"." ], [ "Equivalents", "In Chinese astronomy, the stars that correspond to Fornax are within the White Tiger of the West (西方白虎, ''Xī Fāng Bái Hǔ'')." ], [ "See also", "* Fornax (Chinese astronomy)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Cited texts===* * * Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007).", "''Stars and Planets Guide'', Collins, London.", ".", "Princeton University Press, Princeton.", "." ], [ "External links", "* The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Fornax* Starry Night Photography – Fornax Constellation* The clickable Fornax" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Francesco Borromini" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Francesco Borromini''' (, ), byname of '''Francesco Castelli''' (; 25 September 1599 – 2 August 1667), was an Italian architect born in the modern Swiss canton of Ticino who, with his contemporaries Gian Lorenzo Bernini and Pietro da Cortona, was a leading figure in the emergence of Roman Baroque architecture.A keen student of the architecture of Michelangelo and the ruins of Antiquity, Borromini developed an inventive and distinctive, if somewhat idiosyncratic, architecture employing manipulations of Classical architectural forms, geometrical rationales in his plans and symbolic meanings in his buildings.", "He seems to have had a sound understanding of structures, which perhaps Bernini and Cortona, who were principally trained in other areas of the visual arts, lacked.", "His soft lead drawings are particularly distinctive.", "He appears to have been a self-taught scholar, amassing a large library by the end of his life.His career was constrained by his personality.", "Unlike Bernini who easily adopted the mantle of the charming courtier in his pursuit of important commissions, Borromini was both melancholic and quick in temper which resulted in his withdrawing from certain jobs.", "His conflicted character led him to a death by suicide in 1667.Probably because his work was idiosyncratic, his subsequent influence was not widespread but is apparent in the Piedmontese works of Guarino Guarini and, as a fusion with the architectural modes of Bernini and Cortona, in the late Baroque architecture of Northern Europe.", "Later critics of the Baroque, such as Francesco Milizia and the English architect Sir John Soane, were particularly critical of Borromini's work.", "From the late nineteenth century onwards, interest has revived in the works of Borromini and his architecture has become appreciated for its inventiveness." ], [ "Early life and first works", "Borromini was born at Bissone, near Lugano in today's Ticino, which was at the time a bailiwick of the Swiss Confederacy.", "He was the son of a stonemason and began his career as a stonemason himself.", "He soon went to Milan to study and practice his craft.", "He moved to Rome in 1619 and started working for Carlo Maderno, his distant relative, at St. Peter's and then also at the Palazzo Barberini.", "When Maderno died in 1629, he and Pietro da Cortona continued to work on the palace under the direction of Bernini.", "Once he had become established in Rome, he changed his name from Castelli to Borromini, a name deriving from his mother's family and perhaps also out of regard for St Charles Borromeo." ], [ "Major works", "=== San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (San Carlino) ===In 1634, Borromini received his first major independent commission to design the church, cloister and monastic buildings of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (also known as San Carlino).", "Situated on the Quirinal Hill in Rome, the complex was designed for the Spanish Trinitarians, a religious order.", "The monastic buildings and the cloister were completed first after which construction of the church took place during the period 1638-1641 and in 1646 it was dedicated to San Carlo Borromeo.", "The church is considered by many to be an exemplary masterpiece of Roman Baroque architecture.", "San Carlino is remarkably small given its significance to Baroque architecture; it has been noted that the whole building would fit into one of the dome piers of Saint Peter's.", "The site was not an easy one; it was a corner site and the space was limited.", "Borromini positioned the church on the corner of two intersecting roads.", "Although the idea for the serpentine façade must have been conceived fairly early on, probably in the mid-1630s, it was only constructed towards the end of Borromini's life and the upper part was not completed until after the architect's death.Borromini devised the complex ground plan of the church from interlocking geometrical configurations, a typical Borromini device for constructing plans.", "The resulting effect is that the interior lower walls appear to weave in and out, partly alluding to a cross form, partly to a hexagonal form and partly to an oval form; geometrical figures that are all found explicitly in the dome above.", "The area of the pendentives marks the transition from the lower wall order to the oval opening of the dome.", "Illuminated by windows hidden from a viewer below, interlocking octagons, crosses and hexagons diminish in size as the dome rises to a lantern with the symbol of the Trinity.=== Oratory of Saint Philip Neri (Oratorio dei Filippini) ===Oratory of Saint Philip NeriIn the late sixteenth century, the Congregation of the Filippini (also known as the Oratorians) rebuilt the church of Santa Maria in Vallicella (known as the Chiesa Nuova -new church) in central Rome.", "In the 1620s, on a site adjacent to the church, the Fathers commissioned designs for their own residence and for an oratory (or ''oratorio'' in Italian) in which to hold their spiritual exercises.", "These exercises combined preaching and music in a form which became immensely popular and highly influential on the development of the musical oratorio.The architect Paolo Maruscelli drew up plans for the site (which survive) and the sacristy was begun in 1629 and was in use by 1635.After a substantial benefaction in January 1637, however, Borromini was appointed as architect.", "By 1640, the oratory was in use, a taller and richer clock tower was accepted, and by 1643, the relocated library was complete.", "The striking brick curved façade adjacent to the church entrance has an unusual pediment and does not entirely correspond to the oratory room behind it.", "The white oratory interior has a ribbed vault and a complex wall arrangement of engaged pilasters along with freestanding columns supporting first-level balconies.", "The altar wall was substantially reworked at a later date.Borromini's relations with the Oratorians were often fraught; there were heated arguments over the design and the selection of building materials.", "By 1650, the situation came to a head and in 1652 the Oratorians appointed another architect.However, with the help of his Oratorian friend and provost Virgilio Spada, Borromini documented his own account of the building of the oratory and the residence and an illustrated version was published in Italian in 1725 Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza, courtyard and façade=== Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza ===From 1640 to 1650, he worked on the design of the church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza and its courtyard, near University of Rome La Sapienza palace.", "It was initially the church of the Roman Archiginnasio.", "He had been initially recommended for the commission in 1632, by his then-supervisor for the work at the Palazzo Barberini, Gian Lorenzo Bernini.", "The site, like many in cramped Rome, is challenged by external perspectives.", "It was built at the end of Giacomo della Porta's long courtyard.", "The dome and cochlear steeple are peculiar, and reflect the idiosyncratic architectural motifs that distinguish Borromini from contemporaries.", "Inside, the nave has an unusual centralized plan circled by alternating concave and convex-ending cornices, leading to a dome decorated with linear arrays of stars and putti.", "The geometry of the structure is a symmetric six-pointed star; from the centre of the floor, the cornice looks like two equilateral triangles forming a hexagon, but three of the points are clover-like, while the other three are concavely clipped.", "The innermost columns are points on a circle.", "The fusion of feverish and dynamic baroque excesses with rationalistic geometry is an excellent match for a church in a papal institution of higher learning.=== Sant'Agnese in Agone ===Borromini was one of several architects involved in the building of the church of Sant’Agnese in Agone in Rome.", "Not only were some of his design intentions changed by succeeding architects but the net result is a building which reflects, rather unhappily, a mix of different approaches.The decision to rebuild the church was taken in 1652 as part of Pope Innocent X's project to enhance the Piazza Navona, the urban space onto which his family palace, the Palazzo Pamphili, faced.", "The first plans for a Greek Cross church were drawn up by Girolamo Rainaldi and his son Carlo Rainaldi, who relocated the main entrance from the Via di Santa Maria dell'Anima to the Piazza Navona.", "The foundations were laid and much of the lower level walls had been constructed when the Rainaldis were dismissed due to criticisms of the design and Borromini was appointed in their stead.Borromini began a much more innovative approach to the façade which was expanded to include parts of the adjacent Palazzo Pamphili and gain space for his two bell towers.", "Construction of the façade proceeded up to the cornice level and the dome completed as far as the lantern.", "On the interior, he placed columns against the piers of the lower order which was mainly completed.In 1655, Innocent X died and the project lost momentum.", "In 1657, Borromini resigned and Carlo Rainaldi was recalled who made a number of significant changes to Borromini's design.", "Further alterations were made by Bernini including the façade pediment.", "In 1668, Carlo Rainaldi returned as architect and Ciro Ferri received the commission to fresco the dome interior which it is highly unlikely that Borromini intended.", "Further large-scale statuary and coloured marbling were also added; again, these are not part of Borromini's design repertoire which was orientated to white stucco architectural and symbolic motifs.===The Re Magi Chapel of the Propaganda Fide===The College of the Propagation of the Faith or Propaganda Fide in Rome includes the Re Magi Chapel by Borromini, generally considered by architectural historians to be one of his most spatially unified architectural interiors.The chapel replaced a small oval chapel designed by his rival Bernini and was a late work in Borromini's career; he was appointed as architect in 1648 but it was not until 1660 that construction of the chapel began and although the main body of work was completed by 1665, some of the decoration was finished after his death.His façade to the Via di Propaganda Fide comprises seven bays articulated by giant pilasters.", "The central bay is a concave curve and accommodates the main entry into the college courtyard and complex, with the entrance to the chapel to the left and to the college to the right." ], [ "Other works", "Portrait of Francesco Borromini kept in the sacristy of San Carlo alle Quattro FontaneBorromini's works include:*Interior of Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano*Cappella Spada, San Girolamo della Carità (uncertain attribution)*Palazzo Spada (trick perspective)*Palazzo Barberini (upper-level windows and oval staircase)*Santi Apostoli, Naples - Filamarino Altar*Sant'Andrea delle Fratte*Oratorio dei Filippini*Palazzo Carpegna, Rome (ground floor portico and portal, helicoidal ramp leading to the upper floors)*Collegio de Propaganda Fide*Santa Maria dei Sette Dolori, Rome*Santa Maria alla Porta, Milan - portal and tympanum*San Giovanni in Oleo (restoration)*Palazzo Giustiniani (with Carlo Fontana)*Façade and loggia Palazzo Falconieri*Santa Lucia in Selci (restoration)*Saint Peter's Basilica (gates to Blessed Sacrament Chapel and possibly parts of baldacchino)" ], [ "Death and epitaph", "In the summer of 1667, and following the completion of the Falconieri chapel (the High Altar chapel) in San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, Borromini committed suicide in Rome by drawing his sword, resting the hilt against his bed, and falling on it \"with such force that it ran into his body, from one side to the other\" This was possibly as a result of nervous disorders and depression.", "The architect named cardinal Ulderico Carpegna executor of his will and bequeathed him money and objects of considerable value \"for\", as he wrote, \"the infinite debt I have toward him\".", "The prelate was a former patron who had commissioned Borromini important works of transformation and expansion of his palace at Fontana di Trevi.", "In his testament, Borromini wrote that he did not want any name on his burial and expressed the desire to be buried in the tomb of his kinsman Carlo Maderno in San Giovanni dei Fiorentini.In recent times (in 1955), his name was added to the marble plaque below the tomb of Maderno and a commemorative plaque commissioned by the Swiss embassy in Rome was placed on a pillar of the church.", "This Latin inscription reads:The plaque commissioned by the Swiss embassy in Rome to commemorate Francesco Borromini in the basilica of San Giovanni dei FiorentiniThe adjective \"Ticinensis\" used in the plaque is an anachronism, since the name, related to the Ticino river, was chosen only in 1803, when the modern Canton was created by Napoleon." ], [ "Honours", "francs note* Francesco Borromini was featured on the obverse of the 6th series 100 Swiss Franc banknote, which was in circulation from 1976 until 2000.The obverse side of the discontinued 100 swiss franc note, showing the bell tower of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza in RomeThis decision at that time caused polemics in Switzerland, started by the Swiss-Italian art historian Piero Bianconi.", "According to him, since in 17th century the territories which in 1803 became the Canton Ticino were Italian possessions of some Swiss cantons (Condominiums of the Twelve Cantons), Borromini could neither be defined Ticinese nor Swiss.", "The architect was also featured on the 7th series, which was a reserve emission and was never released.", "The reverse of both series shows architectural details from some of his major works.", "* He is the subject of the film ''La Sapienza'' by Eugène Green released in 2015." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*A map giving the location of Borromini's buildings in Rome* Architectural drawings by Borrominis in der Albertina* Columbia University: Joseph Connors, ''Francesco Borromini: Opus Architectonicum,'' Milan, 1998: Introduction to Borromini's own description of the Casa dei Filippini* Borromini's own account of his suicide** Borromini: rare interior color images" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Federal Bureau of Investigation" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Federal Bureau of Investigation''' ('''FBI''') is the domestic intelligence and security service of the United States and its principal federal law enforcement agency.", "An agency of the United States Department of Justice, the FBI is also a member of the U.S. Intelligence Community and reports to both the Attorney General and the Director of National Intelligence.", "A leading U.S. counterterrorism, counterintelligence, and criminal investigative organization, the FBI has jurisdiction over violations of more than 200 categories of federal crimes.Although many of the FBI's functions are unique, its activities in support of national security are comparable to those of the British MI5 and NCA; the New Zealand GCSB and the Russian FSB.", "Unlike the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), which has no law enforcement authority and is focused on intelligence collection abroad, the FBI is primarily a domestic agency, maintaining 56 field offices in major cities throughout the United States, and more than 400 resident agencies in smaller cities and areas across the nation.", "At an FBI field office, a senior-level FBI officer concurrently serves as the representative of the director of National Intelligence.Despite its domestic focus, the FBI also maintains a significant international footprint, operating 60 Legal Attache (LEGAT) offices and 15 sub-offices in U.S. embassies and consulates across the globe.", "These foreign offices exist primarily for the purpose of coordination with foreign security services and do not usually conduct unilateral operations in the host countries.", "The FBI can and does at times carry out secret activities overseas, just as the CIA has a limited domestic function; these activities generally require coordination across government agencies.The FBI was established in 1908 as the Bureau of Investigation, the BOI or BI for short.", "Its name was changed to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 1935.The FBI headquarters is the J. Edgar Hoover Building in Washington, D.C.", "The FBI has a List of the Top 10 criminals." ], [ "Mission, priorities and budget", "FBI Domestic Investigations and Operations Guide (.pdf file)=== Mission ===The mission of the FBI is:Protect the American people and uphold the Constitution of the United States.=== Priorities ===Currently, the FBI's top priorities are:*Protect the United States from terrorist attacks*Protect the United States against foreign intelligence operations, espionage, and cyber operations*Combat significant cybercriminal activity*Combat public corruption at all levels*Protect civil rights*Combat transnational criminal enterprises*Combat major white-collar crime*Combat significant violent crime=== Budget ===In the fiscal year 2019, the Bureau's total budget was approximately $9.6 billion.In the Authorization and Budget Request to Congress for fiscal year 2021, the FBI asked for $9,800,724,000.Of that money, $9,748,829,000 would be used for Salaries and Expenses (S&E) and $51,895,000 for Construction.", "The S&E program saw an increase of $199,673,000." ], [ "History", "=== Background ===In 1896, the National Bureau of Criminal Identification was founded, providing agencies across the country with information to identify known criminals.", "The 1901 assassination of President William McKinley created a perception that the United States was under threat from anarchists.", "The Departments of Justice and Labor had been keeping records on anarchists for years, but President Theodore Roosevelt wanted more power to monitor them.The Justice Department had been tasked with the regulation of interstate commerce since 1887, though it lacked the staff to do so.", "It had made little effort to relieve its staff shortage until the Oregon land fraud scandal at the turn of the 20th century.", "President Roosevelt instructed Attorney General Charles Bonaparte to organize an autonomous investigative service that would report only to the Attorney General.Bonaparte reached out to other agencies, including the U.S. Secret Service, for personnel, investigators in particular.", "On May 27, 1908, Congress forbade this use of Treasury employees by the Justice Department, citing fears that the new agency would serve as a secret police department.", "Again at Roosevelt's urging, Bonaparte moved to organize a formal '''Bureau of Investigation''', which would then have its own staff of special agents.=== Creation of BOI ===The Bureau of Investigation (BOI) was created on July 26, 1908.Attorney General Bonaparte, using Department of Justice expense funds, hired thirty-four people, including some veterans of the Secret Service, to work for a new investigative agency.", "Its first \"chief\" (the title is now \"director\") was Stanley Finch.", "Bonaparte notified the Congress of these actions in December 1908.The bureau's first official task was visiting and making surveys of the houses of prostitution in preparation for enforcing the \"White Slave Traffic Act\" or Mann Act, passed on June 25, 1910.In 1932, the bureau was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation.=== Creation of FBI ===The following year, 1933, the BOI was linked to the Bureau of Prohibition and rechristened the Division of Investigation (DOI); it became an independent service within the Department of Justice in 1935.In the same year, its name was officially changed from the Division of Investigation to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).=== J. Edgar Hoover as FBI director ===J.", "Edgar Hoover, FBI director from 1924 to 1972J.", "Edgar Hoover served as FBI director from 1924 to 1972, a combined 48 years with the BOI, DOI, and FBI.", "He was chiefly responsible for creating the Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory, or the FBI Laboratory, which officially opened in 1932, as part of his work to professionalize investigations by the government.", "Hoover was substantially involved in most major cases and projects that the FBI handled during his tenure.", "But as detailed below, his tenure as Bureau director proved to be highly controversial, especially in its later years.", "After Hoover's death, Congress passed legislation that limited the tenure of future FBI directors to ten years.Early homicide investigations of the new agency included the Osage Indian murders.", "During the \"War on Crime\" of the 1930s, FBI agents apprehended or killed a number of notorious criminals who committed kidnappings, bank robberies, and murders throughout the nation, including John Dillinger, \"Baby Face\" Nelson, Kate \"Ma\" Barker, Alvin \"Creepy\" Karpis, and George \"Machine Gun\" Kelly.Other activities of its early decades focused on the scope and influence of the white supremacist group Ku Klux Klan, a group with which the FBI was evidenced to be working in the Viola Liuzzo lynching case.", "Earlier, through the work of Edwin Atherton, the BOI claimed to have successfully apprehended an entire army of Mexican neo-revolutionaries under the leadership of General Enrique Estrada in the mid-1920s, east of San Diego, California.Hoover began using wiretapping in the 1920s during Prohibition to arrest bootleggers.", "In the 1927 case ''Olmstead v. United States'', in which a bootlegger was caught through telephone tapping, the United States Supreme Court ruled that FBI wiretaps did not violate the Fourth Amendment as unlawful search and seizure, as long as the FBI did not break into a person's home to complete the tapping.", "After Prohibition's repeal, Congress passed the Communications Act of 1934, which outlawed non-consensual phone tapping, but did allow bugging.", "In the 1939 case ''Nardone v. United States'', the court ruled that due to the 1934 law, evidence the FBI obtained by phone tapping was inadmissible in court.", "After ''Katz v. United States'' (1967) overturned ''Olmstead'', Congress passed the Omnibus Crime Control Act, allowing public authorities to tap telephones during investigations, as long as they obtained warrants beforehand.==== National security ====Beginning in the 1940s and continuing into the 1970s, the bureau investigated cases of espionage against the United States and its allies.", "Eight Nazi agents who had planned sabotage operations against American targets were arrested, and six were executed (''Ex parte Quirin'') under their sentences.", "Also during this time, a joint US/UK code-breaking effort called \"The Venona Project\"—with which the FBI was heavily involved—broke Soviet diplomatic and intelligence communications codes, allowing the US and British governments to read Soviet communications.", "This effort confirmed the existence of Americans working in the United States for Soviet intelligence.", "Hoover was administering this project, but he failed to notify the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of it until 1952.Another notable case was the arrest of Soviet spy Rudolf Abel in 1957.The discovery of Soviet spies operating in the US motivated Hoover to pursue his longstanding concern with the threat he perceived from the American Left.==== Japanese American internment ====In 1939, the Bureau began compiling a custodial detention list with the names of those who would be taken into custody in the event of war with Axis nations.", "The majority of the names on the list belonged to Issei community leaders, as the FBI investigation built on an existing Naval Intelligence index that had focused on Japanese Americans in Hawaii and the West Coast, but many German and Italian nationals also found their way onto the FBI Index list.", "Robert Shivers, head of the Honolulu office, obtained permission from Hoover to start detaining those on the list on December 7, 1941, while bombs were still falling over Pearl Harbor.", "Mass arrests and searches of homes (in most cases conducted without warrants) began a few hours after the attack, and over the next several weeks more than 5,500 Issei men were taken into FBI custody.", "On February 19, 1942, President Franklin Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066, authorizing the removal of Japanese Americans from the West Coast.", "FBI Director Hoover opposed the subsequent mass removal and confinement of Japanese Americans authorized under Executive Order 9066, but Roosevelt prevailed.", "The vast majority went along with the subsequent exclusion orders, but in a handful of cases where Japanese Americans refused to obey the new military regulations, FBI agents handled their arrests.", "The Bureau continued surveillance on Japanese Americans throughout the war, conducting background checks on applicants for resettlement outside camp, and entering the camps (usually without the permission of War Relocation Authority officials) and grooming informants to monitor dissidents and \"troublemakers\".", "After the war, the FBI was assigned to protect returning Japanese Americans from attacks by hostile white communities.==== Sex deviates program ====According to Douglas M. Charles, the FBI's \"sex deviates\" program began on April 10, 1950, when J. Edgar Hoover forwarded to the White House, to the U.S. Civil Service Commission, and to branches of the armed services a list of 393 alleged federal employees who had allegedly been arrested in Washington, D.C., since 1947, on charges of \"sexual irregularities\".", "On June 20, 1951, Hoover expanded the program by issuing a memo establishing a \"uniform policy for the handling of the increasing number of reports and allegations concerning present and past employees of the United States Government who assertedly sic are sex deviates.\"", "The program was expanded to include non-government jobs.", "According to Athan Theoharis, \"In 1951 he Hoover had unilaterally instituted a Sex Deviates program to purge alleged homosexuals from any position in the federal government, from the lowliest clerk to the more powerful position of White house aide.\"", "On May 27, 1953, Executive Order 10450 went into effect.", "The program was expanded further by this executive order by making all federal employment of homosexuals illegal.", "On July 8, 1953, the FBI forwarded to the U.S. Civil Service Commission information from the sex deviates program.", "Between 1977–1978, 300,000 pages, collected between 1930 and the mid-1970s, in the sex deviates program were destroyed by FBI officials.==== Civil rights movement ====During the 1950s and 1960s, FBI officials became increasingly concerned about the influence of civil rights leaders, whom they believed either had communist ties or were unduly influenced by communists or \"fellow travelers\".", "In 1956, for example, Hoover sent an open letter denouncing Dr. T. R. M. Howard, a civil rights leader, surgeon, and wealthy entrepreneur in Mississippi who had criticized FBI inaction in solving recent murders of George W. Lee, Emmett Till, and other blacks in the South.", "The FBI carried out controversial domestic surveillance in an operation it called the COINTELPRO, from \"COunter-INTELligence PROgram\".", "It was to investigate and disrupt the activities of dissident political organizations within the United States, including both militant and non-violent organizations.", "Among its targets was the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, a leading civil rights organization whose clergy leadership included the Rev.", "Dr. Martin Luther King Jr..suicide letter\", mailed anonymously to King by the FBI The FBI frequently investigated King.", "In the mid-1960s, King began to criticize the Bureau for giving insufficient attention to the use of terrorism by white supremacists.", "Hoover responded by publicly calling King the most \"notorious liar\" in the United States.", "In his 1991 memoir, ''Washington Post'' journalist Carl Rowan asserted that the FBI had sent at least one anonymous letter to King encouraging him to commit suicide.", "Historian Taylor Branch documents an anonymous November 1964 \"suicide package\" sent by the Bureau that combined a letter to the civil rights leader telling him \"You are done.", "There is only one way out for you.\"", "with audio recordings of King's sexual indiscretions.In March 1971, the residential office of an FBI agent in Media, Pennsylvania was burgled by a group calling itself the Citizens' Commission to Investigate the FBI.", "Numerous files were taken and distributed to a range of newspapers, including ''The Harvard Crimson''.", "The files detailed the FBI's extensive COINTELPRO program, which included investigations into lives of ordinary citizens—including a black student group at a Pennsylvania military college and the daughter of Congressman Henry S. Reuss of Wisconsin.", "The country was \"jolted\" by the revelations, which included assassinations of political activists, and the actions were denounced by members of the Congress, including House Majority Leader Hale Boggs.", "The phones of some members of the Congress, including Boggs, had allegedly been tapped.==== Kennedy's assassination ====When President John F. Kennedy was shot and killed, the jurisdiction fell to the local police departments until President Lyndon B. Johnson directed the FBI to take over the investigation.", "To ensure clarity about the responsibility for investigation of homicides of federal officials, the Congress passed a law that included investigations of such deaths of federal officials, especially by homicide, within FBI jurisdiction.", "This new law was passed in 1965.=== Organized crime ===An FBI surveillance photograph of Joseph D. Pistone (aka Donnie Brasco), Benjamin \"Lefty\" Ruggiero and Edgar Robb (aka Tony Rossi), 1980sIn response to organized crime, on August 25, 1953, the FBI created the Top Hoodlum Program.", "The national office directed field offices to gather information on mobsters in their territories and to report it regularly to Washington for a centralized collection of intelligence on racketeers.", "After the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, or RICO Act, took effect, the FBI began investigating the former Prohibition-organized groups, which had become fronts for crime in major cities and small towns.", "All the FBI work was done undercover and from within these organizations, using the provisions provided in the RICO Act.", "Gradually the agency dismantled many of the groups.", "Although Hoover initially denied the existence of a National Crime Syndicate in the United States, the Bureau later conducted operations against known organized crime syndicates and families, including those headed by Sam Giancana and John Gotti.", "The RICO Act is still used today for all organized crime and any individuals who may fall under the Act's provisions.In 2003, a congressional committee called the FBI's organized crime informant program \"one of the greatest failures in the history of federal law enforcement.\"", "The FBI allowed four innocent men to be convicted of the March 1965 gangland murder of Edward \"Teddy\" Deegan in order to protect Vincent Flemmi, an FBI informant.", "Three of the men were sentenced to death (which was later reduced to life in prison), and the fourth defendant was sentenced to life in prison.", "Two of the four men died in prison after serving almost 30 years, and two others were released after serving 32 and 36 years.", "In July 2007, U.S. District Judge Nancy Gertner in Boston found that the Bureau had helped convict the four men using false witness accounts given by mobster Joseph Barboza.", "The U.S. Government was ordered to pay $100 million in damages to the four defendants.=== Special FBI teams ===FBI SWAT agents in a training exerciseIn 1982, the FBI formed an elite unit to help with problems that might arise at the 1984 Summer Olympics to be held in Los Angeles, particularly terrorism and major-crime.", "This was a result of the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, Germany, when terrorists murdered the Israeli athletes.", "Named the Hostage Rescue Team, or HRT, it acts as a dedicated FBI SWAT team dealing primarily with counter-terrorism scenarios.", "Unlike the special agents serving on local FBI SWAT teams, HRT does not conduct investigations.", "Instead, HRT focuses solely on additional tactical proficiency and capabilities.", "Also formed in 1984 was the ''Computer Analysis and Response Team'', or CART.From the end of the 1980s to the early 1990s, the FBI reassigned more than 300 agents from foreign counter-intelligence duties to violent crime, and made violent crime the sixth national priority.", "With cuts to other well-established departments, and because terrorism was no longer considered a threat after the end of the Cold War, the FBI assisted local and state police forces in tracking fugitives who had crossed state lines, which is a federal offense.", "The FBI Laboratory helped develop DNA testing, continuing its pioneering role in identification that began with its fingerprinting system in 1924.=== Notable efforts in the 1990s ===An FBI agent tags the cockpit voice recorder from EgyptAir Flight 990 on the deck of the USS ''Grapple'' (ARS 53) at the crash site on November 13, 1999.On May 1, 1992, FBI SWAT and HRT personnel in Los Angeles County, California aided local officials in securing peace within the area during the 1992 Los Angeles riots.", "HRT operators, for instance, spent 10 days conducting vehicle-mounted patrols throughout Los Angeles, before returning to Virginia.Between 1993 and 1996, the FBI increased its counter-terrorism role following the first 1993 World Trade Center bombing in New York City, the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing, and the arrest of the Unabomber in 1996.Technological innovation and the skills of FBI Laboratory analysts helped ensure that the three cases were successfully prosecuted.", "However, Justice Department investigations into the FBI's roles in the Ruby Ridge and Waco incidents were found to have been obstructed by agents within the Bureau.", "During the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, the FBI was criticized for its investigation of the Centennial Olympic Park bombing.", "It has settled a dispute with Richard Jewell, who was a private security guard at the venue, along with some media organizations, in regard to the leaking of his name during the investigation; this had briefly led to his being wrongly suspected of the bombing.After Congress passed the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA, 1994), the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA, 1996), and the Economic Espionage Act (EEA, 1996), the FBI followed suit and underwent a technological upgrade in 1998, just as it did with its CART team in 1991.Computer Investigations and Infrastructure Threat Assessment Center (CITAC) and the National Infrastructure Protection Center (NIPC) were created to deal with the increase in Internet-related problems, such as computer viruses, worms, and other malicious programs that threatened U.S. operations.", "With these developments, the FBI increased its electronic surveillance in public safety and national security investigations, adapting to the telecommunications advancements that changed the nature of such problems.=== September 11 attacks ===September 11 attacks at the PentagonDuring the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center, FBI agent Leonard W. Hatton Jr. was killed during the rescue effort while helping the rescue personnel evacuate the occupants of the South Tower, and he stayed when it collapsed.", "Within months after the attacks, FBI Director Robert Mueller, who had been sworn in a week before the attacks, called for a re-engineering of FBI structure and operations.", "He made countering every federal crime a top priority, including the prevention of terrorism, countering foreign intelligence operations, addressing cybersecurity threats, other high-tech crimes, protecting civil rights, combating public corruption, organized crime, white-collar crime, and major acts of violent crime.In February 2001, Robert Hanssen was caught selling information to the Russian government.", "It was later learned that Hanssen, who had reached a high position within the FBI, had been selling intelligence since as early as 1979.He pleaded guilty to espionage and received a life sentence in 2002, but the incident led many to question the security practices employed by the FBI.", "There was also a claim that Hanssen might have contributed information that led to the September 11, 2001, attacks.The 9/11 Commission's final report on July 22, 2004, stated that the FBI and Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) were both partially to blame for not pursuing intelligence reports that could have prevented the September 11 attacks.", "In its most damning assessment, the report concluded that the country had \"not been well served\" by either agency and listed numerous recommendations for changes within the FBI.", "While the FBI did accede to most of the recommendations, including oversight by the new director of National Intelligence, some former members of the 9/11 Commission publicly criticized the FBI in October 2005, claiming it was resisting any meaningful changes.On July 8, 2007, ''The Washington Post'' published excerpts from UCLA Professor Amy Zegart's book ''Spying Blind: The CIA, the FBI, and the Origins of 9/11''.", "The ''Post'' reported, from Zegart's book, that government documents showed that both the CIA and the FBI had missed 23 potential chances to disrupt the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.The primary reasons for the failures included: agency cultures resistant to change and new ideas; inappropriate incentives for promotion; and a lack of cooperation between the FBI, CIA, and the rest of the United States Intelligence Community.", "The book blamed the FBI's decentralized structure, which prevented effective communication and cooperation among different FBI offices.", "The book suggested that the FBI had not evolved into an effective counter-terrorism or counter-intelligence agency, due in large part to deeply ingrained agency cultural resistance to change.", "For example, FBI personnel practices continued to treat all staff other than special agents as support staff, classifying intelligence analysts alongside the FBI's auto mechanics and janitors.=== Faulty bullet analysis ===For over 40 years, the FBI crime lab in Quantico had believed that lead alloys used in bullets had unique chemical signatures.", "It was analyzing the bullets with the goal of matching them chemically, not only to a single batch of ammunition coming out of a factory, but also to a single box of bullets.", "The National Academy of Sciences conducted an 18-month independent review of comparative bullet-lead analysis.", "In 2003, its National Research Council published a report whose conclusions called into question 30 years of FBI testimony.", "It found the analytic model used by the FBI for interpreting results was deeply flawed, and the conclusion, that bullet fragments could be matched to a box of ammunition, was so overstated that it was misleading under the rules of evidence.", "One year later, the FBI decided to stop conducting bullet lead analyses.After a ''60 Minutes''/''The Washington Post'' investigation in November 2007, two years later, the Bureau agreed to identify, review, and release all pertinent cases, and notify prosecutors about cases in which faulty testimony was given.=== Technology ===In 2012, the FBI formed the National Domestic Communications Assistance Center to develop technology for assisting law enforcement with technical knowledge regarding communication services, technologies, and electronic surveillance.=== January 6th United States Capitol attack ===An FBI informant, who participated in the January 6, 2021 attack on democratic institutions in Washington D.C. later testified in support of the Proud boys, who were part of the plot.", "Revelations about the informant raised fresh questions about intelligence failures by the FBI before the riot.", "According to the Brennan Center, and Senate committees, the FBI's response to white supremacist violence was \"woefully inadequate\".", "The FBI has long been suspected to have turned a blind eye towards right-wing extremists while disseminating \"conspiracy theories\" on the origin of COVID-19." ], [ "Organization", "=== Organizational structure ===FBI field divisions mapOrganization chart for the FBI as of July 15, 2014Redacted policy guide for the Counterterrorism Division (part of the FBI National Security Branch)The FBI is organized into functional branches and the Office of the Director, which contains most administrative offices.", "An executive assistant director manages each branch.", "Each branch is then divided into offices and divisions, each headed by an assistant director.", "The various divisions are further divided into sub-branches, led by deputy assistant directors.", "Within these sub-branches, there are various sections headed by section chiefs.", "Section chiefs are ranked analogous to special agents in charge.", "Four of the branches report to the deputy director while two report to the associate director.The main branches of the FBI are:*FBI Intelligence Branch**Executive Assistant Director: Stephen Laycock*FBI National Security Branch**Executive Assistant Director: John Brown*FBI Criminal, Cyber, Response, and Services Branch**Executive Assistant Director: Terry Wade*FBI Science and Technology Branch**Executive Assistant Director: Darrin E. Jones*FBI Information and Technology Branch**Executive Assistant Director: Michael Gavin (Acting)*FBI Human Resources Branch**Executive Assistant Director: Jeffrey S. SalletEach branch focuses on different tasks, and some focus on more than one.", "Here are some of the tasks that different branches are in charge of:==== FBI Headquarters Washington D.C. ====National Security Branch (NSB)*Counterintelligence Division (CD)*Counterterrorism Division (CTD)*Weapons of Mass Destruction Directorate (WMDD)*High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (HIG)*Terrorist Screening Center (TSC)Intelligence Branch (IB)*Directorate of Intelligence (DI)*Office of Partner Engagement (OPE)*Office of Private SectorFBI Criminal, Cyber, Response, and Services Branch (CCRSB)*Criminal Investigation Division (CID)*Cyber Division (CyD)*Critical Incident Response Group (CIRG)*International Operation Division (IOD)*Victim Services DivisionScience and Technology Branch (STB)*Operational Technology Division (OTD)*Laboratory Division (LD)*Criminal Justice Information Services (CJIA) Division==== Other Headquarter Offices ====Information and Technology Branch (ITB)*IT Enterprise Services Division (ITESD)*IT Applications and Data Division (ITADD)*IT Infrastructure Division (ITID)*IT Management Division*IT Engineering Division*IT Services DivisionHuman Resources Branch (HRB)*Training Division (TD)*Human Resources Division (HRD)*Security Division (SecD)Administrative and financial management support*Facilities and Logistics Services Division (FLSD)*Finance Division (FD)*Records Management Division (RMD)*Resource Planning Office (RPO)*Inspection Division (InSD)=== Office of the Director ===The Office of the Director serves as the central administrative organ of the FBI.", "The office provides staff support functions (such as finance and facilities management) to the five function branches and the various field divisions.", "The office is managed by the FBI associate director, who also oversees the operations of both the Information and Technology and Human Resources Branches.Senior staff*Deputy director*Associate deputy director*Chief of staffOffice of the Director*Finance and Facilities Division*Information Management Division*Insider Threat Office*Inspection Division*Office of the Chief Information Officer *Office of Congressional Affairs (OCA) *Office of Diversity and Inclusion*Office of Equal Employment Opportunity Affairs (OEEOA) *Office of the General Counsel (OGC) *Office of Integrity and Compliance (OIC)*Office of Internal Auditing*Office of the Ombudsman*Office of Professional Responsibility (OPR) *Office of Public Affairs (OPA)*Resource Planning OfficeAn FBI agent at a crime scene=== Rank structure ===The following is a listing of the rank structure found within the FBI (in ascending order):*Field agents**New agent trainee**Special agent**Senior special agent**Supervisory special agent**Assistant special agent-in-charge (ASAC)**Special agent-in-charge (SAC)James Comey speaks at the White House following his nomination by President Barack Obama to be the next director of the FBI, June 21, 2013.", "*FBI management**Deputy assistant director**Assistant director**Associate executive assistant director**Executive assistant director**Associate deputy director**Deputy chief of staff**Chief of staff and special counsel to the director**Deputy director**Director" ], [ "Legal authority", "FBI badge and service pistol, a Glock Model 22, .40 S&W caliberThe FBI's mandate is established in Title 28 of the United States Code (U.S. Code), Section 533, which authorizes the Attorney General to \"appoint officials to detect and prosecute crimes against the United States.\"", "Other federal statutes give the FBI the authority and responsibility to investigate specific crimes.The FBI's chief tool against organized crime is the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (RICO) Act.", "The FBI is also charged with the responsibility of enforcing compliance of the United States Civil Rights Act of 1964 and investigating violations of the act in addition to prosecuting such violations with the United States Department of Justice (DOJ).", "The FBI also shares concurrent jurisdiction with the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) in the enforcement of the Controlled Substances Act of 1970.The USA PATRIOT Act increased the powers allotted to the FBI, especially in wiretapping and monitoring of Internet activity.", "One of the most controversial provisions of the act is the so-called ''sneak and peek'' provision, granting the FBI powers to search a house while the residents are away, and not requiring them to notify the residents for several weeks afterward.", "Under the PATRIOT Act's provisions, the FBI also resumed inquiring into the library records of those who are suspected of terrorism (something it had supposedly not done since the 1970s).In the early 1980s, Senate hearings were held to examine FBI undercover operations in the wake of the Abscam controversy, which had allegations of entrapment of elected officials.", "As a result, in the following years a number of guidelines were issued to constrain FBI activities.Information obtained through an FBI investigation is presented to the appropriate U.S. Attorney or Department of Justice official, who decides if prosecution or other action is warranted.The FBI often works in conjunction with other federal agencies, including the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) and U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) in seaport and airport security, and the National Transportation Safety Board in investigating airplane crashes and other critical incidents.", "Immigration and Customs Enforcement's Homeland Security Investigations (HSI) has nearly the same amount of investigative manpower as the FBI and investigates the largest range of crimes.", "In the wake of the September 11 attacks, then–Attorney General Ashcroft assigned the FBI as the designated lead organization in terrorism investigations after the creation of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security.", "HSI and the FBI are both integral members of the Joint Terrorism Task Force.=== Indian reservations ===FBI Director James Comey visiting the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation in North Dakota in June 2016The federal government has the primary responsibility for investigating and prosecuting serious crime on Indian reservations.The FBI does not specifically list crimes in Native American land as one of its priorities.", "Often serious crimes have been either poorly investigated or prosecution has been declined.", "Tribal courts can impose sentences of up to three years, under certain restrictions." ], [ "Infrastructure", "The J. Edgar Hoover Building, FBI headquartersWashington Field OfficeThe FBI is headquartered at the J. Edgar Hoover Building in Washington, D.C., with 56 field offices in major cities across the United States.", "The FBI also maintains over 400 resident agencies across the United States, as well as over 50 legal attachés at United States embassies and consulates.", "Many specialized FBI functions are located at facilities in Quantico, Virginia, as well as a \"data campus\" in Clarksburg, West Virginia, where 96 million sets of fingerprints \"from across the United States are stored, along with others collected by American authorities from prisoners in Saudi Arabia and Yemen, Iraq and Afghanistan.\"", "The FBI is in process of moving its Records Management Division, which processes Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests, to Winchester, Virginia.According to ''The Washington Post'', the FBI \"is building a vast repository controlled by people who work in a top-secret vault on the fourth floor of the J. Edgar Hoover Building in Washington.", "This one stores the profiles of tens of thousands of Americans and legal residents who are not accused of any crime.", "What they have done is appear to be acting suspiciously to a town sheriff, a traffic cop or even a neighbor.", "\"The FBI Laboratory, established with the formation of the BOI, did not appear in the J. Edgar Hoover Building until its completion in 1974.The lab serves as the primary lab for most DNA, biological, and physical work.", "Public tours of FBI headquarters ran through the FBI laboratory workspace before the move to the J. Edgar Hoover Building.", "The services the lab conducts include ''Chemistry'', ''Combined DNA Index System'' (CODIS), ''Computer Analysis and Response'', ''DNA Analysis'', ''Evidence Response'', ''Explosives'', ''Firearms and Tool marks'', ''Forensic Audio'', ''Forensic Video'', ''Image Analysis'', ''Forensic Science Research'', ''Forensic Science Training'', ''Hazardous Materials Response'', ''Investigative and Prospective Graphics'', ''Latent Prints'', ''Materials Analysis'', ''Questioned Documents'', ''Racketeering Records'', ''Special Photographic Analysis'', ''Structural Design'', and ''Trace Evidence''.", "The services of the FBI Laboratory are used by many state, local, and international agencies free of charge.", "The lab also maintains a second lab at the FBI Academy.The FBI Academy, located in Quantico, Virginia, is home to the communications and computer laboratory the FBI utilizes.", "It is also where new agents are sent for training to become FBI special agents.", "Going through the 21-week course is required for every special agent.", "First opened for use in 1972, the facility is located on of woodland.", "The Academy trains state and local law enforcement agencies, which are invited to the law enforcement training center.", "The FBI units that reside at Quantico are the ''Field and Police Training Unit'', ''Firearms Training Unit'', ''Forensic Science Research and Training Center'', ''Technology Services Unit'' (TSU), ''Investigative Training Unit'', ''Law Enforcement Communication Unit'', ''Leadership and Management Science Units'' (LSMU), ''Physical Training Unit'', ''New Agents' Training Unit'' (NATU), ''Practical Applications Unit'' (PAU), the ''Investigative Computer Training Unit'' and the \"College of Analytical Studies\".The FBI Academy, located in Quantico, VirginiaIn 2000, the FBI began the Trilogy project to upgrade its outdated information technology (IT) infrastructure.", "This project, originally scheduled to take three years and cost around $380 million, ended up over budget and behind schedule.", "Efforts to deploy modern computers and networking equipment were generally successful, but attempts to develop new investigation software, outsourced to Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC), were not.", "Virtual Case File, or VCF, as the software was known, was plagued by poorly defined goals, and repeated changes in management.", "In January 2005, more than two years after the software was originally planned for completion, the FBI officially abandoned the project.", "At least $100 million (and much more by some estimates) was spent on the project, which never became operational.", "The FBI has been forced to continue using its decade-old Automated Case Support system, which IT experts consider woefully inadequate.", "In March 2005, the FBI announced it was beginning a new, more ambitious software project, code-named Sentinel, which they expected to complete by 2009.The FBI Field Office in Chelsea, MassachusettsCarnivore was an electronic eavesdropping software system implemented by the FBI during the Clinton administration; it was designed to monitor email and electronic communications.", "After prolonged negative coverage in the press, the FBI changed the name of its system from \"Carnivore\" to \"DCS1000\".", "DCS is reported to stand for \"Digital Collection System\"; the system has the same functions as before.", "The Associated Press reported in mid-January 2005 that the FBI essentially abandoned the use of Carnivore in 2001, in favor of commercially available software, such as NarusInsight.The Criminal Justice Information Services (CJIS) Division is located in Clarksburg, West Virginia.", "Organized beginning in 1991, the office opened in 1995 as the youngest agency division.", "The complex is the length of three football fields.", "It provides a main repository for information in various data systems.", "Under the roof of the CJIS are the programs for the ''National Crime Information Center'' (NCIC), ''Uniform Crime Reporting'' (UCR), ''Fingerprint Identification'', ''Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System'' (IAFIS), ''NCIC 2000'', and the ''National Incident-Based Reporting System'' (NIBRS).", "Many state and local agencies use these data systems as a source for their own investigations and contribute to the database using secure communications.", "FBI provides these tools of sophisticated identification and information services to local, state, federal, and international law enforcement agencies.The FBI heads the National Virtual Translation Center, which provides \"timely and accurate translations of foreign intelligence for all elements of the Intelligence Community.", "\"In June 2021, the FBI held a groundbreaking for its planned FBI Innovation Center, set to be built in Huntsville, Alabama.", "The Innovation Center is to be part of a large, college-like campus costing a total of $1.3 billion in Redstone Arsenal and will act as a center for cyber threat intelligence, data analytics, and emerging threat training." ], [ "Personnel", "An FBI Evidence Response TeamAgents in training on the FBI Academy firing range, the FBI had a total of 33,852 employees.", "That includes 13,412 special agents and 20,420 support professionals, such as intelligence analysts, language specialists, scientists, information technology specialists, and other professionals.The Officer Down Memorial Page provides the biographies of 86 FBI agents who have died in the line of duty from 1925 to February 2021.=== Hiring process ===To apply to become an FBI agent, one must be between the ages of 23 and 37, unless one is a preference-eligible veteran, in which case one may apply after age 37.The applicant must also hold U.S. citizenship, be of high moral character, have a clean record, and hold at least a four-year bachelor's degree.", "At least three years of professional work experience prior to application is also required.", "All FBI employees require a Top Secret (TS) security clearance, and in many instances, employees need a TS/SCI (Top Secret/Sensitive Compartmented Information) clearance.", "To obtain a security clearance, all potential FBI personnel must pass a series of Single Scope Background Investigations (SSBI), which are conducted by the Office of Personnel Management.", "Special agent candidates also have to pass a Physical Fitness Test (PFT), which includes a 300-meter run, one-minute sit-ups, maximum push-ups, and a run.", "Personnel must pass a polygraph test with questions including possible drug use.", "Applicants who fail polygraphs may not gain employment with the FBI.", "Up until 1975, the FBI had a minimum height requirement of .=== BOI and FBI directors ===FBI directors are appointed (nominated) by the President of the United States and must be confirmed by the United States Senate to serve a term of office of ten years, subject to resignation or removal by the President at his/her discretion before their term ends.", "Additional terms are allowed following the same procedure.J.", "Edgar Hoover, appointed by President Calvin Coolidge in 1924, was by far the longest-serving director, serving until his death in 1972.In 1968, Congress passed legislation, as part of the ''Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968'', requiring Senate confirmation of appointments of future directors.", "As the incumbent, this legislation did not apply to Hoover.", "The last FBI director was Andrew McCabe.", "The current FBI director is Christopher A. Wray, appointed by President Donald Trump.The FBI director is responsible for the day-to-day operations at the FBI.", "Along with the deputy director, the director makes sure cases and operations are handled correctly.", "The director also is in charge of making sure the leadership in the FBI field offices is staffed with qualified agents.", "Before the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act was passed in the wake of the September 11 attacks, the FBI director would directly brief the President of the United States on any issues that arise from within the FBI.", "Since then, the director now reports to the Director of National Intelligence (DNI), who in turn reports to the President." ], [ "Firearms", "A Glock 22 pistol in .40 S&W caliberUpon qualification, an FBI special agent is issued a full-size Glock 22 or compact Glock 23 semi-automatic pistol, both of which are chambered in the .40 S&W cartridge.", "In May 1997, the FBI officially adopted the Glock, in .40 S&W, for general agent use, and first issued it to New Agent Class 98-1 in October 1997.At present, the Glock 23 \"FG&R\" (finger groove and rail; either 3rd generation or \"Gen4\") is the issue sidearm.", "New agents are issued firearms, on which they must qualify, on successful completion of their training at the FBI Academy.", "The Glock 26 (subcompact 9 mm Parabellum), Glock 23 and Glock 27 (.40 S&W compact and subcompact, respectively) are authorized as secondary weapons.", "Special agents are also authorized to purchase and qualify with the Glock 21 in .45 ACP.Special agents of the FBI Hostage Rescue Team (HRT) and regional SWAT teams are issued the Springfield Armory Professional Model 1911 pistol in .45 ACP.In June 2016, the FBI awarded Glock a contract for new handguns.", "Unlike the currently issued .40 S&W chambered Glock pistols, the new Glocks will be chambered for 9 mm Parabellum.", "The contract is for the full-size Glock 17M and the compact Glock 19M.", "The \"M\" means the Glocks have been modified to meet government standards specified by a 2015 government request for proposal." ], [ "Publications", "Publication following the January 6 United States Capitol attackThe ''FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin'' is published monthly by the FBI Law Enforcement Communication Unit, with articles of interest to state and local law enforcement personnel.", "First published in 1932 as ''Fugitives Wanted by Police'', the ''FBI Law Bulletin'' covers topics including law enforcement technology and issues, such as crime mapping and use of force, as well as recent criminal justice research, and ViCAP alerts, on wanted suspects and key cases.The FBI also publishes some reports for both law enforcement personnel as well as regular citizens covering topics including law enforcement, terrorism, cybercrime, white-collar crime, violent crime, and statistics.", "However, the vast majority of federal government publications covering these topics are published by the Office of Justice Programs agencies of the United States Department of Justice, and disseminated through the National Criminal Justice Reference Service.=== Crime statistics ===During the 1920s the FBI began issuing crime reports by gathering numbers from local police departments.", "Due to limitations of this system that were discovered during the 1960s and 1970s—victims often simply did not report crimes to the police in the first place—the Department of Justice developed an alternative method of tallying crime, the victimization survey.==== Uniform Crime Reports ====The Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) compile data from over 17,000 law enforcement agencies across the country.", "They provide detailed data regarding the volume of crimes to include arrest, clearance (or closing a case), and law enforcement officer information.", "The UCR focuses its data collection on violent crimes, hate crimes, and property crimes.", "Created in the 1920s, the UCR system has not proven to be as ''uniform'' as its name implies.", "The UCR data only reflect the most serious offense in the case of connected crimes and has a very restrictive definition of rape.", "Since about 93% of the data submitted to the FBI is in this format, the UCR stands out as the publication of choice as most states require law enforcement agencies to submit this data.Preliminary Annual ''Uniform Crime Report'' for 2006 was released on June 4, 2006.The report shows violent crime offenses rose 1.3%, but the number of property crime offenses decreased 2.9% compared to 2005.==== National Incident-Based Reporting System ====The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) crime statistics system aims to address limitations inherent in UCR data.", "The system is used by law enforcement agencies in the United States for collecting and reporting data on crimes.", "Local, state, and federal agencies generate NIBRS data from their records management systems.", "Data is collected on every incident and arrest in the Group A offense category.", "The Group A offenses are 46 specific crimes grouped in 22 offense categories.", "Specific facts about these offenses are gathered and reported in the NIBRS system.", "In addition to the Group A offenses, eleven Group B offenses are reported with only the arrest information.", "The NIBRS system is in greater detail than the summary-based UCR system.", ", 5,271 law enforcement agencies submitted NIBRS data.", "That amount represents 20% of the United States population and 16% of the crime statistics data collected by the FBI." ], [ "eGuardian", "eGuardian is the name of an FBI system, launched in January 2009, to share tips about possible terror threats with local police agencies.", "The program aims to get law enforcement at all levels sharing data quickly about suspicious activity and people.eGuardian enables near real-time sharing and tracking of terror information and suspicious activities with local, state, tribal, and federal agencies.", "The eGuardian system is a spin-off of a similar but classified tool called Guardian that has been used inside the FBI, and shared with vetted partners since 2005." ], [ "Controversies", " Throughout its history, the FBI has been the subject of many controversies, both at home and abroad.", "*Files on Puerto Rican independence advocates – Congressman Luiz Gutierrez revealed that Pedro Albizu Campos and his Nationalist political party had been watched for a decade-long period in the 1930s.", "*The Whitey Bulger case – The FBI was, and continues to be, criticized for its handling of Boston criminal Whitey Bulger.", "As a result of Bulger acting as an informant, the agency turned a blind eye to his activities as an exchange.", "*Latin America – For decades during the Cold War, the FBI placed agents to monitor the governments of Caribbean and Latin American nations.", "*Domestic surveillance – In 1985, it was found that the FBI had made use of surveillance devices on numerous American citizens between 1940 and 1960.", "*Robert Hanssen – In what is described by the US Department of Justice (DOJ) as \"possibly the worst intelligence disaster in U.S. history\".", "Hanssen managed to evade the FBI as he simultaneously sold thousands of classified American documents to Soviet intelligence operatives.", "*Viola Liuzzo – Gary Thomas Rowe, an FBI informant who at the time was also an active member of the Ku Klux Klan, assisted in the murder of Viola Liuzzo (a civil rights activist) in 1965, and afterwards, defamatory rumors were spread by the Bureau about the victim.", "*Ruby Ridge (1992) was a shootout between the FBI and Randy Weaver over his failure to appear for weapons charges.", "*Waco siege (1993) was a failed raid by the ATF that resulted in the death of 4 ATF agents and 6 Branch Davidians.", "The FBI and US military got involved with the 51 day siege that followed.", "The building ended up burning down killing 76 including 26 children.", "This is what motivated Timothy McVeigh (along with Ruby Ridge) to carry out the Oklahoma City bombing (1995).", "*Associated Press (AP) impersonation case – A Bureau agent, masquerading as an AP journalist, placed surveillance software in the personal computer of a minor.", "This resulted in a series of conflicts between the news agency and the FBI.", "*Stoneman Douglas High School shooting – A statement from the FBI confirmed that it had failed to act on a tip warning of the possibility of the shooting over a month prior to its occurrence, which may have prevented the tragedy outright.Specific practices include:*Internal investigations of shootings – A professor of criminal justice at the University of Nebraska Omaha suggested that FBI internal reports found a questionably high number of weapon discharges by its agents to be justified.", "*Covert operations on political groups – Political groups deemed disruptive have been investigated and discredited by the FBI in the aim of \"protecting national security, preventing violence, and maintaining the existing social and political order.", "\"*FBI surveillance since 2010 – In the years since 2010, it has been uncovered by various civil liberties groups (such as the American Civil Liberties Union|American Civil Liberties Union ACLU) that the FBI earmarked disproportionate resources for the surveillance of left-leaning movements and political organizations.", "The FBI has also committed several breaches of the First Amendment in this time.", "*Files on U.S. citizens – The Bureau kept files on certain individuals for varying reasons and lengths of time, notably, Elvis Presley, Frank Sinatra, John Denver.", "*Entrapment - The FBI has been criticized for its use of entrapment, where ''agent provocateurs'' attempt to incite individuals into committing illegal acts.", "Notable critics of FBI entrapment such as Human Rights Watch and the ACLU note that entrapment cases often target impoverished individuals or those with mental or emotional disabilities and that these cases have an adverse effect on marginalized groups." ], [ "Media portrayal", "The popular TV series ''The X-Files'' depicts the fictional FBI Special Agents Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson) and Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) who investigate paranormal phenomena.The FBI has been frequently depicted in popular media since the 1930s.", "The bureau has participated to varying degrees, which has ranged from direct involvement in the creative process of film or TV series development, to providing consultation on operations and closed cases.", "A few of the notable portrayals of the FBI on television are the series ''The X-Files'', which started in 1993 and concluded its eleventh season in early 2018, and concerned investigations into paranormal phenomena by five fictional special agents, and the fictional Counter Terrorist Unit (CTU) agency in the TV drama ''24'', which is patterned after the FBI Counterterrorism Division.", "The 1991 movie ''Point Break'' depicts an undercover FBI agent who infiltrated a gang of bank robbers.", "The 1997 movie ''Donnie Brasco'' is based on the true story of undercover FBI agent Joseph D. Pistone infiltrating the Mafia.", "The 2005–2020 television series ''Criminal Minds'', that follows the team members of the FBI's Behavioral Analysis Unit (BAU) in the pursuit of serial killers.", "The 2017 TV series Riverdale where one of the main characters is an FBI agent.", "The 2015 TV series ''Quantico'', titled after the location of the Bureau's training facility, deals with probationary and special agents, not all of whom, within the show's format, may be fully reliable or even trustworthy.", "The 2018 series ''FBI'', set in NYC that follows the personal and professional lives of the agents assigned to 26 Federal Plaza (NYC FBI field office).", "''FBI'' first spin-off titled ''FBI: Most Wanted'' (2019), follows the FBI's Fugitive Task Force in chasing down the US's most wanted criminals, and the second spin-off, ''FBI: International'' (2021), follows the FBI's International Fly Team that goes where ever they are needed in the world to protect the US's interests." ], [ "Notable FBI personnel", "*Edwin Atherton*Ed Bethune*James Comey*Alaska P. Davidson*Sibel Edmonds*W. Mark Felt*James R. Fitzgerald*Robert Hanssen*J. Edgar Hoover*Lon Horiuchi*John McClurg*Richard Miller*Robert Mueller*Eric O'Neill*John P. O'Neill*Joseph D. Pistone*Melvin Purvis*Coleen Rowley*Ali Soufan*Sue Thomas*Clyde Tolson*Frederic Whitehurst" ], [ "See also", "*Diplomatic Security Service (DSS)*Law enforcement in the United States*List of United States state and local law enforcement agencies*State bureau of investigation*United States Marshals Service (USMS)*FBI Honorary Medals*FBI Victims Identification Project*History of espionage*Inspector*Society of Former Special Agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Church Committee Report (), Vol.", "6, \"Federal Bureau of Investigation\".", "1975 congressional inquiry into American intelligence operations.", "* Federal Bureau of Investigation.", "FBI—The Year in Review, Part 1, Part 2 (2013)* Graves, Melissa.", "\"FBI Historiography: From Leader to Organisation\" in Christopher R. Moran, Christopher J. Murphy, eds.", "''Intelligence Studies in Britain and the US: Historiography Since 1945'' (Edinburgh UP, 2013) pp. 129–145..", "* Jeffreys-Jones, Rhodri.", "''The FBI: A History'' (Yale University Press, 2007).", "* Jeffreys-Jones, Rhodri.", "\"The Historiography of the FBI\", in Loch Johnson, ed., ''A Handbook of Intelligence'' (Routledge, 2006).", "pp. 39–51.", "* Jeffreys-Jones, Rhodri.", "\"Forcing Out Unwanted FBI Directors: A Brief, Messy History\" (), ''Vox'', (May 23, 2017).", "* Jeffreys-Jones, Rhodri.", "\"A brief history of the FBI's meddling in US politics\" ().", "''Vox'', (November 5, 2016).", "* * Lindorff, Dave, \"Brothers Against the Bureau: Ted Hall, the Soviet Union's Youngest Atomic Spy, His Rocket Scientist Brother Ed, and the Untold Story of How J. Edgar Hoover's biggest Manhattan Project Bust Was Shut Down\", ''The Nation'', vol.", "314, no.", "1 (January 10–17, 2022), pp. 26–31.", "* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Federal Bureau of Investigation from the Federation of American Scientists* The Vault, FBI electronic reading room (launched April 2011)*** FBI Collection at Internet Archive, files on over 1,100 subjects*William H. Thomas, Jr.: Bureau of Investigation, in: 1914-1918-online.", "International Encyclopedia of the First World War.", "* FBI coverage at C-SPAN" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Flamsteed designation" ], [ "Introduction", "Flamsteed's Atlas CoelestisA '''Flamsteed designation''' is a combination of a number and constellation name that uniquely identifies most naked eye stars in the modern constellations visible from southern England.", "They are named for John Flamsteed who first used them while compiling his ''Historia Coelestis Britannica''.", "(Flamsteed used a telescope, and the catalog also includes some stars which are relatively bright but not necessarily visible with the naked eye.)" ], [ "Description", "Orion and Taurus from Atlas CoelestisFlamsteed designations for stars are similar to Bayer designations, except that they use numbers instead of Greek and Roman letters.", "Each star is assigned a number and the Latin genitive of the constellation it lies in (see 88 modern constellations for a list of constellations and the genitive forms of their names).", "Flamsteed designations were assigned to 2554 stars.", "The numbers were originally assigned in order of increasing right ascension within each constellation, but due to the effects of precession they are now slightly out of order in some places.This method of designating stars first appeared in a preliminary version of John Flamsteed's ''Historia Coelestis Britannica'' published by Edmond Halley and Isaac Newton in 1712 without Flamsteed's approval.", "The final version of Flamsteed's catalogue published in 1725 after his death omitted the numerical designations altogether.", "The numbers now in use were assigned by the French astronomer, Joseph Jérôme de Lalande and appeared in his 1783 almanac, ''Éphémérides des mouvemens célestes'' which contained a revised edition of Flamsteed’s catalogue.", "Lalande noted in his Introduction that he got the idea from the unofficial 1712 edition.Flamsteed designations gained popularity throughout the eighteenth century, and are now commonly used when no Bayer designation exists.", "Where a Bayer designation with a Greek letter does exist for a star, it is usually used in preference to the Flamsteed designation.", "(Flamsteed numbers are generally preferred to Bayer designations with ''Roman'' letters.)", "Examples of well-known stars that are usually referred to by their Flamsteed numbers include 51 Pegasi, and 61 Cygni.", "Flamsteed designations are often used instead of the Bayer designation if the latter contains an extra attached number; for example, \"55 Cancri\" is more common than \"Rho1 Cancri\".There are examples of stars, such as 10 Ursae Majoris in Lynx, bearing Flamsteed designations for constellations in which they do not lie, just as there are for Bayer designations, because of the compromises that had to be made when the modern constellation boundaries were drawn up.Flamsteed's catalogue covered only the stars visible from Great Britain, and therefore stars of the far southern constellations have no Flamsteed numbers.", "Some stars, such as the nearby star 82 Eridani, were named in a major southern-hemisphere catalog called ''Uranometria Argentina'', by Benjamin Gould; these are Gould numbers, rather than Flamsteed numbers, and should be differentiated with a G, as in 82 G. Eridani.", "Except for a handful of cases, Gould numbers are not in common use.", "Similarly, Flamsteed-like designations assigned by other astronomers (for example, Hevelius) are no longer in general use.", "(A well-known exception is the globular cluster 47 Tucanae from Bode's catalog.", ")84 stars entered in Flamsteed's catalog are errors and proved not to exist in the sky: All of them except 11 Vulpeculae were plotted on his star charts.", "* Flamsteed observed Uranus in 1690 but did not recognize it as a planet and entered it into his catalog as a star called \"34 Tauri\".", "* 11 Vulpeculae was a nova, now known as CK Vulpeculae.", "* Many of them were caused by arithmetic errors made by Flamsteed." ], [ "List of constellations using Flamsteed star designations", "There are 52 constellations that primarily use Flamsteed designations.", "Stars are listed in the appropriate lists for the constellation, as follows:In addition, several stars in Puppis, and a small number of stars in Centaurus and Lupus, have been given Flamsteed designations." ], [ "See also", "* Stellar designations and names* Table of stars with Flamsteed designations" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Flamsteed numbers – where they really came from Ian Ridpath's Star Tales" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "February 26" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*747 BC – According to Ptolemy, the epoch (origin) of the Nabonassar Era began at noon on this date.", "Historians use this to establish the modern BC chronology for dating historic events.", "* 364 – Valentinian I is proclaimed Roman emperor.", "*1266 – Battle of Benevento: An army led by Charles, Count of Anjou, defeats a combined German and Sicilian force led by Manfred, King of Sicily.", "Manfred is killed in the battle and Pope Clement IV invests Charles as king of Sicily and Naples.", "*1365 – The Ava Kingdom and the royal city of Ava (Inwa) founded by King Thado Minbya.===1601–1900===*1606 – The Janszoon voyage of 1605–06 becomes the first European expedition to set foot on Australia, although it is mistaken as a part of New Guinea.", "*1616 – Galileo Galilei is formally banned by the Roman Catholic Church from teaching or defending the view that the earth orbits the sun.", "*1775 – The British East India Company factory on Balambangan Island is destroyed by Moro pirates.", "*1794 – The first Christiansborg Palace in Copenhagen burns down.", "*1815 – Napoleon Bonaparte escapes from exile on the island of Elba.", "*1870 – The Beach Pneumatic Transit in New York City, intending as a demonstration for a subway line opens.", "*1876 – Japan and Korea sign the Treaty of Kangwha, which grants Japanese citizens extraterritoriality rights in Korea, opens three Korean ports to Japanese trade, and ends Korea's status as a tributary state of Qing dynasty China.===1901–present===*1909 – Kinemacolor, the first successful color motion picture process, is first shown to the general public at the Palace Theatre in London.", "*1914 – , sister to the , is launched at Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast.", "*1919 – President Woodrow Wilson signs an act of Congress establishing the Grand Canyon National Park.", "*1929 – President Calvin Coolidge signs legislation establishing the Grand Teton National Park in Wyoming.", "*1935 – Adolf Hitler orders the Luftwaffe to be re-formed, violating the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles.", "* 1935 – Robert Watson-Watt carries out a demonstration near Daventry which leads directly to the development of radar in the United Kingdom.", "*1936 – In the February 26 Incident, young nationalist Japanese military officers assassinate multiple cabinet statesmen and start a rebellion in downtown Tokyo, which is ended 3 days later.", "*1945 – World War II: US troops reclaim the Philippine island of Corregidor from the Japanese.", "*1952 – Vincent Massey is sworn in as the first Canadian-born Governor General of Canada.", "*1960 – A New York-bound Alitalia airliner crashes into a cemetery in Shannon, Ireland, shortly after takeoff, killing 34 of the 52 persons on board.", "*1966 – Apollo program: Launch of AS-201, the first flight of the Saturn IB rocket.", "*1971 – U.N. Secretary-General U Thant signs United Nations proclamation of the vernal equinox as Earth Day.", "*1979 – The Superliner railcar enters revenue service with Amtrak.", "*1980 – Egypt and Israel establish full diplomatic relations.", "*1987 – Iran–Contra affair: The Tower Commission rebukes President Ronald Reagan for not controlling his national security staff.", "*1992 – First Nagorno-Karabakh War: Khojaly Massacre: Armenian armed forces open fire on Azeri civilians at a military post outside the town of Khojaly leaving hundreds dead.", "*1993 – World Trade Center bombing: In New York City, a truck bomb parked below the North Tower of the World Trade Center explodes, killing six and injuring over a thousand people.", "*1995 – The UK's oldest investment banking institute, Barings Bank, collapses after a rogue securities broker Nick Leeson loses $1.4 billion by speculating on the Singapore International Monetary Exchange using futures contracts.", "*2008 – The New York Philharmonic performs in Pyongyang, North Korea; this is the first event of its kind to take place in North Korea.", "*2012 – A train derails in Burlington, Ontario, Canada killing at least three people and injuring 45.", "* 2012 – Seventeen-year-old African-American student Trayvon Martin is shot to death by neighborhood watch coordinator George Zimmerman in an altercation in Sanford, Florida.", "*2013 – A hot air balloon crashes near Luxor, Egypt, killing 19 people.", "*2019 – Indian Air Force fighter-jets targeted Jaish-e-Mohammed terrorist training camps in Balakot.", "*2021 – A total of 279 female students aged between 10 and 17 are kidnapped by bandits in the Zamfara kidnapping in Zamfara State, Nigeria." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1361 – Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia (d. 1419)*1416 – Christopher of Bavaria (d. 1448)*1564 – Christopher Marlowe, English playwright, poet and translator (d. 1593)*1584 – Albert VI, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1666)*1587 – Stefano Landi, Italian composer and educator (d. 1639)===1601–1900===*1629 – Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll, Scottish peer (d. 1685)*1651 – Quirinus Kuhlmann, German Baroque poet and mystic (d. 1689)*1671 – Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury, English philosopher and politician (d. 1713)*1672 – Antoine Augustin Calmet, French monk and theologian (d. 1757)*1677 – Nicola Fago, Italian composer and teacher (d. 1745)*1718 – Johan Ernst Gunnerus, Norwegian bishop, botanist and zoologist (d. 1773)*1720 – Gian Francesco Albani, Italian cardinal (d. 1803)*1729 – Anders Chydenius, Finnish economist, philosopher and Lutheran priest (d. 1803)*1746 – Maria Amalia, Duchess of Parma (d. 1804)*1770 – Anton Reicha, Bohemian composer and flautist (d. 1836)*1777 – Matija Nenadović, Serbian priest, historian, and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Serbia (d. 1854)*1786 – François Arago, French mathematician and politician, 25th Prime Minister of France (d. 1853)*1802 – Victor Hugo, French author, poet, and playwright (d. 1885)*1808 – Honoré Daumier, French painter, illustrator, and sculptor (d. 1879)* 1808 – Nathan Kelley, American architect, designed the Ohio Statehouse (d. 1871)*1829 – Levi Strauss, German-American fashion designer, founded Levi Strauss & Co. (d. 1902)*1842 – Camille Flammarion, French astronomer and author (d. 1925)*1846 – Buffalo Bill, American soldier and hunter (d. 1917)*1852 – John Harvey Kellogg, American surgeon, co-created Corn flakes (d. 1943)*1857 – Émile Coué, French psychologist and pharmacist (d. 1926)*1861 – Ferdinand I of Bulgaria (d. 1948)* 1861 – Nadezhda Krupskaya, Russian soldier and politician (d. 1939)*1866 – Herbert Henry Dow, Canadian-American businessman, founded the Dow Chemical Company (d. 1930)*1871 – Matti Turkia, Finnish politician (d. 1946)*1877 – Henry Barwell, Australian politician, 28th Premier of South Australia (d. 1959)* 1877 – Rudolph Dirks, German-American illustrator (d. 1968)*1879 – Frank Bridge, English viola player and composer (d. 1941)*1880 – Kenneth Edgeworth, Irish astronomer (d. 1972)*1881 – Janus Djurhuus, Faroese poet (d. 1948)*1882 – Husband E. Kimmel, American admiral (d. 1968)*1885 – Aleksandras Stulginskis, Lithuanian farmer and politician, 2nd President of Lithuania (d. 1969)*1887 – Grover Cleveland Alexander, American baseball player and coach (d. 1950)* 1887 – William Frawley, American actor and vaudevillian (d. 1966)* 1887 – Stefan Grabiński, Polish author and educator (d. 1936)*1893 – Wallace Fard Muhammad, American religious leader, founded the Nation of Islam (disappeared 1934)* 1893 – Dorothy Whipple, English novelist (d. 1966)*1896 – Andrei Zhdanov, Ukrainian-Russian civil servant and politician (d. 1948)*1899 – Max Petitpierre, Swiss jurist and politician, 54th President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 1994)*1900 – Halina Konopacka, Polish discus thrower and poet (d. 1989)* 1900 – Fritz Wiessner, German-American mountaineer (d. 1988)===1901–present===*1902 – Jean Bruller, French author and illustrator, co-founded Les Éditions de Minuit (d. 1991)*1903 – Giulio Natta, Italian chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1979)* 1903 – Orde Wingate, English general (d. 1944)*1906 – Madeleine Carroll, English actress (d. 1987)*1908 – Tex Avery, American animator, producer, and voice actor (d. 1980)* 1908 – Nestor Mesta Chayres, Mexican operatic tenor and bolero vocalist (d. 1971) * 1908 – Jean-Pierre Wimille, French racing driver (d. 1949)*1909 – Fanny Cradock, English chef, author, and critic (d. 1994)* 1909 – Talal of Jordan (d. 1972)*1910 – Vic Woodley, English footballer (d. 1978)*1911 – Tarō Okamoto, Japanese painter and sculptor (d. 1996)*1914 – Robert Alda, American actor, singer, and director (d. 1986)*1916 – Jackie Gleason, American actor and singer (d. 1987)*1918 – Otis Bowen, American physician and politician, 44th Governor of Indiana (d. 2013)* 1918 – Pyotr Masherov, Leader of Soviet Belarus (d. 1980)* 1918 – Theodore Sturgeon, American author and critic (d. 1985)*1919 – Mason Adams, American actor (d. 2005)*1920 – Danny Gardella, American baseball player and trainer (d. 2005)* 1920 – Tony Randall, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2004)* 1920 – Lucjan Wolanowski, Polish journalist and author (d. 2006)*1921 – Betty Hutton, American actress and singer (d. 2007)*1922 – Bill Johnston, Australian cricketer and businessman (d. 2007)* 1922 – Margaret Leighton, English actress (d. 1976)*1924 – Noboru Takeshita, Japanese soldier and politician, 74th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 2000)* 1924 – Marc Bucci, American composer, lyricist, and dramatist (d. 2002)*1925 – Everton Weekes, Barbadian cricketer and referee (d. 2020)*1926 – Doris Belack, American actress (d. 2011)* 1926 – Verne Gagne, American football player, wrestler, and trainer (d. 2015)* 1926 – Henry Molaison, American medical patient (d. 2008)*1927 – Tom Kennedy, American game show host and actor (d. 2020)*1928 – Fats Domino, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2017)* 1928 – Ariel Sharon, Israeli general and politician, 11th Prime Minister of Israel (d. 2014)*1931 – Ally MacLeod, Scottish footballer and manager (d. 2004)* 1931 – Robert Novak, American journalist and author (d. 2009)* 1931 – Josephine Tewson, English actress (d. 2022)*1932 – Johnny Cash, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (d. 2003)*1933 – James Goldsmith, French-British businessman and politician (d. 1997)*1934 – Mohammed Lakhdar-Hamina, Algerian director, producer, and screenwriter*1936 – José Policarpo, Portuguese cardinal (d. 2014)*1937 – Paul Dickson, American football player and coach (d. 2011)*1939 – Chuck Wepner, American professional boxer*1940 – Oldřich Kulhánek, Czech painter, illustrator, and stage designer (d. 2013)*1942 – Jozef Adamec, Slovak footballer and manager (d. 2018)*1943 – Paul Cotton, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2021)* 1943 – Bill Duke, American actor and director* 1943 – Dante Ferretti, Italian art director and costume designer* 1943 – Bob \"The Bear\" Hite, American singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1981)*1944 – Christopher Hope, South African author and poet* 1944 – Ronald Lauder, American businessman and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Austria*1945 – Peter Brock, Australian racing driver (d. 2006)* 1945 – Marta Kristen, Norwegian-American actress*1946 – Colin Bell, English footballer (d. 2021)* 1946 – Ahmed Zewail, Egyptian-American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2016)*1947 – Sandie Shaw, English singer and psychotherapist*1948 – Sharyn McCrumb, American author*1949 – Simon Crean, Australian trade union leader and politician, 14th Australian Minister for the Arts (d. 2023)* 1949 – Elizabeth George, American author and educator* 1949 – Emma Kirkby, English soprano*1950 – Jonathan Cain, American singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer * 1950 – Helen Clark, New Zealand academic and politician, 37th Prime Minister of New Zealand*1951 – Wayne Goss, Australian lawyer and politician, 34th Premier of Queensland (d. 2014)*1953 – Michael Bolton, American singer-songwriter and actor * 1953 – Barbara Niven, American actress and writer*1954 – Prince Ernst August of Hanover* 1954 – Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, Turkish politician, 12th President of Turkey*1955 – Andreas Maislinger, Austrian historian and academic, founded the Austrian Holocaust Memorial Service*1956 – Michel Houellebecq, French author, poet, screenwriter, and director*1957 – David Beasley, American lawyer and politician, 113th Governor of South Carolina* 1957 – John Jude Palencar, American artist and illustrator * 1957 – Keena Rothhammer, American swimmer*1958 – Greg Germann, American actor and director* 1958 – Susan Helms, American general, engineer, and astronaut* 1958 – Tim Kaine, American lawyer and politician, 70th Governor of Virginia*1959 – Ahmet Davutoğlu, Turkish political scientist, academic, and politician, 37th Prime Minister of Turkey*1960 – Jaz Coleman, English singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer*1962 – Ahn Cheol-soo, South Korean physician, academic, and politician*1963 – Chase Masterson, American actress, singer, and activist*1965 – James Mitchell, American wrestler and manager*1966 – Garry Conille, Haitian physician and politician, 14th Prime Minister of Haiti* 1966 – Marc Fortier, French-Canadian ice hockey player* 1966 – Najwa Karam, Lebanese singer*1967 – Mark Carroll, Australian rugby league player* 1967 – Kazuyoshi Miura, Japanese footballer* 1967 – Gene Principe, Canadian sports reporter and broadcaster*1968 – Tim Commerford, American bass player*1969 – Hitoshi Sakimoto, Japanese composer and producer*1970 – Mark Harper, English accountant and politician, Minister of State for Immigration* 1970 – Scott Mahon, Australian rugby league player *1971 – Erykah Badu, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress * 1971 – Max Martin, Swedish-American record producer and songwriter* 1971 – Hélène Segara, French singer-songwriter and actress*1973 – Marshall Faulk, American football player* 1973 – Ole Gunnar Solskjær, Norwegian footballer and manager* 1973 – Jenny Thompson, American swimmer*1974 – Sébastien Loeb, French racing driver* 1974 – Mikee Cojuangco-Jaworski, Filipina television actress, host and equestrienne*1976 – Nalini Anantharaman, French mathematician* 1976 – Chad Urmston, American singer-songwriter and guitarist *1977 – Marty Reasoner, American ice hockey player and coach* 1977 – Tim Thomas, American basketball player* 1977 – Shane Williams, Welsh rugby union player*1978 – Abdoulaye Faye, Senegalese footballer*1979 – Corinne Bailey Rae, English singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1979 – Steve Evans, Welsh footballer* 1979 – Pedro Mendes, Portuguese international footballer*1980 – Steve Blake, American basketball player*1981 – Kertus Davis, American race car driver* 1981 – Oh Seung-bum, South Korean footballer*1982 – Li Na, Chinese tennis player* 1982 – Matt Prior, South African-English cricketer* 1982 – Nate Ruess, American singer-songwriter *1983 – Jerome Harrison, American football player* 1983 – Pepe, Brazilian-Portuguese footballer*1984 – Emmanuel Adebayor, Togolese international footballer* 1984 – Natalia Lafourcade, Mexican singer-songwriter* 1984 – Beren Saat, Turkish actress*1985 – Fernando Llorente, Spanish international footballer*1986 – Hannah Kearney, American skier*1989 – Gabriel Obertan, French footballer*1990 – Takanoiwa Yoshimori, Mongolian sumo wrestler*1991 – Lee Chae-rin, South Korean singer*1992 – Mikael Granlund, Finnish professional hockey player* 1992 – Michael Chee Kam, New Zealand rugby league player*1993 – Morgan Gautrat, American soccer player*1997 – Reghan Tumilty, Scottish footballer*2008 – Nela Lopušanová, Slovak ice hockey player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===*420 – Porphyry of Gaza, Greek bishop and saint (b.", "347)* 943 – Muirchertach mac Néill, king of Ailech (Ireland)*1154 – Roger II of Sicily (b.", "1095)*1266 – Manfred, King of Sicily (b.", "1232)*1275 – Margaret of England, Queen consort of Scots (b.", "1240)*1349 – Fatima bint al-Ahmar, Nasrid princess in the Emirate of Granada (b. c.1260)*1360 – Roger Mortimer, 2nd Earl of March, English commander (b.", "1328)*1462 – John de Vere, 12th Earl of Oxford, English politician (b.", "1408)*1548 – Lorenzino de' Medici, Italian writer and assassin (b.", "1514)*1577 – Eric XIV of Sweden (b.", "1533)===1601–1900===*1603 – Maria of Austria, Holy Roman Empress, spouse of Maximilian II (b.", "1528)*1608 – John Still, English bishop (b.", "1543)*1611 – Antonio Possevino, Italian priest and diplomat (b.", "1533)*1625 – Anna Vasa of Sweden, Polish and Swedish princess (b.", "1568)*1630 – William Brade, English violinist and composer (b.", "1560)*1638 – Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac, French mathematician and linguist (b.", "1581)*1723 – Thomas d'Urfey, English poet and playwright (b.", "1653)*1726 – Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria (b.", "1662)*1770 – Giuseppe Tartini, Italian violinist and composer (b.", "1692)*1790 – Joshua Rowley, English admiral (b.", "1730)*1802 – Esek Hopkins, American admiral (b.", "1718)*1806 – Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, Haitian-French general (b.", "1762)*1813 – Robert R. Livingston, American lawyer and politician, 1st United States Secretary of Foreign Affairs (b.", "1746)*1815 – Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (b.", "1737)*1821 – Joseph de Maistre, French lawyer and diplomat (b.", "1753)*1839 – Sybil Ludington, American figure of the American Revolutionary War (b.", "1761)*1864 – Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine, Canadian jurist and politician, 3rd Premier of Canada East (b.", "1807)*1869 – Afzal-ud-Daulah, Asaf Jah V, 5th Nizam of Hyderabad State*1883 – Alexandros Koumoundouros, Greek lawyer and politician, 56th Prime Minister of Greece (b.", "1817)*1887 – Anandi Gopal Joshi, First Indian women physician (b.", "1865)*1889 – Karl Davydov, Russian cellist and composer (b.", "1838)===1901–present===*1903 – Richard Jordan Gatling, American engineer, invented the Gatling gun (b.", "1818)*1906 – Jean Lanfray, Swiss convicted murderer (b.", "1874)*1913 – Felix Draeseke, German composer and academic (b.", "1835)*1921 – Carl Menger, Polish-Austrian economist and academic (b.", "1840)*1930 – Mary Whiton Calkins, American philosopher and psychologist (b.", "1863)*1931 – Otto Wallach, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1847)*1936 – February 26 Incident:**Takahashi Korekiyo, Japanese accountant and politician, 20th Prime Minister of Japan (b.", "1854)**Saitō Makoto, Japanese admiral and politician, 30th Prime Minister of Japan (b.", "1858)**Jōtarō Watanabe, Japanese general (b.", "1874)*1943 – Theodor Eicke, German general (b.", "1892)*1945 – Sándor Szurmay, Minister of Defence of the Hungarian portion of Austria-Hungary (b.", "1860)*1947 – Heinrich Häberlin, Swiss judge and politician, President of the Swiss National Council (b.", "1868)*1950 – Harry Lauder, Scottish comedian and singer (b.", "1870)*1951 – Sabiha Kasimati, Albanian ichthyologist (b.", "1912) executed with 20 others*1952 – Theodoros Pangalos, Greek general and politician, President of Greece (b.", "1878)*1961 – Karl Albiker, German sculptor, lithographer, and educator (b.", "1878)* 1961 – Mohammed V of Morocco (b.", "1909)*1966 – Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Indian poet and politician (b.", "1883)*1969 – Levi Eshkol, Israeli soldier and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Israel (b.", "1895)* 1969 – Karl Jaspers, German-Swiss psychiatrist and philosopher (b.", "1883)*1981 – Robert Aickman, English author and activist (b.", "1914)* 1981 – Howard Hanson, American composer, conductor, and educator (b.", "1896)*1985 – Tjalling Koopmans, Dutch-American economist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1910)*1989 – Roy Eldridge, American trumpet player (b.", "1911)*1993 – Constance Ford, American model and actress (b.", "1923)*1994 – Bill Hicks, American comedian (b.", "1961)*1995 – Jack Clayton, English director and producer (b.", "1921)*1997 – David Doyle, American actor (b.", "1929)*1998 – Theodore Schultz, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1902)*2000 – George L. Street III, American captain, Medal of Honor recipient (b.", "1913)* 2000 – Raosaheb Gogte, Indian industrialist (b.", "1916)*2002 – Lawrence Tierney, American actor (b.", "1919)* 2004 – Adolf Ehrnrooth, Finnish general (b.", "1905)* 2004 – Boris Trajkovski, Macedonian politician, 2nd President of the Republic of Macedonia (b.", "1956)*2005 – Jef Raskin, American computer scientist, created Macintosh (b.", "1943)*2006 – Georgina Battiscombe, British biographer (b.", "1905)*2008 – Bodil Udsen, Danish actress (b.", "1925)*2009 – Johnny Kerr, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster (b.", "1932)* 2009 – Wendy Richard, English actress (b.", "1943)* 2009 – Norm Van Lier, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster (b.", "1947)*2010 – Jun Seba, also known as \"Nujabes\", Japanese record producer, DJ, composer and arranger (b.", "1974)*2011 – Arnošt Lustig, Czech author, playwright, and screenwriter (b.", "1926)*2012 – Richard Carpenter, English actor and screenwriter (b.", "1929)*2013 – Marie-Claire Alain, French organist and educator (b.", "1926)* 2013 – Stéphane Hessel, German-French diplomat and author (b.", "1917)* 2013 – Simon Li, Hong Kong judge and politician (b.", "1922)*2014 – Sorel Etrog, Romanian-Canadian sculptor, painter, and illustrator (b.", "1933)* 2014 – Phyllis Krasilovsky, American author and academic (b.", "1927)*2015 – Sheppard Frere, English historian and archaeologist (b.", "1916)* 2015 – Theodore Hesburgh, American priest, theologian, educator, and academic (b.", "1917)* 2015 – Earl Lloyd, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1928)* 2015 – Tom Schweich, American lawyer and politician, 36th State Auditor of Missouri (b.", "1960)*2016 – Andy Bathgate, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager (b.", "1932)* 2016 – Don Getty, Canadian football player and politician, 11th Premier of Alberta (b.", "1933)*2017 – Joseph Wapner, American judge and TV personality (b.", "1919)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Alexander of Alexandria**Emily Malbone Morgan (Episcopal Church (USA))**Isabelle of France**Li Tim-Oi (Anglican Church of Canada)**Porphyry of Gaza**February 26 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Day of Remembrance for Victims of Khojaly Massacre (Azerbaijan)*Liberation Day (Kuwait)*Saviours' Day (Nation of Islam)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 26" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Northrop F-5" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Northrop F-5''' is a family of supersonic light fighter aircraft initially designed as a privately funded project in the late 1950s by Northrop Corporation.", "There are two main models, the original '''F-5A''' and '''F-5B Freedom Fighter''' variants and the extensively updated '''F-5E''' and '''F-5F Tiger II''' variants.", "The design team wrapped a small, highly aerodynamic fighter around two compact and high-thrust General Electric J85 engines, focusing on performance and a low cost of maintenance.", "Smaller and simpler than contemporaries such as the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II, the F-5 cost less to procure and operate, making it a popular export aircraft.", "Though primarily designed for a day air superiority role, the aircraft is also a capable ground-attack platform.", "The F-5A entered service in the early 1960s.", "During the Cold War, over 800 were produced through 1972 for US allies.", "Though at the time the United States Air Force (USAF) did not have a need for a light fighter, it did procure approximately 1,200 Northrop T-38 Talon trainer aircraft, which was based on Northrop's N-156 fighter design.After winning the International Fighter Aircraft Competition, a program aimed at providing effective low-cost fighters to American allies, in 1972 Northrop introduced the second-generation F-5E Tiger II.", "This upgrade included more powerful engines, larger fuel capacity, greater wing area and improved leading edge extensions for better turn rates, optional air-to-air refueling, and improved avionics including air-to-air radar.", "Primarily used by American allies, it remains in US service to support training exercises.", "It has served in a wide array of roles, being able to perform both air and ground attack duties; the type was used extensively in the Vietnam War.", "A total of 1,400 Tiger IIs were built before production ended in 1987.More than 3,800 F-5s and the closely related T-38 advanced trainer aircraft were produced in Hawthorne, California.", "The F-5N/F variants are in service with the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps as adversary trainers.", "Over 400 aircraft were in service as of 2021.The F-5 was also developed into a dedicated reconnaissance aircraft, the RF-5 Tigereye.", "The F-5 also served as a starting point for a series of design studies which resulted in the Northrop YF-17 and the F/A-18 naval fighter aircraft.", "The Northrop F-20 Tigershark was an advanced variant to succeed the F-5E which was ultimately canceled when export customers did not emerge." ], [ "Design and development", "===Origins===The design effort was led by Northrop vice president of engineering and aircraft designer Edgar Schmued, who previously at North American Aviation had been the chief designer of the successful North American P-51 Mustang and F-86 Sabre fighters.", "Schmued recruited a strong engineering team to Northrop.In December 1953, NATO issued NBMR-1, calling for a lightweight tactical fighter capable of carrying conventional and nuclear weapons and operating from rough airfields.", "In late 1954, a Northrop team toured Europe and Asia to examine both the NBMR-1 and the needs of SEATO members.", "From this tour, Schmued gave his team the goal of reversing the trend in fighter development towards greater size and weight in order to deliver an aircraft with high performance, enhanced maneuverability, and high reliability, while still delivering a cost advantage over contemporary fighters.", "Recognizing that expensive jet aircraft could not viably be replaced every few years, he also demanded \"engineered growth potential\" allowing service longevity in excess of 10 years.The design began to firm up in 1955 with the introduction of the General Electric J85 turbojet engine.", "Originally developed for McDonnell's ADM-20 Quail decoy for use on the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, the J85 had a thrust-to-weight ratio of 6.25 to 7.5 depending on the version, giving it a notable advantage over contemporaries such as the 4.7 ratio of the J79 engine used in the F-4 Phantom.===Design evolution===Using a pair of J85s as the baseline, the team began considering a series of prospective designs.", "Among the earliest concepts was the N-156TX of March 1955.This mounted the engines in pods, one under each wing about mid-span.", "The fuselage was quite slim compared to the final design, with a crew of two under a narrow cockpit canopy.That year, the US Navy expressed an interest in a fighter to operate from its escort carriers, which were too small to operate the Navy's existing jet fighters.", "Northrop responded with a radical redesign, PD-2706, which placed the engines against the fuselage in short ducts exiting in front of the tail area, like the F-4, and moved the elevator up to form a T-tail.", "The resulting design had a much shorter fuselage and was quite compact.", "Development along these lines ended when the Navy decided to withdraw the escort carriers.", "Northrop continued development of the N-156, both as a two-seat advanced trainer, designated as N-156T, and a single-seat fighter, designated as N-156F.The first Northrop YF-5A prototypeAnother highly influential figure was chief engineer Welko Gasich, who convinced Schmued that the engines must be located within the fuselage for maximum performance.", "This led to the January 1956 PD-2812 version which began to look a lot like the final product, although this version had a long-span low-mounted elevator with notable anhedral.", "March 1956's PD-2832 moved to a more conventional elevator and had a strongly swept vertical stabilizer.", "The design underwent several further versions over the next year which experimented with different nose designs and continued to lengthen the fuselage.", "The final design, PD-2879D, emerged in December 1956.Gasich also introduced the concept of \"life cycle cost\" into fighter design, which provided the foundation for the F-5's low operating cost and long service life.", "A Northrop design study stated \"The application of advanced technology was used to provide maximum force effectiveness at minimum cost.", "This became the Northrop philosophy in the development of the T-38 and F-5 lightweight trainer and fighter aircraft.", "\"===Into production===The N-156T was quickly selected by the United States Air Force as a replacement for the T-33 in July 1956.On 12 June 1959, the first prototype aircraft, which was subsequently designated as YT-38 Talon, performed its first flight.", "By the time production had ended in January 1972, a total of 1,189 Talons had been produced.", "Development of the N-156F continued at a lower priority as a private venture by Northrop; on 25 February 1958, an order for three prototypes was issued for a prospective low-cost fighter that could be supplied under the Military Assistance Program for distribution to less-developed nations.", "The first N-156F flew at Edwards Air Force Base on 30 July 1959, exceeding the speed of sound on its first flight.Although testing of the N-156F was successful, demonstrating unprecedented reliability and proving superior in the ground-attack role to the USAF's existing North American F-100 Super Sabres, official interest in the Northrop type waned, and by 1960 it looked as if the program was a failure.", "Interest revived in 1961 when the United States Army tested it, (along with the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk and Fiat G.91) for reconnaissance and close-support.", "Although all three types proved capable during army testing, operating fixed-wing combat aircraft was legally the responsibility of the Air Force, which would not agree to allow the Army to operate fixed-wing combat aircraft, a situation repeated with the C-7 Caribou.In 1962, the Kennedy Administration revived the requirement for a low-cost export fighter, selecting the N-156F as winner of the F-X competition on 23 April 1962, subsequently becoming the \"F-5A\", and was ordered into production in October that year.", "It was named under the 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system, which included a re-set of the fighter number series.", "Northrop manufactured a total of 624 F-5As, including three YF-5A prototypes, before production ended in 1972.A further 200 F-5B two-seat trainer aircraft, lacking nose-mounted cannons but otherwise combat-capable, and 86 RF-5A reconnaissance aircraft, fitted with four-camera noses, were also built.", "In addition, Canadair built 240 first generation F-5s under license, CASA in Spain built 70 more aircraft.The Royal Norwegian Air Force placed the first international order on 28 February 1964.===F-5E and F-5F Tiger II===Official roll-out of first USAF F-5E Tiger IIF-5E Tiger II with B83 nuclear bomb at Hill Aerospace MuseumIn 1970, Northrop won the International Fighter Aircraft (IFA) competition to replace the F-5A, with better air-to-air performance against aircraft like the Soviet MiG-21.The resultant aircraft, initially known as F-5A-21, subsequently became the F-5E.", "It had more powerful (5,000 lbf) General Electric J85-21 engines, and had a lengthened and enlarged fuselage, accommodating more fuel.", "Its wings were fitted with enlarged leading edge extensions, giving an increased wing area and improved maneuverability.", "The aircraft's avionics were more sophisticated, crucially including a radar (initially the Emerson Electric AN/APQ-153) (the F-5A and B had no radar).", "It retained the gun armament of two M39 cannons, one on either side of the nose of the F-5A.", "Various specific avionics fits could be accommodated at a customer's request, including an inertial navigation system, TACAN and ECM equipment.", "Additionally the two position nose landing gear from the Canadian CF-5 was incorporated to reduce takeoff distance.The first F-5E flew on 11 August 1972.A two-seat combat-capable trainer, the F-5F, was offered, first flying on 25 September 1974, at Edwards Air Force Base, with a new nose, that was three feet longer, which, unlike the F-5B that did not mount a gun, allowed it to retain a single M39 cannon, albeit with a reduced ammunition capacity.", "The two-seater was equipped with the Emerson AN/APQ-157 radar, which is a derivative of the AN/APQ-153 radar, with dual control and display systems to accommodate the two-men crew, and the radar has the same range of AN/APQ-153, around 10 nmi.", "On 6 April 1973, the 425th TFS at Williams Air Force Base, Arizona, received the first F-5E Tiger IIAn early series F-5EA reconnaissance version, the RF-5E Tigereye, with a sensor package in the nose displacing the radar and one cannon, was also offered.The F-5E eventually received the official name Tiger II; 792 F-5Es, 146 F-5Fs and 12 RF-5Es were eventually built by Northrop.", "More were built under license overseas: 91 F-5Es and F-5Fs in Switzerland, 68 by Korean Air in South Korea, and 308 in Taiwan.The F-5E proved to be a successful combat aircraft in service with US allies, but had no combat service with the US Air Force, though the F-5A with modifications, designated F-5C, was flown by the US in Vietnam.", "The F-5E evolved into the single-engine F-5G, which was rebranded the F-20 Tigershark.", "It lost out on export sales to the F-16 Fighting Falcon in the 1980s.===Upgrades===The F-5E experienced numerous upgrades in its service life, with the most significant one being adopting a new planar array radar, Emerson AN/APQ-159 with a range of 20 nmi to replace the original AN/APQ-153.Similar radar upgrades were also proposed for F-5F, with the derivative of AN/APQ-159, the AN/APQ-167, to replace the AN/APQ-157, but that was cancelled.", "The latest radar upgrade included the Emerson AN/APG-69, which was the successor of AN/APQ-159, incorporating mapping capability.", "However, most nations chose not to upgrade for financial reasons, and the radar saw very little service in USAF aggressor squadrons and Swiss Air Force.Various F-5 versions remain in service with many nations.", "Having taken delivery of its first F-5 Tigers in 1979, Singapore operated approximately 49 modernized and re-designated F-5S (single-seat) and F-5T (two-seat) aircraft until the early 2010s when they were retired from service.", "Upgrades included new FIAR Grifo-F X-band radar from Galileo Avionica (similar in performance to the AN/APG-69), updated cockpits with multi-function displays, and compatibility with the AIM-120 AMRAAM and Rafael Python air-to-air missiles.NASA F-5E modified for DARPA sonic boom testsOne National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) F-5E was given a modified fuselage shape for its employment in the Shaped Sonic Boom Demonstration program carried out by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).", "It is preserved in the Valiant Air Command Warbird Museum at Titusville, Florida.The Royal Thai Air Force (RTAF) had their F-5s undergo an extensive upgrade program, resulting in the aircraft re-designated as F-5T Tigris.", "They are armed with Python III and IV missiles; and equipped with the Dash helmet-mounted cueing system.Similar programs have been carried out in Chile and Brazil with the help of Elbit.", "The Chilean upgrade, called the F-5 Tiger III Plus, incorporated a new Elta EL/M-2032 radar and other improvements.", "The Brazilian program, re-designated as F-5M, adds a new Grifo-F radar along with several avionics and cockpit refurbishments, including the Dash helmet.", "The F-5M has been equipped with new weapon systems such as the Beyond Visual Range Derby missile, Python IV short-range air-to-air missile, SMKB \"smart\" bombs, and several other weapons." ], [ "Operational history", "===United States===An F-5B of 602d TFS at Bien Hoa, 1966The F-5 entered service with the USAF's 4441st Combat Crew Training Squadron at Williams Air Force Base, which had the role of training pilots and ground crew for customer nations, including Norway, on 30 April 1964.At that point, it was still not intended that the aircraft be used in significant numbers by the USAF itself.USAF doctrine with regard to the F-5 changed following operational testing and limited deployment in 1965.Preliminary combat evaluation of the F-5A began at the Air Proving Ground Center, Eglin AFB, Florida, in mid-1965 under the code name Project ''Sparrow Hawk''.", "One airframe was lost in the course of the project, through pilot error, on 24 June.In October 1965, the USAF began a five-month combat evaluation of the F-5A titled ''Skoshi Tiger''.", "A total of 12 aircraft were delivered for trials to the 4503rd Tactical Fighter Squadron, and after modification with probe and drogue aerial refueling equipment, armor and improved instruments, were redesignated ''F-5C''.", "Over the next six months, they flew in combat in Vietnam, flying more than 2,600 sorties, both from the 3rd Tactical Fighter Wing at Bien Hoa Air Base over South Vietnam and from Da Nang Air Base where operations were flown over Laos.", "Nine aircraft were lost in Vietnam, seven to enemy ground fire and two to operational causes.Operations with 3rd TFW were declared a success, with the F-5 generally rated as being as capable a ground-attacker as the F-100, albeit having a shorter range.", "However, the program was more a political gesture that was intended to aid the export of F-5s, than a serious consideration of the type for US service.", "(Following ''Skoshi Tiger'' the Philippine Air Force acquired 23 F-5A and B models in 1965.These aircraft, along with remanufactured Vought F-8 Crusaders, eventually replaced the Philippine Air Force's F-86 Sabres in the air defense and ground attack roles.", ")From April 1966, the USAF aircraft continued operations under the auspices of the 10th Fighter Squadron, Commando, with their number boosted to 17 aircraft.AIM-9J Sidewinder, AGM-65 Maverick missiles and auxiliary fuel tanks over Edwards Air Force Base, 1976.In June 1967, the surviving aircraft of the 10th Fighter Squadron, Commando, were transferred to the Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF).", "In view of the performance, agility and size of the F-5, it might have appeared to be a good match against the similar MiG-21 in air combat; however, US doctrine was to use heavy, faster and longer-range aircraft like the Republic F-105 Thunderchief and McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II over North Vietnam.The F-5 was also adopted as an opposing forces (OPFOR) \"aggressor\" for dissimilar training role because of its small size and performance similarities to the Soviet MiG-21.In realistic trials at Nellis AFB in 1977, called ACEVAL/AIMVAL, the F-14 reportedly scored slightly better than a 2:1 kill ratio against the simpler F-5, while the F-15 scored slightly less.", "There is some contradiction of these reports, another source reports that \"For the first three weeks of the test, the F-14s and F-15s were hopelessly outclassed and demoralized\"; after adapting to qualities of the F-5 carrying the new all aspect AIM-9L missile and implementing rule changes to artificially favor long range radar-guided missiles, \"the F-14s did slightly better than breaking even with the F-5s in non-1 v 1 engagements; the F-15s got almost 2:1\".", "A 2012 Discovery Channel documentary ''Great Planes'' reported that in USAF exercises, F-5 aggressor aircraft were competitive enough with more modern and expensive fighters to only be at small disadvantage in Within Visual Range (WVR) combat.USMC F-5N Tiger IIs from VMFT-401 on standby at the Marine Corps Air Station BeaufortThe F-5E served with the US Air Force from 1975 until 1990, in the 64th Aggressor Squadron and 65th Aggressor Squadron at Nellis Air Force Base in Nevada, and with the 527th Aggressor Squadron at RAF Alconbury in the UK and the 26th Aggressor Squadron at Clark Air Force Base in the Philippines.", "The US Marines purchased used F-5s from the Air Force in 1989 to replace their F-21s, which served with VMFT-401 at Marine Corps Air Station Yuma.", "The US Navy used the F-5E extensively at the Naval Fighter Weapons School (TOPGUN) when it was located at NAS Miramar, California.", "When TOPGUN relocated to become part of the Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center at NAS Fallon, Nevada, the command divested itself of the F-5, choosing to rely on VC-13 (redesignated VFC-13 and which already used F-5s) to employ their F-5s as adversary aircraft.", "Former adversary squadrons such as VF-43 at NAS Oceana, VF-45 at NAS Key West, VF-126 at NAS Miramar, and VFA-127 at NAS Lemoore have also operated the F-5 along with other aircraft types in support of Dissimilar Air Combat Training (DACT).The US Navy F-5 fleet continues to be modernized with 36 low-hour F-5E/Fs purchased from Switzerland in 2006.These were updated as F-5N/Fs with modernized avionics and other improved systems.", "Currently, the only US Navy and US Marine Corps units flying the F-5 are VFC-13 at NAS Fallon, Nevada, VFC-111 at NAS Key West, Florida and VMFT-401 at MCAS Yuma, Arizona.", "Currently, VFC-111 operates 18 Northrop F-5N/F Tiger IIs.", "17 of these are single-seater F-5Ns and the last is a twin-seater F-5F \"FrankenTiger\", the product of grafting the older front-half fuselage of an F-5F into the back-half fuselage of a newer low-hours F-5E acquired from the Swiss Air Force.", "A total of three \"FrankenTigers\" were made.According to the FAA, there are 18 privately owned F-5s in the US, including Canadair CF-5Ds.===Brazil===A Brazilian Air Force F-5MIn October 1974, the Brazilian Air Force (''FAB'') ordered 36 F-5E and 6 F-5B aircraft from Northrop for $72 million.", "The first three aircraft arrived on 12 March 1975.In 1988, FAB acquired 22 F-5E and four F-5F second-hand USAF \"aggressor\" fighters.", "A total of 15 of these aircraft were part of the initial batch of 30 aircraft produced by Northrop.", "In 1990, FAB retired all remaining five F-5Bs; later, they were sent to Brazilian museums around the country.In 2001, Elbit Systems and Embraer started work on a $230 million Brazilian F-5 modernization program, performed over an eight-year period, upgrading 46 F-5E/F aircraft, re-designated as F-5EM and F-5FM.", "The modernization centered on several areas: new electronic warfare systems, the Grifo F radar, an air-to-air refueling system, INS/GPS-based navigation, support for new weapons, targeting and self-defense systems, HOTAS, LCD displays, helmet-mounted displays (HMDs), Radar Warning Receiver, encrypted communications, cockpit compatibility for night vision goggles, On-Board Oxygen Generation System (OBOGS) and various new onboard computer upgrades.", "One important capability is the secure communication with R-99 airborne early warning platforms and ground stations.Externally, the new aircraft features a larger nose cone that accommodates the larger radar equipment.", "The first F-5EM was handed over on 21 September 2005.On 7 July 2003, four Rafael Litening III targeting pods were ordered at a cost of US$13 million, to be used on F-5M together with three Rafael Sky Shield jamming pods ordered on 5 July 2006 at a cost of US$42 million.In 2009, FAB bought eight single-seat and three twin-seat F-5F used aircraft from Jordan in a US$21 million deal.", "These aircraft were built between 1975 and 1980.On 14 April 2011, a contract of $153 million was signed with Embraer and Elbit to modernize the additional F-5s bought from Jordan, and to supply one more flight simulator as a continuation of the contract signed in 2000.These F-5s will receive the same configuration as those from the initial 46 F-5s currently completing the upgrade process.", "The first delivery of this second batch of upgraded jet fighters is scheduled for 2013 with expected use to 2030.In 2020, the FAB started implementing the new proprietary Datalink System of the Brazilian Armed Forces on the F-5EM, for integrated communication and real-time sharing battlefield/warfare data with AEW&C R-99/E-99 FAB/Embraer aircraft, other aircraft, ships, helicopters, tanks and front/back-ends battlefield control centers, called Link-BR2.===Ethiopia===Ethiopia received 10 F-5As and two F-5Bs from the US starting in 1966.In addition to these, Ethiopia had a training squadron equipped with at least eight Lockheed T-33 Shooting Stars.", "In 1970, Iran transferred at least three F-5As and Bs to Ethiopia.", "In 1975, another agreement was reached with the US to deliver a number of military aircraft, including 14 F-5Es and three F-5Fs; later in the same year eight F-5Es were transferred while the others were embargoed and delivered to a USAF aggressor Squadron due to the changed political situation.", "The US also withdrew its personnel and cut diplomatic relations.", "Ethiopian officers contracted a number of Israelis to maintain American equipment.The Ethiopian F-5 fighters saw combat action against Somali forces during the Ogaden War (1977–1978).", "The main Somali fighter aircraft was the MiG-21MF delivered in the 1970s, supported by Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17s delivered in the 1960s by the Soviet Union.", "Ethiopian F-5E aircraft were used to gain air superiority because they could use the AIM-9B air-to-air missile, while the F-5As were kept for air interdiction and airstrike.", "During this period Ethiopian F-5Es went on training against Ethiopian F-5As and F-86 Sabres (simulating Somali MiG-21s and MiG-17s).On 17 July 1977, two F-5s were on combat air patrol near Harer, when four Somali MiG-21MFs were detected nearby.", "In the engagement, two MiG-21s were shot down while the other two had a midair collision while avoiding an AIM-9B missile.", "The better-trained F-5 pilots swiftly gained air superiority over the Somali Air Force, shooting down a number of aircraft, while other Somali aircraft were lost to air defense and to incidents.", "Records indicate that Ethiopian F-5s of the 9th Fighter Squadron \"shot down 13 MiGs-17 and 12 MiGs-21 from 20th July until 1st September 1977.All aircraft were hit by Sidewinders (AIM-9).\"", "However at least three F-5s were shot down by air defense forces during attacks against supply bases in western Somalia.Ethiopian pilots who had flown both the F-5E and the MiG-21 considered the F-5E to be the superior fighter because of its manoeuvrability at low to medium speeds and the fact that it was far easier to fly, allowing the pilot to focus on combat rather than controlling his airplane.", "This effect was enhanced by the poor quality of pilot training provided by the Soviets, which provided limited flight time and focused exclusively on taking off and landing, with no practical training in air combat.Ethiopia's ace pilot and national hero was Legesse Tefera who is credited with shooting down 6 (or 7) Somali MiGs, thus making him the most successful F-5 pilot ever.===Greece===The Hellenic Air Force was the first European air force to receive the Freedom Fighter.", "The first F-5As were delivered in 1965, and over the next 8 years a total of about 70 F-5A/Bs were operational.", "The Hellenic Air Force bought an additional 10 F-5A/Bs from Iran in 1975, and around the same period another batch of 10 F-5A/Bs were acquired from Jordan.", "Another 10 were acquired from Norway in 1986, and a final 10 NF-5As were purchased from the Netherlands in 1991.The total number of F-5s in operation (including the ex-Iranian machines, 34 RF-5As, and 20 F-5Bs) in the Hellenic Air Force was about 120 aircraft, from 1965 to 2002, when the last F-5 was decommissioned and the type went out of operation in the Hellenic Air Force.Units that used the F-5 in Greek service:* 337th Day Interceptor Squadron (1967–1978)* 341st Day Interceptor Squadron (1965–1993)* 343rd Day Interceptor Squadron (1966–2001)* 349th Day Interceptor Squadron (1970–1997)===Iran===F-5A Freedom Fighters of the Imperial Iranian Air ForceAn F-5E of the Islamic Republic of Iran Air ForceThe Imperial Iranian Air Force (IIAF) received extensive US equipment in the 1960s and 1970s.", "Iran received its first 11 F-5As and two F-5Bs in February 1965 which were then declared operational in June 1965.Ultimately, Iran received 104 F-5As and 23 F-5Bs by 1972.From January 1974 with the first squadron of 28 F-5Fs, Iran received a total of 166 F-5E/Fs and 15 additional RF-5As with deliveries ending in 1976.While receiving the F-5E and F, Iran began to sell its F-5A and B inventory to other countries, including Ethiopia, Turkey, Greece and South Vietnam; by 1976, many had been sold, except for several F-5Bs retained for training purposes.", "F-5s were also used by the IIAF's aerobatic display team, the Golden Crown.After the Iranian revolution in 1979, the new Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force (IRIAF) was partially successful at keeping Western fighters in service during the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s and the simple F-5 had a good service readiness until late in the war.", "Initially, Iran took spare parts from foreign sources; later it was able to have its new aircraft industry keep the aircraft flying.IRIAF F-5s were heavily involved, flying air-to-air and air-to-ground sorties.", "Iranian F-5s took part in air combat with Iraqi MiG-21s, MiG-23s, MiG-25s, Su-20/22s, Mirage F1s and Super Etendards.", "The exact combat record is not known with many differing claims from Iraqi, Iranian, Western, and Russian sources.", "There are reports that an IRIAF F-5E, piloted by Major Yadollah Javadpour, shot down a MiG-25 on 6 August 1983.Russian sources state that the first confirmed kill of a MiG-25 occurred in 1985.During their first years of service, Iranian F-5s had the advantage in missile technology, using advanced versions of the infrared-homing AIM-9 Sidewinder, later lost with deliveries of new missiles and fighters to Iraq.Iran Aircraft Manufacturing Industrial Company currently produces three aircraft, the Azarakhsh, Saeqeh, and Kowsar, derived from the F-5.===Kenya===In June 1976, Kenya ordered 10 new F-5E and two F-5F aircraft from the United States for $70 million.Starting on 16 October 2011 during Operation Linda Nchi, Kenyan Air Force F-5s supported the Kenyan forces fighting in Somalia against Al Shabab Islamists bombing targets inside Somalia and spearheading the ground forces.===Malaysia===F-5 Tiger II of the Royal Malaysian Air ForceIn 1975, the Royal Malaysian Air Force received 14 F-5Es and two F-5Bs.", "In 1982, four F-5Fs were received and the two F-5Bs already in Malaysian service were transferred to the Royal Thai Air Force.", "In 1983, RMAF received two RF-5E Tigereye.", "Subsequently, two F-5Es (M29-21 & M29-22) and a F-5F (M29-23) which came with the new \"shark nose\" and with leading edge root extensions (LERX) version were ordered as attrition replacement.", "The F-5E was the first supersonic fighter in Royal Malaysian Air Force service and it replaced the former RAAF CAC Sabre as the Royal Malaysian Air Force's primary air defense fighter throughout the 1980s and early '90s.", "It also served in secondary ground attack role alongside the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk.", "Five F-5Es and one F-5F were lost in the accident with three fatalities (2 pilots in E (1983 & 1995) and 1 in F (1986), all crashed into the sea).", "In 2000, all the RMAF F-5s were deactivated, but they were reactivated in 2003 as the Tactical Air Reconnaissance Squadron and Reserve.", "Several upgrade packages were proposed to extend the service life of the aircraft, but none were taken.", "In 2015, the F-5s were pulled out of service, but some were kept in storage.===Mexico===Mexican Air Force F-5 Tiger flying near the Popocatepetl volcanoIn 1982, the Mexican Air Force received 10 F-5Es and two F-5Fs after the purchase of 24 IAI Kfir C.1 was blocked by the US, because the Kfir used the American-produced J79 engine.", "These fighters complemented the Lockheed T-33 and de Havilland Vampire Mk.", "I (received much earlier), two of the first combat jet aircraft in Mexico.", "The F-5 gave Mexico its first supersonic warplane, and it saw the formation of Air Squadron 401.On 16 September 1995, after more than 30 military parade flights without incidents, an F-5E collided in midair with three Lockheed T-33s during the military parade for the Independence of Mexico resulting in 10 deaths.", "As of 2021, the Mexican Air Force has five Northrop F-5E and two F-5F fighters combat ready and for training purposes.===Morocco===The Royal Moroccan Air Force received 22 F-5As, two F-5Bs and two RF-5As from the United States between 1966 and 1974.These entered service with the 1st Fighter Squadron.", "Two additional F-5As were donated by Iran in 1974, and six F-5As were acquired from Jordan in 1976.Three F-5As were involved in the failed 1972 Moroccan coup attempt, attacking King Hassan II of Morocco's Boeing 727 in mid-air, before strafing and bombing a military airfield and the royal palace.", "After the failure of the attempted coup, nearly all F-5 pilots were arrested, and most of them disappeared.", "Another consequence of the failed coup was that the designation system of Moroccan air force units changed from numerical designations to names.", "From then on, the F-5A squadron was known as the Borak squadron.Morocco used its F-5s in the Western Sahara War in reconnaissance and bombing missions.", "Several aircraft were shot down by 9K32 Strela-2 MANPADS, machine-gun fire, and 9K31 Strela-1 (SA-9) and 2K12 Kub (SA-6) self-propelled anti-aircraft systems.", "To counter the SA-6 threat, AN/ALR-66 radar warning receivers were installed on the RF-5As and F-5Bs around 1981.These aircraft were grouped into a newly established dedicated reconnaissance unit, the Erige squadron; one of its main tasks was to track the Polisario Front's surface-to-air missile systems.In the same period, Morocco started receiving 16 F-5Es and four F-5Fs, that had been ordered in 1979 thanks to Saudi financing.", "Deliveries lasted from 1981 to 1983.Shortly after their arrival, the F-5Es were fitted with the same radar warning receivers as the RF-5As and F-5Bs; they also received in-flight refuelling probes.", "Lastly, Moroccan F-5Es could be equipped with electronic and infrared countermeasures pods, that enhanced their survivability against Polisario surface-to-air missiles.", "F-5E/Fs were operated by the Borak and Erige squadrons, where they served together with older F-5 versions, as well as the Chahine squadron.", "During the war in Western Sahara, Moroccan F-5s deployed general-purpose and cluster bombs, unguided rockets, and more rarely AGM-65 Maverick missiles.", "In total, 15 F-5s are confirmed to have been lost in the course of the Western Sahara War.Starting in 1990, Morocco received 12 more F-5Es from the United States, a total of 24 F-5Es having been upgraded to the F-5TIII standard.===Netherlands===RNLAF NF-5B twin-seaterThe Royal Netherlands Air Force (RNLAF) received 75 F-5A single seat fighters and 30 F-5B dual–seat trainers.", "They were license built in Canada by Canadair respectively as NF-5As and Bs in the 1969 CL-226 production line.", "These aircraft equalled the Canadian CF-5A and CF-5D versions with more powerful engines fitted.", "The first NF-5A was handed over in October 1969 at Twenthe Air Base for 313 Squadron acting as Operational Conversion Unit.", "The last aircraft was handed over in March 1972.The NF-5As flew under the Dutch registrations K-3001 / K-3075 and the NF-5Bs under K-4002 / K-4030.They were operational at Twenthe AB (OCU, 313 and 315 Squadrons), Eindhoven AB (314 Squadron) and Gilze-Rijen AB (316 Squadron).During the RNLAF transition to the F-16, the NF-5s and Bs were stored at Gilze-Rijen and Woensdrecht air bases.", "60 aircraft were sold to Turkey, 11 to Greece and 7 to Venezuela.", "Some aircraft have been written off during their operational life due to crashes and some remaining aircraft are displayed in museums or used in technical schools.", "The NF-5As and Bs were operational from 1971 to 1991.===Norway===Norwegian Air Force F-5AThe Royal Norwegian Air Force received 108 Freedom Fighters: 16 RF-5A, 78 F-5A and 14 F-5B.", "The first 64 were received as military aid.", "They were used by six squadrons, the first and last being 336 Squadron receiving the first aircraft in February 1966 (formal handing-over ceremony a month later), and deactivating in August 2000.Three aircraft were kept flying until 2007, serving with Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace for tests in the \"Eye of the Tiger\" program, supporting development of the Norwegian Penguin anti-ship missile.", "The aircraft received under military aid were handed off to Greece and Turkey.", "Of the aircraft bought by the Norwegian government, nine were used in exchange with US authorities for submarines of the .In October 2011 five F-5A single seaters were given to aircraft maintenance schools around the country; including the Skedsmo, Sola, Bodø, and Bardufoss high schools, and the Royal Norwegian Air Force's training center at Kristiansand Airport, Kjevik.", "The aircraft were disassembled at Moss Airport, Rygge, before delivery to the schools.", "Of the ten remaining Norwegian F-5s, eight F-5B two-seaters were still for sale as of 2011, six of which were stored in Norway and two in the United States.", "The two aircraft in the United States had been approved for sale to the American businessman Ross Perot Jr., in 2008, but the deal was blocked by the US government initially.", "However, in 2015, Perot Jr. got permission and subsequently bought the aircraft for significantly below market price, which caused controversy and public criticism of the government of Norway.", "Three survivors are exhibited at the Norwegian Armed Forces Aircraft Collection, two at Norsk Luftfartsmuseum in Bodø and one at Flyhistorisk Museum, Sola, near Stavanger.===Philippines===Philippine Air Force F-5A at Clark Air Base, c. 1982The Philippine Air Force acquired 37 F-5A and F-5B from 1965 to 1998.The F-5A/Bs were used by the 6th Tactical Fighter Squadron (Cobras) of the 5th Fighter Wing and the Blue Diamonds aerobatic team, replacing the F-86F Sabre previously used by 1965 and 1968 respectively.", "The F-5s also underwent an upgrade which equipped it with surplus AN/APQ-153 radars with significant overhaul at the end of the 1970s to stretch their service lives another 15 years.In 2005, the Philippines decommissioned its remaining F-5A/B fleet, including those received from Taiwan and South Korea.===South Korea===The Republic of Korea Air Force (ROKAF) purchased F-5A/Bs in 1965, and it purchased F-5Es in August 1974.KF-5 variants were built by Korean Air under license between 1982 and 1986.The F-5E/Fs and KF-5E/Fs were to be replaced by FA-50s and after 2001, by the plans to eventually field the Korean F-X Phase 3.===Singapore===Korat Air BaseSingapore is an important operator of the F-5E/F variant, first ordering the aircraft in 1976 during a massive expansion of the city-state's armed forces; delivery of this first batch of 18 F-5Es and three F-5Fs was completed by late February 1979, equipping the newly formed-up No.", "144 ''Black Kite'' Squadron at Tengah Air Base.", "At the end of 1979, an order was placed for six more F-5Es, which were delivered by 1981.In 1982, an order for three more F-5Fs was placed, these were forward delivered in September 1983 to RAF Leuchars in Scotland where they were taken over by pilots of the Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF).", "In 1983, the type took over the duties of airborne interception from the Royal Australian Air Force's Mirage IIIOs detachment (rotated between No.", "3 & No.", "75 Squadron RAAF) stationed at ''Tengah''.Another order for six more F-5Es was placed in 1985, these were delivered the same year and would go on to equip the newly formed-up No.", "149 ''Shikra'' Squadron at ''Tengah''.", "The following year, the RSAF placed an order for its final batch of three F-5Fs and five F-5Es, these were delivered in December 1987 and July 1989, respectively.", "In a bid to modernize its air force, the Royal Jordanian Air Force put up seven F-5Es for sale in 1994, these were later acquired by Singapore.From 1990 to 1991, using jigs and toolings purchased from Northrop, Singapore Aircraft Industries (SAI, now ST Aerospace) converted eight existing F-5Es into RF-5E Tigereye variant.", "Subsequently, these were used to reequip No.", "141 ''Merlin'' Squadron, which had traded in their older Hawker Hunter FR.74S for the newer Tigereyes in 1992 and was by then based at Paya Lebar Air Base, after the 144 Squadron had relocated there in 1986.By June 1993, all three squadrons had been relocated to the base, thus consolidating Singapore's F-5E/F operations at ''Paya Lebar''.In 1991, SAI was awarded a contract as the prime contractor to modernize all RSAF F-5E/Fs (including the 7 ex-Jordanian F-5Es); Elbit Systems was the sub-contractor responsible for systems integration.", "Upgrades include a new X band multi-mode radar (the Italian ''FIAR Grifo-F'', with Beyond-visual-range missile and Look-down/shoot-down capabilities), a revamped cockpit with new MIL-STD-1553R databuses, GEC/Ferranti 4510 Head-up display/weapons delivery system, two BAE Systems MED-2067 Multi-function displays, Litton LN-93 INS (similar to the ST Aerospace A-4SU Super Skyhawk) and Hands On Throttle-And-Stick controls (HOTAS) to reduce pilot workload.", "Reportedly, the Elisra SPS2000 radar warning receiver and countermeasure system was also installed.In addition, the starboard M39 20 mm cannon mounted in the nose was removed to make way for additional avionics (the sole cannon on the two-seaters was removed because of this), and to improve maneuverability, upgraded aircraft received larger leading edge root extensions (LERX).", "The process began in March 1996 and was completed by 2001, receiving the new designation of ''F-5S/T''.", "In 1998, the eight RF-5Es also received the upgrades (except for the radar) and were redesignated as ''RF-5S''.", "Each F-5S/T upgraded reportedly cost SGD$6 million.By end of 2009, the type had accumulated more than 170,000 hours of flight time in Singapore service with only two F-5Es being lost in separate accidents (in 1984 and 1991, respectively).", "144 Squadron, the last squadron operating F-5Es, disbanded in September 2015 after the F-5S was retired.===Switzerland===Swiss F-5F with Ericson Vista 5 radar jammerThe Swiss Air Force flies a total of 22 F-5E and 4 F-5F aircraft, down from a peak of 98 and 12 in 1981.They were chosen chiefly because of their excellent performance, suitability for the unique Swiss Air Force mission, and their relatively low maintenance cost per flight hour.It had been expected these aircraft would be replaced by the Saab JAS 39 Gripen, but in May 2014, a referendum by the Swiss people decided against the purchase of the Gripens.For the foreseeable future, the Swiss Air Force will continue to fly its present F-5s.", "There are still plans by the Swiss Air Force and in the Swiss parliament to fly 18 F-5E and four F-5F models.", "This would also include the continued operation of the Patrouille Suisse, in F-5Es until 2018.In September 2020 the Swiss people voted yes in a referendum to get a replacement.", "With 50.1% to 49.9% and only 8670 votes between.The Swiss Air Force has decided to replace the aircraft with 36 F-35As.===Taiwan===The 46th Tactical Fighter Squadron (Aggressor squadron) F-5E 5272 of Republic of China Air Force exhibited on the apron of Zhi-Hang Air BaseThe Republic of China Air Force (ROCAF, Taiwan's air force) received its first batch of seven F-5As and two F-5Bs under the US Military Assistance Program in 1965.By 1971, the ROCAF was operating 72 F-5As and 11 F-5Bs.", "During 1972, the US borrowed 48 ROCAF F-5As to lend to the Republic of Vietnam Air Force before the withdrawal of US forces from Vietnam.", "By 1973, most of those loaned F-5As were not in flying condition, thus the US opted to return 20 F-5As to Taiwan by drawing nine F-5As from US reserves while repairing 11 from South Vietnam.", "An additional 28 new F-5Es were issued to Taiwan by May 1975.By 1973, Taiwan's AIDC started local production of a first batch of 100 F-5Es, the first of six Peace Tiger production batches.", "By end of 1986 when the production line closed after completing Peace Tiger 6, the AIDC had produced 242 F-5Es and 66 F-5Fs.", "Taiwan was the largest operator of the type at one time, having 336 F-5E/Fs in inventory.", "The last batch of AIDC F-5E/Fs featured the F-20's shark nose.With the introduction of 150 F-16s, 60 Mirage 2000-5s and 130 F-CK-1s in the mid-to-late-1990s, the F-5E/F series became second line fighters in ROCAF service and mostly are now withdrawn from service as squadrons converted to new fighters entering ROCAF service.", "Seven low airframe hours F-5Es were sent to ST Aerospace to convert them to RF-5E standard to fulfill a reconnaissance role previously undertaken by the retiring Lockheed RF-104G in ROCAF service.", "As of 2009, only about 40 ROCAF F-5E/Fs still remain in service in training roles with about 90–100 F-5E/Fs held in reserve.", "The other retired F-5E/F are either scrapped, or used as decoys painted in colors representing the main front line F-16, Mirage 2000-5 or F-CK-1 fighters, and deployed around major air bases.Taiwan also tried to upgrade the F-5E/F fleet with AIDC's Tiger 2000/2001 program.", "The first flight took place on 24 July 2002.The program would replace the F-5E/F's radar with F-CK-1's GD-53 radar and allow the fighter to carry a single TC-2 BVRAAM on the centerline.", "But lack of interest from the ROCAF eventually killed the program.", "The only prototype is on display in AIDC in Central Taiwan.On 22 March 2021, two Taiwanese pilots flying F-5E's crashed into each other during a training mission resulting in the third crash within the last six months.", "Two pilots died after the crash.===South Vietnam / Vietnam===RVNAF F-5C Bien Hoa Air Base, 1971RNVAF F-5A after landing at U-Tapao Royal Thai Navy Airfield, 29 April 1975In June 1967, the US donated the surviving aircraft of 10th FCS USAF to South Vietnam.", "The president of South Vietnam had asked the US for F-4 Phantoms, but these were in high demand and the Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) was flying only ground support missions, operating only Douglas A-1 Skyraider attackers at that point.", "In addition, the North Vietnamese Vietnam People's Air Force (VPAF) was not sending aircraft over South Vietnam.", "Hence the RVNAF did not require an aircraft with advanced air to air capabilities (like the F-4).", "A dedicated RVNAF unit was formed – the 522nd Fighter Squadron.248 RVNAF aircraft were flown out of South Vietnam to Thailand during the Fall of Saigon in 1975.At least 25 F-5Es were reclaimed by the US, while one F-5B was transferred to Thailand.", "North Vietnam captured approximately 877 aircraft, of which 87 were reported as F-5As and 27 were F-5Es.In November 1975, the Vietnamese government gave the Soviet military an opportunity to select captured US equipment for research and intelligence purposes.", "A complete F-5, along with two complete spare engines, spare parts, and ground support equipment, were loaded onto a Soviet cargo ship.", "Several other F-5s were later transferred by Vietnam to the USSR, Poland and Czechoslovakia.The VPAF reportedly used 41 F-5s operationally.", "Others were decommissioned and put on display at museums in Vietnam.", "The 935th Fighter Regiment of the VPAF 372nd Air Division became the only unit in the world to simultaneously fly both the MiG-21 and F-5.The type was used for combat by the VPAF, in ground–attack sorties against the Khmer Rouge.Gradually, a lack of critical spare parts in Vietnam caused initially by a US embargo and later by termination of manufacturing and dwindling stocks – grounded the remaining F-5s.", "However, in May 2017 it was reported that the VPAF was considering upgrading particular systems in some retired aircraft, in order to put them back into service.===Venezuela===Venezuela Air Force Northrop (Canadair) VF-5A (CL-226)After a reorganization of the Venezuelan Air Force in the late 1960s, the government realized that it was time to replace its obsolete de Havilland Vampires and Venoms active at that time, as well as the last surviving F-86 Sabres in active duty.", "In 1971, 54 Canadian-built CF-5As were put in storage, after the RCAF could not take them due to budget cuts.", "From this batch, Venezuela acquired 16 CF-5As and two CF-5Ds.", "In 1972, after all the aircraft were delivered, the F-86s, Venoms, and Vampires were finally scrapped.The F-5 became the first military plane in Venezuela capable of flying at supersonic speeds.", "After a legal dispute between Canadair and Northrop, two more CF-5Ds were built and delivered to Venezuela in 1974.Their first base of operations was the General Rafael Urdaneta Air Base in Maracaibo.", "After 1974, the fleet was relocated to Teniente Vicente Landaeta Gil Air Base in Barquisimeto.In 1979, after several upgrades to the fleet's communication, navigation and approximation equipment, the aircraft were renamed VF-5s, designating the CF-5As as VF-5As and the CF-5Ds as VF-5Ds.", "Venezuelan F-5s could also carry weaponry such as the AIM-9 Sidewinder missile, Mk.82 and M117 bombs, and 70mm rocket launchers.In 1991, after tensions between Colombia and Venezuela almost led to a conflict, the air force started yet another modernization program for the F-5s, called \"Proyecto Grifo\" (Project Gryphon).", "Some aircraft (VF-5D number 5681 and VF-5A number 9124) were sent to Singapore for testing, then brought back for upgrade of the remaining airframes.", "That same year, a small fleet of four NF-5Bs and a single NF-5A, was acquired from the Netherlands to replace aircraft lost in previous years.In 1992, during the coup d'état attempt against president Carlos Andres Perez, 3 F-5s were lost to a rebel-operated OV-10 Bronco bombing Barquisimeto Air Base.", "The failed coup delayed the modernization program for a year, finally coming together in 1993.The fleet was equipped with inertial laser navigation systems (similar to those in Venezuelan F-16s), IFFs, HUDs, refueling probes and modernized engines with an estimated lifespan of 22 years.In 2002, small upgrades were made to the remaining F-5s.", "The fleet was kept operational until 2010, when a batch of Hongdu JL-8s was delivered as their replacement.", "By late 2010, it was known that at least one VF-5D was in flight-worthy condition; it is unknown if more aircraft are in operational condition.Between 1972 and 2002, a total of 9 Venezuelan F-5s were lost.===Yemen===In March 1979, following North Yemen's defeat in the Yemenite War of 1979, the United States gave Saudi Arabia the permission to transfer four Northrop F-5B trainers to North Yemen.", "Additionally, Saudi Arabia financed the procurement of twelve F-5E fighters.", "By the end of the year, all 16 aircraft had arrived.", "This did not leave enough time to properly train local pilots and ground crews to operate them.", "Hence, the Saudis agreed with Taiwan to deploy a group of 80 Republic of China Air Force pilots and ground personnel to Sana'a.", "They formed the 112th Squadron of the Yemen Arab Republic Air Force (YARAF), which was also known as the Desert Squadron.", "Most of the Squadron's members were Taiwanese until 1985, by when enough Yemenis were trained on the F-5 to take over their duties.", "However, some Taiwanese personnel remained in the country: in 1990, no less than 700 Taiwanese served in Yemen.", "They were finally withdrawn in 1991, after the Yemeni unification.North Yemeni F-5Es have seen combat during the 1994 civil war.", "On 6 May, two South Yemeni MiG-21s were claimed shot down by Major Nabi Ali Ahmad, using AIM-9 missiles.", "According to South Yemeni sources, only one MiG-21bis was shot down in an air combat, and its pilot killed.", "Reportedly, the North Yemenis subsequently deployed their Tiger IIs for air-to-air combat only.", "On 15 May, two helicopters (probably Mil Mi-8s) were shot down, one of them supposedly by Major Nabi Ali Ahmad.", "On 28 May, an F-5E was shot down by anti-aircraft fire.", "On 20 June, a South Yemeni MiG-21 was shot down over Al Anad Air Base in an air combat with two F-5Es, and its pilot was killed.", "Lastly, on 29 June, an encounter between two YARAF F-5Es and a single South Yemeni MiG-29 was reported.", "However, neither side opened fire.Following the North's victory in the civil war, the F-5 fleet was integrated into the unified Yemeni Air Force.", "However, the number of F-5s in service declined over the years.", "In 2003, there were negotiations with Singapore for the overhaul and upgrade of the remaining aircraft.", "However, nothing came out of it.", "Around 2010, only six aircraft were operational, partly thanks to US aid packages.", "In the night of 29–30 March 2015, at least one F-5B and one F-5E were destroyed on the ground at Sanaa International Airport by Royal Saudi Air Force bombardments, in the first days of the Saudi-led intervention.===Others===Royal Saudi Air Force F-5F taking off during the Gulf War.Saudi Arabia deployed F-5Es during the Gulf War, flying close air support and aerial interdiction missions against Iraqi units in Kuwait.", "One Royal Saudi Air Force F-5E was lost to ground fire on 13 February 1991, resulting in the death of the pilot.AeroGroup, a private commercial company in the US, operates the CF-5B as a fighter lead-in aircraft for training and for other support services.", "There were 17 aircraft originally purchased from the Canadian Government with US State Department approval and then imported into the US in 2006.Since 2013, Tunisian F-5s have been used in strike missions in support of major military offensives in the border region of Mount Chaambi against Ansar al-Sharia and al-Qaeda-linked militants.F-5s were used by the Libyan Air Force at Wheelus Air Base in Tripoli, Libya from 1968 to 1969." ], [ "Variants", "===Single-seat versions===A trio of USAF aggressor squadron F-5Es in formationBrazilian Air Force F-5EM;N-156F: Single-seat fighter prototype.", "Only three aircraft were built.", ";YF-5A: The three prototypes were given the US Air Force designation ''YF-5A''.", ";F-5A: Single-seat fighter version of F-5, originally without radar, but was later equipped with AN/APQ-153 radar during upgrades.", ";F-5A (G): Single-seat fighter version of the F-5A for the Royal Norwegian Air Force.", ";XF-5A: Designation was given to one aircraft used for static tests.", ";A.9: Designation of Spanish Air and Space Force Northrop F-5As.", ";F-5C ''Skoshi Tiger'': Twelve F-5A Freedom Fighters were tested by the US Air Force for four and a half months in Vietnam.", "Modified at Palmdale plant by adding removable, non retractable air-refueling probe on the left side, 90 lb of external armor plates under the cockpit and engine, and jettisonable stores pylons.", ";F-5E Tiger II: Single-seat fighter version with AN/APQ-159, replacing earlier AN/APQ-153.", ";F-5E Tiger IIIChilean Air Force F-5E Tiger III: Upgraded version of the F-5E in use by the Chilean Air Force, with EL/M-2032 radar replacing the original AN/APQ-159 and capable of firing advanced versions of the Python missile;F-5E/F: A single, prototype built for the Swiss Air Force, comprising an F-5E fuselage and tail section, with wings from an F-5F.", "As of 2011, this aircraft was at the Meiringen Air Base Museum.", ";F-5G: The temporary designation given to the Northrop F-20 Tigershark, equipped with General Electric AN/APG-67 radar.", ";F-5N: Ex-Swiss Air Force F-5Es used by the US Navy as an \"aggressor\" aircraft, with AN/APG-69 replacing the original AN/APQ-159.Intended to replace high-time USN/USMC F-5Es in the adversary role, and saw service through 2015.;F-5S: Upgraded version of the F-5E, was in use with the Republic of Singapore Air Force, equipped with the Galileo Avionica's FIAR Grifo-F X-band radar and are capable of firing the AIM-120 AMRAAM.", ";F-5TH Super Tigris: Formerly known as the ''F-5T Tigris'' before being officially redesignated.", "An upgraded version of the F-5E of Royal Thai Air Force by Israel, it is equipped with EL/M-2032, tactical datalink, Sky Shield jamming pod and are capable of firing the beyond visual range air-to-air Derby missile.", ";F-5EM: Upgraded version of the F-5E of Brazilian Air Force equipped with Italian Grifo-F radar.", ";F-5TIII: Upgraded version of the F-5E, in service with the Royal Moroccan Air Force.", ";F-5E Tiger 2000: Upgraded version of Taiwan AIDC, equipped with the GD-53 radar, capable of firing the TC-2 Sky Sword II, MIL-STD-1553B Link and GPS/INS.", "This variant did not enter service as the ROCAF decided to acquire additional F-16s instead to completely replace its F-5E/Fs.===Reconnaissance versions===;RF-5A: Single-seat reconnaissance version of the F-5A fighter.", "Approximately 120 were built.", ";RF-5A (G): Single-seat reconnaissance version of the F-5A fighter for the Royal Norwegian Air Force.", ";RF-5E Tigereye: Single-seat reconnaissance version of the F-5E fighter.", "The RF-5E Tigereye was exported to Saudi Arabia and Malaysia.", ";RF-5E Tigergazer: Seven upgraded single-seat reconnaissance version of the F-5E for Taiwan by ST Aerospace.", ";RF-5S Tigereye: Single-seat reconnaissance version of the F-5S for the Republic of Singapore Air Force.", ";AR-9: Spanish reconnaissance aircraft;B.TKh.18: Thai designation for the RF-5A===Two-seat versions===A Spanish F-5M Freedom Fighter at Dijon Air Base A Bahraini Air Force F-5F on the taxiway at RAF Alconbury;AE.9:Spanish designation of the Northrop F-5B.", ";F-5-21:Temporary designation for the YF-5B.", ";YF-5B:One F-5B was fitted with a 5,000 lbf (2,268 kgf) General Electric J85-GE-21 engine, and used as a prototype for the F-5E Tiger II.", ";F-5B:Two-seat trainer version.", ";F-5B(G):Two-seat trainer version of the F-5B for the Royal Norwegian Air Force.", ";F-5BM:Two-seat trainer version in use by the Spanish Air and Space Force for air combat training.", ";F-5D:Unbuilt trainer version.", ";F-5F Tiger II:Two-seat trainer version of F-5E Tiger II, AN/APQ-167 radar tested, intended to replace AN/APQ-157, but not carried out.", ";F-5F Tiger III:Upgraded trainer version of the F-5F in use by the Chilean Air Force.", ";F-5T:Upgraded F-5F, was in service with the Republic of Singapore Air Force.", ";F-5THF (บ.ข.18 ค):Twin-seat version of F-5TH in service with the Royal Thai Air Force as of May 2020.;F-5FM:Upgraded trainer version of the F-5F for the Brazilian Air Force.===Foreign variants===Canadian Air Force CF-116D====Licensed versions====;CF-5: Fighter versions for the Canadian Forces Air Command built under license by Canadair.", "Its Canadian designation is ''CF-116''.", ";NF-5A: Single-seat fighter version of the CF-5A for the Royal Netherlands Air Force; 75 built.", ";NF-5B: Two-seat training version of the CF-5D for the Royal Netherlands Air Force; 30 built.", ";SF-5A: Single-seat fighter version of the F-5A for the Spanish Air and Space Force; built under license in Spain by CASA.", ";SRF-5A: Single-seat reconnaissance version of the RF-5A for the Spanish Air and Space Force; built under license in Spain by CASA.", ";SF-5B: Two-seat training version of the F-5B for the Spanish Air and Space Force.", "Built under license by CASA in Spain.", ";VF-5A: Single-seat version of the CF-5A for the Venezuelan Air Force.", "This designation was given to some Canadair CF-116s which were sold to the Venezuelan Air Force.", ";VF-5D: Two-seat training version of the CF-5D for the Venezuelan Air Force.", ";KF-5E: F-5E built in South Korea for the Republic of Korea Air Force.", "First introduction: September 1982; 48 built.", ";KF-5F: F-5F built in South Korea for the Republic of Korea Air Force.", "First introduction: September 1982; 20 built.", ";Chung Cheng: F-5E/F built in Taiwan for Republic of China Air Force by AIDC.", "First introduction: 30 October 1974, one day before President Chiang Kai Shek's 88th birthday, and was thus christened \"Chung Cheng\", an alias of President Chiang; 308 built.====Unlicensed versions====Iranian Azarakhsh;Azarakhsh: F-5E built or modified in Iran with unknown changes and mid-wing intakes.", ";Sa'eqeh: F-5E modified in Iran with canted, twin vertical stabilizers.", ";Kowsar: Two-seat F-5F built or modified in Iran.===Derivatives=======F-20 Tigershark====In comparison to later fighters, the improved F-5E had some weaknesses; these included marginal acceleration, rearward visibility, and fuel fraction, and a lack of Beyond Visual Range (BVR) weapons once such radar–guided missiles became reliable during the 1980s.", "The F-5G, later renamed the F-20 Tigershark, aimed to correct these weaknesses while maintaining a small size and low cost to produce a competitive fighter.", "Compared to the F-5E, it had 60% more power, a higher climb rate and acceleration, better cockpit visibility, more modern radar and BVR capability, and competitive performance with fourth generation fighters.", "Like the F-5, it had better cost–effectiveness as it had the minimum necessary features relative to its competition to perform its air superiority mission.", "As an example, in the 1960s and early 1970s, the F-5's lack of BVR missiles was not a significant disadvantage as the kill rate of such missiles was approximately 8% to 10%, and the performance and loss of surprise (radar warning to the enemy) cost of carrying them was not practically justified.", "By the early 1980s, the American AIM-7 Sparrow radar-guided missile in its \"M\" version was realistically exceeding a 60% kill rate, and was integrated onto the F-20.Brigadier General Chuck Yeager, test pilot and the first man to break the sound barrier, referred to the F-20 as \"the finest fighter\".", "Despite its performance and affordable cost, the F-20 lost out for foreign sales against the similarly capable but more expensive F-16, which was being procured in large numbers by the US Air Force and was viewed as having greater support.====Northrop YF-17====The Northrop YF-17's main design elements date from the F-5 based internal Northrop project N-300.The N-300 featured a longer fuselage, small leading-edge root extensions (LERX), and more powerful GE15-J1A1 turbojets.", "The wing was moved higher on the fuselage to increase ordnance flexibility.", "The N-300 further evolved into the P-530 Cobra.", "The P-530's wing planform and nose section was similar to the F-5, with a trapezoidal shape formed by a sweep of 20° at the quarter-chord line, and an unswept trailing edge, but was over double the area.", "While the YF-17 lost its bid for the USAF lightweight fighter, it would be developed into the larger McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet.====Shaped Sonic Boom Demonstration====A single ex-USN F-5E was modified to carry out research into reducing noise from supersonic flight by shaping the shock waves produced by the aircraft." ], [ "Operators", "CF-5 of the Botswana Defence ForceA Honduran Air Force F-5EJordanian F-5E Tiger IIKenya Air Force F-5E Tiger II and a USAF C-5 Galaxy in the backgroundRoyal Moroccan Air Force F-5E Tiger II during an aerial refueling mission in exercise African Lion 2009F-5E Tiger II of the Indonesian Air Force preserved at the Dirgantara Mandala Museum, YogyakartaAn Austrian Air Force F-5E Tiger II with Swiss registration.A Hellenic Air Force F-5AA South Korean Air Force KF-5E takes offA Royal Thai Air Force Northrop F-5E Tiger IITurkish Air Force F-5BA Republic of China Air Force F-5E at Chih Hang Air Force Base;*Bahrain Air Force received eight F-5Es and two F-5Fs in between 1985 and 1987.;*Botswana Air Force purchased 10 upgraded CF-5As and 3 CF-5Ds from Canada in 1996.A further three CF-5A and two CF-5D were purchased in 2000.11 CF-5A and 4 CF-5D were in service as of December 2021.;*Brazilian Air Force purchased 78 F-5s of different variants from 1974.Operates 42 F-5EM and 4 F-5FM as of December 2021, to be withdrawn gradually between 2017 and 2030, replaced by the JAS 39E/F Gripen.", ";*Chilean F-5E Tiger III Plus at the National Aeronautical and Space Museum in ChileChilean Air Force: Chile purchased 15 F-5Es and 3 F-5Fs in the 1970s, these being upgraded to Tiger III standard from 1993.A total of 10 F-5s are in use as of 2009.In March 2013, the Uruguayan Air Force initiated talks for procuring 12 surplus F-5 Tiger III aircraft from Chile for $80 million.", "However, 13 aircraft continue in service with the Chilean Air Force in December 2021.;*Honduran Air Force: The United States delivered 10 F-5E and 2 F-5Fs starting in 1987, as replacements of Dassault Super Mystére, which were reassigned to airstrike as they were in their last years of service.", "The F-5 were refurbished former United States Air Force aircraft.", "Three F-5Es and 2F-5Fs remain in service as of December 2021.;*Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force: 49 F-5E and F operational as of December 2021; Iran originally had received a total of 127 F-5A/B by 1972 which soon began to be phased out/sold to other countries.", "By 1976 Iran had received a total of 181 of the improved F-5E/F/RF-A delivered to the Imperial Iranian Air Force.", "*Unknown numbers of HESA Saeqeh and HESA Azarakhsh fighters derived from the F-5 design.", ";*Kenya Air Force: In July 2008, it was reported that Kenya will spend KSh.1.5 billion/= to buy 15 former Jordanian Air Force F-5s, 13 F-5E and two F-5F upgraded with Rockwell Collins avionics (plus training and spare parts).", "They will be added or eventually replace the existing F-5 fleet.", "Seventeen F-5Es and six F-5Fs remain in service as of December 2021.;*Republic of Korea Air Force: Received a total of 340 F-5s (88 F-5A, 30 F-5B, 8 RF-5A, 126 F-5E, 20 F-5F, 48 KF-5E, and 20 KF-5F).", "During the Vietnam War, 36 F-5As and 8 RF-5As were transferred to the Republic of Vietnam Air Force in exchange of F-4 Phantom II from the United States Air Force.", "5 RF-5As were brought back to Korea before the war ended.", "The last Freedom Fighter retired in 2005, and 8 F-5As were donated to the Philippine Air Force.", "The ROKAF plans to replace the US made F-5E/Fs with 60 new FA-50 aircraft and KAI KF-X.", "156 F-5Es and 29 F-5Fs remain in service as of December 2021.;*Mexican Air Force received 12 F-5s in 1982.They operated eight F-5Es and two F-5F until being retired in 2017.Three Mexican F-5Es and one F-5F were in service as of December 2021.;*Royal Moroccan Air Force operates 12 F-5A/Bs upgraded with Tiger II avionics and 24 upgraded F-5 Tiger III.", "22 F-5Es and 4 F-5Fs remain in service as of December 2021.;*Spanish Air and Space Force operates 19 F-5BM as trainers for fighter school.", "Initially, 70 fighters version A and B were delivered.", ";*Swiss Air Force: Operating 42 F-5E and 12 F-5F Tiger II.", "The F-5 was chosen because it was easier to maintain than the F-16.", ";*Republic of China Air Force: Received 115 F-5A and B from 1965, 48 were transferred to South Vietnam before 1975.From 1973 to 1986, Taiwan produced 308 F-5E/Fs under license.", "Later batches of locally AIDC licensed production of Tiger IIs were fitted with flare/chaff dispensers, plus handling qualities upgrades with enlarged LEX and F-20's shark nose, and radar warning receivers (RWR).", "All F-5s are slated for retirement by 2025, with its current roles assumed by the newly acquired F-16V and T-5.", ";*Royal Thai Air Force: 30 F-5A/B/C retired.", "Now operating about 40 F-5E/F/T, F-5s from 701st Sq.", "retired and replaced by 12 JAS 39 Gripens.", "The last F-5 fleet, upgraded into F-5TH and F-5THF in 211st Sq.", "continue to serve until 2025–2030.", ";*Tunisian Air Force: Eight F-5E and four F-5F Tiger II were delivered in 1984–1985.The TAF received five ex-USAF F-5E in 1989.Eleven F-5Es and 3 F-5Fs were in service as of December 2021.;*Turkish Air Force: More than 200 F-5A/Bs and NF-5A/Bs were bought from various countries.", "Between 40 and 50 of them were upgraded to F-5/2000 standard during the 2000s (decade).", "The F-5/2000 remains active of which 10 F-5A and two F-5Bs belong to the Turkish Stars aerobatic display team.", "On 7 April 2021, a NF-5 crashed during training exercises for the Turkish Stars aerobatic display team in Konya, Turkey.", "The aircraft is planned to be replaced with TAI Hurjet.", ";*Yemeni Air Force: inherited North Yemen's F-5 fleet in 1994.Only half a dozen F-5s were still operational as of the early 2010s.===Former operators===;*Austrian Air Force: On loan from Switzerland – all aircraft returned and replaced by Eurofighter Typhoons.", ";*Canadian Forces – see Canadair CF-5;*Ethiopian Air Force first delivery in 1966; it has operated the A, B, and E variants.", ";*Hellenic Air Force received the first 55 F-5As in 1965.In 1975, 10 aircraft were bought from Iran and later, another 10 followed from Jordan.", "In 1986, nine aircraft were donated by Norway and in 1991, 10 NF-5As were donated by the Netherlands.", "During 1967 and 1968 this type of aircraft was used by the 3rd Hellenic Aerobatic Team \"New Hellenic Flame\".", "The last NF-5As were retired in 2002.;*Indonesian Air Force: Received in 1980, upgraded in Belgium in the middle to late 1990s.", "All 16 F-5E/Fs have been retired since 3 May 2016 per directive from Chief of Indonesian Air Force due to safety issues.", ";*Imperial Iranian Air Force used them until the revolution in 1979.;*Royal Jordanian Air Force – retired in 2015.Replaced by F-16A/B and Hawk Mk 63.Sold 11 to Brazil for $21 million in 2009.;*Royal Libyan Air Force to 1969.10 F-5s.", "May have been sold to Turkey after 1969.;*Royal Malaysian Air Force used 4 F-5F as trainer aircraft while another 16 of its Northrop F-5E Tiger IIs were upgraded for reconnaissance purposes.", ";*Royal Netherlands Air Force: received 75 Canadair-built NF-5A (single-seat fighter version) and 30 NF-5B (two-seat training version) between 7 October 1969 and 20 March 1972.After the aircraft were phased out and replaced by the F-16 Fighting Falcon, the aircraft were initially stored at Gilze-Rijen Air Base and Woensdrecht Air Base, until 60 aircraft were sold to Turkey, 11 to Greece and 7 to Venezuela.", "Several of the remaining aircraft can be found in aviation museums and technical schools.**No.", "313 Squadron; Twenthe Air Base.", "Formed September 1972, transitioned to F-16 in 1987.**No.", "314 Squadron; Eindhoven Air Base.", "Converted from F-84F from June 1970, and was fully equipped in November that year.", "The squadron transitioned to the F-16 in April 1990.**No.", "315 Squadron, Operation Conversion Unit (OCU); Twenthe Air Base (transitioned to F-16 in 1986)**No.", "316 Squadron; Gilze-Rijen Air Base (transitioned to F-16 in 1991)**Field Technic Training Unit NF-5 (1971–1984); Twenthe Air Base;*Yemen Arab Republic Air Force: four F-5B trainers were transferred from Saudi Arabia, and twelve F-5E fighters delivered from the United States (but also paid for by Saudi Arabia) in 1979.Several additional aircraft were later donated by the Saudis as attrition replacements.", "The surviving aircraft were passed on to the reunified Yemeni Air Force in 1994.;*Royal Norwegian Air Force: received a total of 108 F-5A, F-5B and RF-5A from 1966 to 1971.**No.", "332 Squadron; Rygge Air Station.**No.", "334 Squadron; Bodø Air Station.", "Transitioned to F-16 in 1982.**No.", "336 Squadron; Rygge Air Station.", "Operated F-5 until 2000.**No.", "338 Squadron; Ørland Air Station.", "Primary air-to-ground missions.", "Transitioned to F-16 in 1985.**No.", "717 Squadron; Rygge Air Station.", "Reconnaissance squadron.", "Operated RF-5A until 1979.**No.", "718 Squadron; Sola Air Station.", ";*Philippine Air Force received 19 F-5A (single seat) and three F-5B (two seat) aircraft in 1965–1967.In 1989, the PAF received three ex-Taiwanese F-5A and one F-5B.", "In the 1990s, at least eight ex-South Korean F-5A and two Jordanian F-5A were acquired.", "The Philippines decommissioned its F-5A/B fleet in 2005.;*Royal Saudi Air Force: From 1974 to 1985 received a total of 20 F-5Bs, 109 F-5E/Fs and 10 RF-5Es.", ";*Republic of Singapore Air Force: operated 32 F-5S, 9 F-5T and 8 RF-5S fighters in 2011.Mostly retired by 2014 except a few left for training, before retiring all in 2015.;*Republic of Vietnam Air Force received a fleet of 158 former US, South Korean, Iranian, and Taiwanese F-5A Freedom Fighters, 10 RF-5A and eight F-5B trainers, USA also provided newer F-5E Tiger IIs, most of F-5s were evacuated to Thailand in 1975, but many were captured by People's Army.", "** 538th Fighter Squadron, Da Nang AB, F-5A/B Freedom Fighter** 522nd Fighter Squadron, Bien Hoa AB, F-5A/B and RF-5A Freedom Fighter** 536th Fighter Squadron, Bien Hoa AB, F-5A/B Freedom Fighter and F-5E Tiger II** 540th Fighter Squadron, Bien Hoa AB, F-5A Freedom Fighter and F-5E Tiger II** 542nd Fighter Squadron, Bien Hoa AB, F-5A Freedom Fighter** 544th Fighter Squadron, Bien Hoa AB, F-5A Freedom Fighter** 716th Reconnaissance Squadron, Tan Son Nhut AB, RF-5A Freedom Fighter;*F-5Es were received from Vietnam and the Derg regime in Ethiopia for performance tests and evaluation flights.", "They were tested in mock combat against MiG-21 and MiG-23 aircraft, ultimately aiding in the development of the MiG-23MLD and the MiG-29.", ";*Sudanese Air Force: 10 F-5Es and two F-5F were delivered in 1978, One of the F-5Fs was sold to Jordan.", "Further, two F-5s defected to Sudan from Ethiopia during the Ogaden crisis.", ";*United States Air Force**Continental United States-based units***64th Aggressor Squadron (1976–1988) Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada***65th Aggressor Squadron (1975–1989) Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada***425th Tactical Fighter Training Squadron (1973–1989) Luke Air Force Base, Arizona**United States Air Forces Europe (USAFE)***527th Aggressor Squadron (1976–1988) RAF Alconbury, England**Pacific Air Forces (PACAF)***4503rd Tactical Fighter Squadron (October 1965 - April 1966) Bien Hoa AB and Da Nang AB, Republic of Vietnam***10th Fighter Commando Squadron (April 1966 - June 1967)***26th Aggressor Squadron (1977–1988) Clark Air Base, PhilippinesF-5N in service with US Navy aggressor squadron VFC-111*United States Navy**VFC-13**VF-43**VF-45**VFC-111**VF-126**VFA-127**VFC-204*United States Marine Corps**VMFT-401;*Venezuelan Air Force 27 aircraft acquired (16 CF-5As, 4 CF-5Ds, 1 NF-5A, 6 NF-5Bs), 9 lost to accidents.", "The last unit recorded to have flown did it in 2010., all F-5 fleet was retired, and its role is replaced by Hongdu K-8W.", ";*Vietnam People's Air Force (several captured ex-RVNAF aircraft).", "One F-5E (s/n 73-00867) was transferred to the Soviet Union for evaluation flights, i.e.", "against the MiG-21bis; 40+ F-5E/F/C were in VNAF's service.", "After the Vietnam War, Vietnamese forces used the captured F-5 fleet against Chinese forces during Sino-Vietnamese War." ], [ "Aircraft on display", "===Brazil===;F-5B*FAB-4805 - Brazilian Air Force - Santa Cruz Air Force Base, Rio de Janeiro;F-5E*FAB-4879 - Brazilian Air Force - CINDACTA II, Curitiba===Czech Republic===;F-5E*73-00878 (Vietnam Air Force) – Prague Aviation Museum, Kbely, Prague===Greece===;F-5A*65-10541 – Hellenic Air Force Museum*68-9071 – Athens War Museum*69–132 – Hellenic Air Force Museum*13-353 – Thessaloniki War Museum;RF-5A*69-7170 – Hellenic Air Force Museum===Indonesia===Indonesian Air Force F-5E Tiger II of the Skadron Udara 14 at Dirgantara Mandala Museum Yogyakarta;F-5E* TS-0501 - Tri Matra Monument, Tanjungpinang, Riau Islands.", "Formerly at Adisutjipto Air Force Base* TS-0502 - Ade Irma Suryani Nasution Traffic Park, Bandung, West Java* TS-0503 - Dirgantara Mandala Museum, Sleman Regency, Special Region of Yogyakarta* TS-0508 - Indonesian Air Force Academy, Sleman Regency, Special Region of Yogyakarta* TS-0509 - As gate guardian at Iswahyudi Air Force Base, Magetan, East Java* TS-0510 - In front of Indonesian National Air Defense Forces Command, Halim Perdanakusuma International Airport, East Jakarta, Jakarta* TS-0511 - SMA Pradita Dirgantara high school, Boyolali Regency, Central Java* TS-0512 - Indonesian Air Force Command and Staff College, West Bandung Regency, West Java;F-5F* TS-0513 - Madiun Regency Plaza, Madiun Regency, East Java* TS-0515 - Third Air Force Operations Command Headquarters, Biak Numfor Regency, Papua===Iran===F-5E \"3-7107\" on static display Tehran, Iran;F-5E*3-7107 - Museum of the Islamic Revolution and the Holy Defense===Mexico===F-5F Tiger II of the Mexican Air Force preserved at the Mexican Air Force Museum.", ";F-5E*FAM-4505 - Mexican Air Force Museum===Norway===;F-5A*66-9207 - Western Museum of Flight*68-9102 - Norwegian Aviation Museum*69-7134 - Norwegian Aviation Museum*AH-M - Sola Aviation Museum*594 - Norwegian Armed Forces Aircraft Collection===Philippines===;F-5A*64-13326 - Philippine Air Force Museum, Pasay*65-10499/FA-499 - Basa Air Base, Pampanga*65-10507 - Clark Air Base, Pampanga*65-21177 - Camp Cape Bojeador, Burgos Ilocos Norte*38389 - Air Power Park, Philippine Military Academy, Baguio City, Philippines.", ";F-5B*40780 - Clark Air Base, Pampanga.", "Ex-RoCAF \"1117\"===Poland===;F-5E*73-00852 (R1033) (Vietnam Air Force) – Polish Aviation Museum, Kraków===Singapore===;F-5S*At Singapore Air Force Museum===Spain===;F-5BM*AR9-053 – Elder Museum of Science and Technology, Gran Canaria===Switzerland===J-3096 outside Flieger Flab Museum, in Patrouille Suisse paint;F-5E*J-3096 Gate Guard as \"J-3013\" in Patrouille Suisse paint at the Flieger-Flab-Museum*J-3098 at the Flieger-Flab-Museum*J-3099 Gate Guard as \"J-3008\" at Meiringen Air Base;F-5F*J-3202 at the Flieger-Flab-Museum===Thailand===F-5B in Royal Thai Air Force Museum, the first F-5B producedRTAF F-5E at Royal Thai Air Force Museum;F-5A*97158 - Royal Thai Air Force Museum;F-5B*38438 - Royal Thai Air Force Museum, the first F-5B produced*01603 - Wing 23 gate Udon Thani International Airport;F-5E*21134 - Royal Thai Air Force Museum===Turkey===;F-5A*14460 – Istanbul Aviation Museum;NF-5A*3022/22 – Istanbul Aviation Museum*3070/3-070 – Istanbul Aviation Museum;RF-5A*97147/5-147 – Istanbul Aviation Museum===United States===;YF-5A*59-4987 – Museum of Flight at Boeing Field in Seattle, Washington*59-4989 – National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB near Dayton, Ohio;F-5A*66-9207 – Western Museum of Flight in Torrance, California;F-5B*63-8447 - Phillip and Patricia Frost Museum of Science, Miami, Florida.", "Formerly on display at Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum at the former Chanute AFB, Rantoul, Illinois.", "Displayed completely covered in chrome.", "*72-0441 – Pima Air and Space Museum, adjacent to Davis-Monthan AFB in Tucson, Arizona;F-5E*72-1387 – Pacific Coast Air Museum, Santa Rosa, California*73-01640 Hill Aerospace Museum, Ogden, Utah*74-1556, Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum in McMinnville, Oregon; on loan from the National Museum of Naval Aviation.", "Carries the colors of a United States Air Force aggressor.", "*74-1558, later US Navy 741558 – Fort Worth Aviation Museum, Fort Worth, Texas*74-1564, later US Navy/US Marine Corps 741564 – Flying Leatherneck Aviation Museum at MCAS Miramar in San Diego, California*74-1571 – Nellis Air Force Base, Las Vegas, Nevada.", "Carries the markings of the 57th Fighter Weapons Wing, with Bort Code 65.", "*141540 - Marine F-5E Aggressor, at Hickory Aviation Museum===Vietnam===;F-5A* 66-9170 – War Remnants Museum, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam;F-5E* 73-01638 – Independence Palace, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam" ], [ "Specifications (F-5E Tiger II)", "3-view drawing of F-5E Tiger IIM39A2 cannon in the right side of the nose of an F-5EF-5 external fuel tank cutviewCockpit of a Norwegian F-5A" ], [ "Notable appearances in media" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * Crosby, Francis.", "''Fighter Aircraft''.", "London: Lorenz Books, 2002..* \"Directory:World Air Forces\".", "''Flight International'', 15–21 December 2009.pp. 33–53.", "* Dorr, Robert F. and David Donald.", "''Fighters of the United States Air Force''.", "London: Aerospace Publishing, 1990..* Eden, Paul, ed.", "\"Northrop F-5 family\".", "''Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft''.", "London: Amber Books, 2004..* Ford, Daniel.", "\"First Freedoms: Pictorial Tribute to the Ground-breaking Northrop YF-5A\".", "''Air Enthusiast'' 105, May/June 2003, pp. 8–12.", "* * * * Gordon, Yefim.", "''Mikoyan Mig-21''.", "Hersham, Surrey, UK: Ian Allan Publishing, 2008..* Hammond, Grant T. ''The Mind of War: John Boyd and American Security''.", "Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2001..* * Hobson, Chris.", "''Vietnam Air Losses, United States Air Force, Navy and Marine Corps Fixed-Wing Aircraft Losses in Southeast Asia 1961–1973.''", "2001, Midland Publishing.", ".", "* * Jenkins, Dennis R. and Tony R. Landis.", "''Experimental & Prototype U.S. Air Force Jet Fighters.''", "North Branch, Minnesota, USA: Specialty Press, 2008..* * Knaack, Marcelle Size.", "''Encyclopedia of U.S. Air Force Aircraft and Missile Systems: Volume 1, Post-World War II Fighters, 1945–1973''.", "Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1978..* Knott, Chris and Tim Spearman.", "\"Photo Report:Botswana Defence Force\".", "''International Air Power Review'', Volume 9, Summer 2003, pp.", "76–79.Norwalk, Connecticut, USA: AIRtime Publishing.", ".", ".", "* * * Pace, Steve.", "''X-Fighters: USAF Experimental and Prototype Fighters, XP-59 to YF-23''.", "St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1991..* * Scutts, Jerry.", "''Northrop F-5/F-20''.", "London: Ian Allan, 1986..* Shaw, Robbie.", "''F-5: Warplane for the World''.", "St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1990..* Sprey, Pierre.", "\"Comparing the Effectiveness of Air-to-Air Fighters: F-86 to F-18\" , April 1982.", "* * * * Toperczer, Istvan.", "''MiG-21 Units of the Vietnam War.''", "Osprey 2001, No.", "29..* Van Gent, C.J.", "''De Northrop NF-5: De geschiedenis van de NF-5 in Nederland''.", "Alkmaar, Netherlands: Uitgeverij De Alk, 1992..* * Wilson, David.", "''Seek and Strike: 75 Squadron RAAF 1942–2002.''", "Maryborough, Australia: Banner, 2002..* Yeager, Chuck and Leo Janos.", "''Yeager: An Autobiography''.", "New York: Bantam, 1985.." ], [ "External links", "* U.S. Navy Fact File on F-5N/F adversary aircraft * F-5 Tiger page on Northrop Grumman site * F-5 page at the USAF National Museum of the United States Air Force site" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "FDR (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''FDR''', or Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882–1945), was president of the United States from 1933 to 1945.", "'''FDR''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Entertainment", "* ''FDR'' (video game), a 1996 computer game* Fan Death Records, an American record label* Franklin Delano Romanowski, a character from the television show ''Seinfeld''* Freedomain Radio, a podcast" ], [ "Politics", "* Foundation for Democratic Reforms, an Indian think tank* '''' (Revolutionary Democratic Front), a political organization in El Salvador* '''' (People's Democratic Front (Indonesia)), a defunct political party in Indonesia * ''Front pour la démocratie et la république'' (Front for Democracy and the Republic), a political coalition in Mali* Finnish Democratic Republic, Soviet puppet state in Finland during the Winter War (1939–1940)" ], [ "Technology", "* False discovery rate, in statistics* FDR (software), for checking formal models* Firearm discharge residue, or gunshot residue* Flight data recorder of an aircraft* A signaling rate used in InfiniBand* Electrical frequency disturbance recorder, an FNET sensor* Full depth recycling, repaving by recycling material" ], [ "Other uses", "* FDR Drive, a road in New York City* FDR, stage name of Felix McTeigue, American musician* ''Fluid Dynamics Research'', a scholarly journal* Fonciere des Regions, a French holding company* FDR, IATA code for Frederick Regional Airport in Oklahoma" ], [ "See also", "* Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr. or FDR Jr. (1914–1988), American politician, son of Franklin D. Roosevelt* Franklin Delano Roosevelt III or FDR III (born 1938), American economist, son of Franklin D. Roosevelt Jr" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fresco" ], [ "Introduction", "''The Creation of Adam'', a detail of the fresco Sistine Chapel ceiling by Michelangelo'''Fresco''' ( or '''frescoes''') is a technique of mural painting executed upon freshly laid (\"wet\") lime plaster.", "Water is used as the vehicle for the dry-powder pigment to merge with the plaster, and with the setting of the plaster, the painting becomes an integral part of the wall.", "The word ''fresco'' () is derived from the Italian adjective ''fresco'' meaning \"fresh\", and may thus be contrasted with fresco-secco or secco mural painting techniques, which are applied to dried plaster, to supplement painting in fresco.", "The fresco technique has been employed since antiquity and is closely associated with Italian Renaissance painting.The word ''fresco'' is commonly and inaccurately used in English to refer to any wall painting regardless of the plaster technology or binding medium.", "This, in part, contributes to a misconception that the most geographically and temporally common wall painting technology was the painting into wet lime plaster.", "Even in apparently ''buon fresco'' technology, the use of supplementary organic materials was widespread, if underrecognized." ], [ "Technology", "Etruscan fresco.", "Detail of two dancers from the Tomb of the Triclinium in the Necropolis of Monterozzi 470 BC, Tarquinia, Lazio, Italy''Buon fresco'' pigment is mixed with room temperature water and is used on a thin layer of wet, fresh plaster, called the intonaco (after the Italian word for plaster).", "Because of the chemical makeup of the plaster, a binder is not required, as the pigment mixed solely with the water will sink into the intonaco, which itself becomes the medium holding the pigment.", "The pigment is absorbed by the wet plaster; after a number of hours, the plaster dries in reaction to air: it is this chemical reaction which fixes the pigment particles in the plaster.The chemical processes are as follows:* calcination of limestone in a lime kiln: CaCO3 → CaO + CO2* slaking of quicklime: CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2* setting of the lime plaster: Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2ORoman fresco of a young man from the Villa di Arianna, Stabiae, 1st century AD.In painting ''buon fresco'', a rough underlayer called the ''arriccio'' is added to the whole area to be painted and allowed to dry for some days.", "Many artists sketched their compositions on this underlayer, which would never be seen, in a red pigment called sinopia, a name also used to refer to these under-paintings.", "Later,new techniques for transferring paper drawings to the wall were developed.", "The main lines of a drawing made on paper were pricked over with a point, the paper held against the wall, and a bag of soot (''spolvero'') banged on them to produce black dots along the lines.", "If the painting was to be done over an existing fresco, the surface would be roughened to provide better adhesion.", "On the day of painting, the intonaco, a thinner, smooth layer of fine plaster was added to the amount of wall that was expected to be completed that day, sometimes matching the contours of the figures or the landscape, but more often just starting from the top of the composition.", "This area is called the ''giornata'' (\"day's work\"), and the different day stages can usually be seen in a large fresco, by a faint seam that separates one from the next.", "''Buon frescoes'' are difficult to create because of the deadline associated with the drying plaster.", "Generally, a layer of plaster will require ten to twelve hours to dry; ideally, an artist would begin to paint after one hour and continue until two hours before the drying time—giving seven to nine hours' working time.", "Once a ''giornata'' is dried, no more ''buon fresco'' can be done, and the unpainted intonaco must be removed with a tool before starting again the next day.", "If mistakes have been made, it may also be necessary to remove the whole intonaco for that area—or to change them later, ''a secco''.An indispensable component of this process is the carbonatation of the lime, which fixes the colour in the plaster ensuring durability of the fresco for future generations.A technique used in the popular frescoes of Michelangelo and Raphael was to scrape indentations into certain areas of the plaster while still wet to increase the illusion of depth and to accent certain areas over others.", "The eyes of the people of the School of Athens are sunken-in using this technique which causes the eyes to seem deeper and more pensive.", "Michelangelo used this technique as part of his trademark 'outlining' of his central figures within his frescoes.In a wall-sized fresco, there may be ten to twenty or even more ''giornate'', or separate areas of plaster.", "After five centuries, the ''giornate'', which were originally nearly invisible, have sometimes become visible, and in many large-scale frescoes, these divisions may be seen from the ground.", "Additionally, the border between giornate was often covered by an ''a secco'' painting, which has since fallen off.One of the first painters in the post-classical period to use this technique was the Isaac Master (or Master of the Isaac fresco, and thus a name used to refer to the unknown master of a particular painting) in the Upper Basilica of Saint Francis in Assisi.", "A person who creates fresco is called a frescoist." ], [ "Other types of wall painting", "Fresco by Giotto, Scrovegni Chapel in Padua.", "Sky and blue mantle of Maria were painted ''a secco'', and large part of the painting is now lostA secco or fresco-secco painting is done on dry plaster (''secco'' meaning \"dry\" in Italian).", "The pigments thus require a binding medium, such as egg (tempera), glue or oil to attach the pigment to the wall.", "It is important to distinguish between ''a secco'' work done '''on top''' of ''buon fresco'', which according to most authorities was in fact standard from the Middle Ages onwards, and work done entirely ''a secco'' on a blank wall.", "Generally, ''buon fresco'' works are more durable than any ''a secco'' work added on top of them, because ''a secco'' work lasts better with a roughened plaster surface, whilst true fresco should have a smooth one.", "The additional ''a secco'' work would be done to make changes, and sometimes to add small details, but also because not all colours can be achieved in true fresco, because only some pigments work chemically in the very alkaline environment of fresh lime-based plaster.", "Blue was a particular problem, and skies and blue robes were often added ''a secco'', because neither azurite blue nor lapis lazuli, the only two blue pigments then available, works well in wet fresco.It has also become increasingly clear, thanks to modern analytical techniques, that even in the early Italian Renaissance painters quite frequently employed ''a secco'' techniques so as to allow the use of a broader range of pigments.", "In most early examples this work has now entirely vanished, but a whole painting done ''a secco'' on a surface roughened to give a key for the paint may survive very well, although damp is more threatening to it than to ''buon fresco''.A third type called a ''mezzo-fresco'' is painted on nearly dry intonaco—firm enough not to take a thumb-print, says the sixteenth-century author Ignazio Pozzo—so that the pigment only penetrates slightly into the plaster.", "By the end of the sixteenth century this had largely displaced ''buon fresco'', and was used by painters such as Gianbattista Tiepolo or Michelangelo.", "This technique had, in reduced form, the advantages of ''a secco'' work.The three key advantages of work done entirely ''a secco'' were that it was quicker, mistakes could be corrected, and the colours varied less from when applied to when fully dry—in wet fresco there was a considerable change.For wholly ''a secco'' work, the intonaco is laid with a rougher finish, allowed to dry completely and then usually given a key by rubbing with sand.", "The painter then proceeds much as he or she would on a canvas or wood panel." ], [ "History", "Reproduction of the earliest known fresco, Tomb 100, Hierakonpolis, Naqada II culture, Egypt ()''Investiture of Zimri-Lim'', Syria, fresco painted Minoan Bronze Age fresco from Akrotiri, on the Aegean island of Santorini (classically Thera), dated to the Neo-Palatial period ().", "The settlement of Akrotiri was buried in volcanic ash (dated by radiocarbon dating to ) by the Minoan eruption on the island, which preserved many Minoan frescoes like thisEtruscan fresco of Velia Velcha from the Tomb of Orcus, Tarquinia=== Egypt and Ancient Near East ===The first known Egyptian fresco was found in Tomb 100 at Hierakonpolis, and dated to .", "Several of the themes and designs visible in the fresco are otherwise known from other Naqada II objects, such as the Gebel el-Arak Knife.", "It shows the scene of a \"Master of Animals\", a man fighting against two lions, individual fighting scenes, and Egyptian and foreign boats.", "Ancient Egyptians painted many tombs and houses, but those wall paintings are not frescoes.An old fresco from Mesopotamia is the ''Investiture of Zimri-Lim'' (modern Syria), dating from the early 18th century BC.=== Aegean civilizations ===The oldest frescoes done in the ''buon fresco'' method date from the first half of the second millennium BCE during the Bronze Age and are to be found among Aegean civilizations, more precisely Minoan art from the island of Crete and other islands of the Aegean Sea.", "The most famous of these, the ''Bull-Leaping Fresco'', depicts a sacred ceremony in which individuals jump over the backs of large bulls.", "The oldest surviving Minoan frescoes are found on the island of Santorini (classically known as Thera), dated to the Neo-Palatial period ().While some similar frescoes have been found in other locations around the Mediterranean basin, particularly in Egypt and Morocco, their origins are subject to speculation.", "Some art historians believe that fresco artists from Crete may have been sent to various locations as part of a trade exchange, a possibility which raises to the fore the importance of this art form within the society of the times.", "The most common form of ''fresco'' was Egyptian wall paintings in tombs, usually using the ''a secco'' technique.===Classical antiquity===Fresco of \"Sappho\" from Pompeii, Frescoes were also painted in ancient Greece, but few of these works have survived.", "In southern Italy, at Paestum, which was a Greek colony of the Magna Graecia, a tomb containing frescoes dating back to 470 BC, the so-called Tomb of the Diver, was discovered in June 1968.These frescoes depict scenes of the life and society of ancient Greece, and constitute valuable historical testimonials.", "One shows a group of men reclining at a symposium, while another shows a young man diving into the sea.", "Etruscan frescoes, dating from the 4th century BC, have been found in the Tomb of Orcus near Veii, Italy.Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak frescoes, 4th century BCThe richly decorated Thracian frescoes of the Tomb of Kazanlak are dating back to 4th century BC, making it a UNESCO protected World Heritage Site.View of a woman's face in the central chamber of the Ostrusha mound built in the 4th century BC in BulgariaRoman wall paintings, such as those at the magnificent Villa dei Misteri (1st century BC) in the ruins of Pompeii, and others at Herculaneum, were completed in ''buon fresco.", "''Roman (Christian) frescoes from the 1st to 2nd centuries AD were found in catacombs beneath Rome, and Byzantine icons were also found in Cyprus, Crete, Ephesus, Cappadocia, and Antioch.", "Roman frescoes were done by the artist painting the artwork on the still damp plaster of the wall, so that the painting is part of the wall, actually colored plaster.Also a historical collection of Ancient Christian frescoes can be found in the Churches of Göreme.===India===Fresco from the Ajanta Caves built and painted during the Gupta Empire in the 6th century ADThanks to large number of ancient rock-cut cave temples, valuable ancient and early medieval frescoes have been preserved in more than 20 locations of India.The frescoes on the ceilings and walls of the Ajanta Caves were painted between and are the oldest known frescoes in India.", "They depict the Jataka tales that are stories of the Buddha's life in former existences as Bodhisattva.", "The narrative episodes are depicted one after another although not in a linear order.", "Their identification has been a core area of research on the subject since the time of the site's rediscovery in 1819.Other locations with valuable preserved ancient and early medieval frescoes include Bagh Caves, Ellora Caves, Sittanavasal, Armamalai Cave, Badami Cave Temples and other locations.", "Frescoes have been made in several techniques, including tempera technique.The later Chola paintings were discovered in 1931 within the circumambulatory passage of the Brihadisvara Temple in India and are the first Chola specimens discovered.Researchers have discovered the technique used in these frescos.", "A smooth batter of limestone mixture was applied over the stones, which took two to three days to set.", "Within that short span, such large paintings were painted with natural organic pigments.During the Nayak period, the Chola paintings were painted over.", "The Chola frescos lying underneath have an ardent spirit of saivism expressed in them.", "They probably synchronised with the completion of the temple by Rajaraja Cholan the Great.The frescoes in Dogra/ Pahari style paintings exist in their unique form at Sheesh Mahal of Ramnagar (105 km from Jammu and 35 km west of Udhampur).", "Scenes from epics of Mahabharat and Ramayan along with portraits of local lords form the subject matter of these wall paintings.", "Rang Mahal of Chamba (Himachal Pradesh) is another site of historic Dogri fresco with wall paintings depicting scenes of ''Draupti Cheer Haran'', and ''Radha- Krishna Leela''.", "This can be seen preserved at National Museum at New Delhi in a chamber called ''Chamba Rang Mahal''.During the Mughal Era, frescos were used for making interior design on walls and inside the ceilings of domes.The ceiling of Begum Shahi mosque in Lahore with Mughal style frescos===Sri Lanka===Sigiriya Fresco, Sri Lanka.", "Frescos in the Monastery of Saint Moses the Abyssinian, SyriaThe Sigiriya Frescoes are found in Sigiriya in Sri Lanka.", "Painted during the reign of King Kashyapa I (ruled 477 – 495 AD).", "The generally accepted view is that they are portrayals of women of the royal court of the king depicted as celestial nymphs showering flowers upon the humans below.", "They bear some resemblance to the Gupta style of painting found in the Ajanta Caves in India.", "They are, however, far more enlivened and colorful and uniquely Sri Lankan in character.", "They are the only surviving secular art from antiquity found in Sri Lanka today.The painting technique used on the Sigiriya paintings is \"fresco lustro\".", "It varies slightly from the pure fresco technique in that it also contains a mild binding agent or glue.", "This gives the painting added durability, as clearly demonstrated by the fact that they have survived, exposed to the elements, for over 1,500 years.Located in a small sheltered depression a hundred meters above ground only 19 survive today.", "Ancient references, however, refer to the existence of as many as five hundred of these frescoes.===Middle Ages===Interior view with the frescoes dating back to 1259, Boyana Church in Sofia, UNESCO World Heritage List landmark.Pantocrator from Sant Climent de Taüll, in MNAC BarcelonaMyrrhbearers on Christ's Grave, c 1235 AD, Mileševa monastery in SerbianThe late Medieval period and the Renaissance saw the most prominent use of fresco, particularly in Italy, where most churches and many government buildings still feature fresco decoration.", "This change coincided with the reevaluation of murals in the liturgy.", "Romanesque churches in Catalonia were richly painted in 12th and 13th century, with both decorative and educational—for the illiterate faithfuls—roles, as can be seen in the MNAC in Barcelona, where is kept a large collection of Catalan romanesque art.", "In Denmark too, church wall paintings or ''kalkmalerier'' were widely used in the Middle Ages (first Romanesque, then Gothic) and can be seen in some 600 Danish churches as well as in churches in the south of Sweden, which was Danish at the time.One of the rare examples of Islamic fresco painting can be seen in Qasr Amra, the desert palace of the Umayyads in the 8th century Magotez.===Early modern Europe===Fresco painting continued into the Baroque in southern Europe, for churches and especially palaces.", "Gianbattista Tiepolo was arguably the last major exponent of this tradition, with huge schemes for palaces in Madrid and Würzburg in Germany.Northern Romania (historical region of Moldavia) boasts about a dozen painted monasteries, completely covered with frescos inside and out, that date from the last quarter of the 15th century to the second quarter of the 16th century.", "The most remarkable are the monastic foundations at Voroneţ (1487), Arbore (1503), Humor (1530), and Moldoviţa (1532).", "Suceviţa, dating from 1600, represents a late return to the style developed some 70 years earlier.", "The tradition of painted churches continued into the 19th century in other parts of Romania, although never to the same extent.Henri Clément Serveau produced several frescos including a three by six meter painting for the ''Lycée de Meaux'', where he was once a student.", "He directed the ''École de fresques'' at , and decorated the ''Pavillon du Tourisme'' at the 1937 (Paris), ''Pavillon de la Ville de Paris''; now at Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris.", "In 1954 he realized a fresco for the Cité Ouvrière du Laboratoire Débat, Garches.", "He also executed mural decorations for the ''Plan des anciennes enceintes de Paris'' in the Musée Carnavalet.The Foujita chapel in Reims completed in 1966, is an example of modern frescos, the interior being painted with religious scenes by the School of Paris painter Tsuguharu Foujita.", "In 1996, it was designated an historic monument by the French government.===Mexican muralism===José Clemente Orozco, Fernando Leal, David Siqueiros and Diego Rivera the famous Mexican artists, renewed the art of fresco painting in the 20th century.", "Orozco, Siqueiros, Rivera and his wife Frida Kahlo contributed more to the history of Mexican fine arts and to the reputation of Mexican art in general than anybody else.", "Channeling pre-Columbian Mexican artworks including the true frescoes at Teotihuacan, Orozco, Siqueiros, River and Fernando Leal established the art movement known as ''Mexican Muralism''.===Contemporary===There have been comparatively few frescoes created since the 1960s but there are some significant exceptions.The American artist, Brice Marden's monochrome works first shown in 1966 at Bykert Gallery, New York were inspired by frescos and \"watching masons plastering stucco walls.\"", "While Marden employed the imagistic effects of fresco, David Novros was developing a 50-year practice around the technique.", "David Novros is an American painter and a muralist of geometric abstraction.", "In 1968 Donald Judd commissioned Novros to create a work at 101 Spring Street, New York, NY soon after he had purchased the building.", "Novros used medieval techniques to create the mural by \"first preparing a full-scale cartoon, which he transferred to the wet plaster using the traditional pouncing technique,\" the act of passing powdered pigment onto the plaster through tiny perforations in a cartoon.", "The surface unity of the fresco was important to Novros in that the pigment he used bonded with the drying plaster, becoming part of the wall rather than a surface coating.", "This site-specific work was Novros's first true fresco, which was restored by the artist in 2013.The American painter, James Hyde first presented frescoes in New York at the Esther Rand Gallery, Thompkins Square Park in 1985.At that time Hyde was using true fresco technique on small panels made of cast concrete arranged on the wall.", "Throughout the next decade Hyde experimented with multiple rigid supports for the fresco plaster including composite board and plate glass.", "In 1991 at John Good Gallery in New York City, Hyde debuted true fresco applied on an enormous block of Styrofoam.", "Holland Cotter of the New York Times described the work as \"objectifying some of the individual elements that have made modern paintings paintings.\"", "While Hyde's work \"ranges from paintings on photographic prints to large-scale installations, photography, and abstract furniture design\" his frescoes on Styrofoam have been a significant form of his work since the 1980s.The frescoes have been shown throughout Europe and the United States.", "In ArtForum David Pagel wrote, \"like ruins from some future archaeological dig, Hyde's nonrepresentational frescoes on large chunks of Styrofoam give suggestive shape to the fleeting landscape of the present.\"", "Over its long history, practitioners of frescoes always took a careful methodological approach.", "Hyde's frescoes are done improvisationally.", "The contemporary disposability of the Styrofoam structure contrast the permanence of the classical fresco technique.", "In 1993, Hyde mounted four automobile sized frescoes on Styrofoam suspended from a brick wall.", "Progressive Insurance commissioned this site-specific work for the monumental 80- foot atrium in their headquarters in Cleveland, Ohio." ], [ "Selected examples of frescoes", "''Virgin and Unicorn (A Virgin with a Unicorn)'', Palazzo Farnese by Domenichino ''The Wounded Angel'', Tampere Cathedral by Hugo Simberg (1873–1917)Fernando Leal, ''Miracles of the Virgin of Guadalupe'', Fresco Mexico CityPrometheus'', Pomona College by José Clemente Orozco 1930=== Ancient and Early Medieval ===* Ancient Aegean frescoes* Etruscan tomb frescoes* Frescoes of Pompeii* Frescoes from the Roman catacombs (see also Early Christian art and architecture)* Castelseprio=== Bulgaria ===* Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Sofia* Bachkovo Monastery* Boyana Church* Church of St. George, Sofia* Rila Monastery* Rock-hewn Churches of Ivanovo* Roman Tomb (Silistra)* Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak* Thracian tomb of Aleksandrovo* Transfiguration Monastery=== Colombia ===* Santiago Martinez Delgado frescoed a mural in the Colombian Congress Building, and also in the Colombian National Building.=== Czechia ===* Rotunda of Saint Catherine in Znojmo=== France ===* Saint-Esprit, Paris=== Italy ======= Late Medieval-Quattrocento ====* Panels (including Giotto(?", "), Lorenzetti, Martini and others) in upper and lower Basilica of San Francesco d'Assisi* Giotto, Cappella degli Scrovegni (Arena Chapel), Padua* ''Camposanto'', Pisa* Masaccio, Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence* Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Palazzo Pubblico, Siena* Piero della Francesca, Chiesa di San Francesco, Arezzo* Ghirlandaio, ''Cappella Tornabuoni'', Santa Maria Novella, Florence* ''The Last Supper'', Leonardo da Vinci, Milan (technically a tempera on plaster and stone, not a true fresco)* Sistine Chapel Wall series: Botticelli, Perugino, Rossellini, Signorelli, and Ghirlandaio* Luca Signorelli, Chapel of San Brizio, Duomo, Orvieto==== High Renaissance ====* Michelangelo, Sistine Chapel ceiling* Raphael, Raphael Rooms* Raphael, Villa Farnesina* Giulio Romano's Palazzo del Tè, Mantua* Mantegna, Camera degli Sposi, Palazzo Ducale, Mantua* The dome of the Florence Cathedral* The Loves of the Gods, Annibale Carracci, Palazzo Farnese, Rome* Allegory of Divine Providence and Barberini Power, Pietro da Cortona, Palazzo Barberini* Ceilings, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, (New Residenz) Würzburg, (Royal Palace) Madrid, (Villa Pisani) Stra, and others; Wall scenes (Villa Valmarana and Palazzo Labia)* Nave ceiling, Andrea Pozzo, Sant'Ignazio, Rome=== Mexico ===* Fresco Cycle of The Miracles of the Virgin of Guadalupe by Fernando Leal, at Basilica of Guadalupe, Mexico City* Fresco Cycle of Bolivar's Epic by Fernando Leal, at Colegio de San Ildefonso, Mexico City: ''Fresco cycle, a series of frescos done about a particular subject''=== Serbian Medieval ===* Visoki Dečani* Gračanica monastery* Studenica monastery* Mileševa monastery=== United States ===* ''Prometheus'' in Pomona College's Frary Dining Hall.", "Painted in 1930 by José Clemente Orozco, it is the first example of a modern, Mexican fresco mural in the U.S.* St. Ann Arts and Cultural Center in Woonsocket, RI.", "Home of the largest collection of fresco paintings in North America." ], [ "Conservation of frescoes", "The climate and environment of Venice has proved to be a problem for frescoes and other works of art in the city for centuries.", "The city is built on a lagoon in northern Italy.", "The humidity and the rise of water over the centuries have created a phenomenon known as rising damp.", "As the lagoon water rises and seeps into the foundation of a building, the water is absorbed and rises up through the walls often causing damage to frescoes.", "Venetians have become quite adept in the conservation methods of frescoes.", "The mold aspergillus versicolor can grow after flooding, to consume nutrients from frescoes.The following is the process that was used when rescuing frescoes in La Fenice, a Venetian opera house, but the same process can be used for similarly damaged frescoes.", "First, a protection and support bandage of cotton gauze and polyvinyl alcohol is applied.", "Difficult sections are removed with soft brushes and localized vacuuming.", "The other areas that are easier to remove (because they had been damaged by less water) are removed with a paper pulp compress saturated with bicarbonate of ammonia solutions and removed with deionized water.", "These sections are strengthened and reattached then cleansed with base exchange resin compresses and the wall and pictorial layer were strengthened with barium hydrate.", "The cracks and detachments are stopped with lime putty and injected with an epoxy resin loaded with micronized silica." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Chola fresco.png|Chola Fresco of Dancing girls.", "Brihadisvara Temple c. 1100File:Mari fresco Investiture Zimri Lim 0210.jpg|18th-century BC fresco of the ''Investiture of Zimrilim'', Royal Palace of ancient Mari, SyriaFile:Abbatiale de Saint-Antoine l'Abbaye, chapelle 2, bas du mur est, 9424 edit.jpg|On the left, Anthony the Great, crucifixion with the Virgin and Saint John, on the right, the Archangel Michael.", "Abbey church of Saint-Antoine l'Abbaye, FranceFile:Abbatiale de Saint-Antoine l'Abbaye, chapelle 2, mur ouest, 9484 edit.jpg|\"Good-natured giant Saint Christopher carrying the child Jesus.\"", "Abbey church of Saint-Antoine l'Abbaye, FranceFile:Holy Cross Chapel, frescoes.jpg|Chapel of the Holy Cross in Wawel Cathedral in KrakówFile:Ferapontov.jpg|Fresco by Dionisius representing Saint Nicholas in Ferapontov MonasteryFile:Dante Domenico di Michelino.jpg|Dante in Domenico di Michelino's ''Divine Comedy'', Florence CathedralFile:Church St Georg Rotunda IMG 0547.jpg|Byzantine and Bulgarian, Dome of the Church of St. George, Sofia" ], [ "See also", "* Church frescos in Denmark* Church frescos in Sweden* Gambier Parry process* Haveli* Kandyan period frescoes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Museum of Ancient Inventions: Roman-Style Fresco, Italy, 50 AD* Sigiriya Frescoes, The Mary B. Wheeler Collection, University of Pennsylvania Library" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fire" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fire''' is the rapid oxidation of a material (the fuel) in the exothermic chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products.At a certain point in the combustion reaction, called the ignition point, flames are produced.", "The ''flame'' is the visible portion of the fire.", "Flames consist primarily of carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen and nitrogen.", "If hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma.", "Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, the color of the flame and the fire's intensity will be different.Fire, in its most common form, has the potential to result in conflagration, which can lead to physical damage, which can be permanent, through burning.", "Fire is a significant process that influences ecological systems worldwide.", "The positive effects of fire include stimulating growth and maintaining various ecological systems.Its negative effects include hazard to life and property, atmospheric pollution, and water contamination.", "When fire removes protective vegetation, heavy rainfall can contribute to increased soil erosion by water.", "Additionally, the burning of vegetation releases nitrogen into the atmosphere, unlike elements such as potassium and phosphorus which remain in the ash and are quickly recycled into the soil.", "This loss of nitrogen caused by a fire produces a long-term reduction in the fertility of the soil, which can be recovered as atmospheric nitrogen is fixed and converted to ammonia by natural phenomena such as lightning or by leguminous plants such as clover, peas, and green beans.Fire is one of the four classical elements and has been used by humans in rituals, in agriculture for clearing land, for cooking, generating heat and light, for signaling, propulsion purposes, smelting, forging, incineration of waste, cremation, and as a weapon or mode of destruction." ], [ "Etymology", "The word \"fire\" originated , which can be traced back to the Germanic root , which itself comes from the Proto-Indo-European from the root 'Fire'.", "The current spelling of \"fire\" has been in use since as early as 1200, but it was not until around 1600 that it completely replaced the Middle English term \"fier\" (which is still preserved in the word \"fiery\")." ], [ "History", "=== Fossil record ===The fossil record of fire first appears with the establishment of a land-based flora in the Middle Ordovician period, , permitting the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere as never before, as the new hordes of land plants pumped it out as a waste product.", "When this concentration rose above 13%, it permitted the possibility of wildfire.", "Wildfire is first recorded in the Late Silurian fossil record, , by fossils of charcoalified plants.", "Apart from a controversial gap in the Late Devonian, charcoal is present ever since.", "The level of atmospheric oxygen is closely related to the prevalence of charcoal: clearly oxygen is the key factor in the abundance of wildfire.", "Fire also became more abundant when grasses radiated and became the dominant component of many ecosystems, around ; this kindling provided tinder which allowed for the more rapid spread of fire.", "These widespread fires may have initiated a positive feedback process, whereby they produced a warmer, drier climate more conducive to fire.=== Human control of fire ======= Early human control ====Bushman starting a fire in NamibiaThe ability to control fire was a dramatic change in the habits of early humans.", "Making fire to generate heat and light made it possible for people to cook food, simultaneously increasing the variety and availability of nutrients and reducing disease by killing pathogenic microorganisms in the food.", "The heat produced would also help people stay warm in cold weather, enabling them to live in cooler climates.", "Fire also kept nocturnal predators at bay.", "Evidence of occasional cooked food is found from .", "Although this evidence shows that fire may have been used in a controlled fashion about 1 million years ago, other sources put the date of regular use at 400,000 years ago.", "Evidence becomes widespread around 50 to 100 thousand years ago, suggesting regular use from this time; interestingly, resistance to air pollution started to evolve in human populations at a similar point in time.", "The use of fire became progressively more sophisticated, as it was used to create charcoal and to control wildlife from tens of thousands of years ago.Fire has also been used for centuries as a method of torture and execution, as evidenced by death by burning as well as torture devices such as the iron boot, which could be filled with water, oil, or even lead and then heated over an open fire to the agony of the wearer.cauldron above fire in South Africa.By the Neolithic Revolution, during the introduction of grain-based agriculture, people all over the world used fire as a tool in landscape management.", "These fires were typically controlled burns or \"cool fires\", as opposed to uncontrolled \"hot fires\", which damage the soil.", "Hot fires destroy plants and animals, and endanger communities.", "This is especially a problem in the forests of today where traditional burning is prevented in order to encourage the growth of timber crops.", "Cool fires are generally conducted in the spring and autumn.", "They clear undergrowth, burning up biomass that could trigger a hot fire should it get too dense.", "They provide a greater variety of environments, which encourages game and plant diversity.", "For humans, they make dense, impassable forests traversable.", "Another human use for fire in regards to landscape management is its use to clear land for agriculture.", "Slash-and-burn agriculture is still common across much of tropical Africa, Asia and South America.", "For small farmers, controlled fires are a convenient way to clear overgrown areas and release nutrients from standing vegetation back into the soil.", "However, this useful strategy is also problematic.", "Growing population, fragmentation of forests and warming climate are making the earth's surface more prone to ever-larger escaped fires.", "These harm ecosystems and human infrastructure, cause health problems, and send up spirals of carbon and soot that may encourage even more warming of the atmosphere – and thus feed back into more fires.", "Globally today, as much as 5 million square kilometres – an area more than half the size of the United States – burns in a given year.==== Later human control ====There are numerous modern applications of fire.", "In its broadest sense, fire is used by nearly every human being on earth in a controlled setting every day.", "Users of internal combustion vehicles employ fire every time they drive.", "Thermal power stations provide electricity for a large percentage of humanity by igniting fuels such as coal, oil or natural gas, then using the resultant heat to boil water into steam, which then drives turbines.==== Use of fire in war ====The use of fire in warfare has a long history.", "Fire was the basis of all early thermal weapons.", "The Byzantine fleet used Greek fire to attack ships and men.The invention of gunpowder in China led to the fire lance, a flame-thrower weapon dating to around 1000 CE which was a precursor to projectile weapons driven by burning gunpowder.The earliest modern flamethrowers were used by infantry in the First World War, first used by German troops against entrenched French troops near Verdun in February 1915.They were later successfully mounted on armoured vehicles in the Second World War.Hand-thrown incendiary bombs improvised from glass bottles, later known as Molotov cocktails, were deployed during the Spanish Civil War in the 1930s.", "Also during that war, incendiary bombs were deployed against Guernica by Fascist Italian and Nazi German air forces that had been created specifically to support Franco's Nationalists.Incendiary bombs were dropped by Axis and Allies during the Second World War, notably on Coventry, Tokyo, Rotterdam, London, Hamburg and Dresden; in the latter two cases firestorms were deliberately caused in which a ring of fire surrounding each city was drawn inward by an updraft caused by a central cluster of fires.", "The United States Army Air Force also extensively used incendiaries against Japanese targets in the latter months of the war, devastating entire cities constructed primarily of wood and paper houses.", "The incendiary fluid napalm was used in July 1944, towards the end of the Second World War, although its use did not gain public attention until the Vietnam War.==== Fire management ====Controlling a fire to optimize its size, shape, and intensity is generally called ''fire management'', and the more advanced forms of it, as traditionally (and sometimes still) practiced by skilled cooks, blacksmiths, ironmasters, and others, are highly skilled activities.", "They include knowledge of which fuel to burn; how to arrange the fuel; how to stoke the fire both in early phases and in maintenance phases; how to modulate the heat, flame, and smoke as suited to the desired application; how best to bank a fire to be revived later; how to choose, design, or modify stoves, fireplaces, bakery ovens, industrial furnaces; and so on.", "Detailed expositions of fire management are available in various books about blacksmithing, about skilled camping or military scouting, and about domestic arts.==== Productive use for energy ====coal-fired power station in ChinaBurning fuel converts chemical energy into heat energy; wood has been used as fuel since prehistory.", "The International Energy Agency states that nearly 80% of the world's power has consistently come from fossil fuels such as petroleum, natural gas, and coal in the past decades.", "The fire in a power station is used to heat water, creating steam that drives turbines.", "The turbines then spin an electric generator to produce electricity.", "Fire is also used to provide mechanical work directly by thermal expansion, in both external and internal combustion engines.The unburnable solid remains of a combustible material left after a fire is called ''clinker'' if its melting point is below the flame temperature, so that it fuses and then solidifies as it cools, and ''ash'' if its melting point is above the flame temperature." ], [ "Physical properties", "=== Chemistry ===The balanced chemical equation for the combustion of methane, a hydrocarbonFire is a chemical process in which a fuel and an oxidizing agent react, yielding carbon dioxide and water.", "This process, known as a combustion reaction, does not proceed directly and involves intermediates.", "Although the oxidizing agent is typically oxygen, other compounds are able to fulfill the role.", "For instance, chlorine trifluoride is able to ignite sand.Fires start when a flammable or a combustible material, in combination with a sufficient quantity of an oxidizer such as oxygen gas or another oxygen-rich compound (though non-oxygen oxidizers exist), is exposed to a source of heat or ambient temperature above the flash point for the fuel/oxidizer mix, and is able to sustain a rate of rapid oxidation that produces a chain reaction.", "This is commonly called the fire tetrahedron.", "Fire cannot exist without all of these elements in place and in the right proportions.", "For example, a flammable liquid will start burning only if the fuel and oxygen are in the right proportions.", "Some fuel-oxygen mixes may require a catalyst, a substance that is not consumed, when added, in any chemical reaction during combustion, but which enables the reactants to combust more readily.Once ignited, a chain reaction must take place whereby fires can sustain their own heat by the further release of heat energy in the process of combustion and may propagate, provided there is a continuous supply of an oxidizer and fuel.If the oxidizer is oxygen from the surrounding air, the presence of a force of gravity, or of some similar force caused by acceleration, is necessary to produce convection, which removes combustion products and brings a supply of oxygen to the fire.", "Without gravity, a fire rapidly surrounds itself with its own combustion products and non-oxidizing gases from the air, which exclude oxygen and extinguish the fire.", "Because of this, the risk of fire in a spacecraft is small when it is coasting in inertial flight.", "This does not apply if oxygen is supplied to the fire by some process other than thermal convection.The fire tetrahedronFire can be extinguished by removing any one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron.", "Consider a natural gas flame, such as from a stove-top burner.", "The fire can be extinguished by any of the following:* turning off the gas supply, which removes the fuel source;* covering the flame completely, which smothers the flame as the combustion both uses the available oxidizer (the oxygen in the air) and displaces it from the area around the flame with CO2;* application of an inert gas such as carbon dioxide, smothering the flame by displacing the available oxidizer;* application of water, which removes heat from the fire faster than the fire can produce it (similarly, blowing hard on a flame will displace the heat of the currently burning gas from its fuel source, to the same end); or* application of a retardant chemical such as Halon (largely banned in some countries ) to the flame, which retards the chemical reaction itself until the rate of combustion is too slow to maintain the chain reaction.In contrast, fire is intensified by increasing the overall rate of combustion.", "Methods to do this include balancing the input of fuel and oxidizer to stoichiometric proportions, increasing fuel and oxidizer input in this balanced mix, increasing the ambient temperature so the fire's own heat is better able to sustain combustion, or providing a catalyst, a non-reactant medium in which the fuel and oxidizer can more readily react.=== Flame ===A candle's flameA flame is a mixture of reacting gases and solids emitting visible, infrared, and sometimes ultraviolet light, the frequency spectrum of which depends on the chemical composition of the burning material and intermediate reaction products.", "In many cases, such as the burning of organic matter, for example wood, or the incomplete combustion of gas, incandescent solid particles called soot produce the familiar red-orange glow of \"fire\".", "This light has a continuous spectrum.", "Complete combustion of gas has a dim blue color due to the emission of single-wavelength radiation from various electron transitions in the excited molecules formed in the flame.", "Usually oxygen is involved, but hydrogen burning in chlorine also produces a flame, producing hydrogen chloride (HCl).", "Other possible combinations producing flames, amongst many, are fluorine and hydrogen, and hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide.", "Hydrogen and hydrazine/UDMH flames are similarly pale blue, while burning boron and its compounds, evaluated in mid-20th century as a high energy fuel for jet and rocket engines, emits intense green flame, leading to its informal nickname of \"Green Dragon\".A controlled burn in the Northwest Territories, showing variations in the flame color due to temperature.", "The hottest parts near the ground appear yellowish-white, while the cooler upper parts appear red.The glow of a flame is complex.", "Black-body radiation is emitted from soot, gas, and fuel particles, though the soot particles are too small to behave like perfect blackbodies.", "There is also photon emission by de-excited atoms and molecules in the gases.", "Much of the radiation is emitted in the visible and infrared bands.", "The color depends on temperature for the black-body radiation, and on chemical makeup for the emission spectra.ISSThe common distribution of a flame under normal gravity conditions depends on convection, as soot tends to rise to the top of a general flame, as in a candle in normal gravity conditions, making it yellow.", "In micro gravity or zero gravity, such as an environment in outer space, convection no longer occurs, and the flame becomes spherical, with a tendency to become more blue and more efficient (although it may go out if not moved steadily, as the CO2 from combustion does not disperse as readily in micro gravity, and tends to smother the flame).", "There are several possible explanations for this difference, of which the most likely is that the temperature is sufficiently evenly distributed that soot is not formed and complete combustion occurs.", "Experiments by NASA reveal that diffusion flames in micro gravity allow more soot to be completely oxidized after they are produced than diffusion flames on Earth, because of a series of mechanisms that behave differently in micro gravity when compared to normal gravity conditions.", "These discoveries have potential applications in applied science and industry, especially concerning fuel efficiency.==== Typical adiabatic temperatures ====The adiabatic flame temperature of a given fuel and oxidizer pair is that at which the gases achieve stable combustion.", "* Oxy–dicyanoacetylene * Oxy–acetylene * Oxyhydrogen * Air–acetylene * Blowtorch (air–MAPP gas) * Bunsen burner (air–natural gas) * Candle (air–paraffin) ." ], [ "Fire science", "Fire science is a branch of physical science which includes fire behavior, dynamics, and combustion.", "Applications of fire science include fire protection, fire investigation, and wildfire management." ], [ "Fire ecology", "Every natural ecosystem on land has its own fire regime, and the organisms in those ecosystems are adapted to or dependent upon that fire regime.", "Fire creates a mosaic of different habitat patches, each at a different stage of succession.", "Different species of plants, animals, and microbes specialize in exploiting a particular stage, and by creating these different types of patches, fire allows a greater number of species to exist within a landscape." ], [ "Prevention and protection systems", "An abandoned convent on fire in QuebecWildfire prevention programs around the world may employ techniques such as ''wildland fire use'' and ''prescribed or controlled burns''.", "''Wildland fire use'' refers to any fire of natural causes that is monitored but allowed to burn.", "''Controlled burns'' are fires ignited by government agencies under less dangerous weather conditions.Fire fighting services are provided in most developed areas to extinguish or contain uncontrolled fires.", "Trained firefighters use fire apparatus, water supply resources such as water mains and fire hydrants or they might use A and B class foam depending on what is feeding the fire.Fire prevention is intended to reduce sources of ignition.", "Fire prevention also includes education to teach people how to avoid causing fires.", "Buildings, especially schools and tall buildings, often conduct fire drills to inform and prepare citizens on how to react to a building fire.", "Purposely starting destructive fires constitutes arson and is a crime in most jurisdictions.Model building codes require passive fire protection and active fire protection systems to minimize damage resulting from a fire.", "The most common form of active fire protection is fire sprinklers.", "To maximize passive fire protection of buildings, building materials and furnishings in most developed countries are tested for fire-resistance, combustibility and flammability.", "Upholstery, carpeting and plastics used in vehicles and vessels are also tested.Where fire prevention and fire protection have failed to prevent damage, fire insurance can mitigate the financial impact." ], [ "See also", "* Aodh (given name)* Bonfire* ''The Chemical History of a Candle''* Colored fire* Control of fire by early humans* Deflagration* Fire (classical element)* Fire investigation* Fire lookout* Fire lookout tower* Fire making* Fire pit* Fire safety* Fire triangle* Fire whirl* Fire worship* Flame test* Life Safety Code* List of fires* List of light sources* Phlogiston theory* Piano burning* Prometheus, the Greek mythological figure who gave mankind fire* Pyrokinesis* Pyrolysis* Pyromania* Self-immolation" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Citations ====== Sources ===* Haung, Kai (2009).", "Population and Building Factors That Impact Residential Fire Rates in Large U.S. Cities.", "Applied Research Project.", "Texas State University.", "* * Kosman, Admiel (January 13, 2011).", "\"Sacred fire\".", "''Haaretz''.", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Pyne, Stephen J.", "''Fire : a brief history'' (University of Washington Press, 2001).", "** Pyne, Stephen J.", "''''World fire : the culture of fire on earth'' (1995) online** Pyne, Stephen J.", "''Tending fire : coping with America's wildland fires'' (2004) online** Pyne, Stephen J.", "''Awful splendour : a fire history of Canada'' (2007) online** Pyne, Stephen J.", "''Burning bush : a fire history of Australia'' (1991) online** Pyne, Stephen J.", "''Between Two Fires: A Fire History of Contemporary America'' (2015)** Pyne, Stephen J.", "''California: A Fire Survey'' (2016)* Safford, Hugh D., et al.", "\"Fire ecology of the North American Mediterranean-climate zone.\"", "in ''Fire ecology and management: Past, present, and future of US forested ecosystems'' (2021): 337-392.re California and its neighbors online" ], [ "External links", "* How Fire Works at HowStuffWorks* What exactly is fire?", "from The Straight Dope* On Fire, an Adobe Flash–based science tutorial from the ''NOVA'' (TV series)* \"20 Things You Didn't Know About... Fire\" from ''Discover'' magazine" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "FIDE" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''International Chess Federation''' or '''World Chess Federation''', commonly referred to by its French acronym '''FIDE''' ( ''''''), is an international organization based in Switzerland that connects the various national chess federations and acts as the governing body of international chess competition.", "FIDE was founded in Paris, France, on July 20, 1924.Its motto is , Latin for 'We are one Family'.", "In 1999, FIDE was recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC).", "there are 201 member federations of FIDE." ], [ "Role", "FIDE's most visible activity is organizing the World Chess Championship since 1948.FIDE also organizes world championships for women, juniors, seniors, and the disabled.", "Another flagship event is the Chess Olympiad, a biennial chess tournament organized since 1924, in which national teams compete.", "In alternate years, FIDE also organizes the World Team Championship, in which the best teams from the previous Olympiad compete.As part of the World Chess Championship cycle, FIDE also organizes the Candidates Tournament, which determines who will challenge the reigning World Champion, and the qualifying tournaments for the Candidates, such as the Chess World Cup, the FIDE Grand Prix, and the FIDE Grand Swiss Tournament 2019.FIDE is recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) as the supreme body responsible for the organization of chess and its championships at global and continental levels.", "Other tournaments are not overseen directly by FIDE, but they generally observe FIDE rules and regulations.", "Some national chess organizations such as the US Chess Federation use minor differences to FIDE rules.FIDE defines the rules of chess, both for individual games (i.e.", "the board and moves) and for the conduct of international competitions.", "The international competition rules are the basis for local competitions, although local bodies are allowed to modify these rules to a certain extent.", "FIDE awards a number of organizational titles, including International Arbiter, which signifies that the recipient is competent and trusted to oversee top-class competitions.FIDE calculates the Elo ratings of players and awards titles for achievement in competitive play, such as the Grandmaster title.", "It also awards titles to composers and solvers of chess problems and studies.FIDE funds and manages outreach programs, such as the Chess for Freedom program and awards such as, since 2020, the Svetozar Gligoric Award for fair play.Correspondence chess (chess played by post, email or on online servers) is regulated by the International Correspondence Chess Federation, an independent body that cooperates with FIDE where appropriate.The FIDE budget for 2022 was , an increase from the 2021 budget which was .", "Income is primarily from rights to tournaments such as the Olympiad and World Championship, from various fees and commissions, and from corporate sponsorship and donations." ], [ "History", "===Foundation and early years (up to 1939)===In 1904, L'union Amicale, a French chess association, attempted to establish an international chess federation.", "In April 1914, an initiative was taken in St. Petersburg, Russia, to form an international chess federation.", "Another attempt was made in July 1914 during the Mannheim International Chess Tournament.", "Further efforts temporarily came to an end as a result of the outbreak of World War I.", "In 1920, another attempt to organize an international federation was made at the Gothenburg Tournament.Players made the first attempt to produce rules for world championship matches—in 1922, world champion José Raúl Capablanca proposed the \"London rules\": the first player to win six games outright would win the match; playing sessions would be limited to five hours; the time limit would be 40 moves in 2.5 hours each; the champion would be obliged to defend his title within one year of receiving a challenge from a recognized master; the champion would decide the date of the match; the champion was not obliged to accept a challenge for a purse of less than $10,000 (); 20% of the purse was to be paid to the title holder, with the remainder being divided, 60 percent to the winner of the match, and 40% to the loser; the highest purse bid must be accepted.", "Alekhine, Bogoljubov, Maróczy, Réti, Rubinstein, Tartakower and Vidmar promptly signed them.", "The only match played under those rules was Capablanca vs Alekhine in 1927.In 1922, the Russian master Eugene Znosko-Borovsky, while participating in an international tournament in London, announced that a tournament would be held during the 8th Sports Olympic Games in Paris in 1924 and would be hosted by the French Chess Federation.", "On July 20, 1924 the participants at the Paris tournament founded FIDE as a kind of players' union.", "In its early years, FIDE had little power, and it was poorly financed.FIDE's congresses in 1925 and 1926 expressed a desire to become involved in managing the world championship.", "FIDE was largely happy with the \"London Rules\", but claimed that the requirement for a purse of $10,000 was impracticable and called upon Capablanca to come to an agreement with the leading masters to revise the Rules.FIDE's third congress, in Budapest in 1926, also decided to organize a Chess Olympiad.", "The invitations were, however, late in being sent, with the result that only four countries participated, and the competition was called the Little Olympiad.", "The winner was Hungary, followed by Yugoslavia, Romania, and Germany.", "In 1927, FIDE began organizing the First Chess Olympiad during its 4th Congress in London.", "The official title of the tournament was the \"Tournament of Nations\", or \"World Team Championship\", but \"Chess Olympiad\" became a more popular title.", "The event was won by Hungary, with 16 teams competing.In 1928, FIDE recognized Bogoljubow as \"Champion of FIDE\" after he won a match against Max Euwe.", "Alekhine, the reigning world champion, attended part of the 1928 Congress and agreed to place future matches for the world title under the auspices of FIDE, although any match with Capablanca should be under the same conditions as in Buenos Aires, 1927, i.e., including the requirement for a purse of at least $10,000.FIDE accepted this and decided to form a commission to modify the London Rules for future matches, though this commission never met; by the time of the 1929 Congress, a world championship match between Alekhine and Bogoljubow was under way, held neither under the auspices of FIDE nor in accordance with the London Rules.While negotiating his 1937 World Championship re-match with Alekhine, Euwe proposed that if he retained the title, FIDE should manage the nomination of future challengers and the conduct of championship matches.", "FIDE had been trying since 1935 to introduce rules on how to select challengers, and its various proposals favored selection by some sort of committee.", "While they were debating procedures in 1937 and Alekhine and Euwe were preparing for their re-match later that year, the Dutch Chess Federation proposed that a super-tournament (AVRO) of ex-champions and rising stars should be held to select the next challenger.", "FIDE rejected this proposal and at their second attempt nominated Salo Flohr as the official challenger.", "Euwe then declared that: if he retained his title against Alekhine he was prepared to meet Flohr in 1940 but he reserved the right to arrange a title match either in 1938 or 1939 with José Raúl Capablanca, who had lost the title to Alekhine in 1927; if Euwe lost his title to Capablanca then FIDE's decision should be followed and Capablanca would have to play Flohr in 1940.Most chess writers and players strongly supported the Dutch super-tournament proposal and opposed the committee processes favored by FIDE.", "While this confusion went unresolved: Euwe lost his title to Alekhine; the AVRO tournament in 1938 was won by Paul Keres under a tie-breaking rule, with Reuben Fine placed second and Capablanca and Flohr in the bottom places; and the outbreak of World War II in 1939 cut short the controversy.", "Although competitive chess continued in many countries, including some that were under Nazi occupation, there was no international competition and FIDE was inactive during the war.===1946 to 1993=======Birth of the World Championship challenge cycle====From the time of Emanuel Lasker's defeat of Wilhelm Steinitz in 1894, until 1946, a new World Champion had won the title by defeating the former champion in a match.", "Alexander Alekhine's death created an ''interregnum'' that made the normal procedure impossible.", "The situation was confused, with many respected players and commentators offering different solutions.", "FIDE found it difficult to organize the early discussions on how to resolve the ''interregnum'', because problems with money and travel in the aftermath of World War II prevented many countries from sending representatives, most notably the Soviet Union.", "The shortage of clear information resulted in otherwise responsible magazines publishing rumors and speculation, which only made the situation more confused.", "See Interregnum of World Chess Champions for more details.This situation was exacerbated by the Soviet Union having long refused to join FIDE, and by this time it was clear that about half the credible contenders were Soviet citizens.", "The Soviet Union realized, however, it could not afford to be left out of the discussions regarding the vacant world championship, and in 1947 sent a telegram apologizing for the absence of Soviet representatives and requesting that the USSR be represented in future FIDE Committees.The eventual solution was similar to FIDE's initial proposal and to a proposal put forward by the Soviet Union (authored by Mikhail Botvinnik).", "The 1938 AVRO tournament was used as the basis for the 1948 Championship Tournament.", "The AVRO tournament had brought together the eight players who were, by general acclamation, the best players in the world at the time.", "Two of the participants at AVRO—Alekhine and former world champion Capablanca—had since died; but FIDE decided that the other six participants at AVRO would play a quadruple round-robin tournament.", "These players were: Max Euwe (from The Netherlands); Botvinnik, Paul Keres and Salo Flohr (from the Soviet Union); and Reuben Fine and Samuel Reshevsky (from the United States).", "FIDE soon accepted a Soviet request to substitute Vasily Smyslov for Flohr, and Fine withdrew in order to continue his degree studies in psychiatry, so five players competed, in a quintuple round robin.", "Botvinnik won, thus becoming world champion, ending the ''interregnum''.The proposals which led to the 1948 Championship Tournament also specified the procedure by which challengers for the World Championship would be selected in a three-year cycle: countries affiliated with FIDE would send players to Zonal tournaments (the number varied depending on the number of strong players each country had); the players who gained the top places in these would compete in an Interzonal tournament (later split into two, then three tournaments as the number of countries and eligible players increased); the highest-placed players from the Interzonal would compete in the Candidates Tournament, along with the loser of the previous title match and the runner-up in the previous Candidates Tournament; and the winner of the Candidates played a title match against the champion.", "From 1950 until 1962 inclusive, the Candidates Tournament was a multi-round round-robin—how and why it was changed are described below.====Bobby Fischer controversies====FIDE found itself embroiled in some controversies relating to the American player Bobby Fischer.", "The first controversy took place when Fischer alleged that, at the 1962 Candidates Tournament in Curaçao, the Soviet players Tigran Petrosian, Paul Keres and Efim Geller had pre-arranged draws in their games played amongst themselves, and that Viktor Korchnoi, another Soviet player, had been instructed to lose to them (Fischer had placed 4th, well behind Petrosian, Keres and Geller).", "Grandmaster Yuri Averbakh, a member of the Soviet delegation at the tournament, confirmed in 2002 that Petrosian, Keres and Geller privately agreed to draw their games.", "FIDE responded by changing the format of Candidates Tournaments from a multi-round round-robin to a series of elimination matches, initially 10–12 games in duration; however, by the 1970s, the Candidates final would be as long as 24 games.Then, in 1969, Fischer refused to play in the U.S. Championship because of disagreements about the tournament's format and prize fund.", "Since that event was being treated as a Zonal tournament, Fischer forfeited his right to compete for the right to challenge World Champion Boris Spassky in 1972.Grandmaster Pal Benko agreed to relinquish his qualifying place at the Interzonal in Fischer's favor, and the other participants waived their right to claim the spot.", "FIDE president Max Euwe interpreted the rules very flexibly to allow Fischer to play in the 1970 Interzonal at Palma de Mallorca, which he won convincingly.", "Fischer then crushed Mark Taimanov, Bent Larsen (both 6–0) and Tigran Petrosian in the 1971 CandidatesTournament and won the title match with Spassky to become world champion.After winning the world championship, Fischer criticized the existing championship match format (24 games; the champion retained the title if the match was tied) on the grounds that it encouraged whoever got an early lead to play for draws.", "While this dispute was going on, Anatoly Karpov won the right to challenge in 1975.Fischer refused to accept any match format other than the one he proposed.", "Among Fischer's demands was a requirement that the challenger must beat him by at least two games in order to take his title (Fischer proposed a match format in which the first player to win 10 games wins, with draws not counting, but if the result is 9–9 it is considered a tie).", "The FIDE argued that it was unfair for a challenger to be able to beat the world champion, yet not take his title.", "Fischer would not back down, and eventually FIDE awarded the title to Karpov by default.", "Some commentators have questioned whether FIDE president Max Euwe did as much as he could have to prevent Fischer from forfeiting his world title.====Other 1970s controversies====FIDE had a number of conflicts with the Soviet Chess Federation.", "These conflicts included:* The defection of grandmaster Gennadi Sosonko in 1972.The Soviets demanded that Sosonko be excluded from competitive chess, television or any other event that might publicize his defection.", "FIDE refused, and no Soviet players took part in the 1974 Wijk aan Zee tournament in The Netherlands because Sosonko was playing in it.", "* In 1976 world championship contender Viktor Korchnoi sought political asylum in The Netherlands.", "In a discussion a few days earlier Euwe told Korchnoi, \"...of course you will retain all your rights ...\" and later opposed Soviet efforts to prevent Korchnoi from challenging for Anatoly Karpov's title in 1978.", "* FIDE decided to hold the 1976 Chess Olympiad in Israel despite the Soviet Chess Federation announced its boycott of Israel as the site of the Olympiad and the congress because of what it described as Israeli aggression against Arab states.====Rapid expansion of membership====During his period as president of FIDE (1970–1978) Max Euwe strove to increase the number of member countries, and Florencio Campomanes (president 1982–1995) continued this policy, with each member nation receiving one vote.", "Former world champion Anatoly Karpov later said this was a mixed blessing, as the inclusion of so many small, poor countries led to a \"leadership vacuum at the head of the world of chess......\" Yuri Averbakh said the presence of so many weak countries made it easy to manipulate decisions.====World Championship, 1983–1985====The events leading to Garry Kasparov's winning the world championship involved FIDE in two controversies.", "While arranging the Candidates Tournament semi-final matches to be played in 1983, FIDE accepted bids to host Kasparov versus Victor Korchnoi in Pasadena, California.", "The Soviet Union refused to accept this, either because it feared Kasparov would defect or because it thought Kasparov was the greater threat to reigning champion Anatoly Karpov.", "Their refusal would have meant that Kasparov forfeited his chance of challenging for the title.", "FIDE president Florencio Campomanes negotiated with the Soviet Union, and the match was played in London.In the 1984 world championship match between Karpov and Kasparov the winner was to be the first to win six games.", "In the first 27 games Karpov gained a 5–0 lead but by the end of the 48th Kasparov had reduced this to 5–3.At this point the match had lasted for 159 days (from September 1984 to February 1985).", "Then the match was ended without result by Florencio Campomanes, the President of the World Chess Federation, and a new match was announced to start a few months later.", "The termination was controversial, as both players stated that they preferred the match to continue.", "Announcing his decision at a press conference, Campomanes cited the health of the players, which had been strained by the length of the match.", "Kasparov won the second match and became world champion.===1993 to 2018=======World Championship divided, 1993–2006====In 1992, Nigel Short emerged as the official challenger for Kasparov’s world title after winning the Candidates Tournament.", "FIDE promptly accepted a bid from Manchester, England, to host the 1993 title match, but without consulting Short, as its rules required; Short was traveling to Greece at the time.", "Upon learning of this, Short reached out to Kasparov, who had harbored distrust for FIDE and its president, Florencio Campomanes, since the abrupt end of his 1984 title match against Anatoly Karpov.", "Kasparov and Short concluded that FIDE had not secured the best financial deal for them and announced their decision to play under a new organization, the Professional Chess Association (PCA).", "In response, FIDE stripped Kasparov of his title, removed both Kasparov and Short from the official rating list, and announced a title match between Karpov and Jan Timman, whom Short had defeated in the Candidates Tournament.", "Both Kasparov and Karpov won their respective matches, both claiming the title of world champion.By 1994, Kasparov realized that separating from FIDE had been a mistake, as the split in the world championship was unpopular among commercial sponsors and most grandmasters.", "He began efforts to mend relations with FIDE and supported Campomanes's re-election bid as FIDE president.", "However, many FIDE delegates viewed Campomanes as corrupt, and he agreed to resign in 1995, provided his successor was Kirsan Ilyumzhinov, the president of the Republic of Kalmykia.Several attempts to reunify the world championship in the following years failed for various reasons, including financial constraints and Kasparov's opposition to any plan requiring him to play in a qualifying series.", "In 2000, Vladimir Kramnik defeated Kasparov in a match for the now-renamed Braingames World Chess Championship, as the PCA had dissolved by then.", "Kramnik, like Kasparov, was unwilling to play in a qualifying series and strongly objected to FIDE's attempt to decide the world championship through annual knockout tournaments and to shorten game time limits.In 2006, a reunification match was held between Kramnik and Veselin Topalov, which Kramnik won amidst a controversy that resulted in one game being awarded to Topalov.", "However, the split in the world title had lingering effects, as evidenced by FIDE’s complex regulations for the 2007-2009 world championship cycle.", "FIDE decided to grant Topalov a “fast track” entry into the 2007-2009 cycle due to his inability to compete in the 2007 World Chess Championship Tournament.", "Additionally, FIDE decided that if Kramnik did not win the 2007 championship tournament, he would play a championship match in 2008 against the winner.", "This provision came into effect when Viswanathan Anand won the tournament and became the world champion.====IOC recognition====In 1999, FIDE was recognised by the International Olympic Committee (IOC).", "Two years later, it introduced the IOC's anti-drugs rules to chess, as part of its campaign for chess to become part of the Olympic Games.====Commercial agreement with Agon and World Chess==== In 2012 FIDE entered into a commercial agreement, initially planned to last until 2021, with the company Agon Limited.", "This company was given rights to organize and commercially exploit the World Chess Championship and the associated events in the World Championship cycle.", "The first tournament it organized was the London FIDE Grand Prix event in September 2012, followed by the London Candidates Tournament in March 2013, and the Chennai World Chess Championship in November 2013.Agon subsequently organized the four events in the FIDE Grand Prix 2014–15, the Candidates Tournament in 2014, and the World Chess Championship in 2014.Agon had been founded in 2012 in Jersey by Andrew Paulson as the sole shareholder.", "On February 20, 2012, an agreement between Agon and FIDE was made, subject to approval by the 2012 FIDE General Assembly.", "This approval was forthcoming in September 2012.In October 2014, Agon was sold to its current CEO Ilya Merenzon for the sum of one pound.", "At the September 2016 FIDE General Assembly, it was resolved that Agon should institute a corporate presence in a locale with more transparency.", "Merenzon said that they would register in the United Kingdom within a few months.", "As a result, a new company, World Chess Limited, was registered shortly after, replacing Agon as the rights holder in the agreement with FIDE.====FIDE and Agon/World Chess contract controversy====Kirsan Ilyumzhinov was happy with the agreement on the basis that now FIDE itself did not have to expend resources to find organizers for its premier events.", "The issue of financial guarantees was also important, though as explained below, these have not always materialized.", "His estimation of 10–12 million euros to FIDE from the coming cycles has not yet come to fruition either.The condition that Agon would be the sole organizer of Championship events was disputed originally by principally the Bulgarian Chess Federation, with respect to the Candidates matches for 2012.In early 2014, a purported agreement between Paulson and FIDE President Kirsan Ilyumzhinov was leaked, and then published by Chess.com (and others), which allegedly indicated that Paulson was simply a front man with Ilyumzhinov the ultimate benefactor of Agon.", "In that Chess.com article Malcolm Pein is quoted as having twice been told by Paulson that Ilyuzmhinov owned Agon, and in a ''New In Chess'' article Nigel Short asserted he had also been told this personally by Paulson.", "In response, FIDE's deputy vice president Georgios Makropoulos pointed out that the purported contract was a draft document.", "The FIDE Ethics Commission ruled in September 2015 that Ilyumzhinov did not violate the FIDE Code of Ethics.===2018 to present=======The election of Arkady Dvorkovich and the end of the Ilyumzhinov era====In July 2018, Kirsan Ilyumzhinov was ousted as FIDE President, after having been in office for 23 years, since 1995.Being subjected to US sanctions for his business dealings with the Syrian government, Ilyumzhinov was forced out and did not run for re-election in the 2018 FIDE elections.", "The Greek Georgios Makropoulos, who had been General Secretary since 1990 and number two in the organization under Kirsan's Presidency, was the first to announce his ticket.", "He was followed by the Englishman Nigel Short, a world title contender in the World Chess Championship 1993 against Garry Kasparov.", "The last to announce his candidacy was Arkady Dvorkovich, an economist who had served as Russian deputy prime minister and was also a member of the Supervisory Board of the Russian Chess Federation.", "Dvorkovich was also one of the chief organizers of the 2018 FIFA World Cup.", "Dvorkovich was placed in the US Treasury pre-sanctions list in 2018 as a top Russian government employee.In the elections, held in Batumi (Georgia) in October 2018, Dvorkovich won by 103 votes to 78 against Makropoulos, after Nigel Short withdrew his candidacy at the last minute and expressed his support to the Russian candidate.After the 2018 FIDE elections and the appointment of a new FIDE President, the new management took regaining control over the World Championship cycle as one of their top priorities.", "In January 2019, FIDE Director-General Emil Sutovsky announced that a new contract has been signed that continues a scaled-back relationship with World Chess (formerly known as AGON) through 2021.In virtue of this new agreement, FIDE reasserted control over the 2020 Candidates and the World Championship match, which from now on will undergo an open bidding procedure.", "Agon/World Chess only retained organizational and commercial rights over the FIDE Grand Prix Series, limited until 2021.At FIDE's general assembly in Chennai, India, in August 2022 Dvorkovich got re-elected by 157 votes to 16 against Ukraine's Andrii Baryshpolets.====Reactions to the Russian invasion of Ukraine====On February 27, 2022, FIDE issued an official statement condemning the Russian invasion of Ukraine.", "As a consequence, Russia and Belarus were forbidden from hosting official FIDE events.", "The decision to hold the 2022 Chess Olympiad and the 2022 FIDE congress in Moscow was also revoked.", "The Russian and Belarusian national teams were banned from participating in FIDE tournaments, although individual players could compete if they complied with strict regulations, in which case their federation and flag was replaced with FIDE and its banner.On March 22, 2022, FIDE decided to issue a six month ban from competing in rated tournaments against Russian grandmaster Sergey Karjakin.", "Karjakin had posted controversial statements on Twitter in which he declared his support for the invasion of Ukraine and for President Vladimir Putin's characterization of the war as a fight against Nazism.", "FIDE argued that Karjakin's statements had shed a negative light on chess and on the federation and found that he had violated the FIDE code of ethics.", "Sergei Shipov, who also publicly commented in favor of Russia, was not sanctioned, because FIDE decided that his statements were less provocative.==== Restrictions on transgender players ====In August 2023, FIDE implemented a ban on trans women from playing chess in official women's tournaments organised by them, as well as tournaments providing qualification spots to the Women's Chess World Cup.", "Additionally, they implemented rules stripping trans men of any women's titles they might have earned while competing as women.", "The regulation affects those who changed their gender identity after being assigned a FIDE identification number.The French Chess Federation announced that France will not respect the banishment of transgender people, considering the FIDE decision transphobic.", "A little later, the German Chess Federation said in a statement that they do not exclude transgender women from women's tournaments.", "They also said that no one should have to experience violence and discrimination.", "Similar statements were also released by the English, Finnish and US chess federations." ], [ "FIDE presidents", "* 1924–1939 Alexander Rueb* 1939–1946 Augusto De Muro* 1946–1949 Alexander Rueb* 1949–1970 Folke Rogard* 1970–1978 Max Euwe* 1978–1982 Friðrik Ólafsson* 1982–1995 Florencio Campomanes* 1995–2018 Kirsan Ilyumzhinov* 2018–present Arkady Dvorkovich" ], [ "Publications", "**" ], [ "See also", "* FIDE Online Arena* Chess around the world* FIDE World Rankings* International Correspondence Chess Federation* List of FIDE chess world number ones* FIDE titles" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** \"FIDE: The Prehistory\" by Edward Winter* \"Chess: The History of FIDE\" by Edward Winter" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fresnel equations" ], [ "Introduction", "Partial transmission and reflection of a pulse travelling from a low to a high refractive index medium.The '''Fresnel equations''' (or '''Fresnel coefficients''') describe the reflection and transmission of light (or electromagnetic radiation in general) when incident on an interface between different optical media.", "They were deduced by French engineer and physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel () who was the first to understand that light is a transverse wave, when no one realized that the waves were electric and magnetic fields.", "For the first time, polarization could be understood quantitatively, as Fresnel's equations correctly predicted the differing behaviour of waves of the ''s'' and ''p'' polarizations incident upon a material interface." ], [ "Overview", "When light strikes the interface between a medium with refractive index and a second medium with refractive index , both reflection and refraction of the light may occur.", "The Fresnel equations give the ratio of the ''reflected'' wave's electric field to the incident wave's electric field, and the ratio of the ''transmitted'' wave's electric field to the incident wave's electric field, for each of two components of polarization.", "(The ''magnetic'' fields can also be related using similar coefficients.)", "These ratios are generally complex, describing not only the relative amplitudes but also the phase shifts at the interface.The equations assume the interface between the media is flat and that the media are homogeneous and isotropic.", "The incident light is assumed to be a plane wave, which is sufficient to solve any problem since any incident light field can be decomposed into plane waves and polarizations.=== S and P polarizations ===The plane of incidence is defined by the incoming radiation's propagation vector and the normal vector of the surface.There are two sets of Fresnel coefficients for two different linear polarization components of the incident wave.", "Since any polarization state can be resolved into a combination of two orthogonal linear polarizations, this is sufficient for any problem.", "Likewise, unpolarized (or \"randomly polarized\") light has an equal amount of power in each of two linear polarizations.The s polarization refers to polarization of a wave's electric field ''normal'' to the plane of incidence (the direction in the derivation below); then the magnetic field is ''in'' the plane of incidence.", "The p polarization refers to polarization of the electric field ''in'' the plane of incidence (the plane in the derivation below); then the magnetic field is ''normal'' to the plane of incidence.Although the reflection and transmission are dependent on polarization, at normal incidence () there is no distinction between them so all polarization states are governed by a single set of Fresnel coefficients (and another special case is mentioned below in which that is true)." ], [ "Configuration", "Variables used in the Fresnel equationsIn the diagram on the right, an incident plane wave in the direction of the ray strikes the interface between two media of refractive indices and at point .", "Part of the wave is reflected in the direction , and part refracted in the direction .", "The angles that the incident, reflected and refracted rays make to the normal of the interface are given as , and , respectively.The relationship between these angles is given by the law of reflection:and Snell's law:The behavior of light striking the interface is explained by considering the electric and magnetic fields that constitute an electromagnetic wave, and the laws of electromagnetism, as shown below.", "The ratio of waves' electric field (or magnetic field) amplitudes are obtained, but in practice one is more often interested in formulae which determine ''power'' coefficients, since power (or irradiance) is what can be directly measured at optical frequencies.", "The power of a wave is generally proportional to the square of the electric (or magnetic) field amplitude." ], [ "Power (intensity) reflection and transmission coefficients <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Power or intensity equations\"></span>", "Power coefficients: air to glassPower coefficients: glass to air (Total internal reflection starts from 42° making reflection coefficient 1)We call the fraction of the incident power that is reflected from the interface the ''reflectance'' (or '''reflectivity''', or '''power reflection coefficient''') , and the fraction that is refracted into the second medium is called the ''transmittance'' (or '''transmissivity''', or '''power transmission coefficient''') .", "Note that these are what would be measured right ''at'' each side of an interface and do not account for attenuation of a wave in an absorbing medium ''following'' transmission or reflection.The reflectance for s-polarized light iswhile the reflectance for p-polarized light iswhere and are the wave impedances of media 1 and 2, respectively.We assume that the media are non-magnetic (i.e., ), which is typically a good approximation at optical frequencies (and for transparent media at other frequencies).", "Then the wave impedances are determined solely by the refractive indices and :where is the impedance of free space and .", "Making this substitution, we obtain equations using the refractive indices:The second form of each equation is derived from the first by eliminating using Snell's law and trigonometric identities.As a consequence of conservation of energy, one can find the transmitted power (or more correctly, irradiance: power per unit area) simply as the portion of the incident power that isn't reflected:andNote that all such intensities are measured in terms of a wave's irradiance in the direction normal to the interface; this is also what is measured in typical experiments.", "That number could be obtained from irradiances ''in the direction of an incident or reflected wave'' (given by the magnitude of a wave's Poynting vector) multiplied by for a wave at an angle to the normal direction (or equivalently, taking the dot product of the Poynting vector with the unit vector normal to the interface).", "This complication can be ignored in the case of the reflection coefficient, since , so that the ratio of reflected to incident irradiance in the wave's direction is the same as in the direction normal to the interface.Although these relationships describe the basic physics, in many practical applications one is concerned with \"natural light\" that can be described as unpolarized.", "That means that there is an equal amount of power in the ''s'' and ''p'' polarizations, so that the ''effective'' reflectivity of the material is just the average of the two reflectivities:For low-precision applications involving unpolarized light, such as computer graphics, rather than rigorously computing the effective reflection coefficient for each angle, Schlick's approximation is often used.=== Special cases ======= Normal incidence ====For the case of normal incidence, , and there is no distinction between s and p polarization.", "Thus, the reflectance simplifies toFor common glass () surrounded by air (), the power reflectance at normal incidence can be seen to be about 4%, or 8% accounting for both sides of a glass pane.==== Brewster's angle ====At a dielectric interface from to , there is a particular angle of incidence at which goes to zero and a p-polarised incident wave is purely refracted, thus all reflected light is s-polarised.", "This angle is known as Brewster's angle, and is around 56° for and (typical glass).==== Total internal reflection ====When light travelling in a denser medium strikes the surface of a less dense medium (i.e., ), beyond a particular incidence angle known as the ''critical angle'', all light is reflected and .", "This phenomenon, known as total internal reflection, occurs at incidence angles for which Snell's law predicts that the sine of the angle of refraction would exceed unity (whereas in fact for all real ).", "For glass with surrounded by air, the critical angle is approximately 42°.==== 45° incidence ====Reflection at 45° incidence is very commonly used for making 90° turns.", "For the case of light traversing from a less dense medium into a denser one at 45° incidence (), it follows algebraically from the above equations that equals the square of : This can be used to either verify the consistency of the measurements of and , or to derive one of them when the other is known.", "This relationship is only valid for the simple case of a single plane interface between two homogeneous materials, not for films on substrates, where a more complex analysis is required.Measurements of and at 45° can be used to estimate the reflectivity at normal incidence.", "The \"average of averages\" obtained by calculating first the arithmetic as well as the geometric average of and , and then averaging these two averages again arithmetically, gives a value for with an error of less than about 3% for most common optical materials.", "This is useful because measurements at normal incidence can be difficult to achieve in an experimental setup since the incoming beam and the detector will obstruct each other.", "However, since the dependence of and on the angle of incidence for angles below 10° is very small, a measurement at about 5° will usually be a good approximation for normal incidence, while allowing for a separation of the incoming and reflected beam." ], [ "Complex amplitude reflection and transmission coefficients <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Field\"></span>", "The above equations relating powers (which could be measured with a photometer for instance) are derived from the Fresnel equations which solve the physical problem in terms of electromagnetic field complex amplitudes, i.e., considering phase shifts in addition to their amplitudes.", "Those underlying equations supply generally complex-valued ratios of those EM fields and may take several different forms, depending on the formalism used.", "The complex amplitude coefficients for reflection and transmission are usually represented by lower case and (whereas the power coefficients are capitalized).", "As before, we are assuming the magnetic permeability, of both media to be equal to the permeability of free space as is essentially true of all dielectrics at optical frequencies.", "Amplitude coefficients: air to glassAmplitude coefficients: glass to airIn the following equations and graphs, we adopt the following conventions.", "For ''s'' polarization, the reflection coefficient is defined as the ratio of the reflected wave's complex electric field amplitude to that of the incident wave, whereas for ''p'' polarization is the ratio of the waves complex ''magnetic'' field amplitudes (or equivalently, the ''negative'' of the ratio of their electric field amplitudes).", "The transmission coefficient is the ratio of the transmitted wave's complex electric field amplitude to that of the incident wave, for either polarization.", "The coefficients and are generally different between the ''s'' and ''p'' polarizations, and even at normal incidence (where the designations ''s'' and ''p'' do not even apply!)", "the sign of is reversed depending on whether the wave is considered to be ''s'' or ''p'' polarized, an artifact of the adopted sign convention (see graph for an air-glass interface at 0° incidence).The equations consider a plane wave incident on a plane interface at angle of incidence , a wave reflected at angle , and a wave transmitted at angle .", "In the case of an interface into an absorbing material (where is complex) or total internal reflection, the angle of transmission does not generally evaluate to a real number.", "In that case, however, meaningful results can be obtained using formulations of these relationships in which trigonometric functions and geometric angles are avoided; the inhomogeneous waves launched into the second medium cannot be described using a single propagation angle.", "Using this convention,One can see that and .", "One can write very similar equations applying to the ratio of the waves' magnetic fields, but comparison of the electric fields is more conventional.Because the reflected and incident waves propagate in the same medium and make the same angle with the normal to the surface, the power reflection coefficient is just the squared magnitude of :On the other hand, calculation of the power transmission coefficient is less straightforward, since the light travels in different directions in the two media.", "What's more, the wave impedances in the two media differ; power (irradiance) is given by the square of the electric field amplitude ''divided by'' the characteristic impedance of the medium (or by the square of the magnetic field ''multiplied by'' the characteristic impedance).", "This results in:using the above definition of .", "The introduced factor of is the reciprocal of the ratio of the media's wave impedances.", "The factors adjust the waves' powers so they are reckoned ''in the direction'' normal to the interface, for both the incident and transmitted waves, so that full power transmission corresponds to .In the case of total internal reflection where the power transmission is zero, nevertheless describes the electric field (including its phase) just beyond the interface.", "This is an evanescent field which does not propagate as a wave (thus ) but has nonzero values very close to the interface.", "The phase shift of the reflected wave on total internal reflection can similarly be obtained from the phase angles of and (whose magnitudes are unity in this case).", "These phase shifts are different for ''s'' and ''p'' waves, which is the well-known principle by which total internal reflection is used to effect polarization transformations.=== Alternative forms ===In the above formula for , if we put (Snell's law) and multiply the numerator and denominator by , we obtainIf we do likewise with the formula for , the result is easily shown to be equivalent toThese formulas are known respectively as ''Fresnel's sine law'' and ''Fresnel's tangent law''.", "Although at normal incidence these expressions reduce to 0/0, one can see that they yield the correct results in the limit as ." ], [ "Multiple surfaces", "When light makes multiple reflections between two or more parallel surfaces, the multiple beams of light generally interfere with one another, resulting in net transmission and reflection amplitudes that depend on the light's wavelength.", "The interference, however, is seen only when the surfaces are at distances comparable to or smaller than the light's coherence length, which for ordinary white light is few micrometers; it can be much larger for light from a laser.An example of interference between reflections is the iridescent colours seen in a soap bubble or in thin oil films on water.", "Applications include Fabry–Pérot interferometers, antireflection coatings, and optical filters.", "A quantitative analysis of these effects is based on the Fresnel equations, but with additional calculations to account for interference.The transfer-matrix method, or the recursive Rouard method can be used to solve multiple-surface problems." ], [ "History", "In 1808, Étienne-Louis Malus discovered that when a ray of light was reflected off a non-metallic surface at the appropriate angle, it behaved like ''one'' of the two rays emerging from a doubly-refractive calcite crystal.", "He later coined the term ''polarization'' to describe this behavior.", "In 1815, the dependence of the polarizing angle on the refractive index was determined experimentally by David Brewster.", "But the ''reason'' for that dependence was such a deep mystery that in late 1817, Thomas Young was moved to write:In 1821, however, Augustin-Jean Fresnel derived results equivalent to his sine and tangent laws (above), by modeling light waves as transverse elastic waves with vibrations perpendicular to what had previously been called the plane of polarization.", "Fresnel promptly confirmed by experiment that the equations correctly predicted the direction of polarization of the reflected beam when the incident beam was polarized at 45° to the plane of incidence, for light incident from air onto glass or water; in particular, the equations gave the correct polarization at Brewster's angle.", "The experimental confirmation was reported in a \"postscript\" to the work in which Fresnel first revealed his theory that light waves, including \"unpolarized\" waves, were ''purely'' transverse.Details of Fresnel's derivation, including the modern forms of the sine law and tangent law, were given later, in a memoir read to the French Academy of Sciences in January 1823.That derivation combined conservation of energy with continuity of the ''tangential'' vibration at the interface, but failed to allow for any condition on the ''normal'' component of vibration.", "The first derivation from ''electromagnetic'' principles was given by Hendrik Lorentz in 1875.In the same memoir of January 1823, Fresnel found that for angles of incidence greater than the critical angle, his formulas for the reflection coefficients ( and ) gave complex values with unit magnitudes.", "Noting that the magnitude, as usual, represented the ratio of peak amplitudes, he guessed that the argument represented the phase shift, and verified the hypothesis experimentally.", "The verification involved* calculating the angle of incidence that would introduce a total phase difference of 90° between the s and p components, for various numbers of total internal reflections at that angle (generally there were two solutions),* subjecting light to that number of total internal reflections at that angle of incidence, with an initial linear polarization at 45° to the plane of incidence, and* checking that the final polarization was circular.Thus he finally had a quantitative theory for what we now call the ''Fresnel rhomb'' — a device that he had been using in experiments, in one form or another, since 1817 (see ''Fresnel rhomb §History'').The success of the complex reflection coefficient inspired James MacCullagh and Augustin-Louis Cauchy, beginning in 1836, to analyze reflection from metals by using the Fresnel equations with a complex refractive index.Four weeks before he presented his completed theory of total internal reflection and the rhomb, Fresnel submitted a memoir in which he introduced the needed terms ''linear polarization'', ''circular polarization'', and ''elliptical polarization'', and in which he explained optical rotation as a species of birefringence: linearly-polarized light can be resolved into two circularly-polarized components rotating in opposite directions, and if these propagate at different speeds, the phase difference between them — hence the orientation of their linearly-polarized resultant — will vary continuously with distance.Thus Fresnel's interpretation of the complex values of his reflection coefficients marked the confluence of several streams of his research and, arguably, the essential completion of his reconstruction of physical optics on the transverse-wave hypothesis (see ''Augustin-Jean Fresnel'')." ], [ "Derivation", "Here we systematically derive the above relations from electromagnetic premises.=== Material parameters ===In order to compute meaningful Fresnel coefficients, we must assume that the medium is (approximately) linear and homogeneous.", "If the medium is also isotropic, the four field vectors are related bywhere and are scalars, known respectively as the (electric) ''permittivity'' and the (magnetic) ''permeability'' of the medium.", "For a vacuum, these have the values and , respectively.", "Hence we define the ''relative'' permittivity (or dielectric constant) , and the ''relative'' permeability .In optics it is common to assume that the medium is non-magnetic, so that .", "For ferromagnetic materials at radio/microwave frequencies, larger values of must be taken into account.", "But, for optically transparent media, and for all other materials at optical frequencies (except possible metamaterials), is indeed very close to 1; that is, .In optics, one usually knows the refractive index of the medium, which is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum () to the speed of light in the medium.", "In the analysis of partial reflection and transmission, one is also interested in the electromagnetic wave impedance , which is the ratio of the amplitude of to the amplitude of .", "It is therefore desirable to express and in terms of and , and thence to relate to .", "The last-mentioned relation, however, will make it convenient to derive the reflection coefficients in terms of the wave ''admittance'' , which is the reciprocal of the wave impedance .In the case of ''uniform plane sinusoidal'' waves, the wave impedance or admittance is known as the ''intrinsic'' impedance or admittance of the medium.", "This case is the one for which the Fresnel coefficients are to be derived.=== Electromagnetic plane waves ===In a uniform plane sinusoidal electromagnetic wave, the electric field has the formwhere is the (constant) complex amplitude vector, is the imaginary unit, is the wave vector (whose magnitude is the angular wavenumber), is the position vector, is the angular frequency, is time, and it is understood that the ''real part'' of the expression is the physical field.", "The value of the expression is unchanged if the position varies in a direction normal to ; hence ''is normal to the wavefronts''.To advance the phase by the angle ''ϕ'', we replace by (that is, we replace by ), with the result that the (complex) field is multiplied by .", "So a phase ''advance'' is equivalent to multiplication by a complex constant with a ''negative'' argument.", "This becomes more obvious when the field () is factored as , where the last factor contains the time-dependence.", "That factor also implies that differentiation w.r.t.", "time corresponds to multiplication by .If ''ℓ'' is the component of in the direction of , the field () can be written .", "If the argument of is to be constant,  ''ℓ'' must increase at the velocity known as the ''phase velocity'' .", "This in turn is equal to Solving for givesAs usual, we drop the time-dependent factor , which is understood to multiply every complex field quantity.", "The electric field for a uniform plane sine wave will then be represented by the location-dependent ''phasor''For fields of that form, Faraday's law and the Maxwell-Ampère law respectively reduce toPutting and , as above, we can eliminate and to obtain equations in only and :If the material parameters and are real (as in a lossless dielectric), these equations show that form a ''right-handed orthogonal triad'', so that the same equations apply to the magnitudes of the respective vectors.", "Taking the magnitude equations and substituting from (), we obtainwhere and are the magnitudes of and .", "Multiplying the last two equations givesDividing (or cross-multiplying) the same two equations gives , whereThis is the ''intrinsic admittance''.From () we obtain the phase velocity For a vacuum this reduces to Dividing the second result by the first givesFor a ''non-magnetic'' medium (the usual case), this becomes .Taking the reciprocal of (), we find that the intrinsic ''impedance'' is In a vacuum this takes the value known as the impedance of free space.", "By division, For a ''non-magnetic'' medium, this becomes === Wave vectors ===Incident, reflected, and transmitted wave vectors (, and ), for incidence from a medium with refractive index to a medium with refractive index .", "The red arrows are perpendicular to the wave vectors.In Cartesian coordinates , let the region have refractive index , intrinsic admittance , etc., and let the region have refractive index , intrinsic admittance , etc.", "Then the plane is the interface, and the axis is normal to the interface (see diagram).", "Let and (in bold roman type) be the unit vectors in the and directions, respectively.", "Let the plane of incidence be the plane (the plane of the page), with the angle of incidence measured from towards .", "Let the angle of refraction, measured in the same sense, be , where the subscript stands for ''transmitted'' (reserving for ''reflected'').In the absence of Doppler shifts, ''ω'' does not change on reflection or refraction.", "Hence, by (), the magnitude of the wave vector is proportional to the refractive index.So, for a given , if we ''redefine'' as the magnitude of the wave vector in the ''reference'' medium (for which ), then the wave vector has magnitude in the first medium (region in the diagram) and magnitude in the second medium.", "From the magnitudes and the geometry, we find that the wave vectors arewhere the last step uses Snell's law.", "The corresponding dot products in the phasor form () areHence:=== The ''s'' components ===For the ''s'' polarization, the field is parallel to the axis and may therefore be described by its component in the  direction.", "Let the reflection and transmission coefficients be and , respectively.", "Then, if the incident field is taken to have unit amplitude, the phasor form () of its -component isand the reflected and transmitted fields, in the same form, areUnder the sign convention used in this article, a positive reflection or transmission coefficient is one that preserves the direction of the ''transverse'' field, meaning (in this context) the field normal to the plane of incidence.", "For the ''s'' polarization, that means the field.", "If the incident, reflected, and transmitted fields (in the above equations) are in the -direction (\"out of the page\"), then the respective fields are in the directions of the red arrows, since form a right-handed orthogonal triad.", "The fields may therefore be described by their components in the directions of those arrows, denoted by .", "Then, since ,At the interface, by the usual interface conditions for electromagnetic fields, the tangential components of the and fields must be continuous; that is,}When we substitute from equations () to () and then from (), the exponential factors cancel out, so that the interface conditions reduce to the simultaneous equationswhich are easily solved for and , yieldingandAt ''normal incidence'' , indicated by an additional subscript 0, these results becomeandAt ''grazing incidence'' , we have , hence and .=== The ''p'' components ===For the ''p'' polarization, the incident, reflected, and transmitted fields are parallel to the red arrows and may therefore be described by their components in the directions of those arrows.", "Let those components be (redefining the symbols for the new context).", "Let the reflection and transmission coefficients be and .", "Then, if the incident field is taken to have unit amplitude, we haveIf the fields are in the directions of the red arrows, then, in order for to form a right-handed orthogonal triad, the respective fields must be in the  direction (\"into the page\") and may therefore be described by their components in that direction.", "This is consistent with the adopted sign convention, namely that a positive reflection or transmission coefficient is one that preserves the direction of the transverse field the field in the case of the ''p'' polarization.", "The agreement of the ''other'' field with the red arrows reveals an alternative definition of the sign convention: that a positive reflection or transmission coefficient is one for which the field vector in the plane of incidence points towards the same medium before and after reflection or transmission.So, for the incident, reflected, and transmitted fields, let the respective components in the  direction be .", "Then, since ,At the interface, the tangential components of the and fields must be continuous; that is,}When we substitute from equations () and () and then from (), the exponential factors again cancel out, so that the interface conditions reduce toSolving for and , we findandAt ''normal incidence'' indicated by an additional subscript 0, these results becomeandAt , we again have , hence and .Comparing () and () with () and (), we see that at ''normal'' incidence, under the adopted sign convention, the transmission coefficients for the two polarizations are equal, whereas the reflection coefficients have equal magnitudes but opposite signs.", "While this clash of signs is a disadvantage of the convention, the attendant advantage is that the signs agree at ''grazing'' incidence.=== Power ratios (reflectivity and transmissivity) ===The ''Poynting vector'' for a wave is a vector whose component in any direction is the ''irradiance'' (power per unit area) of that wave on a surface perpendicular to that direction.", "For a plane sinusoidal wave the Poynting vector is , where and are due ''only'' to the wave in question, and the asterisk denotes complex conjugation.", "Inside a lossless dielectric (the usual case), and are in phase, and at right angles to each other and to the wave vector ; so, for s polarization, using the and components of and respectively (or for p polarization, using the and components of and ), the irradiance in the direction of is given simply by , which is in a medium of intrinsic impedance .", "To compute the irradiance in the direction normal to the interface, as we shall require in the definition of the power transmission coefficient, we could use only the component (rather than the full component) of or or, equivalently, simply multiply by the proper geometric factor, obtaining .From equations () and (), taking squared magnitudes, we find that the ''reflectivity'' (ratio of reflected power to incident power) isfor the s polarization, andfor the p polarization.", "Note that when comparing the powers of two such waves in the same medium and with the same cos''θ'', the impedance and geometric factors mentioned above are identical and cancel out.", "But in computing the power ''transmission'' (below), these factors must be taken into account.The simplest way to obtain the power transmission coefficient (''transmissivity'', the ratio of transmitted power to incident power ''in the direction normal to the interface'', i.e.", "the direction) is to use (conservation of energy).", "In this way we findfor the s polarization, andfor the p polarization.In the case of an interface between two lossless media (for which ϵ and μ are ''real'' and positive), one can obtain these results directly using the squared magnitudes of the amplitude transmission coefficients that we found earlier in equations () and ().", "But, for given amplitude (as noted above), the component of the Poynting vector in the direction is proportional to the geometric factor and inversely proportional to the wave impedance .", "Applying these corrections to each wave, we obtain two ratios multiplying the square of the amplitude transmission coefficient:for the s polarization, andfor the p polarization.", "The last two equations apply only to lossless dielectrics, and only at incidence angles smaller than the critical angle (beyond which, of course, ).For unpolarized light:where .=== Equal refractive indices ===From equations () and (), we see that two dissimilar media will have the same refractive index, but different admittances, if the ratio of their permeabilities is the inverse of the ratio of their permittivities.", "In that unusual situation we have (that is, the transmitted ray is undeviated), so that the cosines in equations (), (), (), (), and () to () cancel out, and all the reflection and transmission ratios become independent of the angle of incidence; in other words, the ratios for normal incidence become applicable to all angles of incidence.", "When extended to spherical reflection or scattering, this results in the Kerker effect for Mie scattering.=== Non-magnetic media ===Since the Fresnel equations were developed for optics, they are usually given for non-magnetic materials.", "Dividing () by ()) yieldsFor non-magnetic media we can substitute the vacuum permeability for , so thatthat is, the admittances are simply proportional to the corresponding refractive indices.", "When we make these substitutions in equations () to () and equations () to (), the factor ''cμ''0 cancels out.", "For the amplitude coefficients we obtain:For the case of normal incidence these reduce to:The power reflection coefficients become:The power transmissions can then be found from .=== Brewster's angle ===For equal permeabilities (e.g., non-magnetic media), if and are ''complementary'', we can substitute for , and for , so that the numerator in equation () becomes , which is zero (by Snell's law).", "Hence and only the s-polarized component is reflected.", "This is what happens at the Brewster angle.", "Substituting for in Snell's law, we readily obtainfor Brewster's angle.=== Equal permittivities ===Although it is not encountered in practice, the equations can also apply to the case of two media with a common permittivity but different refractive indices due to different permeabilities.", "From equations () and (), if is fixed instead of , then becomes ''inversely'' proportional to , with the result that the subscripts 1 and 2 in equations () to () are interchanged (due to the additional step of multiplying the numerator and denominator by ).", "Hence, in () and (), the expressions for and in terms of refractive indices will be interchanged, so that Brewster's angle () will give instead of , and any beam reflected at that angle will be p-polarized instead of s-polarized.", "Similarly, Fresnel's sine law will apply to the p polarization instead of the s polarization, and his tangent law to the s polarization instead of the p polarization.This switch of polarizations has an analog in the old mechanical theory of light waves (see ''§History'', above).", "One could predict reflection coefficients that agreed with observation by supposing (like Fresnel) that different refractive indices were due to different ''densities'' and that the vibrations were ''normal'' to what was then called the plane of polarization, or by supposing (like MacCullagh and Neumann) that different refractive indices were due to different ''elasticities'' and that the vibrations were ''parallel'' to that plane.", "Thus the condition of equal permittivities and unequal permeabilities, although not realistic, is of some historical interest." ], [ "See also", "* Jones calculus* Polarization mixing* Index-matching material* Field and power quantities* Fresnel rhomb, Fresnel's apparatus to produce circularly polarised light* Reflection loss* Specular reflection* Schlick's approximation* Snell's window* X-ray reflectivity* Plane of incidence* Reflections of signals on conducting lines" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* M. Born and E. Wolf, 1970, ''Principles of Optics'', 4th Ed., Oxford: Pergamon Press.", "* J.Z.", "Buchwald, 1989, ''The Rise of the Wave Theory of Light: Optical Theory and Experiment in the Early Nineteenth Century'', University of Chicago Press, .", "* R.E.", "Collin, 1966, ''Foundations for Microwave Engineering'', Tokyo: McGraw-Hill.", "* O. Darrigol, 2012, ''A History of Optics: From Greek Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century'', Oxford, .", "* A. Fresnel, 1866 (ed.", "H. de Senarmont, E. Verdet, and L. Fresnel), ''Oeuvres complètes d'Augustin Fresnel'', Paris: Imprimerie Impériale (3 vols., 1866–70), vol.1 (1866).", "* E. Hecht, 1987, ''Optics'', 2nd Ed., Addison Wesley, .", "* E. Hecht, 2002, ''Optics'', 4th Ed., Addison Wesley, .", "* F.A.", "Jenkins and H.E.", "White, 1976, ''Fundamentals of Optics'', 4th Ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, .", "* H. Lloyd, 1834, \"Report on the progress and present state of physical optics\", ''Report of the Fourth Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science'' (held at Edinburgh in 1834), London: J. Murray, 1835, pp.295–413.", "* W. Whewell, 1857, ''History of the Inductive Sciences: From the Earliest to the Present Time'', 3rd Ed., London: J.W.", "Parker & Son, vol.2.", "* E. T. Whittaker, 1910, ''A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity: From the Age of Descartes to the Close of the Nineteenth Century'', London: Longmans, Green, & Co." ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * ''Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd Edition)'', R.G.", "Lerner, G.L.", "Trigg, VHC publishers, 1991, ISBN (Verlagsgesellschaft) 3-527-26954-1, ISBN (VHC Inc.) 0-89573-752-3* ''McGraw Hill Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd Edition)'', C.B.", "Parker, 1994," ], [ "External links", "* Fresnel Equations – Wolfram.", "* Fresnel equations calculator* FreeSnell – Free software computes the optical properties of multilayer materials.", "* Thinfilm – Web interface for calculating optical properties of thin films and multilayer materials (reflection & transmission coefficients, ellipsometric parameters Psi & Delta).", "* Simple web interface for calculating single-interface reflection and refraction angles and strengths.", "* Reflection and transmittance for two dielectrics – Mathematica interactive webpage that shows the relations between index of refraction and reflection.", "* A self-contained first-principles derivation of the transmission and reflection probabilities from a multilayer with complex indices of refraction." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Figure skating" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Figure skating''' is a sport in which individuals, pairs, or groups perform on figure skates on ice.", "It was the first winter sport to be included in the Olympic Games, with its introduction occurring at the 1908 Olympics in London.", "The Olympic disciplines are men's singles, women's singles, pair skating, and ice dance; the four individual disciplines are also combined into a team event, which was first included in the Winter Olympics in 2014.The non-Olympic disciplines include synchronized skating, Theater on Ice, and four skating.", "From intermediate through senior-level competition, skaters generally perform two programs (the short program and the free skate), which, depending on the discipline, may include spins, jumps, moves in the field, lifts, throw jumps, death spirals, and other elements or moves.Figure skaters compete at various levels from beginner up to the Olympic level (senior) at local, regional, sectional, national, and international competitions.", "The International Skating Union (ISU) regulates international figure skating judging and competitions.", "These include the Winter Olympics, the World Championships, the World Junior Championships, the European Championships, the Four Continents Championships, the Grand Prix series (senior and junior), and the ISU Challenger Series.The sport is also associated with show business.", "Major competitions generally conclude with exhibition galas, in which the top skaters from each discipline perform non-competitive programs.", "Many skaters, both during and after their competitive careers, also skate in ice shows, which run during the competitive season and the off-season." ], [ "Terminology", "\"Central Park, Winter: the Skating Pond\", 1862 lithographThe term \"professional\" in skating refers not to skill level but competitive status.", "Figure skaters competing at the highest levels of international competition are not \"professional\" skaters.", "They are sometimes referred to as amateurs, even though some earn money.", "Professional skaters include those who have lost their ISU eligibility and those who perform only in shows.", "They may also include former Olympic and World champions who have ended their competitive career, as well as skaters with little or no international competitive experience.", "In addition to performing in ice shows, professional skaters often compete in professional competitions, which are held throughout the world, each with its own format and rules.In languages other than English, Japanese, Korean, Chinese, Italian, Polish, and Russian, figure skating is usually referred to by a name that translates as \"artistic skating\"." ], [ "Figure skates", "blade, showing the toe picks, the hollow (groove) on the bottom of the blade, and screw attachmentThe most visible difference to ice hockey skates is that figure skates have a set of large, jagged teeth called ''toe picks'' on the front part of the blade.", "These are used primarily in jumping and should not be used for stroking or spins.", "If used during a spin, the toe pick will cause the skater to lose momentum, or move away from the center of the spin.", "Blades are mounted to the sole and heel of the boot with screws.", "Typically, high-level figure skaters are professionally fitted for their boots and blades at a reputable skate shop.", "Professionals are also employed to sharpen blades to individual requirements.Blade sharpeningedgesBlades are about thick.", "When viewed from the side, the blade of a figure skate is not flat, but curved slightly, forming an arc of a circle with a radius of .", "This curvature is referred to as the ''rocker'' of the blade.", "The \"sweet spot\" is the part of the blade on which all spins are rotated; this is usually located near the stanchion of the blade, below the ball of the foot.", "The blade is also \"hollow ground\"; a groove on the bottom of the blade creates two distinct edges, inside and outside.", "The '''inside edge''' of the blade is on the side closest to the skater; the '''outside edge''' of the blade is on the side farthest from the skater.", "In figure skating, it is always desirable to skate on only one edge of the blade.", "Skating on both at the same time (which is referred to as a ''flat'') may result in lower skating skills scores.", "The apparently effortless power and glide across the ice exhibited by elite figure skaters fundamentally derives from efficient use of the edges to generate speed.Skates used in singles and pair skating have a set of large, jagged teeth called a '''toepick''' on the front of each blade.", "The toepicks are mainly used to help launch the skater into the air for the take-off when performing jumps.", "Ice dance blades have smaller toepicks than blades used for the other disciplines.During a spin, skaters use the '''sweet spot''' of the blade, which is one of two rockers to be found on a blade and is the roundest portion of the blade.", "The sweet spot is located just behind the toe pick and near the middle of the blade.", "The other rocker is the more general curvature of the blade when stroking or gliding.Ice dancers' blades are about an inch shorter in the rear than those used by skaters in other disciplines, to accommodate the intricate footwork and close partnering in dance.", "Dancers' blades also have a smaller toepick as they do not require the large toepick used for jumping in the other disciplines.", "Hard plastic ''skate guards'' are used when the skater must walk in his or her skates when not on the ice, to protect the blade from dirt or material on the ground that may dull the blade.", "Soft blade covers called ''soakers'' are used to absorb condensation and protect the blades from rust when the skates are not being worn.", "In competition, skaters are allowed three minutes to make repairs to their skates.There are many different types of boots and blades to suit different disciplines and abilities.", "For example, athletes who are performing advanced multi-rotational jumps often need a stiffer boot that is higher and gives more support.", "Athletes working on single or double jumps require less support and may use a less stiff boot.", "Ice dancers may prefer a lower cut boot that is designed to enable more knee bend.Likewise, blades designed for free and pairs skating have a longer tail to assist landing.", "The blade profile and picks are designed to assist with spinning, jump entry, take-off, landing, and exit.", "Modern blade technology increasingly uses carbon fibre and materials other than steel to make blades lighter.", "These materials may also be more flexible and help cushion jump landings and be protective of young athlete's joints.", "Ice dance blades have short tails to enable close foot work and reduce the risk of blade clash in close complex moves.", "They may also be thinner to assist with glide and fast changes of edge.Off-ice training is the term for physical conditioning that takes place off the ice.", "Besides regular physical exercise, skaters do walk-throughs of jumps off the ice to practice sufficient rotation and height of their jumps, and to practice consistency in landing on one foot.", "In 2020/2021 many athletes relied on a variety of off-ice training and conditioning methods due to rinks being closed due to COVID-19." ], [ "Ice rinks and rink equipment", "There is significant variation in the dimensions of ice rinks.", "Olympic-sized rinks have dimensions of , NHL-sized rinks are , while European rinks are sometimes .", "The ISU prefers Olympic-sized rinks for figure skating competitions, particularly for major events.", "According to ISU rule 342, a figure skating rink for an ISU event \"if possible, shall measure sixty (60) meters in one direction and thirty (30) meters in the other, but not larger, and not less than fifty-six (56) meters in one direction and twenty-six (26) meters in the other.\"", "The scoring system rewards skaters who have good ice coverage, i.e.", "those who efficiently cover the entire ice surface during their programs.", "Olympic-sized rinks make the differences in skill between skaters more apparent but they are not available for all events.", "If a rink has different dimensions, a skater's jump setup and speed may be hindered as he or she adjusts.Ice quality is judged by smoothness, friction, hardness, and brittleness.", "Factors affecting ice quality include temperature, water quality, and usage, with toe picks causing more deterioration.", "For figure skating, the ice surface temperature is normally maintained between and , with the Olympic disciplines requiring slightly softer ice (−3.5°C) than synchronized skating (−5.5°C).", "Typically after every two warm-up groups, an ice resurfacer cleans and smooths the surface of the ice sheet.", "Inadequate ice quality may affect skaters' performances.Some rinks have a harness system installed to help skaters learn new jumps in a controlled manner.", "A heavy-duty cable is securely attached to two of the walls around the ice, with a set of pulleys riding on the cable.", "The skater wears a vest or belt, with a cable or rope attached to it, and the cable/rope is threaded through the movable pulley on the cable above.", "The coach holds the other end of the cable and lifts the skater by pulling the cable/rope.", "The skater can then practice the jump with the coach assisting the completion.", "This is used when a skater needs more help on a jump.", "However, if the coaches see fit, they could use another harness usually called \"the fishing pole harness.\"", "It is named that because it looks similar to a fishing pole.", "The skater will put on the harness and the coach will adjust it so it fits the skater.", "The skater will go and do the jump with very little help from their coach.", "They can also do the jump on any pattern they choose, whereas, the other harness, they must do in a straight line." ], [ "Disciplines", "Figure skating consists of the following disciplines:*In '''Single skating''', male and female skaters compete individually.", "Figure skating is the oldest winter sport contested at the Olympics, with men's and women's single skating appearing as two of the four figure skating events at the London Games in 1908.Single skating has required elements that skaters must perform during a competition and that make up a well-balanced skating program.", "They include jumps (and jump combinations), spins, step sequences, and choreographic sequences.", "*'''Pair skating''' is defined as \"the skating of two persons in unison who perform their movements in such harmony with each other as to give the impression of genuine Pair Skating as compared with independent Single Skating\".", "The ISU also states that a pairs team consists of \"one Woman and one Man\".", "Pair skating, along with men's and women's single skating, has been an Olympic discipline since figure skating, the oldest Winter Olympic sport, was introduced at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London.", "The ISU World Figure Skating Championships introduced pair skating in 1908.Pair skating required elements include lifts, twist lifts, jumps and partner assisted jumps, pair spins, death spirals, step sequences, and choreographic sequences.", "The elements performed by pairs teams must be \"linked together by connecting steps of a different nature\" and by other comparable movements and with a variety of holds and positions.", "*'''Ice dance''' historically draws from ballroom dancing.", "It joined the World Figure Skating Championships in 1952, and became a Winter Olympic Games medal sport in 1976.According to the ISU, an ice dance team consists of one woman and one man.", "Ice dance has its roots in the \"combined skating\" developed in the 19th century by skating clubs and organizations and in recreational social skating.", "The first national competitions occurred in England, Canada, the U.S., and Austria during the 1930s.", "The first international ice dance competition took place as a special event at the World Championships in 1950 in London.", "The elements ice dance teams must perform are the dance lift, the dance spin, the step sequence, twizzles, and choreographic elements.", "*'''Synchronized skating''' (formerly known as \"precision skating\") is for mixed-gender groups of between twelve and twenty figure skaters.", "This discipline resembles a group form of ice dance, with additional emphasis on precise formations of the group as a whole and complex transitions between formations.", "The basic formations include wheels, blocks, lines, circles, and intersections.", "The close formations, and the need for the team to stay in unison, add to the difficulty of the footwork performed by the skaters in these elements.", "Formal proposals were put forward by the ISU to include synchronized skating in the 2022 Winter Olympics, but those efforts have been unsuccessful.", "*'''Compulsory figures''' or '''school figures''' were formerly a discipline of figure skating, and gave the sport its name.", "They are the \"circular patterns which skaters trace on the ice to demonstrate skill in placing clean turns evenly on round circles\".", "For approximately the first 50 years of figure skating as a sport, until 1947, compulsory figures made up 60 percent of the total score at most competitions around the world.", "These figures continued to dominate the sport, although they steadily declined in importance, until the ISU voted to discontinue them as a part of competitions in 1990.Since 2015 with the founding of the World Figure Sport Society and the World Figure & Fancy Skating Championships & Festival on black ice more skaters are training and competing in figures.", "More coaches are learning the new methods developed by World Figure Sport to teach them to skaters, as some skaters and coaches believe that figures give skaters an advantage in developing alignment, core strength, body control, and discipline.File:Camel yuna1.jpg|South Korean singles skater Yuna Kim, 2008File:Camille RUEST Andrew WOLFE-GPFrance 2018-Pairs FS-IMG 1465.jpeg|Canadian pair skaters Camille Ruest and Andrew Wolfe, 2018File:2013 Nebelhorn Trophy Pilar Maekawa Moreno Leonardo Maekawa Moreno IMG 7885.JPG|Mexican ice dancers Pilar Maekawa Moreno and Leonardo Maekawa Moreno, 2013File:Haydenettes 2006.jpg|American synchronized skating team The Haydenettes, 2006File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-K1217-0035, Sonja Morgenstern.jpg|Sonja Morgenstern from Germany demonstrating compulsory figures, 1971" ], [ "Elements and moves", "Each element receives a score according to its base value and grade of execution (GOE), resulting in a combined technical elements score (TES).", "At competitions, a technical specialist identifies the elements and assigns each one a level of difficulty, ranging from B (Basic) to Level 4 (most difficult).", "For each element, a panel of judges determines the GOE, ranging between −5 and +5, according to how well the skater executes the element.", "The GOE is weighted according to the base value of the element.", "Through the ISU guidelines skaters must perform a minimum of seven elements in their short program and twelve elements in their long program.The ISU defines a fall as a loss of control with the result that the majority of the skater's body weight is not on the blade but supported by hands, knees, or buttocks.===Jumps=== ISU abbreviations:Jumps T Toe loop S Salchow Lo Loop F Flip Lz Lutz A AxelJumps involve the skater leaping into the air and rotating rapidly to land after completing one or more rotations.", "There are many types of jumps, identified by the way the skater takes off and lands, as well as by the number of rotations that are completed.Each jump receives a score according to its base value and grade of execution (GOE).", "Quality of execution, technique, height, speed, flow and ice coverage are considered by the judges.", "An ''under-rotated'' jump (indicated byFile:2011 WFSC 4d 066 Ross Miner.JPG|Ross Miner sets up for a jump.File:2011 WFSC 3d 009 Denis Ten.JPG|Denis Ten sets up for a jump.File:2011 WFSC 3d 183 Kevin van der Perren.JPG|Kevin van der Perren rotates in the air.File:Jamal Othman Jump 2 - 2006 Skate Canada.jpg|Jamal Othman lands on the right back outside edge.File:Marissa Castelli & Simon Shnapir 2LoTh 2009 Junior Worlds.jpg|Pairs skaters Marissa Castelli and Simon Shnapir set up for a throw jump.File:Jessica Miller & Ian Moram Throw Jump - 2006 Skate Canada.jpg|A pair team after the woman has been thrown: Jessica Miller rotates in the air.File:Anabelle Langlois & Cody Hay Throw Jump - 2006 Skate America.jpg|Anabelle Langlois lands after performing a throw jump with Cody Hay.===Spins==='''Spins''' are an element in which the skater rotates, centered on a single point on the ice, while holding one or more body positions.", "They are performed by all disciplines of the sport.", "As ''The New York Times'' says, \"While jumps look like sport, spins look more like art.", "While jumps provide the suspense, spins provide the scenery, but there is so much more to the scenery than most viewers have time or means to grasp\".", "According to world champion and figure skating commentator Scott Hamilton, spins are often used \"as breathing points or transitions to bigger things\"Figure skating spins, along with jumps, spirals, and spread eagles were originally individual compulsory figures, sometimes special figures.", "Unlike jumps, spins were a \"graceful and appreciated\" part of figure skating throughout the 19th century.", "They advanced between World War I and World War II; by the late 1930s, all three basic spin positions were used.There are two types of spins, the '''forward spin''' and the '''backward spin'''.", "There are three basic spin positions: the '''upright spin''', the '''sit spin''', and the '''camel spin'''.", "Skaters also perform '''flying spins''' and '''combination spins'''.File:2020-01-11 Women's Single Figure Skating Short Program (2020 Winter Youth Olympics) by Sandro Halank–018.jpg|Camel spinFile:2011 Figure Skating WC Tomáš Verner (4).jpg|Sit spinFile:Elena Sokolova 04 NHK 2.jpg|Upright spinFile:Dominika Piatkowska & Dmitri Khromin Spin - 2006 Skate America.jpg|Pair camel spinFile:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-U1215-0046, Sabine Baeß, Tassilo Thierbach.jpg|Pair spin with woman in layback and man in sit spinFile:2012 WFSC 07d 843 Polina Korobeynikova.JPG|Layback spin with catch-footFile:2011 Cup of China Yuzuru Hanyu.jpg|Biellmann spinFile:Joubert 09Eurosp by Carmichael.jpg|Death drop===Lifts===Pair skaters performing a one-arm overhead lift'''Figure skating lifts''' are required elements in pair skating and ice dance.", "There are five groups of '''lifts in pair skating''', categorized in order of increasing level of difficulty.", "Judges look for the following when evaluating pair lifts: speed of entry and exit; control of the woman's free leg when she is exiting out of the lift, with the goal of keeping the leg high and sweeping; the position of the woman in the air; the man's footwork; quick and easy changes of position; and the maintenance of flow throughout the lift.", "'''Twist lifts''' are \"the most thrilling and exciting component in pair skating\".", "They can also be the most difficult movement to perform correctly.", "They require more strength and coordination than many other pair elements, and are usually the first or second element in a program.", "According to the International Skating Union (ISU), \"the Woman must be caught in the air at the waist by the Man prior to landing and be assisted to a smooth landing on the ice on a backward outside edge on one foot\" during a twist lift.The ISU defines '''dance lifts''' as \"a movement in which one of the partners is elevated with active and/or passive assistance of the other partner to any permitted height, sustained there and set down on the ice\".", "Dance lifts are delineated from pair lifts to ensure that ice dance and pair skating remain separate disciplines.", "After the judging system changed from the 6.0 system to the ISU Judging System (IJS), dance lifts became more \"athletic, dramatic and exciting\".", "There are two types of dance lifts: '''short lifts''', which should be done in under seven seconds; and '''combination lifts''', which should be done in under 12 seconds.", "A well-balanced free dance program in ice dance must include dance lifts.===Turns, steps, moves===Along with other forms of skating, figure skating is one of the only human powered activities where travelling backwards is integral to the discipline.", "The ability to skate well backwards and forwards are considered to be equally important, as is the ability to transition well between the two.Step sequences are a required element in all four Olympic disciplines.", "The pattern can be straight line, circular, or serpentine.", "The step sequence consists of a combination of turns, steps, hops and edge changes.", "Additionally, steps and turns can be used as transitions between elements.", "The various turns, which skaters can incorporate into step sequences, include:File:Threeturn.GIF|Three-turn: the blade turns into the curve of the edge or lobe.File:Bracket.GIF|Bracket turn: the blade is turned counter to the curve of the lobe.File:Mohawk-trace.png|Mohawk: the two-foot equivalentFile:Rocker turn.gif|Rocker: one-foot turn involving a change of lobe as well as directionFile:Counter.GIF|Counter: one-foot turn involving a change of lobe as well as directionFile:2011 WFSC 2d 259 Siobhan Heekin-Canedy Alexander Shakalov.JPG|Twizzles: traveling multi-rotation turns on one footChoctaws are the two-foot equivalents of rockers and counters.", "Other movements that may be incorporated into step sequences or used as connecting elements include lunges and spread eagles.", "An Ina Bauer is similar to a spread eagle performed with one knee bent and typically an arched back.", "Hydroblading refers to a deep edge performed with the body as low as possible to the ice in a near-horizontal position.Moves in the field is a pre-determined required sequence that demonstrated basic skating skills and edge control.", "In the context of a competitive program, they include sequences that may include spirals, spread eagles, Ina Bauers, hydroblading, and similar extended edge moves, along with loops, twizzles, and different kinds of turns.A spiral is an element in which the skater moves across the ice on a specific edge with the free leg held at hip level or above.", "Spirals are distinguished by the edge of the blade used (inside or outside), the direction of motion (forward or backward), and the skater's position.", "A spiral sequence is one or more spiral positions and edges done in sequence.", "Judges look at the depth, stability, and control of the skating edge, speed and ice coverage, extension, and other factors.", "Some skaters can change edges during a spiral, i.e.", "from inside to outside edge.", "Spirals performed on a \"flat\" are generally not considered as true spirals.", "Spiral sequences were required in women's and pair skating prior to the 2012–13 season, but from the 2012–13 season onward, they were replaced by the choreographic sequence.", "The choreographic sequence consists of moves in the field, unlisted jumps, spinning movements, etc.", "and is required for the men's, women's and pair free program.A death spiral is a required element of pair skating.", "There are four varieties distinguished by the lady's edge and direction of motion.", "The man performs a pivot, one toe anchored in the ice, while holding the hand of his partner, who circles him on a deep edge with her body almost parallel to the ice.", "As of 2011, the woman's head must at some time reach her skating knee.", "The man must also be in a full pivot position and the death spiral must be held for a minimum amount of rotation, depending on the level.File:Jenni Vahamaa 2008 Junior Worlds.jpg|A basic outside edge spiral position with the free leg held unsupported behind the bodyFile:Maria Mukhortova & Maxim Trankov - 2006 Skate America.jpg|A pair outside edge spiral in a catch-foot positionFile:McLaughlin Brubaker Death Spiral.jpg|Back inside death spiralFile:Kristina Gorshkova & Vitali Butikov 2005 Croatia Cup.jpg|Parallel mirror spread eagles with the man on an inside edge and the woman on an outside edgeFile:Tugba Karademir Ina Bauer - 2006 Skate Canada.jpg|Ina Bauer2010 Canadian Championships Dance - Kharis Ralph - Asher Hill - 2024a.jpg|Canadian Championships DanceFile:2011 WFSC 4d 002 Kim Lucine.JPG|HydrobladingFile:2012 Rostelecom Cup 02d 800 Tessa VIRTUE Scott MOIR.JPG|Male ice dancer in Besti squat while lifting his partnerFile:2019 Skate Canada International - Yuzuru Hanyu SP.jpg|Spread eagle" ], [ "Competition format and scoring", "Pair skaters performing crossoversThe ISU is the governing body for international competitions in figure skating, including the World Championships and the figure skating events at the Winter Olympic Games.", "Medals are awarded for overall results; the standard medals are gold for first place, silver for second, and bronze for third place.", "U.S.", "Figure Skating also awards pewter medals for fourth-place finishers in national events.", "Additionally, at the World, European, Four Continents, and World Junior Championships, the ISU awards ''small medals'' for segment results (short and free program) (Since 2009).", "A medal is generally attributed to only one country, even if a partnership is composed of skaters with different nationalities.", "A notable exception was the pair skating partnership between Ludowika Eilers and Walter Jakobsson; their 1910–11 medals were attributed to both Germany and Finland.", "Beyond the early 20th century, no skaters have been allowed to represent two countries in the same competition.In singles and pairs figure skating competition, competitors perform two programs: the short program, in which they complete a set of required elements consisting of jumps, spins and steps; and the free skate, also known as the ''long program'', in which they have a slightly wider choice of elements.", "Under both the 6.0 system and the ISU Judging System, the judges consider the \"complete package\" when evaluating performances, i.e.", "the best jumper is not always placed first if the judges consider the difference in jumping execution to be outweighed by another skater's speed, spins, presentation, etc.Ice dance competitions formerly consisted of three phases: one or more compulsory dances; an original dance to a ballroom rhythm that was designated annually; and a free dance to music of the skaters' own choice.", "Beginning in the 2010–11 season, the compulsory and original dances were merged into the short dance, which itself was renamed the ''rhythm dance'' in June 2018, before the 2018–19 season.===Medals===Source:====Overall Medals (Stage 1 + Stage 2)====Medals awarded to the skaters who achieved the highest overall placements in each discipline.====Small Medals====Small Medals awraded only at ISU Championships since probably 2009:'''Stage 1 =''' Small medals awarded to the skaters who achieved the highest short program or rhythm dance placements in each discipline.", "'''Stage 2 =''' Small medals awarded to the skaters who achieved the highest free skating or free dance placements in each discipline.Small Medals awraded only at ISU Championships:#World Figure Skating Championships#World Junior Figure Skating Championships#European Figure Skating Championships#Four Continents Figure Skating ChampionshipsSmall Medals not awraded in:#Figure skating at the Olympic Games#ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating#or any other international competitions===6.0 System===Skating was formerly judged for \"technical merit\" (in the free skate), \"required elements\" (in the short program), and \"presentation\" (in both programs).", "The marks for each program ran from 0.0 to 6.0, the latter being the highest.", "These marks were used to determine a preference ranking (or \"ordinal\") separately for each judge; the judges' preferences were then combined to determine placements for each skater in each program.", "The placements for the two programs were then combined, with the free skate placement weighted more heavily than the short program.", "The highest placing individual (based on the sum of the weighted placements) was declared the winner.===ISU Judging System===In 2004, in response to the judging controversy during the 2002 Winter Olympics, the ISU adopted the International Judging System (IJS), which became mandatory at all international competitions in 2006, including the 2006 Winter Olympics.", "The new system is sometimes informally referred to as the ''Code of Points'', however, the ISU has never used the term to describe their system in any of their official communications.Under the IJS, points are awarded individually for each skating element, and the sum of these points is the ''total element score'' (TES).", "Competitive programs are constrained to include a set number of elements.", "Each element is judged first by a technical specialist who identifies the specific element and determines its ''base value''.", "This is done using instant replay video to verify features that distinguish different elements; e.g.", "the exact foot position at take-off and landing of a jump.", "A panel of nine judges then each award a mark for the quality and execution of the element.", "This mark, called the ''grade of execution'' (GOE), is an integer with a minimum value of −5 and a maximum value of +5.The GOE mark is then translated into another value by using the table of values in ISU rule 322.The GOE value from the nine judges is then processed with a computerized random selection of nine judges, the highest and lowest values are then discarded, and finally the average of the remaining seven is calculated.", "This average value is then added to (or subtracted from) the base value to determine the total value for the element.Note: The IJS previously used a GOE scale of −3 to +3 but this was changed for the 2018–19 season and is in the early stages of being tested in competitions.The ''program components score'' (PCS) awards points to holistic aspects of a program or other nuances that are not rewarded in the ''total element score''.", "The components are::* '''''Composition ''''': This evaluates how the program is designed in relation to the music; how are the different elements connected; how is the available space used; how does the choreography reflect musical phrase and form?", ":* '''''Presentation''''': This evaluates how the program is performed; what does the skater express and project; what energy is created; what is the musical sensitivity and timing; for Pair, Ice Dance and Synchronized skating is the skating appropriately synchronized and showing awareness of space?", ":* '''''Skating skills''''': This mark assesses the skater's command of the blade over the ice, including the ability to skate with power and ease.", "The judges look at variety and clarity of edges, balance, body control, turns, steps, flow, power and speed.A detailed description of each component is given in ISU rule 322.2.Judges award each component a raw mark from 0 to 10 in increments of 0.25, with a mark of 5 being defined as \"average\".", "For each separate component, the raw marks are then selected, trimmed, and averaged in a manner akin to determining a ''grade of execution''.", "The trimmed mean scores are then translated into a factored mark by multiplying by a factor that depends on the discipline, competition segment, and level.", "Then the five (or four) factored marks are added to give the final PCS score.The ''total element score'' and the ''program components score'' are added to give the total score for a competition segment (TSS).", "A skater's final placement is determined by the total of their scores in all segments of a competition.", "No ordinal rankings are used to determine the final results.===Other judging and competition===There are also skating competitions organized for professional skaters by independent promoters.", "These competitions use judging rules set by whoever organizes the competition.", "There is no \"professional league\".", "Well-known professional competitions in the past have included the World Professional Championships (held in Landover, Maryland), the Challenge Of Champions, the Canadian Professional Championships and the World Professional Championships (held in Jaca, Spain).The Ice Skating Institute (ISI), an international ice rink trade organization, runs its own competitive and test program aimed at recreational skaters.", "Originally headquartered in Minnesota, the organization now operates out of Dallas, Texas.", "ISI competitions are open to any member that have registered their tests.", "There are very few \"qualifying\" competitions, although some districts hold Gold Competitions for that season's first-place winners.", "ISI competitions are especially popular in Asian countries that do not have established ISU member federations.", "The Gay Games have also included skating competitions for same-gender pairs and dance couples under ISI sponsorship.", "Other figure skating competitions for adults also attract participants from diverse cultures." ], [ "World standings and season's bests", "===World standings===The '''world standing (WS)''' of a skater/couple is calculated based on the results over the current and preceding two seasons.", "Competitors receive points based on their final placement at an event and the event's weight.", "The following events receive points:*ISU Championships (World, European, Four Continents, and World Junior Championships) and Olympic Winter Games: The best result by points per season, the best two results by points over the three seasons.", "*ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating and Final (senior and junior): The two best results by points per season, the best four results by points over the three seasons.", "*International senior calendar competitions: The two best results by points per season, the best four results by points over the three seasons.", "Following the current season's World Championships, the results from the earliest season are deleted.", "A new partnership starts with zero points; there is no transfer of WS points if a pair or ice dance couple split up and form a new partnership.These standings do not necessarily reflect the capabilities of the skater(s).", "Due to limits on entries to events (no more than three from each country), and varying numbers of high-level skaters in each country, skaters from some countries may find it more difficult to qualify to compete at major events.", "Thus, a skater with a lower SB but from a country with few high-level skaters may qualify to a major event while a skater with a much higher SB but from a country with more than three high-level skaters may not be sent.", "As a result, it is possible for a skater who regularly scores higher to end up with a much lower world standing.The ''season's world ranking'' of a skater/couple is calculated similarly to the overall world standing but is based on the results of the ongoing season only.===Season's bests===The '''season's best (SB)''' of a skater/couple is the highest score achieved within a particular season.", "There is an SB for the combined total score and the individual segment scores (short program/rhythm dance, free skating/free dance).", "Only scores achieved at selected international competitions are considered; scores from national competitions and some international events are disregarded.", "The best combined total for each skater or couple appears on a list of season's bests, and the list may be used to help determine participants in the following season's Grand Prix series.Skaters and couples also have '''personal best (PB)''' scores, i.e.", "the highest scores achieved over their entire career, in terms of combined total and segment scores.", "However, PB scores are not completely comparable if achieved in different seasons because the ISU regulations and technical rules are modified before each new season.", "There may be different requirements specified to achieve a certain level; the required elements may change and new elements may be allowed (for example, two quads in the short program were permitted starting in the 2010–11 season); and the point values may change (for example, the values of quads were increased after the 2010 Olympics, and a second step sequence is no longer assigned a level in the men's competition).", "As a result of these variations in the technical requirements, the ISU places more weight on the season's bests, which are fully comparable within any one season." ], [ "Music and clothing", "===Music===For competitive programs, figure skaters were once restricted to instrumental music; vocals were allowed only if they contained no lyrics or words.", "Beginning in the 1997–98 season, the ISU decided to allow lyrics or words in ice dance music.", "Although the rules were not relaxed for singles and pairs, judges did not always penalize violations.", "At the 2011 World Championships, Florent Amodio's long program music included words but an insufficient number of judges voted for a deduction.", "In June 2012, the ISU voted to allow skaters from all disciplines to choose music with words in their competitive programs beginning in the 2014–15 season.Skaters may use professional music editors so that their music meets requirements.", "Ice dancers are required to skate to music that has a definite beat or rhythm.", "Singles and pair skaters more often skate to the melody and phrasing of their music.", "For long programs, figure skaters generally search for music with different moods and tempos.", "Music selections for exhibitions are less constrained than for competitive programs.===Clothing===An example of ice dance costumes (Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir at 2012 World Championships)Skaters are generally free to select their own attire, with a few restrictions.", "In competition, women may wear a dress, typically with matching attached briefs.", "This rule of costuming was created in response to Katarina Witt's costume and performance at the 1988 Winter Olympics.", "In 2004, the rule was extended to allow women to wear trousers.", "They may wear opaque flesh-colored leggings or tights under dresses and skirts, which may extend to cover their skates.", "Men must wear trousersthey are not allowed to wear tights, although, officials do not always impose a deduction for violations.", "Matching costumes are not required in pair skating and ice dance.Competition costumes vary widely, from simple designs to heavily beaded or trimmed costumes.", "Skaters risk a deduction if a piece of their costume falls onto the ice surface.", "An official may stop a program if he or she deems there to be a hazard.", "Skaters and family members may design their own costumes, sometimes with assistance from their coach or choreographer, or turn to professional designers.", "Costumes may cost thousands of dollars if designed by a top-level costume maker.According to current ISU regulations, costumes in competition must be fair, non-revealing, and appropriate for both short and long programs.", "Costumes should not be showy or exotic in nature.", "Clothing, however, can reflect the genre of music chosen.", "Although the use of flesh-colored fabric means the costumes are often less revealing than they may appear, there have been repeated attempts to ban clothing that gives the impression of \"excessive nudity\" or that is otherwise inappropriate for athletic competition.", "In general, accessories or props are not permitted in competition.", "The ISU allowed an exception for the original dance in the 2007–08 season but not since." ], [ "Eligibility", "===Age eligibility===To compete internationally on the senior level, skaters must be at least 15 before July 1 of the preceding year.", "To be eligible for junior-level events, a skater must be at least 13 but under 19 before that date (or 21 for male pair skaters and ice dancers).", "A skater must meet the age requirement ''before'' it becomes July 1 in their place of birth.", "For example, Adelina Sotnikova was born a few hours into July 1, 1996, in Moscow and consequently, was not eligible to compete at Junior Worlds until 2011 and senior Worlds until 2013.The ISU's rules apply to international events.", "Many countries have no age requirements for domestic non-ISU competitions, thus, some skaters compete at the senior level nationally while not eligible for international competition.The ISU has modified its age rules several times.", "Before the 1990s, 12 was the minimum age for senior international competitions.", "New rules were introduced in 1996, requiring skaters to be at least 15 before July 1 of the preceding year to compete at the Olympics, Worlds, Europeans, or Four Continents.", "The minimum age for all other senior internationals was 14 until July 2014, when it was raised to 15.The age limit will be gradually raised to 16 years old for the 2023-24 season before increasing to 17 for the 2024-25 season, where it will remain thereafter.", "The move came after the 2022 Winter Olympics scandal over Kamila Valieva's doping allegations and the controversy over her responsibility as a minor.During the 2005–06 season, Mao Asada of Japan was age-eligible to compete at the Grand Prix Final, where she claimed the title, but she was not permitted to compete at the Olympics.", "For the 2008 World Championships, the United States was obliged to send skaters who had placed 5th and 7th at nationals because higher-placed skaters were too young, including a skater who missed the cutoff by 20 days.", "The ISU has strictly enforced the rules in recent years.", "However, American pair skater Natasha Kuchiki was allowed to compete at the 1990 World Championships when she was two years too young and American single skater Tara Lipinski, who was 13 at the time the 1996 rules were introduced, was grandfathered into remaining eligible for future events, along with other skaters who had already competed at the World Championships.", "A loophole also existed for a few years for underage skaters who had medaled at Junior Worlds.As in gymnastics, skating has experienced controversy surrounding possible age falsification.", "On February 14, 2011, questions emerged surrounding nine Chinese skaters.", "The Associated Press found that birthdates listed on the Chinese Skating Association's website suggested five female skaters, Sui Wenjing, Zhang Dan, Yu Xiaoyu, Geng Bingwa, and Xu Binshu, were younger than their ISU ages, and four male skaters, Han Cong, Zhang Hao, Jin Yang, and Gao Yu, were older.", "The dates disappeared from the website by February 15.On February 17, the ISU said there were no discrepancies for Zhang Dan, Zhang Hao, and Xu Binshu between the birthdates listed on their passports, ISU registration forms and the Chinese Olympic Committee's website.", "Athletes in China sometimes face pressure to falsify their age.===Other eligibility rules===Skaters may represent a country of which they are not yet a citizen in most competitions, except the Olympics which require citizenship.At most international events, each country may send one to a maximum of three entries per discipline.", "Consequently, even if a skater has a high season's best, he or she may not be sent to major events if their country has many good skaters in their discipline.", "Some skaters have tried to circumvent this by representing another country.", "In response, the ISU introduced rules barring skaters from international events for a certain period of time.", "In the 2010 regulations, it was 24 months or more from the date of the last ISU Championship.", "In the 2012 regulations, the minimum was 18 months for singles and 12 months for pairs/ice dancers from the date of their last ISU Championships (Worlds, Europeans, Four Continents, Junior Worlds) and 12 months if they competed in some other international competition.", "Competitors may sit out for much longer because they also have to obtain a release from their previous federation.", "The ISU has set no limit to how long a country may hold skaters.Skaters may lose their ISU eligibility if they perform in an unsanctioned show or competition.Beginning in the 2010–11 season, minimum scores were introduced for the World, European, or Four Continents Championships.", "In the 2011–12 season, different minimum scores were introduced for the Grand Prix series." ], [ "Competitors' expenses, income, and funding", "Figure skating is an expensive sport.", "This is particularly due to the costs of ice time and coaching.", "In the late 1980s, the expenses of a top-ten women's competitor at the U.S. Championships reached nearly US$50,000 a year.", "In October 2004, a U.S.", "Figure Skating article estimated the annual expense at US$9,000–$10,000 for pre-juvenile, US$18,000 for juvenile, US$35,000–$40,000 for novice, and said junior and senior levels were somewhat more expensive.", "In the 2010s, American senior national medalists had expenses in the mid-five-figure range.", "Swiss skater Stéphane Lambiel said his costs were around CHF 100,000 per season.", "World champion Patrick Chan's expenses were Can$150,000.In 2015, CBC Sports estimated that a Canadian pair team had expenses of about Can$100,000 per year.Prize money is relatively low compared to other sports.", "A men's or women's singles skater who won the 2011 World Championships earned US$45,000, about 1.8% to 2.5% of the US$1,800,000–$2,400,000 for winners of the tennis US Open and Australian Open.", "A couple who won the pairs or ice dance title split US$67,500.A winner of the senior Grand Prix Final in December 2011 earned US$25,000.Some national associations provide funding to some skaters if they meet certain criteria.", "Many skaters take part-time jobs and some have tried crowdfunding.", "In Germany, many elite skaters join the army to fund their skating.", "In Italy, some skaters join police agencies' sport groups, such as the Polizia Penitenziaria's ''Fiamme Azzurre'' (Carolina Kostner, Anna Cappellini, Luca Lanotte) or Polizia di Stato's ''Fiamme Oro'' (Federica Faiella, Paolo Bacchini).", "Some competitive skaters depend on income from shows.", "Shows must be sanctioned by their association, i.e.", "skaters may lose their competitive eligibility if they take part without permission.", "In some cases, skaters may feel pressure to compete through injury to be allowed to perform in a show.Others may become involved with coaching younger athletes in order to fund their own training costs." ], [ "Injuries and health issues", "In some countries, medical personnel may be slow to respond to accidents.", "At the 2000 World Championships in Nice, France, a pair skater who had been injured in a lift accident lay on the ice for several minutes and had to get up and leave the ice on his own before being offered medical attention.===Head injuries, falls and collisions===Competitive skaters generally do not wear helmets or other protective gear.", "There is a risk of head injuries, particularly in pair skating as a result of falls from lifts.", "Although pair skaters are most susceptible, serious head injuries can occur in all disciplines, including ice dance.", "Partners have accidentally slashed each other with their skate blades.", "This may occur when partners drift too close during side-by-side camel spins.", "Several female pair skaters have suffered head/face injuries during this element, including Elena Berezhnaya, Tatiana Totmianina, Jessica Dubé, Mandy Wötzel, Galina Maniachenko (Efremenko), and Elena Riabchuk.Commenting on falls and concussions, Madison Hubbell said that \"Most of the time, the worst falls are on things we kind of take for granted.\"", "Shin splints, knee injuries, and back problems are not uncommon.", "Hip damage may occur as a result of practising jumps and throws.", "In rare cases, intensive training of spins may result in subtle concussions (Lucinda Ruh).Injuries have also been sustained by skaters from different teams when many skaters are practising on the ice.", "Midori Ito collided with Laetitia Hubert at the 1991 World Championships, while Oksana Baiul and Tanja Szewczenko collided at the 1994 Olympics, but all went on to compete.", "At the 2014 Cup of China the Japanese Yuzuru Hanyu, winner of the Olympic title a few months before, and the Chinese Han Yan, clashed in the warm up of the free program.", "Despite being visibly injured, both skaters finished the competition.", "On practice sessions with multiple skaters on the ice, the skater whose music is playing conventionally has right of way.", "Also, pairs and ice dancers skating as a unit have right of way over those skating separately as changing course is more difficult for a couple.===Eating disorders and RED–S===Eating disorders are reportedly common in figure skating and can result in the development of relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S), formerly known as the \"female athlete triad\".", "RED-S is a syndrome of three interrelated conditions which can cause long-standing illness in girls and women and even death.", "Body image and the need to maintain a fit body is a very common issue in figure skating, as skaters age, their bodies change and change the way they must approach the sport.", "Skaters such as Gracie Gold, and Ashley Wagner have faced issues such as eating disorders and depression.===Doping===Figure skaters occasionally have positive doping results but it is not common.", "In a 1991 interview, three-time Olympic champion Irina Rodnina admitted that Soviet skaters used doping substances in preparation for the competitive season, stating: \"Boys in pairs and singles used drugs, but this was only in August or September.", "This was done just in training, and everyone was tested (in the Soviet Union) before competitions.\"" ], [ "History", "Jackson Haines is considered the father of modern figure skating.Although people have been ice skating for centuries, figure skating in its current form originated in the mid-19th century.", "''A Treatise on Skating'' (1772) by the accomplished skater, Welshman Lt. 'Captain' Robert Jones (), is the first-known book on figure skating.", "He designed skates that could be attached to shoes by screws through the heels (rather than using straps), and these were soon available from Riccard's Manufactory in London.", "Competitions were held in the \"English style\" of skating, which was stiff and formal and bore very little resemblance to modern figure skating.", "Without changing the basic techniques used by skaters, only a limited number of figure skating moves could be performed.", "This was still true in the mid-1800s before improvements were brought about by American skater Jackson Haines, who was considered to be the \"father of modern figure skating\".", "In the mid-1860s, Haines introduced a new style of skating, incorporating free and expressive techniques, which became known as the \"international style\".", "Although popular in Europe, the international style of skating was not widely adopted in the United States until long after Haines's death.===Early 1900s===Special figures by Nikolai Panin at the 1908 OlympicsThe International Skating Union was founded in 1892.The first European Figure Skating Championships were held in 1891 in Hamburg, Germany (won by Oskar Uhlig), and the first World Figure Skating Championships were held in 1896 in Saint Petersburg, Russia (won by Gilbert Fuchs).", "Only men competed in the early events but in 1902 a woman entered the World Championships for the first time: British female skater Madge Syers competed in the men's competition, finishing in second place behind Sweden's Ulrich Salchow.", "The ISU quickly banned women from competing against men, and established a separate \"ladies\" competition in 1906.Pair skating was introduced at the 1908 World Championships, where the title was won by Anna Hübler and Heinrich Burger of Germany.Figure skating was the first winter sport contested at the Olympics; it made its Olympic debut at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London.", "On March 20, 1914, an international figure skating championship was held in New Haven, Connecticut.", "This event was the forerunner of both the United States and Canadian National Championships.", "However, international competitions in figure skating were interrupted by World War I.In the 1920s and 1930s, figure skating was dominated by Sonja Henie of Norway.", "Henie turned competitive success into a lucrative professional career as a movie star and touring skater, also setting the fashion for female skaters to wear short skirts and white boots.", "The top male figure skaters of this period included Sweden's Gillis Grafström and Austria's Karl Schäfer.===After World War II===Skating competitions were again interrupted for several years by World War II.", "After the war, with many European rinks in ruins, skaters from the United States and Canada began to dominate international competitions and to introduce technical innovations to the sport.", "Dick Button, 1948 and 1952 Olympic Champion, was the first skater to perform the double Axel and triple loop jumps, as well as the flying camel spin.The World Figure Skating Championships did not include ice dance until 1952.In its early years, ice dance was dominated by British skaters, and until 1960 the world title was won every year by a British couple, beginning with Jean Westwood and Lawrence Demmy.Russian pair skaters Ludmila Belousova and Oleg Protopopov in 1968On February 15, 1961, the entire U.S. figure skating team and their coaches were killed in the crash of Sabena Flight 548 in Brussels, Belgium en route to the World Championships in Prague.", "This tragedy sent the U.S. skating program into a period of rebuilding.Meanwhile, the Soviet Union rose to become a dominant force in the sport, especially in the disciplines of pair skating and ice dance.", "Soviet and Russian domination in pair skating began in the 1950s and continued throughout the rest of the 1900s.", "Only five non-Soviet or Russian teams won the Olympics and World Championships from 1965 to 2010.When Shen Xue and Zhao Hongbo of China won the gold medal at the 2010 games, this was the first time since 1960 that a Russian, Soviet, or Unified Team (CIS) flagged team did not win the gold medal.", "The 1967 World Championships was the last event held on an outdoor rink.===Effect of television and the present day===Compulsory figures formerly accounted for up to 60% of the score in singles figure skating, meaning that skaters who could build up a significant lead in figures could win competitions even if they were mediocre free skaters.", "As television coverage of skating events became more important, the popularity of free skating increased because this part of the competition was televised and shown to the general public, whereas the compulsory figures competition was not.", "The television audience would complain when superior free programs sometimes failed to equate to gold medal victories.", "Beginning in 1968, the ISU progressively reduced the weighting of compulsory figures and introduced the short program in 1973.A critical issue was said to have been the continued failure of Janet Lynn to achieve on the world stage despite her outstanding free skate programs.", "For example, she missed out on a podium place at the 1971 World Championships after winning the free skate competition decisively, which produced an uproar and loud booing from the audience during the medal ceremony.With these changes, the emphasis in competitive figure skating shifted to increased athleticism.", "Landing triple jumps during the short program and the free skate became more important.", "By the 1980s, some skaters began practising quadruple jumps.", "Jozef Sabovcik of Czechoslovakia landed a quad toe loop at the 1986 European Championships which was recognized at the event but then ruled invalid three weeks later due to a touchdown with his free foot.", "At the 1988 World Championships, Kurt Browning of Canada landed the first quad toe loop which has remained ratified.", "Despite expectations, it was several years before quads became an important part of men's skating.", "In 1988, Japan's Midori Ito became the first woman to land a triple Axel, pushing the athletic and technical level for women's programs.", "Worth only 20% by 1989, compulsory figures were eliminated from international competition in 1990.Takahiko Kozuka waits for his marks with coach Nobuo Sato in the \"Kiss and cry\" area.Television contributed to the sport's popularity by showing skaters in the kiss and cry area after competing.", "Television also played a role in removing the restrictive amateur status rules that once governed the sport.", "In May 1990, the ISU voted to allow skaters intending to skate professionally to return to ISU competition, provided that they obtained their national association's permission.", "In 1995, in an effort to retain skaters who might otherwise have given up their eligibility to participate in lucrative professional events, the ISU introduced prize money at its major competitions, funded by revenues from selling the TV rights to those events.In 1984, more than 24 million people in Great Britain watched ice dance pair Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean earn unanimous 6.0s for presentation, the only perfect score in Olympic skating history, which was ranked the 8th greatest sporting moment in a UK poll.", "In the 1993 National Sports Study II, considered by the Associated Press as the largest study of spectator sport popularity in America, women's figure skating was the second most popular spectator sport in America, just behind NFL football out of over 100 sports surveyed.", "The 1993 study found that three figure skatersDorothy Hamill, Peggy Fleming, and Scott Hamiltonwere among the eight most popular athletes in the United States, of more than 800 athletes surveyed.", "Dorothy Hamill was statistically tied with Mary Lou Retton as the most popular athlete in America.", "The Tonya Harding scandal in 1994 increased interest in figure skating.", "The first night of the women's figure skating competition in the 1994 Winter Olympics achieved higher Nielsen TV ratings than the Super Bowl three weeks earlier and, to that date, was the most watched sports television program of all time.To show support, spectators sometimes throw a variety of items onto the ice after the end of a figure skating program, most commonly stuffed toys and flowers.", "Officials discourage people from throwing flowers that are not fully wrapped because of the possibility of debris disrupting or endangering the following skaters.Countries that have produced a great many successful skaters include Russia and the former Soviet Union, the United States, Canada, Japan, China, France, Germany, and Italy.", "While the sport has grown in East Asia, training opportunities in South Asia are limited due to a scarcity of ice rinks.", "India had only four major indoor ice rinks as of 2011, but there were plans for ten more to be built, mostly in malls, over the following five years.", "As of 2016, three of these intended ten indoor rinks were built at Neptune Magnet Mall, Atria Millennium Mall, and Lulu Mall respectively.Four skating has mostly disappeared, while synchronized skating, singles/pair skating and ice dance have grown.", "On April 6, 2011, the International Olympic Committee officially confirmed the approval of a figure skating team event, which was introduced at the 2014 Winter Olympics.", "The elimination of the compulsory dance segment provided space for the team event.", "Each team is composed of a men's and women's singles skater, a pair, and an ice dance duo.", "A maximum of ten teams can compete, with five eliminated after the short program.", "In December 2011, the ISU released details of the qualifying system and the competition.According to writer Ellyn Kestnbaum, television helped figure skating become more celebrity oriented, with high-profile skaters being treated like entertainers and famous athletes in other sports.", "She states that television has encouraged \"casual fans and other members of the general public to understand skating in terms of media-shaped parables about broader cultural issues,\" including anxieties about femininity or masculinity, individuality versus conformity, and nationalistic sporting contests.", "Kestnbaum also states that even though most skating broadcasts are produced by networks' sports divisions, competitions, even the more serious ones, they are packaged with \"more emphasis on the aesthetic qualities of the skating—or of the female skaters—and on the pleasures of rooting for a home-country hero than on the technical details that determine the winners\".", "Viewers who depend upon the televised coverage of figure skating are limited in their access to information about it as a sport because broadcasters present a week's worth of competition in a few hours and they are compelled to avoid overloading viewers with too much information about the more technical aspects of the sport.", "Journalists and scholars who write about figure skating also tend to focus on the same broader cultural issues." ], [ "In popular culture", "'''Books'''*''White Boots'' (1951)*''The Official Book of Figure Skating'' (1998)*''The Complete Book of Figure Skating'' (2002)*''The Science of Figure Skating'' (2018)'''Films and series'''*''On Ice''*''Blades of Glory''*''Carmen on Ice''*''The Cutting Edge''*''The Cutting Edge: Going for the Gold''*''The Cutting Edge: Chasing the Dream''*''Go Figure''*''I, Tonya''*''Ice Castles''*''Ice Princess''*''Snow White and the Three Stooges''*''Thin Ice''*''Tonya and Nancy: The Inside Story''*''Yuri on Ice'''''Video Games'''*''ESPN International Winter Sports 2002''*''Imagine: Figure Skater''*''Michelle Kwan Figure Skating''*''NBC Sports Figure Skating''*''Winter Sports: The Ultimate Challenge''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===********Johnson, Susan A.: \"And Then There Were None\".", "''Skating'', March/April 1991.", "***** \"Special Regulations & Technical Rules Single & Pair Skating and Ice Dance 2022\".", "Lausanne, Switzerland: International Skating Union.", "June 2022.Retrieved February 26, 2023 (S&P/ID 2022).", "* ISU Constitution & Regulations* ISU Judging System Summary** Scoring System: IJS vs. 6.0 system (US Figure Skating Association)* \"Understanding the International Judging System\" (US Figure Skating Association)" ], [ "External links", "* International Skating Union* ISU Figure Skating Biographies: Men / Women / Pairs / Dance* \"The History of Ice and Figure Skating\" at ''ThoughtCo.com'' (August 2018)* \"History on Ice!\"", "video podcast produced by Minnesota Historical Society (January 2012)* \"All You Need to Know About Figure Skating\" at ''WashingtonPost.com'' (1998)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fudge (role-playing game system)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Fudge''''' is a generic role-playing game system for use in freeform role-playing games.", "The name \"''FUDGE''\" was once an acronym for ''Freeform Universal Donated'' (later, ''Do-it-yourself'') ''Gaming Engine'' and, though the acronym has since been dropped, that phrase remains a good summation of the game's design goals.", "''Fudge'' has been nominated for an Origins Award for ''Best Role-Playing Game System'' for the ''Deryni Adventure Game''.Rather than being a rigidly pre-defined set of rules like ''d20 System'' or ''GURPS'', ''Fudge'' offers a customizable toolkit for building the users' own specialized role-playing game system.", "Such things as what attributes and skills will define characters are left to be determined by the Game Master and players, and several different optional systems for resolving actions and conflicts are offered.", "''Fudge'' is not tied to any particular genre or setting and world builders are encouraged to invent appropriate attributes and rules tailored to the campaign." ], [ "History", "The project that would lead to ''Fudge'' was first proposed by Steffan O'Sullivan in November 1992 on the rec.games.design newsgroup, and over the following months that online community would contribute to the directed project.", "One of the earliest stipulations of O'Sullivan was that the basic system would always remain free to the public over the internet, and the PDF of the 1995 version still is.", "The 1995 version of ''Fudge'' is available under a non-commercial licence.Grey Ghost Press, with the endorsement of Steffan O'Sullivan, publishes an expanded form of the ''Fudge'' system.", "There have been three Grey Ghost Press editions, the most current being the ''Fudge 10th Anniversary Edition'', which includes several suggested rules systems for common RPG elements and an example basic fantasy \"build\" of the game.In March 2004, Grey Ghost Press acquired the copyright of ''Fudge'', and on April 6, 2005, they released a version of ''Fudge'' under the Open Game License.The OGL license has allowed the ''Fate'' role-playing game system to build on ''Fudge'' as its underlying mechanic.In 1999 ''Pyramid'' magazine named ''Fudge'' as one of ''The Millennium's Most Underrated Games''.", "Editor Scott Haring stated \"''Fudge'' is an extremely flexible, rules-light system.", "It works great, and everybody who plays it, loves it.", "Why isn't it more popular?", "I dunno.\"" ], [ "Name", "At the time ''Fudge'' was conceived, it was stylish to give role-playing games acronyms for names (for instance, ''GURPS'' and ''TWERPS''), and originally the usenet design project referred to the game as ''SLUG'', for \"Simple Laid-back Universal Game\".", "However, this was soon changed to ''FUDGE'' for \"Free-form Universal Donated Gaming Engine\", but also because the word invoked connotations of an easy to make source of fun.", "This again was changed when Grey Ghost Press released their 1995 hard copy version of the game, to \"Free-form Universal Do-it-yourself Gaming Engine\".With the publication of the Expanded Edition in 2000, the fad for acronym-based names had long since faded, and the writer and the publisher both felt that the forced acronym had become irrelevant.", "The game has been referred to officially as just ''Fudge'' ever since, though fans often still refer to it in the old manner as ''FUDGE''." ], [ "Game mechanics", "Probability of results when rolling 4dFIn ''Fudge'', character Traits such as Attributes and Skills, are rated on a seven-level, ascending adjective scale: ''Terrible, Poor, Mediocre, Fair, Good, Great,'' and ''Superb.", "''''Fudge'' characters can also have Gifts and Faults, which are positive and negative traits that do not fit into the adjective scale.===Fudge dice===A set of Fudge dice''Fudge'' uses customized \"''Fudge'' dice\" which have an equal number of plus, minus, and blank sides.", "A number of these dice are rolled, usually four at a time (\"4dF\" in Fudge dice notation), and for every plus side that comes up the result of using the Trait is considered one step higher (e.g.", "from ''Fair'' to ''Good'') and for every minus side that comes up the result is considered one step lower.", "The goal is to match or surpass the difficulty level, also on the adjective scale, of the test.", "Thus, a ''Good'' attribute is considered to be ''Great'' if the player were to roll two plus sides, one minus side, and one blank—the minus side cancels out one of the plus sides and the remaining plus side raises the result by one step.", "The same ''Good'' attribute would be considered ''Poor'' if you were to roll three minus sides and one blank.", "The same dice roll can be achieved with six-sided dice, treating a 1 or 2 as −, a 3-4 as   and a 5-6 as +.There are also several alternative dice systems available that use ten-sided dice, coins, or playing cards." ], [ "Complexity", "The rules of ''Fudge'' are highly customizable and can be adjusted for the level of simplicity or complexity desired by the Game Master and Players.", "Overall, the system is designed to encourage role-playing over strict adherence to a set of rules.", "In fact, the main ''Fudge'' documents encourage players to \"Just Fudge It\"; that is, to focus on the story being created rather than on the game rules.", "For example, one character creation method encourages players to first write prose descriptions of their characters and then translate those into ''Fudge'' Traits." ], [ "Reception", "In the January 1996 edition of ''Dragon'' (Issue 225), Rick Swan called this game system \"a remarkable achievement, a concise, logical analysis of RPG theory that amateur and pro designers alike would do well to ponder.\"", "Although Swan liked the simplicity and logic of the open system, he felt that too much of the onus fell on the gamemaster.", "\"Not only must he role-play the NPCs, stage memorable encounters, and keep the story on track, he must also come up with Difficulty Levels for every conceivable situation.", "It ain’t easy.\"", "He concluded by giving the game a rating of 5 out of 6, saying, \"FUDGE is about as appropriate for novices as calculus is for preschoolers.", "Seasoned gamers, however, will be in for a pleasant surprise.\"" ], [ "Reviews", "*''Shadis'' #17 (Jan. 1995)*''Backstab'' (Issue 3 - May/Jun 1997)*''Rollespilsmagasinet Fønix'' (Danish) (Issue 15 - Feb 1997)*''Pyramid'' - Fudge Expanded Edition" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Grey Ghost Press' ''Fudge'' webpage* RPGGeek Listing Fudge System" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "February 12" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*1096 – Pope Urban II confirms the foundation of the abbey of La Roë under Robert of Arbrissel as a community of canons regular.", "*1404 – The Italian professor Galeazzo di Santa Sophie performed the first post-mortem autopsy for the purposes of teaching and demonstration at the Heiligen–Geist Spital in Vienna.", "*1429 – English forces under Sir John Fastolf defend a supply convoy carrying rations to the army besieging Orléans in the Battle of the Herrings.", "*1502 – Isabella I issues an edict outlawing Islam in the Crown of Castile, forcing virtually all her Muslim subjects to convert to Christianity.", "* 1502 – Vasco da Gama sets sail with 15 ships and 800 men from Lisbon, Portugal on his second voyage to India.", "*1541 – Santiago, Chile is founded by Pedro de Valdivia.", "*1593 – Japanese invasion of Korea: Approximately 3,000 Joseon defenders led by general Kwon Yul successfully repel more than 30,000 Japanese forces in the Siege of Haengju.===1601–1900===*1689 – The Convention Parliament declares that the flight to France in 1688 by James II, the last Roman Catholic British monarch, constitutes an abdication.", "*1733 – Georgia Day: Englishman James Oglethorpe founds Georgia, the 13th colony of the Thirteen Colonies, by settling at Savannah.", "*1771 – Gustav III becomes the King of Sweden.", "*1817 – An Argentine/Chilean patriotic army, after crossing the Andes, defeats Spanish troops at the Battle of Chacabuco.", "*1818 – Bernardo O'Higgins formally approves the Chilean Declaration of Independence near Concepción, Chile.", "*1825 – The Creek cede the last of their lands in Georgia to the United States government by the Treaty of Indian Springs, and migrate west.", "*1832 – Ecuador annexes the Galápagos Islands.", "*1889 – Antonín Dvořák's Jakobín is premiered at National Theater in Prague*1894 – Anarchist Émile Henry hurls a bomb into the Cafe Terminus in Paris, killing one person and wounding 20.===1901–present===*1909 – The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) is founded.", "* 1909 – New Zealand's worst maritime disaster of the 20th century happens when the , an inter-island ferry, sinks and explodes at the entrance to Wellington Harbour.", "*1912 – The Xuantong Emperor, the last Emperor of China, abdicates.", "*1919 – The Second Regional Congress of Peasants, Workers and Insurgents is held by the Makhnovshchina at Huliaipole.", "*1921 – Bolsheviks launch a revolt in Georgia as a preliminary to the Red Army invasion of Georgia.", "*1935 – , one of the two largest helium-filled airships ever created, crashes into the Pacific Ocean off the coast of California and sinks.", "*1945 – A devastating tornado outbreak in Mississippi and Alabama kills 45 people and injures 427 others.", "*1946 – World War II: Operation Deadlight ends after scuttling 121 of 154 captured U-boats.", "* 1946 – African American United States Army veteran Isaac Woodard is severely beaten by a South Carolina police officer to the point where he loses his vision in both eyes.", "The incident later galvanizes the civil rights movement and partially inspires Orson Welles' film ''Touch of Evil''.", "*1947 – The largest observed iron meteorite until that time creates an impact crater in Sikhote-Alin, in the Soviet Union.", "* 1947 – Christian Dior unveils a \"New Look\", helping Paris regain its position as the capital of the fashion world.", "*1961 – The Soviet Union launches ''Venera 1'' towards Venus.", "*1963 – Construction begins on the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri.", "*1963 – Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 705 crashes into the Everglades shortly after takeoff from Miami International Airport, killing all 45 people on board.", "*1965 – Malcolm X visits Smethwick near Birmingham following the racially-charged 1964 United Kingdom general election.", "*1968 – Phong Nhị and Phong Nhất massacre.", "*1974 – Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1970, is exiled from the Soviet Union.", "*1983 – One hundred women protest in Lahore, Pakistan against military dictator Zia-ul-Haq's proposed Law of Evidence.", "The women were tear-gassed, baton-charged and thrown into lock-up.", "The women were successful in repealing the law.", "*1988 – Cold War: The 1988 Black Sea bumping incident: The U.S. missile cruiser is intentionally rammed by the Soviet frigate ''Bezzavetnyy'' in the Soviet territorial waters, while ''Yorktown'' claims innocent passage.", "*1990 – Carmen Lawrence becomes the first female Premier in Australian history when she becomes Premier of Western Australia.", "*1992 – The current Constitution of Mongolia comes into effect.", "*1993 – Two-year-old James Bulger is abducted from New Strand Shopping Centre by two ten-year-old boys, who later torture and murder him.", "*1994 – Four thieves break into the National Gallery of Norway and steal Edvard Munch's iconic painting ''The Scream''.", "*1999 – United States President Bill Clinton is acquitted by the United States Senate in his impeachment trial.", "*2001 – NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft touches down in the \"saddle\" region of 433 Eros, becoming the first spacecraft to land on an asteroid.", "*2002 – The trial of Slobodan Milošević, the former President of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, begins at the United Nations International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in The Hague, Netherlands.", "He dies four years later before its conclusion.", "* 2002 – An Iran Airtour Tupolev Tu-154 crashes in the mountains outside Khorramabad, Iran while descending for a landing at Khorramabad Airport, killing 119.", "*2004 – The city of San Francisco begins issuing marriage licenses to same-sex couples in response to a directive from Mayor Gavin Newsom.", "*2009 – Colgan Air Flight 3407 crashes into a house in Clarence Center, New York while on approach to Buffalo Niagara International Airport, killing all on board and one on the ground.", "*2016 – Pope Francis and Patriarch Kirill sign an Ecumenical Declaration in the first such meeting between leaders of the Catholic and Russian Orthodox Churches since their split in 1054.", "*2019 – The country known as the Republic of Macedonia renames itself the Republic of North Macedonia in accordance with the Prespa agreement, settling a long-standing naming dispute with Greece." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*AD 41 – Britannicus, Roman son of Claudius (d. 55)* 528 – Daughter of Emperor Xiaoming of Northern Wei, nominal empress regnant of Northern Wei* 661 – Princess Ōku of Japan (d. 702)*1074 – Conrad II of Italy (d. 1101)*1218 – Kujo Yoritsune, Japanese shōgun (d. 1256)*1322 – John Henry, Margrave of Moravia (d. 1375)*1443 – Giovanni II Bentivoglio, Italian noble (d. 1508)*1480 – Frederick II of Legnica, Duke of Legnica (d. 1547)*1540 – Won Gyun, Korean general and admiral (d. 1597)*1567 – Thomas Campion, English composer, poet, and physician (d. 1620)*1584 – Caspar Barlaeus, Dutch historian, poet, and theologian (d. 1648)===1601–1900===*1606 – John Winthrop the Younger, English-American lawyer and politician, Governor of Connecticut (d. 1676)*1608 – Daniello Bartoli, Italian Jesuit priest (d. 1685)*1637 – Jan Swammerdam, Dutch biologist and zoologist (d. 1680)*1663 – Cotton Mather, English-American minister and author (d. 1728)*1665 – Rudolf Jakob Camerarius, German botanist and physician (d. 1721)*1704 – Charles Pinot Duclos, French author (d. 1772)*1706 – Johann Joseph Christian, German Baroque sculptor and woodcarver (d. 1777)*1728 – Étienne-Louis Boullée, French architect (d. 1799)*1753 – François-Paul Brueys d'Aigalliers, French admiral (d. 1798)*1761 – Jan Ladislav Dussek, Czech pianist and composer (d. 1812)*1768 – Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1835)*1775 – Louisa Adams, 6th First Lady of the United States (d. 1852)*1777 – Bernard Courtois, French chemist and academic (d. 1838)* 1777 – Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué, German author and poet (d. 1843)*1785 – Pierre Louis Dulong, French physicist and chemist (d. 1838)*1787 – Norbert Provencher, Canadian bishop and missionary (d. 1853)*1788 – Carl Reichenbach, German chemist and philosopher (d. 1869)*1791 – Peter Cooper, American businessman and philanthropist, founded Cooper Union (d. 1883)*1794 – Alexander Petrov, Russian chess player and composer (d. 1867)* 1794 – Valentín Canalizo, Mexican general and politician (d. 1850)*1804 – Heinrich Lenz, German-Italian physicist and academic (d. 1865)*1809 – Charles Darwin, English geologist and theorist (d. 1882)* 1809 – Abraham Lincoln, American lawyer and statesman, 16th President of the United States (d. 1865)*1819 – William Wetmore Story, American sculptor, architect, poet and editor (d. 1895)*1824 – Dayananda Saraswati, Indian monk and philosopher, founded Arya Samaj (d. 1883)*1828 – George Meredith, English novelist and poet (d. 1909)*1837 – Thomas Moran, British-American painter and printmaker of the Hudson River School (d. 1926)*1857 – Eugène Atget, French photographer (d. 1927)* 1857 – Bobby Peel, English cricketer and coach (d. 1943)*1861 – Lou Andreas-Salomé, Russian-German psychoanalyst and author (d. 1937)*1866 – Lev Shestov, Russian philosopher (d. 1938)*1869 – Kiến Phúc, Vietnamese emperor (d. 1884)*1870 – Marie Lloyd, English actress and singer (d. 1922)*1876 – 13th Dalai Lama (d. 1933)*1877 – Louis Renault, French engineer and businessman, co-founded Renault (d. 1944)*1880 – George Preca, Maltese priest and saint (d. 1962)*1880 – John L. Lewis, American miner and union leader (d. 1969)*1881 – Anna Pavlova, Russian-English ballerina and actress (d. 1931)*1882 – Walter Nash, English-New Zealand lawyer and politician, 27th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1968)*1884 – Max Beckmann, German painter and sculptor (d. 1950)* 1884 – Johan Laidoner, Estonian-Russian general (d. 1953)* 1884 – Alice Roosevelt Longworth, American author (d. 1980)* 1884 – Marie Vassilieff, Russian-French painter (d. 1957)*1885 – James Scott, American composer (d. 1938)* 1885 – Julius Streicher, German publisher, founded ''Der Stürmer'' (d. 1946)*1889 – Bhante Dharmawara, Cambodian monk, lawyer, and judge (d. 1999)*1893 – Omar Bradley, American general (d. 1981)*1895 – Kristian Djurhuus, Faroese lawyer and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands (d. 1984)*1897 – Charles Groves Wright Anderson, South African-Australian colonel and politician (d. 1988)* 1897 – Lincoln LaPaz, American astronomer and academic (d. 1985)*1898 – Wallace Ford, English-American actor and singer (d. 1966)*1900 – Roger J. Traynor, American lawyer and jurist, 23rd Chief Justice of California (d. 1983)===1901–present===*1902 – William Collier, Jr., American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1987)*1903 – Jorge Basadre, Peruvian historian (d. 1980)* 1903 – Chick Hafey, American baseball player and manager (d. 1973)*1904 – Ted Mack, American radio and television host (d. 1976)*1907 – Joseph Kearns, American actor (d. 1962)*1908 – Jean Effel, French painter, caricaturist, illustrator and journalist (d. 1982)* 1908 – Jacques Herbrand, French mathematician and philosopher (d. 1931)*1909 – Zoran Mušič, Slovene painter and illustrator (d. 2005)* 1909 – Sigmund Rascher, German physician (d. 1945)*1911 – Charles Mathiesen, Norwegian speed skater (d. 1994)*1912 – R. F. Delderfield, English author and playwright (d. 1972)*1914 – Tex Beneke, American singer, saxophonist, and bandleader (d. 2000)* 1914 – Hanna Neumann, German-Canadian mathematician (d. 1971)*1915 – Lorne Greene, Canadian-American actor (d. 1987)* 1915 – Olivia Hooker, American sailor (d. 2018)*1916 – Joseph Alioto, American lawyer and politician, 36th Mayor of San Francisco (d. 1998)*1917 – Al Cervi, American basketball player and coach (d. 2009)* 1917 – Dom DiMaggio, American baseball player (d. 2009)*1918 – Norman Farberow, American psychologist and academic (d. 2015)* 1918 – Julian Schwinger, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1994)*1919 – Forrest Tucker, American actor (d. 1986)*1920 – Raymond Mhlaba, South African anti-apartheid and ANC activist (d. 2005)*1922 – Hussein Onn, Malaysian lawyer and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Malaysia (d. 1990)*1923 – Franco Zeffirelli, Italian director, producer, and politician (d. 2019)*1925 – Anthony Berry, English politician (d. 1984)* 1925 – Joan Mitchell, American-French painter (d. 1992)*1926 – Rolf Brem, Swiss sculptor and illustrator (d. 2014)* 1926 – Joe Garagiola, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2016)* 1926 – Charles Van Doren, American academic (d. 2019)*1928 – Vincent Montana, Jr., American drummer and composer (d. 2013)*1930 – John Doyle, Irish hurler and politician (d. 2010)* 1930 – Arlen Specter, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician (d. 2012)*1931 – Janwillem van de Wetering, Dutch-American author and translator (d. 2008)*1932 – Axel Jensen, Norwegian author and poet (d. 2003)* 1932 – Julian Simon, American economist, author, and academic (d. 1998)*1933 – Ivan Anikeyev, Soviet cosmonaut (d. 1992)* 1933 – Costa-Gavras, Greek-French director and producer*1934 – Annette Crosbie, Scottish actress* 1934 – Anne Osborn Krueger, American economist and academic* 1934 – Bill Russell, American basketball player and coach (d. 2022)*1935 – Gene McDaniels, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2011)*1936 – Joe Don Baker, American actor* 1936 – Alan Ebringer, Australian immunologist*1938 – Judy Blume, American author and educator*1939 – Leon Kass, American physician, scientist, and educator* 1939 – Ray Manzarek, American singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer (d. 2013)*1941 – Dominguinhos, Brazilian singer-songwriter and accordion player (d. 2013)* 1941 – Naomi Uemura, Japanese mountaineer and explorer (d. 1984)*1942 – Ehud Barak, Israeli general and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Israel* 1942 – Terry Bisson, American science fiction and fantasy author (d. 2024)* 1942 – Pat Dobson, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 2006)*1945 – Maud Adams, Swedish model and actress* 1945 – David D. Friedman, American economist, physicist, and scholar*1946 – Jean Eyeghé Ndong, Gabonese politician, Prime Minister of Gabon* 1946 – Ajda Pekkan, Turkish singer-songwriter and actress*1948 – Ray Kurzweil, American computer scientist and engineer* 1948 – Nicholas Soames, English politician, Minister of State for the Armed Forces*1949 – Gundappa Viswanath, Indian cricketer*1950 – Angelo Branduardi, Italian singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1950 – Steve Hackett, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1950 – Michael Ironside, Canadian actor, director, and screenwriter*1952 – Simon MacCorkindale, English actor, director, and producer (d. 2010)* 1952 – Michael McDonald, American singer-songwriter and keyboard player *1953 – Joanna Kerns, American actress and director*1954 – Zach Grenier, American actor* 1954 – Joseph Jordania, Georgian-Australian musicologist and academic* 1954 – Tzimis Panousis, Greek comedian, singer, and author (d. 2018)* 1954 – Phil Zimmermann, American cryptographer and programmer*1955 – Bill Laswell, American musician and producer * 1955 – Chet Lemon, American baseball player and coach*1956 – Arsenio Hall, American actor and talk show host* 1956 – Ad Melkert, Dutch lawyer and politician, Dutch Minister of Social Affairs and Employment* 1956 – Brian Robertson, Scottish musician and songwriter*1958 – Bobby Smith, Canadian ice hockey player and executive*1959 – Larry Nance, American basketball player*1961 – David Graeber, American anthropologist and activist (d. 2020)* 1961 – Jim Harris, Canadian environmentalist and politician* 1961 – Michel Martelly, Haitian singer and politician, 56th President of Haiti*1963 – John Michael Higgins, American actor and comedian*1964 – Omar Hakim, American drummer, producer, arranger, and composer* 1964 – Raphael Sbarge, American actor and director*1965 – Rubén Amaro, Jr., American baseball player and manager* 1965 – Christine Elise, American actress and producer* 1965 – Brett Kavanaugh, American lawyer and jurist, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States* 1965 – David Westlake, English singer-songwriter and guitarist *1966 – Greg Carberry, Australian rugby league player * 1966 – Paul Crook, American musician, songwriter, and producer* 1966 – Lochlyn Munro, Canadian actor*1968 – Josh Brolin, American actor * 1968 – Chynna Phillips, American singer and actress * 1968 – Nathan Rees, Australian politician, 41st Premier of New South Wales*1969 – Darren Aronofsky, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1969 – Alemayehu Atomsa, Ethiopian educator and politician (d. 2014)* 1969 – Steve Backley, English javelin thrower* 1969 – Anneli Drecker, Norwegian singer and actress * 1969 – Hong Myung-bo, South Korean footballer and manager*1970 – Jim Creeggan, Canadian singer-songwriter and musician * 1970 – Bryan Roy, Dutch footballer and manager* 1970 – Judd Winick, American author and illustrator*1971 – Scott Menville, American voice actor, singer, actor and musician*1972 – Owen Nolan, Northern Irish-Canadian ice hockey player*1973 – Gianni Romme, Dutch speed skater* 1973 – Tara Strong, Canadian-American voice actress and singer*1974 – Naseem Hamed, English boxer*1975 – Scot Pollard, American basketball player and actor*1976 – Christian Cullen, New Zealand rugby player*1977 – Jimmy Conrad, American soccer player and manager*1978 – Paul Anderson, English actor*1979 – Jesse Spencer, Australian actor and violinist*1980 – Juan Carlos Ferrero, Spanish tennis player* 1980 – Sarah Lancaster, American actress* 1980 – Gucci Mane, American rapper* 1980 – Christina Ricci, American actress and producer*1981 – Wade McKinnon, Australian rugby league player*1982 – Jonas Hiller, Swiss ice hockey player* 1982 – Louis Tsatoumas, Greek long jumper* 1982 – Anthony Tuitavake, New Zealand rugby player*1983 – Carlton Brewster, American football player and coach*1984 – Brad Keselowski, American race car driver* 1984 – Andrei Sidorenkov, Estonian footballer* 1984 – Peter Vanderkaay, American swimmer*1985 – Konstantin Pushkaryov, Kazakhstani ice hockey player*1986 – Todd Frazier, American baseball player*1987 – Jérémy Chardy, French tennis player* 1987 – Gabriela Mărginean, Romanian basketball player*1988 – DeMarco Murray, American football player* 1988 – Nicolás Otamendi, Argentine footballer* 1988 – Josh Phegley, American baseball player* 1988 – Mike Posner, American singer-songwriter and producer*1989 – Josh Harrellson, American basketball player*1990 – Katherine Barrell, Canadian actress, director, writer, and producer* 1990 – Robert Griffin III, American football player*1991 – Patrick Herrmann, German footballer* 1991 – Kane Richardson, Australian cricketer*1992 – Magda Linette, Polish tennis player*1993 – Bud Dupree, American football player* 1993 – Rafinha, Brazilian footballer* 1993 – Jennifer Stone, American actress*1994 – Arman Hall, American sprinter* 1994 – Paxton Lynch, American football player*2000 – Kim Ji-min, South Korean actress*2001 – Khvicha Kvaratskhelia, Georgian footballer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 821 – Benedict of Aniane, French monk and saint (b.", "747)* 890 – Henjō, Japanese priest and poet (b.", "816)* 981 – Ælfstan, bishop of Ramsbury* 901 – Antony II, patriarch of Constantinople* 914 – Li, empress of Yan* 941 – Wulfhelm, Archbishop of Canterbury*1247 – Ermesinde, Countess of Luxembourg, ruler (b.", "1185)*1266 – Amadeus of the Amidei, Italian saint*1517 – Catherine of Navarre (b.", "1468)*1538 – Albrecht Altdorfer, German painter, engraver, and architect (b.", "1480)*1554 – Lord Guildford Dudley, English son of Jane Dudley, Duchess of Northumberland (b.", "1536; executed)* 1554 – Lady Jane Grey, de facto monarch of England and Ireland for nine days (b.", "1537; executed)*1571 – Nicholas Throckmorton, English politician and diplomat (b.", "1515)*1590 – François Hotman, French lawyer and author (b.", "1524)*1600 – Edward Denny, Knight Banneret of Bishop's Stortford, English soldier, privateer and adventurer (b.", "1547)===1601–1900===*1612 – Jodocus Hondius, Flemish cartographer (b.", "1563)*1624 – George Heriot, Scottish goldsmith and philanthropist, founded George Heriot's School (b.", "1563)*1713 – Jahandar Shah, Mughal emperor (b.", "1664)*1728 – Agostino Steffani, Italian priest and composer (b.", "1653)*1763 – Pierre de Marivaux, French author and playwright (b.", "1688)*1771 – Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden (b.", "1710)*1789 – Ethan Allen, American farmer, general, and politician (b.", "1738)*1804 – Immanuel Kant, German anthropologist, philosopher, and academic (b.", "1724)*1834 – Friedrich Schleiermacher, German philosopher and scholar (b.", "1768)*1886 – Randolph Caldecott, English-American painter and illustrator (b.", "1846)*1894 – Hans von Bülow, German pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1830)*1896 – Ambroise Thomas, French composer and academic (b.", "1811)===1901–present===*1912 – Gerhard Armauer Hansen, Norwegian physician (b.", "1841)*1915 – Émile Waldteufel, French pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1837)*1916 – Richard Dedekind, German mathematician, philosopher, and academic (b.", "1831)*1929 – Lillie Langtry, English singer and actress (b.", "1853)*1931 – Samad bey Mehmandarov, Azerbaijani-Russian general and politician, 3rd Azerbaijani Minister of Defense (b.", "1855)*1935 – Auguste Escoffier, French chef and author (b.", "1846)*1942 – Eugene Esmonde, Irish-English lieutenant and pilot, Victoria Cross recipient (b.", "1909)* 1942 – Avraham Stern, Polish-Israeli militant leader (b.", "1907)* 1942 – Grant Wood, American painter and academic (b.", "1891)*1947 – Moses Gomberg, Ukrainian-American chemist and academic (b.", "1866)*1949 – Hassan al-Banna, Egyptian educator, founded the Muslim Brotherhood (b.", "1906)*1954 – Dziga Vertov, Polish-Russian director and screenwriter (b.", "1896)*1958 – Douglas Hartree, English mathematician and physicist (b.", "1897)*1960 – Oskar Anderson, Bulgarian-German mathematician and academic (b.", "1887)*1970 – Clare Turlay Newberry, American author and illustrator (b.", "1903)*1971 – James Cash Penney, American businessman and philanthropist, founded J. C. Penney (b.", "1875)*1975 – Carl Lutz, Swiss vice-consul to Hungary during WWII, credited with saving over 62,000 Jews (b.", "1895)*1976 – Frank Stagg, Irish Republican hunger striker (b.", "1941)*1976 – Sal Mineo, American actor (b.", "1939)*1977 – Herman Dooyeweerd, Dutch philosopher and scholar (b.", "1894)*1979 – Jean Renoir, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1894)*1980 – Muriel Rukeyser, American poet and activist (b.", "1913)*1982 – Victor Jory, Canadian-American actor (b.", "1902)*1983 – Eubie Blake, American pianist and composer (b.", "1887)*1984 – Anna Anderson, Polish-American woman, who claimed to be Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia (b.", "1896)* 1984 – Julio Cortázar, Belgian-Argentinian author and poet (b.", "1914)*1985 – Nicholas Colasanto, American actor and director (b.", "1924)*1989 – Thomas Bernhard, Austrian playwright and author (b.", "1931)*1991 – Roger Patterson, American bass player (b.", "1968)*1992 – Bep van Klaveren, Dutch boxer (b.", "1907)*1994 – Donald Judd, American painter and sculptor (b.", "1928)*1995 – Philip Taylor Kramer, American bass player (b.", "1952)*1998 – Gardner Ackley, American economist and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Italy (b.", "1915)*2000 – Tom Landry, American football player and coach (b.", "1924)* 2000 – Charles M. Schulz, American cartoonist, created ''Peanuts'' (b.", "1922)*2001 – Kristina Söderbaum, Swedish-German actress and producer (b.", "1912)*2002 – John Eriksen, Danish footballer (b.", "1957)*2005 – Dorothy Stang, American-Brazilian nun and missionary (b.", "1931)*2007 – Ann Barzel, American writer and dance critic (b.", "1905)* 2007 – Peggy Gilbert, American saxophonist and bandleader (b.", "1905)*2008 – David Groh, American actor (b.", "1939)*2009 – Colgan Air Flight 3407 victims:**Alison Des Forges, American historian and activist (b.", "1942)**Beverly Eckert, American activist (b.", "1951)**Mat Mathews, Dutch accordion player (b.", "1924)**Coleman Mellett, American guitarist (b.", "1974)**Gerry Niewood, American saxophonist (b.", "1943)*2010 – Nodar Kumaritashvili, Georgian luger (b.", "1988)*2011 – Peter Alexander, Austrian singer and actor (b.", "1926)* 2011 – Betty Garrett, American actress, singer, and dancer (b.", "1919)* 2011 – Kenneth Mars, American actor and comedian (b.", "1935)*2012 – Zina Bethune, American actress, dancer, and choreographer (b.", "1945)* 2012 – Denis Flannery, Australian rugby player and coach (b.", "1928)* 2012 – David Kelly, Irish actor (b.", "1929)* 2012 – John Severin, American illustrator (b.", "1921)*2013 – Sattam bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, Saudi Arabian prince (b.", "1941)* 2013 – Reginald Turnill, English journalist and author (b.", "1915)* 2013 – Hennadiy Udovenko, Ukrainian politician and diplomat, 2nd Minister of Foreign Affairs for Ukraine (b.", "1931)*2014 – Sid Caesar, American actor and comedian (b.", "1922)* 2014 – John Pickstone, English historian and author (b.", "1944)*2015 – Movita Castaneda, American actress and singer (b.", "1916)* 2015 – Nik Abdul Aziz Nik Mat, Malaysian cleric and politician, 12th Menteri Besar of Kelantan (b.", "1931)* 2015 – Gary Owens, American radio host and voice actor (b.", "1934)* 2015 – Steve Strange, Welsh singer (b.", "1959)*2016 – Dominique D'Onofrio, Italian-Belgian footballer and coach (b.", "1953)* 2016 – Yannis Kalaitzis, Greek cartoonist (b.", "1945)* 2016 – Yan Su, Chinese general and composer (b.", "1930)*2017 – Al Jarreau, American singer (b.", "1940)* 2017 – Anna Marguerite McCann, first female American underwater archaeologist (b.", "1933)* 2017 – Ren Xinmin, Chinese rocket scientist (b.", "1915)*2018 – Bill Crider, American author (b.", "1941)*2019 – Gordon Banks, English footballer (b.", "1937)* 2019 – Lyndon LaRouche, American political activist (b.", "1922)* 2019 – Pedro Morales, Puerto Rican professional wrestler and commentator (b.", "1942)*2020 – Christie Blatchford, Canadian newspaper columnist, journalist and broadcaster (b.", "1951)* 2020 – Geert Hofstede, Dutch social psychologist (b.", "1928)*2022 – Ivan Reitman, Slovak-Canadian actor, director, and producer (b.", "1946)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day:** Benedict of Aniane** Damian (?", ")** Julian the Hospitaller** Martyrs of Abitinae** February 12 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Darwin Day (International)* Georgia Day (Georgia (U.S. state))* Lincoln's Birthday (United States)* Red Hand Day (United Nations)* Union Day (Myanmar)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 12" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Frederick Copleston" ], [ "Introduction", "manor of Copleston in Devon: ''Argent, a chevron engrailed gules between three leopard's faces azure'''''Frederick Charles Copleston''' (10 April 1907 – 3 February 1994) was an English Roman Catholic Jesuit priest, philosopher, and historian of philosophy, best known for his influential multi-volume ''A History of Philosophy'' (1946–75).Copleston achieved a degree of popularity in the media for debating the existence of God with Bertrand Russell in a celebrated 1948 BBC broadcast; the following year he debated logical positivism and the meaningfulness of religious language with his friend the analytic philosopher A. J. Ayer." ], [ "Origins", "Frederick Charles Copleston was born on 10 April 1907 at Claremont in the parish of Trull, near Taunton in Somerset, England, the eldest son of Frederick Selwyn Copleston (1850–1935), a judge of the High Court in Rangoon, Burma, by his second wife, Norah Margaret Little.", "He was a member of the family of Copleston, lords of the manor of Copleston in Devon until 1659, one of the most ancient in that county according to a traditional rhyme related by John Prince (d.1723):''\"Crocker, Cruwys, and Coplestone'', ''When the Conqueror came were at home\"''" ], [ "Biography", "He was raised an Anglican—his uncle, Reginald Stephen Copleston, was an Anglican bishop of Calcutta; another uncle, Ernest Copleston, was the Anglican Bishop of Colombo.", "Copleston was educated at Marlborough College from 1920 to 1925.At the age of eighteen, he converted to the Roman Catholic faith, which caused a great deal of stress in his family.", "Copleston explained his recognition of the objective authority in the Catholic Church:\"It seemed to me that if Christ was truly the Son of God and if he founded a Church to teach all nations in His name, it must be a Church teaching with authority, as her Master did.", "Obviously one might deny that Christ was the Son of God, and one might reject the claim that he founded a Church.", "But if these two claims were accepted, it seemed to me that in spite of all its faults the Roman Catholic Church was the only one which could reasonably be thought to have developed out of what Christ established.\"", "His father, though opposed to his son's becoming a Catholic, helped him complete his education at St John's College, Oxford, where he studied from 1925 to 1929.He graduated from Oxford University in 1929 having managed a third in classical moderations and a good second at Greats.", "After Oxford, Copleston entered St. Mary's College, Oscott as a seminarian for the diocese of Clifton, but realized the life was not for him.", "In 1930, he entered instead the Jesuits.", "After completing the two-year Jesuit novitiate in Roehampton, he followed the traditional course of studies for the priesthood at the Jesuit house of studies in Heythrop, Oxfordshire and in 1937 he was ordained a Jesuit priest there.", "In 1938 he travelled to Germany to complete his training, returning to Britain just before the outbreak of war in 1939.Copleston was originally destined to study for his doctorate at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome, but the war now made that impossible.", "Instead, he accepted a posting that saw him return to Heythrop in Oxfordshire to teach the history of philosophy to the few Jesuits remaining there.From this time onwards, Copleston began writing his influential multi-volume ''A History of Philosophy'' (1946–75), a textbook that presents clear accounts of ancient, medieval, and modern philosophy.", "Still highly respected, Copleston's history has been described as \"a monumental achievement\" that \"stays true to the authors it discusses, being very much a work in exposition\".Copleston achieved a degree of popularity in the media for debating the existence of God with Bertrand Russell in a celebrated 1948 BBC broadcast.", "(See Copleston–Russell debate).", "The following year he debated logical positivism and the meaningfulness of religious language with his friend the analytic philosopher A. J. Ayer.Throughout the rest of his academic career, Copleston accepted a number of prestigious titles, including Visiting Professor at Rome's Gregorian University, where he spent six months each year lecturing from 1952 to 1968.In 1970 the Jesuit Heythrop house of studies was relocated to London, where as Heythrop College it became a constituent part of the federal University of London.", "Copleston became the new college's respected Principal and gave undergraduate courses.", "His uncontestable mastery of his material immediately won the confidence and respect of the students, who were drawn from among younger Jesuits and junior religious from male and female religious orders, and some lay men and women.", "Moreover, his affable manner, dry humour and unfailing courtesy made him popular.", "In that same year 1970, he was made Fellow of the British Academy (FBA), and in 1972 he was given a personal professorship by the University of London.", "In 1975, he was made an Honorary Fellow of St. John's College, Oxford.After officially retiring in 1974, he continued to lecture.", "From 1974 to 1982, Copleston was Visiting Professor at the University of Santa Clara, California, and from 1979 to 1981, he delivered the Gifford Lectures at the University of Aberdeen, Scotland, which were published as ''Religion and the One''.", "These lectures attempted to \"express themes perennial in his thinking and more personal than in his history\".", "Toward the end of his life, Copleston received honorary doctorates from a number of institutions, including Santa Clara University, California, Uppsala University, and the University of St Andrews.Copleston was offered memberships in the Royal Institute of Philosophy and in the Aristotelian Society.", "In 1993 he was made CBE.", "Father Frederick Copleston died on 3 February 1994 at St Thomas' Hospital in London, at the age of 86." ], [ "Legacy", "In addition to his influential multi-volume ''History of Philosophy'' (1946–75), one of Copleston's most significant contributions to modern philosophy was his work on the theories of Saint Thomas Aquinas.", "He attempted to clarify Aquinas's Five Ways (in the ''Summa Theologica'') by making a distinction between ''in fieri'' causes and ''in esse'' causes.", "By doing so, Copleston makes clear that Aquinas wanted to put forth the concept of an omnipresent God rather than a being that could have disappeared after setting the chain of cause and effect into motion." ], [ "Works", "*''A History of Philosophy'' (1946–1975)'''Other select works'''*''Friedrich Nietzsche: Philosopher of Culture'' (1942), expanded edition; (1975)*''Arthur Schopenhauer: Philosopher of Pessimism'' (1946)*''Medieval Philosophy'' (1952), revised edition: ''A History of Medieval Philosophy'' (1972)*''Aquinas'' (1955), reprinted from 1976 as ''Thomas Aquinas'',*\"Logical Positivism - A Debate\" (with A. J. Ayer) in: Edwards, Paul, Pap, Arthur (eds.", "), ''A Modern Introduction to Philosophy'' (1957)*''Contemporary Philosophy: Studies of Logical Positivism and Existentialism'' (1956), republished with a new first chapter in 1972*''Religion and Philosophy'' (1974)*''Philosophers and Philosophies'' (1976)*''On the History of Philosophy and Other Essays'' (1979)*''Philosophers and Culture'' (1980)*''Religion and the One: Philosophies East and West'' (1982)*''Philosophy in Russia: From Herzen to Lenin and Berdyaev'' (1986)*''Russian Religious Philosophy'' (1988)*''Memoirs of a Philosopher'' (1993)'''Related works'''Hughes, Gerard J.", "(1987) ''The Philosophical assessment of theology: essays in honour of Frederick C. Copleston''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* (BBC Radio, 28 January 1948)* Frederick Copleston on Schopenhauer interview for ''The Great Philosophers'' by Bryan Magee (BBC.", "1987)* Copleston, Frederick Charles, 1907-1994 British Academy memoir by Gerard J. Hughes* E-Books by Frederick Charles Copleston available for loan at Open Library*Volumes of Copleston's ''History'' available for loan at Internet Archive:**Vol 1, Part I, Vol.", "1 Part II, Vol.", "3, Vol.", "4, Vol.", "5, Part I, Vol.", "6.Part II, Vol.", "7, Vol.", "8.Part I, Vol.", "9, and (as originally published) Vol.", "10 and Vol.", "11''''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Finance" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Finance''' is the study and discipline of money, currency and capital assets.", "It is related to and distinct from Economics which is the study of production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.", "The discipline of Financial Economics bridges the two fields.", "Based on the scope of financial activities in financial systems, the discipline can be divided into personal, corporate, and public finance.In a financial system, assets are bought, sold, or traded as financial instruments, such as currencies, loans, bonds, shares, stocks, options, futures, etc.", "Assets can also be banked, invested, and insured to maximize value and minimize loss.", "In practice, risks are always present in any financial action and entities.A broad range of subfields within finance exists due to its wide scope.", "Asset, money, risk and investment management aim to maximize value and minimize volatility.", "Financial analysis is the viability, stability, and profitability assessment of an action or entity.", "In some cases, theories in finance can be tested using the scientific method, covered by experimental finance.Some fields are multidisciplinary, such as mathematical finance, financial law, financial economics, financial engineering and financial technology.", "These fields are the foundation of business and accounting'''.", "'''The early history of finance parallels the early history of money, which is prehistoric.", "Ancient and medieval civilizations incorporated basic functions of finance, such as banking, trading and accounting, into their economies.", "In the late 19th century, the global financial system was formed.In the middle of the 20th century, finance emerged as a distinct academic discipline, separate from economics.", "(The first academic journal, ''The Journal of Finance'', began publication in 1946.)", "The earliest doctoral programs in finance were established in the 1960s and 1970s.Finance is today also widely studied through career-focused undergraduate and master's level programs." ], [ "The financial system", "Bond issued by The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.", "Bonds are a form of borrowing used by corporations to finance their operations.Share certificate dated 1913 issued by the Radium Hill Companytraders floor c 1960, before the introduction of electronic readouts and computer screensChicago Board of Trade Corn Futures market, 1993Oil traders, Houston, 2009As outlined, the financial system consists of the flows of capital that take place between individuals and households (personal finance), governments (public finance), and businesses (corporate finance).", "\"Finance\" thus studies the process of channeling money from savers and investors to entities that need it.Savers and investors have money available which could earn interest or dividends if put to productive use.", "Individuals, companies and governments must obtain money from some external source, such as loans or credit, when they lack sufficient funds to run their operations.In general, an entity whose income exceeds its expenditure can lend or invest the excess, intending to earn a fair return.", "Correspondingly, an entity where income is less than expenditure can raise capital usually in one of two ways: (i) by borrowing in the form of a loan (private individuals), or by selling government or corporate bonds; (ii) by a corporation selling equity, also called stock or shares (which may take various forms: preferred stock or common stock).", "The owners of both bonds and stock may be ''institutional investors'' financial institutions such as investment banks and pension funds – or private individuals, called ''private investors'' or ''retail investors''; see Financial market participants.The lending is often indirect, through a financial intermediary such as a bank, or via the purchase of notes or bonds (corporate bonds, government bonds, or mutual bonds) in the bond market.", "The lender receives interest, the borrower pays a higher interest than the lender receives, and the financial intermediary earns the difference for arranging the loan.A bank aggregates the activities of many borrowers and lenders.", "A bank accepts deposits from lenders, on which it pays interest.", "The bank then lends these deposits to borrowers.", "Banks allow borrowers and lenders, of different sizes, to coordinate their activity.Investing typically entails the purchase of stock, either individual securities or via a mutual fund, for example.", "Stocks are usually sold by corporations to investors so as to raise required capital in the form of \"equity financing\", as distinct from the ''debt financing'' described above.", "The financial intermediaries here are the investment banks.", "The investment banks find the initial investors and facilitate the listing of the securities, typically shares and bonds.", "Additionally, they facilitate the securities exchanges, which allow their trade thereafter, as well as the various service providers which manage the performance or risk of these investments.", "These latter include mutual funds, pension funds, wealth managers, and stock brokers, typically servicing retail investors (private individuals).Inter-institutional trade and investment, and fund-management at this scale, is referred to as \"wholesale finance\".", "Institutions here extend the products offered, with related trading, to include bespoke options, swaps, and structured products, as well as specialized financing; this \"financial engineering\" is inherently mathematical, and these institutions are then the major employers of \"quants\" (see below).", "In these institutions, risk management, regulatory capital, and compliance play major roles." ], [ "Areas of finance", "As outlined, finance comprises, broadly, the three areas of personal finance, corporate finance, and public finance.These, in turn, overlap and employ various activities and sub-disciplines chiefly investments, risk management, and quantitative finance.===Personal finance===Wealth management consultation here the financial advisor counsels the client on an appropriate investment strategyPersonal finance is defined as \"the mindful planning of monetary spending and saving, while also considering the possibility of future risk\".", "Personal finance may involve paying for education, financing durable goods such as real estate and cars, buying insurance, investing, and saving for retirement.Personal finance may also involve paying for a loan or other debt obligations.", "The main areas of personal finance are considered to be income, spending, saving, investing, and protection.", "The following steps, as outlined by the Financial Planning Standards Board, suggest that an individual will understand a potentially secure personal finance plan after:* Purchasing insurance to ensure protection against unforeseen personal events;* Understanding the effects of tax policies, subsidies, or penalties on the management of personal finances;* Understanding the effects of credit on individual financial standing;* Developing a savings plan or financing for large purchases (auto, education, home);* Planning a secure financial future in an environment of economic instability;* Pursuing a checking or a savings account;* Preparing for retirement or other long term expenses.===Corporate finance===Corporate finance deals with the actions that managers take to increase the value of the firm to the shareholders, the sources of funding and the capital structure of corporations, and the tools and analysis used to allocate financial resources.", "While corporate finance is in principle different from managerial finance, which studies the financial management of all firms rather than corporations alone, the concepts are applicable to the financial problems of all firms, and this area is then often referred to as \"business finance\".Typically, then, \"corporate finance\" relates to the ''long term'' objective of maximizing the value of the entity's assets, its stock, and its return to shareholders, while also balancing risk and profitability.", "This entails three primary areas: #Capital budgeting: selecting which projects to invest in here, accurately determining value is crucial, as judgements about asset values can be \"make or break\"#Dividend policy: the use of \"excess\" funds are these to be reinvested in the business or returned to shareholders#Capital structure: deciding on the mix of funding to be used here attempting to find the optimal capital mix re debt-commitments vs cost of capitalThe latter creates the link with investment banking and securities trading, as above, in that the capital raised will generically comprise debt, i.e.", "corporate bonds, and equity, often listed shares.Re risk management within corporates, see below.Financial managers i.e.", "as distinct from corporate financiers focus more on the ''short term'' elements of profitability, cash flow, and \"working capital management\" (inventory, credit and debtors), ensuring that the firm can safely and profitably carry out its financial ''and operational'' objectives; i.e.", "that it: (1) can service both maturing short-term debt repayments, and scheduled long-term debt payments, and (2) has sufficient cash flow for ongoing and upcoming operational expenses.See Financial management and Financial planning and analysis.===Public finance===President George W. Bush, speaking on the Federal Budget in 2007, here requesting additional funds from CongressCBO: 2022 US Federal Budget InfographicPublic finance describes finance as related to sovereign states, sub-national entities, and related public entities or agencies.", "It generally encompasses a long-term strategic perspective regarding investment decisions that affect public entities.", "These long-term strategic periods typically encompass five or more years.", "Public finance is primarily concerned with:* Identification of required expenditures of a public sector entity;* Source(s) of that entity's revenue;* The budgeting process;* Sovereign debt issuance, or municipal bonds for public works projects.Central banks, such as the Federal Reserve System banks in the United States and the Bank of England in the United Kingdom, are strong players in public finance.", "They act as lenders of last resort as well as strong influences on monetary and credit conditions in the economy.Development finance, which is related, concerns investment in economic development projects provided by a (quasi) governmental institution on a non-commercial basis; these projects would otherwise not be able to get financing.See .A public–private partnership is primarily used for infrastructure projects: a private sector corporate provides the financing up-front, and then draws profits from taxpayers or users.===Investment management===Share prices listed in a Korean Newspaper\"The excitement before the bubble burst\" viewing prices via ticker tape, shortly before the Wall Street Crash of 1929Modern price-ticker.", "This infrastructure underpins contemporary exchanges, evidencing prices and related ticker symbols.", "The ticker symbol is represented by a unique set of characters used to identify the subject of the financial transaction.Investment management is the professional asset management of various securities typically shares and bonds, but also other assets, such as real estate, commodities and alternative investments in order to meet specified investment goals for the benefit of investors.As above, investors may be institutions, such as insurance companies, pension funds, corporations, charities, educational establishments, or private investors, either directly via investment contracts or, more commonly, via collective investment schemes like mutual funds, exchange-traded funds, or REITs.At the heart of investment management is asset allocation diversifying the exposure among these asset classes, and among individual securities within each asset class as appropriate to the client's investment policy, in turn, a function of risk profile, investment goals, and investment horizon (see Investor profile).", "Here:*Portfolio optimization is the process of selecting the best portfolio given the client's objectives and constraints.", "*Fundamental analysis is the approach typically applied in valuing and evaluating the individual securities.", "*Technical analysis is about forecasting future asset prices with past dataOverlaid is the portfolio manager's investment style broadly, active vs passive, value vs growth, and small cap vs. large cap and investment strategy.In a well-diversified portfolio, achieved investment performance will, in general, largely be a function of the asset mix selected, while the individual securities are less impactful.", "The specific approach or philosophy will also be significant, depending on the extent to which it is complementary with the market cycle.A quantitative fund is managed using computer-based mathematical techniques (increasingly, machine learning) instead of human judgment.", "The actual trading also, is typically automated via sophisticated algorithms.===Risk management===Crowds gathering outside the New York Stock Exchange after the Wall Street Crash of 1929Customers queuing outside a Northern Rock branch in the United Kingdom to withdraw their savings during the financial crisis of 2007–2008Risk management, in general, is the study of how to control risks and balance the possibility of gains; it is the process of measuring risk and then developing and implementing strategies to manage that risk.", "Financial risk management is the practice of protecting corporate value against financial risks, often by \"hedging\" exposure to these using financial instruments.", "The focus is particularly on credit and market risk, and in banks, through regulatory capital, includes operational risk.", "*Credit risk is the risk of default on a debt that may arise from a borrower failing to make required payments; *Market risk relates to losses arising from movements in market variables such as prices and exchange rates;*Operational risk relates to failures in internal processes, people, and systems, or to external events.", "Financial risk management is related to corporate finance in two ways.", "Firstly, firm exposure to market risk is a direct result of previous capital investments and funding decisions; while credit risk arises from the business's credit policy and is often addressed through credit insurance and provisioning.Secondly, both disciplines share the goal of enhancing or at least preserving, the firm's economic value, and in this context overlaps also enterprise risk management, typically the domain of strategic management.", "Here, businesses devote much time and effort to forecasting, analytics and performance monitoring.See also \"ALM\" and treasury management.For banks and other wholesale institutions, risk management focuses on managing, and as necessary hedging, the various positions held by the institution both trading positions and long term exposures and on calculating and monitoring the resultant economic capital, and regulatory capital under Basel III.", "The calculations here are mathematically sophisticated, and within the domain of quantitative finance as below.", "Credit risk is inherent in the business of banking, but additionally, these institutions are exposed to counterparty credit risk.", "Banks typically employ Middle office \"Risk Groups\" here, whereas front office risk teams provide risk \"services\" / \"solutions\" to customers.Additional to diversification the fundamental feature of risk mitigation here investment managers will apply various risk management techniques to their portfolios as appropriate: these may relate to the portfolio as a whole or to individual stocks; bond portfolios are typically managed via cash flow matching or immunization.", "With regard to derivative portfolios and positions, \"the Greeks\" is a vital risk management tool it measures sensitivity to a small change in a given underlying parameter so that the portfolio can be rebalanced accordingly by including additional derivatives with offsetting characteristics.===Quantitative finance===Dōjima Rice Exchange, the world's first futures exchange, established in Osaka in 1697Quantitative finance also referred to as \"mathematical finance\" includes those finance activities where a sophisticated mathematical model is required, and thus overlaps several of the above.As a specialized practice area, quantitative finance comprises primarily three sub-disciplines; the underlying theory and techniques are discussed in the next section:#Quantitative finance is often synonymous with financial engineering.", "This area generally underpins a bank's customer-driven derivatives business delivering bespoke OTC-contracts and \"exotics\", and designing the various structured products and solutions mentioned and encompasses modeling and programming in support of the initial trade, and its subsequent hedging and management.#Quantitative finance also significantly overlaps financial risk management in banking, as mentioned, both as regards this hedging, and as regards economic capital as well as compliance with regulations and the Basel capital / liquidity requirements.", "#\"Quants\" are also responsible for building and deploying the investment strategies at the quantitative funds mentioned; they are also involved in quantitative investing more generally, in areas such as trading strategy formulation, and in automated trading, high-frequency trading, algorithmic trading, and program trading." ], [ "Financial theory", "Financial theory is studied and developed within the disciplines of management, (financial) economics, accountancy and applied mathematics.Abstractly, ''finance'' is concerned with the investment and deployment of assets and liabilities over \"space and time\"; i.e., it is about performing valuation and asset allocation today, based on the risk and uncertainty of future outcomes while appropriately incorporating the time value of money.", "Determining the present value of these future values, \"discounting\", must be at the risk-appropriate discount rate, in turn, a major focus of finance-theory.As financial theory has roots in many disciplines, including mathematics, statistics, economics, physics, and psychology, it can be considered a mix of an art and science, and there are ongoing related efforts to organize a list of unsolved problems in finance.===Managerial finance===Decision trees, a more sophisticated valuation-approach, sometimes applied to corporate finance \"project\" valuations (and a standard in business school curricula); various scenarios are considered, and their discounted cash flows are probability weighted.Managerial finance is the branch of management that concerns itself with the managerial application of finance techniques and theory, emphasizing the financial aspects of managerial decisions; the assessment is per the managerial perspectives of planning, directing, and controlling.The techniques addressed and developed relate in the main to managerial accounting and corporate finance: the former allow management to better understand, and hence act on, financial information relating to profitability and performance; the latter, as above, are about optimizing the overall financial structure, including its impact on working capital.The ''implementation'' of these techniques i.e.", "financial management is outlined above.Academics working in this area are typically based in business school finance departments, in accounting, or in management science.===Financial economics===The \"efficient frontier\", a prototypical concept in portfolio optimization.", "Introduced in 1952, it remains \"a mainstay of investing and finance\".", "An \"efficient\" portfolio, i.e.", "combination of assets, has the best possible expected return for its level of risk (represented by the standard deviation of return).Modigliani–Miller theorem, a foundational element of finance theory, introduced in 1958; it forms the basis for modern thinking on capital structure.", "Even if leverage (D/E) increases, the WACC (k0) stays constant.Financial economics is the branch of economics that studies the interrelation of financial variables, such as prices, interest rates and shares, as opposed to real economic variables, i.e.", "goods and services.", "It thus centers on pricing, decision making, and risk management in the financial markets, and produces many of the commonly employed financial models.", "(Financial econometrics is the branch of financial economics that uses econometric techniques to parameterize the relationships suggested.", ")The discipline has two main areas of focus: asset pricing and corporate finance; the first being the perspective of providers of capital, i.e.", "investors, and the second of users of capital; respectively:* Asset pricing theory develops the models used in determining the risk-appropriate discount rate, and in pricing derivatives; and includes the portfolio- and investment theory applied in asset management.", "The analysis essentially explores how rational investors would apply risk and return to the problem of investment under uncertainty, producing the key \"Fundamental theorem of asset pricing\".", "Here, the twin assumptions of rationality and market efficiency lead to modern portfolio theory (the CAPM), and to the Black–Scholes theory for option valuation.", "At more advanced levels and often in response to financial crises the study then extends these \"Neoclassical\" models to incorporate phenomena where their assumptions do not hold, or to more general settings.", "* Much of corporate finance theory, by contrast, considers investment under \"certainty\" (Fisher separation theorem, \"theory of investment value\", Modigliani–Miller theorem).", "Here, theory and methods are developed for the decisioning about funding, dividends, and capital structure discussed above.", "A recent development is to incorporate uncertainty and contingency and thus various elements of asset pricing into these decisions, employing for example real options analysis.===Financial mathematics===\"Trees\" are widely applied in mathematical finance; here used in calculating an OAS.", "Other common pricing-methods are simulation and PDEs.", "These are used for settings beyond those envisaged by Black-Scholes.", "Post crisis, even in those settings, banks use local and stochastic volatility models to incorporate the volatility surface; the xVA adjustments accommodate counterparty and capital considerations.Financial mathematics is the field of applied mathematics concerned with financial markets; Louis Bachelier's doctoral thesis, defended in 1900, is considered to be the first scholarly work in this area.", "The field is largely focused on the modeling of derivatives with much emphasis on interest rate- and credit risk modeling while other important areas include insurance mathematics and quantitative portfolio management.Relatedly, the techniques developed are applied to pricing and hedging a wide range of asset-backed, government, and corporate-securities.As above, in terms of practice, the field is referred to as quantitative finance and / or mathematical finance, and comprises primarily the three areas discussed.The main mathematical tools and techniques are, correspondingly:*for derivatives, Itô's stochastic calculus, simulation, and partial differential equations; see aside boxed discussion re the prototypical Black-Scholes and the various numeric techniques now applied*for risk management, value at risk, stress testing and \"sensitivities\" analysis (applying the \"greeks\"); the underlying mathematics comprises mixture models, PCA, volatility clustering and copulas.", "*in both of these areas, and particularly for portfolio problems, quants employ sophisticated optimization techniquesMathematically, these separate into two analytic branches:derivatives pricing uses risk-neutral probability (or arbitrage-pricing probability), denoted by \"Q\";while risk and portfolio management generally use physical (or actual or actuarial) probability, denoted by \"P\".These are interrelated through the above \"Fundamental theorem of asset pricing\".The subject has a close relationship with financial economics, which, as outlined, is concerned with much of the underlying theory that is involved in financial mathematics: generally, financial mathematics will derive and extend the mathematical models suggested.", "Computational finance is the branch of (applied) computer science that deals with problems of practical interest in finance, and especially emphasizes the numerical methods applied here.===Experimental finance===Experimental financeaims to establish different market settings and environments to experimentally observe and provide a lens through which science can analyze agents' behavior and the resulting characteristics of trading flows, information diffusion, and aggregation, price setting mechanisms, and returns processes.", "Researchers in experimental finance can study to what extent existing financial economics theory makes valid predictions and therefore prove them, as well as attempt to discover new principles on which such theory can be extended and be applied to future financial decisions.", "Research may proceed by conducting trading simulations or by establishing and studying the behavior of people in artificial, competitive, market-like settings.===Behavioral finance===Behavioral finance studies how the ''psychology'' of investors or managers affects financial decisions and markets and is relevant when making a decision that can impact either negatively or positively on one of their areas.", "With more in-depth research into behavioral finance, it is possible to bridge what actually happens in financial markets with analysis based on financial theory.", "Behavioral finance has grown over the last few decades to become an integral aspect of finance.Behavioral finance includes such topics as:# Empirical studies that demonstrate significant deviations from classical theories;# Models of how psychology affects and impacts trading and prices;# Forecasting based on these methods;# Studies of experimental asset markets and the use of models to forecast experiments.A strand of behavioral finance has been dubbed quantitative behavioral finance, which uses mathematical and statistical methodology to understand behavioral biases in conjunction with valuation.", "=== Environmental finance ====== Quantum finance ===Quantum finance is an interdisciplinary research field, applying theories and methods developed by quantum physicists and economists in order to solve problems in finance.", "It is a branch of econophysics.Finance theory is heavily based on financial instrument pricing such as stock option pricing.", "Many of the problems facing the finance community have no known analytical solution.", "As a result, numerical methods and computer simulations for solving these problems have proliferated.", "This research area is known as computational finance.", "Many computational finance problems have a high degree of computational complexity and are slow to converge to a solution on classical computers.", "In particular, when it comes to option pricing, there is additional complexity resulting from the need to respond to quickly changing markets.", "For example, in order to take advantage of inaccurately priced stock options, the computation must complete before the next change in the almost continuously changing stock market.", "As a result, the finance community is always looking for ways to overcome the resulting performance issues that arise when pricing options.", "This has led to research that applies alternative computing techniques to finance.", "Most commonly used quantum financial models are quantum continuous model, quantum binomial model, multi-step quantum binomial model etc." ], [ "History of finance", "The origin of finance can be traced to the start of civilization.", "The earliest historical evidence of finance is dated to around 3000 BC.", "Banking originated in the Babylonian empire, where temples and palaces were used as safe places for the storage of valuables.", "Initially, the only valuable that could be deposited was grain, but cattle and precious materials were eventually included.", "During the same period, the Sumerian city of Uruk in Mesopotamia supported trade by lending as well as the use of interest.", "In Sumerian, \"interest\" was ''mas'', which translates to \"calf\".", "In Greece and Egypt, the words used for interest, ''tokos'' and ''ms'' respectively, meant \"to give birth\".", "In these cultures, interest indicated a valuable increase, and seemed to consider it from the lender's point of view.", "The Code of Hammurabi (1792–1750 BC) included laws governing banking operations.", "The Babylonians were accustomed to charging interest at the rate of 20 percent per annum.Jews were not allowed to take interest from other Jews, but they were allowed to take interest from Gentiles, who had at that time no law forbidding them from practicing usury.", "As Gentiles took interest from Jews, the Torah considered it equitable that Jews should take interest from Gentiles.", "In Hebrew, interest is ''neshek''.By 1200 BC, cowrie shells were used as a form of money in China.", "By 640 BC, the Lydians had started to use coin money.", "Lydia was the first place where permanent retail shops opened.", "(Herodotus mentions the use of crude coins in Lydia in an earlier date, around 687 BC.", ")The use of coins as a means of representing money began in the years between 600 and 570 BCE.", "Cities under the Greek empire, such as Aegina (595 BCE), Athens (575 BCE), and Corinth (570 BCE), started to mint their own coins.", "In the Roman Republic, interest was outlawed altogether by the ''Lex Genucia'' reforms.", "Under Julius Caesar, a ceiling on interest rates of 12% was set, and later under Justinian it was lowered even further to between 4% and 8%.The first exchange happened in Belgium in 1531 AD.", "Since, popular exchanges such as the London Stock Exchange (founded in 1773) and the New York Stock Exchange (founded in 1793) were created." ], [ "See also", "*Outline of finance*Financial crisis of 2007–2010" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *''Rich Dad Poor Dad: What the Rich Teach Their Kids About Money That the Poor and Middle Class Do Not!", "'', by Robert Kiyosaki and Sharon Lechter.", "Warner Business Books, 2000.", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Finance Definition (Investopedia)* Hypertextual Finance Glossary (Campbell Harvey)* Finance Glossary (Vernimmen ''et.", "al.", "'')* Corporate finance resources (Aswath Damodaran)* Financial management resources (James Van Horne)* Personal finance resources (Financial Literacy and Education Commission, mymoney.gov)* Public finance resources (Governance and Social Development Resource Centre, gsdrc.org)* Risk management resources (Global Risk Institute)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "February 17" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*1370 – Northern Crusades: Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Teutonic Knights meet in the Battle of Rudau.", "*1411 – Following the successful campaigns during the Ottoman Interregnum, Musa Çelebi, one of the sons of Bayezid I, becomes Sultan of the Ottoman Empire with the support of Mircea I of Wallachia.", "*1500 – Duke Friedrich and Duke Johann attempt to subdue the peasantry of Dithmarschen, Denmark, in the Battle of Hemmingstedt.", "*1600 – On his way to be burned at the stake for heresy, at Campo de' Fiori in Rome, the philosopher Giordano Bruno has a wooden vise put on his tongue to prevent him continuing to speak.===1601–1900===*1616 – Nurhaci proclaims himself Khan of the Later Jin, precursor to the Qing Dynasty.", "*1621 – Myles Standish is appointed as first military commander of the English Plymouth Colony in North America.", "*1674 – An earthquake strikes the Indonesian island of Ambon.", "It triggers a megatsunami which drowns over 2,300 people.", "*1676 – Sixteen men of Pascual de Iriate's expedition are lost at Evangelistas Islets at the western end of the Strait of Magellan.", "*1739 – The Battle of Vasai commences as the Marathas move to invade Portuguese-occupied territory.", "*1753 – In Sweden February 17 is followed by March 1 as the country moves from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar.", "*1801 – United States presidential election: A tie in the Electoral College between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr is resolved when Jefferson is elected President of the United States and Burr Vice President by the United States House of Representatives.", "*1814 – War of the Sixth Coalition: The Battle of Mormant.", "*1819 – The United States House of Representatives passes the Missouri Compromise for the first time.", "*1838 – Weenen massacre: Hundreds of Voortrekkers along the Blaukraans River, Natal are killed by Zulus.", "*1854 – The United Kingdom recognizes the independence of the Orange Free State.", "*1859 – Cochinchina Campaign: The French Navy captures the Citadel of Saigon, a fortress manned by 1,000 Nguyễn dynasty soldiers, en route to conquering Saigon and other regions of southern Viet Nam.", "*1863 – A group of citizens of Geneva found an International Committee for Relief to the Wounded, which later became known as the International Committee of the Red Cross.", "*1864 – American Civil War: The becomes the first submarine to engage and sink a warship, the .", "*1865 – American Civil War: Columbia, South Carolina, is burned as Confederate forces flee from advancing Union forces.===1901–present===*1905 – Russian Revolution of 1905: Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich of Russia is assassinated in the Moscow Kremlin by Socialist Revolutionary Ivan Kalyayev.", "*1913 – The Armory Show opens in New York City, displaying works of artists who are to become some of the most influential painters of the early 20th century.", "*1919 – The Ukrainian People's Republic asks the Entente and the United States for help fighting the Bolsheviks.", "*1944 – World War II: The Battle of Eniwetok begins.", "The battle ends in an American victory on February 22.", "* 1944 – World War II: Operation Hailstone begins: U.S. naval air, surface, and submarine attack against Truk Lagoon, Japan's main base in the central Pacific, in support of the Eniwetok invasion.", "*1948 – The Alwaziri coup briefly ousts the ruling Hamidaddin dynasty of Yemen; Imam Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din is killed.", "*1949 – Chaim Weizmann begins his term as the first President of Israel.", "*1959 – Project Vanguard: Vanguard 2: The first weather satellite is launched to measure cloud-cover distribution.", "* 1959 – A Turkish Airlines Vickers Viscount crashes near Gatwick Airport, killing 14; Turkish prime minister Adnan Menderes survives the crash.", "*1964 – In ''Wesberry v. Sanders'' the Supreme Court of the United States rules that congressional districts have to be approximately equal in population.", "* 1964 – Gabonese president Léon M'ba is toppled by a coup and his rival, Jean-Hilaire Aubame, is installed in his place.", "*1965 – Project Ranger: The Ranger 8 probe launches on its mission to photograph the ''Mare Tranquillitatis'' region of the Moon in preparation for the crewed Apollo missions.", "''Mare Tranquillitatis'' or the \"Sea of Tranquility\" would become the site chosen for the Apollo 11 lunar landing.", "*1969 – American aquanaut Berry L. Cannon dies of carbon dioxide poisoning while attempting to repair a leak in the SEALAB III underwater habitat.", "The SEALAB project was subsequently abandoned.", "*1970 – Jeffrey R. MacDonald, United States Army captain, is charged with murder of his pregnant wife and two daughters.", "*1972 – Cumulative sales of the Volkswagen Beetle exceed those of the Ford Model T.*1974 – Robert K. Preston, a disgruntled U.S. Army private, buzzes the White House in a stolen helicopter.", "*1978 – The Troubles: The Provisional IRA detonates an incendiary bomb at the La Mon restaurant, near Belfast, killing 12 and seriously injuring 30 others, all Protestants.", "*1979 – The Sino-Vietnamese War begins.", "*1980 – First winter ascent of Mount Everest by Krzysztof Wielicki and Leszek Cichy.", "*1991 – Ryan International Airlines Flight 590 crashes during takeoff from Cleveland Hopkins International Airport, killing both pilots, the aircraft's only occupants.", "*1992 – First Nagorno-Karabakh War: Armenian troops massacre more than 20 Azerbaijani civilians during the Capture of Garadaghly.", "*1995 – The Cenepa War between Peru and Ecuador ends on a ceasefire brokered by the UN.", "*1996 – In Philadelphia, world champion Garry Kasparov beats the Deep Blue supercomputer in a chess match.", "* 1996 – NASA's Discovery Program begins as the NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft lifts off on the first mission ever to orbit and land on an asteroid, 433 Eros.", "* 1996 – The 8.2 Biak earthquake shakes the Papua province of eastern Indonesia with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (''Severe'').", "A large tsunami followed, leaving one-hundred sixty-six people dead or missing and 423 injured.", "*2006 – A massive mudslide occurs in Southern Leyte, Philippines; the official death toll is set at 1,126.", "*2008 – Kosovo declares independence from Serbia.", "*2011 – Arab Spring: Libyan protests against Muammar Gaddafi's regime begin.", "* 2011 – Arab Spring: In Bahrain, security forces launch a deadly pre-dawn raid on protesters in Pearl Roundabout in Manama; the day is locally known as Bloody Thursday.", "*2015 – Eighteen people are killed and 78 injured in a stampede at a Mardi Gras parade in Haiti.", "*2016 – Military vehicles explode outside a Turkish Armed Forces barracks in Ankara, Turkey, killing at least 29 people and injuring 61 others." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 624 – Wu Zetian, Chinese empress consort (d. 705)*1028 – Al-Juwayni, Persian scholar and imam (d. 1085)*1490 – Charles III, duke of Bourbon (d. 1527)*1519 – Francis, French Grand Chamberlain (d. 1563)*1524 – Charles de Lorraine, French cardinal (d. 1574)===1601–1900===*1646 – Pierre Le Pesant, sieur de Boisguilbert, French economist (d. 1714)*1653 – Arcangelo Corelli, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1713)*1723 – Tobias Mayer, German astronomer and academic (d. 1762)*1740 – Horace-Bénédict de Saussure, Swiss physicist and meteorologist (d. 1799)*1752 – Friedrich Maximilian Klinger, German author and playwright (d. 1831) *1754 – Nicolas Baudin, French cartographer and explorer (d. 1803)*1758 – John Pinkerton, Scottish antiquarian, cartographer, author, numismatist and historian (d. 1826)*1762 – John Cooke, English captain (d. 1805)*1781 – René Laennec, French physician, invented the stethoscope (d. 1826)*1796 – Philipp Franz von Siebold, German physician and botanist (d. 1866)*1799 – Carl Julian (von) Graba, German lawyer and ornithologist who visited and studied the Faroe Islands (d. 1874)*1817 – Édouard Thilges, Luxembourgian jurist and politician, 7th Prime Minister of Luxembourg (d. 1904)*1820 – Henri Vieuxtemps, Belgian violinist and composer (d. 1881)*1821 – Lola Montez, Irish-American actress and dancer (d. 1861)*1832 – Richard Henry Park, American sculptor (d. 1902) *1836 – Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, Spanish author, poet, and playwright (d. 1870)*1843 – Aaron Montgomery Ward, American businessman, founded Montgomery Ward (d. 1913)*1848 – Louisa Lawson, Australian poet and publisher (d. 1920)*1849 – Joseph Favre, Swiss chef (d. 1903)*1854 – Friedrich Alfred Krupp, German businessman (d. 1902)*1861 – Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont, duchess of Albany (d. 1922)*1862 – Mori Ōgai, Japanese general, author, and poet (d. 1922)*1864 – Jozef Murgaš, Slovak priest, botanist, and painter (d. 1929)* 1864 – Banjo Paterson, Australian journalist, author, and poet (d. 1941)*1874 – Thomas J. Watson, American businessman (d. 1956)*1877 – Isabelle Eberhardt, Swiss explorer and author (d. 1904)* 1877 – André Maginot, French sergeant and politician (d. 1932)*1879 – Dorothy Canfield Fisher, American educational reformer, social activist and author (d. 1958)*1881 – Mary Carson Breckinridge, American nurse midwife, founded Frontier Nursing Service (d. 1965)*1887 – Joseph Bech, Luxembourgian lawyer and politician, 15th Prime Minister of Luxembourg (d. 1975)* 1887 – Leevi Madetoja, Finnish composer and critic (d. 1947)*1888 – Ronald Knox, English Catholic priest (d. 1957)* 1888 – Otto Stern, German-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1969)*1890 – Ronald Fisher, English-Australian statistician, biologist, and geneticist (d. 1962)*1891 – Abraham Fraenkel, German-Israeli mathematician and academic (d. 1965)*1893 – Wally Pipp, American baseball player and journalist (d. 1965)*1899 – Jibanananda Das, Bangladeshi-Indian poet and author (d. 1954)*1900 – Ruth Clifford, American actress (d. 1998)===1901–present===*1903 – Sadegh Hedayat, Iranian-French author and translator (d. 1951)*1904 – Hans Morgenthau, German-American political scientist, philosopher, and academic (d. 1980)*1905 – Rózsa Péter, Hungarian mathematician (d. 1977)*1906 – Mary Brian, American actress (d. 2002) *1908 – Bo Yibo, Chinese general and politician, Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China (d. 2007)*1910 – Marc Lawrence, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2005)*1911 – Oskar Seidlin, German-American author, poet, and scholar (d. 1984)*1912 – Andre Norton, American author (d. 2005)*1914 – Arthur Kennedy, American actor (d. 1990)*1916 – Alexander Obolensky, Russian rugby player and pilot (d. 1940)* 1916 – Don Tallon, Australian cricketer (d. 1984)* 1916 – Raf Vallone, Italian footballer and actor (d. 2002)*1918 – William Bronk, American poet and academic (d. 1999)* 1918 – Jacqueline Ferrand, French mathematician (d. 2014)*1919 – J. M. S. Careless, Canadian historian and academic (d. 2009)* 1919 – Kathleen Freeman, American actress and singer (d. 2001)* 1919 – Joe Hunt, American tennis player (d. 1945)*1920 – Ivo Caprino, Norwegian director and screenwriter (d. 2001)* 1920 – Annie Glenn, American disability and communication disorder advocate (d. 2020)* 1920 – Curt Swan, American illustrator (d. 1996)*1921 – Duane Gish, American biochemist and academic (d. 2013)*1922 – Tommy Edwards, American R&B singer-songwriter (d. 1969)*1923 – Buddy DeFranco, American clarinet player and bandleader (d. 2014)*1924 – Margaret Truman, American singer and author (d. 2008)*1925 – Ron Goodwin, English composer and conductor (d. 2003)* 1925 – Hal Holbrook, American actor and director (d. 2021)*1928 – Marta Romero, Puerto Rican actress and singer (d. 2013)* 1928 – Michiaki Takahashi, Japanese virologist (d. 2013)*1929 – Alejandro Jodorowsky, Chilean-French director and screenwriter* 1929 – Chaim Potok, American rabbi and author (d. 2002)* 1929 – Nicholas Ridley, Baron Ridley of Liddesdale, English lieutenant and politician, Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills (d. 1993)* 1929 – Patricia Routledge, English actress and singer*1930 – Roger Craig, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 2023)* 1930 – Benjamin Fain, Ukrainian-Israeli physicist and academic (d. 2013)* 1930 – Ruth Rendell, English author (d. 2015)*1931 – Jiřina Jirásková, Czech actress and singer (d. 2013)* 1931 – Buddy Ryan, American football coach (d. 2016)*1933 – Craig L. Thomas, American captain and politician (d. 2007)*1934 – Alan Bates, English actor (d. 2003)* 1934 – Barry Humphries, Australian comedian, actor, and author (d. 2023)*1935 – Christina Pickles, English-American actress*1936 – Jim Brown, American football player and actor (d. 2023)*1937 – Mary Ann Mobley, American model and actress, Miss America 1959 (d. 2014)*1940 – Vicente Fernández, Mexican singer-songwriter, actor, and producer (d. 2021)* 1940 – Gene Pitney, American singer-songwriter (d. 2006)*1941 – Julia McKenzie, English actress, singer, and director*1942 – Huey P. Newton, American activist, co-founded the Black Panther Party (d. 1989)*1944 – Karl Jenkins, Welsh saxophonist, keyboard player, and composer*1945 – Zina Bethune, American actress, dancer, and choreographer (d. 2012)* 1945 – Brenda Fricker, Irish actress*1946 – Shahrnush Parsipur, Iranian-American author and academic*1948 – José José, Mexican singer-songwriter, producer, and actor (d. 2019)*1949 – Fred Frith, English guitarist and songwriter* 1949 – Dennis Green, American football player and coach (d. 2016)*1951 – Rashid Minhas, Pakistani soldier and pilot (d. 1971)*1952 – Karin Büttner-Janz, German gymnast and physician* 1952 – Vladimír Padrůněk, Czech musician (d. 1991)*1953 – Becky Ann Baker, American actress*1954 – Lou Ann Barton, American singer-songwriter* 1954 – Miki Berkovich, Israeli basketball player* 1954 – Rene Russo, American actress*1955 – Mo Yan, Chinese author and academic, Nobel Prize laureate*1956 – Richard Karn, American actor and game show host*1957 – Loreena McKennitt, Canadian singer-songwriter, accordion player, and pianist*1959 – Aryeh Deri, Moroccan-Israeli rabbi and politician, Israeli Minister of Internal Affairs* 1959 – Rowdy Gaines, American swimmer and sportscaster*1960 – Lindy Ruff, Canadian hockey player and coach*1961 – Angela Eagle, English politician, Shadow Leader of the House of Commons* 1961 – Maria Eagle, English politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Defence* 1961 – Andrey Korotayev, Russian anthropologist, historian, and sociologist*1962 – Lou Diamond Phillips, American actor and director*1963 – Larry the Cable Guy, American comedian and voice actor* 1963 – Alison Hargreaves, English mountaineer (d. 1995)* 1963 – Jen-Hsun Huang, Taiwanese-American businessman, co-founded Nvidia* 1963 – Michael Jordan, American basketball player, executive, and businessman*1964 – Sherry Hawco, Canadian gymnast (d. 1991)*1965 – Michael Bay, American director and producer*1966 – Luc Robitaille, Canadian ice hockey player, manager, and actor*1968 – Giuseppe Signori, Italian footballer * 1968 – Wu'erkaixi, Chinese journalist and activist*1969 – David Douillet, French martial artist and politician* 1969 – Vasily Kudinov, Russian handball player (d. 2017)*1970 – Dominic Purcell, English-Australian actor and producer*1971 – Denise Richards, American model and actress*1972 – Billie Joe Armstrong, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, actor, and producer* 1972 – Philippe Candeloro, French figure skater* 1972 – Taylor Hawkins, American singer-songwriter and musician (d. 2022)* 1972 – Valeria Mazza, Argentine model and businesswoman*1973 – Drew Barry, American basketball player* 1973 – Goran Bunjevčević, Serbian footballer (d. 2018)* 1973 – Raphaël Ibañez, French rugby player*1974 – Kaoru, Japanese guitarist, songwriter, and producer * 1974 – Jerry O'Connell, American actor, director, and producer*1975 – Kaspars Astašenko, Latvian ice hockey player (d. 2012)* 1975 – Václav Prospal, Czech ice hockey player*1976 – Kelly Carlson, American actress and model*1978 – Rory Kinnear, English actor and playwright*1979 – Conrad Ricamora, American actor* 1979 – Josh Willingham, American baseball player*1980 – Al Harrington, American basketball player* 1980 – Jason Ritter, American actor* 1980 – Klemi Saban, Israeli footballer*1981 – Joseph Gordon-Levitt, American actor, director, and producer* 1981 – Paris Hilton, American model, media personality, actress, singer, DJ, author and businesswoman* 1981 – Pontus Segerström, Swedish footballer (d. 2014)*1982 – Adriano, Brazilian footballer* 1982 – Brian Bruney, American baseball player*1984 – AB de Villiers, South African cricketer* 1984 – Marcin Gortat, Polish basketball player* 1984 – Katie Hill, Australian 3.0 point wheelchair basketball player*1985 – Anders Jacobsen, Norwegian ski jumper*1986 – Brett Kern, American football player*1987 – Ísis Valverde, Brazilian actress*1988 – Michael Frolík, Czech ice hockey player* 1988 – Case Keenum, American football player* 1988 – Vasyl Lomachenko, Ukrainian boxer*1989 – Rebecca Adlington, English swimmer* 1989 – Chord Overstreet, American actor and singer*1990 – Marianne St-Gelais, Canadian speed skater* 1990 – Edin Višća, Bosnian footballer*1991 – Phil Pressey, American basketball player and coach* 1991 – Ed Sheeran, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer* 1991 – Jeremy Allen White, American actor* 1991 – Bonnie Wright, English actress, filmmaker, and activist*1992 – Meaghan Martin, American actress and singer*1993 – Marc Márquez, Spanish motorcycle racer*1995 – Madison Keys, American tennis player*1996 – Sebastian Aho, Swedish ice hockey player* 1996 – Sasha Pieterse, South African-American actress and singer-songwriter*1998 – Devin White, American football player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 364 – Jovian, Roman emperor (b.", "331)* 440 – Mesrop Mashtots, Armenian monk, linguist, and theologian (b.", "360)* 923 – Al-Tabari, Persian scholar (b.", "839)*1178 – Evermode of Ratzeburg, bishop of Ratzeburg*1220 – Theobald I, Duke of Lorraine*1339 – Otto, Duke of Austria (b.", "1301)*1371 – Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria*1500 – Adolph, Count of Oldenburg-Delmenhorst, German noble (b. before 1463)*1600 – Giordano Bruno, Italian mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher (b.", "1548)===1601–1900===*1609 – Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (b.", "1549)*1624 – Juan de Mariana, Spanish priest and historian (b.", "1536)*1659 – Abel Servien, French politician, French Minister of Finance (b.", "1593)*1673 – Molière, French actor and playwright (b.", "1622)*1680 – Denzil Holles, 1st Baron Holles, English politician (b.", "1599)* 1680 – Jan Swammerdam, Dutch biologist, zoologist, and entomologist (b.", "1637)*1715 – Antoine Galland, French orientalist and archaeologist (b.", "1646)*1732 – Louis Marchand, French organist and composer (b.", "1669)*1768 – Arthur Onslow, English lawyer and politician, Speaker of the House of Commons (b.", "1691)*1841 – Ferdinando Carulli, Italian guitarist and composer (b.", "1770)*1849 – María de las Mercedes Barbudo, Puerto Rican political activist, the first woman ''Independentista'' in the island (b.", "1773)*1854 – John Martin, English painter, engraver, and illustrator (b.", "1789)*1856 – Heinrich Heine, German journalist and poet (b.", "1797)*1874 – Adolphe Quetelet, Belgian astronomer, mathematician, and sociologist (b.", "1796)*1890 – Christopher Latham Sholes, American publisher and politician (b.", "1819)===1901–present===*1905 – Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich of Russia, fifth son and seventh child of Tsar Alexander II (b.", "1857)* 1905 – William Bickerton, English-American religious leader, leader in the Latter Day Saint movement (b.", "1815)*1909 – Geronimo, American tribal leader (b.", "1829)*1912 – Edgar Evans, Welsh sailor and explorer (b.", "1876)*1919 – Wilfrid Laurier, Canadian lawyer and politician, 7th Prime Minister of Canada (b.", "1841)*1924 – Oskar Merikanto, Finnish composer (b.", "1868)*1934 – Albert I of Belgium (b.", "1875)* 1934 – Siegbert Tarrasch, German chess player and theoretician (b.", "1862)*1939 – Willy Hess, German violinist and educator (b.", "1859)*1946 – Dorothy Gibson, American actress and singer (b.", "1889)*1948 – Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din, Imam of Yemen (b.", "1904)*1961 – Lütfi Kırdar, Turkish physician and politician, Turkish Minister of Health (b.", "1887)* 1961 – Nita Naldi, American actress (b.", "1894)*1962 – Joseph Kearns, American actor (b.", "1907)* 1962 – Bruno Walter, German-American pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1876)*1966 – Hans Hofmann, German-American painter (b.", "1880)*1969 – Berry L. Cannon, American aquanaut (b.", "1935)*1970 – Shmuel Yosef Agnon, Ukrainian-Israeli novelist, short story writer, and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1888)* 1970 – Alfred Newman, American composer and conductor (b.", "1900)*1972 – Friday Hassler, American race car driver (b.", "1935)*1977 – Janani Luwum, Ugandan archbishop and saint (b.", "1922)*1979 – William Gargan, American actor (b.", "1905)*1982 – Nestor Chylak, American baseball player and umpire (b.", "1922)* 1982 – Thelonious Monk, American pianist and composer (b.", "1917)* 1982 – Lee Strasberg, American actor and director (b.", "1901)*1986 – Jiddu Krishnamurti, Indian-American philosopher and author (b.", "1895)*1988 – John M. Allegro, English archaeologist and scholar (b.", "1923)* 1988 – Karpoori Thakur, Indian educator and politician, 11th Chief Minister of Bihar (b.", "1924)*1989 – Lefty Gomez, American baseball player (b.", "1908)*1990 – Jean-Marc Boivin, French mountaineer, skier, and pilot (b.", "1951)*1994 – Randy Shilts, American journalist and author (b.", "1951)*1998 – Ernst Jünger, German soldier, philosopher, and author (b.", "1895)*2003 – Steve Bechler, American baseball player (b.", "1979)*2004 – José López Portillo, Mexican lawyer and politician, 51st President of Mexico (b.", "1920)*2005 – Dan O'Herlihy, Irish-American actor (b.", "1919)* 2005 – Omar Sívori, Argentinian footballer and manager (b.", "1935)*2006 – Ray Barretto, American drummer (b.", "1929)* 2006 – Bill Cowsill, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1948)*2009 – Conchita Cintrón, Chilean bullfighter and journalist (b.", "1922)*2010 – Kathryn Grayson, American actress and singer (b.", "1922)*2012 – Robert Carr, English engineer and politician, Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer (b.", "1916)* 2012 – Michael Davis, American singer-songwriter and bass player (b.", "1943)* 2012 – Nicolaas Govert de Bruijn, Dutch mathematician and theorist (b.", "1918)* 2012 – Ulric Neisser, German-American psychologist and academic (b.", "1928)*2013 – Richard Briers, English actor (b.", "1934)* 2013 – Shmulik Kraus, Israeli singer-songwriter and actor (b.", "1935)* 2013 – Sophie Kurys, American baseball player (b.", "1925)* 2013 – Mindy McCready, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1975)*2014 – Bob Casale, American guitarist, keyboard player, and producer (b.", "1952)* 2014 – Peter Florin, German politician and diplomat, President of the United Nations General Assembly (b.", "1921)* 2014 – Wayne Smith, Jamaican singer (b.", "1965)*2015 – John Barrow, American-Canadian football player and manager (b.", "1935)* 2015 – Cathy Ubels-Veen, Dutch politician (b.", "1928)* 2015 – Liu Yudi, Chinese general and pilot (b.", "1923)*2016 – Andy Ganteaume, Trinidadian cricketer (b.", "1921)* 2016 – Mohamed Hassanein Heikal, Egyptian journalist (b.", "1923)* 2016 – Claude Jeancolas, French historian, author, and journalist (b.", "1949)* 2016 – Tony Phillips, American baseball player (b.", "1959)* 2016 – Andrzej Żuławski, Polish film director (b.", "1940)*2017 – Robert H. Michel, American politician (b.", "1923)* 2017 – Michael Novak, American Roman Catholic theologian (b.", "1933)*2021 – Rush Limbaugh, American talk show host and author (b.", "1951)* 2021 – Seif Sharif Hamad, Tanzanian politician (b.", "1943)*2024 – Gamini Jayawickrama Perera, Sri Lankan politician (b.", "1941)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Seven Founders of the Servite Order***Alexis Falconieri**Constabilis**Donatus, Romulus, Secundian, and Companions**Fintan of Clonenagh**Janani Luwum (Anglican Communion)**Lommán of Trim**February 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Independence Day, celebrates the independence declaration of Kosovo in 2008, still partially recognized.", "*Revolution Day (Libya)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 17" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix''''' () is a 1975 Norwegian stop-motion-animated feature film directed by Ivo Caprino.", "It is based on characters from a series of books by Norwegian cartoonist and author Kjell Aukrust.It is the most widely seen Norwegian film of all time, having sold some 5.5 million tickets since its release to a population which currently numbers just over 5 million.", "The movie sold 28 million movie tickets in the former Soviet Union." ], [ "Plot", "Full-scale replica of ''Il Tempo Gigante''Model of ''Il Tempo Gigante''In the village of Flåklypa, (En.", "Pinchcliffe), the inventor Reodor Felgen (En.", "Theodore Rimspoke) lives with his animal friends Ludvig (En.", "Lambert) (a nervous, pessimistic and melancholic hedgehog) and Solan Gundersen (En.", "Sonny Duckworth) (a cheerful and optimistic magpie).", "Reodor works as a bicycle repairman, though he spends most of his time inventing weird Rube Goldberg-like contraptions.", "One day, the trio discovers that one of Reodor's former assistants, Rudolf Blodstrupmoen (En.", "Rudolph Gore-Slimey), has stolen his design for a race car engine and has become a world champion Formula One driver.", "Solan secures funding from Arab oil sheik Ben Redic Fy Fazan (En.", "Abdul Ben Bonanza), who happens to be vacationing in Flåklypa, and to enter the race, the trio builds a gigantic racing car: ''Il Tempo Gigante''—a fabulous construction with two extremely big engines (weighing 2.8 tonnes alone and making the seismometer in Bergen show 7.8 Richter when started the first time), a body made out of copper, a spinning radar (that turns out to be useful when Blodstrupmoen starts engaging in smoke warfare during the race), super-retometric distributor, and its own blood bank.", "Reodor ends up winning despite Blodstrupmoen's attempts at sabotage." ], [ "History", "In 1970, Ivo Caprino and his small team of collaborators started work on a 25-minute-long TV special, which would eventually become ''The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix''.", "The TV special was a collection of sketches based on Aukrust's books, with no real storyline.", "After 1.5 years of work, it was decided that it didn't really work as a whole, so production on the TV special was stopped (with the exception of some very short clips, no material from it has ever been seen by the public).", "About one year after the rejection, Ivo Caprino's son, Remo Caprino, got the idea to make the sketches into a full-length film.", "Kjell Aukrust, Ivo Caprino, Kjell Syversen, and Remo Caprino began at that point to write the script for what would later become ''The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix''.The film is heavily inspired by the birthplace of Kjell Aukrust's father, Lom.", "The Flåklypa-mountain is a stylized version of a real mountain, where the valley underneath it is named Flåklypa.", "It is also widely believed that the characters are caricatures of real persons.The film was made in 3.5 years by a team of approximately five people.", "Caprino directed and animated; Bjarne Sandemose (Caprino's principal collaborator throughout his career) built most of the props, sets, and cars and was in charge of the technical aspects of making the film; Ingeborg Riiser designed the puppets and Gerd Alfsen made the costumes and props.", "Charley Patey was the cameraman.When it came out in 1975, ''The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix'' was an enormous success in Norway, selling 1 million tickets in its first year of release.", "It remains the biggest box office hit of all time in Norway (Caprino Studios claim it has sold 5.5 million tickets to date) and was also released in many other countries.", "The film held the record for the highest grossing stop motion animated film until it was surpassed in 1993 by ''The Nightmare Before Christmas''.", "The film was shown in cinemas every day of the week for 28 years, from 1975 until 2003—mainly in Norway, Moscow and Tokyo.", "A real ''Il tempo gigante'' car was used to promote the film, e.g.", "driving around the Hockenheimring between races.", "The car originally had a 250 hp Cadillac engine but when Niki Lauda saw it he provided them with a 7.6 L, 550 hp, big-block Chevrolet.", "The car also has an auxiliary jet-engine, but due to EU restrictions the vehicle is barely permitted to be used at all save for exclusive TV cameos.The UK release featured the voice of well-known Formula One commentator Murray Walker.", "There is also a US dubbed version.The film was first released on DVD in 2001.In 2005, a digitally restored 30th-anniversary DVD was released which featured soundtracks and subtitles in five languages including English.The film aired every Christmas Eve in Norway for several years, until a change of channel from NRK to TV 2 changed the airing date to 23 or 25 December.", "In 2009 it showed on the 25th.It was released on 8 May 1980 in Australian theaters by Filmways Australia and released in US and Canada in 1981." ], [ "Subsequent films based on Aukrust's ''Flåklypa'' universe", "* ''Gurin with the Foxtail'' (1998)* ''Solan og Ludvig - Jul i Flåklypa'' (2013)* ''Solan og Ludvig: Herfra til Flåklypa'' (2015)* ''Månelyst i Flåklypa'' (2018)" ], [ "Other works inspired", "In 2000, a computer game based on the film was released.", "The game was created by Tyr Neilsen who was Creative Director and in charge of production at Ingames Interactive until a debilitating accident ended his video game career.", "The project was taken over and completed by Caprino's son Remo, while his grandson Mario was lead programmer.", "The lead designer was Joe Dever.", "The game was ported to Nintendo DS in 2010 and sold over 380,000 copies in Norway.The film inspired a young Christian von Koenigsegg to create the Koenigsegg CC, the first of the Koenigsegg make of supercars.Norwegian hip-hop duo Multicyde based their 1999 single \"Not for the Dough\" on a sample from the movie's soundtrack and featured excerpts from the film in the song's music video." ], [ "See also", "* List of animated feature films* List of stop-motion films" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Official website (in English)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fortran" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fortran''' (; formerly '''FORTRAN''') is a third generation, compiled, imperative programming language that is especially suited to numeric computation and scientific computing.Fortran was originally developed by IBM.", "It first compiled correctly in 1958.Fortran computer programs have been written to support scientific and engineering applications, such as numerical weather prediction, finite element analysis, computational fluid dynamics, geophysics, computational physics, crystallography and computational chemistry.", "It is a popular language for high-performance computing and is used for programs that benchmark and rank the world's fastest supercomputers.IBM Blue Gene/P supercomputer installation in 2007 at the Argonne Leadership Angela Yang Computing Facility located in the Argonne National Laboratory, in Lemont, Illinois, USFortran has evolved through numerous versions and dialects.", "In 1966, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) developed a standard for Fortran because new compilers would slightly change the syntax.", "Nonetheless, successive versions have added support for strings (Fortran 77), structured programming, array programming, modular programming, generic programming (Fortran 90), parallel computing (Fortran 95), object-oriented programming (Fortran 2003), and concurrent programming (Fortran 2008).FORTRAN and COBOL genealogy treeSince August 2021, Fortran has ranked among the top fifteen languages in the TIOBE index, a measure of the popularity of programming languages." ], [ "Naming", "The first manual for FORTRAN describes it as a ''Formula Translating System'', and printed the name with small caps, .", "Other sources suggest the name stands for ''Formula Translator,'' or ''Formula Translation''.", "Early IBM computers did not support lower case letters and the names of versions of the language through FORTRAN 77 were usually spelled in all-uppercase (FORTRAN 77 was the last version in which the Fortran character set included only uppercase letters).", "The official language standards for Fortran have referred to the language as \"Fortran\" with initial caps since Fortran 90." ], [ "Origins", "John Backus (1924–2007) proposed the FORTRAN project in December 1953 and received the A.M. Turing Award in 1977.In late 1953, John W. Backus submitted a proposal to his superiors at IBM to develop a more practical alternative to assembly language for programming their IBM 704 mainframe computer.", "Backus' historic FORTRAN team consisted of programmers Richard Goldberg, Sheldon F. Best, Harlan Herrick, Peter Sheridan, Roy Nutt, Robert Nelson, Irving Ziller, Harold Stern, Lois Haibt, and David Sayre.", "Its concepts included easier entry of equations into a computer, an idea developed by J. Halcombe Laning and demonstrated in the Laning and Zierler system of 1952.", "''The Fortran Automatic Coding System for the IBM 704'' (October 15, 1956), the first programmer's reference manual for FortranA draft specification for ''The IBM Mathematical Formula Translating System'' was completed by November 1954.The first manual for FORTRAN appeared in October 1956, with the first FORTRAN compiler delivered in April 1957.Fortran produced efficient enough code for assembly language programmers to accept a high-level programming language replacement.John Backus said during a 1979 interview with ''Think'', the IBM employee magazine, \"Much of my work has come from being lazy.", "I didn't like writing programs, and so, when I was working on the IBM 701, writing programs for computing missile trajectories, I started work on a programming system to make it easier to write programs.", "\"The language was widely adopted by scientists for writing numerically intensive programs, which encouraged compiler writers to produce compilers that could generate faster and more efficient code.", "The inclusion of a complex number data type in the language made Fortran especially suited to technical applications such as electrical engineering.By 1960, versions of FORTRAN were available for the IBM 709, 650, 1620, and 7090 computers.", "Significantly, the increasing popularity of FORTRAN spurred competing computer manufacturers to provide FORTRAN compilers for their machines, so that by 1963 over 40 FORTRAN compilers existed.FORTRAN was provided for the IBM 1401 computer by an innovative 63-phase compiler that ran entirely in its core memory of only 8000 (six-bit) characters.", "The compiler could be run from tape, or from a 2200-card deck; it used no further tape or disk storage.", "It kept the program in memory and loaded overlays that gradually transformed it, in place, into executable form, as described by Haines.This article was reprinted, edited, in both editions of ''Anatomy of a Compiler'' and in the IBM manual \"Fortran Specifications and Operating Procedures, IBM 1401\".", "The executable form was not entirely machine language; rather, floating-point arithmetic, sub-scripting, input/output, and function references were interpreted, preceding UCSD Pascal P-code by two decades.", "GOTRAN, a simplified, interpreted version of FORTRAN I (with only 12 statements not 32) for \"load and go\" operation was available (at least for the early IBM 1620 computer).", "Modern Fortran, and almost all later versions, are fully compiled, as done for other high-performance languages.The development of Fortran paralleled the early evolution of compiler technology, and many advances in the theory and design of compilers were specifically motivated by the need to generate efficient code for Fortran programs.===FORTRAN===The initial release of FORTRAN for the IBM 704 contained 32 statements, including:* and statements* Assignment statements* Three-way ''arithmetic'' statement, which passed control to one of three locations in the program depending on whether the result of the arithmetic expression was negative, zero, or positive* statements for checking exceptions (, , and ); and statements for manipulating sense switches and sense lights* , computed , , and assigned * loops* Formatted I/O: , , , , , , and * Unformatted I/O: , , , and * Other I/O: , , and * , , and * statement (for providing optimization hints to the compiler).The arithmetic statement was reminiscent of (but not readily implementable by) a three-way comparison instruction (CAS—Compare Accumulator with Storage) available on the 704.The statement provided the only way to compare numbers—by testing their difference, with an attendant risk of overflow.", "This deficiency was later overcome by \"logical\" facilities introduced in FORTRAN IV.The statement was used originally (and optionally) to give branch probabilities for the three branch cases of the arithmetic statement.", "The first FORTRAN compiler used this weighting to perform ''at compile time'' a Monte Carlo simulation of the generated code, the results of which were used to optimize the placement of basic blocks in memory—a very sophisticated optimization for its time.", "The Monte Carlo technique is documented in Backus et al.", "'s paper on this original implementation, ''The FORTRAN Automatic Coding System'':The fundamental unit of program is the basic block; a basic block is a stretch of program which has one entry point and one exit point.", "The purpose of section 4 is to prepare for section 5 a table of predecessors (PRED table) which enumerates the basic blocks and lists for every basic block each of the basic blocks which can be its immediate predecessor in flow, together with the absolute frequency of each such basic block link.", "This table is obtained by running the program once in Monte-Carlo fashion, in which the outcome of conditional transfers arising out of IF-type statements and computed GO TO's is determined by a random number generator suitably weighted according to whatever FREQUENCY statements have been provided.The first FORTRAN compiler reported diagnostic information by halting the program when an error was found and outputting an error code on its console.", "That code could be looked up by the programmer in an error messages table in the operator's manual, providing them with a brief description of the problem.", "Later, an error-handling subroutine to handle user errors such as division by zero, developed by NASA, was incorporated, informing users of which line of code contained the error.====Fixed layout and punched cards====FORTRAN code on a punched card, showing the specialized uses of columns 1–5, 6 and 73–80A reproduction of a FORTRAN coding form, printed on paper and intended to be used by programmers to prepare programs for punching onto cards by keypunch operators.", "Now obsolete.Before the development of disk files, text editors and terminals, programs were most often entered on a keypunch keyboard onto 80-column punched cards, one line to a card.", "The resulting deck of cards would be fed into a card reader to be compiled.", "Punched card codes included no lower-case letters or many special characters, and special versions of the IBM 026 keypunch were offered that would correctly print the re-purposed special characters used in FORTRAN.Reflecting punched card input practice, Fortran programs were originally written in a fixed-column format, with the first 72 columns read into twelve 36-bit words.A letter \"C\" in column 1 caused the entire card to be treated as a comment and ignored by the compiler.", "Otherwise, the columns of the card were divided into four fields:* 1 to 5 were the label field: a sequence of digits here was taken as a label for use in DO or control statements such as GO TO and IF, or to identify a FORMAT statement referred to in a WRITE or READ statement.", "Leading zeros are ignored and 0 is not a valid label number.", "* 6 was a continuation field: a character other than a blank or a zero here caused the card to be taken as a continuation of the statement on the prior card.", "The continuation cards were usually numbered 1, 2, ''etc.''", "and the starting card might therefore have zero in its continuation column—which is not a continuation of its preceding card.", "* 7 to 72 served as the statement field.", "* 73 to 80 were ignored (the IBM 704's card reader only used 72 columns).Columns 73 to 80 could therefore be used for identification information, such as punching a sequence number or text, which could be used to re-order cards if a stack of cards was dropped; though in practice this was reserved for stable, production programs.", "An IBM 519 could be used to copy a program deck and add sequence numbers.", "Some early compilers, e.g., the IBM 650's, had additional restrictions due to limitations on their card readers.", "Keypunches could be programmed to tab to column 7 and skip out after column 72.Later compilers relaxed most fixed-format restrictions, and the requirement was eliminated in the Fortran 90 standard.Within the statement field, whitespace characters (blanks) were ignored outside a text literal.", "This allowed omitting spaces between tokens for brevity or including spaces within identifiers for clarity.", "For example, was a valid identifier, equivalent to , and 101010DO101I=1,101 was a valid statement, equivalent to 10101 DO 101 I = 1, 101 because the zero in column 6 is treated as if it were a space (!", "), while 101010DO101I=1.101 was instead 10101 DO101I = 1.101, the assignment of 1.101 to a variable called DO101I.", "Note the slight visual difference between a comma and a period.Hollerith strings, originally allowed only in FORMAT and DATA statements, were prefixed by a character count and the letter H (e.g., ), allowing blanks to be retained within the character string.", "Miscounts were a problem." ], [ "Evolution", "+Timeline of Fortran language Year Informal name ANSI Standard ISO/IEC Standard 1957 FORTRAN 1958 FORTRAN II 1958 FORTRAN III 1961 FORTRAN IV 1966 FORTRAN 66 X3.9-1966 1978 FORTRAN 77 X3.9-1978 1991 Fortran 90 X3.198-1992 1539:1991 1997 Fortran 95 1539-1:1997 2004 Fortran 2003 1539-1:2004 2010 Fortran 2008 1539-1:2010 2018 Fortran 2018 1539-1:2018 2023 Fortran 2023 1539-1:2023===FORTRAN II===IBM's ''FORTRAN II'' appeared in 1958.The main enhancement was to support procedural programming by allowing user-written subroutines and functions which returned values with parameters passed by reference.", "The COMMON statement provided a way for subroutines to access common (or global) variables.", "Six new statements were introduced:* , , and * and * Over the next few years, FORTRAN II added support for the and data types.Early FORTRAN compilers supported no recursion in subroutines.", "Early computer architectures supported no concept of a stack, and when they did directly support subroutine calls, the return location was often stored in one fixed location adjacent to the subroutine code (e.g.", "the IBM 1130) or a specific machine register (IBM 360 ''et seq''), which only allows recursion if a stack is maintained by software and the return address is stored on the stack before the call is made and restored after the call returns.", "Although not specified in FORTRAN 77, many F77 compilers supported recursion as an option, and the Burroughs mainframes, designed with recursion built-in, did so by default.", "It became a standard in Fortran 90 via the new keyword RECURSIVE.====Simple FORTRAN II program====This program, for Heron's formula, reads data on a tape reel containing three 5-digit integers A, B, and C as input.", "There are no \"type\" declarations available: variables whose name starts with I, J, K, L, M, or N are \"fixed-point\" (i.e.", "integers), otherwise floating-point.", "Since integers are to be processed in this example, the names of the variables start with the letter \"I\".", "The name of a variable must start with a letter and can continue with both letters and digits, up to a limit of six characters in FORTRAN II.", "If A, B, and C cannot represent the sides of a triangle in plane geometry, then the program's execution will end with an error code of \"STOP 1\".", "Otherwise, an output line will be printed showing the input values for A, B, and C, followed by the computed AREA of the triangle as a floating-point number occupying ten spaces along the line of output and showing 2 digits after the decimal point, the .2 in F10.2 of the FORMAT statement with label 601.C AREA OF A TRIANGLE WITH A STANDARD SQUARE ROOT FUNCTIONC INPUT - TAPE READER UNIT 5, INTEGER INPUTC OUTPUT - LINE PRINTER UNIT 6, REAL OUTPUTC INPUT ERROR DISPLAY ERROR OUTPUT CODE 1 IN JOB CONTROL LISTING READ INPUT TAPE 5, 501, IA, IB, IC 501 FORMAT (3I5)C IA, IB, AND IC MAY NOT BE NEGATIVE OR ZEROC FURTHERMORE, THE SUM OF TWO SIDES OF A TRIANGLEC MUST BE GREATER THAN THE THIRD SIDE, SO WE CHECK FOR THAT, TOO IF (IA) 777, 777, 701 701 IF (IB) 777, 777, 702 702 IF (IC) 777, 777, 703 703 IF (IA+IB-IC) 777, 777, 704 704 IF (IA+IC-IB) 777, 777, 705 705 IF (IB+IC-IA) 777, 777, 799 777 STOP 1C USING HERON'S FORMULA WE CALCULATE THEC AREA OF THE TRIANGLE 799 S = FLOATF (IA + IB + IC) / 2.0 AREA = SQRTF( S * (S - FLOATF(IA)) * (S - FLOATF(IB)) * + (S - FLOATF(IC))) WRITE OUTPUT TAPE 6, 601, IA, IB, IC, AREA 601 FORMAT (4H A= ,I5,5H B= ,I5,5H C= ,I5,8H AREA= ,F10.2, + 13H SQUARE UNITS) STOP END===FORTRAN III===IBM also developed a ''FORTRAN III'' in 1958 that allowed for inline assembly code among other features; however, this version was never released as a product.", "Like the 704 FORTRAN and FORTRAN II, FORTRAN III included machine-dependent features that made code written in it unportable from machine to machine.", "Early versions of FORTRAN provided by other vendors suffered from the same disadvantage.===FORTRAN IV===IBM began development of FORTRAN IV starting in 1961, as a result of customer demands.", "''FORTRAN IV'' removed the machine-dependent features of FORTRAN II (such as ), while adding new features such as a data type, logical Boolean expressions and the ''logical IF statement'' as an alternative to the ''arithmetic IF statement.''", "FORTRAN IV was eventually released in 1962, first for the IBM 7030 (\"Stretch\") computer, followed by versions for the IBM 7090, IBM 7094, and later for the IBM 1401 in 1966.By 1965, FORTRAN IV was supposed to be compliant with the ''standard'' being developed by the American Standards Association X3.4.3 FORTRAN Working Group.Between 1966 and 1968, IBM offered several FORTRAN IV compilers for its System/360, each named by letters that indicated the minimum amount of memory the compiler needed to run.The letters (F, G, H) matched the codes used with System/360 model numbers to indicate memory size, each letter increment being a factor of two larger:* 1966 : FORTRAN IV F for DOS/360 (64K bytes)* 1966 : FORTRAN IV G for OS/360 (128K bytes)* 1968 : FORTRAN IV H for OS/360 (256K bytes)Digital Equipment Corporation maintained DECSYSTEM-10 Fortran IV (F40) for PDP-10 from 1967 to 1975.Compilers were also available for the UNIVAC 1100 series and the Control Data 6000 series and 7000 series systems.At about this time FORTRAN IV had started to become an important educational tool and implementations such as the University of Waterloo's WATFOR and WATFIV were created to simplify the complex compile and link processes of earlier compilers.==== Overview of FORTRAN IV Programming and compilers====In the FORTRAN IV programming environment of the era, except for that used on Control Data Corporation (CDC) systems, only one instruction was placed per line.", "The CDC version allowed for multiple instructions per line if separated by a $ (dollar) character.", "The FORTRAN sheet was divided into four zones:* Reference: Columns 1 to 5* Continuation: Column 6* Variable field: Columns 7 to 72* Identification: Columns 73 to 80Order numbers ranging from 1 to 99,999 could be assigned in columns 1 to 5 to identify specific instructions, typically in the case of loops or sequence breaks.", "Any blanks within these columns were disregarded.", "Column 1 could also contain a \"C,\" denoting that the entire content of columns 1 to 80 was a comment, reproduced verbatim during compilation without resulting in any real instruction.", "These were known as \"comment cards.", "\"The \"continuation column\" (Column 6) could hold a digit between 1 and 9 (excluding 0) to indicate that the formula or declaration started on a previous card continued on the current one.", "Up to 19 continuation cards could be used, and the digits on these cards could be in any order.In the variable field (Columns 7 to 72), the symbolic instructions of the program were written, with the option to space instructions using blanks, which were ignored by the compiler.", "To avoid confusion between the letter O and the number zero, the number ZERO was represented by a single 0, and the letter O by a barred O (Ø).The identification zone, ignored by the compiler, was used for short comments or for numbering program cards.", "This was particularly useful if the natural order of the cards was accidentally disrupted.Two compilers of the time, IBM \"G\" and UNIVAC, allowed comments to be written on the same line as instructions, separated by a special character: \"master space\": V (perforations 7 and 8) for UNIVAC and perforations 12/11/0/7/8/9 (hexadecimal FF) for IBM.", "These comments were not to be inserted in the middle of continuation cards.===FORTRAN 66===Perhaps the most significant development in the early history of FORTRAN was the decision by the ''American Standards Association'' (now American National Standards Institute (ANSI)) to form a committee sponsored by the Business Equipment Manufacturers Association (BEMA) to develop an ''American Standard Fortran''.", "The resulting two standards, approved in March 1966, defined two languages, ''FORTRAN'' (based on FORTRAN IV, which had served as a de facto standard), and ''Basic FORTRAN'' (based on FORTRAN II, but stripped of its machine-dependent features).", "The FORTRAN defined by the first standard, officially denoted X3.9-1966, became known as ''FORTRAN 66'' (although many continued to term it FORTRAN IV, the language on which the standard was largely based).", "FORTRAN 66 effectively became the first industry-standard version of FORTRAN.", "FORTRAN 66 included:* Main program, , , and program units* , , , , and data types* , , and statements* statement for specifying initial values* Intrinsic and (e.g., library) functions* Assignment statement* , computed , assigned , and statements* Logical and arithmetic (three-way) statements* loop statement* , , , , and statements for sequential I/O* statement and assigned format* , , , and statements* Hollerith constants in and statements, and as arguments to procedures* Identifiers of up to six characters in length* Comment lines* line===FORTRAN 77===CDC 175 at RWTH Aachen University, Germany, in 19874.3 BSD for the Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) VAX, displaying the manual for FORTRAN 77 (f77) compilerAfter the release of the FORTRAN 66 standard, compiler vendors introduced several extensions to ''Standard Fortran'', prompting ANSI committee X3J3 in 1969 to begin work on revising the 1966 standard, under sponsorship of CBEMA, the Computer Business Equipment Manufacturers Association (formerly BEMA).", "Final drafts of this revised standard circulated in 1977, leading to formal approval of the new FORTRAN standard in April 1978.The new standard, called ''FORTRAN 77'' and officially denoted X3.9-1978, added a number of significant features to address many of the shortcomings of FORTRAN 66:* Block and statements, with optional and clauses, to provide improved language support for structured programming* loop extensions, including parameter expressions, negative increments, and zero trip counts* , , and statements for improved I/O capability* Direct-access file I/O* statement, to override implicit conventions that undeclared variables are INTEGER if their name begins with I, J, K, L, M, or N (and REAL otherwise)* data type, replacing Hollerith strings with vastly expanded facilities for character input and output and processing of character-based data* statement for specifying constants* statement for persistent local variables* Generic names for intrinsic functions (e.g.", "also accepts arguments of other types, such as or ).", "* A set of intrinsics () for lexical comparison of strings, based upon the ASCII collating sequence.", "(These ASCII functions were demanded by the U.S. Department of Defense, in their conditional approval vote.", ")In this revision of the standard, a number of features were removed or altered in a manner that might invalidate formerly standard-conforming programs.", "''(Removal was the only allowable alternative to X3J3 at that time, since the concept of \"deprecation\" was not yet available for ANSI standards.", ")''While most of the 24 items in the conflict list (see Appendix A2 of X3.9-1978) addressed loopholes or pathological cases permitted by the prior standard but rarely used, a small number of specific capabilities were deliberately removed, such as:* Hollerith constants and Hollerith data, such as GREET = 12HHELLO THERE!", "* Reading into an H edit (Hollerith field) descriptor in a FORMAT specification* Overindexing of array bounds by subscripts DIMENSION A(10,5) Y = A(11,1)* Transfer of control out of and back into the range of a DO loop (also known as \"Extended Range\")===Transition to ANSI Standard Fortran===The development of a revised standard to succeed FORTRAN 77 would be repeatedly delayed as the standardization process struggled to keep up with rapid changes in computing and programming practice.", "In the meantime, as the \"Standard FORTRAN\" for nearly fifteen years, FORTRAN 77 would become the historically most important dialect.An important practical extension to FORTRAN 77 was the release of MIL-STD-1753 in 1978.This specification, developed by the U.S. Department of Defense, standardized a number of features implemented by most FORTRAN 77 compilers but not included in the ANSI FORTRAN 77 standard.", "These features would eventually be incorporated into the Fortran 90 standard.", "* , , , and statements* statement* variant of the statement* Bit manipulation intrinsic functions, based on similar functions included in Industrial Real-Time Fortran (ANSI/ISA S61.1 (1976))The IEEE 1003.9 POSIX Standard, released in 1991, provided a simple means for FORTRAN 77 programmers to issue POSIX system calls.", "Over 100 calls were defined in the document allowing access to POSIX-compatible process control, signal handling, file system control, device control, procedure pointing, and stream I/O in a portable manner.===Fortran 90===The much-delayed successor to FORTRAN 77, informally known as ''Fortran 90'' (and prior to that, ''Fortran 8X''), was finally released as ISO/IEC standard 1539:1991 in 1991 and an ANSI Standard in 1992.In addition to changing the official spelling from FORTRAN to Fortran, this major revision added many new features to reflect the significant changes in programming practice that had evolved since the 1978 standard:* Free-form source input removed the need to skip the first six character positions before entering statements.", "* Lowercase Fortran keywords* Identifiers up to 31 characters in length (In the previous standard, it was only six characters).", "* Inline comments* Ability to operate on arrays (or array sections) as a whole, thus greatly simplifying math and engineering computations.", "** whole, partial and masked array assignment statements and array expressions, such as X(1:N)=R(1:N)*COS(A(1:N))** statement for selective array assignment** array-valued constants and expressions,** user-defined array-valued functions and array constructors.", "* procedures* Modules, to group related procedures and data together, and make them available to other program units, including the capability to limit the accessibility to only specific parts of the module.", "* A vastly improved argument-passing mechanism, allowing interfaces to be checked at compile time* User-written interfaces for generic procedures* Operator overloading* Derived (structured) data types* New data type declaration syntax, to specify the data type and other attributes of variables* Dynamic memory allocation by means of the attribute and the and statements* attribute, pointer assignment, and statement to facilitate the creation and manipulation of dynamic data structures* Structured looping constructs, with an statement for loop termination, and and statements for terminating normal loop iterations in an orderly way* .", ".", ".", "construct for multi-way selection* Portable specification of numerical precision under the user's control* New and enhanced intrinsic procedures.====Obsolescence and deletions====Unlike the prior revision, Fortran 90 removed no features.", "Any standard-conforming FORTRAN 77 program was also standard-conforming under Fortran 90, and either standard should have been usable to define its behavior.A small set of features were identified as \"obsolescent\" and were expected to be removed in a future standard.", "All of the functionalities of these early-version features can be performed by newer Fortran features.", "Some are kept to simplify porting of old programs but many were deleted in Fortran 95.+ Obsolescence and deletions Obsolescent feature Current Status Arithmetic IF-statement Deleted Non-integer DO parameters or control variables Deleted Shared DO-loop termination or termination with a statement other than END DO or CONTINUE   Deleted Branching to END IF from outside a block Deleted Alternate return Obsolescent PAUSE statement Deleted ASSIGN statement and assigned GO TO statement Deleted Assigned statement numbers and FORMAT specifiers Deleted H edit descriptors Deleted Computed GO TO statement Obsolescent Statement functions Obsolescent DATA statements among executable statements Obsolescent CHARACTER* form of CHARACTER declaration Obsolescent Assumed character length functions Obsolescent Fixed form source code Obsolescent====\"Hello, World!\"", "example====program helloworld print *, \"Hello, World!", "\"end program helloworld===Fortran 95===''Fortran 95'', published officially as ISO/IEC 1539-1:1997, was a minor revision, mostly to resolve some outstanding issues from the Fortran 90 standard.", "Nevertheless, Fortran 95 also added a number of extensions, notably from the High Performance Fortran specification:* and nested constructs to aid vectorization* User-defined and procedures* Default initialization of derived type components, including pointer initialization* Expanded the ability to use initialization expressions for data objects* Initialization of pointers to * Clearly defined that arrays are automatically deallocated when they go out of scope.A number of intrinsic functions were extended (for example a argument was added to the intrinsic).Several features noted in Fortran 90 to be \"obsolescent\" were removed from Fortran 95:* statements using and index variables* Branching to an statement from outside its block* statement* and assigned statement, and assigned format specifiers* Hollerith edit descriptor.An important supplement to Fortran 95 was the ISO technical report ''TR-15581: Enhanced Data Type Facilities'', informally known as the ''Allocatable TR.''", "This specification defined enhanced use of arrays, prior to the availability of fully Fortran 2003-compliant Fortran compilers.", "Such uses include arrays as derived type components, in procedure dummy argument lists, and as function return values.", "( arrays are preferable to -based arrays because arrays are guaranteed by Fortran 95 to be deallocated automatically when they go out of scope, eliminating the possibility of memory leakage.", "In addition, elements of allocatable arrays are contiguous, and aliasing is not an issue for optimization of array references, allowing compilers to generate faster code than in the case of pointers.", ")Another important supplement to Fortran 95 was the ISO technical report ''TR-15580: Floating-point exception handling'', informally known as the ''IEEE TR.''", "This specification defined support for IEEE floating-point arithmetic and floating-point exception handling.====Conditional compilation and varying length strings====In addition to the mandatory \"Base language\" (defined in ISO/IEC 1539-1 : 1997), the Fortran 95 language also includes two optional modules:* Varying length character strings (ISO/IEC 1539-2 : 2000)* Conditional compilation (ISO/IEC 1539-3 : 1998)which, together, compose the multi-part International Standard (ISO/IEC 1539).According to the standards developers, \"the optional parts describe self-contained features which have been requested by a substantial body of users and/or implementors, but which are not deemed to be of sufficient generality for them to be required in all standard-conforming Fortran compilers.\"", "Nevertheless, if a standard-conforming Fortran does provide such options, then they \"must be provided in accordance with the description of those facilities in the appropriate Part of the Standard\"." ], [ "Modern Fortran", "The language defined by the twenty-first century standards, in particular because of its incorporation of Object-oriented programming support and subsequently Coarray Fortran, is often referred to as 'Modern Fortran', and the term is increasingly used in the literature.===Fortran 2003===''Fortran 2003,'' officially published as ISO/IEC 1539-1:2004, is a major revision introducing many new features.", "A comprehensive summary of the new features of Fortran 2003 is available at the Fortran Working Group (ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG5) official Web site.From that article, the major enhancements for this revision include:* Derived type enhancements: parameterized derived types, improved control of accessibility, improved structure constructors, and finalizers* Object-oriented programming support: type extension and inheritance, polymorphism, dynamic type allocation, and type-bound procedures, providing complete support for abstract data types* Data manipulation enhancements: allocatable components (incorporating TR 15581), deferred type parameters, attribute, explicit type specification in array constructors and allocate statements, pointer enhancements, extended initialization expressions, and enhanced intrinsic procedures* Input/output enhancements: asynchronous transfer, stream access, user specified transfer operations for derived types, user specified control of rounding during format conversions, named constants for preconnected units, the statement, regularization of keywords, and access to error messages* Procedure pointers* Support for IEEE floating-point arithmetic and floating-point exception handling (incorporating TR 15580)* Interoperability with the C programming language* Support for international usage: access to ISO 10646 4-byte characters and choice of decimal or comma in numeric formatted input/output* Enhanced integration with the host operating system: access to command-line arguments, environment variables, and processor error messagesAn important supplement to Fortran 2003 was the ISO technical report ''TR-19767: Enhanced module facilities in Fortran.''", "This report provided ''sub-modules,'' which make Fortran modules more similar to Modula-2 modules.", "They are similar to Ada private child sub-units.", "This allows the specification and implementation of a module to be expressed in separate program units, which improves packaging of large libraries, allows preservation of trade secrets while publishing definitive interfaces, and prevents compilation cascades.===Fortran 2008===ISO/IEC 1539-1:2010, informally known as Fortran 2008, was approved in September 2010.As with Fortran 95, this is a minor upgrade, incorporating clarifications and corrections to Fortran 2003, as well as introducing some new capabilities.", "The new capabilities include:* Sub-modules – additional structuring facilities for modules; supersedes ISO/IEC TR 19767:2005* Coarray Fortran – a parallel execution model* The DO CONCURRENT construct – for loop iterations with no interdependencies* The CONTIGUOUS attribute – to specify storage layout restrictions* The BLOCK construct – can contain declarations of objects with construct scope* Recursive allocatable components – as an alternative to recursive pointers in derived typesThe Final Draft international Standard (FDIS) is available as document N1830.A supplement to Fortran 2008 is the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Technical Specification (TS) 29113 on ''Further Interoperability of Fortran with C'', which has been submitted to ISO in May 2012 for approval.", "The specification adds support for accessing the array descriptor from C and allows ignoring the type and rank of arguments.===Fortran 2018===The latest revision of the language (Fortran 2018) was earlier referred to as Fortran 2015.It is a significant revision and was released on November 28, 2018.Fortran 2018 incorporates two previously published Technical Specifications:* ISO/IEC TS 29113:2012 Further Interoperability with C* ISO/IEC TS 18508:2015 Additional Parallel Features in FortranAdditional changes and new features include support for ISO/IEC/IEEE 60559:2011 (the version of the IEEE floating-point standard before the latest minor revision IEEE ), hexadecimal input/output, IMPLICIT NONE enhancements and other changes.===Fortran 2023===Fortran 2023 (ISO/IEC 1539-1:2023) was published in November 2023, and can be purchased from the ISO." ], [ "Language features", "A full description of the Fortran language features brought by Fortran 95 is covered in the related article, ''Fortran 95 language features''.", "The language versions defined by later standards are often referred to collectively as 'Modern Fortran' and are described in the literature." ], [ "Science and engineering", "General relativistic magnetohydrodynamic Fortran simulation of black hole accretion using the BHAC code with cartesian adaptive meshFlow around a cylinder computed in Fortran with OpenCL (University of Bristol, UK)Velocity and sea surface temperature in the oceans, computed with the NEMO Fortran code (Nucleus for European Modeling of the Ocean, https://www.nemo-ocean.eu) in the Barcelona Supercomputing Center (2020)Although a 1968 journal article by the authors of BASIC already described FORTRAN as \"old-fashioned\", programs have been written in Fortran for many decades and there is a vast body of Fortran software in daily use throughout the scientific and engineering communities.", "Jay Pasachoff wrote in 1984 that \"physics and astronomy students simply have to learn FORTRAN.", "So much exists in FORTRAN that it seems unlikely that scientists will change to Pascal, Modula-2, or whatever.\"", "In 1993, Cecil E. Leith called FORTRAN the \"mother tongue of scientific computing\", adding that its replacement by any other possible language \"may remain a forlorn hope\".It is the primary language for some of the most intensive super-computing tasks, such as in astronomy, climate modeling, computational chemistry, computational economics, computational fluid dynamics, computational physics, data analysis, hydrological modeling, numerical linear algebra and numerical libraries (LAPACK, IMSL and NAG), optimization, satellite simulation, structural engineering, and weather prediction.", "Many of the floating-point benchmarks to gauge the performance of new computer processors, such as the floating-point components of the SPEC benchmarks (e.g., CFP2006, CFP2017) are written in Fortran.", "Math algorithms are well documented in Numerical Recipes.Apart from this, more modern codes in computational science generally use large program libraries, such as METIS for graph partitioning, PETSc or Trilinos for linear algebra capabilities, deal.II or FEniCS for mesh and finite element support, and other generic libraries.", "Since the early 2000s, many of the widely used support libraries have also been implemented in C and more recently, in C++.", "On the other hand, high-level languages such as the Wolfram Language, MATLAB, Python, and R have become popular in particular areas of computational science.", "Consequently, a growing fraction of scientific programs are also written in such higher-level scripting languages.", "For this reason, facilities for inter-operation with C were added to Fortran 2003 and enhanced by the ISO/IEC technical specification 29113, which was incorporated into Fortran 2018 to allow more flexible interoperation with other programming languages.Software for NASA probes Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 was originally written in FORTRAN 5, and later ported to FORTRAN 77., some of the software is still written in Fortran and some has been ported to C." ], [ "Portability", "Portability was a problem in the early days because there was no agreed upon standard—not even IBM's reference manual—and computer companies vied to differentiate their offerings from others by providing incompatible features.", "Standards have improved portability.", "The 1966 standard provided a reference syntax and semantics, but vendors continued to provide incompatible extensions.", "Although careful programmers were coming to realize that use of incompatible extensions caused expensive portability problems, and were therefore using programs such as ''The PFORT Verifier,'' it was not until after the 1977 standard, when the National Bureau of Standards (now NIST) published ''FIPS PUB 69'', that processors purchased by the U.S. Government were required to diagnose extensions of the standard.", "Rather than offer two processors, essentially every compiler eventually had at least an option to diagnose extensions.Incompatible extensions were not the only portability problem.", "For numerical calculations, it is important to take account of the characteristics of the arithmetic.", "This was addressed by Fox et al.", "in the context of the 1966 standard by the ''PORT'' library.", "The ideas therein became widely used, and were eventually incorporated into the 1990 standard by way of intrinsic inquiry functions.", "The widespread (now almost universal) adoption of the IEEE 754 standard for binary floating-point arithmetic has essentially removed this problem.Access to the computing environment (e.g., the program's command line, environment variables, textual explanation of error conditions) remained a problem until it was addressed by the 2003 standard.Large collections of library software that could be described as being loosely related to engineering and scientific calculations, such as graphics libraries, have been written in C, and therefore access to them presented a portability problem.", "This has been addressed by incorporation of C interoperability into the 2003 standard.It is now possible (and relatively easy) to write an entirely portable program in Fortran, even without recourse to a preprocessor." ], [ "Obsolete variants", "Until the Fortran 66 standard was developed, each compiler supported its own variant of Fortran.", "Some were more divergent from the mainstream than others.The first Fortran compiler set a high standard of efficiency for compiled code.", "This goal made it difficult to create a compiler so it was usually done by the computer manufacturers to support hardware sales.", "This left an important niche: compilers that were fast and provided good diagnostics for the programmer (often a student).", "Examples include Watfor, Watfiv, PUFFT, and on a smaller scale, FORGO, Wits Fortran, and Kingston Fortran 2.", "'''Fortran 5''' was marketed by Data General Corp from the early 1970s to the early 1980s, for the Nova, Eclipse, and MV line of computers.", "It had an optimizing compiler that was quite good for minicomputers of its time.", "The language most closely resembles FORTRAN 66.", "'''FORTRAN V''' was distributed by Control Data Corporation in 1968 for the CDC 6600 series.", "The language was based upon FORTRAN IV.Univac also offered a compiler for the 1100 series known as FORTRAN V. A spinoff of Univac Fortran V was Athena FORTRAN.", "'''Specific variants''' produced by the vendors of high-performance scientific computers (e.g., Burroughs, Control Data Corporation (CDC), Cray, Honeywell, IBM, Texas Instruments, and UNIVAC) added extensions to Fortran to take advantage of special hardware features such as instruction cache, CPU pipelines, and vector arrays.", "For example, one of IBM's FORTRAN compilers (''H Extended IUP'') had a level of optimization which reordered the machine code instructions to keep multiple internal arithmetic units busy simultaneously.", "Another example is ''CFD'', a special variant of FORTRAN designed specifically for the ILLIAC IV supercomputer, running at NASA's Ames Research Center.IBM Research Labs also developed an extended FORTRAN-based language called ''VECTRAN'' for processing vectors and matrices.Object-Oriented Fortran was an object-oriented extension of Fortran, in which data items can be grouped into objects, which can be instantiated and executed in parallel.", "It was available for Sun, Iris, iPSC, and nCUBE, but is no longer supported.Such machine-specific extensions have either disappeared over time or have had elements incorporated into the main standards.", "The major remaining extension is OpenMP, which is a cross-platform extension for shared memory programming.", "One new extension, Coarray Fortran, is intended to support parallel programming.", "''FOR TRANSIT'' was the name of a reduced version of the IBM 704 FORTRAN language,which was implemented for the IBM 650, using a translator program developedat Carnegie in the late 1950s.The following comment appears in the IBM Reference Manual (''FOR TRANSIT Automatic Coding System'' C28-4038, Copyright 1957, 1959 by IBM):The FORTRAN system was designed for a more complex machine than the 650, and consequently some of the 32 statements found in the FORTRAN Programmer's Reference Manual are not acceptable to the FOR TRANSIT system.", "In addition, certain restrictions to the FORTRAN language have been added.", "However, none of these restrictions make a source program written for FOR TRANSIT incompatible with the FORTRAN system for the 704.The permissible statements were:* Arithmetic assignment statements, e.g., a = b* * GO TO (n1, n2, ..., nm), i* IF (a) n1, n2, n3* * * DO n i = m1, m2* * * * * * Up to ten subroutines could be used in one program.FOR TRANSIT statements were limited to columns 7 through 56, only.Punched cards were used for input and output on the IBM 650.Three passes were required to translate source code to the \"IT\" language, then to compile the IT statements into SOAP assembly language, and finally to produce the object program, which could then be loaded into the machine to run the program (using punched cards for data input, and outputting results onto punched cards).Two versions existed for the 650s with a 2000 word memory drum: FOR TRANSIT I (S) and FOR TRANSIT II, the latter for machines equipped with indexing registers and automatic floating-point decimal (bi-quinary) arithmetic.", "Appendix A of the manual included wiring diagrams for the IBM 533 card reader/punch control panel.===Fortran-based languages===Prior to FORTRAN 77, a number of preprocessors were commonly used to provide a friendlier language, with the advantage that the preprocessed code could be compiled on any machine with a standard FORTRAN compiler.", "These preprocessors would typically support structured programming, variable names longer than six characters, additional data types, conditional compilation, and even macro capabilities.", "Popular preprocessors included EFL, FLECS, iftran, MORTRAN, SFtran, S-Fortran, Ratfor, and Ratfiv.", "Ratfor and Ratfiv, for example, implemented a C-like language, outputting preprocessed code in standard FORTRAN 66.Despite advances in the Fortran language, preprocessors continue to be used for conditional compilation and macro substitution.One of the earliest versions of FORTRAN, introduced in the '60s, was popularly used in colleges and universities.", "Developed, supported, and distributed by the University of Waterloo, WATFOR was based largely on FORTRAN IV.", "A student using WATFOR could submit their batch FORTRAN job and, if there were no syntax errors, the program would move straight to execution.", "This simplification allowed students to concentrate on their program's syntax and semantics, or execution logic flow, rather than dealing with submission Job Control Language (JCL), the compile/link-edit/execution successive process(es), or other complexities of the mainframe/minicomputer environment.", "A down side to this simplified environment was that WATFOR was not a good choice for programmers needing the expanded abilities of their host processor(s), e.g., WATFOR typically had very limited access to I/O devices.", "WATFOR was succeeded by WATFIV and its later versions.", "(line programming)LRLTRAN was developed at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory to provide support for vector arithmetic and dynamic storage, among other extensions to support systems programming.", "The distribution included the LTSS operating system.The Fortran-95 Standard includes an optional ''Part 3'' which defines an optional conditional compilation capability.", "This capability is often referred to as \"CoCo\".Many Fortran compilers have integrated subsets of the C preprocessor into their systems.SIMSCRIPT is an application specific Fortran preprocessor for modeling and simulating large discrete systems.The F programming language was designed to be a clean subset of Fortran 95 that attempted to remove the redundant, unstructured, and deprecated features of Fortran, such as the statement.", "F retains the array features added in Fortran 90, and removes control statements that were made obsolete by structured programming constructs added to both FORTRAN 77 and Fortran 90.F is described by its creators as \"a compiled, structured, array programming language especially well suited to education and scientific computing\".", "Essential Lahey Fortran 90 (ELF90) was a similar subset.Lahey and Fujitsu teamed up to create Fortran for the Microsoft .NET Framework.", "Silverfrost FTN95 is also capable of creating .NET code." ], [ "Code examples", "The following program illustrates dynamic memory allocation and array-based operations, two features introduced with Fortran 90.Particularly noteworthy is the absence of loops and / statements in manipulating the array; mathematical operations are applied to the array as a whole.", "Also apparent is the use of descriptive variable names and general code formatting that conform with contemporary programming style.", "This example computes an average over data entered interactively.program average Read in some numbers and take the average As written, if there are no data points, an average of zero is returned While this may not be desired behavior, it keeps this example simple implicit none real, dimension(:), allocatable :: points integer :: number_of_points real :: average_points, positive_average, negative_average average_points = 0.0 positive_average = 0.0 negative_average = 0.0 write (*,*) \"Input number of points to average:\" read (*,*) number_of_points allocate (points(number_of_points)) write (*,*) \"Enter the points to average:\" read (*,*) points Take the average by summing points and dividing by number_of_points if (number_of_points > 0) average_points = sum(points) / number_of_points Now form average over positive and negative points only if (count(points > 0.)", "> 0) positive_average = sum(points, points > 0.)", "/ count(points > 0.)", "if (count(points 0) negative_average = sum(points, points" ], [ "Humor", "During the same FORTRAN standards committee meeting at which the name \"FORTRAN 77\" was chosen, a satirical technical proposal was incorporated into the official distribution bearing the title \"Letter O Considered Harmful\".", "This proposal purported to address the confusion that sometimes arises between the letter \"O\" and the numeral zero, by eliminating the letter from allowable variable names.", "However, the method proposed was to eliminate the letter from the character set entirely (thereby retaining 48 as the number of lexical characters, which the colon had increased to 49).", "This was considered beneficial in that it would promote structured programming, by making it impossible to use the notorious statement as before.", "(Troublesome statements would also be eliminated.)", "It was noted that this \"might invalidate some existing programs\" but that most of these \"probably were non-conforming, anyway\".When X3J3 debated whether the minimum trip count for a DO loop should be zero or one in Fortran 77, Loren Meissner suggested a minimum trip count of two—reasoning ''(tongue-in-cheek)'' that if it were less than two, then there would be no reason for a loop.When assumed-length arrays were being added, there was a dispute as to the appropriate character to separate upper and lower bounds.", "In a comment examining these arguments, Walt Brainerd penned an article entitled \"Astronomy vs. Gastroenterology\" because some proponents had suggested using the star or asterisk (\"*\"), while others favored the colon (\":\").Variable names beginning with the letters I–N have a default type of integer, while variables starting with any other letters defaulted to real, although programmers could override the defaults with an explicit declaration.", "This led to the joke: \"In FORTRAN, GOD is REAL (unless declared INTEGER).\"" ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", ";Language standards* Informally known as FORTRAN 66.", "* Also known as ISO 1539–1980, informally known as FORTRAN 77.", "* Informally known as Fortran 90.", "* Informally known as Fortran 95.There are a further two parts to this standard.", "Part 1 has been formally adopted by ANSI.", "* Informally known as Fortran 2003.", "* Informally known as Fortran 2008.;Related standards* * ;Other reference material* * * * * ;Books* * * Arjen, Markus (2012), \"Modern Fortran in Practice\", Cambridge Univ.", "Press, ISBN 978-1-13908479-6.", "* * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * ;Articles* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG5—the official home of Fortran standards* Fortran Standards Documents—GFortran standards* fortran-lang.org (2020).", "* History of FORTRAN and Fortran II—Computer History Museum* Valmer Norrod, et al.", ": ''A self-study course in FORTRAN programing—Volume I—textbook'', Computer Science Corporation El Segundo, California (April 1970).", "NASA (N70-25287).", "* Valmer Norrod, Sheldom Blecher, and Martha Horton: ''A self-study course in FORTRAN programing—Volume II—workbook'', NASA CR-1478 (April 1970), NASA (N70-25288).", "* ''An introduction to the Fortran programming language'', by Reinhold Bader, Nisarg Patel, Leibniz Supercomputing Centre.", "* A coarray tutorial* Fortran Wiki : Object-oriented programming* Victor Eijkhout : Introduction to Scientific Programming in C++17/Fortran2008, The Art of HPC, volume 3 (PDF)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fortaleza" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fortaleza''' (, Portuguese for ''Fortress'') is the state capital of Ceará, located in Northeastern Brazil.", "It is Brazil's 4th largest city, having passed Salvador in 2023 census with a population of slightly over 2.7 million, and the 12th largest city by gross domestic product.", "It forms the core of the Fortaleza metropolitan area, which is home to over 4.1 million people.", "Fortaleza is an important industrial and commercial center of Northeast Brazil.", "According to the Ministry of Tourism, it is the fourth most visited city and tourist destination in the country.", "The BR-116, the most important highway in the country, starts in Fortaleza.", "The municipality is part of the Mercosur common market, and vital trade port which is closest to mainland Europe, being from Lisbon, Portugal.To the north of the city lies the Atlantic Ocean; to the south are the municipalities of Pacatuba, Eusébio, Maracanaú and Itaitinga; to the east is the municipality of Aquiraz and the Atlantic Ocean; and to the west is the municipality of Caucaia.", "Residents of the city are known as ''Fortalezenses''.", "Fortaleza is one of the three leading cities in the Northeast region together with Recife and Salvador." ], [ "History", "===Colonial period===Plan of Fort Schoonenborch in 1649Colonisation began in 1603 when Portugal was part of the Iberian Union, when the Portuguese Pero Coelho de Souza constructed the Fort of São Tiago and founded the settlement of ''Nova Lisboa'' (New Lisbon).", "After a victory over the French in 1612, Martins Soares Moreno expanded the Fort of São Tiago and changed its name to Forte de São Sebastião.In 1630 the Dutch invaded the Brazilian Northeast and in 1637 they took the Fort of São Sebastião and ruled over Ceará.", "In battles with the Portuguese and natives in 1644 the fort was destroyed.", "Under captain Matthias Beck the Dutch West Indies Company built a new fortress by the banks of river Pajeú.", "Fort ''Schoonenborch'' (\"graceful stronghold\") officially opened on August 19, 1649.After the capitulation of Pernambuco in 1654, the Dutch handed over this fortress to the Portuguese, who renamed it ''Fortaleza da Nossa Senhora de Assunção'' (\"Fort of Our Lady of the Assumption\"), after which the city of Fortaleza takes its name.Fortaleza was officially founded as a village 1726, becoming the capital of Ceará state in 1799.===Imperial period===During the 19th century, Fortaleza was consolidated as an urban centre in Ceará, supported by the cotton industry.", "With the transformation of the city into a regional export center and with the increase of direct navigation to Europe, the customs building of Fortaleza was built in 1812.In 1824, the city was targeted by the revolutionaries of Confederation of the Equator.===Republican period===Ferreira Square in 1920Fortaleza in 1935The city gained a number of new districts in the 1930s, including Messejana and Porangaba.In 1954, the first university in the city was created, the Universidade Federal do Ceará (UFC).In 1983 the city started to integrate the territory of the new city of Maracanaú, which, just some years ago, was made again part of the Greater Fortaleza (the city's Metropolitan area).", "In the 1980s, Fortaleza exceeded Recife in population terms, becoming the second most populous city in Northeastern Brazil, with 2,571,896 inhabitants." ], [ "Geography", "===Climate===Fortaleza has a typical tropical climate, specifically a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen climate classification: ''Aw/As''), with high temperatures and relative humidity throughout the year.", "However, these conditions are usually relieved by pleasant winds blowing from the ocean.", "Average temperatures are not much different throughout the year.", "December is the warmest month, with a high of and low of .", "The rainy season spans from January to July, with rainfall particularly prodigious in March and April.", "The average annual temperature is .", "The relative humidity in Fortaleza is 77.5%, with average annual rainfall of .", "There is usually rain during the first seven months of the year from January to July.", "During this period, relative humidity is high.", "Fortaleza's climate is usually very dry from August to December, with very little rainfall.Rainfall is akin to all of Northeastern Brazil among the most variable in the world, comparable (for similar average annual rainfalls) to central Queensland cities such as Townsville and Mackay.", "In the notorious drought year of 1877 as little as fell, and in 1958 only , but in the Nordeste's record wet year of 1985 Fortaleza received .===Vegetation===In Fortaleza there are some remaining areas of mangrove in preserved areas, including Cocó Park.Ten miles offshore is the Pedra da Risca do Meio Marine State Park, created in 1997 to protect the reefs.===Ecology and environment===Cocó Park, considered one of the largest urban parks in Latin America, is the most important green area of the city.The vegetation of Fortaleza is typically coastal.", "The restinga areas are found in dune regions near the mouths of the Ceará, Cocó and Pacoti rivers, in the beds of which there is still a mangrove forest.", "In other green areas of the city, there is no longer native vegetation, consisting of varied vegetation, fruit trees more commonly.", "The city is home to seven environmental conservation units.", "These are the Sabiaguaba Dunes Municipal Natural Park, the Sabiaguaba Environmental Protection Area, the Maraponga Lagoon Ecological Park, the Cocó Ecological Park, the Ceará River Estuary Environmental Protection Area, the Environmental Protection Area of the Rio Pacoti and the Pedra da Risca do Meio Marine State Park.", "There is also, in the city, the Area of Relevant Ecological Interest of Sírio Curió, that protects the last enclave of Atlantic Forest in the urban zone.The Cocó River is part of the river basin of the east coast of Ceará and has a total length of about 50 km in its main area.", "The park is inserted in the area of greater environmental sensitivity of the city, where it is possible to identify geoenvironmental formations such as coastal plain, fluvial plain and surface of the coastal trays.", "The Cocó river mangrove is home to mollusks, crustaceans, fish, reptiles, birds and mammals.", "The park has a structure of visitation, with guides, ecological trails and equipment and events of environmental education and ecotourism.", "The Coaçu River, affluent of the river Cocó, forms in its bed the lagoon of the Precabura.The Rio Pacoti provides much of the water supply for Fortaleza.", "At the municipal boundary with Caucaia, the estuary of the Rio Ceará is covered by an environmental protection area (APA), which was set up in 1999." ], [ "Demographics", "According to the 2022 census, there were 2,428,708 people residing in the city of Fortaleza.", "The census revealed the following numbers: 1,456,901 Pardo (multiracial) people (60%), 793,975 White people (32.7%), 171,018 Black people (7%), 3,127 Asian people (0.1%), 3,000 Amerindian people (0.1%).In 2010, the city of Fortaleza was the 5th most populous city proper in Brazil, after São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, and Brasília.In 2010, the city had 433,942 opposite-sex couples and 1,559 same-sex couples.", "The population of Fortaleza was 53.2% female and 46.8% male.The following cities are included in the metropolitan area of Fortaleza (ordered by population): Fortaleza, Caucaia, Maracanaú, Maranguape, Aquiraz, Pacatuba, Pacajus, Horizonte, São Gonçalo do Amarante, Itatinga, Guaiúba and Chorozinho.According to a genetic study from 2011, 'pardos' and whites' from Fortaleza, which comprise the largest share of the population, showed European ancestry of about 70%, the rest divided between Native American and African ancestries.", "A 2015 study, however, found out the following composition in Fortaleza: 48.9% of European contribution, 35,4% of Native American input and 15.7% of African ancestry.===Religion===The prevailing religion of Fortaleza is the Roman Catholic branch of Christianity.", "Religious affiliation Percentage NumberCatholic79.0%1,691,487Protestant12.58%269,469No religion5.99%128,190Kardecist0.83%17,780Jehovah's Witnesses0.64%13,758Other religions0.7%15,923''Source: IBGE 2000.", "''According to the census of 2010, 1,664,521 people, 67.88% of the population, followed Roman Catholicism, 523,456 (21.35%) were Protestant, 31,691 (1.29%) represented Spiritism and 162,985 (6.65%) had no religion whatsoever.", "Other religions, such as Umbanda, Candomblé, other Afro-Brazilian religions, Spiritualism, Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, other Eastern religions, Esotericism and other Christian churches like the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints had a smaller number of adherents." ], [ "Politics", "Edson Ramalho Palace, seat of the Ceará's Economy Secretariat.The administration of the municipality is made from the executive and legislative branches.", "Former mayor Roberto Cláudio, of the PDT, won 650,607 votes in the 2012 election, and was elected mayor.", "Legislative power rests with the City Council of Fortaleza, composed of 43 city councilors, elected for four-year terms, responsible for drafting municipal laws and supervising the executive.", "The municipality is, in addition, governed by organic law.", "In January 2015, there were 1,659,091 voters in Fortaleza (26.457% of the total state), distributed in thirteen electoral zones.", "The number of persons directly and indirectly employed in the municipal public administration in 2013 was respectively 31,318 and 4,950.The city also houses the seat of state executive power, the Abolition Palace, previously occupied by former governor Camilo Santana, of the PT, elected in the general elections in Brazil in 2014.historically headquarters of the Iracema Club, which was Ceded to the Municipal Hall and now houses municipal executive bodies.", "In the city, there is the Administrative Center Governor Virgílio Távora.Among the institutions present in the city, are the Fortaleza Air Base, the Port Authority of Ceará, School of Apprentice Sailors of Ceará and the Command of the Tenth Military Region.", "The city also has units of the International Committee of the Red Cross and UNICEF.", "Since 1996, a city is part of the Common Market of Cities of Mercosur." ], [ "Economy", "At the beginning of the decade of 2000, among the capitals of the Northeast, Fortaleza had the third largest Gross Domestic Product (GDP), being surpassed by Recife and Salvador.", "In 2012, the GDP of Fortaleza reached the value of 43.4 billion Reais, the tenth highest of the country.", "In the same year, the value of taxes on products net of subsidies at current prices was R$6,612,822,000 and the municipality's GDP per capita was R$17.359,53.The city's booming economy is reflected in purchasing power, the country's eighth largest, with estimated consumption potential at 42 billion reais in 2014.The main economic source of the municipality is centered in the tertiary sector, with its diversified segments of commerce and service rendering.", "Next, the secondary sector stands out, with the industrial complexes.", "In 2012, the city had 873,746 people in employment." ], [ "Culture", "According to the Master Plan of Fortaleza, the Special Areas for the Preservation of Historic, Cultural and Archaeological Heritage are the regions of the center, Parangaba, Alagadiço Novo/José de Alencar, Benfica, Porangabuçu and Praia de Iracema.", "Properties of conservation interest.", "The architectural heritage of Fortaleza in the form of fallen goods, however, is predominantly concentrated in the center of the city.", "The Mucuripe Lighthouse is unfortunately in ruins today, Ceará and Fortaleza were part of the pioneering group of states and cities to adopt public policies to protect the living intangible heritage of their culture, through the Masters of Culture program.===Museums, theatres and cultural spaces===Among the theaters, the largest and most popular are Theatro José de Alencar, São José Theater, São Luiz Cinema Theater, and Teatro RioMar and Teatro Via Sul.", "The Ceará Museum houses numerous artifacts, including pieces of paleontology and furniture.", "The Dragão do Mar Center of Art and Culture is the main cultural centre, and includes the Ceará Museum of Culture, the Museum of Contemporary Art of Ceará, theaters, a planetarium, cinemas, shops and spaces for public presentations, as well as housing the Public Library Governador Menezes Pimentel, Oporto Iracema of the Arts and the School of Arts and Crafts Thomaz Pompeu Sobrinho.", "The Casa de Jose Alencar is one of the Brazilian museums recognised as dealing with Brazilian literature.", "It was opened in 1964 and houses art collections, a gallery, a library and the ruins of the first steam power plant in Ceará.", "In the different SERs of the city, the complexes of the CUCA Network are spread, which are facilities dedicated to art, leisure and education, especially for young people.Freemasonry is represented by the Grand Masonic Lodge of Ceará and the Great State East of Ceará.", "There are also service clubs in the city, such as the Lions Club and Rotary International.The Ceará handicraft has its main market and showcase in Fortaleza.", "In the city, there are several specific places for trade in handicraft products, such as the Ceará Craft Center (CeArt), Ceará Tourism Center (Emcetur), Crafts Fair of Beira-Mar, and on Avenida Monsenhor Tabosa.===Literature and cinema===The main literary manifestation of Fortaleza's history emerged at the end of the 19th century, in the cafes of Praça do Ferreira, known as the Spiritual Bakery, a pioneer in the dissemination of modern ideas in Brazilian literature that would only be adopted nationally in the following century, in the Modern Art Week.", "The most important historical entities of high culture still present in the city are the Ceará Institute and the Ceará Academy of Letters, the first academy of letters created in Brazil, founded in 1887 and 1894 respectively.", "The Ceará Institute has helped launch important names in national historiography and philosophy, such as Farias Brito and Capistrano de Abreu.", "Among the writers who are members of the Cearense Academy of Letters and members or patrons of the Brazilian Academy of Letters, are Gustavo Barroso, Araripe Júnior, José de Alencar, Heráclito Graça, Franklin Tavora, Clóvis Beviláqua and Rachel de Queiroz, the first woman to Be part of the entity.", "The Casa de Juvenal Galeno is another historical cultural institution of Fortaleza, named after one of the greatest poets born in the city, Juvenal Galeno.", "The house became well known for its festivals of poetry and seminaries.In cinema, the most well known name is Zelito Viana, director of films like Villa-Lobos: A Life of Passion and ''Life and Death of Severina''.", "More recently, Karim Aïnouz has directed Madame Satã, Suely in the Sky and Futuro Beach, and script of Lower City, Cinema, Aspirins and Vultures and Behind the Sun.", "Another current exponent of cinema born in Fortaleza is Halder Gomes, director and screenwriter of Holliúdy Cinema.", "New filmmakers in the city have gained in recent years prominent exhibitions such as at the Rio de Janeiro International Film Festival.", "The most traditional cinema event in Fortaleza is the Cine Ceará (Ibero-American Film Festival), considered one of the main festivals of the country.===Fashion===The main fashion name in the city is the , who, from Fortaleza, designed himself nationally and internationally and today is one of the main names of São Paulo Fashion Week, besides being one of the founding designers of this fashion week.", "There are major events in the city, such as the Dragão Fashion Brasil, considered the largest fashion event in the Northeast and the third largest in the country.Much of the clothing that is produced in Ceará flows through Fortaleza, which in turn is recognized as one of the most important textile centers of the country, giving the garment industry great weight in the metropolitan economy.", "Brands of the city like Santana Textiles and headquarters of brands like Esplanada and Otoch have considerable regional influence.===Music===Forró is the most popular musical genre in the city.", "Bands originating in Fortaleza, such as Desejo de Menina and Aviões do Forró, were responsible for the popularization of electronic forró, which promoted the revaluation of the accordion in the genre and brought it closer to pop music.", "The forró pé-de serra, however, still holds great cultural influence and commercial prominence in the city.In Música popular brasileira, some of the names from Fortaleza were Fagner, Ednardo, Belchior (from Sobral but lived in Fortaleza) and Amelinha.", "The musical tradition of Fortaleza, however, goes back to the composer Alberto Nepomuceno, one of the greatest names in classical music in Brazil, a pioneer in the development of the country's musical nationalism, and therefore considered the \"founder of Brazilian music\".", "The Alberto Nepomuceno Conservatory is one of the city's leading music schools.===Carnival===Fortaleza hosts one of the noted Brazilian Carnivals.", "Its main locations are Iracema Beach and Avenue Domingos Olimpio.===Cuisine===The ''Baião de dois'' a typical dish from Ceará.The gastronomy of Fortaleza is very close to the typical Northeastern cuisine, and, traditional include the ''baião de dois'', usually accompanied by barbecue of mutton or meat of sun, and tapioca which is a pancake made from the starch of cassava.", "The seafood is another ingredient of typical dishes of fortalezeense cuisine, such as the steak moqueca and the mackerel and snapper fish.The fruit of the sea identity of the coast of the state is the crab.", "Shrimp and lobster are also widely used delicacies in dishes such as shrimp rice or shrimp dumplings." ], [ "Tourism", "Beach Park is the largest water park in Latin AmericaAcquario Ceará, due to be one of the largest oceanariums in Brazil, is currently under construction.", "Attractions such as the Beach Park theme park, located in the Great Fortaleza, Avenida Beira Mar and its bars, restaurants and music clubs, the beaches of Futuro and Iracema and Pirata Bar have placed Fortaleza among the Brazilian destinations preferred by Europeans.Scuba diving is possible in the area of Pedra da Risca do Meio Marine State Park, a marine protected area located about 10 nautical miles from the shoreline of Fortaleza.Fortaleza has about of urban beaches.", "Mucuripe is the place where jangadas can be found.", "Still used by fishermen to go into high seas, jangadas can be seen along the way during the afternoon and evenings, and returning from the sea in the morning; part of the catch of the day is sold in an old-style fish market." ], [ "Education", "In 2016 the Federal University of Ceará located in Fortaleza was classified as the 10th best university in Brazil, 1st in the North and Northeast regions and the best university in Ceará.In 2010, the level of the education factor of the Strengthening Human Development Index was medium, despite its great advance, which went from 0.367 to 0.695 between 1991 and 2010.According to data from the 2010 Human Development Atlas of Brazil, Fortaleza's adult education levels were divided as follows: 8.57% did not complete primary school or were illiterate, 62.43% had completed elementary education, 45.93% had completed high school and 13.73% had completed higher education." ], [ "Health", "The health indexes of the Fortaleza population are better than the Brazilian average.", "According to data from 2010, the infant mortality rate up to one year old was 15.8 per 1000 live births in Fortaleza, against a Brazilian average of 16.7.By 2013, 90.6% of children under one year of age had their immunization records up to date.", "In 2012, 37,577 live births were registered, and the infant mortality rate up to five years of age was 13.2 per 1000.Of the total number of children under two years old weighed by the Family Health Program in 2013, 0.8% were malnourished.In 2009, Fortaleza had a total of 35 general hospitals, of which 11 were public, 21 were private, two were philanthropic, and one was a trade union.", "The Doctor José Frota Institute is the largest hospital administered by the Municipal Government, and the General Hospital of Fortaleza is the largest hospital administered by the State Government.", "In addition, it had 54 specialized hospitals and eight polyclinics.", "The total number of physicians working in the health network of the municipality was 13,604, approximately 5.4 per thousand inhabitants.", "Fortaleza has 117 units of health posts, three administered by the municipality and six administered by the state.", "The first hospital built in Fortaleza was the Santa Casa de Misericórdia, founded in 1861.Among the most important public health institutions in the city, the most important is the Dr. José Frota Institute, the largest hospital administered by the Municipal Government, and the General Hospital of Fortaleza, the largest hospital administered by the State Government.", "Among the private institutions, the largest are the Unimed Fortaleza Regional Hospital, Antônio Prudente Hospital, Monte Klinikum Hospital and São Mateus Hospital.One of the most important basic health programs in Fortaleza is the Family Health Program, within which the city is in third place in the country in extension of coverage, with hundreds of teams distributed in dozens of care units.", "The Emergency Mobile Care Service (SAMU) is the municipality's health care service, which serves an average of 200 daily occurrences.The University Hospital Walter Cantídio is the largest liver transplantation facility in the country.", "The Faculty of Medicine of the UFC is the 13th best medical school in Brazil, 2nd best medical school in the North and Northeast regions and the best medical school in Ceará.", "UFC's medical degree is still one of the most popular in the country." ], [ "Transportation", "===International Airport===Pinto Martins International Airport (FOR)The current passenger terminal of Pinto Martins – Fortaleza International Airport, located in the center of Fortaleza, was built between 1996 and 1998.The airport has undergone an expansion process, from which the number of boarding bridges increased from seven to sixteen and the passenger terminal has been expanded from 38,000 m2 to 133,000 m2.In 2014, the airport was capable of serving 6.2 million passengers per year, but after the expansion, capacity is at 11.2 million.Pinto Martins Airport is the third busiest airport in the Northeast Region and one of the busiest in the country, receiving on average 1,500 international aircraft and 65,000 domestic aircraft per year.", "In 2013, it received more than 5.9 million passengers.===Air Force Base===Fortaleza Air Force Base - BAFZ, a base of the Brazilian Air Force, is located in Fortaleza.===Roads===BR-116 in Fortaleza, Ceará, the longest highway in the country, with of extension.In 2013, Fortaleza had 908,074 vehicles, of which 511,109 were cars, and 229,154 motorcycles.", "Traffic density at peak times in the city is rated as the fourth largest in the country, with 48% of congested roads.", "The cycle network of Fortaleza is composed of 116.4 km, of which 78.8 km are cycle paths and 37.6 km are cycle paths.", "The municipality also has a public bicycle system, Bicicletar, which had 40 stations and 400 units in April 2015.In 2015, the municipal taxi fleet was composed of 4,886 vehicles, including common, adapted and special use vehicles.The city's road transport system is regulated by the Fortaleza Urban Transportation Company (ETUFOR), an agency of the Municipality of Fortaleza.", "The collective transport carried out by buses is called the Integrated Transportation System (SIT-FOR), and its operation began in 1992.The system of traffic monitoring is known by the acronym CTAFOR, which stands for (Traffic Control of the Area of Fortaleza).===Subway===Antônio Sales station.The Fortaleza Metro comprises five lines.The Fortaleza Metro started on October 1, 2014.As of 2014 18 of the 20 stations planned for the South Line are in operation, along with 9 stations of the West Line.MetroFor is the rapid transit system for the city of Fortaleza.===Bus stations===Fortaleza has multiple Bus Rapid Transit, or BRT, lines throughout the city and has plans to extend this network of transportation (BRTBrasil.org)===Bike lanes===Fortaleza officially has of bike lanes." ], [ "Sports", "The main games of the Ceará State Championship are played in Fortaleza.", "There are several association football clubs in the city, including Ceará SC, Fortaleza EC and Ferroviário AC.", "Fortaleza was one of the host cities of the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup and 2014 FIFA World Cup.File:Castelão Arena (3).jpg|Internal view of Arena CastelãoFile:Windsurf_em_Fortaleza_(2).png|Windsurfing in Fortaleza" ], [ "Official subdivision", "Fortaleza is subdivided in 121 neighborhoods, that are grouped in 39 administrative territories, managed by 12 subprefectures (''Secreterias Executivas Regionais'').", "Each subprefecture has a holder appointed by the municipal government.===Neighborhoods=== *Dom Lustosa*Parangaba*Pirambu*Praia de Iracema*Rodolfo Teófilo" ], [ "Notable people", "José de Alencar, prominent writer of the Brazilian Empire.Castelo Branco, former president of Brazil.", "* José de Alencar, famous writer from the 19th century* Alberto Nepomuceno, famous composer from the 19th century* Rachel de Queiroz, first female writer in Academia Brasileira de Letras* André Diamant, international chess grandmaster* Casimiro Montenegro Filho, founder of the Brazilian Air Force Aeronautical Technologic Institute - ITA* Maurício Peixoto, mathematician, one of the founders of IMPA* Gilberto Câmara, former director of Brazil's National Institute for Space Research (INPE)* Tom Cavalcante, Brazilian actor and comedian* Castelo Branco, former president of Brazil (1964–67)* Márcio Araújo, brazilian beach volleyball player, Olympic medallist* Ed Lincoln, musician and composer* Thiago Monteiro, table tennis player* Raffael, professional footballer* Ronny Araújo, professional footballer* Mário Jardel, retired professional footballer* José Gerardo Moreira Rocha Júnior, footballer* Otávio Dutra, professional footballer* Marcus Aurélio, mixed martial arts professional* Wilson Gouveia, mixed martial arts professional* Thiago Alves, mixed martial arts professional* Hermes França, mixed martial arts professional* Jorge Gurgel, mixed martial arts professional* Shelda Bede, brazilian beach volleyball player, Olympic medallist* Thiago Monteiro, tennis player" ], [ "International relations", "Fortaleza is twinned with:* Ferreira do Alentejo, Portugal* Lisbon, Portugal* Miami Beach, United States* Montese, Italy* Praia, Cape Verde* Racine, United States* Sal, Cape Verde" ], [ "See also", "* Housing in Fortaleza, Brazil" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography" ], [ "External links", "* Fortaleza City Council home page* Fortaleza Tourism Office home page" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "February 13" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 962 – Emperor Otto I and Pope John XII co-sign the ''Diploma Ottonianum'', recognizing John as ruler of Rome.", "*1258 – Siege of Baghdad: Hulegu Khan, a prince of the Mongol Empire, orders his army to sack and plunder the city of Baghdad, which they had just captured.", "*1322 – The central tower of Ely Cathedral falls on the night of 12th–13th.", "*1462 – The Treaty of Westminster is finalised between Edward IV of England and the Scottish Lord of the Isles.", "*1503 – Challenge of Barletta: Tournament between 13 Italian and 13 French knights near Barletta.", "*1542 – Catherine Howard, the fifth wife of Henry VIII of England, is executed for adultery.===1601–1900===*1633 – Galileo Galilei arrives in Rome for his trial before the Inquisition.", "*1642 – The Clergy Act becomes law, excluding bishops of the Church of England from serving in the House of Lords.", "*1660 – With the accession of young Charles XI of Sweden, his regents begin negotiations to end the Second Northern War.", "*1689 – William and Mary are proclaimed co-rulers of England.", "*1692 – Massacre of Glencoe: Almost 80 Macdonalds at Glen Coe, Scotland are killed early in the morning for not promptly pledging allegiance to the new king, William of Orange.", "*1726 – Parliament of Negrete between Mapuche and Spanish authorities in Chile bring an end to the Mapuche uprising of 1723–26.", "*1755 – Treaty of Giyanti signed by VOC, Pakubuwono III and Prince Mangkubumi.", "The treaty divides the Javanese kingdom of Mataram into two: Sunanate of Surakarta and Sultanate of Yogyakarta.", "*1849 – The delegation headed by Metropolitan bishop Andrei Șaguna hands out to the Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria the ''General Petition of Romanian leaders in Transylvania, Banat and Bukovina'', which demands that the Romanian nation be recognized.", "*1861 – Italian unification: The Siege of Gaeta ends with the capitulation of the defending fortress, effectively bringing an end of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.", "*1867 – Work begins on the covering of the Senne, burying Brussels's primary river and creating the modern central boulevards.", "*1880 – Thomas Edison observes Thermionic emission.===1901–present===*1913 – The 13th Dalai Lama proclaims Tibetan independence following a period of domination by Manchu Qing dynasty and initiated a period of almost four decades of independence.", "*1914 – Copyright: In New York City the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers is established to protect the copyrighted musical compositions of its members.", "*1920 – The Negro National League is formed.", "*1931 – The British Raj completes its transfer from Calcutta to New Delhi.", "*1935 – A jury in Flemington, New Jersey finds Bruno Hauptmann guilty of the 1932 kidnapping and murder of the Lindbergh baby, the son of Charles Lindbergh.", "*1945 – World War II: The siege of Budapest concludes with the unconditional surrender of German and Hungarian forces to the Red Army.", "* 1945 – World War II: Royal Air Force bombers are dispatched to Dresden, Germany to attack the city with a massive aerial bombardment.", "*1951 – Korean War: Battle of Chipyong-ni, which represented the \"high-water mark\" of the Chinese incursion into South Korea, commences.", "*1954 – Frank Selvy becomes the only NCAA Division I basketball player ever to score 100 points in a single game.", "*1955 – Israel obtains four of the seven Dead Sea Scrolls.", "* 1955 – Twenty-nine people are killed when Sabena Flight 503 crashes into Monte Terminillo near Rieti, Italy.", "*1960 – With the success of a nuclear test codenamed \"Gerboise Bleue\", France becomes the fourth country to possess nuclear weapons.", "* 1960 – Black college students stage the first of the Nashville sit-ins at three lunch counters in Nashville, Tennessee.", "*1961 – An allegedly 500,000-year-old rock is discovered near Olancha, California, US, that appears to anachronistically encase a spark plug.", "*1967 – American researchers discover the Madrid Codices by Leonardo da Vinci in the National Library of Spain.", "*1975 – Fire at One World Trade Center (North Tower) of the World Trade Center in New York.", "*1978 – Hilton bombing: A bomb explodes in a refuse truck outside the Hilton Hotel in Sydney, Australia, killing two refuse collectors and a policeman.", "*1979 – An intense windstorm strikes western Washington and sinks a long section of the Hood Canal Bridge.", "*1981 – A series of sewer explosions destroys more than two miles of streets in Louisville, Kentucky.", "*1983 – A cinema fire in Turin, Italy, kills 64 people.", "*1984 – Konstantin Chernenko succeeds the late Yuri Andropov as general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.", "*1990 – German reunification: An agreement is reached on a two-stage plan to reunite Germany.", "*1991 – Gulf War: Two laser-guided \"smart bombs\" destroy the Amiriyah shelter in Baghdad.", "Allied forces said the bunker was being used as a military communications outpost, but over 400 Iraqi civilians inside were killed.", "*1996 – The Nepalese Civil War is initiated in the Kingdom of Nepal by the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist-Centre).", "*2001 – An earthquake measuring 7.6 on the Richter magnitude scale hits El Salvador, killing at least 944.", "*2004 – The Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics announces the discovery of the universe's largest known diamond, white dwarf star ''BPM 37093''.", "Astronomers named this star \"Lucy\" after The Beatles' song \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\".", "*2007 – Taiwan opposition leader Ma Ying-jeou resigns as the chairman of the Kuomintang party after being indicted on charges of embezzlement during his tenure as the mayor of Taipei; Ma also announces his candidacy for the 2008 presidential election.", "*2008 – Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd makes a historic apology to the Indigenous Australians and the Stolen Generations.", "*2010 – A bomb explodes in the city of Pune, Maharashtra, India, killing 17 and injuring 60 more.", "*2011 – For the first time in more than 100 years the Umatilla, an American Indian tribe, are able to hunt and harvest a bison just outside Yellowstone National Park, restoring a centuries-old tradition guaranteed by a treaty signed in 1855.", "*2012 – The European Space Agency (ESA) conducted the first launch of the European ''Vega'' rocket from Europe's spaceport in Kourou, French Guiana.", "*2017 – Kim Jong-nam, brother of North Korean dictator Kim Jong-un, is assassinated at Kuala Lumpur International Airport.", "*2021 – Former U.S. President Donald Trump is acquitted in his second impeachment trial.", "* 2021 – A major winter storm causes blackouts and kills at least 82 people in Texas and northern Mexico." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1440 – Hartmann Schedel, German physician (d. 1514)*1457 – Mary of Burgundy, Sovereign Duchess regnant of Burgundy, married to Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1482)*1469 – Elia Levita, Renaissance Hebrew grammarian (d. 1549)*1480 – Girolamo Aleandro, Italian cardinal (d. 1542)*1523 – Valentin Naboth, German astronomer and mathematician (d. 1593)*1539 – Elisabeth of Hesse, Electress Palatine (d. 1582)*1569 – Johann Reinhard I, Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg (d. 1625)*1599 – Pope Alexander VII (d. 1667)===1601–1900===*1602 – William V, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (d. 1637)*1672 – Étienne François Geoffroy, French physician and chemist (d. 1731)*1683 – Giovanni Battista Piazzetta, Italian painter (d. 1754)*1719 – George Brydges Rodney, 1st Baron Rodney, English admiral and politician (d. 1792)*1721 – John Reid, Scottish general (d. 1807)*1728 – John Hunter, Scottish surgeon and anatomist (d. 1793)*1766 – Thomas Robert Malthus, English economist and scholar (d. 1834)*1768 – Édouard Adolphe Casimir Joseph Mortier, French general and politician, 15th Prime Minister of France (d. 1835)*1769 – Ivan Krylov, Russian author, poet, and playwright (d. 1844)*1805 – Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet, German mathematician and academic (d. 1859)*1811 – François Achille Bazaine, French general (d. 1888) *1815 – Rufus Wilmot Griswold, American anthologist, editor, poet and critic (d. 1857)*1831 – John Aaron Rawlins, American general and politician, 29th United States Secretary of War (d. 1869)*1834 – Heinrich Caro, Sephardic Jewish Polish-German chemist and academic (d. 1910)*1835 – Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, Indian religious leader (d. 1908)*1849 – Lord Randolph Churchill, English lawyer and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 1895)*1855 – Paul Deschanel, Belgian-French politician, 11th President of France (d. 1922)*1863 – Hugo Becker, German cellist and composer (d. 1941)*1867 – Harold Mahony, Scottish-Irish tennis player (d. 1905)*1870 – Leopold Godowsky, Polish-American pianist and composer (d. 1938)*1871 – Joseph Devlin, Northern Irish political leader (Nationalist Party (Northern Ireland)) (d. 1934) *1873 – Feodor Chaliapin, Russian opera singer (d. 1938)*1876 – Fritz Buelow, German-American baseball player and umpire (d. 1933)*1879 – Sarojini Naidu, Indian poet and activist (d. 1949)*1880 – Dimitrie Gusti, Romanian sociologist, ethnologist, historian, and philosopher (d. 1955)*1881 – Eleanor Farjeon, English author, poet, and playwright (d. 1965)*1883 – Hal Chase, American baseball player and manager (d. 1947)* 1883 – Yevgeny Vakhtangov, Russian-Armenian actor and director (d. 1922)*1884 – Alfred Carlton Gilbert, American pole vaulter and businessman, founded the A. C. Gilbert Company (d. 1961)*1885 – Bess Truman, 35th First Lady of the United States (d. 1982)*1887 – Géza Csáth, Hungarian playwright and critic (d. 1919)*1888 – Georgios Papandreou, Greek lawyer, economist, and politician, 162nd Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1968)*1889 – Leontine Sagan, Austrian actress and director (d. 1974)*1891 – Kate Roberts, Welsh author and activist (d. 1985)* 1891 – Grant Wood, American painter and academic (d. 1942)*1892 – Robert H. Jackson, American lawyer, judge, and politician, 57th United States Attorney General (d. 1954)*1898 – Hubert Ashton, English cricketer and politician (d. 1979)*1900 – Barbara von Annenkoff, Russian-born German film and stage actress (d. 1979)===1901–present===*1901 – Paul Lazarsfeld, Austrian-American sociologist and academic (d. 1976)*1902 – Harold Lasswell, American political scientist and theorist (d. 1978)*1903 – Georgy Beriev, Georgian-Russian engineer, founded the Beriev Design Bureau (d. 1979)* 1903 – Georges Simenon, Belgian-Swiss author (d. 1989)*1906 – Agostinho da Silva, Portuguese philosopher and author (d. 1994)*1907 – Katy de la Cruz, Filipino-American singer and actress (d. 2004)*1910 – William Shockley, English-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1989)*1911 – Faiz Ahmad Faiz, Indian-Pakistani poet and journalist (d. 1984)* 1911 – Jean Muir, American actress and educator (d. 1996)*1912 – Harald Riipalu, Russian-Estonian commander (d. 1961) * 1912 – Margaretta Scott, English actress (d. 2005)*1913 – Khalid of Saudi Arabia (d. 1982)*1915 – Lyle Bettger, American actor (d. 2003)* 1915 – Aung San, Burmese general and politician, 5th Premier of British Crown Colony of Burma (d. 1947)*1916 – Dorothy Bliss, American invertebrate zoologist (d. 1987)*1919 – Tennessee Ernie Ford, American singer and actor (d. 1991)* 1919 – Eddie Robinson, American football player and coach (d. 2007)*1920 – Boudleaux Bryant, American songwriter (d. 1987)* 1920 – Eileen Farrell, American soprano and educator (d. 2002)*1921 – Jeanne Demessieux, French pianist and composer (d. 1968)* 1921 – Aung Khin, Burmese painter (d. 1996)*1922 – Francis Pym, Baron Pym, Welsh soldier and politician, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (d. 2008)* 1922 – Gordon Tullock, American economist and academic (d. 2014)*1923 – Michael Anthony Bilandic, American soldier, judge, and politician, 49th Mayor of Chicago (d. 2002)* 1923 – Chuck Yeager, American general and pilot; first test pilot to break the sound barrier (d. 2020)*1924 – Jean-Jacques Servan-Schreiber, French journalist and politician (d. 2006)*1926 – Fay Ajzenberg-Selove, American nuclear physicist (d. 2012) *1928 – Gerald Regan, Canadian lawyer and politician, 19th Premier of Nova Scotia (d. 2019)*1929 – Omar Torrijos, Panamanian commander and politician, Military Leader of Panama (d. 1981)*1930 – Ernst Fuchs, Austrian painter, sculptor, and illustrator (d. 2015)* 1930 – Israel Kirzner, English-American economist, author, and academic*1932 – Susan Oliver, American actress (d. 1990)*1933 – Paul Biya, Cameroon politician, 2nd President of Cameroon* 1933 – Kim Novak, American actress * 1933 – Emanuel Ungaro, French fashion designer (d. 2019)*1934 – George Segal, American actor (d. 2021) *1937 – Ali El-Maak, Sudanese author and academic (d. 1992)* 1937 – Sigmund Jähn, German pilot and cosmonaut (d. 2019)* 1937 – Angelo Mosca, American-Canadian football player and wrestler (d. 2021)*1938 – Oliver Reed, English actor (d. 1999)*1940 – Bram Peper, Dutch sociologist and politician, Mayor of Rotterdam (d. 2022)*1941 – Sigmar Polke, German painter and photographer (d. 2010)* 1941 – Bo Svenson, Swedish-American actor, director, and producer*1942 – Carol Lynley, American model and actress (d. 2019)* 1942 – Peter Tork, American singer-songwriter, bass player, and actor (d. 2019)* 1942 – Donald E. Williams, American captain, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2016)*1943 – Elaine Pagels, American theologian and academic*1944 – Stockard Channing, American actress * 1944 – Jerry Springer, English-American television host, actor, and politician, 56th Mayor of Cincinnati (d. 2023)*1945 – Marian Dawkins, English biologist and academic* 1945 – King Floyd, American singer-songwriter (d. 2006)* 1945 – Simon Schama, English historian and author* 1945 – William Sleator, American author and composer (d. 2011)*1946 – Richard Blumenthal, American sergeant and politician, 23rd Attorney General of Connecticut* 1946 – Janet Finch, English sociologist and academic* 1946 – Colin Matthews, English composer and educator*1947 – Stephen Hadley, American soldier and diplomat, 21st United States National Security Advisor* 1947 – Mike Krzyzewski, American basketball player and coach* 1947 – Bogdan Tanjević, Montenegrin-Bosnian basketball coach* 1947 – Kevin Bloody Wilson, Australian comedian, singer-songwriter, and guitarist*1949 – Peter Kern, Austrian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2015)*1950 – Vera Baird, English lawyer and politician* 1950 – Peter Gabriel, English singer-songwriter and musician*1951 – David Naughton, American actor and singer*1952 – Ed Gagliardi, American musician (d. 2014)*1953 – Akio Sato, Japanese wrestler and manager*1954 – Donnie Moore, American baseball player (d. 1989)*1955 – Joe Birkett, American lawyer, judge, and politician*1956 – Peter Hook, English singer, songwriter, musician, and record producer*1957 – Denise Austin, American fitness trainer and author*1958 – Pernilla August, Swedish actress* 1958 – Øivind Elgenes, Norwegian singer, guitarist, and composer* 1958 – Marc Emery, Canadian publisher and activist* 1958 – Jean-François Lisée, Canadian journalist and politician* 1958 – Derek Riggs, English painter and illustrator*1959 – Gaston Gingras, Canadian ice hockey player*1960 – Pierluigi Collina, Italian footballer and referee* 1960 – John Healey, English journalist and politician* 1960 – Gary Patterson, American football player and coach* 1960 – Matt Salinger, American actor* 1960 – Artur Yusupov, Russian-German chess player and author*1961 – Marc Crawford, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1961 – cEvin Key, Canadian singer-songwriter, drummer, keyboard player, and producer * 1961 – Henry Rollins, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor*1962 – Aníbal Acevedo Vilá, Puerto Rican lawyer and politician* 1962 – Baby Doll, American wrestler and manager* 1962 – Michele Greene, American actress*1964 – Stephen Bowen, American engineer, captain, and astronaut* 1964 – Ylva Johansson, Swedish educator and politician, Swedish Minister of Employment*1965 – Peter O'Neill, Papua New Guinean accountant and politician, 7th Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea*1966 – Neal McDonough, American actor and producer* 1966 – Jeff Waters, Canadian guitarist, songwriter, and producer * 1966 – Freedom Williams, American rapper and singer*1967 – Stanimir Stoilov, Bulgarian footballer and coach*1968 – Kelly Hu, American actress*1969 – Joyce DiDonato, American soprano and actress* 1969 – Bryan Thomas Schmidt, American science fiction author and editor*1970 – Elmer Bennett, American basketball player* 1970 – Karoline Krüger, Norwegian singer-songwriter and pianist*1971 – Sonia Evans, English singer-songwriter* 1971 – Mats Sundin, Swedish ice hockey player* 1971 – Todd Williams, American baseball player*1972 – Virgilijus Alekna, Lithuanian discus thrower* 1972 – Juha Ylönen, Finnish ice hockey player*1974 – Fonzworth Bentley, American rapper and actor* 1974 – Robbie Williams, English singer-songwriter *1975 – Ben Collins, English race car driver* 1975 – Katie Hopkins, English media personality and columnist*1976 – Jörg Bergmeister, German race car driver* 1976 – Feist, Canadian singer-songwriter and musician*1977 – Randy Moss, American football player and coach*1978 – Niklas Bäckström, Finnish ice hockey player* 1978 – Philippe Jaroussky, French singer* 1978 – Cory Murphy, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1979 – Anders Behring Breivik, Norwegian murderer* 1979 – Rafael Márquez, Mexican footballer* 1979 – Rachel Reeves, English economist and politician, Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer* 1979 – Mena Suvari, American actress and fashion designer*1980 – Carlos Cotto, Puerto Rican-American wrestler and boxer*1981 – Luisão, Brazilian footballer * 1981 – Luke Ridnour, American basketball player*1982 – Even Helte Hermansen, Norwegian guitarist and composer * 1982 – Michael Turner, American football player*1983 – Mike Nickeas, Canadian baseball player* 1983 – Anna Watkins, English rower*1984 – Hinkelien Schreuder, Dutch swimmer*1985 – Somdev Devvarman, Indian tennis player* 1985 – J. R. Giddens, American basketball player* 1985 – Kwak Ji-min, South Korean actress* 1985 – Al Montoya, American ice hockey player*1986 – Luke Moore, English footballer* 1986 – Aqib Talib, American football player*1987 – Eljero Elia, Dutch footballer*1988 – Ryan Goins, American baseball player* 1988 – Dave Rudden, Irish author*1989 – Rodrigo Possebon, Brazilian footballer*1990 – Nathan Eovaldi, American baseball player* 1990 – Mamadou Sakho, French footballer*1991 – Eliaquim Mangala, French footballer* 1991 – Vianney, French singer* 1991 – Luke Voit, American baseball player*1992 – Keith Appling, American basketball player*1994 – Memphis Depay, Dutch footballer*1995 – Kendall Fuller, American football player* 1995 – Georges-Kévin Nkoudou, French-Cameroonian footballer*2000 – Vitinha, Portuguese footballer*2001 – Kaapo Kakko, Finnish ice hockey player*2002 – Jaden Ivey, American basketball player* 2002 – Sophia Lillis, American actress" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===*106 – Emperor He of Han (Han Hedi) of the Chinese Eastern Han Dynasty (b.", "AD 79)* 721 – Chilperic II, Frankish king (b.", "672)* 858 – Kenneth MacAlpin, Scottish king (probable; b.", "810)* 921 – Vratislaus I, duke of Bohemia* 936 – Xiao Wen, empress of the Liao Dynasty * 942 – Muhammad ibn Ra'iq, Abbasid emir and regent* 988 – Adalbert Atto, Lombard nobleman*1021 – Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, Fatimid caliph (b.", "985)*1130 – Honorius II, pope of the Catholic Church (b.", "1060)*1141 – Béla II, king of Hungary and Croatia (b.", "1110)*1199 – Stefan Nemanja, Serbian grand prince (b.", "1113)*1219 – Minamoto no Sanetomo, Japanese shōgun (b.", "1192)*1332 – Andronikos II Palaiologos, Byzantine emperor (b.", "1259)*1351 – Kō no Morofuyu, Japanese general*1539 – Isabella d'Este, Italian noblewoman (b.", "1474)*1542 – Catherine Howard, English wife of Henry VIII of England (executed; b.", "1521)*1571 – Benvenuto Cellini, Italian painter and sculptor (b.", "1500)*1585 – Alfonso Salmeron, Spanish priest and scholar (b.", "1515)===1601–1900===*1602 – Alexander Nowell, English clergyman and theologian (b.", "1507)*1660 – Charles X Gustav, king of Sweden (b.", "1622)*1662 – Elizabeth Stuart, queen of Bohemia (b.", "1596)*1693 – Johann Caspar Kerll, German organist and composer (b.", "1627)*1727 – William Wotton, English linguist and scholar (b.", "1666)*1728 – Cotton Mather, American minister and author (b.", "1663)*1732 – Charles-René d'Hozier, French historian and author (b.", "1640)*1741 – Johann Joseph Fux, Austrian composer and theorist (b.", "1660)*1787 – Roger Joseph Boscovich, Croatian physicist, astronomer, mathematician, and philosopher (b.", "1711)* 1787 – Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes, French lawyer and politician, Foreign Minister of France (b.", "1717)*1813 – Samuel Ashe, American lawyer and politician, 9th Governor of North Carolina (b.", "1725)*1818 – George Rogers Clark, American general (b.", "1752)*1826 – Peter Ludwig von der Pahlen, Russian general and politician, Governor-General of Baltic provinces (b.", "1745)*1831 – Edward Berry, English admiral (b.", "1768) *1837 – Mariano José de Larra, Spanish journalist and author (b.", "1809)*1845 – Henrik Steffens, Norwegian-German philosopher and poet (b.", "1773)*1859 – Eliza Acton, English food writer and poet (b.", "1799)*1877 – Costache Caragiale, Romanian actor and manager (b.", "1815)*1883 – Richard Wagner, German composer (b.", "1813)*1888 – Jean-Baptiste Lamy, French-American archbishop (b.", "1814)*1892 – Provo Wallis, Canadian-English admiral (b.", "1791)*1893 – Ignacio Manuel Altamirano, Mexican intellectual and journalist (b.", "1834)===1901–present===*1905 – Konstantin Savitsky, Russian painter (b.", "1844)*1906 – Albert Gottschalk, Danish painter (b.", "1866)*1934 – József Pusztai, Slovene-Hungarian poet and journalist (b.", "1864)*1942 – Otakar Batlička, Czech journalist (b.", "1895)* 1942 – Epitácio Pessoa, Brazilian lawyer, judge, and politician, 11th President of Brazil (b.", "1865)*1950 – Rafael Sabatini, Italian-English novelist and short story writer (b.", "1875)*1951 – Lloyd C. Douglas, American minister and author (b.", "1877)*1952 – Josephine Tey, Scottish author and playwright (b.", "1896)*1954 – Agnes Macphail, Canadian educator and politician (b.", "1890)*1956 – Jan Łukasiewicz, Polish mathematician and philosopher (b.", "1878)*1958 – Christabel Pankhurst, English activist, co-founded the Women's Social and Political Union (b.", "1880)* 1958 – Georges Rouault, French painter and illustrator (b.", "1871)*1964 – Paulino Alcántara, Filipino-Spanish footballer and manager (b.", "1896)* 1964 – Werner Heyde, German psychiatrist and academic (b.", "1902)*1967 – Yoshisuke Aikawa, entrepreneur, businessman, and politician, founded Nissan Motor Company (b.", "1880)* 1967 – Abelardo L. Rodríguez, substitute president of Mexico (1932-1934) (b.", "1889)*1968 – Mae Marsh, American actress (b.", "1895)* 1968 – Portia White, Canadian opera singer (b.", "1911)*1973 – Marinus Jan Granpré Molière, Dutch architect and educator (b.", "1883)*1975 – André Beaufre, French general (b.", "1902)*1976 – Murtala Mohammed, Nigerian general and politician, 4th President of Nigeria (b.", "1938)* 1976 – Lily Pons, French-American soprano and actress (b.", "1904)*1980 – David Janssen, American actor (b.", "1931)*1984 – Cheong Eak Chong, Singaporean entrepreneur (b.", "1888)*1986 – Yuri Ivask, Russian-American poet and critic (b.", "1907)*1989 – Wayne Hays, American lieutenant and politician (b.", "1911)*1991 – Arno Breker, German sculptor and illustrator (b.", "1900)*1992 – Nikolay Bogolyubov, Ukrainian-Russian mathematician and physicist (b.", "1909)*1996 – Martin Balsam, American actor (b.", "1919)*1997 – Robert Klark Graham, American eugenicist and businessman (b.", "1906)* 1997 – Mark Krasnosel'skii, Russian-Ukrainian mathematician and academic (b.", "1920)*2000 – Anders Aalborg, Canadian educator and politician (b.", "1914)* 2000 – James Cooke Brown, American sociologist and author (b.", "1921)* 2000 – John Leake, English soldier (b.", "1949)*2002 – Waylon Jennings, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1937)*2003 – Kid Gavilán, Cuban-American boxer (b.", "1926)* 2003 – Walt Whitman Rostow, American economist; 7th United States National Security Advisor (b.", "1916)*2004 – François Tavenas, Canadian engineer and academic (b.", "1942)* 2004 – Zelimkhan Yandarbiyev, Chechen politician, 2nd President of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (b.", "1952)*2005 – Nelson Briles, American baseball player and sportscaster (b.", "1943)* 2005 – Lúcia Santos, Portuguese nun (b.", "1907)*2006 – P. F. Strawson, English philosopher and author (b.", "1919)*2007 – Elizabeth Jolley, English-Australian author and academic (b.", "1923)* 2007 – Charlie Norwood, American captain and politician (b.", "1941)* 2007 – Richard Gordon Wakeford, English air marshal (b.", "1922)*2008 – Kon Ichikawa, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1915)*2009 – Edward Upward, English author and educator (b.", "1903)*2010 – Lucille Clifton, American poet and academic (b.", "1936)* 2010 – Dale Hawkins, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1936)*2012 – Russell Arms, American actor and singer (b.", "1920)* 2012 – Louise Cochrane, American-English screenwriter and producer (b.", "1918)* 2012 – Daniel C. Gerould, American playwright and academic (b.", "1928)*2013 – Gerry Day, American journalist and screenwriter (b.", "1922)* 2013 – Miles J. Jones, American pathologist and physician (b.", "1952)* 2013 – Pieter Kooijmans, Dutch judge and politician, Minister of Foreign Affairs for The Netherlands (b.", "1933)* 2013 – Andrée Malebranche, Haitian artist (b.", "1916)* 2013 – Yuko Tojo, Japanese activist and politician (b.", "1939)*2014 – Balu Mahendra, Sri Lankan-Indian director, cinematographer, and screenwriter (b.", "1939)* 2014 – Richard Møller Nielsen, Danish footballer and manager (b.", "1937)* 2014 – Ralph Waite, American actor and activist (b.", "1928)*2015 – Faith Bandler, Australian activist and author (b.", "1918)* 2015 – Stan Chambers, American journalist and actor (b.", "1923)*2016 – O. N. V. Kurup, Indian poet and academic (b.", "1931)* 2016 – Antonin Scalia, American lawyer and judge, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (b.", "1936)*2017 – Ricardo Arias Calderón, Panamanian politician (b.", "1933)* 2017 – Aileen Hernandez, American union organizer and activist (b.", "1926)* 2017 – Seijun Suzuki, Japanese filmmaker (b.", "1923)* 2017 – Kim Jong-nam, North Korean politician (b.", "1971)* 2017 – E-Dubble, American rapper (b.", "1982)*2018 – Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark, French-born Danish royal (b.", "1934)*2019 – Callistus Ndlovu, Zimbabwean academic and politician (b.", "1936)*2021 – Kadir Topbaş, Turkish politician (b.", "1945)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Children's Day (Myanmar)*Christian feast day:**Absalom Jones (Episcopal Church (USA))**Beatrice of Ornacieux**Castor of Karden **Catherine of Ricci**Dyfnog**Ermenilda of Ely**Fulcran**Jordan of Saxony**Polyeuctus (Roman Catholic Church)**February 13 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*World Radio Day==References==" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 13" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Political freedom" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Political freedom''' (also known as '''political autonomy''' or '''political agency''') is a central concept in history and political thought and one of the most important features of democratic societies.", "Political freedom was described as freedom from oppression or coercion, the absence of disabling conditions for an individual and the fulfillment of enabling conditions, or the absence of life conditions of compulsion, e.g.", "economic compulsion, in a society.", "Although political freedom is often interpreted negatively as the freedom from unreasonable external constraints on action, it can also refer to the positive exercise of rights, capacities and possibilities for action and the exercise of social or group rights.", "The concept can also include freedom from internal constraints on political action or speech (e.g.", "social conformity, consistency, or inauthentic behaviour).", "The concept of political freedom is closely connected with the concepts of civil liberties and human rights, which in democratic societies are usually afforded legal protection from the state." ], [ "Views", "Various groups along the political spectrum hold different views about what they believe constitutes political freedom.Left-wing political philosophy generally couples the notion of freedom with that of positive liberty or the enabling of a group or individual to determine their own life or realize their own potential.", "In this sense, freedom may include freedom from poverty, starvation, treatable disease, and oppression as well as freedom from force and coercion, from whomever they may issue.According to neoliberal philosopher and economist Friedrich Hayek, the \"socialist argument\" defined \"individual liberty\" as \" 'freedom from' obstacles\".", "He argued that this definition only \"confused\" and obscured the aim of \"securing individual freedom\", because it permitted a possible \"identification of freedom with power.\"", "The subsequent \"collective power over circumstances\" misappropriated \"the physical 'ability to do what I want', the power to satisfy our wishes, or the extent of the choice of alternatives open to us.\"", "Hayek maintained that once any possible \"identification of freedom with power is admitted,\" a \"totalitarian state\" coalesced where \"liberty has been suppressed in the name of liberty.", "\"Social anarchists see negative and positive liberty as complementary concepts of freedom.", "Such a view of rights may require utilitarian trade-offs, such as sacrificing the right to the product of one's labor or freedom of association for less racial discrimination or more subsidies for housing.", "Social anarchists describe the negative liberty-centric view endorsed by capitalism as \"selfish freedom\".Anarcho-capitalists see negative rights as a consistent system.", "Ayn Rand described it as \"a moral principle defining and sanctioning a man's freedom of action in a social context\".", "To such libertarians, positive liberty is contradictory since so-called rights must be traded off against each other, debasing legitimate rights which by definition trump other moral considerations.", "Any alleged right which calls for an end result (e.g.", "housing, education, medical services and so on) produced by people is in effect a purported right to enslave others.Political philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre theorized freedom in terms of our social interdependence with other people.Economist Milton Friedman argues in his book ''Capitalism and Freedom'' that there are two types of freedom, namely political freedom and economic freedom, and that without economic freedom there cannot be political freedom.In his article \"Why the Market Subverts Democracy\", Robin Hahnel takes issue with Friedman's concept of economic freedom, asserting that there will be infringements on the freedom of others whenever anyone exercises their own economic freedom.", "He argues that such infringements produce conflicts that are resolved through property rights systems, and therefore it is essential to decide what is a better or a worse property rights system, yet Friedman simply takes for granted the existing property rights and does not question them.Political philosopher Nikolas Kompridis posits that the pursuit of freedom in the modern era can be broadly divided into two motivating ideals, namely freedom as autonomy or independence and freedom as the ability to cooperatively initiate a new beginning.Political freedom has also been theorized in its opposition to and a condition of power relations, or the power of action upon actions, by Michel Foucault.", "It has also been closely identified with certain kinds of artistic and cultural practice by Cornelius Castoriadis, Antonio Gramsci, Herbert Marcuse, Jacques Rancière and Theodor Adorno.Environmentalists often argue that political freedoms should include some constraint on use of ecosystems.", "They maintain there is no such thing, for instance, as freedom to pollute or freedom to deforest given that such activities create negative externalities, which violates other groups' liberty to not be exposed to pollution.", "The popularity of SUVs, golf and urban sprawl has been used as evidence that some ideas of freedom and ecological conservation can clash.", "This leads at times to serious confrontations and clashes of values reflected in advertising campaigns, e.g.", "that of PETA regarding fur.John Dalberg-Acton stated: \"The most certain test by which we judge whether a country is really free is the amount of security enjoyed by minorities.", "\"Gerald C. MacCallum Jr. spoke of a compromise between positive and negative freedoms, saying that an agent must have full autonomy over themselves.", "In this view, freedom is a triadic relationship because it is about three things, namely the agent, the constraints they need to be free from and the goal they are aspiring to." ], [ "History", "Hannah Arendt traces the conceptual origins of freedom to ancient Greek politics.", "According to her study, the concept of freedom was historically inseparable from political action.", "Politics could only be practiced by those who had freed themselves from the necessities of life so that they could participate in the realm of political affairs.", "According to Arendt, the concept of freedom became associated with the Christian notion of freedom of the will, or inner freedom, around the 5th century CE and since then freedom as a form of political action has been neglected even though, as she says, freedom is \"the raison d'être of politics\".Arendt says that political freedom is historically opposed to sovereignty or will-power since in ancient Greece and Rome the concept of freedom was inseparable from performance and did not arise as a conflict between the will and the self.", "Similarly, the idea of freedom as freedom from politics is a notion that developed in modern times.", "This is opposed to the idea of freedom as the capacity to \"begin anew\", which Arendt sees as a corollary to the innate human condition of natality, or our nature as \"new beginnings and hence beginners\".In Arendt's view, political action is an interruption of automatic process, either natural or historical.", "The freedom to begin anew is thus an extension of \"the freedom to call something into being which did not exist before, which was not given, not even as an object of cognition or imagination, and which therefore, strictly speaking, could not be known\"." ], [ "See also", "* Academic freedom* Civil and political rights* Decentralization* Dissident* Economic freedom* Freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures, which is related to freedom of privacy* Freedom House* Freedom of assembly* Freedom of association* Freedom of movement* Freedom of religion* Freedom of speech* Freedom of the press* Freedom of thought* Global Social Change Research Project* Libertarianism (disambiguation)* List of indices of freedom* Negative and positive rights* Political equality* Political prisoner* Political repression* Right to arms* Scientific freedom* Suffrage* ''Two Treatises of Government''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Alberto Abadie (October 2004).", "\"Poverty, Political Freedom, and the Roots of Terrorism\" (PDF).", "Harvard University and NBER.", "* \"Brief review of trends in political change: freedom and conflict\".", "* \"Freedom: The Great Gift of the West\"." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Foobar" ], [ "Introduction", "The terms '''foobar''' (), '''foo''', '''bar''', '''baz''', and others are used as metasyntactic variables and placeholder names in computer programming or computer-related documentation.", "They have been used to name entities such as variables, functions, and commands whose exact identity is unimportant and serve only to demonstrate a concept.The style guide for Google developer documentation recommends against using them as example project names because they are unclear and can cause confusion." ], [ "History and etymology", "It is possible that ''foobar'' is a playful allusion to the World War II-era military slang FUBAR (''Fucked Up Beyond All Recognition)''.According to an Internet Engineering Task Force RFC, the word FOO originated as a nonsense word with its earliest documented use in the 1930s comic ''Smokey Stover'' by Bill Holman.", "Holman states that he used the word due to having seen it on the bottom of a jade Chinese figurine in San Francisco Chinatown, purportedly signifying \"good luck\".", "If true, this is presumably related to the Chinese word ''fu'' (\"\", sometimes transliterated ''foo'', as in ''foo dog''), which can mean ''happiness'' or ''blessing''.The first known use of the terms in print in a programming context appears in a 1965 edition of MIT's ''Tech Engineering News''.", "The use of ''foo'' in a programming context is generally credited to the Tech Model Railroad Club (TMRC) of MIT from circa 1960.In the complex model system, there were scram switches located at numerous places around the room that could be thrown if something undesirable was about to occur, such as a train moving at full power towards an obstruction.", "Another feature of the system was a digital clock on the dispatch board.", "When someone hit a scram switch, the clock stopped and the display was replaced with the word \"FOO\"; at TMRC the scram switches are, therefore, called \"Foo switches\".", "Because of this, an entry in the 1959 ''Dictionary of the TMRC Language'' went something like this: \"FOO: The first syllable of the misquoted sacred chant phrase 'foo mane padme hum.'", "Our first obligation is to keep the foo counters turning.\"", "One book describing the MIT train room describes two buttons by the door labeled \"foo\" and \"bar\".", "These were general-purpose buttons and were often repurposed for whatever fun idea the MIT hackers had at the time, hence the adoption of foo and bar as general-purpose variable names.", "An entry in the ''Abridged Dictionary of the TMRC Language'' states:''Foobar'' was used as a variable name in the Fortran code of ''Colossal Cave Adventure'' (1977 Crowther and Woods version).", "The variable FOOBAR was used to contain the player's progress in saying the magic phrase \"Fee Fie Foe Foo\", a phrase from an historical quatrain in the classic English fairy tale Jack and the Beanstalk.", "Intel also used the term ''foo'' in their programming documentation in 1978." ], [ "Examples in culture", "* Foo Camp is an annual hacker convention.", "* BarCamp, an international network of user-generated conferences* During the ''United States v. Microsoft Corp.'' trial, some evidence was presented that Microsoft had tried to use the Web Services Interoperability organization (WS-I) as a means to stifle competition, including e-mails in which top executives including Bill Gates referred to the WS-I using the codename \"foo\".", "* foobar2000 is an audio player." ], [ "See also", "* Alice and Bob* Foo fighter* Foo was here* Fu (character)* Lorem ipsum, similar placeholder text used outside programming* xyzzy* :Category:Variable (computer science)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Google developer documentation style guide word list* The Jargon File entry on \"foobar\", catb.org* – FTP Operation Over Big Address Records (FOOBAR)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Functional analysis" ], [ "Introduction", "One of the possible modes of vibration of an idealized circular drum head.", "These modes are eigenfunctions of a linear operator on a function space, a common construction in functional analysis.", "'''Functional analysis''' is a branch of mathematical analysis, the core of which is formed by the study of vector spaces endowed with some kind of limit-related structure (for example, inner product, norm, or topology) and the linear functions defined on these spaces and suitably respecting these structures.", "The historical roots of functional analysis lie in the study of spaces of functions and the formulation of properties of transformations of functions such as the Fourier transform as transformations defining, for example, continuous or unitary operators between function spaces.", "This point of view turned out to be particularly useful for the study of differential and integral equations.The usage of the word ''functional'' as a noun goes back to the calculus of variations, implying a function whose argument is a function.", "The term was first used in Hadamard's 1910 book on that subject.", "However, the general concept of a functional had previously been introduced in 1887 by the Italian mathematician and physicist Vito Volterra.", "The theory of nonlinear functionals was continued by students of Hadamard, in particular Fréchet and Lévy.", "Hadamard also founded the modern school of linear functional analysis further developed by Riesz and the group of Polish mathematicians around Stefan Banach.In modern introductory texts on functional analysis, the subject is seen as the study of vector spaces endowed with a topology, in particular infinite-dimensional spaces.", "In contrast, linear algebra deals mostly with finite-dimensional spaces, and does not use topology.", "An important part of functional analysis is the extension of the theories of measure, integration, and probability to infinite dimensional spaces, also known as '''infinite dimensional analysis'''." ], [ "Normed vector spaces", "The basic and historically first class of spaces studied in functional analysis are complete normed vector spaces over the real or complex numbers.", "Such spaces are called Banach spaces.", "An important example is a Hilbert space, where the norm arises from an inner product.", "These spaces are of fundamental importance in many areas, including the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics, machine learning, partial differential equations, and Fourier analysis.More generally, functional analysis includes the study of Fréchet spaces and other topological vector spaces not endowed with a norm.An important object of study in functional analysis are the continuous linear operators defined on Banach and Hilbert spaces.", "These lead naturally to the definition of C*-algebras and other operator algebras.===Hilbert spaces===Hilbert spaces can be completely classified: there is a unique Hilbert space up to isomorphism for every cardinality of the orthonormal basis.", "Finite-dimensional Hilbert spaces are fully understood in linear algebra, and infinite-dimensional separable Hilbert spaces are isomorphic to .", "Separability being important for applications, functional analysis of Hilbert spaces consequently mostly deals with this space.", "One of the open problems in functional analysis is to prove that every bounded linear operator on a Hilbert space has a proper invariant subspace.", "Many special cases of this invariant subspace problem have already been proven.===Banach spaces===General Banach spaces are more complicated than Hilbert spaces, and cannot be classified in such a simple manner as those.", "In particular, many Banach spaces lack a notion analogous to an orthonormal basis.Examples of Banach spaces are -spaces for any real number Given also a measure on set then sometimes also denoted or has as its vectors equivalence classes of measurable functions whose absolute value's -th power has finite integral; that is, functions for which one hasIf is the counting measure, then the integral may be replaced by a sum.", "That is, we requireThen it is not necessary to deal with equivalence classes, and the space is denoted written more simply in the case when is the set of non-negative integers.In Banach spaces, a large part of the study involves the dual space: the space of all continuous linear maps from the space into its underlying field, so-called functionals.", "A Banach space can be canonically identified with a subspace of its bidual, which is the dual of its dual space.", "The corresponding map is an isometry but in general not onto.", "A general Banach space and its bidual need not even be isometrically isomorphic in any way, contrary to the finite-dimensional situation.", "This is explained in the dual space article.Also, the notion of derivative can be extended to arbitrary functions between Banach spaces.", "See, for instance, the Fréchet derivative article." ], [ "Linear functional analysis" ], [ "Major and foundational results", "There are four major theorems which are sometimes called the four pillars of functional analysis: * the Hahn–Banach theorem* the open mapping theorem* the closed graph theorem* the uniform boundedness principle, also known as the Banach–Steinhaus theorem.", "Important results of functional analysis include:===Uniform boundedness principle===The uniform boundedness principle or Banach–Steinhaus theorem is one of the fundamental results in functional analysis.", "Together with the Hahn–Banach theorem and the open mapping theorem, it is considered one of the cornerstones of the field.", "In its basic form, it asserts that for a family of continuous linear operators (and thus bounded operators) whose domain is a Banach space, pointwise boundedness is equivalent to uniform boundedness in operator norm.The theorem was first published in 1927 by Stefan Banach and Hugo Steinhaus but it was also proven independently by Hans Hahn.===Spectral theorem===There are many theorems known as the spectral theorem, but one in particular has many applications in functional analysis.This is the beginning of the vast research area of functional analysis called operator theory; see also the spectral measure.There is also an analogous spectral theorem for bounded normal operators on Hilbert spaces.", "The only difference in the conclusion is that now may be complex-valued.===Hahn–Banach theorem===The Hahn–Banach theorem is a central tool in functional analysis.", "It allows the extension of bounded linear functionals defined on a subspace of some vector space to the whole space, and it also shows that there are \"enough\" continuous linear functionals defined on every normed vector space to make the study of the dual space \"interesting\".===Open mapping theorem===The open mapping theorem, also known as the Banach–Schauder theorem (named after Stefan Banach and Juliusz Schauder), is a fundamental result which states that if a continuous linear operator between Banach spaces is surjective then it is an open map.", "More precisely,The proof uses the Baire category theorem, and completeness of both and is essential to the theorem.", "The statement of the theorem is no longer true if either space is just assumed to be a normed space, but is true if and are taken to be Fréchet spaces.===Closed graph theorem===The closed graph theorem states the following:If is a topological space and is a compact Hausdorff space, then the graph of a linear map from to is closed if and only if is continuous.===Other topics===" ], [ "Foundations of mathematics considerations", "Most spaces considered in functional analysis have infinite dimension.", "To show the existence of a vector space basis for such spaces may require Zorn's lemma.", "However, a somewhat different concept, the Schauder basis, is usually more relevant in functional analysis.", "Many theorems require the Hahn–Banach theorem, usually proved using the axiom of choice, although the strictly weaker Boolean prime ideal theorem suffices.", "The Baire category theorem, needed to prove many important theorems, also requires a form of axiom of choice." ], [ "Points of view", "Functional analysis in its includes the following tendencies:*''Abstract analysis''.", "An approach to analysis based on topological groups, topological rings, and topological vector spaces.", "*''Geometry of Banach spaces'' contains many topics.", "One is combinatorial approach connected with Jean Bourgain; another is a characterization of Banach spaces in which various forms of the law of large numbers hold.", "*''Noncommutative geometry''.", "Developed by Alain Connes, partly building on earlier notions, such as George Mackey's approach to ergodic theory.", "*''Connection with quantum mechanics''.", "Either narrowly defined as in mathematical physics, or broadly interpreted by, for example, Israel Gelfand, to include most types of representation theory." ], [ "See also", "* List of functional analysis topics* Spectral theory" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aliprantis, C.D., Border, K.C.", ": ''Infinite Dimensional Analysis: A Hitchhiker's Guide'', 3rd ed., Springer 2007, .", "Online (by subscription)* Bachman, G., Narici, L.: ''Functional analysis'', Academic Press, 1966.", "(reprint Dover Publications)* Banach S. ''Theory of Linear Operations''.", "Volume 38, North-Holland Mathematical Library, 1987, * Brezis, H.: ''Analyse Fonctionnelle'', Dunod or * Conway, J.", "B.: ''A Course in Functional Analysis'', 2nd edition, Springer-Verlag, 1994, * Dunford, N. and Schwartz, J.T.", ": ''Linear Operators, General Theory, John Wiley & Sons'', and other 3 volumes, includes visualization charts* Edwards, R. E.: ''Functional Analysis, Theory and Applications'', Hold, Rinehart and Winston, 1965.", "* Eidelman, Yuli, Vitali Milman, and Antonis Tsolomitis: ''Functional Analysis: An Introduction'', American Mathematical Society, 2004.", "* Friedman, A.: ''Foundations of Modern Analysis'', Dover Publications, Paperback Edition, July 21, 2010* Giles, J.R.: ''Introduction to the Analysis of Normed Linear Spaces'', Cambridge University Press, 2000* Hirsch F., Lacombe G. - \"Elements of Functional Analysis\", Springer 1999.", "* Hutson, V., Pym, J.S., Cloud M.J.: ''Applications of Functional Analysis and Operator Theory'', 2nd edition, Elsevier Science, 2005, * Kantorovitz, S.,''Introduction to Modern Analysis'', Oxford University Press, 2003,2nd ed.2006.", "* Kolmogorov, A.N and Fomin, S.V.", ": ''Elements of the Theory of Functions and Functional Analysis'', Dover Publications, 1999* Kreyszig, E.: ''Introductory Functional Analysis with Applications'', Wiley, 1989.", "* Lax, P.: ''Functional Analysis'', Wiley-Interscience, 2002, * Lebedev, L.P. and Vorovich, I.I.", ": ''Functional Analysis in Mechanics'', Springer-Verlag, 2002* Michel, Anthony N. and Charles J. Herget: ''Applied Algebra and Functional Analysis'', Dover, 1993.", "* Pietsch, Albrecht: ''History of Banach spaces and linear operators'', Birkhäuser Boston Inc., 2007, * Reed, M., Simon, B.: \"Functional Analysis\", Academic Press 1980.", "* Riesz, F. and Sz.-Nagy, B.: ''Functional Analysis'', Dover Publications, 1990* Rudin, W.: ''Functional Analysis'', McGraw-Hill Science, 1991* Saxe, Karen: ''Beginning Functional Analysis'', Springer, 2001* Schechter, M.: ''Principles of Functional Analysis'', AMS, 2nd edition, 2001* Shilov, Georgi E.: ''Elementary Functional Analysis'', Dover, 1996.", "* Sobolev, S.L.", ": ''Applications of Functional Analysis in Mathematical Physics'', AMS, 1963* Vogt, D., Meise, R.: ''Introduction to Functional Analysis'', Oxford University Press, 1997.", "* Yosida, K.: ''Functional Analysis'', Springer-Verlag, 6th edition, 1980" ], [ "External links", "* * Topics in Real and Functional Analysis by Gerald Teschl, University of Vienna.", "* Lecture Notes on Functional Analysis by Yevgeny Vilensky, New York University.", "* Lecture videos on functional analysis by Greg Morrow from University of Colorado Colorado Springs" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Frank Sinatra" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Francis Albert Sinatra''' (; December 12, 1915 – May 14, 1998) was an American singer and actor.", "Nicknamed the \"Chairman of the Board\" and later called \"Ol' Blue Eyes\", he is regarded as one of the most popular entertainers of the mid-20th century.", "Sinatra is among the world's best-selling music artists with an estimated 150 million record sales.Born to Italian immigrants in Hoboken, New Jersey, Sinatra began his musical career in the swing era and was greatly influenced by the easy-listening vocal style of Bing Crosby.", "He found success as a solo artist after signing with Columbia Records in 1943, becoming the idol of the \"bobby soxers\".", "In 1946, Sinatra released his debut album, ''The Voice of Frank Sinatra''.", "He then signed with Capitol Records and released several albums with arrangements by Nelson Riddle, notably ''In the Wee Small Hours'' (1955) and ''Songs for Swingin' Lovers!''", "(1956).", "In 1960, Sinatra left Capitol Records to start his own record label, Reprise Records, releasing a string of successful albums.", "He collaborated with Count Basie on ''Sinatra-Basie: An Historic Musical First'' (1962) and ''It Might as Well Be Swing'' (1964).", "In 1965, he recorded the retrospective album ''September of My Years'' and starred in the Emmy-winning television special ''Frank Sinatra: A Man and His Music''.", "After releasing ''Sinatra at the Sands'' in early 1966, Sinatra recorded one of his most famous collaborations with Tom Jobim, ''Francis Albert Sinatra & Antonio Carlos Jobim''.", "It was followed by 1968's ''Francis A.", "& Edward K.'' with Duke Ellington.", "Sinatra retired in 1971 following the release of \"My Way\", but came out of retirement two years later.", "He recorded several albums and released \"New York, New York\" in 1980.Sinatra forged a highly successful career as a film actor.", "After winning the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for ''From Here to Eternity'' (1953), he starred in ''The Man with the Golden Arm'' (1955) and ''The Manchurian Candidate'' (1962).", "Sinatra also appeared in musicals such as ''On the Town'' (1949), ''Guys and Dolls'' (1955), ''High Society'' (1956), and ''Pal Joey'' (1957), which won him a Golden Globe Award.", "Toward the end of his career, he frequently played detectives, including the title character in ''Tony Rome'' (1967).", "Sinatra received the Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award in 1971.On television, ''The Frank Sinatra Show'' began on CBS in 1950, and he continued to make appearances on television throughout the 1950s and 1960s.In 1983, Sinatra was honored at the Kennedy Center Honors.", "He was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1985 and the Congressional Gold Medal in 1997.Sinatra received eleven Grammy Awards including the Grammy Trustees Award, Grammy Legend Award, and the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.", "He was included in ''Time'' magazine's compilation of the 20th century's 100 most influential people.", "American music critic Robert Christgau called him \"the greatest singer of the 20th century\" and he continues to be regarded as an iconic figure." ], [ "Early life", "Francis Albert Sinatra was born on December 12, 1915, in a tenement at 415 Monroe Street in Hoboken, New Jersey, the only child of Italian immigrants Natalina \"Dolly\" Garaventa and Antonino Martino \"Marty\" Sinatra, who boxed under the name Marty O'Brien.", "Sinatra weighed at birth and had to be delivered with the aid of forceps, which caused severe scarring to his left cheek, neck, and ear, and perforated his eardrum—remaining damaged for the rest of his life.", "His grandmother resuscitated him by running her grandson under cold water until he gasped his first breath.", "Due to his injuries, his baptism at St. Francis Church in Hoboken was delayed until April 2, 1916.A childhood operation on his mastoid bone left major scarring on his neck, and during adolescence he was further scarred by cystic acne.", "Sinatra was raised in the Catholic Church.Sinatra's mother was energetic and driven; biographers believe that she was the dominant factor in the development of her son's personality and self-confidence.", "Sinatra's fourth wife Barbara would later claim that Dolly was abusive to him when he was a child, and \"knocked him around a lot\".", "Dolly became influential in Hoboken and in local Democratic Party circles.", "She worked as a midwife, and according to Sinatra biographer Kitty Kelley, ran an illegal abortion service that catered to Italian Catholic girls, for which she was nicknamed \"Hatpin Dolly\".", "She also had a gift for languages and served as a local interpreter.Sinatra's illiterate father was a bantamweight boxer who later worked at the Hoboken Fire Department, working his way up to captain.", "Sinatra spent much time at his parents' tavern in Hoboken, working on his homework and occasionally singing for spare change.", "During the Great Depression, Dolly provided money to her son for outings with friends and to buy expensive clothes, resulting in neighbors describing him as the \"best-dressed kid in the neighborhood\".", "Excessively thin and small as a child and young man, Sinatra's skinny frame later became a staple of jokes during stage shows.At a young age, Sinatra developed an interest in music, particularly big band jazz and listened to Gene Austin, Rudy Vallée, Russ Colombo, and Bob Eberly while idolizing Bing Crosby.", "For his 15th birthday, his uncle Domenico gave him a ukulele, with which he performed at family gatherings.", "Sinatra attended David E. Rue Jr. High School from 1928, and A. J. Demarest High School (since renamed as Hoboken High School) in 1931, where he arranged bands for school dances, but left without graduating after having attended only 47 days before being expelled for \"general rowdiness\".", "To please his mother, he enrolled at Drake Business School, but departed after 11 months.", "Dolly found her son work as a delivery boy at the ''Jersey Observer'' newspaper, where his godfather Frank Garrick worked; he later worked as a riveter at the Tietjen and Lang shipyard.", "He began performing in local Hoboken social clubs and sang for free on radio stations such as WAAT in Jersey City.", "In New York, Sinatra found jobs singing for his supper or for cigarettes.", "To improve his speech, he began taking elocution lessons for a dollar each from vocal coach John Quinlan, one of the first people to notice his impressive vocal range." ], [ "Music career", "=== 1935–1939: Hoboken Four, Harry James, and Tommy Dorsey ===Sinatra (''far right'') with the Hoboken Four on ''Major Bowes' Amateur Hour'' in 1935Sinatra began singing professionally as a teenager.", "Even though he never learned to read music, he learned by ear.", "He got his first break in 1935 when his mother persuaded a local singing group called the 3 Flashes to let him join.", "Baritone Fred Tamburro stated that \"Frank hung around us like we were gods or something\", admitting that they only took him on board because he owned a car and could chauffeur the group around.", "Sinatra soon learned they were auditioning for the ''Major Bowes Amateur Hour'' show, and \"begged\" the group to let him in on the act.", "With Sinatra, the group became known as the Hoboken Four, and passed an audition from Edward Bowes to appear on the show.", "They each earned $12.50, and ended up attracting 40,000 votes to win first prize—a six-month contract to perform on stage and radio across the U.S. Sinatra quickly became the group's lead singer, and, much to the jealousy of his fellow group members, garnered most of the attention from girls.", "Due to the success of the group, Bowes kept asking for them to return, disguised under different names, varying from \"The Secaucus Cockamamies\" to \"The Bayonne Bacalas\".Sinatra performing with Harry James at the Hollywood Canteen in 1943In 1938, Sinatra found employment as a singing waiter at a roadhouse called \"The Rustic Cabin\" in Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, for which he was paid $15 a week.", "The roadhouse was connected to the WNEW radio station in New York City, and he began performing with a group live during the ''Dance Parade'' show.", "Despite the low salary, Sinatra felt that this was the break he was looking for, and boasted to friends that he was going to \"become so big that no one could ever touch him\".", "In March 1939, saxophone player Frank Mane, who knew Sinatra from Jersey City radio station WAAT, arranged for him to audition and record \"Our Love\", his first solo studio recording.", "In June, bandleader Harry James, who had heard Sinatra sing on \"Dance Parade\", signed a two-year contract of $75 a week after a show at the Paramount Theatre in New York.", "It was with the James band that Sinatra released his first commercial record \"From the Bottom of My Heart\" in July.", "No more than 8,000 copies of the record were sold, and further records released with James through 1939, such as \"All or Nothing at All\", also had weak sales on their initial release.", "Thanks to his vocal training, Sinatra could now sing two tones higher, and developed a repertoire which included songs such as \"My Buddy\", \"Willow Weep for Me\", \"It's Funny to Everyone but Me\", \"Here Comes the Night\", \"On a Little Street in Singapore\", \"Ciribiribin\", and \"Every Day of My Life\".Sinatra and Tommy Dorsey in ''Ship Ahoy'' (1942)Sinatra became increasingly frustrated with the status of the Harry James band, feeling that he was not achieving the major success and acclaim he was looking for.", "His pianist and close friend Hank Sanicola persuaded him to stay with the group, but in November 1939 he left James to replace Jack Leonard as the lead singer of the Tommy Dorsey band.", "Sinatra earned $125 a week, appearing at the Palmer House in Chicago, and James released Sinatra from his contract.", "On January 26, 1940, he made his first public appearance with the band at the Coronado Theatre in Rockford, Illinois, opening the show with \"Stardust\".", "Dorsey recalled: \"You could almost feel the excitement coming up out of the crowds when the kid stood up to sing.", "Remember, he was no matinée idol.", "He was just a skinny kid with big ears.", "I used to stand there so amazed I'd almost forget to take my own solos\".", "Dorsey was a major influence on Sinatra and became a father figure.", "Sinatra copied Dorsey's mannerisms and traits, becoming a demanding perfectionist like him, even adopting his hobby of toy trains.", "He asked Dorsey to be godfather to his daughter Nancy in June 1940.Sinatra later said that \"The only two people I've ever been afraid of are my mother and Tommy Dorsey\".", "Though Kelley says that Sinatra and drummer Buddy Rich were bitter rivals, other authors state that they were friends and even roommates when the band was on the road, but professional jealousy surfaced as both men wanted to be considered the star of Dorsey's band.", "Later, Sinatra helped Rich form his own band with a $25,000 loan and provided financial help to Rich during times of the drummer's serious illness.In his first year with Dorsey, Sinatra recorded more than forty songs.", "Sinatra's first vocal hit was the song \"Polka Dots and Moonbeams\" in late April 1940.Two more chart appearances followed with \"Say It\" and \"Imagination\", which was Sinatra's first top-10 hit.", "His fourth chart appearance (and his first on the first officially published ''Billboard'' chart) was \"I'll Never Smile Again\", topping the charts for twelve weeks beginning in mid-July.", "Other records with Tommy Dorsey issued by RCA Victor include \"Our Love Affair\" and \"Stardust\" in 1940; \"Oh!", "Look at Me Now\", \"Dolores\", \"Everything Happens to Me\", and \"This Love of Mine\" in 1941; \"Just as Though You Were There\", \"Take Me\", and \"There Are Such Things\" in 1942; and \"It Started All Over Again\", \"In the Blue of Evening\", and \"It's Always You\" in 1943.As his success and popularity grew, Sinatra pushed Dorsey to allow him to record some solo songs.", "Dorsey eventually relented, and on January 19, 1942, Sinatra recorded \"Night and Day\", \"The Night We Called It a Day\", \"The Song is You\", and \"Lamplighter's Serenade\" at a Bluebird recording session, with Axel Stordahl as arranger and conductor.", "Sinatra first heard the recordings at the Hollywood Palladium and Hollywood Plaza and was astounded at how good he sounded.", "Stordahl recalled: \"He just couldn't believe his ears.", "He was so excited, you almost believed he had never recorded before.", "I think this was a turning point in his career.", "I think he began to see what he might do on his own\".After the 1942 recordings, Sinatra believed he needed to go solo, with an insatiable desire to compete with Bing Crosby, but he was hampered by his contract which gave Dorsey 43% of Sinatra's lifetime earnings.", "A legal battle ensued, eventually settled in August 1942.On September 3, 1942, Dorsey bade farewell to Sinatra, reportedly saying \"I hope you fall on your ass\", but he was more gracious on the air when replacing Sinatra with singer Dick Haymes.", "Rumors began spreading in newspapers that Sinatra's mobster godfather, Willie Moretti, coerced Dorsey at gunpoint to let Sinatra out of his contract for a few thousand dollars.", "Sinatra persuaded Stordahl to come with him and become his personal arranger, offering him $650 a month, five times his salary from Dorsey.", "Dorsey and Sinatra, who had been very close, never reconciled their differences.=== 1942–1945: Onset of Sinatramania and role in World War II ===Sinatra with Alida Valli, sBy May 1941, Sinatra topped the male singer polls in ''Billboard'' and ''DownBeat'' magazines.", "His appeal to bobby soxers, as teenage girls of that time were called, revealed a new audience for popular music, which had previously been recorded mainly for adults.", "The phenomenon became officially known as \"Sinatramania\" after his \"legendary opening\" at the Paramount Theatre in New York on December 30, 1942.According to Nancy Sinatra, Jack Benny later said, \"I thought the goddamned building was going to cave in.", "I never heard such a commotion... All this for a fellow I never heard of.\"", "Sinatra performed for four weeks at the theatre, his act following the Benny Goodman orchestra, after which his contract was renewed for another four weeks by Bob Weitman due to his popularity.", "He became known as \"Swoonatra\" or \"The Voice\", and his fans \"Sinatratics\".", "They organized meetings and sent masses of letters of adoration, and within a few weeks of the show, some 1,000 Sinatra fan clubs had been reported across the US.", "Sinatra's publicist, George Evans, encouraged interviews and photographs with fans, and was the man responsible for depicting Sinatra as a vulnerable, shy, Italian–American with a rough childhood who made good.", "When Sinatra returned to the Paramount in October 1944, only 250 persons left the first show, and 35,000 fans left outside caused a near riot, known as the Columbus Day Riot, outside the venue because they were not allowed in.", "Such was the bobby-soxer devotion to Sinatra that they were known to write Sinatra's song titles on their clothing, bribe hotel maids for an opportunity to touch his bed, and steal clothing he was wearing, most commonly his bow tie.Young Sinatra fans listening to his records on a portable gramophone in Sydney, Australia, 1945.Sinatra signed with Columbia Records as a solo artist on June 1, 1943, during the 1942–44 musicians' strike.", "Columbia Records re-released Harry James and Sinatra's August 1939 version of \"All or Nothing at All\", which reached number 2 on June 2, and was on the best-selling list for 18 weeks.", "He initially had great success, and performed on the radio on ''Your Hit Parade'' from February 1943 until December 1944, and on stage.", "Columbia wanted new recordings of their growing star as quickly as possible, so Alec Wilder was hired as an arranger and conductor for several sessions with a vocal group called the Bobby Tucker Singers.", "Of the nine songs recorded during these sessions, seven charted on the best-selling list.", "That year he made his first solo nightclub appearance at New York's Riobamba, and a successful concert in the Wedgewood Room of the prestigious Waldorf-Astoria New York that year secured his popularity in New York high society.", "Sinatra released \"You'll Never Know\", \"Close to You\", \"Sunday, Monday, or Always\" and \"People Will Say We're in Love\" as singles.", "By the end of 1943 he was more popular in a ''DownBeat'' poll than Bing Crosby.Sinatra did not serve in the military during World War II.", "On December 11, 1943, he was officially classified 4-F (\"Registrant not acceptable for military service\") by his draft board because of his perforated eardrum.", "However, Army files reported that Sinatra had actually been rejected because he was \"not acceptable material from a psychiatric viewpoint;\" his emotional instability was hidden to avoid \"undue unpleasantness for both the selectee and the induction service\".", "Briefly, there were rumors reported by columnist Walter Winchell that Sinatra paid $40,000 to avoid military service, but the FBI found this to be without merit.Sinatra (left) on the Armed Forces Radio in 1944 with Dinah Shore and Bing Crosby (right)Toward the end of the war, Sinatra entertained the troops during several successful overseas USO tours with comedian Phil Silvers.", "During one trip to Rome he met the Pope, who asked him if he was an operatic tenor.", "Sinatra worked frequently with the popular Andrews Sisters in radio in the 1940s, and many USO shows were broadcast to troops via the Armed Forces Radio Service (AFRS).", "In 1944 Sinatra released \"I Couldn't Sleep a Wink Last Night\" as a single and recorded his own version of Irving Berlin's \"White Christmas\".", "The following year he released \"I Dream of You (More Than You Dream I Do)\", \"Saturday Night (Is the Loneliest Night of the Week)\", \"Dream\", and \"Nancy (with the Laughing Face)\" as singles.=== 1946–1952: Columbia years and career slump ===Despite being heavily involved in political activity in 1945 and 1946, in those two years Sinatra sang on 160 radio shows, recorded 36 times, and shot four films.", "By 1946 he was performing on stage up to 45 times a week, singing up to 100 songs daily, and earning up to $93,000 a week.In 1946 Sinatra released \"Oh!", "What it Seemed to Be\", \"Day by Day\", \"They Say It's Wonderful\", \"Five Minutes More\", and \"The Coffee Song\" as singles, and launched his first album, ''The Voice of Frank Sinatra'', which reached No.", "1 on the ''Billboard'' chart.", "William Ruhlmann of AllMusic wrote that Sinatra \"took the material very seriously, singing the love lyrics with utter seriousness\", and that his \"singing and the classically influenced settings gave the songs unusual depth of meaning\".", "He was soon selling 10million records a year.", "Such was Sinatra's command at Columbia that his love of conducting was indulged with the release of the set ''Frank Sinatra Conducts the Music of Alec Wilder'', an offering unlikely to appeal to Sinatra's core fanbase of teenage girls at the time.", "The following year he released his second album, ''Songs by Sinatra'', featuring songs of a similar mood and tempo such as Irving Berlin's \"How Deep is the Ocean?\"", "and Harold Arlen's and Jerome Kern's \"All The Things You Are\".", "\"Mam'selle\", composed by Edmund Goulding with lyrics by Mack Gordon for the film ''The Razor's Edge'' (1946), was released as a single.", "Sinatra had competition; versions by Art Lund, Dick Haymes, Dennis Day, and The Pied Pipers also reached the top ten of the ''Billboard'' charts.", "In December he recorded \"Sweet Lorraine\" with the Metronome All-Stars, featuring talented jazz musicians such as Coleman Hawkins, Harry Carney and Charlie Shavers, with Nat King Cole on piano, in what Charles L. Granata describes as \"one of the highlights of Sinatra's Columbia epoch\".Sinatra's third album, ''Christmas Songs by Sinatra'', was originally released in 1948 as a 78rpm album set, and a 10\" LP record was released two years later.", "When Sinatra was featured as a priest in ''The Miracle of the Bells'', due to press negativity surrounding his alleged Mafia connections at the time, it was announced to the public that Sinatra would donate his $100,000 in wages from the film to the Catholic Church.", "By the end of 1948, Sinatra had slipped to fourth on ''DownBeat''s annual poll of most popular singers, and in the following year he was pushed out of the top spots in polls for the first time since 1943.", "''Frankly Sentimental'' (1949) was panned by ''DownBeat'', who commented that \"for all his talent, it seldom comes to life\".Sinatra in November 1950Though \"The Hucklebuck\" reached the top ten, it was his last single release under the Columbia label.", "Sinatra's last two albums with Columbia, ''Dedicated to You'' and ''Sing and Dance with Frank Sinatra'', were released in 1950.Sinatra would later feature a number of the ''Sing and Dance with Frank Sinatra'' album's songs, including \"Lover\", \"It's Only a Paper Moon\", \"It All Depends on You\", on his 1961 Capitol release, ''Sinatra's Swingin' Session''.Cementing the low of his career was the death of publicist George Evans in January 1950.According to Jimmy Van Heusen, Sinatra's close friend and songwriter, Evans's death to him was \"an enormous shock which defies words\", as he had been crucial to his career and popularity with the bobbysoxers.", "Sinatra's reputation continued to decline as reports broke in February of his affair with Ava Gardner and the destruction of his marriage to Nancy, though he insisted that his marriage had long been over even before he met Gardner.", "In April, Sinatra was engaged to perform at the Copa club in New York but had to cancel five days of the booking due to a submucosal hemorrhage of the throat.", "Evans once said that whenever Sinatra suffered from a bad throat and loss of voice it was always due to emotional tension which \"absolutely destroyed him\".The Desert Inn, Las Vegas, where Sinatra began performing in 1951In financial difficulty following his divorce and career decline, Sinatra was forced to borrow $200,000 from Columbia to pay his back taxes after MCA refused to front the money.", "Rejected by Hollywood, he turned to Las Vegas and made his debut at the Desert Inn in September 1951, and also began singing at the Riverside Hotel in Reno, Nevada.", "Sinatra became one of Las Vegas's pioneer residency entertainers, and a prominent figure on the Vegas scene throughout the 1950s and 1960s onwards, a period described by Rojek as the \"high-water mark\" of Sinatra's \"hedonism and self absorption\".", "Rojek notes that the Rat Pack \"provided an outlet for gregarious banter and wisecracks\", but argues that it was Sinatra's vehicle, possessing an \"unassailable command over the other performers\".", "Sinatra would fly to Las Vegas from Los Angeles in Van Heusen's plane.", "On October 4, 1953, Sinatra made his first performance at the Sands Hotel and Casino, after an invitation by the manager Jack Entratter.", "Sinatra typically performed there three times a year, and later acquired a share in the hotel.Sinatra's decline in popularity was evident at his concert appearances.", "At a brief run at the Paramount in New York he drew small audiences.", "At the Desert Inn in Las Vegas he performed to half-filled houses.", "At a concert at Chez Paree in Chicago, only 150 people turned up in a 1,200-seat venue.", "By April 1952 he was performing at the Kauai County Fair in Hawaii.", "Sinatra's relationship with Columbia Records was disintegrating, with A&R executive Mitch Miller claiming he \"couldn't give away\" the singer's records.", "Though several notable recordings were made during this time period, such as \"If I Could Write a Book\" in January 1952, which Granata sees as a \"turning point\", forecasting his later work with its sensitivity, Columbia and MCA dropped him later that year.", "His last studio recording for Columbia, \"Why Try To Change Me Now\", was recorded in New York on September 17, 1952, with orchestra arranged and conducted by Percy Faith.", "Journalist Burt Boyar observed, \"Sinatra had had it.", "It was sad.", "From the top to the bottom in one horrible lesson.", "\"=== 1953–1962: Career revival and the Capitol years ===Nelson Riddle, Sinatra's album arranger for Capitol RecordsThe release of the film ''From Here to Eternity'' in August 1953 marked the beginning of a remarkable career revival.", "Tom Santopietro notes that Sinatra began to bury himself in his work, with an \"unparalleled frenetic schedule of recordings, movies and concerts\", in what authors Anthony Summers and Robbyn Swan describe as \"a new and brilliant phase\".", "On March 13, 1953, Sinatra met with Capitol Records vice president Alan Livingston and signed a seven-year recording contract.", "His first session for Capitol took place at KHJ studios at Studio C, 5515 Melrose Avenue in Los Angeles, with Axel Stordahl conducting.", "The session produced four recordings, including \"I'm Walking Behind You\", Sinatra's first Capitol single.", "After spending two weeks on location in Hawaii filming ''From Here to Eternity'', Sinatra returned to KHJ on April 30 for his first recording session with Nelson Riddle, an established arranger and conductor at Capitol who was Nat King Cole's musical director.", "After recording the first song, \"I've Got the World on a String\", Sinatra offered Riddle a rare expression of praise, \"Beautiful!", "\", and after listening to the playbacks, he could not hide his enthusiasm, exclaiming, \"I'm back, baby, I'm back!", "\"Sinatra in 1957 publicity shotIn subsequent sessions in May and November 1953, Sinatra and Riddle developed and refined their musical collaboration, with Sinatra providing specific guidance on the arrangements.", "Sinatra's first album for Capitol, ''Songs for Young Lovers'', was released on January 4, 1954, and included \"A Foggy Day\", \"I Get a Kick Out of You\", \"My Funny Valentine\", \"Violets for Your Furs\" and \"They Can't Take That Away from Me\", songs which became staples of his later concerts.", "That same month, Sinatra released the single \"Young at Heart\", which reached No.", "2 and was awarded Song of the Year.", "In March, he recorded and released the single \"Three Coins in the Fountain\", a \"powerful ballad\" that reached No.", "4.Sinatra's second album with Riddle, ''Swing Easy!", "'', which reflected his \"love for the jazz idiom\" according to Granata, was released on August 2 of that year and included \"Just One of Those Things\", \"Taking a Chance on Love\", \"Get Happy\", and \"All of Me\".", "''Swing Easy!''", "was named Album of the Year by ''Billboard'', and he was named \"Favorite Male Vocalist\" by ''Billboard'', ''DownBeat'', and ''Metronome'' that year.", "Sinatra came to consider Riddle \"the greatest arranger in the world\", and Riddle, who considered Sinatra \"a perfectionist\", offered equal praise of the singer, observing, \"It's not only that his intuitions as to tempo, phrasing, and even configuration are amazingly right, but his taste is so impeccable... there is still no one who can approach him.", "\"Sinatra recording at Capitol Studios, In 1955 Sinatra released ''In the Wee Small Hours'', his first 12\" LP, featuring songs such as \"In the Wee Small Hours of the Morning\", \"Mood Indigo\", \"Glad to Be Unhappy\" and \"When Your Lover Has Gone\".", "According to Granata it was the first concept album of his to make a \"single persuasive statement\", with an extended program and \"melancholy mood\".", "Sinatra embarked on his first tour of Australia the same year.", "Another collaboration with Riddle resulted in ''Songs for Swingin' Lovers!", "'', sometimes seen as one of his best albums, which was released in March 1956.It features a recording of \"I've Got You Under My Skin\" by Cole Porter, which reportedly took 22 takes to perfect.His February 1956 recording sessions inaugurated the studios at the Capitol Records Building, complete with a 56-piece symphonic orchestra.", "According to Granata his recordings of \"Night and Day\", \"Oh!", "Look at Me Now\" and \"From This Moment On\" revealed \"powerful sexual overtones, stunningly achieved through the mounting tension and release of Sinatra's best-teasing vocal lines\", while his recording of \"River, Stay 'Way from My Door\" in April demonstrated his \"brilliance as a syncopational improviser\".", "Riddle said that Sinatra took \"particular delight\" in singing \"The Lady is a Tramp\", commenting that he \"always sang that song with a certain amount of salaciousness\", making \"cue tricks\" with the lyrics.", "His penchant for conducting was displayed again in 1956's ''Frank Sinatra Conducts Tone Poems of Color'', an instrumental album that has been interpreted to be a catharsis to his failed relationship with Gardner.", "Also that year, Sinatra sang at the Democratic National Convention, and performed with The Dorsey Brothers for a week soon afterwards at the Paramount Theatre.Pal Joey''In 1957, Sinatra released ''Close to You'', ''A Swingin' Affair!''", "and ''Where Are You?", "''—his first album in stereo, with Gordon Jenkins.", "Granata considers \"Close to You\" to have been thematically his closest concept album to perfection during the \"golden\" era, and Nelson Riddle's finest work, which was \"extremely progressive\" by the standards of the day.", "It is structured like a three-act play, each commencing with the songs \"With Every Breath I Take\", \"Blame It on My Youth\" and \"It Could Happen to You\".", "For Granata, Sinatra's ''A Swingin' Affair!''", "and ''Songs for Swingin' Lovers!''", "solidified \"Sinatra's image as a 'swinger', from both a musical and visual standpoint\".", "Buddy Collette considered the swing albums to have been heavily influenced by Sammy Davis Jr. and stated that when he worked with Sinatra in the mid-1960s he approached a song much differently than he had done in the early 1950s.", "On June 9, 1957, he performed in a 62-minute concert conducted by Riddle at the Seattle Civic Auditorium, his first appearance in Seattle since 1945.The recording was first released as a bootleg, but Artanis Entertainment Group officially released it as ''Sinatra '57 in Concert'' in 1999, after Sinatra's death.", "In 1958 Sinatra released the concept album ''Come Fly with Me'' with Billy May, designed as a musical world tour.", "It reached the top spot on the ''Billboard'' album chart in its second week, remaining at the top for five weeks, and was nominated for the Grammy Award for Album of the Year at the inaugural Grammy Awards.", "The title song, \"Come Fly With Me\", written especially for him, would become one of his best-known standards.", "On May 29 he recorded seven songs in a single session, more than double the usual yield of a recording session, and an eighth, \"Lush Life\", was abandoned as Sinatra found it too technically demanding.", "In September, Sinatra released ''Frank Sinatra Sings for Only the Lonely'', a stark collection of introspective saloon songs and blues-tinged ballads which proved a huge commercial success, spending 120 weeks on ''Billboard''s album chart and peaking at No.1.Cuts from this LP, such as \"Angel Eyes\" and \"One for My Baby (and One More for the Road)\", would remain staples of the \"saloon song\" segments of Sinatra's concerts.Sinatra in ''Pal Joey'' (1957)In 1959, Sinatra released ''Come Dance with Me!", "'', a highly successful, critically acclaimed album which stayed on ''Billboard''s Pop album chart for 140 weeks, peaking at No.", "2.It won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year, as well as Best Vocal Performance, Male and Best Arrangement for Billy May.", "He released ''No One Cares'' in the same year, a collection of \"brooding, lonely\" torch songs, which critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine thought was \"nearly as good as its predecessor ''Where Are You?", "'', but lacked the \"lush\" arrangements of it and the \"grandiose melancholy\" of ''Only the Lonely''.In the words of Kelley, by 1959, Sinatra was \"not simply the leader of the Rat Pack\" but had \"assumed the position of ''il padrone'' in Hollywood\".", "He was asked by 20th Century Fox to be the master of ceremonies at a luncheon attended by Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev on September 19, 1959.", "''Nice 'n' Easy'', a collection of ballads, topped the ''Billboard'' chart in October 1960 and remained in the charts for 86 weeks, winning critical plaudits.=== 1960–1969: Reprise years ===Sinatra grew discontented at Capitol, and fell into a feud with Alan Livingston, which lasted over six months.", "His first attempt at owning his own label was with his pursuit of buying declining jazz label Verve Records, which ended once an initial agreement with Verve founder Norman Granz \"failed to materialize\".", "He decided to form his own label, Reprise Records, and, in an effort to assert his new direction, temporarily parted with Riddle, May and Jenkins, working with other arrangers such as Neil Hefti, Don Costa, and Quincy Jones.", "Sinatra built the appeal of Reprise Records as one in which artists were promised creative control, as well as a guarantee that they would eventually gain \"complete ownership of their work, including publishing rights.\"", "Under Sinatra the company developed into a music industry \"powerhouse\", and he later sold it for an estimated $80million.", "His first album on the label, ''Ring-a-Ding-Ding!''", "(1961), was a major success, peaking at No.4 on ''Billboard''.", "The album was released in February 1961, the same month that Reprise Records released Ben Webster's ''The Warm Moods'', Sammy Davis Jr.'s ''The Wham of Sam'', Mavis River's ''Mavis'' and Joe E. Lewis's ''It is Now Post Time''.", "During the initial years of Reprise, Sinatra was still under contract to record for Capitol, completing his contractual commitment with the release of ''Point of No Return,'' recorded on September 11 and 12, 1961.Sinatra with Dean Martin and Judy Garland in 1962In 1962, Sinatra released ''Sinatra and Strings'', a set of standard ballads arranged by Don Costa, which became one of the most critically acclaimed works of Sinatra's Reprise period.", "Frank Jr., who was present during the recording, noted the \"huge orchestra\", which Nancy Sinatra stated \"opened a whole new era\" in pop music, with orchestras getting bigger, embracing a \"lush string sound\".", "Sinatra and Count Basie collaborated for the album ''Sinatra-Basie'' the same year, a popular and successful release which prompted them to rejoin two years later for the follow-up ''It Might as Well Be Swing'', arranged by Quincy Jones.", "The two became frequent performers together, and appeared at the Newport Jazz Festival in 1965.Also in 1962, as the owner of his own record label, Sinatra was able to step on the podium as conductor again, releasing his third instrumental album ''Frank Sinatra Conducts Music from Pictures and Plays''.In 1963, Sinatra reunited with Nelson Riddle for ''The Concert Sinatra'', an ambitious album featuring a 73-piece symphony orchestra arranged and conducted by Riddle.", "The concert was recorded on a motion picture scoring soundstage with the use of multiple synchronized recording machines that employed an optical signal onto 35mm film designed for movie soundtracks.", "Granata considers the album to have been \"impeachable\" sic, \"one of the very best of the Sinatra-Riddle ballad albums\", in which Sinatra displayed his vocal range, particularly in \"Ol' Man River\", in which he darkened the hue.In 1964 the song \"My Kind of Town\" was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song.", "Sinatra released ''Softly, as I Leave You'', and collaborated with Bing Crosby and Fred Waring on ''America, I Hear You Singing'', a collection of patriotic songs recorded as a tribute to the assassinated President John F. Kennedy.", "Sinatra increasingly became involved in charitable pursuits in this period.", "In 1961 and 1962 he went to Mexico to put on performances for Mexican charities, and in July 1964 he was present for the dedication of the Frank Sinatra International Youth Center for Arab and Jewish children in Nazareth.Sinatra's phenomenal success in 1965, coinciding with his 50th birthday, prompted ''Billboard'' to proclaim that he may have reached the \"peak of his eminence\".", "In June 1965, Sinatra, Sammy Davis Jr., and Dean Martin played live in St. Louis to benefit Dismas House, a prisoner rehabilitation and training center with nationwide programs that in particular helped serve black Americans.", "The Rat Pack concert, called The Frank Sinatra Spectacular, was broadcast live via satellite to numerous movie theaters across America.", "The album ''September of My Years'' was released September 1965, and went on to win the Grammy Award for best album of the year.", "Granata considers the album to have been one of the finest of his Reprise years, \"a reflective throwback to the concept records of the 1950s, and more than any of those collections, distills everything that Frank Sinatra had ever learned or experienced as a vocalist\".", "One of the album's singles, \"It Was a Very Good Year\", won the Grammy Award for Best Vocal Performance, Male.", "A career anthology, ''A Man and His Music'', followed in November, winning Album of the Year at the Grammys the following year.In 1966 Sinatra released ''That's Life'', with both the single of \"That's Life\" and album becoming Top Ten hits on ''Billboard''s pop charts.", "''Strangers in the Night'' went on to top the ''Billboard'' and UK pop singles charts, winning the award for Record of the Year at the Grammys.", "Sinatra's first live album, ''Sinatra at the Sands'', was recorded during January and February 1966 at the Sands Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas.", "Sinatra was backed by the Count Basie Orchestra, with Quincy Jones conducting.", "Sinatra pulled out from the Sands the following year, when he was driven out by its new owner Howard Hughes, after a fight.Sinatra with Jill St. John in ''Tony Rome'' (1967)Sinatra started 1967 with a series of recording sessions with Antônio Carlos Jobim.", "He recorded one of his collaborations with Jobim, the Grammy-nominated album ''Francis Albert Sinatra & Antônio Carlos Jobim'', which was one of the best-selling albums of the year, behind the Beatles's ''Sgt.", "Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band''.", "According to Santopietro the album \"consists of an extraordinarily effective blend of bossa nova and slightly swinging jazz vocals, and succeeds in creating an unbroken mood of romance and regret\".", "Writer Stan Cornyn wrote that Sinatra sang so softly on the album that it was comparable to the time that he suffered from a vocal hemorrhage in 1950.Sinatra released the album ''The World We Knew'', which features a chart-topping duet of \"Somethin' Stupid\" with daughter Nancy.", "In December, Sinatra collaborated with Duke Ellington on the album ''Francis A.", "& Edward K.''.", "According to Granata, the recording of \"Indian Summer\" on the album was a favorite of Riddle's, noting the \"contemplative mood which is heightened by a Johnny Hodges alto sax solo that will bring a tear to your eye\".", "With Sinatra in mind, singer-songwriter Paul Anka wrote the song \"My Way\", using the melody of the French \"Comme d'habitude\" (\"As Usual\"), composed by Claude François and Jacques Revaux.", "Sinatra recorded it in one take, just after Christmas 1968.", "\"My Way\", Sinatra's best-known song on the Reprise label, was not an instant success, charting at No.", "27 in the US and No.", "5 in the UK, but it remained in the UK charts for 122 weeks, including 75 non-consecutive weeks in the Top 40, between April 1969 and September 1971, which was still a record in 2015.Sinatra told songwriter Ervin Drake in the 1970s that he \"detested\" singing the song, because he believed audiences would think it was a \"self-aggrandizing tribute\".", "According to NPR, \"My Way\" has become one the most requested songs at funerals.In an effort to maintain his commercial viability in the late 1960s, Sinatra would record works by Paul Simon (\"Mrs. Robinson\"), the Beatles (\"Yesterday\"), and Joni Mitchell (\"Both Sides, Now\") in 1969.=== 1970–1981: \"Retirement\" and return ===Caesars Palace in 1970, where Sinatra performed from 1967 to 1970 and 1973 onwardsIn 1970, Sinatra released ''Watertown'', a critically acclaimed concept album, with music by Bob Gaudio (of the Four Seasons) and lyrics by Jake Holmes.", "However, it sold a mere 30,000 copies that year and reached a peak chart position of 101.He left Caesars Palace in September that year after an incident in which executive Sanford Waterman pulled a gun on him.", "He performed several charity concerts with Count Basie at the Royal Festival Hall in London.", "On November 2, 1970, Sinatra recorded the last songs for Reprise Records before his self-imposed retirement, announced the following June at a concert in Hollywood to raise money for the Motion Picture and TV Relief Fund.", "He gave a \"rousing\" performance of \"That's Life\", and finished the concert with a Matt Dennis and Earl Brent song, \"Angel Eyes\" which he had recorded on the Only The Lonely album in 1958.He sang the last line.", "\"'Scuse me while I disappear.\"", "The spotlight went dark, and he left the stage.", "He told ''LIFE'' journalist Thomas Thompson that \"I've got things to do, like the first thing is not to do at all for eight months... maybe a year\", while Barbara Sinatra later said that Sinatra had grown \"tired of entertaining people, especially when all they really wanted were the same old tunes he had long ago become bored by\".", "Around this time, Sinatra designed ''Villa Maggio'', a holiday home and retreat near Palm Desert.", "While he was in retirement, President Richard Nixon asked him to perform at a Young Voters Rally in anticipation of the upcoming campaign.", "Sinatra obliged and chose to sing \"My Kind of Town\" for the rally held in Chicago on October 20, 1972.Sinatra with President Richard Nixon and Italian Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti in 1973In 1973, Sinatra came out of his short-lived retirement with a television special and album.", "The album, entitled ''Ol' Blue Eyes Is Back'', arranged by Gordon Jenkins and Don Costa, was a success, reaching number 13 on ''Billboard'' and number 12 in the UK.", "The television special, ''Magnavox Presents Frank Sinatra'', reunited Sinatra with Gene Kelly.", "He initially developed problems with his vocal cords during the comeback due to a prolonged period without singing.", "That Christmas he performed at the Sahara Hotel in Las Vegas, and returned to Caesars Palace the following month in January 1974.He began what Barbara Sinatra describes as a \"massive comeback tour of the United States, Europe, the Far East and Australia\".", "In July, while on a second tour of Australia, he caused an uproar by describing journalists there– who were aggressively pursuing his every move and pushing for a press conference– as \"bums, parasites, fags, and buck-and-a-half hookers\".", "After he was pressured to apologize, Sinatra instead insisted that the journalists apologize for \"fifteen years of abuse I have taken from the world press\".", "Union actions cancelled concerts and grounded Sinatra's plane, essentially trapping him in Australia.", "Sinatra's lawyer, Mickey Rudin, arranged for Sinatra to issue a written conciliatory note and a final concert that was televised to the nation.", "In October 1974 he appeared at New York City's Madison Square Garden in a televised concert that was later released as an album under the title ''The Main Event – Live''.", "Backing him was bandleader Woody Herman and the Young Thundering Herd, who accompanied Sinatra on a European tour later that month.In 1975, Sinatra performed in concerts in New York with Count Basie and Ella Fitzgerald, and at the London Palladium with Basie and Sarah Vaughan, and in Tehran at Aryamehr Stadium, giving 140 performances in 105 days.", "In August he held several concerts at Lake Tahoe together with the newly-risen singer John Denver, who became a frequent collaborator.", "Sinatra had recorded Denver's \"Leaving on a Jet Plane\" and \"My Sweet Lady\" for ''Sinatra & Company'' (1971), and according to Denver, his song \"A Baby Just Like You\" was written at Sinatra's request for his new grandchild, Angela.", "During the Labor Day weekend held in 1976, Sinatra was responsible for reuniting old friends and comedy partners Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis for the first time in nearly twenty years, when they performed at the \"Jerry Lewis MDA Telethon\".", "That year, the Friars Club selected him as the \"Top Box Office Name of the Century\", and he was given the Scopus Award by the American Friends of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in Israel and an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from the University of Nevada.Sinatra continued to perform at Caesars Palace in the late 1970s, and was performing there in January 1977 when his mother Dolly died in a plane crash on the way to see him.", "He cancelled two weeks of shows and spent time recovering from the shock in Barbados.", "In March, he performed in front of Princess Margaret at the Royal Albert Hall in London, raising money for the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children.", "On March 14, he recorded with Nelson Riddle for the last time, recording the songs \"Linda\", \"Sweet Loraine\", and \"Barbara\".", "The two men had a major falling out, and later patched up their differences in January 1985 at a dinner organized for Ronald Reagan, when Sinatra asked Riddle to make another album with him.", "Riddle was ill at the time, and died that October, before they had a chance to record.In 1978, Sinatra filed a $1million lawsuit against a land developer for using his name in the \"Frank Sinatra Drive Center\" in West Los Angeles.", "During a party at Caesars in 1979, he was awarded the Grammy Trustees Award, while celebrating 40 years in show business and his 64th birthday.", "That year, former President Gerald Ford awarded Sinatra the International Man of the Year Award, and he performed in front of the Egyptian pyramids for Anwar Sadat, which raised more than $500,000 for Sadat's wife's charities.In 1980, Sinatra's first album in six years was released, ''Trilogy: Past Present Future'', a highly ambitious triple album that features an array of songs from both the pre-rock era and rock era.", "It was the first studio album of Sinatra's to feature his touring pianist at the time, Vinnie Falcone, and was based on an idea by Sonny Burke.", "The album garnered six Grammy nominations– winning for best liner notes– and peaked at number 17 on ''Billboard''s album chart, and spawned yet another song that would become a signature tune, \"Theme from New York, New York\".", "That year, as part of the Concert of the Americas, he performed in the Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which broke records for the \"largest live paid audience ever recorded for a solo performer\".", "The following year, Sinatra built on the success of ''Trilogy'' with ''She Shot Me Down'', an album that was praised for embodying the dark tone of his Capitol years.", "Also in 1981, Sinatra was embroiled in controversy when he worked a 10-day engagement for $2million in Sun City, in the internationally unrecognized Bophuthatswana, breaking a cultural boycott against apartheid-era South Africa.", "President Lucas Mangope awarded Sinatra with the highest honor, the Order of the Leopard, and made him an honorary tribal chief.=== 1982–1998: Later career and final projects ===Sinatra signed a $16million three-year deal with the Golden Nugget Las Vegas in 1982.Handprint of Sinatra.", "Atlantic City Boardwalk, New Jersey, US, 2006Santopietro stated that by the early 1980s, Sinatra's voice had \"coarsened, losing much of its power and flexibility, but audiences didn't care\".", "In 1982, he signed a $16million three-year deal with the Golden Nugget of Las Vegas.", "Kelley notes that by this period Sinatra's voice had grown \"darker, tougher and loamier\", but he \"continued to captivate audiences with his immutable magic\".", "She added that his baritone voice \"sometimes cracked, but the gliding intonations still aroused the same raptures of delight as they had at the Paramount Theater\".", "That year he made a reported further $1.3million from the Showtime television rights to his \"Concert of the Americas\" in the Dominican Republic, $1.6million for a concert series at Carnegie Hall, and $250,000 in just one evening at the Chicago Fest.", "He donated a lot of his earnings to charity.", "He put on a performance at the White House for the Italian prime minister, and performed at the Radio City Music Hall with Luciano Pavarotti and George Shearing.Sinatra was honored at 1983 Kennedy Center Honors, alongside Katherine Dunham, James Stewart, Elia Kazan, and Virgil Thomson.", "Quoting Henry James, President Reagan said in honoring his old friend that \"art was the shadow of humanity\" and that Sinatra had \"spent his life casting a magnificent and powerful shadow\".", "On September 21, 1983, Sinatra filed a $2million court case against Kitty Kelley, suing her for punitive damages, before her unofficial biography, ''His Way'', was even published.", "The book became a best-seller for \"all the wrong reasons\" and \"the most eye-opening celebrity biography of our time\", according to William Safire of ''The New York Times''.", "Sinatra was always adamant that such a book would be written on his terms, and he himself would \"set the record straight\" in details of his life.", "According to Kelley, the family detested her and the book, which took its toll on Sinatra's health.", "Kelley says that Tina Sinatra blamed her for her father's colon surgery in 1986.He was forced to drop the case on September 19, 1984, with several leading newspapers expressing concerns about censorship.In 1984, Sinatra worked with Quincy Jones for the first time in nearly two decades on the album, ''L.A.", "Is My Lady'', which was well received critically.", "The album was a substitute for another Jones project, an album of duets with Lena Horne, which had to be abandoned.", "In 1986, Sinatra collapsed on stage while performing in Atlantic City and was hospitalized for diverticulitis, which left him looking frail.", "Two years later, Sinatra reunited with Martin and Davis and went on the Rat Pack Reunion Tour, during which they played many large arenas.", "When Martin dropped out of the tour early on, a rift developed between them and the two never spoke again.On June 6, 1988, Sinatra made his last recordings with Reprise for an album which was not released.", "He recorded \"My Foolish Heart\", \"Cry Me a River\", and other songs.", "Sinatra never completed the project, but take number 18 of \"My Foolish Heart\" may be heard in ''The Complete Reprise Studio Recordings'' (1995).Brendan Grace and Sinatra in 1991In 1990, Sinatra was awarded the second \"Ella Award\" by the Los Angeles-based Society of Singers, and performed for a final time with Ella Fitzgerald at the award ceremony.", "Sinatra maintained an active touring schedule in the early 1990s, performing 65 concerts in 1990, 73 in 1991 and 84 in 1992 in seventeen different countries.In 1993, Sinatra returned to Capitol Records and the recording studio for ''Duets'', which became his best-selling album.", "The album and its sequel, ''Duets II'', released the following year, would see Sinatra remake his classic recordings with popular contemporary performers, who added their vocals to a pre-recorded tape.During his tours in the early 1990s, his memory failed him at times during concerts, and he fainted onstage in Richmond, Virginia, in March 1994.His final public concerts were held in Fukuoka Dome in Japan on December 19–20, 1994.The following year, Sinatra sang for the last time on February 25, 1995, before a live audience of 1200 select guests at the Palm Desert Marriott Ballroom, on the closing night of the Frank Sinatra Desert Classic golf tournament.", "''Esquire'' reported of the show that Sinatra was \"clear, tough, on the money\" and \"in absolute control\".", "Sinatra was awarded the Legend Award at the 1994 Grammy Awards, where he was introduced by Bono, who said of him, \"Frank's the chairman of the bad attitude... Rock 'n roll plays at being tough, but this guy is the boss– the chairman of boss\".In 1995, to mark Sinatra's 80th birthday, the Empire State Building glowed blue.", "A star-studded birthday tribute, ''Sinatra: 80 Years My Way'', was held at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles, featuring performers such as Ray Charles, Little Richard, Natalie Cole and Salt-N-Pepa singing his songs.", "At the end of the program Sinatra performed on stage for the last time to sing the final notes of the \"Theme from New York, New York\" with an ensemble.", "In recognition of his many years of association with Las Vegas, Sinatra was elected to the Gaming Hall of Fame in 1997." ], [ "Artistry", "Sinatra with Axel Stordahl at the Liederkrantz Hall in New York, While Sinatra never learned how to read music well, he had a natural understanding of it, and he worked very hard from a young age to improve his abilities in all aspects of music.", "He could follow a lead sheet (simplified sheet music showing a song's basic structure) during a performance by \"carefully following the patterns and groupings of notes arranged on the page\" and made his own notations to the music, using his ear to detect semitonal differences.", "Granata states that some of the most accomplished classically trained musicians soon noticed his musical understanding, and remarked that Sinatra had a \"sixth sense\", which \"demonstrated unusual proficiency when it came to detecting incorrect notes and sounds within the orchestra\".", "Sinatra was an aficionado of classical music, and would often request classical strains in his music, inspired by composers such as Puccini and Impressionist masters.", "His personal favorite was Ralph Vaughan Williams.", "He would insist on always recording live with the band because it gave him a \"certain feeling\" to perform live surrounded by musicians.By the mid-1940s, such was his understanding of music that after hearing an air check of some compositions by Alec Wilder which were for strings and woodwinds, he became the conductor at Columbia Records for six of Wilder's compositions.", "The works were considered by Wilder to have been among the finest renditions and recordings of his compositions, past or present.", "Critic Gene Lees, a lyricist and the author of the words to the Jobim melody \"This Happy Madness\", expressed amazement when he heard Sinatra's recording of it on ''Sinatra & Company'' (1971), considering him to have delivered the lyrics to perfection.Voice coach John Quinlan was impressed by Sinatra's vocal range, remarking, \"He has far more voice than people think he has.", "He can vocalize to a B-flat on top in full voice, and he doesn't need a mic either\".", "As a singer, early on he was primarily influenced by Bing Crosby, but later believed that Tony Bennett was \"the best singer in the business\".", "Bennett himself claimed that as a performer, Sinatra had \"perfected the art of intimacy.\"", "According to Nelson Riddle, Sinatra had a \"fairly rangy voice\", remarking that \"His voice has a very strident, insistent sound in the top register, a smooth lyrical sound in the middle register, and a very tender sound in the low.", "His voice is built on infinite taste, with an overall inflection of sex.", "He points everything he does from a sexual standpoint\".", "Despite his heavy New Jersey accent, when Sinatra sang his accent was barely detectable; according to Richard Schuller, his diction became \"precise\" while singing, and his articulation \"meticulous\".", "His timing was impeccable, allowing him, according to Charles L. Granata, to \"toy with the rhythm of a melody, bringing tremendous excitement to his reading of a lyric\".", "Tommy Dorsey observed that Sinatra would \"take a musical phrase and play it all the way through seemingly without breathing for eight, ten, maybe sixteen bars\".", "Dorsey was a considerable influence on Sinatra's techniques for his vocal phrasing with his own exceptional breath control on the trombone, and Sinatra regularly swam and held his breath underwater, thinking of song lyrics to increase his breathing power.Arrangers such as Nelson Riddle and Anthony Fanzo found Sinatra to be a perfectionist who constantly drove himself and others around him, stating that his collaborators approached him with a sense of uneasiness because of his unpredictable and often volatile temperament.", "Granata comments that Sinatra was almost fanatically obsessed with perfection to the point that people began wondering if he was genuinely concerned about the music or showing off his power over others.", "On days when he felt that his voice was not right, he would know after only a few notes and would postpone the recording session until the following day, yet still pay his musicians.", "After a period of performing, Sinatra tired of singing a certain set of songs and was always looking for talented new songwriters and composers to work with.", "Once he found ones that he liked, he actively sought to work with them as often as he could and made friends with many of them.", "Over the years he recorded 87 of Sammy Cahn's songs, of which 24 were composed by Jule Styne, and 43 by Jimmy Van Heusen.", "The Cahn-Styne partnership lasted from 1942 until 1954 when Van Heusen succeeded him as Sinatra's main composer.Unlike many of his contemporaries, Sinatra insisted upon direct input regarding arrangements and tempos for his recordings.", "He would spend weeks thinking about the songs he wanted to record and would keep an arranger in mind for each song.", "Barbara Sinatra notes that Sinatra would almost always credit the songwriter at the end of each number, and would often make comments to the audience, such as \"Isn't that a pretty ballad\" or \"Don't you think that's the most marvelous love song\", delivered with \"childlike delight\".", "She states that after each show, Sinatra would be \"in a buoyant, electrically charged mood, a post-show high that would take him hours to come down from as he quietly relived every note of the performance he'd just given\".Sinatra's split with Gardner in the fall of 1953 had a profound impact on the types of songs he sang and on his voice.", "He began to console himself in songs with a \"brooding melancholy\", such as \"I'm a Fool to Want You\", \"Don't Worry 'Bout Me\", \"My One and Only Love\" and \"There Will Never Be Another You\", which Riddle believed was the direct influence of Ava Gardner.", "Lahr comments that the new Sinatra was \"not the gentle boy balladeer of the forties.", "Fragility had gone from his voice, to be replaced by a virile adult's sense of happiness and hurt\".", "Author Granata considered Sinatra a \"master of the art of recording\", noting that his work in the studio \"set him apart from other gifted vocalists\".", "During his career, he made over 1000 recordings.", "Recording sessions would typically last three hours, though Sinatra would always prepare for them by spending at least an hour by the piano beforehand to vocalize, followed by a short rehearsal with the orchestra to ensure the balance of sound.", "During his Columbia years Sinatra used an RCA 44 microphone, which Granata describes as \"the 'old-fashioned' microphone which is closely associated with Sinatra's crooner image of the 1940s\".", "At Capitol he used a Neumann U47, an \"ultra-sensitive\" microphone that better captured the timbre and tone of his voice.In the 1950s, Sinatra's career was facilitated by developments in technology.", "Up to sixteen songs could now be held by the twelve-inch L.P., and this allowed Sinatra to use song in a novelistic way, turning each track into a kind of chapter, which built and counterpointed moods to illuminate a larger theme\".", "Santopietro writes that through the 1950s and well into the 1960s, \"Every Sinatra LP was a masterpiece of one sort of another, whether uptempo, torch song, or swingin' affairs.", "Track after track, the brilliant concept albums redefined the nature of pop vocal art\"." ], [ "Film career", "=== 1941–1952: Debut, musical films, and career slump ===Sinatra attempted to pursue an acting career in Hollywood in the early 1940s.", "While films appealed to him, being exceptionally self-confident, he was rarely enthusiastic about his own acting, once remarking that \"pictures stink\".", "Sinatra made his film debut performing in an uncredited sequence in ''Las Vegas Nights'' (1941), singing \"I'll Never Smile Again\" with Tommy Dorsey's Pied Pipers.", "He had a cameo role along with Duke Ellington and Count Basie in Charles Barton's ''Reveille with Beverly'' (1943), making a brief appearance singing \"Night and Day\".", "Next, he was given leading roles in ''Higher and Higher'' and ''Step Lively'' (both 1944) for RKO.Sinatra and Gene Kelly in ''Anchors Aweigh'' (1945)Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cast Sinatra opposite Gene Kelly and Kathryn Grayson in the Technicolor musical ''Anchors Aweigh'' (1945), in which he played a sailor on leave in Hollywood.", "A major success, it garnered several Academy Award wins and nominations, and the song \"I Fall in Love Too Easily\", sung by Sinatra in the film, was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song.", "He briefly appeared at the end of Richard Whorf's commercially successful ''Till the Clouds Roll By'' (1946), a Technicolor musical biopic of Jerome Kern, in which he sang \"Ol' Man River\".Sinatra co-starred again with Gene Kelly in the Technicolor musical ''Take Me Out to the Ball Game'' (1949), in which Sinatra and Kelly play baseball players who are part-time vaudevillians.", "He teamed up with Kelly for a third time in ''On the Town'' (1949), playing a sailor on leave in New York City.", "The film remains rated very highly by critics, and in 2006 it ranked No.", "19 on the American Film Institute's list of best musicals.", "Both ''Double Dynamite'' (1951), an RKO Irving Cummings comedy produced by Howard Hughes, and Joseph Pevney's ''Meet Danny Wilson'' (1952) failed to make an impression.=== 1953–1959: Career comeback and prime ===Fred Zinnemann's ''From Here to Eternity'' (1953) deals with the tribulations of three soldiers, played by Burt Lancaster, Montgomery Clift, and Sinatra, stationed on Hawaii in the months leading up to the attack on Pearl Harbor.", "Sinatra had long been desperate to find a film role which would bring him back into the spotlight, and Columbia Pictures boss Harry Cohn had been inundated by appeals from people across Hollywood to give Sinatra a chance to star as \"Maggio\" in the film.", "During production, Montgomery Clift became a close friend, and Sinatra later professed that he \"learned more about acting from him than anybody I ever knew before\".", "After several years of critical and commercial decline, his Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor win helped him regain his position as the top recording artist in the world.", "His performance also won a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture.", "The ''Los Angeles Examiner'' wrote that Sinatra is \"simply superb, comical, pitiful, childishly brave, pathetically defiant\", commenting that his death scene is \"one of the best ever photographed\".Sinatra starred opposite Doris Day in the musical film ''Young at Heart'' (1954), and earned critical praise for his performance as a psychopathic killer posing as an FBI agent opposite Sterling Hayden in the film noir ''Suddenly'' (1954).Sinatra was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor and BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role for his role as a heroin addict in ''The Man with the Golden Arm'' (1955).", "After roles in ''Guys and Dolls'', and ''The Tender Trap'' (both 1955), Sinatra was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role for his role as a medical student in Stanley Kramer's directorial début, ''Not as a Stranger'' (1955).", "During production, Sinatra got drunk with Robert Mitchum and Broderick Crawford and trashed Kramer's dressing room.", "Kramer vowed at the time to never hire Sinatra again, and later regretted casting him as a Spanish guerrilla leader in ''The Pride and the Passion'' (1957).Sinatra with Grace Kelly on the set of ''High Society'' (1956)Sinatra featured alongside Bing Crosby and Grace Kelly in ''High Society'' (1956) for MGM, earning a reported $250,000 for the picture.", "The public rushed to the cinemas to see Sinatra and Crosby together on-screen, and it ended up earning over $13million at the box office, becoming one of the highest-grossing pictures of its year.", "He starred opposite Rita Hayworth and Kim Novak in George Sidney's ''Pal Joey'' (1957), Sinatra, for which he won for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy.", "Santopietro considers the scene in which Sinatra sings \"The Lady Is a Tramp\" to Hayworth to have been the finest moment of his film career.", "He next portrayed comedian Joe E. Lewis in ''The Joker Is Wild'' (1957); the song \"All the Way\" won the Academy Award for Best Original Song.", "By 1958, Sinatra was one of the ten biggest box office draws in the United States, appearing with Dean Martin and Shirley MacLaine in Vincente Minnelli's ''Some Came Running'' and ''Kings Go Forth'' (both 1958) with Tony Curtis and Natalie Wood.", "\"High Hopes\", sung by Sinatra in the Frank Capra comedy, ''A Hole in the Head'' (1959), won the Academy Award for Best Original Song, and became a chart hit, lasting on the Hot 100 for 17 weeks.=== 1960–1980: Later career ===Sinatra leaving his signature in concrete at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood, California on July 21, 1965Due to an obligation he owed to 20th Century Fox for walking off the set of Henry King's ''Carousel'' (1956), Sinatra starred opposite Shirley MacLaine, Maurice Chevalier and Louis Jourdan in ''Can-Can'' (1960).", "He earned $200,000 and 25% of the profits for the performance.", "Around the same time, he starred in the Las Vegas-set ''Ocean's 11'' (1960), the first film to feature the Rat Pack together and the start of a \"new era of screen cool\" for Santopietro.", "Sinatra personally financed the film, and paid Martin and Davis fees of $150,000 and $125,000 respectively, sums considered exorbitant for the period.", "He had a leading role opposite Laurence Harvey in ''The Manchurian Candidate'' (1962), which he considered to be the role he was most excited about and the high point of his film career.", "Vincent Canby, writing for the magazine ''Variety'', found the portrayal of Sinatra's character to be \"a wide-awake pro creating a straight, quietly humorous character of some sensitivity.\"", "He appeared with the Rat Pack in the western ''Sergeants 3'' (1962), and again in the 1964 gangster-oriented musical ''Robin and the 7 Hoods''.", "For his performance in ''Come Blow Your Horn'' (1963) adapted from the Neil Simon play, he was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor– Motion Picture Musical or Comedy.Sinatra in ''Tony Rome'' (1967)Sinatra directed ''None but the Brave'' (1965), and ''Von Ryan's Express'' (1965) was a major success.", "In the late 1960s, Sinatra became known for playing detectives, including Tony Rome in ''Tony Rome'' (1967) and its sequel ''Lady in Cement'' (1968).", "He played a similar role in ''The Detective'' (1968).Sinatra starred opposite George Kennedy in the western ''Dirty Dingus Magee'' (1970), an \"abysmal\" affair according to Santopietro, which was panned by the critics.", "The following year, Sinatra received a Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award and had intended to play Detective Harry Callahan in ''Dirty Harry'' (1971), but had to turn down the role due to developing Dupuytren's contracture in his hand.", "Sinatra's last major film role was opposite Faye Dunaway in Brian G. Hutton's ''The First Deadly Sin'' (1980).", "Santopietro said that as a troubled New York City homicide cop, Sinatra gave an \"extraordinarily rich\", heavily layered characterization, one which \"made for one terrific farewell\" to his film career." ], [ "Television and radio career", "Sinatra on CBS Radio in 1944After beginning on the ''Major Bowes Amateur Hour'' radio show with the Hoboken Four in 1935, and later WNEW and WAAT in Jersey City, Sinatra became the star of radio shows of his own on NBC and CBS from the early 1940s to the mid-1950s.", "In 1942, Sinatra hired arranger Axel Stordahl away from Tommy Dorsey before he began his first radio program that year, keeping Stordahl with him for all of his radio work.", "By the end of 1942, he was named the \"Most Popular Male Vocalist on Radio\" in a ''DownBeat'' poll.", "Early on he frequently worked with The Andrews Sisters on radio, and they would appear as guests on each other's shows, as well as on many USO shows broadcast to troops via the Armed Forces Radio Service (AFRS).", "He appeared as a special guest in the sisters' ABC ''Eight-to-the-Bar Ranch'' series, while the trio in turn guested on his ''Songs by Sinatra'' series on CBS.", "Sinatra had two stints as a regular member of cast of ''Your Hit Parade''; his first was from 1943 to 1945, and second was from 1946 to May 28, 1949, during which he was paired with the then-new girl singer, Doris Day.", "Starting in September 1949, the BBD&O advertising agency produced a radio series starring Sinatra for Lucky Strike called ''Light Up Time''– some 176 15-minute shows which featured Frank and Dorothy Kirsten singing– which lasted through to May 1950.In October 1951, the second season of ''The Frank Sinatra Show'' began on CBS Television.", "Ultimately, Sinatra did not find the success on television for which he had hoped.", "Santopietro writes that Sinatra \"never appeared fully at ease on his own television series\".", "In 1953 and 1954, Sinatra starred in the NBC radio program ''Rocky Fortune'', portraying Rocco Fortunato (a.k.a.", "Rocky Fortune).Dean Martin with Sinatra on ''The Dean Martin Show'' in 1958In 1957, Sinatra formed a three-year $3million contract with ABC to launch ''The Frank Sinatra Show'', featuring himself and guests in 36 half-hour shows.", "ABC agreed to allow Sinatra's Hobart Productions to keep 60% of the residuals, and bought stock in Sinatra's film production unit, Kent Productions, guaranteeing him $7million.", "Though an initial critical success upon its debut on October 18, 1957, it soon attracted negative reviews from ''Variety'' and ''The New Republic'', and ''The Chicago Sun-Times'' thought that Sinatra and frequent guest Dean Martin \"performed like a pair of adult delinquents\", \"sharing the same cigarette and leering at girls\".", "In return, Sinatra later made numerous appearances on ''The Dean Martin Show'' and Martin's TV specials.Sinatra's fourth and final Timex TV special, ''Welcome Home Elvis'', was broadcast in March 1960, earning massive viewing figures.", "During the show, he performed a duet with Presley, who sang Sinatra's 1957 hit \"Witchcraft\" with the host performing the 1956 Presley classic \"Love Me Tender\".", "Sinatra had previously been highly critical of Elvis Presley and rock and roll in the 1950s, describing it as a \"deplorable, a rancid smelling aphrodisiac\" which \"fosters almost totally negative and destructive reactions in young people.\"", "A CBS News special about the singer's 50th birthday, ''Frank Sinatra: A Man and His Music'', was broadcast on November 16, 1965, and garnered both an Emmy award and a Peabody Award.Continuing his musical collaboration with Jobim and Ella Fitzgerald in 1967, Sinatra appeared in the TV special, ''A Man and His Music + Ella + Jobim'', which was broadcast on CBS on November 13.When Sinatra came out of retirement in 1973, he released both an album and appeared in a TV special named ''Ol' Blue Eyes Is Back''.", "In the late 1970s, John Denver appeared as a guest in the ''Sinatra and Friends'' ABC-TV Special, singing \"September Song\" as a duet.Sinatra starred as a detective in ''Contract on Cherry Street'' (1977), cited as his \"one starring role in a dramatic television film\".", "Ten years later, he made a guest appearance opposite Tom Selleck in ''Magnum, P.I.''.", "Shot in January 1987, the episode aired on CBS on February 25." ], [ "Personal life", "Nancy, Tina, Nancy Barbato and Frank Jr.Sinatra was married to Nancy Sinatra (née Barbato) from 1939 to 1951.The couple had three children, Nancy (born 1940), Frank Jr. (1944–2016) and Tina (born 1948).Sinatra met Barbato in Long Branch, New Jersey, in the summer of 1934 while working as a lifeguard.", "He agreed to marry her after an incident at \"The Rustic Cabin\" that led to his arrest.", "Sinatra had numerous extramarital affairs, and gossip magazines published details of affairs with women including Marilyn Maxwell, Lana Turner, Joi Lansing, and Marilyn Monroe.Sinatra was married to Hollywood actress Ava Gardner from 1951 to 1957.It was a turbulent marriage with many well-publicized fights and altercations.", "The couple formally announced their separation on October 29, 1953, through MGM.", "Gardner filed for divorce in June 1954, at a time when she was dating matador Luis Miguel Dominguín, but the divorce was not settled until 1957.Sinatra continued to feel very strongly for her, and they remained friends for life.Sinatra reportedly broke off engagements to Lauren Bacall in 1958 and Juliet Prowse in 1962.He was romantically linked to Pat Sheehan, Vikki Dougan, and Kipp Hamilton.", "Sinatra and Mia Farrow were married on July 19, 1966, and the couple divorced in Mexico in August 1968.They remained close friends for life, and in a 2013 interview, Farrow said that Sinatra might be the father of her son, Ronan Farrow (born 1987).", "In a 2015 ''CBS Sunday Morning'' interview, Nancy Sinatra dismissed the claim as \"nonsense\".", "She said that her father had a vasectomy years before Farrow's birth.", "Sinatra was married to Barbara Marx from 1976 until his death.", "The couple married on July 11, 1976, at Sunnylands, in Rancho Mirage, California, the estate of media magnate Walter Annenberg.Sinatra was close friends with Jilly Rizzo, songwriter Jimmy Van Heusen, golfer Ken Venturi, comedian Pat Henry, baseball manager Leo Durocher, and president John F. Kennedy (for whom he organized an inaugural ball with Peter Lawford).", "In his spare time, he enjoyed listening to classical music.", "He swam daily in the Pacific Ocean.", "He often played golf with Venturi at the course in Palm Springs, where he lived in the house ''Twin Palms'' he had commissioned from E. Stewart Williams in 1947 He liked painting, reading, and building model railways.Though Sinatra was critical of the church on numerous occasions and had a pantheistic, Einstein-like view of God in his earlier life, he was inducted into the Catholic Sovereign Military Order of Malta in 1976, and he turned to Catholicism for healing after his mother died in a plane crash in 1977.He died as a practicing Catholic and had a Catholic burial.=== Style and personality ===Sinatra was known for his immaculate sense of style.", "He spent lavishly on expensive custom-tailored tuxedos and stylish pin-striped suits, which made him feel wealthy and important, and that he was giving his very best to the audience.", "He was also obsessed with cleanliness—while with the Tommy Dorsey band he developed the nickname \"Lady Macbeth\", because of frequent showering and switching his outfits.", "His deep blue eyes earned him the popular nickname \"Ol' Blue Eyes\".Sinatra in 1955For Santopietro, Sinatra was the personification of America in the 1950s: \"cocky, eye on the main chance, optimistic, and full of the sense of possibility\".", "Barbara Sinatra wrote, \"A big part of Frank's thrill was the sense of danger that he exuded, an underlying, ever-present tension only those closest to him knew could be defused with humor\".", "Cary Grant, a friend of Sinatra, stated that Sinatra was the \"most honest person he'd ever met\", who spoke \"a simple truth, without artifice which scared people\", and was often moved to tears by his performances.", "Jo-Caroll Dennison commented that he possessed \"great inner strength\", and that his energy and drive were \"enormous\".", "A workaholic, he reportedly only slept four hours a night on average.", "Throughout his life, Sinatra had mood swings and bouts of mild to severe depression, stating to an interviewer in the 1950s that \"I have an over-acute capacity for sadness as well as elation\".", "Barbara Sinatra stated that he would \"snap at anyone for the slightest misdemeanor\", while Van Heusen said that when Sinatra got drunk it was \"best to disappear\".Sinatra's mood swings often developed into violence, directed at people he felt had crossed him, particularly journalists who gave him scathing reviews, publicists, and photographers.", "According to Rojek he was \"capable of deeply offensive behavior that smacked of a persecution complex\".", "He received negative press for fights with Lee Mortimer in 1947, photographer Eddie Schisser in Houston in 1950, Judy Garland's publicist Jim Byron on the Sunset Strip in 1954, and for a confrontation with ''Washington Post'' journalist Maxine Cheshire in 1973, in which he implied that she was a cheap prostitute.", "His feud with then-''Chicago Sun Times'' columnist Mike Royko began when Royko wrote a column questioning why Chicago police offered free protection to Sinatra when the singer had his own security.", "Sinatra fired off an angry letter in response calling Royko a \"pimp\", and threatening to \"punch you in the mouth\" for speculating that he wore a toupée.Sinatra was also known for his generosity, particularly after his comeback.", "Kelley notes that when Lee J. Cobb nearly died from a heart attack in June 1955, Sinatra flooded him with \"books, flowers, delicacies\", paid his hospital bills, and visited him daily, telling him that his \"finest acting\" was yet to come.=== Alleged organized-crime links and Cal Neva Lodge ===Mobster Lucky LucianoSinatra became the stereotype of the \"tough working-class Italian American,\" something which he embraced.", "He said that if it had not been for his interest in music, he would have likely ended up in a life of crime.", "Willie Moretti was Sinatra's godfather and the notorious underboss of the Genovese crime family, and he helped Sinatra in exchange for kickbacks and was reported to have intervened in releasing Sinatra from his contract with Tommy Dorsey.", "Sinatra was present at the Mafia Havana Conference in 1946, and the press learned of his being there with Lucky Luciano.", "One newspaper published the headline \"Shame, Sinatra\".", "He was reported to be a good friend of mobster Sam Giancana, Kelley quotes Jo-Carrol Silvers that Sinatra \"adored\" Bugsy Siegel and boasted to friends about him and how many people Siegel had killed.", "Kelley says that Sinatra and mobster Joseph Fischetti had been good friends from 1938 onward and acted like \"Sicilian brothers\".", "She also states that Sinatra and Hank Sanicola were financial partners with Mickey Cohen in the gossip magazine ''Hollywood Night Life''.The FBI kept records amounting to 2,403 pages on Sinatra, who was a natural target with his alleged Mafia ties, his ardent New Deal politics, and his friendship with John F. Kennedy.", "The FBI kept him under surveillance for almost five decades beginning in the 1940s.", "The documents include accounts of Sinatra as the target of death threats and extortion schemes.", "The FBI documented that Sinatra was losing esteem with the Mafia as he grew closer to President Kennedy, whose younger brother Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy was leading a crackdown on organized crime.", "Sinatra said he was not involved: \"Any report that I fraternized with goons or racketeers is a vicious lie\".In 1960, Sinatra bought a share in the Cal Neva Lodge & Casino, a casino hotel on the shore of Lake Tahoe.", "Sinatra built the Celebrity Room theater which attracted his show business friends Red Skelton, Marilyn Monroe, Victor Borge, Joe E. Lewis, Lucille Ball, Lena Horne, Juliet Prowse, the McGuire Sisters, and others.", "By 1962, he reportedly held a 50-percent share in the hotel.", "Sinatra's gambling license was temporarily stripped by the Nevada Gaming Control Board in 1963 after Giancana was spotted on the premises.", "Due to ongoing pressure from the FBI and Nevada Gaming Commission on mobster control of casinos, Sinatra agreed to give up his share in Cal Neva and the Sands.", "That year, his son Frank Jr. was kidnapped but was eventually released unharmed.", "Sinatra's gambling license was restored in February 1981, following support from Ronald Reagan." ], [ "Political views and activism", "Sinatra, pictured with Eleanor Roosevelt in 1947, was an ardent supporter of the Democratic Party until the early 1970s.Sinatra held varied political views throughout his life.", "His mother Dolly was a Democratic Party ward leader, and after meeting President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1944, he subsequently heavily campaigned for the Democrats in the 1944 presidential election.", "According to Jo Carroll Silvers, in his younger years Sinatra had \"ardent liberal\" sympathies and was \"so concerned about poor people that he was always quoting Henry Wallace\".", "He was outspoken against racism, particularly toward black people and Italians, from a young age.", "In the early 1950s, he was among those who campaigned to combine the racially segregated musicians' unions in Los Angeles.", "In November 1945 Sinatra was invited by the mayor of Gary, Indiana, to try to settle a strike by white students of Froebel High School against the \"Pro-Negro\" policies of the new principal.", "His comments, while praised by liberal publications, led to accusations by some that he was a Communist, which he said were not true.", "In the 1948 presidential election, Sinatra actively campaigned for President Harry S. Truman.", "In 1952 and 1956, he campaigned for Adlai Stevenson.Sinatra is awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Ronald Reagan in 1985.Of all the U.S. presidents he associated with during his career, he was closest to John F. Kennedy.", "Sinatra often invited Kennedy to Hollywood and Las Vegas, and the two would womanize and enjoy parties together.", "In January 1961, Sinatra and Peter Lawford organized the Inaugural Gala in Washington, D.C., held on the evening before President Kennedy was sworn into office.", "After taking office, Kennedy distanced himself from Sinatra, due in part to the singer's ties with the Mafia.", "In 1962, Sinatra was snubbed by the President as, during his visit to his Palm Springs, Kennedy stayed with the Republican Bing Crosby instead of Sinatra, citing FBI concerns about the latter's alleged connections to organized crime.", "Sinatra had spared no expense upgrading the facilities at his home in anticipation of the President's visit, fitting it with a heliport, which he smashed with a sledgehammer after the rejection.", "Despite the snub, when he learned of Kennedy's assassination he reportedly sobbed in his bedroom for three days.", "Sinatra worked with Hubert H. Humphrey in 1968, and remained a supporter of the Democratic Party until the early 1970s.", "Although still a registered Democrat, Sinatra endorsed Republican Ronald Reagan for a second term as Governor of California in 1970.He officially changed allegiance in July 1972 when he supported Richard Nixon for re-election in the 1972 presidential election.In the 1980 presidential election, Sinatra supported Ronald Reagan and donated $4million to Reagan's campaign.", "Sinatra arranged Reagan's Presidential gala, as he had done for Kennedy 20 years previously.", "In 1985, Reagan presented Sinatra with the Presidential Medal of Freedom, remarking, \"His love of country, his generosity for those less fortunate... make him one of our most remarkable and distinguished Americans.", "\"IDF military parade during a visit to Israel, 1962Santopietro notes that Sinatra was a \"lifelong sympathizer with Jewish causes\".", "He was awarded the Hollzer Memorial Award by the Los Angeles Jewish Community in 1949.He gave a series of concerts in Israel in 1962 and donated his entire $50,000 fee for appearing in a cameo role in ''Cast a Giant Shadow'' (1966) to the Youth Center in Jerusalem.", "On November 1, 1972, he raised $6.5million in bond pledges for Israel, and was given the Medallion of Valor for his efforts.", "The Frank Sinatra Student Center at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem was dedicated in his name in 1978.From his youth, Sinatra displayed sympathy for black Americans and worked both publicly and privately all his life to help the struggle for equal rights.", "He blamed racial prejudice on the parents of children.", "Sinatra played a major role in the desegregation of Nevada hotels and casinos in the 1950s and 1960s.", "On January 27, 1961, Sinatra played a benefit show at Carnegie Hall for Martin Luther King Jr. and led his fellow Rat Pack members and Reprise label mates in boycotting hotels and casinos that refused entry to black patrons and performers.", "According to his son, Frank Jr., King sat weeping in the audience at one of his father's concerts in 1963 as Sinatra sang \"Ol' Man River\", a song from the musical ''Show Boat'' that is sung by a black American stevedore.", "When he changed his political affiliations in 1970, Sinatra became less outspoken on racial issues.", "Though he did much towards civil rights causes, it did not stop the occasional racial jibe from him and the other Rat Pack members toward Davis at concerts." ], [ "Death and funeral", "Sinatra's grave located at Desert Memorial Park in Cathedral City, California (gravestone replaced in 2021)During the final years of his life, Sinatra was in ill health, and was frequently hospitalized for heart and breathing problems, high blood pressure, pneumonia and bladder cancer.", "He made no public appearances following a heart attack in February 1997.Sinatra died of another heart attack at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, on the night of May 14, 1998, at age 82, with his wife Barbara at his side.", "Barbara encouraged him to \"fight\" while attempts were made to stabilize him, and reported that his final words were, \"I'm losing.\"", "Sinatra's daughter, Tina, later wrote that she and her siblings had not been notified of their father's final hospitalization, and it was her belief that \"the omission was deliberate.", "Barbara would be the grieving widow ''alone'' at her husband's side.\"", "The night after Sinatra's death, the lights on the Empire State Building were turned blue, the lights at the Las Vegas Strip were dimmed in his honor, and the casinos stopped spinning for one minute.", "Significant increases in recording sales worldwide were reported by ''Billboard'' in the month of his death.Sinatra's funeral was held at the Church of the Good Shepherd in Beverly Hills, California, on May 20, with 400 mourners in attendance and thousands of fans outside.", "Gregory Peck, Tony Bennett, and Sinatra's son, Frank Jr., addressed the mourners, who included many people from film and entertainment.", "Sinatra was buried in a blue business suit; his grave, adorned with mementos from family members, was next to his parents in Desert Memorial Park in Cathedral City, California.", "The phrases \"The Best Is Yet to Come\", and \"Beloved Husband & Father\" were placed on Sinatra's modest grave marker.", "Sinatra's gravestone was changed to read \"Sleep Warm Poppa\", due to damage caused to the original gravestone under mysterious circumstances according to the magazine ''Palm Springs Life''." ], [ "Legacy and honors", "Frank Sinatra Park on the Hudson River Waterfront Walkway, 4th of July, 2010Robert Christgau referred to Sinatra as \"the greatest singer of the 20th century\".", "His popularity is matched only by Bing Crosby, Elvis Presley, The Beatles, and Michael Jackson.", "For Santopietro, Sinatra was the \"greatest male pop singer in the history of America\", who amassed \"unprecedented power onscreen and off\", and \"seemed to exemplify the common man, an ethnic twentieth-century American male who reached the 'top of the heap', yet never forgot his roots\".", "Santopietro argues that Sinatra created his own world, which he was able to dominate—his career was centred around power, perfecting the ability to capture an audience.Gus Levene commented that Sinatra's strength was that when it came to lyrics, telling a story musically, Sinatra displayed a \"genius\" ability and feeling, which with the \"rare combination of voice and showmanship\" made him the \"original singer\" which others who followed most tried to emulate.", "George Roberts, a trombonist in Sinatra's band, remarked that Sinatra had a \"charisma, or whatever it is about him, that no one else had\".", "Biographer Arnold Shaw considered that \"If Las Vegas had not existed, Sinatra could have invented it\".", "He quoted reporter James Bacon in saying that Sinatra was the \"swinging image on which the town is built\", adding that no other entertainer quite \"embodied the glamour\" associated with Las Vegas as him.", "Sinatra continues to be seen as one of the icons of the 20th century, and has three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his work in film and music.In Sinatra's native Hoboken, he was awarded the Key to the City of by Mayor Fred M. De Sapio on October 30, 1947.In 2003, the city's main post office was rededicated in his honor.", "A bronze plaque, placed two years before Sinatra's death in 1998, marks the site of the house where he was born.", "There is also a marker in front of Hoboken Historical Museum, which has artifacts from his life and conducts Sinatra walking tours through the city.", "Frank Sinatra Drive runs parallel to the Hudson River Waterfront Walkway.", "On the waterfront is Frank Sinatra Park, where a bronze plaque was placed in 1989 upon its opening.", "In the Frank Sinatra Park, a tall bronze statue of Sinatra was dedicated in 2021 on December 12, the date of Sinatra's birthday in 1915.A residence hall at Montclair State University in New Jersey was named in his honor.", "Other buildings named for Sinatra include the Frank Sinatra School of the Arts in Astoria, Queens, the Frank Sinatra International Student Center at Israel's Hebrew University in Jerusalem dedicated in 1978, and the Frank Sinatra Hall at the USC School of Cinematic Arts in Los Angeles, California, dedicated in 2002.Wynn Resorts' Encore Las Vegas resort features a restaurant dedicated to Sinatra which opened in 2008.There are several streets and roads named in honor of Frank Sinatra in several states of the U.S.Various items of memorabilia from Sinatra's life and career, such as Frank Sinatra's awards, gold records, and various personal items are displayed at USC's Frank Sinatra Hall in Los Angeles and also at Wynn Resort's Sinatra restaurant in Las Vegas.The United States Postal Service issued a 42-cent postage stamp in honor of Sinatra in May 2008, commemorating the tenth anniversary of his death.The United States Congress passed a resolution on May 20, 2008, designating May 13 as Frank Sinatra Day.Sinatra received three Honorary Degrees during his lifetime.", "In May 1976, he was invited to speak at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV) graduation commencement held at Sam Boyd Stadium.", "It was at this commencement that he was bestowed an Honorary Doctorate litterarum humanarum by the university.", "During his speech, Sinatra stated that his education had come from \"the school of hard knocks\" and that \"this is the first educational degree I have ever held in my hand.", "I will never forget what you have done for me today\".", "In 1984 and 1985, Sinatra received an Honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts from Loyola Marymount University and an Honorary Doctorate of Engineering from the Stevens Institute of Technology.", "In 2023, ''Rolling Stone'' ranked Sinatra at No.", "19 on their list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.=== Tribute albums to Sinatra ===* ''A Jazz Portrait of Frank Sinatra'' by Oscar Peterson (1959)* ''Very Sinatra'' by Ruby Braff (1981)* ''Perfectly Frank'' by Tony Bennett (1992)* ''Voices in Standard'' by The Four Freshmen (1994)* ''As I Remember It'' by Frank Sinatra, Jr. (1996)* ''Manilow Sings Sinatra'' by Barry Manilow (1998)* ''Sinatraland'' by Patrick Williams and His Big Band (1998)* ''Blue Eyes Plays Ol' Blue Eyes'' by Si Zentner & Orchestra (1998)* ''Keely Sings Sinatra'' by Keely Smith (2001)* ''Michael Andrew Pays Tribute to Frank Sinatra'' by Michael Andrew (2002)* ''Steve Lawrence Sings Sinatra'' by Steve Lawrence (2003)* ''Plays Sinatra His Way'' by Joey DeFrancesco (2004)* ''Allow Us to Be Frank'' by Westlife (2004)* ''Songs of Sinatra'' by Steve Tyrell (2005)* ''Blue Eyes Meets Bed-Stuy'' The Notorious B.I.G.", "& Frank Sinatra by Jon Moskowitz and Dj Cappel & Smitty (2005)* ''L'allieva'' by Mina (2005)* ''Bolton Swings Sinatra'' by Michael Bolton (2006)* ''Dear Mr. Sinatra'' by John Pizzarelli (2006)* ''Ray Stevens Sings Sinatra...Say What??''", "by Ray Stevens (2008)* ''His Way, Our Way'' by various artists (2009)* ''Cauby Sings Sinatra'' by Cauby Peixoto (2010)* ''Sin-Atra'' a heavy metal tribute by various artists (2011)* ''Let's Be Frank'' by Trisha Yearwood (2018)" ], [ "Film and television portrayals", "Sinatra has also been portrayed on numerous occasions in film and television.", "A television miniseries based on Sinatra's life, titled ''Sinatra'', was aired by CBS in 1992.The series was directed by James Steven Sadwith, who won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Directing for a Miniseries or a Special and starred Philip Casnoff as Sinatra.", "''Sinatra'' was written by Abby Mann and Philip Mastrosimone, and produced by Sinatra's daughter, Tina.Sinatra has subsequently been portrayed on screen by Ray Liotta (''The Rat Pack'', 1998), James Russo (''Stealing Sinatra'', 2003), Dennis Hopper (''The Night We Called It a Day'', 2003), and Robert Knepper (''My Way'', 2012), and spoofed by Joe Piscopo and Phil Hartman on ''Saturday Night Live''.", "A biographical film directed by Martin Scorsese has long been planned.", "A 1998 episode of the BBC documentary series ''Arena'', ''The Voice of the Century'', focused on Sinatra.", "Alex Gibney directed a four-part biographical series on Sinatra, ''All or Nothing at All'', for HBO in 2015.A musical tribute was aired on CBS television in December 2015 to mark Sinatra's centenary.", "Sinatra was also portrayed by Rico Simonini in the 2018 feature film ''Frank & Ava'', which is based on a play by Willard Manus.", "Creed singer Scott Stapp will portray Sinatra in ''Reagan'', a biopic of U.S. President Ronald Reagan.Sinatra was convinced that Johnny Fontane, a mob-associated singer in Mario Puzo's novel ''The Godfather'' (1969), was based on his life.", "Puzo wrote in 1972 that when the author and singer met in Chasen's, Sinatra \"started to shout abuse\", calling Puzo a \"pimp\" and threatening physical violence.", "Francis Ford Coppola, director of the film adaptation, said in the audio commentary that \"Obviously Johnny Fontane was inspired by a kind of Frank Sinatra character\"." ], [ "Discography", "* ''The Voice of Frank Sinatra'' (1946)* ''Songs by Sinatra'' (1947)* ''Christmas Songs by Sinatra'' (1948)* ''Frankly Sentimental'' (1949)* ''Dedicated to You'' (1950)* ''Sing and Dance with Frank Sinatra'' (1950)* ''Songs for Young Lovers'' (1954)* ''Swing Easy!''", "(1954)* ''In the Wee Small Hours'' (1955)* ''Songs for Swingin' Lovers!''", "(1956)* ''Close to You'' (1957)* ''A Swingin' Affair!''", "(1957)* ''Where Are You?''", "(1957)* ''A Jolly Christmas from Frank Sinatra'' (1957)* ''Come Fly with Me'' (1958)* ''Frank Sinatra Sings for Only the Lonely'' (1958)* ''Come Dance with Me!''", "(1959)* ''No One Cares'' (1959)* ''Nice 'n' Easy'' (1960)* ''Sinatra's Swingin' Session'' (1961)* ''Ring-a-Ding-Ding!''", "(1961)* ''Come Swing with Me!''", "(1961)* ''Swing Along With Me'' (1961)* ''I Remember Tommy'' (1961)* ''Sinatra and Strings'' (1962)* ''Point of No Return'' (1962)* ''Sinatra and Swingin' Brass'' (1962)* ''All Alone'' (1962)* ''Sinatra Sings Great Songs from Great Britain'' (1962)* ''Sinatra–Basie: An Historic Musical First'' with Count Basie (1962)* ''The Concert Sinatra'' (1963)* ''Sinatra's Sinatra'' (1963)* ''Sinatra Sings Days of Wine and Roses, Moon River, and Other Academy Award Winners'' (1964)* ''America, I Hear You Singing'' with Bing Crosby and Fred Waring (1964)* ''It Might as Well Be Swing'' with Count Basie (1964)* ''12 Songs of Christmas'' with Bing Crosby and Fred Waring (1964)* ''Softly, as I Leave You'' (1964)* ''September of My Years'' (1965)* ''Sentimental Journey'' (1965)* ''My Kind of Broadway'' (1965)* ''A Man and His Music'' (1965)* ''Moonlight Sinatra'' (1966)* ''Strangers in the Night'' (1966)* ''That's Life'' (1966)* ''Francis Albert Sinatra & Antonio Carlos Jobim'' with Antonio Carlos Jobim (1967)* ''The World We Knew'' (1967)* ''Francis A.", "& Edward K.'' with Duke Ellington (1968)* ''The Sinatra Family Wish You a Merry Christmas'' with Frank Sinatra Jr., Nancy Sinatra and Tina Sinatra (1968)* ''Cycles'' (1968)* ''My Way'' (1969)* ''A Man Alone'' (1969)* ''Watertown'' (1970)* ''Sinatra & Company'' with Antonio Carlos Jobim (1971)* ''Ol' Blue Eyes Is Back'' (1973)* ''Some Nice Things I've Missed'' (1974)* ''Trilogy: Past Present Future'' (1980)* ''She Shot Me Down'' (1981)* ''L.A.", "Is My Lady'' (1984)* ''Duets'' (1993)* ''Duets II'' (1994)" ], [ "See also", "* Frank Sinatra bibliography* Frank Sinatra's recorded legacy* ''The Frank Sinatra Show'' (radio program)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Freedland, Michael (1998).", "''All the Way: A Biography of Frank Sinatra''.", "St. Martin's Press.", "* Kaplan, James (2015).", "''Sinatra: The chairman''.", "New York: Doubleday.", "* Pickard, Roy (1994).", "''Frank Sinatra at the Movies''.", "Hale." ], [ "External links", "* * Sinatra family website * Frank Sinatra webradio* * * at the New Jersey Hall of Fame* * * Frank Sinatra at FBI Records: The Vault* ''The Sinatra Report'', a special section of Billboard's November 20, 1965, issue – beginning immediately after page 34* \"Sinatra in Retrospective, Parts 1 and 2,\" WXXI Public Broadcasting, American Archive of Public Broadcasting" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Funeral" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''funeral''' is a ceremony connected with the final disposition of a corpse, such as a burial or cremation, with the attendant observances.", "Funerary customs comprise the complex of beliefs and practices used by a culture to remember and respect the dead, from interment, to various monuments, prayers, and rituals undertaken in their honour.", "Customs vary between cultures and religious groups.", "Funerals have both normative and legal components.", "Common secular motivations for funerals include mourning the deceased, celebrating their life, and offering support and sympathy to the bereaved; additionally, funerals may have religious aspects that are intended to help the soul of the deceased reach the afterlife, resurrection or reincarnation.The funeral usually includes a ritual through which the corpse receives a final disposition.", "Depending on culture and religion, these can involve either the destruction of the body (for example, by cremation, sky burial, decomposition, disintegration or dissolution) or its preservation (for example, by mummification).", "Differing beliefs about cleanliness and the relationship between body and soul are reflected in funerary practices.", "A (or celebration of life) is a funerary ceremony that is performed without the remains of the deceased person.The word ''funeral'' comes from the Latin ''funus'', which had a variety of meanings, including the corpse and the funerary rites themselves.", "Funerary art is art produced in connection with burials, including many kinds of tombs, and objects specially made for burial like flowers with a corpse." ], [ "Overview", "Mam Turk mountains of Connemara, Ireland'', 1870Funeral rites are as old as human culture itself, pre-dating modern ''Homo sapiens'' and dated to at least 300,000 years ago.", "For example, in the Shanidar Cave in Iraq, in Pontnewydd Cave in Wales and at other sites across Europe and the Near East, archaeologists have discovered Neanderthal skeletons with a characteristic layer of flower pollen.", "This deliberate burial and reverence given to the dead has been interpreted as suggesting that Neanderthals had religious beliefs, although the evidence is not unequivocal – while the dead were apparently buried deliberately, burrowing rodents could have introduced the flowers.Substantial cross-cultural and historical research document funeral customs as a highly predictable, stable force in communities.", "Funeral customs tend to be characterized by five \"anchors\": significant symbols, gathered community, ritual action, cultural heritage, and transition of the dead body (corpse)." ], [ "Religious funerals", "===Bahá'í Faith===Funerals in the Bahá'í Faith are characterized by not embalming, a prohibition against cremation, using a chrysolite or hardwood casket, wrapping the body in silk or cotton, burial not farther than an hour (including flights) from the place of death, and placing a ring on the deceased's finger stating, \"I came forth from God, and return unto Him, detached from all save Him, holding fast to His Name, the Merciful, the Compassionate.\"", "The Bahá'í funeral service also contains the only prayer that is permitted to be read as a group – congregational prayer, although most of the prayer is read by one person in the gathering.", "The Bahá'í decedent often controls some aspects of the Bahá'í funeral service, since leaving a will and testament is a requirement for Bahá'ís.", "Since there are no Bahá'í clergy, services are usually conducted under the guise, or with the assistance of, a Local Spiritual Assembly.===Buddhist===Vultures feeding on a human corpse in a sky burialA Buddhist funeral marks the transition from one life to the next for the deceased.", "It also reminds the living of their own mortality.", "Cremation is the preferred choice, although burial is also allowed.", "Buddhists in Tibet perform sky burials where the body is exposed to be eaten by vultures.", "The body is dissected with a blade on the mountain top before the exposure.", "Crying and wailing is discouraged and the (body breakers who perform the ritual) laugh as if they are doing farm work.", "Tibetan Buddhists believe that a light-hearted atmosphere during the funeral helps the soul of the dead to get a better afterlife.", "After the vultures consume all the flesh the smash the bones into pieces and mix them with tsampa to feed to the vultures.===Christian===Funeral of Indian Syro-Malabar Catholic, Venerable Varghese Payyappilly Palakkappilly on 6 October 1929Congregations of varied denominations perform different funeral ceremonies, but most involve offering prayers, scripture reading from the Bible, a sermon, homily, or eulogy, and music.", "One issue of concern as the 21st century began was with the use of secular music at Christian funerals, a custom generally forbidden by the Catholic Church.Christian burials have traditionally occurred on consecrated ground such as in churchyards.", "There are many funeral norms like in Christianity to follow.", "Burial, rather than a destructive process such as cremation, was the traditional practice amongst Christians, because of the belief in the resurrection of the body.", "Cremations later came into widespread use, although some denominations forbid them.", "The US Conference of Catholic Bishops said \"The Church earnestly recommends that the pious custom of burying the bodies of the deceased be observed; nevertheless, the Church does not prohibit cremation unless it was chosen for reasons contrary to Christian doctrine\" (canon 1176.3).===Hindu===A Hindu cremation rite in Nepal.", "The samskara above shows the body wrapped in saffron red on a pyre., literally 'last rites' or 'last sacrifice', refers to the rite-of-passage rituals associated with a funeral in Hinduism.", "It is sometimes referred to as , or .A dead adult Hindu is cremated, while a dead child is typically buried.", "The rite of passage is said to be performed in harmony with the sacred premise that the microcosm of all living beings is a reflection of a macrocosm of the universe.", "The soul (Atman, Brahman) is believed to be the immortal essence that is released at the ritual, but both the body and the universe are vehicles and transitory in various schools of Hinduism.", "They consist of five elements: air, water, fire, earth and space.", "The last rite of passage returns the body to the five elements and origins.", "The roots of this belief are found in the Vedas, for example in the hymns of Rigveda in section 10.16, as follows:The final rites of a burial, in case of untimely death of a child, is rooted in Rigveda's section 10.18, where the hymns mourn the death of the child, praying to deity Mrityu to \"neither harm our girls nor our boys\", and pleads the earth to cover, protect the deceased child as a soft wool.Among Hindus, the dead body is usually cremated within a day of death.", "The body is washed, wrapped in white cloth for a man or a widow, red for a married woman, the two toes tied together with a string, a (red mark) placed on the forehead.", "The dead adult's body is carried to the cremation ground near a river or water, by family and friends, and placed on a pyre with feet facing south.", "The eldest son, or a male mourner, or a priest then bathes before leading the cremation ceremonial function.", "He circumambulates the dry wood pyre with the body, says a eulogy or recites a hymn in some cases, places sesame seed in the dead person's mouth, sprinkles the body and the pyre with ghee (clarified butter), then draws three lines signifying (deity of the dead), (time, deity of cremation) and the dead.", "The pyre is then set ablaze, while the mourners mourn.", "The ash from the cremation is consecrated to the nearest river or sea.", "After the cremation, a period of mourning is observed for 10 to 12 days after which the immediate male relatives or the sons of the deceased shave their head, trim their nails, recites prayers with the help of priest or Brahmin and invite all relatives, kins, friends and neighbours to eat a simple meal together in remembrance of the deceased.", "This day, in some communities, also marks a day when the poor and needy are offered food in memory of the dead.===Zoroastrianism===Parsi Tower of Silence, BombayThe belief that bodies are infested by Nasu upon death greatly influenced Zoroastrian burial ceremonies and funeral rites.", "Burial and cremation of corpses was prohibited, as such acts would defile the sacred creations of earth and fire respectively.", "Burial of corpses was so looked down upon that the exhumation of \"buried corpses was regarded as meritorious.\"", "For these reasons, \"Towers of Silence\" were developed—open air, amphitheater like structures in which corpses were placed so carrion-eating birds could feed on them.Sagdīd, meaning 'seen by a dog,' is a ritual that must be performed as promptly after death as possible.", "The dog is able to calculate the degree of evil within the corpse, and entraps the contamination so it may not spread further, expelling Nasu from the body.", "Nasu remains within the corpse until it has been seen by a dog, or until it has been consumed by a dog or a carrion-eating bird.", "According to chapter 31 of the Denkard, the reasoning for the required consumption of corpses is that the evil influences of Nasu are contained within the corpse until, upon being digested, the body is changed from the form of nasa into nourishment for animals.", "The corpse is thereby delivered over to the animals, changing from the state of corrupted nasa to that of hixr, which is \"dry dead matter,\" considered to be less polluting.A path through which a funeral procession has traveled must not be passed again, as Nasu haunts the area thereafter, until the proper rites of banishment are performed.", "Nasu is expelled from the area only after \"a yellow dog with four eyes, or a white dog with yellow ears\" is walked through the path three times.", "If the dog goes unwillingly down the path, it must be walked back and forth up to nine times to ensure that Nasu has been driven off.Zoroastrian ritual exposure of the dead is first known of from the writings of the mid-5th century BCE Herodotus, who observed the custom amongst Iranian expatriates in Asia Minor.", "In Herodotus' account (Histories i.140), the rites are said to have been \"secret\", but were first performed after the body had been dragged around by a bird or dog.", "The corpse was then embalmed with wax and laid in a trench.While the discovery of ossuaries in both eastern and western Iran dating to the 5th and 4th centuries BCE indicates that bones were isolated, that this separation occurred through ritual exposure cannot be assumed: burial mounds, where the bodies were wrapped in wax, have also been discovered.", "The tombs of the Achaemenid emperors at Naqsh-e Rustam and Pasargadae likewise suggest non-exposure, at least until the bones could be collected.", "According to legend (incorporated by Ferdowsi into his Shahnameh), Zoroaster is himself interred in a tomb at Balkh (in present-day Afghanistan).Writing on the culture of the Persians, Herodotus reports on the Persian burial customs performed by the Magi, which are kept secret.", "However, he writes that he knows they expose the body of male dead to dogs and birds of prey, then they cover the corpse in wax, and then it is buried.", "The Achaemenid custom is recorded for the dead in the regions of Bactria, Sogdia, and Hyrcania, but not in Western Iran.The Byzantine historian Agathias has described the burial of the Sasanian general Mihr-Mihroe: \"the attendants of Mermeroes took up his body and removed it to a place outside the city and laid it there as it was, alone and uncovered according to their traditional custom, as refuse for dogs and horrible carrion\".Towers are a much later invention and are first documented in the early 9th century CE.", "The ritual customs surrounding that practice appear to date to the Sassanid era (3rd–7th century CE).", "They are known in detail from the supplement to the ''Shāyest nē Shāyest'', the two ''Revayats'' collections, and the two Saddars.===Islamic===1779 Algerian funeralsEquipment for washing and preparing bodies at Afaq khoja Mosque, KashgarFunerals in Islam (called in Arabic) follow fairly specific rites.", "In all cases, however, sharia (Islamic religious law) calls for burial of the body, preceded by a simple ritual involving bathing and shrouding the body, followed by (prayer).Burial rituals should normally take place as soon as possible and include:* Bathing the dead body with water, camphor and leaves of ziziphus lotus, except in extraordinary circumstances as in battle.", "* Enshrouding the dead body in a white cotton or linen cloth except extraordinary cases such as battle.", "In such cases apparel of corpse is not changed.", "* Reciting the funeral prayer in all cases for a Muslim.", "* Burial of the dead body in a grave in all cases for a Muslim.", "* Positioning the deceased so that when the face or body is turned to the right side it faces Mecca.The mourning period is 40 days long.===Jewish===In Judaism, funerals follow fairly specific rites, though they are subject to variation in custom.", "Halakha calls for preparatory rituals involving bathing and shrouding the body accompanied by prayers and readings from the Hebrew Bible, and then a funeral service marked by eulogies and brief prayers, and then the lowering of the body into the grave and the filling of the grave.", "Traditional law and practice forbid cremation of the body; the Reform Jewish movement generally discourages cremation but does not outright forbid it.Burial rites should normally take place as soon as possible and include:* Bathing the dead body.", "* Enshrouding the dead body.", "Men are shrouded with a and then (outside the Land of Israel) with a (shawl), while women are shrouded in a plain white cloth.", "* Keeping watch over the dead body.", "* Funeral service, including eulogies and brief prayers.", "* Burial of the dead body in a grave.", "* Filling of the grave, traditionally done by family members and other participants at the funeral.", "* In many communities, the deceased is positioned so that the feet face the Temple Mount in Jerusalem (in anticipation that the deceased will be facing the reconstructed Third Temple when the messiah arrives and resurrects the dead).===Sikh===In Sikhism death is not considered a natural process, an event that has absolute certainty and only happens as a direct result of God's Will or Hukam.", "In Sikhism, birth and death are closely associated, as they are part of the cycle of human life of \"coming and going\" () which is seen as a transient stage towards Liberation (), understood as completely in unity with God.", "Sikhs believe in reincarnation.The soul itself is not subject to the cycle of birth and death; death is only the progression of the soul on its journey from God, through the created universe and back to God again.", "In life a Sikh is expected to constantly remember death so that they may be sufficiently prayerful, detached and righteous to break the cycle of birth and death and return to God.The public display of grief by wailing or crying out loud at the funeral (called ) is discouraged and should be kept to a minimum.", "Cremation is the preferred method of disposal, burial and burial at sea are also allowed if by necessity or by the will of the person.", "Markers such as gravestones, monuments, etc.", "are not allowed, because the body is considered to be just the shell and the person's soul is their real self.On the day of the cremation, the body is washed and dressed and then taken to the Gurdwara or home where hymns (Shabadads) from Sri Guru Granth Sahib Ji, the Sikh Scriptures are recited by the congregation.", "Kirtan may also be performed by Ragis while the relatives of the deceased recite \"Waheguru\" sitting near the coffin.", "This service normally takes from 30 to 60 minutes.", "At the conclusion of the service, an Ardas is said before the coffin is taken to the cremation site.At the point of cremation, a few more Shabadads may be sung and final speeches are made about the deceased person.", "The eldest son or a close relative generally lights the fire.", "This service usually lasts about 30 to 60 minutes.", "The ashes are later collected and disposed of by immersing them in a river, preferably one of the five rivers in the state of Punjab, India.The ceremony in which the Sidharan Paath is begun after the cremation ceremony, may be held when convenient, wherever the Sri Guru Granth Sahib Ji is present.Hymns are sung from Sri Guru Granth Sahib Ji; the first five and final verses of \"Anand Sahib,\" the \"Song of Bliss,\" are recited or sung.", "The first five verses of Sikhism's morning prayer, \"Japji Sahib\", are read aloud to begin the Sidharan paath.", "A hukam, or random verse, is then read from Sri Guru Granth Sahib Ji.", "Ardas, a prayer, is offered, and Prashad, a sacred sweet, is distributed.", "Langar, a meal, is then served to guests.While the Sidharan paath is being read, the family may also sing hymns daily.", "Reading may take as long as needed to complete the paath.This ceremony is followed by Sahaj Paath Bhog, Kirtan Sohila, night time prayer is recited for one week, and finally Ardas called the \"Antim Ardas\" (\"Final Prayer\") is offered the last week.===Celtic===It was custom for an officiant to walk in front of the coffin with a horse's skull; this tradition was still observed by Welsh peasants up until the 19th century." ], [ "Western funerals", "===Classical antiquity=======Ancient Greece====Attic, latter 6th century BCE)The Greek word for funeral – ''kēdeía'' (κηδεία) – derives from the verb ''kēdomai'' (κήδομαι), that means attend to, take care of someone.", "Derivative words are also ''kēdemón'' (κηδεμών, \"guardian\") and ''kēdemonía'' (κηδεμονία, \"guardianship\").", "From the Cycladic civilization in 3000 BCE until the Hypo-Mycenaean era in 1200–1100 BCE the main practice of burial is interment.", "The cremation of the dead that appears around the 11th century BCE constitutes a new practice of burial and is probably an influence from the East.", "Until the Christian era, when interment becomes again the only burial practice, both cremation and interment had been practiced depending on the area.The ancient Greek funeral since the Homeric era included the ''próthesis'' (πρόθεσις), the ''ekphorá'' (ἐκφορά), the burial and the ''perídeipnon'' (περίδειπνον).", "In most cases, this process is followed faithfully in Greece until today.", "''Próthesis'' is the deposition of the body of the deceased on the funeral bed and the threnody of his relatives.", "Today the body is placed in the casket, that is always open in Greek funerals.", "This part takes place in the house where the deceased had lived.", "An important part of the Greek tradition is the ''epicedium'', the mournful songs that are sung by the family of the deceased along with professional mourners (who are extinct in the modern era).", "The deceased was watched over by his beloved the entire night before the burial, an obligatory ritual in popular thought, which is maintained still.", "''Ekphorá'' is the process of transport of the mortal remains of the deceased from his residence to the church, nowadays, and afterward to the place of burial.", "The procession in the ancient times, according to the law, should have passed silently through the streets of the city.", "Usually certain favourite objects of the deceased were placed in the coffin in order to \"go along with him\".", "In certain regions, coins to pay Charon, who ferries the dead to the underworld, are also placed inside the casket.", "A last kiss is given to the beloved dead by the family before the coffin is closed.Funeral with flowers on marbleThe Roman orator Cicero describes the habit of planting flowers around the tomb as an effort to guarantee the repose of the deceased and the purification of the ground, a custom that is maintained until today.", "After the ceremony, the mourners return to the house of the deceased for the ''perídeipnon'', the dinner after the burial.", "According to archaeological findings – traces of ash, bones of animals, shards of crockery, dishes and basins – the dinner during the classical era was also organized at the burial spot.", "Taking into consideration the written sources, however, the dinner could also be served in the houses.The ''Necrodeipnon'' (Νεκρόδειπνον) was the funeral banquet which was given at the house of the nearest relative.Two days after the burial, a ceremony called \"the thirds\" was held.", "Eight days after the burial the relatives and the friends of the deceased assembled at the burial spot, where \"the ninths\" would take place, a custom still kept.", "In addition to this, in the modern era, memorial services take place 40 days, 3 months, 6 months, 9 months, 1 year after the death and from then on every year on the anniversary of the death.", "The relatives of the deceased, for an unspecified length of time that depends on them, are in mourning, during which women wear black clothes and men a black armband.", "''Nekysia'' (Νεκύσια), meaning the day of the dead, and ''Genesia'' (Γενέσια), meaning the day of the forefathers (ancestors), were yearly feasts in honour of the dead.", "''Nemesia'' (Νεμέσια) or ''Nemeseia'' (Nεμέσεια) was also a yearly feast in honour of the dead, most probably intended for averting the anger of the dead.====Ancient Rome====Scipios, in use from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CEIn ancient Rome, the eldest surviving male of the household, the ''pater familias'', was summoned to the death-bed, where he attempted to catch and inhale the last breath of the decedent.Funerals of the socially prominent usually were undertaken by professional undertakers called ''libitinarii''.", "No direct description has been passed down of Roman funeral rites.", "These rites usually included a public procession to the tomb or pyre where the body was to be cremated.", "The surviving relations bore masks bearing the images of the family's deceased ancestors.", "The right to carry the masks in public eventually was restricted to families prominent enough to have held ''curule magistracies''.", "Mimes, dancers, and musicians hired by the undertakers, and professional female mourners, took part in these processions.", "Less well-to-do Romans could join benevolent funerary societies (''collegia funeraticia'') that undertook these rites on their behalf.Nine days after the disposal of the body, by burial or cremation, a feast was given (''cena novendialis'') and a libation poured over the grave or the ashes.", "Since most Romans were cremated, the ashes typically were collected in an urn and placed in a niche in a collective tomb called a ''columbarium'' (literally, \"dovecote\").", "During this nine-day period, the house was considered to be tainted, ''funesta'', and was hung with Taxus baccata or Mediterranean Cypress branches to warn passersby.", "At the end of the period, the house was swept out to symbolically purge it of the taint of death.Several Roman holidays commemorated a family's dead ancestors, including the ''Parentalia'', held February 13 through 21, to honor the family's ancestors; and the Feast of the Lemures, held on May 9, 11, and 13, in which ghosts (''larvae'') were feared to be active, and the ''pater familias'' sought to appease them with offerings of beans.The Romans prohibited cremation or inhumation within the sacred boundary of the city ''(pomerium)'', for both religious and civil reasons, so that the priests might not be contaminated by touching a dead body, and that houses would not be endangered by funeral fires.Restrictions on the length, ostentation, expense of, and behaviour during funerals and mourning gradually were enacted by a variety of lawmakers.", "Often the pomp and length of rites could be politically or socially motivated to advertise or aggrandise a particular kin group in Roman society.", "This was seen as deleterious to society and conditions for grieving were set.", "For instance, under some laws, women were prohibited from loud wailing or lacerating their faces and limits were introduced for expenditure on tombs and burial clothes.The Romans commonly built tombs for themselves during their lifetime.", "Hence these words frequently occur in ancient inscriptions, V.F.", "Vivus Facit, V.S.P.", "Vivus Sibi Posuit.", "The tombs of the rich usually were constructed of marble, the ground enclosed with walls, and planted around with trees.", "But common sepulchres usually were built below ground, and called hypogea.", "There were niches cut out of the walls, in which the urns were placed; these, from their resemblance to the niche of a pigeon-house, were called columbaria.===North American funerals===Within the United States and Canada, in most cultural groups and regions, the funeral rituals can be divided into three parts: visitation, funeral, and the burial service.", "A home funeral (services prepared and conducted by the family, with little or no involvement from professionals) is legal in nearly every part of North America, but in the 21st century, they are uncommon in the US.A western-style funeral motorcade for a member of a high-ranking military family in South Korea====Visitation====At the ''visitation'' (also called a \"viewing\", \"wake\" or \"calling hours\"), in Christian or secular Western custom, the body of the deceased person (or decedent) is placed on display in the casket (also called a coffin, however almost all body containers are caskets).", "The viewing often takes place on one or two evenings before the funeral.", "In the past, it was common practice to place the casket in the decedent's home or that of a relative for viewing.", "This practice continues in many areas of Ireland and Scotland.", "The body is traditionally dressed in the decedent's best clothes.", "In recent times there has been more variation in what the decedent is dressed in – some people choose to be dressed in clothing more reflective of how they dressed in life.", "The body will often be adorned with common jewelry, such as watches, necklaces, brooches, etc.", "The jewelry may be taken off and given to the family of the deceased prior to burial or be buried with the deceased.", "Jewelry has to be removed before cremation in order to prevent damage to the crematory.", "The body may or may not be embalmed, depending upon such factors as the amount of time since the death has occurred, religious practices, or requirements of the place of burial.The most commonly prescribed aspects of this gathering are that the attendees sign a book kept by the deceased's survivors to record who attended.", "In addition, a family may choose to display photographs taken of the deceased person during his/her life (often, formal portraits with other family members and candid pictures to show \"happy times\"), prized possessions and other items representing his/her hobbies and/or accomplishments.", "A more recent trend is to create a DVD with pictures and video of the deceased, accompanied by music, and play this DVD continuously during the visitation.The viewing is either \"open casket\", in which the embalmed body of the deceased has been clothed and treated with cosmetics for display; or \"closed casket\", in which the coffin is closed.", "The coffin may be closed if the body was too badly damaged because of an accident or fire or other trauma, deformed from illness, if someone in the group is emotionally unable to cope with viewing the corpse, or if the deceased did not wish to be viewed.", "In cases such as these, a picture of the deceased, usually a formal photo, is placed atop the casket.The tombstone of Yossele the Holy Miser.", "According to Jewish bereavement tradition, the dozens of stones on his tombstone mark respect for the Holy Miser.However, this step is foreign to Judaism; Jewish funerals are held soon after death (preferably within a day or two, unless more time is needed for relatives to come), and the corpse is never displayed.", "Torah law forbids embalming.", "Traditionally flowers (and music) are not sent to a grieving Jewish family as it is a reminder of the life that is now lost.", "The Jewish shiva tradition discourages family members from cooking, so food is brought by friends and neighbors.", "(''See also Jewish bereavement.", "'')The decedent's closest friends and relatives who are unable to attend frequently send flowers to the viewing, with the exception of a Jewish funeral, where flowers would not be appropriate (donations are often given to a charity instead).Obituaries sometimes contain a request that attendees do not send flowers (e.g.", "\"In lieu of flowers\").", "The use of these phrases has been on the rise for the past century.", "In the US in 1927, only 6% of the obituaries included the directive, with only 2% of those mentioned charitable contributions instead.", "By the middle of the century, they had grown to 15%, with over 54% of those noting a charitable contribution as the preferred method of expressing sympathy.====Funeral====Funeral for a child, 1920The deceased is usually transported from the funeral home to a church in a hearse, a specialized vehicle designed to carry casketed remains.", "The deceased is often transported in a procession (also called a funeral cortège), with the hearse, funeral service vehicles, and private automobiles traveling in a procession to the church or other location where the services will be held.", "In a number of jurisdictions, special laws cover funeral processions – such as requiring most other vehicles to give right-of-way to a funeral procession.", "Funeral service vehicles may be equipped with light bars and special flashers to increase their visibility on the roads.", "They may also all have their headlights on, to identify which vehicles are part of the cortege, although the practice also has roots in ancient Roman customs.", "After the funeral service, if the deceased is to be buried the funeral procession will proceed to a cemetery if not already there.", "If the deceased is to be cremated, the funeral procession may then proceed to the crematorium.Beethoven's funeral as depicted by Franz Xaver StöberFuneral customs vary from country to country.", "In the United States, any type of noise other than quiet whispering or mourning is considered disrespectful.A burial tends to cost more than a cremation.====Burial service====John Everett Millais – The Vale of RestAt a religious burial service, conducted at the side of the grave, tomb, mausoleum or cremation, the body of the decedent is buried or cremated at the conclusion.Sometimes, the burial service will immediately follow the funeral, in which case a funeral procession travels from the site of the funeral to the burial site.", "In some other cases, the burial service is the funeral, in which case the procession might travel from the cemetery office to the grave site.", "Other times, the burial service takes place at a later time, when the final resting place is ready, if the death occurred in the middle of winter.If the decedent served in a branch of the Armed forces, military rites are often accorded at the burial service.In many religious traditions, pallbearers, usually males who are relatives or friends of the decedent, will carry the casket from the chapel (of a funeral home or church) to the hearse, and from the hearse to the site of the burial service.Most religions expect coffins to be kept closed during the burial ceremony.", "In Eastern Orthodox funerals, the coffins are reopened just before burial to allow mourners to look at the deceased one last time and give their final farewells.", "Greek funerals are an exception as the coffin is open during the whole procedure unless the state of the body does not allow it.Medieval depiction of a royal body being laid in a coffinMorticians may ensure that all jewelry, including wristwatch, that were displayed at the wake are in the casket before it is buried or entombed.", "Custom requires that everything goes into the ground; however this is not true for Jewish services.", "Jewish tradition stipulates that nothing of value is buried with the deceased.In the case of cremation such items are usually removed before the body goes into the furnace.", "Pacemakers are removed prior to cremation – if left in they could explode.===Indigenous Americans===Funerals for indigenous people, like many other cultures, are a method to remember, commemorate and respect the dead through their own cultural practices and traditions.==== California ====In the past, there has been scrutiny when the topic of indigenous funeral sites was approached.", "Thus the federal government deemed it necessary to include a series of acts that would protect and accurately affiliate some of these burials with their correct native individuals or groups.", "This was enacted through the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act.", "Furthermore, in 2001 California created the California Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act that would \"require all state agencies and museums that receive state funding and that have possession or control over collections of humans remains or cultural items to provide a process for identification and repatriates of these items to appropriate tribes.\"", "In 2020, it was amended to include tribes that were beyond State and Federal knowledge.=== Western Yuman region ===In the Ipai, Tipai, Paipai, and Kiliwa regions funeral practices are similar in their social and power dynamics.", "The way that these funeral sites were created was based on previous habitation.", "Meaning, these were sites were their peoples may have died or if they had been a temporary home for some of these groups.", "Additionally, these individual burials were characterized by grave markers and/or grave offerings.", "The markers included inverted metates, fractured pieces of metates as well as cairns.", "As for offerings, food, shell and stone beads were often found in burial mounds along with portions human remains.The state of the human remains found at the site can vary, data suggests that cremations are recent in prehistory compared to just burials.", "Ranging from the middle Holocene era to the Late Prehistoric Period.", "Additionally, the position these people were placed in plays a role in how the afterlife was viewed.", "With recent ethnographic evidence coming from the Yuman people, it is believed that the spirits of the dead could potentially harm the living.", "so, they would often layer the markers or offerings above the body so that they would be unable to \"leave\" their graves and enact harm.Western Yuman Region, California and Baja California====Tongva====In the Los Angeles Basin, researchers discovered communal mourning features at West Bluffs and Landing Hill.", "These communal mourning rituals were estimated to have taken place during the Intermediate Period (3,000-1,000 B.P.).", "Archaeologists have found fragmented pieces of a large schist pestle which was deliberately broken in a methodical way.", "Other fragmented vessels show signs of uneven burning on the interior surface presumed to have been caused by burning combustible material.In the West Bluffs and Landing Hill assemblages there are many instances of artifacts that were dyed in red ochre pigment after being broken.", "The tradition of intentionally breaking objects has been a custom in the region for thousands of years for the purpose of releasing the spirit within the object, reducing harm to the community, or as an expression of grief.", "Pigmentation of grave goods also has many interpretations, the Chumash associate the color red with both earth and fire.", "While some researchers consider the usage of the red pigment as an important transitional moment in the adult life cycle.===Memorial services===Order of exercises, local memorial service in Nashua, New Hampshire, for U.S. President William McKinley on September 19, 1901, following his assassinationA '''memorial service''' is one given for the deceased, often without the body present.", "The service takes place ''after'' cremation or burial at sea, after donation of the body to an academic or research institution, or after the ashes have been scattered.", "It is also significant when the person is missing and presumed dead, or known to be deceased though the body is not recoverable.", "These services often take place at a funeral home; however, they can be held in a home, school, workplace, church or other location of some significance.", "A memorial service may include speeches (eulogies), prayers, poems, or songs to commemorate the deceased.", "Pictures of the deceased and flowers are usually placed where the coffin would normally be placed.After the sudden deaths of important public officials, public memorial services have been held by communities, including those without any specific connection to the deceased.", "For examples, community memorial services were held after the assassinations of US presidents James A. Garfield and William McKinley.===European funerals=======United Kingdom====In the UK, funerals are commonly held at a church, crematorium or cemetery chapel.", "Historically, it was customary to bury the dead, but since the 1960s, cremation has been more common.While there is no visitation ceremony like in North America, relatives may view the body beforehand at the funeral home.", "A room for viewing is usually called a ''chapel of rest''.", "Funerals typically last about half an hour.", "They are sometimes split into two ceremonies: a main funeral and a shorter ''committal'' ceremony.", "In the latter, the coffin is either handed over to a crematorium or buried in a cemetery.", "This allows the funeral to be held at a place without cremation or burial facilities.", "Alternatively, the entire funeral may be held in the chapel of the crematorium or cemetery.", "It is not customary to view a cremation; instead, the coffin may be removed from the chapel or hidden with curtains towards the end of the funeral.After the funeral, it is common for the mourners to gather for refreshments.", "This is sometimes called a wake, though this is different to how to the term is used in other countries, where a wake is a ceremony before the funeral.====Finland====A funeral parade of Marshal Mannerheim in Helsinki, Finland, on February 4, 1951.Helsinki Lutheran Cathedral on the background.In Finland, religious funerals (''hautajaiset'') are quite ascetic.", "The local priest or minister says prayers and blesses the deceased in their house.", "The mourners (''saattoväki'') traditionally bring food to the mourners' house.", "Common current practice has the deceased placed into the coffin in the place where they died.", "The undertaker will pick up the coffin and place it in the hearse and drive it to the funeral home, while the closest relatives or friends of the deceased will follow the hearse in a funeral procession in their own cars.", "The coffin will be held at the funeral home until the day of the funeral.", "The funeral services may be divided into two parts.", "First is the church service (''siunaustilaisuus'') in a cemetery chapel or local church, then the burial.====Iceland========Italy====The majority of Italians are Roman Catholic and follow Catholic funeral traditions.", "Historically, mourners would walk in a funeral procession to the gravesite; today vehicles are used.====Greece====Greek funerals are generally held in churches, including a Trisagion service.", "There is usually a 40-day mourning period, and the end of which, a memorial service is held.", "Every year following, a similar service takes place, to mark the anniversary of the death.====Poland====In Poland, in urban areas, there are usually two, or just one \"stop\".", "The body, brought by a hearse from the mortuary, may be taken to a church or to a cemetery chapel.", "There is then a funeral mass or service at cemetery chapel.", "Following the mass or Service the casket is carried in procession (usually on foot) by hearse to the grave.", "Once at the grave-site, the priest will commence the graveside committal service and the casket is lowered.", "The mass or service usually takes place at the cemetery.In some traditional rural areas, the wake (''czuwanie'') takes place in the house of the deceased or their relatives.", "The body lies in state for three days in the house.", "The funeral usually takes place on the third day.", "Family, neighbors and friends gather and pray during the day and night on those three days and nights.", "There are usually three stages in the funeral ceremony (''ceremonia pogrzebowa'', ''pogrzeb''): the wake (''czuwanie''), then the body is carried by procession (usually on foot) or people drive in their own cars to the church or cemetery chapel for mass, and another procession by foot to the gravesite.After the funeral, families gather for a post-funeral get-together (''stypa'').", "It can be at the family home, or at a function hall.", "In Poland cremation is less popular because the Catholic Church in Poland prefers traditional burials (though cremation is allowed).", "Cremation is more popular among non-religious people and Protestants in Poland.====Russia========Scotland====An old funeral rite from the Scottish Highlands involved burying the deceased with a wooden plate resting on his chest.", "On the plate were placed a small amount of earth and salt, to represent the future of the deceased.", "The earth hinted that the body would decay and become one with the earth, while the salt represented the soul, which does not decay.", "This rite was known as \"earth laid upon a corpse\".", "This practice was also carried out in Ireland, as well as in parts of England, particularly in Leicestershire, although in England the salt was intended to prevent air from distending the corpse.====Spain====In Spain, a burial or cremation may occur very soon after a death.", "Most Spaniards are Roman Catholics and follow Catholic funeral traditions.", "First, family and friends sit with the deceased during the wake until the burial.", "Wakes are a social event and a time to laugh and honor the dead.", "Following the wake comes the funeral mass (Tanatorio) at the church or cemetery chapel.", "Following the mass is the burial.", "The coffin is then moved from the church to the local cemetery, often with a procession of locals walking behind the hearse.====Wales====Traditionally, a good funeral (as they were called) had one draw the curtains for a period of time; at the wake, when new visitors arrived, they would enter from the front door and leave through the back door.", "The women stayed at home whilst the men attended the funeral, the village priest would then visit the family at their home to talk about the deceased and to console them.The first child of William Price, a Welsh Neo-Druidic priest, died in 1884.Believing that it was wrong to bury a corpse, and thereby pollute the earth, Price decided to cremate his son's body, a practice which had been common in Celtic societies.The police arrested him for the illegal disposal of a corpse.", "Price successfully argued in court that while the law did not state that cremation was legal, it also did not state that it was illegal.", "The case set a precedent that, together with the activities of the newly founded Cremation Society of Great Britain, led to the ''Cremation Act 1902''.", "The Act imposed procedural requirements before a cremation could occur and restricted the practice to authorised places." ], [ "Other types of funerals", "The burial of a bird=== Celebration of life ===A growing number of families choose to hold a '''life celebration''' or '''celebration of life''' event for the deceased in addition to or instead of a traditional funeral.", "Unlike funerals, the focus of the ceremony is on the life that was lived.", "Such ceremonies may be held outside the funeral home or place of worship; restaurants, parks, pubs and sporting facilities are popular choices based on the specific interests of the deceased.", "Celebrations of life focus on a life that was lived, including the person's best qualities, interests, achievements and impact, rather than mourning a death.", "Some events are portrayed as joyous parties, instead of a traditional somber funeral.", "Taking on happy and hopeful tones, celebrations of life discourage wearing black and focus on the deceased's individuality.", "An extreme example might have \"a fully stocked open bar, catered food, and even favors.\"", "Notable recent celebrations of life ceremonies include those for René Angélil and Maya Angelou.===Jazz funeral===Originating in New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S., alongside the emergence of jazz music in late 19th and early 20th centuries, the jazz funeral is a traditionally African-American burial ceremony and celebration of life unique to New Orleans that involves a parading funeral procession accompanied by a brass band playing somber hymns followed by upbeat jazz music.", "Traditional jazz funerals begin with a processional led by the funeral director, family, friends, and the brass band, i.e., the \"main line\", who march from the funeral service to the burial site while the band plays slow dirges and Christian hymns.", "After the body is buried, or \"cut loose\", the band begins to play up-tempo, joyful jazz numbers, as the main line parades through the streets and crowds of \"second liners\" join in and begin dancing and marching along, transforming the funeral into a street festival.===Green===A natural burial gravesite with just a stone to mark the graveThe terms \"green burial\" and \"natural burial\", used interchangeably, apply to ceremonies that aim to return the body with the earth with little to no use of artificial, non-biodegradable materials.", "As a concept, the idea of uniting an individual with the natural world after they die appears as old as human death itself, being widespread before the rise of the funeral industry.", "Holding environmentally-friendly ceremonies as a modern concept first attracted widespread attention in the 1990s.", "In terms of North America, the opening of the first explicitly \"green\" burial cemetery in the U.S. took place in the state of South Carolina.", "However, the Green Burial Council, which came into being in 2005, has based its operations out of California.", "The institution works to officially certify burial practices for funeral homes and cemeteries, making sure that appropriate materials are used.Religiously, some adherents of the Roman Catholic Church often have particular interest in \"green\" funerals given the faith's preference to full burial of the body as well as the theological commitments to care for the environment stated in Catholic social teaching.Those with concerns about the effects on the environment of traditional burial or cremation may be placed into a natural bio-degradable green burial shroud.", "That, in turn, sometimes gets placed into a simple coffin made of cardboard or other easily biodegradable material.", "Furthermore, individuals may choose their final resting place to be in a specially designed park or woodland, sometimes known as an \"ecocemetery\", and may have a tree or other item of greenery planted over their grave both as a contribution to the environment and a symbol of remembrance.===Humanist and otherwise not religiously affiliated===Humanists UK organises a network of humanist funeral celebrants or officiants across England and Wales, Northern Ireland, and the Channel Islands and a similar network is organised by the Humanist Society Scotland.", "Humanist officiants are trained and experienced in devising and conducting suitable ceremonies for non-religious individuals.", "Humanist funerals recognise no \"afterlife\", but celebrate the life of the person who has died.", "In the twenty-first century, humanist funerals were held for well-known people including Claire Rayner, Keith Floyd, Linda Smith, and Ronnie Barker.In areas outside of the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland has featured an increasing number of non-religious funeral arrangements according to publications such as ''Dublin Live''.", "This has occurred in parallel with a trend of increasing numbers of people carefully scripting their own funerals before they die, writing the details of their own ceremonies.", "The Irish Association of Funeral Directors has reported that funerals without a religious focus occur mainly in more urbanized areas in contrast to rural territories.", "Notably, humanist funerals have started to become more prominent in other nations such as the Republic of Malta, in which civil rights activist and humanist Ramon Casha had a large scale event at the Radisson Blu Golden Sands resort devoted to laying him to rest.", "Although such non-religious ceremonies are \"a rare scene in Maltese society\" due to the large role of the Roman Catholic Church within that country's culture, according to ''Lovin Malta'', \"more and more Maltese people want to know about alternative forms of burial... without any religion being involved\".Actual events during non-religious funerals vary, but they frequently reflect upon the interests and personality of the deceased.", "For example, the humanist ceremony for the aforementioned Keith Floyd, a restaurateur and television personality, included a reading of Rudyard Kipling's poetic work ''If—'' and a performance by musician Bill Padley.", "Organizations such as the Irish Institute of Celebrants have stated that more and more regular individuals request training for administering funeral ceremonies, instead of leaving things to other individuals.More recently, some commercial organisations offer \"civil funerals\" that can integrate traditionally religious content.===Police/fire services===Traditional \"crossed-ladders\" for a fire department funeralFunerals specifically for fallen members of fire or police services are common in United States and Canada.", "These funerals involve honour guards from police forces and/or fire services from across the country and sometimes from overseas.", "A parade of officers often precedes or follows the hearse carrying the fallen comrade.", "A traditional fire department funeral consists of two raised aerial ladders.", "The firefighters travel under the aerials on their ride, on the fire apparatus, to the cemetery.", "Once there, the grave service includes the playing of bagpipes.", "The pipes have come to be a distinguishing feature of a fallen hero's funeral.", "Also a \"Last Alarm Bell\" is rung.", "A portable fire department bell is tolled at the conclusion of the ceremony.===Masonic===A Masonic funeral is held at the request of a departed Mason or family member.", "The service may be held in any of the usual places or a Lodge room with committal at graveside, or the complete service can be performed at any of the aforementioned places without a separate committal.", "Freemasonry does not require a Masonic funeral.There is no single convention for a Masonic funeral service.", "Some Grand Lodges have a prescribed service (as it is a worldwide organisation).", "Some of the customs include the presiding officer wearing a hat while doing his part in the service, the Lodge members placing sprigs of evergreen on the casket, and a small white leather apron may being placed in or on the casket.", "The hat may be worn because it is Masonic custom (in some places in the world) for the presiding officer to have his head covered while officiating.", "To Masons the sprig of evergreen is a symbol of immortality.", "A Mason wears a white leather apron, called a \"lambskin\", on becoming a Mason, and he may continue to wear it even in death." ], [ "Asian funerals", "Funeral procession in Beijing, 1900A traditional armband indicating seniority and lineage in relation to the deceased, a common practice in South KoreaIn most East Asian, South Asian and many Southeast Asian cultures, the wearing of white is symbolic of death.", "In these societies, white or off-white robes are traditionally worn to symbolize that someone has died and can be seen worn among relatives of the deceased during a funeral ceremony.", "In Chinese culture, red is strictly forbidden as it is a traditionally symbolic color of happiness.", "Exceptions are sometimes made if the deceased has reached an advanced age such as 85, in which case the funeral is considered a celebration, where wearing white with some red is acceptable.", "Contemporary Western influence however has meant that dark-colored or black attire is now often also acceptable for mourners to wear (particularly for those outside the family).", "In such cases, mourners wearing dark colors at times may also wear a white or off-white armband or white robe.Contemporary South Korean funerals typically mix western culture with traditional Korean culture, largely depending on socio-economic status, region, and religion.", "In almost all cases, all related males in the family wear woven armbands representing seniority and lineage in relation to the deceased, and must grieve next to the deceased for a period of three days before burying the body.", "During this period of time, it is customary for the males in the family to personally greet all who come to show respect.", "While burials have been preferred historically, recent trends show a dramatic increase in cremations due to shortages of proper burial sites and difficulties in maintaining a traditional grave.", "The ashes of the cremated corpse are commonly stored in columbaria.===In Japan===Sudangee or last offices being performed on a dead person, illustration from 1867Most Japanese funerals are conducted with Buddhist and/or Shinto rites.", "Many ritually bestow a new name on the deceased; funerary names typically use obsolete or archaic kanji and words, to avoid the likelihood of the name being used in ordinary speech or writing.", "The new names are typically chosen by a Buddhist priest, after consulting the family of the deceased.Religious thought among the Japanese people is generally a blend of Shintō and Buddhist beliefs.", "In modern practice, specific rites concerning an individual's passage through life are generally ascribed to one of these two faiths.", "Funerals and follow-up memorial services fall under the purview of Buddhist ritual, and 90% Japanese funerals are conducted in a Buddhist manner.", "Aside from the religious aspect, a Japanese funeral usually includes a wake, the cremation of the deceased, and inclusion within the family grave.", "Follow-up services are then performed by a Buddhist priest on specific anniversaries after death.According to an estimate in 2005, 99% of all deceased Japanese are cremated.", "In most cases the cremated remains are placed in an urn and then deposited in a family grave.", "In recent years however, alternative methods of disposal have become more popular, including scattering of the ashes, burial in outer space, and conversion of the cremated remains into a diamond that can be set in jewelry.===In the Philippines===Funeral practices and burial customs in the Philippines encompass a wide range of personal, cultural, and traditional beliefs and practices which Filipinos observe in relation to death, bereavement, and the proper honoring, interment, and remembrance of the dead.", "These practices have been vastly shaped by the variety of religions and cultures that entered the Philippines throughout its complex history.Most if not all present-day Filipinos, like their ancestors, believe in some form of an afterlife and give considerable attention to honouring the dead.", "Except amongst Filipino Muslims (who are obliged to bury a corpse less than 24 hours after death), a wake is generally held from three days to a week.", "Wakes in rural areas are usually held in the home, while in urban settings the dead is typically displayed in a funeral home.", "Friends and neighbors bring food to the family, such as ''pancit'' noodles and ''bibingka'' cake'';'' any leftovers are never taken home by guests, because of a superstition against it.", "Apart from spreading the news about someone's death verbally, obituaries are also published in newspapers.", "Although the majority of the Filipino people are Christians, they have retained some traditional indigenous beliefs concerning death.===In Korea===Yukgaejang is a spicy soup with a beef and vegetables in it.", "It is a Korean traditional food and served during funerals.In Korea, funerals are typically held for three days and different things are done in each day.The first day: on the day a person dies, the body is moved to a funeral hall.", "They prepare clothes for the body and put them into a chapel of rest.", "Then food is prepared for the deceased.", "It is made up of three bowls of rice and three kinds of Korean side dishes.", "Also, there has to be three coins and three straw shoes.", "This can be cancelled if the family of the dead person have a particular religion.", "''Soju'', a Korean distilled drink served at funeralsOn the second day the funeral director washes the body and shrouding is done.", "Then, a family member of the dead person puts uncooked rice in the mouth of the body.", "This step does not have to be done if the family has a certain religion.", "After putting the rice in the mouth, the body is moved into a coffin.", "Family members, including close relatives, of the dead person will wear mourning clothing.", "Typically, mourning for a woman includes Korean traditional clothes, Hanbok, and mourning for man includes a suit.", "The color has to be black.", "The ritual ceremony begins when they are done with changing clothes and preparing foods for the dead person.", "The ritual ceremony is different depending on their religion.", "After the ritual ceremony family members will start to greet guests.On the third day, the family decides whether to bury the body in the ground or cremate the body.", "In the case of burial, three family members sprinkle dirt on the coffin three times.", "In the case of cremation, there is no specific ritual; the only requirement is a jar to store burned bones and a place to keep the jar.Other than these facts, in Korea, people who come to the funeral bring condolence money.", "Also, a food called Yukgaejang is served to guests, oftentimes with the Korean distilled drink called soju.===In Mongolia===In Mongolia, like many other cultures, funeral practices are the most important rituals that they follow.", "They have mixed their rituals with Buddhists due to creating a new, unique way of death.For Mongolians who are very strict about tradition, families choose from three different ways of burial: open-air burial which is most common, cremation, and embalming.", "Many factors go into deciding which funeral practice to do.", "These consisted of the family's social standing, the cause of death, and the place of death.", "Embalming was mainly chosen by members of the Lamaistic Church; by choosing this practice, they are usually buried in a sitting position.", "This would show that they would always be in the position of prayer.", "Also, more important people such as nobles would be buried with weapons, horses and food in their coffins to help them prepare for the next world.The coffin is designed and built by three to four relatives, mainly men.", "The builders bring planks to the hut where the dead is located and put together the box and the lid.", "The same people who build the coffin also decorate the funeral.", "Most of this work is done after dusk.", "With specific instruction, they work on decorations inside the youngest daughter's house.", "The reason for this is so the deceased is not disturbed at night.===In Vietnam===The scene of the funeral procession during the Revival Lê dynasty in 1684-1685 Emperor Khải Định's funeralIn Vietnam, Buddhism is the most commonly practiced religion, however, most burial methods do not coincide with the Buddhist belief of cremation.The body of the deceased is moved to a loved one's house and placed in an expensive coffin.", "The body usually stays there for about three days, allowing time for people to visit and place gifts in the mouth.", "This stems from the Vietnamese belief that the dead should be surrounded by their family.", "This belief goes so far as to include superstition as well.", "If somebody is dying in Vietnamese culture, they are rushed home from the hospital so they can die there, because if they die away from home it is believed to be bad luck to take a corpse home.Many services are also held in the Vietnamese burial practices.", "One is held before moving the coffin from the home and the other is held at the burial site.", "After the burial of the loved one, incense is burned at the gravesite and respect is paid to all the nearby graves.", "Following this, the family and friends return to the home and enjoy a feast to celebrate the life of the recently departed.", "Even after the deceased has been buried, the respect and honor continues.", "For the first 49 days after the burying, the family holds a memorial service every 7 days, where the family and friends come back together to celebrate the life of their loved one.", "After this, they meet again on the 100th day after the death, then 265 days after the death, and finally they meet on the anniversary of the death of their loved one, a whole year later, to continue to celebrate the glorious life of their recently departed.The Vietnamese funeral, or đám giỗ, is a less somber occasion than most traditional Western funerals.", "The đám giỗ is a celebration of the deceased's life and is centered around the deceased's family.Family members might wear a traditional garment called a mourning headband to signify their relationship with the deceased.", "Typical mourning headbands are thin strips of fabric that are wrapped around the wearer's head.", "Traditionally, the deceased's closest family members, such as children, siblings, spouses, and parents will wear white mourning headbands.", "More distant family members' headband colors may vary.", "In some cultures, the deceased's nieces, nephews, or grandchildren may be required to wear white headbands with red dots.", "Other societies may encourage grandchildren to wear white headbands with blue dots.", "Fourth generation grandchildren often wear yellow mourning headbands.The use of mourning headbands emphasizes the importance of personal and familial roles in Vietnamese society.", "It also allows funeral attendants to carefully choose their interactions and offer condolences to those closest to the deceased.Traditionally, attendants of a Vietnamese funeral service are encouraged to wear the color white.", "In many East Asian cultures, white is viewed as a sign of loss and mourning.", "In Vietnam, members of the Caodaist faith believe that white represents purity and the ability to communicate beyond spiritual worlds." ], [ "African funerals", "Funerary dance ritual.", "A blacksmith carries the dressed body.", "Kapsiki people, North Cameroon.===Ancient Egypt======West African===African funerals are usually open to many visitors.", "The custom of burying the dead in the floor of dwelling-houses has been to some degree prevalent on the Gold Coast of Africa.", "The ceremony depends on the traditions of the ethnicity the deceased belonged to.", "The funeral may last for as much as a week.", "Another custom, a kind of memorial, frequently takes place seven years after the person's death.", "These funerals and especially the memorials may be extremely expensive for the family in question.", "Cattle, sheep, goats, and poultry, may be offered and then consumed.The Ashanti and Akan ethnic groups in Ghana typically wear red and black during funerals.", "For special family members, there is typically a funeral celebration with singing and dancing to honor the life of the deceased.", "Afterwards, the Akan hold a sombre funeral procession and burial with intense displays of sorrow.", "Other funerals in Ghana are held with the deceased put in elaborate Fantasy coffins colored and shaped after a certain object, such as a fish, crab, boat, and even airplanes.", "The Kane Kwei Carpentry Workshop in Teshie, named after Seth Kane Kwei who invented this new style of coffin, has become an international reference for this form of art.====Funeral practices of the Dagbamba=======East African===Evidence of Africa's earliest funeral was found in Kenya in 2021.A 78,000 year old Middle Stone Age grave of a three-year-old child was discovered in Panga ya Saidi cave complex, Kenya.", "Researchers said the childs head appeared to have been laid on a pillow.", "The body had been laid in a fetal position.In Kenya funerals are an expensive undertaking.", "Keeping bodies in morgues to allow for fund raising is a common occurrence more so in urban areas.", "Some families opt to bury their dead in the countryside homes instead of urban cemeteries, thus spending more money on transporting the dead." ], [ "Historical mausoleums", "===China=======Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor====Terracotta warriors of Qin Shi Huang's mausoleumThe first emperor of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum is located in the Lintong District of Xi'an, Shaanxi Province.", "Qin Shi Huang's tomb is one of the World Heritage sites in China.", "Its remarkable feature and size have been known as one of the most important historical sites in China.", "Qin Shi Huang is the first emperor who united China for the first time.", "The mausoleum was built in 247 BCE after he became the emperor of the Qin dynasty.Ancient Chinese mausoleums have unique characteristics compared to other cultures.", "Ancient Chinese thought that the soul remains even after death, (immortal soul) regarded funeral practices as an important tradition.", "From their long history, the construction of mausoleums has developed over time, creating monumental and massive ancient emperor's tomb.Archeologists have found more than 8,000 life-sized figures resembling an army surrounding the emperor's tomb.", "The primary purpose of the placement of Terracotta Army is to protect the emperor's tomb.", "The figures were composed of clay and fragments of pottery.", "The Terracotta Army resembles the soldiers, horses, government officials, and even musicians.", "All of the figures were made so acutely and delicately.", "The arrangement and the weapons they are carrying resembled entirely to the real weapons at that time.", "Furthermore, their facial features weren't identical, but with unique features and details.====Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties====Ming tomb in Beijing, ChinaThe Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties are included as World Heritage Sites.", "The three Imperial Tombs of the Qin dynasty were additionally inscribed in 2000 and 2003.The three tombs were all built in the 17th century.", "The tombs have been constructed to praise the emperors of the Qing dynasty and their ancestors.", "In tradition, Chinese have followed the Feng Shui to build and decorate the interior.", "All of the tombs are strictly made followed by the Feng Shui theory.", "Harmony between the architecture and the surrounding topographical structure were seen as an integral part of nature.", "According to the Feng Shi theory, to build a tomb, there must be a mountain on the northern side and low land on the south.", "In the west and east, a river must be located.The Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties clearly shows the cultural and architectural tradition that has swayed the area for more than 500 years.", "There is a great harmony between the surrounding nature and the architecture.", "In Chinese culture, the tombs were considered as a portal between the world of the living and the dead.", "Chinese believed that the portal would divide the soul into two parts.", "The half of the soul would go to heaven, and the other half would remain within the physical body." ], [ "Mutes and professional mourners", "From about 1600 to 1914 Europe had two professions that have almost entirely disappeared.", "The '''mute''' appears in art quite frequently, but in literature is probably best known from Dickens's ''Oliver Twist'' (1837–1839).", "Oliver is working for Mr Sowerberry when characterised thus: \"There's an expression of melancholy in his face, my dear... which is very interesting.", "He would make a delightful mute, my love.\"", "And in ''Martin Chuzzlewit'' (1842–1844), Moult, the undertaker, states: \"This promises to be one of the most impressive funerals,...no limitation of expense...I have orders to put on my whole establishment of mutes, and mutes come very dear, Mr Pecksniff\".The main function of a funeral mute was to stand around at funerals with a sad, pathetic face.", "A symbolic protector of the deceased, the mute would usually stand near the door of the home or church.", "In Victorian times, mutes would wear somber clothing including black cloaks, top hats with trailing hatbands, and gloves.The '''professional mourner''', generally a woman, would shriek and wail (often while clawing her face and tearing at her clothing), to encourage others to weep.", "Records document forms of professional mourning from Ancient Greece, and practitioners were commonly employed throughout Europe until the beginning of the nineteenth century.", "The 2003 award-winning Philippine comedy ''Crying Ladies'' revolves around the lives of three women who are part-time professional mourners for the Chinese-Filipino community in Manila's Chinatown.", "According to the film, the Chinese use professional mourners to help expedite the entry of a deceased loved one's soul into heaven by giving the impression that he or she was a good and loving person, well-loved by many." ], [ "State funeral", "High-ranking national figures such as heads of state, prominent politicians, military figures, national heroes and eminent cultural figures may be offered state funerals." ], [ "Final disposition", "Common methods of disposal are:* Burial of the entire body in the earth, often within a coffin or casket (also referred to as ''inhumation'')* Permanent storage in an above-ground tomb or mausoleum (also referred to as ''immurement'')* Cremation, which burns soft tissue and renders much of the skeleton to ash.", "The remains may contain larger pieces of bone which are ground in a machine to the consistency of ash.", "The ashes are commonly stored in an urn, or scattered on land or water." ], [ "Self-planned funerals", "Some people choose to make their funeral arrangements in advance so that at the time of their death, their wishes are known to their family.", "However, the extent to which decisions regarding the disposition of a decedent's remains (including funeral arrangements) can be controlled by the decedent while still alive vary from one jurisdiction to another.", "In the United States, there are states which allow one to make these decisions for oneself if desired, for example by appointing an agent to carry out one's wishes; in other states, the law allows the decedent's next-of-kin to make the final decisions about the funeral without taking the wishes of the decedent into account.The decedent may, in most U.S. jurisdictions, provide instructions as to the funeral by means of a last will and testament.", "These instructions can be given some legal effect if bequests are made contingent on the heirs carrying them out, with alternative gifts if they are not followed.", "This requires the will to become available in time; aspects of the disposition of the remains of US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt ran contrary to a number of his stated wishes, which were found in a safe that was not opened until after the funeral." ], [ "Organ donation and body donation", "Some people donate their bodies to a medical school for use in research or education.", "Medical students frequently study anatomy from donated cadavers; they are also useful in forensic research.", "Some medical conditions, such as amputations or various surgeries can make the cadaver unsuitable for these purposes; in other cases the bodies of people who had certain medical conditions are useful for research into those conditions.", "Many medical schools rely on the donation of cadavers for the teaching of anatomy.", "It is also possible to arrange for donate organs and tissue after death for treating the sick, or even whole cadavers for forensic research at body farms." ], [ "See also", "* Burial* Dead bell* Eulogy* Funerary art* Homo naledi* Institute of Civil Funerals* List of funerals* Wake (ceremony)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Akyel, Dominic.", "''From Detraditionalization to Price-consciousness: The Economization of Funeral Consumption in Germany''.", "In Uwe Schimank and Ute Volkmann (ed.)", "The Marketization of Society: Economizing the Non-Economic.", "Bremen: Research Cluster \"Welfare Societies\", 2012, pp. 105–124.", "* Hoy, William G. (2013). ''", "Do Funerals Matter?", "The Purposes and Practices of Death Rituals in Global Perspective.''", "New York: Routledge.", "* * Long, Thomas G. (2009).", "''Accompany Them with Singing: The Christian Funeral''.", "Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press.", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "February 11" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*660 BC – Traditional date for the foundation of Japan by Emperor Jimmu.", "*55 – The death under mysterious circumstances of Tiberius Claudius Caesar Britannicus, heir to the Roman Empire, on the eve of his coming of age clears the way for Nero to become Emperor.", "* 951 – Guo Wei, a court official, leads a military coup and declares himself emperor of the new Later Zhou.", "*1144 - Robert of Chester completes his translation from Arabic to Latin of the ''Liber de compositione alchemiae'', marking the birth of Western alchemy.", "*1534 – At the Convocation of Canterbury, the Catholic bishops comprising the Upper House of the Province of Canterbury agree to style Henry VIII supreme head of the English church and clergy \"so far as the law of Christ allows\".", "*1584 – A naval expedition led by Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa founds Nombre de Jesús, the first of two short-lived Spanish settlements in the Strait of Magellan.", "*1586 – Sir Francis Drake with an English force captures and occupies the Spanish colonial port of Cartagena de Indias for two months, obtaining a ransom and booty.===1601–1900===*1659 – The assault on Copenhagen by Swedish forces is beaten back with heavy losses.", "*1794 – First session of United States Senate opens to the public.", "*1808 – Jesse Fell burns anthracite on an open grate as an experiment in heating homes with coal.", "*1812 – Massachusetts governor Elbridge Gerry is accused of \"gerrymandering\" for the first time.", "*1823 – Carnival tragedy of 1823: About 110 boys are killed during a stampede at the Convent of the Minori Osservanti in Valletta, Malta.", "*1826 – University College London is founded as University of London.", "*1840 – Gaetano Donizetti's opera ''La fille du régiment'' receives its first performance in Paris, France.", "*1843 – Giuseppe Verdi's opera ''I Lombardi alla prima crociata'' receives its first performance in Milan, Italy.", "*1855 – Kassa Hailu is crowned Tewodros II, Emperor of Ethiopia.", "*1856 – The Kingdom of Awadh is annexed by the British East India Company and Wajid Ali Shah, the king of Awadh, is deposed.", "*1858 – Bernadette Soubirous's first vision of the Blessed Virgin Mary occurs in Lourdes, France.", "*1861 – American Civil War: The United States House of Representatives unanimously passes a resolution guaranteeing noninterference with slavery in any state.", "*1873 – King Amadeo I of Spain abdicates, triggering the proclamation of the First Spanish Republic.", "*1889 – The Meiji Constitution of Japan is adopted.===1901–present===*1903 – Anton Bruckner's 9th Symphony receives its first performance in Vienna, Austria.", "*1906 – Pope Pius X publishes the encyclical ''Vehementer Nos''.", "*1919 – Friedrich Ebert (SPD), is elected President of Germany.", "*1929 – The Kingdom of Italy and the Vatican sign the Lateran Treaty.", "*1937 – The Flint sit-down strike ends when General Motors recognizes the United Auto Workers trade union.", "*1938 – BBC Television produces the world's first ever science fiction television programme, an adaptation of a section of the Karel Čapek play ''R.U.R.", "'', that coined the term \"robot\".", "*1942 – World War II: Second day of the Battle of Bukit Timah is fought in Singapore.", "*1946 – The New Testament of the Revised Standard Version of the Bible, the first significant challenge to the Authorized King James Version, is published.", "*1953 – Cold War: U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower denies all appeals for clemency for Julius and Ethel Rosenberg.", "* 1953 – Israeli-Soviet relations are severed.", "*1959 – The Federation of Arab Emirates of the South is created as a protectorate of the United Kingdom.", "*1963 — The Beatles recorded their first album Please Please Me*1970 – Japan launches ''Ohsumi'', becoming the fourth nation to put an object into orbit using its own booster.", "*1971 – Cold War: the Seabed Arms Control Treaty opened for signature outlawing nuclear weapons on the ocean floor in international waters.", "*1978 – Pacific Western Airlines Flight 314 crashes at the Cranbrook/Canadian Rockies International Airport in Cranbrook, British Columbia, Canada with 42 deaths and seven survivors.", "*1979 – The Iranian Revolution establishes an Islamic theocracy under the leadership of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.", "*1990 – Nelson Mandela is released from Victor Verster Prison outside Cape Town, South Africa after 27 years as a political prisoner.", "* 1990 – Buster Douglas, a 42:1 underdog, knocks out Mike Tyson in ten rounds at Tokyo to win boxing's world Heavyweight title.", "*1997 – Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' is launched on a mission to service the Hubble Space Telescope.", "*1999 – Pluto crosses Neptune's orbit, ending a nearly 20-year period when it was closer to the Sun than the gas giant; Pluto is not expected to interact with Neptune's orbit again until 2231.", "*2001 – A Dutch programmer launched the Anna Kournikova virus infecting millions of emails via a trick photo of the tennis star.", "*2008 – Rebel East Timorese soldiers seriously wound President José Ramos-Horta.", "Rebel leader Alfredo Reinado is killed in the attack.", "*2011 – Arab Spring: The first wave of the Egyptian revolution culminates in the resignation of Hosni Mubarak and the transfer of power to the Supreme Military Council after 17 days of protests.", "*2013 – The Vatican confirmed that Pope Benedict XVI would resign the papacy as a result of his advanced age.", "* 2013 – Militants claiming to be from the Sultanate of Sulu invade Lahad Datu District, Sabah, Malaysia, beginning the Lahad Datu standoff.", "*2014 – A military transport plane crashes in a mountainous area of Oum El Bouaghi Province in eastern Algeria, killing 77 people.", "*2015 – A university student was murdered as she resisted an attempted rape in Turkey, sparking nationwide protests and public outcry against harassment and violence against women.", "*2016 – A man shoots seven people dead at an education center in Jizan Province, Saudi Arabia.", "*2017 – North Korea test fires a ballistic missile across the Sea of Japan.", "*2018 – Saratov Airlines Flight 703 crashes near Moscow, Russia with 71 deaths and no survivors.", "*2020 – COVID-19 pandemic: The World Health Organization officially names the coronavirus outbreak as COVID-19, with the virus being designated SARS-CoV-2.", "*2024 – 2024 Finnish presidential election: Alexander Stubb is elected as the 13th president of Finland." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1380 – Poggio Bracciolini, Italian scholar and translator (d. 1459)*1466 – Elizabeth of York (d. 1503)*1535 – Pope Gregory XIV (d. 1591)*1568 – Honoré d'Urfé, French author and playwright (d. 1625)===1601–1900===*1649 – William Carstares, Scottish minister and academic (d. 1715)*1657 – Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle, French poet and playwright (d. 1757)*1708 – Egidio Duni, Italian composer (d. 1775)*1764 – Marie-Joseph Chénier, French poet and playwright (d. 1811)*1776 – Ioannis Kapodistrias, Greek politician, 1st Governor of Greece (d. 1831)*1800 – Henry Fox Talbot, English photographer and politician, invented the calotype (d. 1877)*1802 – Lydia Maria Child, American journalist, author, and activist (d. 1880)*1805 – Jean Baptiste Charbonneau, Native American-French Canadian explorer (d. 1866)*1812 – Alexander H. Stephens, American lawyer and politician, Vice President of the Confederate States of America (d. 1883)*1813 – Otto Ludwig, German author, playwright, and critic (d. 1865)*1821 – Auguste Mariette, French archaeologist and scholar (d. 1881)*1830 – Hans Bronsart von Schellendorff, Prussian pianist and composer (d. 1913)*1833 – Melville Fuller, American lawyer and jurist, 8th Chief Justice of the United States (d. 1910)*1839 – Josiah Willard Gibbs, American physicist (d. 1903)*1845 – Ahmet Tevfik Pasha, Ottoman soldier and politician, Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (d. 1936)*1847 – Thomas Edison, American engineer and businessman, developed the light bulb and phonograph (d. 1931)*1855 – Ellen Day Hale, American painter and author (d. 1940)*1860 – Rachilde, French author and playwright (d. 1953)*1863 – John F. Fitzgerald, American politician; Mayor of Boston (d. 1950)*1864 – Louis Bouveault, French chemist (d. 1909)*1869 – Helene Kröller-Müller, German-Dutch art collector and philanthropist, founded the Kröller-Müller Museum (d. 1939)* 1869 – Else Lasker-Schüler, German poet and author (d. 1945)*1874 – Elsa Beskow, Swedish author and illustrator (d. 1953)*1881 – Carlo Carrà, Italian painter (d. 1966)*1888 – John Warren Davis, American educator, college administrator, and civil rights leader (d. 1980)*1897 – Emil Leon Post, Polish-American mathematician and logician (d.1954)*1898 – Leo Szilard, Hungarian-American physicist and academic (d. 1964)*1900 – Ellen Broe, Danish nurse, pioneer in nursing education (d. 1994)* 1900 – Hans-Georg Gadamer, German philosopher and scholar (d. 2002)* 1900 – Jōsei Toda, Japanese educator and activist (d. 1958)===1901–present===*1902 – Arne Jacobsen, Danish architect, designed Radisson Blu Royal Hotel (d. 1971)*1904 – Keith Holyoake, New Zealand farmer and politician, 26th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1983)* 1904 – Lucile Randon, French supercentenarian (d. 2023)*1908 – Philip Dunne, American screenwriter (d. 1992)* 1908 – Vivian Fuchs, English explorer (d. 1999)*1909 – Max Baer, American boxer and actor (d. 1959)* 1909 – Joseph L. Mankiewicz, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1993)*1912 – Rudolf Firkušný, Czech-American pianist and educator (d. 1994)*1914 – Matt Dennis, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2002)* 1914 – Josh White, American blues singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1969)*1915 – Patrick Leigh Fermor, English soldier, author, and scholar (d. 2011)* 1915 – Richard Hamming, American mathematician and academic (d. 1998)*1917 – Sidney Sheldon, American author and screenwriter (d. 2007)*1919 – Eva Gabor, Hungarian-American actress (d. 1995)*1920 – Farouk of Egypt (d. 1965)* 1920 – Daniel F. Galouye, American author (d. 1976)* 1920 – Billy Halop, American actor (d. 1976)* 1920 – Daniel James, Jr., American general and pilot (d. 1978)*1921 – Lloyd Bentsen, American politician, 69th United States Secretary of the Treasury (d. 2006)* 1921 – Ottavio Missoni, Italian hurdler and fashion designer, founded Missoni (d. 2013)*1923 – Antony Flew, English philosopher and academic (d. 2010)*1924 – Budge Patty, American tennis player (d. 2021)*1925 – Virginia E. Johnson, American psychologist and academic (d. 2013)* 1925 – Kim Stanley, American actress (d. 2001)*1926 – Paul Bocuse, French chef (d. 2018)* 1926 – Leslie Nielsen, Canadian-American actor and producer (d. 2010)*1930 – Roy De Forest, American painter and academic (d.", "2007).", "* 1930 – Mary Quant, British fashion designer (d. 2023)*1932 – Dennis Skinner, English miner and politician*1934 – Mel Carnahan, American lawyer and politician, 51st Governor of Missouri (d. 2000)* 1934 – Tina Louise, American actress and singer* 1934 – Manuel Noriega, Panamanian general and politician, Military leader of Panama (d. 2017)* 1934 – David Taylor, English veterinarian and television host (d. 2013)*1935 – Gene Vincent, American singer and guitarist (d. 1971)*1936 – Burt Reynolds, American actor and director (d. 2018)*1937 – Ian Gow, British politician (d. 1990)* 1937 – Bill Lawry, Australian cricketer and sportscaster* 1937 – Eddie Shack, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2020)* 1937 – Phillip Walker, American singer and guitarist (d. 2010)*1938 – Bevan Congdon, New Zealand cricketer (d. 2018)*1939 – Gerry Goffin, American songwriter (d. 2014)*1940 – Calvin Fowler, American basketball player (d. 2013)*1941 – Sérgio Mendes, Brazilian pianist and composer*1942 – Otis Clay, American singer-songwriter (d. 2016)*1943 – Joselito, Spanish singer and actor* 1943 – Alan Rubin, American trumpet player (d. 2011)*1944 – Mike Oxley, American lawyer and politician (d. 2016)* 1944 – Joy Williams, American novelist, short story writer, and essayist*1946 – Ian Porterfield, Scottish footballer and manager (d. 2007)*1947 – Yukio Hatoyama, Japanese engineer and politician and Prime Minister of Japan* 1947 – Derek Shulman, Scottish singer-songwriter and producer*1949 – James Silas, American basketball player*1951 – Mike Leavitt, American politician, 14th Governor of Utah*1953 – Philip Anglim, American actor* 1953 – Jeb Bush, American banker and politician, 43rd Governor of Florida* 1953 – Tom Veryzer, American baseball player (d. 2014)*1954 – Wesley Strick, American director and screenwriter*1956 – Catherine Hickland, American actress* 1956 – Didier Lockwood, French violinist (d. 2018)*1957 – Tina Ambani, Indian actress and chairperson*1959 – Roberto Moreno, Brazilian race car driver*1960 – Richard Mastracchio, American engineer and astronaut*1961 – Carey Lowell, American actress*1962 – Tammy Baldwin, American lawyer and politician* 1962 – Sheryl Crow, American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1964 – Sarah Palin, American politician, 9th Governor of Alaska* 1964 – Ken Shamrock, American martial artist and wrestler*1965 – Vicki Wilson, Australian netball player*1967 – Ciro Ferrara, Italian footballer and manager*1968 – Mo Willems, American author and illustrator*1969 – Jennifer Aniston, American actress and producer* 1969 – Andreas Hilfiker, Swiss footballer* 1969 – John Salako, Nigerian-English footballer, manager, and sportscaster*1971 – Damian Lewis, English actor*1972 – Steve McManaman, English footballer* 1972 – Kelly Slater, American surfer*1973 – Varg Vikernes, Norwegian guitarist and songwriter*1974 – Nick Barmby, English footballer and manager* 1974 – D'Angelo, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer* 1974 – Alex Jones, American radio show host and conspiracy theorist* 1974 – Isaiah Mustafa, American actor and football player* 1974 – Jaroslav Špaček, Czech ice hockey player and coach*1975 – Andy Lally, American race car driver* 1975 – Callum Thorp, Australian cricketer* 1975 – Jacque Vaughn, American basketball player and coach*1976 – Tony Battie, American basketball player and sportscaster* 1976 – Bryce Salvador, Canadian ice hockey player*1977 – Mike Shinoda, American musician and artist*1979 – Brandy Norwood, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress*1980 – Matthew Lawrence, American actor and singer*1981 – Kelly Rowland, American singer and actress*1982 – Daryn Colledge, American football player* 1982 – Natalie Dormer, English actress* 1982 – Ľubomíra Kalinová, Slovak biathlete* 1982 – Neil Robertson, Australian snooker player*1983 – Rafael van der Vaart, Dutch footballer*1984 – Maarten Heisen, Dutch sprinter* 1984 – Marco Marcato, Italian cyclist* 1984 – Aubrey O'Day, American singer and reality television personality* 1984 – Maxime Talbot, Canadian ice hockey player* 1984 – Alando Tucker, American basketball player and coach*1985 – Mike Richards, Canadian ice hockey player* 1985 – Šárka Strachová, Czech skier*1986 – Gabriel Boric, Chilean politician, 36th President of Chile*1987 – Luca Antonelli, Italian footballer* 1987 – Juanmi Callejón, Spanish footballer* 1987 – Brian Matusz, American baseball player* 1987 – Jan Smeekens, Dutch speed skater* 1987 – Ellen van Dijk, Dutch cyclist*1988 – Vlad Moldoveanu, Romanian basketball player*1990 – Javier Aquino, Mexican footballer* 1990 – Q'orianka Kilcher, German-American actress*1991 – Laurent Duvernay-Tardif, Canadian football player and medical doctor* 1991 – Nikola Mirotic, Spanish basketball player*1992 – Lasse Norman Hansen, Danish track and road cyclist* 1992 – Taylor Lautner, American actor* 1992 – Jake Matthews, American football player*1993 – Ben McLemore, American basketball player*1994 – Dansby Swanson, American baseball player*1995 – Milan Škriniar, Slovak footballer* 1995 – Rick Karsdorp, Dutch footballer*1996 – Daniil Medvedev, Russian tennis player* 1996 – Jonathan Tah, German footballer* 1996 – Lucas Torreira, Uruguayan footballer*1997 – Damien Harris, American football player* 1997 – Mike Hughes, American football player* 1997 – Hubert Hurkacz, Polish tennis player* 1997 – Rosé, New Zealand-South Korean singer and dancer*1998 – Trent Frederic, American ice hockey player* 1998 – Josh Jacobs, American football player* 1998 – Khalid, American singer and songwriter*2000 – Nassir Little, American basketball player*2001 – Bryan Gil, Spanish footballer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===*AD 55 – Britannicus, Roman son of Claudius (b.", "41)* 244 – Gordian III, Roman emperor (b.", "225)* 641 – Heraclius, Byzantine emperor (b.", "575)* 731 – Pope Gregory II (b.", "669)* 824 – Pope Paschal I*1141 – Hugh of Saint Victor, German philosopher and theologian (b.", "1096)*1503 – Elizabeth of York (b.", "1466)===1601–1900===*1626 – Pietro Cataldi, Italian mathematician and astronomer (b.", "1548)*1650 – René Descartes, French mathematician and philosopher (b.", "1596)*1755 – Francesco Scipione, marchese di Maffei, Italian archaeologist, playwright, and critic (b.", "1675)*1763 – William Shenstone, English poet and gardener (b.", "1714)*1768 – George Dance the Elder, English architect, designed St Leonard's and St Botolph's Aldgate (b.", "1695)*1795 – Carl Michael Bellman, Swedish poet and composer (b.", "1740)*1811 – Juan Sánchez Ramírez, leader of the troops that fought against the French rule of Santo Domingo's colony between 1808 and 1809 (b.", "1762)*1829 – Alexander Griboyedov, Russian poet, playwright, and composer (b.", "1795)*1862 – Elizabeth Siddal, English poet and artist's model (b.", "1829)*1868 – Léon Foucault, French physicist and academic (b.", "1819)*1898 – Félix María Zuloaga, Mexican general and unconstitutional interim president (b.", "1813)===1901–present===*1901 – Milan I of Serbia (b.", "1855)*1917 – Oswaldo Cruz, Brazilian physician and epidemiologist (b.", "1872)*1918 – Alexey Kaledin, Russian general (b.", "1861)*1931 – Charles Algernon Parsons, English-Irish engineer, invented the steam turbine (b.", "1854)*1938 – Kalle Korhonen, Finnish politician (b.", "1878)*1940 – John Buchan, Scottish-Canadian historian and politician, Governor General of Canada (b.", "1875)* 1940 – Ellen Day Hale, American painter and author (b.", "1855)*1942 – Jamnalal Bajaj, Indian businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1884)*1947 – Martin Klein, Estonian wrestler and coach (b.", "1884)*1948 – Sergei Eisenstein, Russian director and screenwriter (b.", "1898)*1949 – Axel Munthe, Swedish doctor (b.", "1857)*1958 – Ernest Jones, Welsh neurologist and psychoanalyst (b.", "1879)*1963 – John Olof Dahlgren, Swedish-American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b.", "1872)* 1963 – Sylvia Plath, American poet, novelist, and short story writer (b.", "1932)*1967 – A. J. Muste, Dutch-American minister and activist (b.", "1885)*1968 – Howard Lindsay, American playwright (b.", "1889)*1973 – J. Hans D. Jensen, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1907)*1975 – Richard Ratsimandrava, Malagasy colonel and politician, President of Madagascar (b.", "1931)*1976 – Lee J. Cobb, American actor (b.", "1911)* 1976 – Alexander Lippisch, German pilot and engineer (b.", "1894)*1977 – Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, Indian lawyer and politician, 5th President of India (b.", "1905)* 1977 – Louis Beel, Dutch academic and politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (b.", "1902)*1978 – James Bryant Conant, American chemist and academic (b.", "1893)* 1978 – Harry Martinson, Swedish novelist, essayist, and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1904)*1982 – Eleanor Powell, American actress and dancer (b.", "1912)*1985 – Henry Hathaway, American actor, director, and producer (b.", "1898)*1986 – Frank Herbert, American journalist and author (b.", "1920)*1989 – George O'Hanlon, American actor and voice artist (b.", "1912)*1993 – Robert W. Holley, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1922)*1994 – Neil Bonnett, American race car driver (b.", "1946)* 1994 – Sorrell Booke, American actor and director (b.", "1930)* 1994 – William Conrad, American actor, director, and producer (b.", "1920)* 1994 – Paul Feyerabend, Austrian-Swiss philosopher and academic (b.", "1924)*1996 – Amelia Rosselli, Italian poet and author (b.", "1930)*2000 – Lord Kitchner, Trinidadian singer (b.", "1922)* 2000 – Roger Vadim, French director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1928)*2002 – Frankie Crosetti, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1910)* 2002 – Barry Foster, English actor (b.", "1931)*2004 – Shirley Strickland, Australian runner (b.", "1925)*2005 – Jack L. Chalker, American author (b.", "1944)*2006 – Peter Benchley, American author and screenwriter (b.", "1940)* 2006 – Ken Fletcher, Australian tennis player (b.", "1940)* 2006 – Jackie Pallo, English wrestler and actor (b.", "1926)* 2006 – Matilda, American chicken and stage magician, oldest known chicken (h. 1990)*2008 – Tom Lantos, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1928)* 2008 – Frank Piasecki, American engineer (b.", "1919)*2009 – Estelle Bennett, American singer (b.", "1941)* 2009 – Willem Johan Kolff, Dutch-American physician and academic (b.", "1911)*2010 – Heward Grafftey, Canadian businessman and politician (b.", "1928)* 2010 – Alexander McQueen, English fashion designer, founder of his eponymous brand (b.", "1969)*2011 – Chuck Tanner, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1928)*2012 – Siri Bjerke, Norwegian politician, Norwegian Minister of the Environment (b.", "1958)* 2012 – Aharon Davidi, Israeli general (b.", "1927)* 2012 – Whitney Houston, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress (b.", "1963)*2013 – Rick Huxley, English bass player (b.", "1940)*2014 – Alice Babs, Swedish singer and actress (b.", "1924)* 2014 – Tito Canepa, Dominican-American painter (b.", "1916)* 2014 – Fernando González Pacheco, Colombian journalist and actor (b.", "1932)*2015 – Roger Hanin, French actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1925)* 2015 – Bob Simon, American journalist (b.", "1941)* 2015 – Jerry Tarkanian, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1930)*2016 – Kevin Randleman, American mixed martial artist and wrestler (b.", "1971)* 2016 – Zeng Xuelin, Thai-Chinese footballer and manager (b.", "1929)*2017 – Fab Melo, Brazilian basketball player (b.", "1990)* 2017 – Jaap Rijks, Dutch Olympian (b.", "1919)* 2017 – Trish Doan, Korean-Canadian musician (b.", "1985)*2018 – Vic Damone, American singer, songwriter and actor (b.", "1928)* 2018 – Asma Jahangir, Pakistani human-rights lawyer and social activist (b.", "1952)* 2018 – Jan Maxwell, American stage and television actress (b.", "1956)* 2018 – Qazi Wajid, Pakistani drama actor, writer and artist (b.", "1930)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day:** Blaise Eastern Orthodox liturgics** Cædmon, first recorded Christian poet in England, (Anglicanism)** Gobnait** Gregory II** Lazarus of Milan** February 11 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* European 112 Day (European Union)* Armed Forces Day (Liberia)* Evelio Javier Day (Panay Island, the Philippines)* Feast day of Our Lady of Lourdes (Catholic Church), and its related observance** World Day of the Sick (Roman Catholic Church)* Inventors' Day (United States)* National Foundation Day (Japan)* Youth Day (Cameroon)* International Day of Women and Girls in Science (UN Women)" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Works cited", "**" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 11" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Feminism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Feminism''' is a range of socio-political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes.", "Feminism holds the position that societies prioritize the male point of view and that women are treated unjustly in these societies.", "Efforts to change this include fighting against gender stereotypes and improving educational, professional, and interpersonal opportunities and outcomes for women.Originating in late 18th-century Europe, feminist movements have campaigned and continue to campaign for women's rights, including the right to vote, run for public office, work, earn equal pay, own property, receive education, enter into contracts, have equal rights within marriage, and maternity leave.", "Feminists have also worked to ensure access to contraception, legal abortions, and social integration; and to protect women and girls from sexual assault, sexual harassment, and domestic violence.", "Changes in female dress standards and acceptable physical activities for females have also been part of feminist movements.Many scholars consider feminist campaigns to be a main force behind major historical societal changes for women's rights, particularly in the West, where they are near-universally credited with achieving women's suffrage, gender-neutral language, reproductive rights for women (including access to contraceptives and abortion), and the right to enter into contracts and own property.", "Although feminist advocacy is, and has been, mainly focused on women's rights, some argue for the inclusion of men's liberation within its aims, because they believe that men are also harmed by traditional gender roles.", "Feminist theory, which emerged from feminist movements, aims to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles and lived experiences.", "Feminist theorists have developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to issues concerning gender.Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years, representing different viewpoints and political aims.", "Traditionally, since the 19th century, first-wave liberal feminism, which sought political and legal equality through reforms within a liberal democratic framework, was contrasted with labour-based proletarian women's movements that over time developed into socialist and Marxist feminism based on class struggle theory.", "Since the 1960s, both of these traditions are also contrasted with the radical feminism that arose from the radical wing of second-wave feminism and that calls for a radical reordering of society to eliminate patriarchy.", "Liberal, socialist, and radical feminism are sometimes referred to as the \"Big Three\" schools of feminist thought.Since the late 20th century, many newer forms of feminism have emerged.", "Some forms, such as white feminism and gender-critical feminism, have been criticized as taking into account only white, middle class, college-educated, heterosexual, or cisgender perspectives.", "These criticisms have led to the creation of ethnically specific or multicultural forms of feminism, such as black feminism and intersectional feminism.", "Some have argued that feminism often promotes misandry and the elevation of women's interests above men's, and criticize radical feminist positions as harmful to both men and women." ], [ "History", "=== Terminology ===Mary Wollstonecraft is seen by many as a founder of feminism due to her 1792 book titled ''A Vindication of the Rights of Woman'' in which she argues that class and private property are the basis of discrimination against women, and that women as much as men needed equal rights.", "Charles Fourier, a utopian socialist and French philosopher, is credited with having coined the word \"féminisme\" in 1837.The words \"féminisme\" (\"feminism\") and \"féministe\" (\"feminist\") first appeared in France and the Netherlands in 1872, Great Britain in the 1890s, and the United States in 1910.The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' dates the first appearance in English in this meaning back to 1895.Depending on the historical moment, culture and country, feminists around the world have had different causes and goals.", "Most western feminist historians contend that all movements working to obtain women's rights should be considered feminist movements, even when they did not (or do not) apply the term to themselves.", "Other historians assert that the term should be limited to the modern feminist movement and its descendants.", "Those historians use the label \"protofeminist\" to describe earlier movements.File:Feminist Suffrage Parade in New York City, 1912.jpeg|Feminist suffrage parade, New York City, 1912File:Articles_by_and_photo_of_Charlotte_Perkins_Gilman_in_1916.jpg|Charlotte Perkins Gilman wrote about feminism for the ''Atlanta Constitution'', 10 December 1916.File:Emmeline Pankhurst addresses crowd.jpg|After selling her home, Emmeline Pankhurst, pictured in New York City in 1913, travelled constantly, giving speeches throughout Britain and the United States.File:Wilhelmina Drucker IMG0020.tif|In the Netherlands, Wilhelmina Drucker (1847–1925) fought successfully for the vote and equal rights for women, through organizations she founded.File:Louise Weiss.jpg|Louise Weiss along with other Parisian suffragettes in 1935.The newspaper headline reads \"The Frenchwoman Must Vote\".=== Waves ===The history of the modern western feminist movement is divided into multiple \"waves\".The first comprised women's suffrage movements of the 19th and early-20th centuries, promoting women's right to vote.", "The second wave, the women's liberation movement, began in the 1960s and campaigned for legal and social equality for women.", "In or around 1992, a third wave was identified, characterized by a focus on individuality and diversity.", "Additionally, some have argued for the existence of a fourth wave, starting around 2012, which has used social media to combat sexual harassment, violence against women and rape culture; it is best known for the Me Too movement.=== 19th and early 20th centuries ===First-wave feminism was a period of activity during the 19th and early-20th centuries.", "In the UK and US, it focused on the promotion of equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights for women.", "New legislation included the Custody of Infants Act 1839 in the UK, which introduced the tender years doctrine for child custody and gave women the right of custody of their children for the first time.", "Other legislation, such as the Married Women's Property Act 1870 in the UK and extended in the 1882 Act, became models for similar legislation in other British territories.", "Victoria passed legislation in 1884 and New South Wales in 1889; the remaining Australian colonies passed similar legislation between 1890 and 1897.With the turn of the 19th century, activism focused primarily on gaining political power, particularly the right of women's suffrage, though some feminists were active in campaigning for women's sexual, reproductive, and economic rights too.Women's suffrage (the right to vote and stand for parliamentary office) began in Britain's Australasian colonies at the end of the 19th century, with the self-governing colony of New Zealand granting women the right to vote in 1893; South Australia followed suit with the Constitutional Amendment (Adult Suffrage) Act 1894 in 1894.This was followed by Australia granting female suffrage in 1902.In Britain, the suffragettes and suffragists campaigned for the women's vote, and in 1918 the Representation of the People Act was passed granting the vote to women over the age of 30 who owned property.", "In 1928, this was extended to all women over 21.Emmeline Pankhurst was the most notable activist in England.", "''Time'' named her one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century, stating: \"she shaped an idea of women for our time; she shook society into a new pattern from which there could be no going back.\"", "In the US, notable leaders of this movement included Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery before championing women's right to vote.", "These women were influenced by the Quaker theology of spiritual equality, which asserts that men and women are equal under God.", "In the US, first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1919), granting women the right to vote in all states.", "The term ''first wave'' was coined retroactively when the term ''second-wave feminism'' came into use.During the late Qing period and reform movements such as the Hundred Days' Reform, Chinese feminists called for women's liberation from traditional roles and Neo-Confucian gender segregation.", "Later, the Chinese Communist Party created projects aimed at integrating women into the workforce, and claimed that the revolution had successfully achieved women's liberation.According to Nawar al-Hassan Golley, Arab feminism was closely connected with Arab nationalism.", "In 1899, Qasim Amin, considered the \"father\" of Arab feminism, wrote ''The Liberation of Women'', which argued for legal and social reforms for women.", "He drew links between women's position in Egyptian society and nationalism, leading to the development of Cairo University and the National Movement.", "In 1923 Hoda Shaarawi founded the Egyptian Feminist Union, became its president and a symbol of the Arab women's rights movement.The Iranian Constitutional Revolution in 1905 triggered the Iranian women's movement, which aimed to achieve women's equality in education, marriage, careers, and legal rights.", "However, during the Iranian revolution of 1979, many of the rights that women had gained from the women's movement were systematically abolished, such as the Family Protection Law.=== Mid-20th century ===By the mid-20th century, women still lacked significant rights.In France, women obtained the right to vote only with the Provisional Government of the French Republic of 21 April 1944.The Consultative Assembly of Algiers of 1944 proposed on 24 March 1944 to grant eligibility to women but following an amendment by Fernard Grenier, they were given full citizenship, including the right to vote.", "Grenier's proposition was adopted 51 to 16.In May 1947, following the November 1946 elections, the sociologist Robert Verdier minimized the \"gender gap\", stating in ''Le Populaire'' that women had not voted in a consistent way, dividing themselves, as men, according to social classes.", "During the baby boom period, feminism waned in importance.", "Wars (both World War I and World War II) had seen the provisional emancipation of some women, but post-war periods signalled the return to conservative roles.In Switzerland, women gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971; but in the canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden women obtained the right to vote on local issues only in 1991, when the canton was forced to do so by the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland.", "In Liechtenstein, women were given the right to vote by the women's suffrage referendum of 1984.Three prior referendums held in 1968, 1971 and 1973 had failed to secure women's right to vote.Photograph of American women replacing men fighting in Europe, 1945Feminists continued to campaign for the reform of family laws which gave husbands control over their wives.", "Although by the 20th century coverture had been abolished in the UK and US, in many continental European countries married women still had very few rights.", "For instance, in France, married women did not receive the right to work without their husband's permission until 1965.Feminists have also worked to abolish the \"marital exemption\" in rape laws which precluded the prosecution of husbands for the rape of their wives.", "Earlier efforts by first-wave feminists such as Voltairine de Cleyre, Victoria Woodhull and Elizabeth Clarke Wolstenholme Elmy to criminalize marital rape in the late 19th century had failed; this was only achieved a century later in most Western countries, but is still not achieved in many other parts of the world.French philosopher Simone de Beauvoir provided a Marxist solution and an existentialist view on many of the questions of feminism with the publication of ''Le Deuxième Sexe'' (''The Second Sex'') in 1949.The book expressed feminists' sense of injustice.", "Second-wave feminism is a feminist movement beginning in the early 1960s and continuing to the present; as such, it coexists with third-wave feminism.", "Second-wave feminism is largely concerned with issues of equality beyond suffrage, such as ending gender discrimination.", "Second-wave feminists see women's cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked and encourage women to understand aspects of their personal lives as deeply politicized and as reflecting sexist power structures.", "The feminist activist and author Carol Hanisch coined the slogan \"The Personal is Political\", which became synonymous with the second wave.Second- and third-wave feminism in China has been characterized by a reexamination of women's roles during the communist revolution and other reform movements, and new discussions about whether women's equality has actually been fully achieved.In 1956, President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt initiated \"state feminism\", which outlawed discrimination based on gender and granted women's suffrage, but also blocked political activism by feminist leaders.", "During Sadat's presidency, his wife, Jehan Sadat, publicly advocated further women's rights, though Egyptian policy and society began to move away from women's equality with the new Islamist movement and growing conservatism.", "However, some activists proposed a new feminist movement, Islamic feminism, which argues for women's equality within an Islamic framework.In Latin America, revolutions brought changes in women's status in countries such as Nicaragua, where feminist ideology during the Sandinista Revolution aided women's quality of life but fell short of achieving a social and ideological change.In 1963, Betty Friedan's book ''The Feminine Mystique'' helped voice the discontent that American women felt.", "The book is widely credited with sparking the beginning of second-wave feminism in the United States.", "Within ten years, women made up over half the First World workforce.", "In 1970, Australian writer Germaine Greer published ''The Female Eunuch'', which became a worldwide bestseller, reportedly driving up divorce rates.", "Greer posits that men hate women, that women do not know this and direct the hatred upon themselves, as well as arguing that women are devitalised and repressed in their role as housewives and mothers.=== Late 20th and early 21st centuries ======= Third-wave feminism ====Feminist, author and social activist bell hooks (1952–2021)Third-wave feminism is traced to the emergence of the riot grrrl feminist punk subculture in Olympia, Washington, in the early 1990s, and to Anita Hill's televised testimony in 1991—to an all-male, all-white Senate Judiciary Committee—that Clarence Thomas, nominated for the Supreme Court of the United States, had sexually harassed her.", "The term ''third wave'' is credited to Rebecca Walker, who responded to Thomas's appointment to the Supreme Court with an article in ''Ms.''", "magazine, \"Becoming the Third Wave\" (1992).", "She wrote:Third-wave feminism also sought to challenge or avoid what it deemed the second wave's essentialist definitions of femininity, which, third-wave feminists argued, overemphasized the experiences of upper middle-class white women.", "Third-wave feminists often focused on \"micro-politics\" and challenged the second wave's paradigm as to what was, or was not, good for women, and tended to use a post-structuralist interpretation of gender and sexuality.", "Feminist leaders rooted in the second wave, such as Gloria Anzaldúa, bell hooks, Chela Sandoval, Cherríe Moraga, Audre Lorde, Maxine Hong Kingston, and many other non-white feminists, sought to negotiate a space within feminist thought for consideration of race-related subjectivities.", "Third-wave feminism also contained internal debates between difference feminists, who believe that there are important psychological differences between the sexes, and those who believe that there are no inherent psychological differences between the sexes and contend that gender roles are due to social conditioning.==== Standpoint theory ====Standpoint theory is a feminist theoretical point of view stating that a person's social position influences their knowledge.", "This perspective argues that research and theory treat women and the feminist movement as insignificant and refuses to see traditional science as unbiased.", "Since the 1980s, standpoint feminists have argued that the feminist movement should address global issues (such as rape, incest, and prostitution) and culturally specific issues (such as female genital mutilation in some parts of Africa and Arab societies, as well as glass ceiling practices that impede women's advancement in developed economies) in order to understand how gender inequality interacts with racism, homophobia, classism and colonization in a \"matrix of domination\".==== Fourth-wave feminism ====Protest against La Manada sexual abuse case sentence, Pamplona, 2018Fourth-wave feminism is a proposed extension of third-wave feminism which corresponds to a resurgence in interest in feminism beginning around 2012 and associated with the use of social media.", "According to feminist scholar Prudence Chamberlain, the focus of the fourth wave is justice for women and opposition to sexual harassment and violence against women.", "Its essence, she writes, is \"incredulity that certain attitudes can still exist\".Fourth-wave feminism is \"defined by technology\", according to Kira Cochrane, and is characterized particularly by the use of Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, Tumblr, and blogs such as Feministing to challenge misogyny and further gender equality.2017 Women's March, Washington, D.C.Issues that fourth-wave feminists focus on include street and workplace harassment, campus sexual assault and rape culture.", "Scandals involving the harassment, abuse, and murder of women and girls have galvanized the movement.", "These have included the 2012 Delhi gang rape, 2012 Jimmy Savile allegations, the Bill Cosby allegations, 2014 Isla Vista killings, 2016 trial of Jian Ghomeshi, 2017 Harvey Weinstein allegations and subsequent Weinstein effect, and the 2017 Westminster sexual scandals.International Women's Strike, Paraná, Argentina, 2019Examples of fourth-wave feminist campaigns include the Everyday Sexism Project, No More Page 3, Stop Bild Sexism, ''Mattress Performance'', ''10 Hours of Walking in NYC as a Woman'', #YesAllWomen, Free the Nipple, One Billion Rising, the 2017 Women's March, the 2018 Women's March, and the #MeToo movement.", "In December 2017, ''Time'' magazine chose several prominent female activists involved in the #MeToo movement, dubbed \"the silence breakers\", as Person of the Year.=== Decolonial feminism ===Decolonial feminism reformulates the coloniality of gender by critiquing the very formation of gender and its subsequent formations of patriarchy and the gender binary, not as universal constants across cultures, but as structures that have been instituted by and for the benefit of European colonialism.", "Marìa Lugones proposes that decolonial feminism speaks to how \"the colonial imposition of gender cuts across questions of ecology, economics, government, relations with the spirit world, and knowledge, as well as across everyday practices that either habituate us to take care of the world or to destroy it.\"", "Decolonial feminists like Karla Jessen Williamson and Rauna Kuokkanen have examined colonialism as a force that has imposed gender hierarchies on Indigenous women that have disempowered and fractured Indigenous communities and ways of life.==== Postfeminism ====The term postfeminism is used to describe a range of viewpoints reacting to feminism since the 1980s.", "While not being \"anti-feminist\", postfeminists believe that women have achieved second wave goals while being critical of third- and fourth-wave feminist goals.", "The term was first used to describe a backlash against second-wave feminism, but it is now a label for a wide range of theories that take critical approaches to previous feminist discourses and includes challenges to the second wave's ideas.", "Other postfeminists say that feminism is no longer relevant to today's society.", "Amelia Jones has written that the postfeminist texts which emerged in the 1980s and 1990s portrayed second-wave feminism as a monolithic entity.", "Dorothy Chunn describes a \"blaming narrative\" under the postfeminist moniker, where feminists are undermined for continuing to make demands for gender equality in a \"post-feminist\" society, where \"gender equality has (already) been achieved\".", "According to Chunn, \"many feminists have voiced disquiet about the ways in which rights and equality discourses are now used against them\"." ], [ "Theory", "Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical fields.", "It encompasses work in a variety of disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, economics, women's studies, literary criticism, art history, psychoanalysis, and philosophy.", "Feminist theory aims to understand gender inequality and focuses on gender politics, power relations, and sexuality.", "While providing a critique of these social and political relations, much of feminist theory also focuses on the promotion of women's rights and interests.", "Themes explored in feminist theory include discrimination, stereotyping, objectification (especially sexual objectification), oppression, and patriarchy.In the field of literary criticism, Elaine Showalter describes the development of feminist theory as having three phases.", "The first she calls \"feminist critique\", in which the feminist reader examines the ideologies behind literary phenomena.", "The second Showalter calls \"gynocriticism\", in which the \"woman is producer of textual meaning\".", "The last phase she calls \"gender theory\", in which the \"ideological inscription and the literary effects of the sex/gender system are explored\".This was paralleled in the 1970s by French feminists, who developed the concept of ''écriture féminine'' (which translates as \"female or feminine writing\").", "Hélène Cixous argues that writing and philosophy are ''phallocentric'' and along with other French feminists such as Luce Irigaray emphasize \"writing from the body\" as a subversive exercise.", "The work of Julia Kristeva, a feminist psychoanalyst and philosopher, and Bracha Ettinger, artist and psychoanalyst, has influenced feminist theory in general and feminist literary criticism in particular.", "However, as the scholar Elizabeth Wright points out, \"none of these French feminists align themselves with the feminist movement as it appeared in the Anglophone world\".", "More recent feminist theory, such as that of Lisa Lucile Owens, has concentrated on characterizing feminism as a universal emancipatory movement." ], [ "Movements and ideologies", "Many overlapping feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years.", "Feminism is often divided into three main traditions called liberal, radical and socialist/Marxist feminism, sometimes known as the \"Big Three\" schools of feminist thought.", "Since the late 20th century, newer forms of feminisms have also emerged.", "Some branches of feminism track the political leanings of the larger society to a greater or lesser degree, or focus on specific topics, such as the environment.=== Liberal feminism ===Elizabeth Cady Stanton, a major figure in 19th-century liberal feminismLiberal feminism, also known under other names such as reformist, mainstream, or historically as bourgeois feminism, arose from 19th-century first-wave feminism, and was historically linked to 19th-century liberalism and progressivism, while 19th-century conservatives tended to oppose feminism as such.", "Liberal feminism seeks equality of men and women through political and legal reform within a liberal democratic framework, without radically altering the structure of society; liberal feminism \"works within the structure of mainstream society to integrate women into that structure\".", "During the 19th and early 20th centuries liberal feminism focused especially on women's suffrage and access to education.", "Former Norwegian supreme court justice and former president of the liberal Norwegian Association for Women's Rights, Karin Maria Bruzelius, has described liberal feminism as \"a realistic, sober, practical feminism\".Susan Wendell argues that \"liberal feminism is an historical tradition that grew out of liberalism, as can be seen very clearly in the work of such feminists as Mary Wollstonecraft and John Stuart Mill, but feminists who took principles from that tradition have developed analyses and goals that go far beyond those of 18th and 19th century liberal feminists, and many feminists who have goals and strategies identified as liberal feminist ... reject major components of liberalism\" in a modern or party-political sense; she highlights \"equality of opportunity\" as a defining feature of liberal feminism.Liberal feminism is a very broad term that encompasses many, often diverging modern branches and a variety of feminist and general political perspectives; some historically liberal branches are equality feminism, social feminism, equity feminism, difference feminism, individualist/libertarian feminism and some forms of state feminism, particularly the state feminism of the Nordic countries.", "The broad field of liberal feminism is sometimes confused with the more recent and smaller branch known as libertarian feminism, which tends to diverge significantly from mainstream liberal feminism.", "For example, \"libertarian feminism does not require social measures to reduce material inequality; in fact, it opposes such measures ... in contrast, liberal feminism may support such requirements and egalitarian versions of feminism insist on them.", "\"Catherine Rottenberg notes that the raison d'être of classic liberal feminism was \"to pose an immanent critique of liberalism, revealing the gendered exclusions within liberal democracy's proclamation of universal equality, particularly with respect to the law, institutional access, and the full incorporation of women into the public sphere.\"", "Rottenberg contrasts classic liberal feminism with modern neoliberal feminism which \"seems perfectly in sync with the evolving neoliberal order.\"", "According to Zhang and Rios, \"liberal feminism tends to be adopted by 'mainstream' (i.e., middle-class) women who do not disagree with the current social structure.\"", "They found that liberal feminism with its focus on equality is viewed as the dominant and \"default\" form of feminism.Some modern forms of feminism that historically grew out of the broader liberal tradition have more recently also been described as conservative in relative terms.", "This is particularly the case for libertarian feminism which conceives of people as self-owners and therefore as entitled to freedom from coercive interference.=== Radical feminism ===The merged Venus symbol with raised fist is a common symbol of radical feminism, one of the movements within feminismRadical feminism arose from the radical wing of second-wave feminism and calls for a radical reordering of society to eliminate male supremacy.", "It considers the male-controlled capitalist hierarchy as the defining feature of women's oppression and the total uprooting and reconstruction of society as necessary.", "Separatist feminism does not support heterosexual relationships.", "Lesbian feminism is thus closely related.", "Other feminists criticize separatist feminism as sexist.=== Materialist ideologies ===Emma Goldman a union activist, labour organizer and feminist anarchistRosemary Hennessy and Chrys Ingraham say that materialist forms of feminism grew out of Western Marxist thought and have inspired a number of different (but overlapping) movements, all of which are involved in a critique of capitalism and are focused on ideology's relationship to women.", "Marxist feminism argues that capitalism is the root cause of women's oppression, and that discrimination against women in domestic life and employment is an effect of capitalist ideologies.", "Socialist feminism distinguishes itself from Marxist feminism by arguing that women's liberation can only be achieved by working to end both the economic and cultural sources of women's oppression.", "Anarcha-feminists believe that class struggle and anarchy against the state require struggling against patriarchy, which comes from involuntary hierarchy.=== Other modern feminisms ======= Ecofeminism ====Ecofeminists see men's control of land as responsible for the oppression of women and destruction of the natural environment.", "Ecofeminism has been criticized for focusing too much on a mystical connection between women and nature.==== Black and postcolonial ideologies ====Sara Ahmed argues that Black and postcolonial feminisms pose a challenge \"to some of the organizing premises of Western feminist thought\".", "During much of its history, feminist movements and theoretical developments were led predominantly by middle-class white women from Western Europe and North America.", "However, women of other races have proposed alternative feminisms.", "This trend accelerated in the 1960s with the civil rights movement in the United States and the end of Western European colonialism in Africa, the Caribbean, parts of Latin America, and Southeast Asia.", "Since that time, women in developing nations and former colonies and who are of colour or various ethnicities or living in poverty have proposed additional feminisms.", "Womanism emerged after early feminist movements were largely white and middle-class.", "Postcolonial feminists argue that colonial oppression and Western feminism marginalized postcolonial women but did not turn them passive or voiceless.", "Third-world feminism and indigenous feminism are closely related to postcolonial feminism.", "These ideas also correspond with ideas in African feminism, motherism, Stiwanism, negofeminism, femalism, transnational feminism, and Africana womanism.==== Social constructionist ideologies ====In the late 20th century various feminists began to argue that gender roles are socially constructed, and that it is impossible to generalize women's experiences across cultures and histories.", "Post-structural feminism draws on the philosophies of post-structuralism and deconstruction in order to argue that the concept of gender is created socially and culturally through discourse.", "Postmodern feminists also emphasize the social construction of gender and the discursive nature of reality; however, as Pamela Abbott et al.", "write, a postmodern approach to feminism highlights \"the existence of multiple truths (rather than simply men and women's standpoints)\".==== Transgender people ====Third-wave feminists tend to view the struggle for trans rights as an integral part of intersectional feminism.", "Fourth-wave feminists also tend to be trans-inclusive.", "The American National Organization for Women (NOW) president Terry O'Neill said the struggle against transphobia is a feminist issue and NOW has affirmed that \"trans women are women, trans girls are girls.\"", "Several studies have found that people who identify as feminists tend to be more accepting of trans people than those who do not.An ideology variously known as trans-exclusionary radical feminism (or its acronym, TERF) or gender-critical feminism is critical of concepts of gender identity and transgender rights, holding that biological sex characteristics are an immutable determination of gender or supersede the importance of gender identity, that trans women are not women, and that trans men are not men.", "These views have been described as transphobic by many other feminists.==== Cultural movements ====Riot grrrls took an anti-corporate stance of self-sufficiency and self-reliance.", "Riot grrrl's emphasis on universal female identity and separatism often appears more closely allied with second-wave feminism than with the third wave.", "The movement encouraged and made \"adolescent girls' standpoints central\", allowing them to express themselves fully.", "Lipstick feminism is a cultural feminist movement that attempts to respond to the backlash of second-wave radical feminism of the 1960s and 1970s by reclaiming symbols of \"feminine\" identity such as make-up, suggestive clothing and having a sexual allure as valid and empowering personal choices." ], [ "Demographics", "According to 2014 Ipsos poll covering 15 developed countries, 53 percent of respondents identified as feminists, and 87 percent agreed that \"women should be treated equally to men in all areas based on their competency, not their gender\".", "However, only 55 percent of women agreed that they have \"full equality with men and the freedom to reach their full dreams and aspirations\".", "Taken together, these studies reflect the importance differentiating between claiming a \"feminist identity\" and holding \"feminist attitudes or beliefs\".According to a 2015 poll, 18 percent of Americans use the label of \"feminist\" to describe themselves, while 85 percent are feminists in practice as they reported they believe in \"equality for women\".", "The poll found that 52 percent did not identify as feminist, 26 percent were unsure, and 4 percent provided no response.Sociological research shows that, in the US, increased educational attainment is associated with greater support for feminist issues.", "In addition, politically liberal people are more likely to support feminist ideals compared to those who are conservative.According to a 2016 Survation poll for the Fawcett Society, 7 percent of Britons use the label of \"feminist\" to describe themselves, while 83 percent say they support equality of opportunity for women – this included higher support from men (86%) than women (81%)." ], [ "Sexuality", "Feminist views on sexuality vary, and have differed by historical period and by cultural context.", "Feminist attitudes to female sexuality have taken a few different directions.", "Matters such as the sex industry, sexual representation in the media, and issues regarding consent to sex under conditions of male dominance have been particularly controversial among feminists.", "This debate has culminated in the late 1970s and the 1980s, in what came to be known as the feminist sex wars, which pitted anti-pornography feminism against sex-positive feminism, and parts of the feminist movement were deeply divided by these debates.", "Feminists have taken a variety of positions on different aspects of the sexual revolution from the 1960s and 70s.", "Over the course of the 1970s, a large number of influential women accepted lesbian and bisexual women as part of feminism.=== Sex industry ===Opinions on the sex industry are diverse.", "Feminists who are critical of the sex industry generally see it as the exploitative result of patriarchal social structures which reinforce sexual and cultural attitudes complicit in rape and sexual harassment.", "Alternately, feminists who support at least part of the sex industry argue that it can be a medium of feminist expression and reflect a woman's right to control and define her own sexuality.", "For the views of feminism on male prostitutes see the article on male prostitution.Individualist feminists support the existence of a sex industry on the grounds that adult women have the right to consent to sexual acts as they choose and should have access to labor rights, to earn money how they choose.", "In this view, banning the sex industry effectively strips women of their right to work and earn money on their own terms, treating them as children who cannot make decisions for themselves.", "In this view, women who consider the sex industry degrading do not have to partake in it.", "Women who do choose to work in the sex industry however should not be banned from doing so, given that they are doing so willingly.", "Libertarian Feminist Zine, Reclaim, has argued that sex work has helped more women (including students, freelancers, and women in poverty) achieve financial independence than all government grants combined.", "Feminist views of pornography range from condemnation of pornography as a form of violence against women, to an embracing of some forms of pornography as a medium of feminist expression and a legitimate career.", "Similarly, feminists' views on prostitution vary, ranging from critical to supportive.", "=== Affirming female sexual autonomy ===For feminists, a woman's right to control her own sexuality is a key issue and one that is heavily contested between different branches of feminism.", "Radical feminists such as Catharine MacKinnon argue that women have very little control over their own bodies, with female sexuality being largely controlled and defined by men in patriarchal societies.", "Radical feminists argue that sexual violence committed by men is often rooted in ideologies of male sexual entitlement and that these systems grant women very few legitimate options to refuse sexual advances.", "Some radical feminists have argued that women should not engage in heterosexual sex, and choose lesbianism as a lifestyle and political choice, a view that has fallen out of favor, as sexuality is seen as largely biologically influenced rather than a choice one can make for political reasons.", "Some radical feminists argue that all cultures are, in one way or another, dominated by ideologies that deny women's right to sexual expression, because men under a patriarchy define sex on their own terms.", "This entitlement can take different forms, depending on the culture.", "In some conservative and religious cultures marriage is regarded as an institution which requires a wife to be sexually available at all times, virtually without limit; thus, forcing or coercing sex on a wife is not considered a crime or even an abusive behaviour.In 1968, radical feminist Anne Koedt argued in her essay ''The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm'' that women's biology and the clitoral orgasm had not been properly analyzed and popularized, because men \"have orgasms essentially by friction with the vagina\" and not the clitoral area.Other branches of feminism such as individualist feminism consider themselves sex-positive, and see women's expression of their own sexuality as a right.", "In this view, what is or is not \"degrading\" is subjective, and each person has a right to decide for themselves what sexual acts they find degrading and if they want to participate in them or not.", "Individualist feminist, Wendy McElroy wrote in her book, XXX: A Woman's Right to Pornography, \"let's examine ... the idea that pornography is degrading to women.", "Degrading is a subjective term.", "Personally, I find detergent commercials in which women become orgasmic over soapsuds to be tremendously degrading to women.", "I find movies in which prostitutes are treated like ignorant drug addicts to be slander against women.", "Every woman has the right—the need!—to define degradation for herself.\"", "According to this view, part of sexual autonomy is the right to define one's boundaries, desires and limits around their sexuality rather than accept a narrative in which all women are victims of men during a sex act." ], [ "Science", "Sandra Harding says that the \"moral and political insights of the women's movement have inspired social scientists and biologists to raise critical questions about the ways traditional researchers have explained gender, sex and relations within and between the social and natural worlds.\"", "Some feminists, such as Ruth Hubbard and Evelyn Fox Keller, criticize traditional scientific discourse as being historically biased towards a male perspective.", "A part of the feminist research agenda is the examination of the ways in which power inequities are created or reinforced in scientific and academic institutions.", "Physicist Lisa Randall, appointed to a task force at Harvard by then-president Lawrence Summers after his controversial discussion of why women may be underrepresented in science and engineering, said, \"I just want to see a whole bunch more women enter the field so these issues don't have to come up anymore.", "\"Lynn Hankinson Nelson writes that feminist empiricists find fundamental differences between the experiences of men and women.", "Thus, they seek to obtain knowledge through the examination of the experiences of women and to \"uncover the consequences of omitting, misdescribing, or devaluing them\" to account for a range of human experience.", "Another part of the feminist research agenda is the uncovering of ways in which power inequities are created or reinforced in society and in scientific and academic institutions.", "Furthermore, despite calls for greater attention to be paid to structures of gender inequity in the academic literature, structural analyses of gender bias rarely appear in highly cited psychological journals, especially in the commonly studied areas of psychology and personality.One criticism of feminist epistemology is that it allows social and political values to influence its findings.", "Susan Haack also points out that feminist epistemology reinforces traditional stereotypes about women's thinking (as intuitive and emotional, etc.", "); Meera Nanda further cautions that this may in fact trap women within \"traditional gender roles and help justify patriarchy\".=== Biology and gender ===Modern feminism challenges the essentialist view of gender as biologically intrinsic.", "For example, Anne Fausto-Sterling's book, ''Myths of Gender'', explores the assumptions embodied in scientific research that support a biologically essentialist view of gender.", "In ''Delusions of Gender'', Cordelia Fine disputes scientific evidence that suggests that there is an innate biological difference between men's and women's minds, asserting instead that cultural and societal beliefs are the reason for differences between individuals that are commonly perceived as sex differences.=== Feminist psychology ===Feminism in psychology emerged as a critique of the dominant male outlook on psychological research where only male perspectives were studied with all male subjects.", "As women earned doctorates in psychology, females and their issues were introduced as legitimate topics of study.", "Feminist psychology emphasizes social context, lived experience, and qualitative analysis.", "Projects such as Psychology's Feminist Voices have emerged to catalogue the influence of feminist psychologists on the discipline." ], [ "Culture", "=== Design ===There is a long history of feminist activity in design disciplines like industrial design, graphic design and fashion design.", "This work has explored topics like beauty, DIY, feminine approaches to design and community-based projects.", "Some iconic writing includes Cheryl Buckley's essays on design and patriarchy and Joan Rothschild's ''Design and Feminism: Re-Visioning Spaces, Places, and Everyday Things''.", "More recently, Isabel Prochner's research explored how feminist perspectives can support positive change in industrial design, helping to identify systemic social problems and inequities in design and guiding socially sustainable and grassroots design solutions.=== Businesses ===Feminist activists have established a range of feminist businesses, including feminist bookstores, credit unions, presses, mail-order catalogs and restaurants.", "These businesses flourished as part of the second and third waves of feminism in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s.=== Visual arts ===Corresponding with general developments within feminism, and often including such self-organizing tactics as the consciousness-raising group, the movement began in the 1960s and flourished throughout the 1970s.", "Jeremy Strick, director of the Museum of Contemporary Art in Los Angeles, described the feminist art movement as \"the most influential international movement of any during the postwar period\", and Peggy Phelan says that it \"brought about the most far-reaching transformations in both artmaking and art writing over the past four decades\".", "Feminist artist Judy Chicago, who created ''The Dinner Party'', a set of vulva-themed ceramic plates in the 1970s, said in 2009 to ''ARTnews'', \"There is still an institutional lag and an insistence on a male Eurocentric narrative.", "We are trying to change the future: to get girls and boys to realize that women's art is not an exception—it's a normal part of art history.\"", "A feminist approach to the visual arts has most recently developed through cyberfeminism and the posthuman turn, giving voice to the ways \"contemporary female artists are dealing with gender, social media and the notion of embodiment\".=== Literature ===Octavia Butler, award-winning feminist science fiction authorThe feminist movement produced feminist fiction, feminist non-fiction, and feminist poetry, which created new interest in women's writing.", "It also prompted a general reevaluation of women's historical and academic contributions in response to the belief that women's lives and contributions have been underrepresented as areas of scholarly interest.", "There has also been a close link between feminist literature and activism, with feminist writing typically voicing key concerns or ideas of feminism in a particular era.Much of the early period of feminist literary scholarship was given over to the rediscovery and reclamation of texts written by women.", "In Western feminist literary scholarship, Studies like Dale Spender's ''Mothers of the Novel'' (1986) and Jane Spencer's ''The Rise of the Woman Novelist'' (1986) were ground-breaking in their insistence that women have always been writing.Commensurate with this growth in scholarly interest, various presses began the task of reissuing long-out-of-print texts.", "Virago Press began to publish its large list of 19th- and early-20th-century novels in 1975 and became one of the first commercial presses to join in the project of reclamation.", "In the 1980s Pandora Press, responsible for publishing Spender's study, issued a companion line of 18th-century novels written by women.", "More recently, Broadview Press continues to issue 18th- and 19th-century novels, many hitherto out of print, and the University of Kentucky has a series of republications of early women's novels.Particular works of literature have come to be known as key feminist texts.", "''A Vindication of the Rights of Woman'' (1792) by Mary Wollstonecraft, is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy.", "''A Room of One's Own'' (1929) by Virginia Woolf, is noted in its argument for both a literal and figural space for women writers within a literary tradition dominated by patriarchy.The widespread interest in women's writing is related to a general reassessment and expansion of the literary canon.", "Interest in post-colonial literatures, gay and lesbian literature, writing by people of colour, working people's writing, and the cultural productions of other historically marginalized groups has resulted in a whole scale expansion of what is considered \"literature\", and genres hitherto not regarded as \"literary\", such as children's writing, journals, letters, travel writing, and many others are now the subjects of scholarly interest.", "Most genres and subgenres have undergone a similar analysis, so literary studies have entered new territories such as the \"female gothic\" or women's science fiction.According to Elyce Rae Helford, \"Science fiction and fantasy serve as important vehicles for feminist thought, particularly as bridges between theory and practice.\"", "Feminist science fiction is sometimes taught at the university level to explore the role of social constructs in understanding gender.", "Notable texts of this kind are Ursula K. Le Guin's ''The Left Hand of Darkness'' (1969), Joanna Russ' ''The Female Man'' (1970), Octavia Butler's ''Kindred'' (1979) and Margaret Atwood's ''Handmaid's Tale'' (1985).Feminist nonfiction has played an important role in voicing concerns about women's lived experiences.", "For example, Maya Angelou's ''I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings'' was extremely influential, as it represented the specific racism and sexism experienced by black women growing up in the United States.In addition, many feminist movements have embraced poetry as a vehicle through which to communicate feminist ideas to public audiences through anthologies, poetry collections, and public readings.Moreover, historical pieces of writing by women have been used by feminists to speak about what women's lives were like in the past while demonstrating the power that they held and the impact they had in their communities.", "An important figure in the history of women's literature is Hrotsvitha (–973), a canoness who was an early female poet in the German lands.", "As a historian, Hrotsvitha is one of the few writers to address women's lives from a woman's perspective during the Middle Ages.=== Music ===American jazz singer and songwriter Billie Holiday in New York City in 1947Women's music (or womyn's music or wimmin's music) is the music by women, for women, and about women.", "The genre emerged as a musical expression of the second-wave feminist movement as well as the labour, civil rights, and peace movements.", "The movement was started by lesbians such as Cris Williamson, Meg Christian, and Margie Adam, African-American women activists such as Bernice Johnson Reagon and her group Sweet Honey in the Rock, and peace activist Holly Near.", "Women's music also refers to the wider industry of women's music that goes beyond the performing artists to include studio musicians, producers, sound engineers, technicians, cover artists, distributors, promoters, and festival organizers who are also women.Riot grrrl is an underground feminist hardcore punk movement described in the cultural movements section of this article.Feminism became a principal concern of musicologists in the 1980s as part of the New Musicology.", "Prior to this, in the 1970s, musicologists were beginning to discover women composers and performers, and had begun to review concepts of canon, genius, genre and periodization from a feminist perspective.", "In other words, the question of how women musicians fit into traditional music history was now being asked.", "Through the 1980s and 1990s, this trend continued as musicologists like Susan McClary, Marcia Citron and Ruth Solie began to consider the cultural reasons for the marginalizing of women from the received body of work.", "Concepts such as music as gendered discourse; professionalism; reception of women's music; examination of the sites of music production; relative wealth and education of women; popular music studies in relation to women's identity; patriarchal ideas in music analysis; and notions of gender and difference are among the themes examined during this time.While the music industry has long been open to having women in performance or entertainment roles, women are much less likely to have positions of authority, such as being the leader of an orchestra.", "In popular music, while there are many women singers recording songs, there are very few women behind the audio console acting as music producers, the individuals who direct and manage the recording process.=== Cinema ===Faten Hamama (1931–2015), Egyptian film legend, inspired women all over the Middle East and Africa.Feminist cinema, advocating or illustrating feminist perspectives, arose largely with the development of feminist film theory in the late 1960s and early 1970s.", "Women who were radicalized during the 1960s by political debate and sexual liberation; but the failure of radicalism to produce substantive change for women galvanized them to form consciousness-raising groups and set about analysing, from different perspectives, dominant cinema's construction of women.", "Differences were particularly marked between feminists on either side of the Atlantic.", "1972 saw the first feminist film festivals in the U.S. and U.K. as well as the first feminist film journal, ''Women & Film''.", "Trailblazers from this period included Claire Johnston and Laura Mulvey, who also organized the Women's Event at the Edinburgh Film Festival.", "Other theorists making a powerful impact on feminist film include Teresa de Lauretis, Anneke Smelik and Kaja Silverman.", "Approaches in philosophy and psychoanalysis fuelled feminist film criticism, feminist independent film and feminist distribution.It has been argued that there are two distinct approaches to independent, theoretically inspired feminist filmmaking.", "'Deconstruction' concerns itself with analysing and breaking down codes of mainstream cinema, aiming to create a different relationship between the spectator and dominant cinema.", "The second approach, a feminist counterculture, embodies feminine writing to investigate a specifically feminine cinematic language.", "Bracha L. Ettinger invented a field of notions and concepts that serve the research of cinema from feminine perspective: The Matrixial Gaze.", "Ettinger's language include original concepts to discover feminine perspectives.", "Many writers in the fields of film theory and contemporary art are using the Ettingerian matrixial sphere (matricial sphere).During the 1930s–1950s heyday of the big Hollywood studios, the status of women in the industry was abysmal.", "Since then female directors such as Sally Potter, Catherine Breillat, Claire Denis and Jane Campion have made art movies, and directors like Kathryn Bigelow and Patty Jenkins have had mainstream success.", "This progress stagnated in the 1990s, and men outnumber women five to one in behind the camera roles." ], [ "Politics", "Rose Cohen was executed in Stalin's Great Terror in 1937, two months after the execution of her Soviet husband.Feminism had complex interactions with the major political movements of the 20th century.=== Socialism ===Since the late 19th century, some feminists have allied with socialism, whereas others have criticized socialist ideology for being insufficiently concerned about women's rights.", "August Bebel, an early activist of the German Social Democratic Party (SPD), published his work ''Die Frau und der Sozialismus'', juxtaposing the struggle for equal rights between sexes with social equality in general.", "In 1907 there was an International Conference of Socialist Women in Stuttgart where suffrage was described as a tool of class struggle.", "Clara Zetkin of the SPD called for women's suffrage to build a \"socialist order, the only one that allows for a radical solution to the women's question\".In Britain, the women's movement was allied with the Labour party.", "In the U.S., Betty Friedan emerged from a radical background to take leadership.", "Radical Women is the oldest socialist feminist organization in the U.S. and is still active.", "During the Spanish Civil War, Dolores Ibárruri (''La Pasionaria'') led the Communist Party of Spain.", "Although she supported equal rights for women, she opposed women fighting on the front and clashed with the anarcha-feminist Mujeres Libres.Feminists in Ireland in the early 20th century included the revolutionary Irish Republican, suffragette and socialist Constance Markievicz who in 1918 was the first woman elected to the British House of Commons.", "However, in line with Sinn Féin abstentionist policy, she would not take her seat in the House of Commons.", "She was re-elected to the Second Dáil in the elections of 1921.She was also a commander of the Irish Citizens Army, which was led by the socialist and self-described feminist Irish leader James Connolly, during the 1916 Easter Rising.=== Fascism ===regime of Augusto Pinochet.Fascism has been prescribed dubious stances on feminism by its practitioners and by women's groups.", "Amongst other demands concerning social reform presented in the Fascist manifesto in 1919 was expanding the suffrage to all Italian citizens of age 18 and above, including women (accomplished only in 1946, after the defeat of fascism) and eligibility for all to stand for office from age 25.This demand was particularly championed by special Fascist women's auxiliary groups such as the ''fasci femminilli'' and only partly realized in 1925, under pressure from dictator Benito Mussolini's more conservative coalition partners.Cyprian Blamires states that although feminists were among those who opposed the rise of Adolf Hitler, feminism has a complicated relationship with the Nazi movement as well.", "While Nazis glorified traditional notions of patriarchal society and its role for women, they claimed to recognize women's equality in employment.", "However, Hitler and Mussolini declared themselves as opposed to feminism, and after the rise of Nazism in Germany in 1933, there was a rapid dissolution of the political rights and economic opportunities that feminists had fought for during the pre-war period and to some extent during the 1920s.", "Georges Duby et al.", "write that in practice fascist society was hierarchical and emphasized male virility, with women maintaining a largely subordinate position.", "Blamires also writes that neofascism has since the 1960s been hostile towards feminism and advocates that women accept \"their traditional roles\".=== Civil rights movement and anti-racism ===The civil rights movement has influenced and informed the feminist movement and vice versa.", "Many American feminists adapted the language and theories of black equality activism and drew parallels between women's rights and the rights of non-white people.", "Despite the connections between the women's and civil rights movements, some tensions arose during the late 1960s and the 1970s as non-white women argued that feminism was predominantly white, straight, and middle class, and did not understand and was not concerned with issues of race and sexuality.", "Similarly, some women argued that the civil rights movement had sexist and homophobic elements and did not adequately address minority women's concerns.", "These criticisms created new feminist social theories about identity politics and the intersections of racism, classism, and sexism; they also generated new feminisms such as black feminism and Chicana feminism in addition to making large contributions to lesbian feminism and other integrations of queer of colour identity.=== Neoliberalism ===Neoliberalism has been criticized by feminist theory for having a negative effect on the female workforce population across the globe, especially in the global south.", "Masculinist assumptions and objectives continue to dominate economic and geopolitical thinking.", "Women's experiences in non-industrialized countries reveal often deleterious effects of modernization policies and undercut orthodox claims that development benefits everyone.Proponents of neoliberalism have theorized that by increasing women's participation in the workforce, there will be heightened economic progress, but feminist critics have stated that this participation alone does not further equality in gender relations.", "Neoliberalism has failed to address significant problems such as the devaluation of feminized labour, the structural privileging of men and masculinity, and the politicization of women's subordination in the family and the workplace.", "The \"feminization of employment\" refers to a conceptual characterization of deteriorated and devalorized labour conditions that are less desirable, meaningful, safe and secure.", "Employers in the global south have perceptions about feminine labour and seek workers who are perceived to be undemanding, docile and willing to accept low wages.", "Social constructs about feminized labour have played a big part in this, for instance, employers often perpetuate ideas about women as 'secondary income earners to justify their lower rates of pay and not deserving of training or promotion." ], [ "Societal impact", "The feminist movement has effected change in Western society, including women's suffrage; greater access to education; more equal payment to men; the right to initiate divorce proceedings; the right of women to make individual decisions regarding pregnancy (including access to contraceptives and abortion); and the right to own property.=== Civil rights ===Participation in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women.", "From the 1960s on, the campaign for women's rights was met with mixed results in the U.S. and the U.K. Other countries of the EEC agreed to ensure that discriminatory laws would be phased out across the European Community.Some feminist campaigning also helped reform attitudes to child sexual abuse.", "The view that young girls cause men to have sexual intercourse with them was replaced by that of men's responsibility for their own conduct, the men being adults.In the U.S., the National Organization for Women (NOW) began in 1966 to seek women's equality, including through the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which did not pass, although some states enacted their own.", "Reproductive rights in the U.S. centred on the court decision in ''Roe'' v. ''Wade'' enunciating a woman's right to choose whether to carry a pregnancy to term.", "Western women gained more reliable birth control, allowing family planning and careers.", "The movement started in the 1910s in the U.S. under Margaret Sanger and elsewhere under Marie Stopes.", "In the final three decades of the 20th century, Western women knew a new freedom through birth control, which enabled women to plan their adult lives, often making way for both career and family.The division of labour within households was affected by the increased entry of women into workplaces in the 20th century.", "Sociologist Arlie Russell Hochschild found that, in two-career couples, men and women, on average, spend about equal amounts of time working, but women still spend more time on housework, although Cathy Young responded by arguing that women may prevent equal participation by men in housework and parenting.", "Judith K. Brown writes, \"Women are most likely to make a substantial contribution when subsistence activities have the following characteristics: the participant is not obliged to be far from home; the tasks are relatively monotonous and do not require rapt concentration and the work is not dangerous, can be performed in spite of interruptions, and is easily resumed once interrupted.", "\"In international law, the ''Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women'' (CEDAW) is an international convention adopted by the United Nations General Assembly and described as an international bill of rights for women.", "It came into force in those nations ratifying it.=== Jurisprudence ===Feminist jurisprudence is a branch of jurisprudence that examines the relationship between women and law.", "It addresses questions about the history of legal and social biases against women and about the enhancement of their legal rights.Feminist jurisprudence signifies a reaction to the philosophical approach of modern legal scholars, who typically see the law as a process for interpreting and perpetuating a society's universal, gender-neutral ideals.", "Feminist legal scholars claim that this fails to acknowledge women's values or legal interests or the harms that they may anticipate or experience.=== Language ===Proponents of gender-neutral language argue that the use of gender-specific language often implies male superiority or reflects an unequal state of society.", "According to ''The Handbook of English Linguistics'', generic masculine pronouns and gender-specific job titles are instances \"where English linguistic convention has historically treated men as prototypical of the human species.", "\"Merriam-Webster chose \"feminism\" as its 2017 Word of the Year, noting that \"Word of the Year is a quantitative measure of interest in a particular word.", "\"=== Theology ===Khost City, a symbol of progress for growing women's rights in the Pashtun beltFeminist theology is a movement that reconsiders the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of religions from a feminist perspective.", "Some of the goals of feminist theology include increasing the role of women among the clergy and religious authorities, reinterpreting male-dominated imagery and language about God, determining women's place in relation to career and motherhood, and studying images of women in the religion's sacred texts.Christian feminism is a branch of feminist theology which seeks to interpret and understand Christianity in light of the equality of women and men, and that this interpretation is necessary for a complete understanding of Christianity.", "While there is no standard set of beliefs among Christian feminists, most agree that God does not discriminate on the basis of sex, and are involved in issues such as the ordination of women, male dominance and the balance of parenting in Christian marriage, claims of moral deficiency and inferiority of women compared to men, and the overall treatment of women in the church.Islamic feminists advocate women's rights, gender equality, and social justice grounded within an Islamic framework.", "Advocates seek to highlight the deeply rooted teachings of equality in the Quran and encourage a questioning of the patriarchal interpretation of Islamic teaching through the Quran, ''hadith'' (sayings of Muhammad), and ''sharia'' (law) towards the creation of a more equal and just society.", "Although rooted in Islam, the movement's pioneers have also used secular and Western feminist discourses and recognize the role of Islamic feminism as part of an integrated global feminist movement.Buddhist feminism is a movement that seeks to improve the religious, legal, and social status of women within Buddhism.", "It is an aspect of feminist theology which seeks to advance and understand the equality of men and women morally, socially, spiritually, and in leadership from a Buddhist perspective.", "The Buddhist feminist Rita Gross describes Buddhist feminism as \"the radical practice of the co-humanity of women and men\".Jewish feminism is a movement that seeks to improve the religious, legal, and social status of women within Judaism and to open up new opportunities for religious experience and leadership for Jewish women.", "The main issues for early Jewish feminists in these movements were the exclusion from the all-male prayer group or ''minyan'', the exemption from positive time-bound ''mitzvot'', and women's inability to function as witnesses and to initiate divorce.", "Many Jewish women have become leaders of feminist movements throughout their history.Dianic Wicca is a feminist-centred thealogy.Secular or atheist feminists have engaged in feminist criticism of religion, arguing that many religions have oppressive rules towards women and misogynistic themes and elements in religious texts.=== Patriarchy ===\"Female Muslims- The tsar, beys and khans took your rights away\" – Soviet poster issued in Azerbaijan, 1921Patriarchy is a social system in which society is organized around male authority figures.", "In this system, fathers have authority over women, children, and property.", "It implies the institutions of male rule and privilege and is dependent on female subordination.", "Most forms of feminism characterize patriarchy as an unjust social system that is oppressive to women.", "Carole Pateman argues that the patriarchal distinction \"between masculinity and femininity is the political difference between freedom and subjection.\"", "In feminist theory the concept of patriarchy often includes all the social mechanisms that reproduce and exert male dominance over women.", "Feminist theory typically characterizes patriarchy as a social construction, which can be overcome by revealing and critically analyzing its manifestations.", "Some radical feminists have proposed that because patriarchy is too deeply rooted in society, separatism is the only viable solution.", "Other feminists have criticized these views as being anti-men.=== Men and masculinity ===Feminist theory has explored the social construction of masculinity and its implications for the goal of gender equality.", "The social construct of masculinity is seen by feminism as problematic because it associates males with aggression and competition, and reinforces patriarchal and unequal gender relations.", "Patriarchal cultures are criticized for \"limiting forms of masculinity\" available to men and thus narrowing their life choices.", "Some feminists are engaged with men's issues activism, such as bringing attention to male rape and spousal battery and addressing negative social expectations for men.Male participation in feminism is generally encouraged by feminists and is seen as an important strategy for achieving full societal commitment to gender equality.", "Many male feminists and pro-feminists are active in both women's rights activism, feminist theory, and masculinity studies.", "However, some argue that while male engagement with feminism is necessary, it is problematic because of the ingrained social influences of patriarchy in gender relations.", "The consensus today in feminist and masculinity theories is that men and women should cooperate to achieve the larger goals of feminism.", "It has been proposed that, in large part, this can be achieved through considerations of women's agency." ], [ "Reactions", "Different groups of people have responded to feminism, and both men and women have been among its supporters and critics.", "Among American university students, for both men and women, support for feminist ideas is more common than self-identification as a feminist.", "The US media tends to portray feminism negatively and feminists \"are less often associated with day-to-day work/leisure activities of regular women\".", "However, as recent research has demonstrated, as people are exposed to self-identified feminists and to discussions relating to various forms of feminism, their own self-identification with feminism increases.=== Pro-feminism ===Pro-feminism is the support of feminism without implying that the supporter is a member of the feminist movement.", "The term is most often used in reference to men who are actively supportive of feminism.", "The activities of pro-feminist men's groups include anti-violence work with boys and young men in schools, offering sexual harassment workshops in workplaces, running community education campaigns, and counselling male perpetrators of violence.", "Pro-feminist men also may be involved in men's health, activism against pornography including anti-pornography legislation, men's studies, and the development of gender equity curricula in schools.", "This work is sometimes in collaboration with feminists and women's services, such as domestic violence and rape crisis centres.=== Anti-feminism and criticism of feminism === Anti-feminism is opposition to feminism in some or all of its forms.In the 19th century, anti-feminism was mainly focused on opposition to women's suffrage.", "Later, opponents of women's entry into institutions of higher learning argued that education was too great a physical burden on women.", "Other anti-feminists opposed women's entry into the labour force, or their right to join unions, to sit on juries, or to obtain birth control and control of their sexuality.Some people have opposed feminism on the grounds that they believe it is contrary to traditional values or religious beliefs.", "Some anti-feminists argue, for example, that social acceptance of divorce and non-married women is wrong and harmful, and that men and women are fundamentally different and thus their different traditional roles in society should be maintained.", "Other anti-feminists oppose women's entry into the workforce, political office, and the voting process, as well as the lessening of male authority in families.Writers such as Camille Paglia, Christina Hoff Sommers, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Lisa Lucile Owens and Daphne Patai oppose some forms of feminism, though they identify as feminists.", "They argue, for example, that feminism often promotes misandry and the elevation of women's interests above men's, and criticize radical feminist positions as harmful to both men and women.", "Daphne Patai and Noretta Koertge argue that the term \"anti-feminist\" is used to silence academic debate about feminism.", "Lisa Lucile Owens argues that certain rights extended exclusively to women are patriarchal because they relieve women from exercising a crucial aspect of their moral agency.=== Secular humanism ===Secular humanism is an ethical framework that attempts to dispense with any unreasoned dogma, pseudoscience, and superstition.", "Critics of feminism sometimes ask \"Why feminism and not humanism?\".", "Some humanists argue, however, that the goals of feminists and humanists largely overlap, and the distinction is only in motivation.", "For example, a humanist may consider abortion in terms of a utilitarian ethical framework, rather than considering the motivation of any particular woman in getting an abortion.", "In this respect, it is possible to be a humanist without being a feminist, but this does not preclude the existence of feminist humanism.", "Humanism played a significant role in protofeminism during the Renaissance period in such that humanists made educated women popular figures despite the challenge of the patriarchal organization of society." ], [ "See also", "* Black feminism* Decolonial feminism* Feminism and racism* ''Feminist Studies''* Feminist peace research* Index of feminism articles* Indigenous feminism* Lesbian erasure* List of feminist parties* List of queens regnant* Masculism* Matriarchy* Matrilineality* Men's rights movement* Multiracial feminist theory* Straw feminism* White feminism" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * Mitchell, Brian (1998).", "''Women in the Military: Flirting with Disaster''.", "Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing.", "xvii, 390 p.", ".", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * Posted 13 December 2011.Pdf.", "* Feminist.com* Psychology's Feminist Voices* \"Topics in Feminism\", at the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''" ], [ "External links", "=== Articles ===* * === Active research ===* Feminist Perspectives Scale : An academic survey to determine acceptance or rejection of feminist ideas from:** === Multimedia and documents ===* * ''Early Video on the Emancipation of Women'' , documentary filmed , which includes footage from the 1890s* Documents from the Women's Liberation Movement, Special Collections Library, Duke University* History of feminism at ''Heritage Calling'', Historic England" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Federal Aviation Administration" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Federal Aviation Administration''' ('''FAA''') is a U.S. federal government agency within the U.S. Department of Transportation which regulates civil aviation in the United States and surrounding international waters.''''''", "Its powers include air traffic control, certification of personnel and aircraft, setting standards for airports, and protection of U.S. assets during the launch or re-entry of commercial space vehicles.", "Powers over neighboring international waters were delegated to the FAA by authority of the International Civil Aviation Organization.The FAA was created in as the Federal Aviation Agency, replacing the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA).", "In 1967 the FAA became part of the newly formed U.S. Department of Transportation and was renamed the Federal Aviation Administration." ], [ "Major functions", "The FAA's roles include:*Regulating U.S. commercial space transportation*Regulating air navigation facilities' geometric and flight inspection standards*Encouraging and developing civil aeronautics, including new aviation technology*Issuing, suspending, or revoking pilot certificates*Regulating civil aviation to promote transportation safety in the United States, especially through local offices called Flight Standards District Offices*Developing and operating a system of air traffic control and navigation for both civil and military aircraft*Researching and developing the National Airspace System and civil aeronautics*Developing and carrying out programs to control aircraft noise and other environmental effects of civil aviation" ], [ "Organizations", "The FAA operates five \"lines of business\".", "Their functions are:*Air Traffic Organization (ATO): provides air navigation service within the National Airspace System.", "In ATO, employees operate air traffic control facilities comprising Airport Traffic Control Towers (ATCT), Terminal Radar Approach Control Facilities (TRACONs), and Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC).", "*Aviation Safety (AVS): responsible for aeronautical certification of personnel and aircraft, including pilots, airlines, and mechanics.", "*Airports (ARP): plans and develops the national airport system; oversees standards for airport safety, inspection, design, construction, and operation.", "The office awards $3.5 billion annually in grants for airport planning and development.", "*Office of Commercial Space Transportation (AST): ensures protection of U.S. assets during the launch or reentry of commercial space vehicles.", "*Security and Hazardous Materials Safety (ASH): responsible for risk reduction of terrorism and other crimes and for investigations, materials safety, infrastructure protection, and personnel security." ], [ "Regions and Aeronautical Center operations", "Map depicting the FAA's air traffic control jurisdictions over all U.S. territories and some international waters, including (in yellow) regions where the U.S. provides enroute air traffic control services over land, (in blue) regions where the U.S. provides oceanic air traffic control services over international waters, including Hawaii, several U.S. island territories, and some small, foreign island nations and territories.The FAA is headquartered in Washington, D.C., and also operates the William J. Hughes Technical Center near Atlantic City, New Jersey, for support and research, and the Mike Monroney Aeronautical Center in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, for training.", "The FAA has nine regional administrative offices:*Alaskan Region – Anchorage, Alaska*Northwest Mountain – Seattle, Washington*Northwestern Pacific – Los Angeles, California*Southwest – Fort Worth, Texas*Central – Kansas City, Missouri*Great Lakes – Chicago, Illinois*Southern – Atlanta, Georgia*Eastern – New York, New York*New England – Boston, Massachusetts" ], [ "History", "=== Background ===The Air Commerce Act of May 20, 1926, is the cornerstone of the U.S. federal government's regulation of civil aviation.", "This landmark legislation was passed at the urging of the aviation industry, whose leaders believed the airplane could not reach its full commercial potential without federal action to improve and maintain safety standards.", "The Act charged the Secretary of Commerce with fostering air commerce, issuing and enforcing air traffic rules, licensing pilots, certifying aircraft, establishing airways, and operating and maintaining aids to air navigation.", "The newly created Aeronautics Branch, operating under the Department of Commerce assumed primary responsibility for aviation oversight.In fulfilling its civil aviation responsibilities, the U.S. Department of Commerce initially concentrated on such functions as safety regulations and the certification of pilots and aircraft.", "It took over the building and operation of the nation's system of lighted airways, a task initiated by the Post Office Department.", "The Department of Commerce improved aeronautical radio communications—before the founding of the Federal Communications Commission in 1934, which handles most such matters today—and introduced radio beacons as an effective aid to air navigation.The Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce in 1934 to reflect its enhanced status within the Department.", "As commercial flying increased, the Bureau encouraged a group of airlines to establish the first three centers for providing air traffic control (ATC) along the airways.", "In 1936, the Bureau itself took over the centers and began to expand the ATC system.", "The pioneer air traffic controllers used maps, blackboards, and mental calculations to ensure the safe separation of aircraft traveling along designated routes between cities.In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the federal civil aviation responsibilities from the Commerce Department to a new independent agency, the Civil Aeronautics Authority.", "The legislation also expanded the government's role by giving the CAA the authority and the power to regulate airline fares and to determine the routes that air carriers would serve.President Franklin D. Roosevelt split the authority into two agencies in 1940: the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA) and the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB).", "CAA was responsible for ATC, airman and aircraft certification, safety enforcement, and airway development.", "CAB was entrusted with safety regulation, accident investigation, and economic regulation of the airlines.", "The CAA was part of the Department of Commerce.", "The CAB was an independent federal agency.On the eve of America's entry into World War II, CAA began to extend its ATC responsibilities to takeoff and landing operations at airports.", "This expanded role eventually became permanent after the war.", "The application of radar to ATC helped controllers in their drive to keep abreast of the postwar boom in commercial air transportation.", "In 1946, meanwhile, Congress gave CAA the added task of administering the federal-aid airport program, the first peacetime program of financial assistance aimed exclusively at development of the nation's civil airports.=== Formation ===The approaching era of jet travel (and a series of midair collisions—most notably the 1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision) prompted passage of the Federal Aviation Act of 1958.This legislation passed the CAA's functions to a new independent body, the Federal Aviation Agency.", "The act also transferred air safety regulation from the CAB to the FAA, and gave it sole responsibility for a joint civil-military system of air navigation and air traffic control.", "The FAA's first administrator, Elwood R. Quesada, was a former Air Force general and adviser to President Eisenhower.The same year witnessed the birth of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which was created in response to the Soviet Union (USSR) launch of the first manmade satellite.", "NASA assumed NACA's aeronautical research role.=== 1960s reorganization ===In 1967, a new U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) combined major federal responsibilities for air and surface transport.", "The Federal Aviation Agency's name changed to the Federal Aviation Administration as it became one of several agencies (e.g., Federal Highway Administration, Federal Railroad Administration, the Coast Guard, and the Saint Lawrence Seaway Commission) within DOT.", "The FAA administrator no longer reported directly to the president, but instead to the Secretary of Transportation.", "New programs and budget requests would have to be approved by DOT, which would then include these requests in the overall budget and submit it to the president.At the same time, a new National Transportation Safety Board took over the Civil Aeronautics Board's (CAB) role of investigating and determining the causes of transportation accidents and making recommendations to the secretary of transportation.", "CAB was merged into DOT with its responsibilities limited to the regulation of commercial airline routes and fares.The FAA gradually assumed additional functions.", "The hijacking epidemic of the 1960s had already brought the agency into the field of civil aviation security.", "In response to the hijackings on September 11, 2001, this responsibility is now primarily taken by the Department of Homeland Security.", "The FAA became more involved with the environmental aspects of aviation in 1968 when it received the power to set aircraft noise standards.", "Legislation in 1970 gave the agency management of a new airport aid program and certain added responsibilities for airport safety.", "During the 1960s and 1970s, the FAA also started to regulate high altitude (over 500 feet) kite and balloon flying.FAA Joint Surveillance Site radar, Canton, Michigan=== 1970s and deregulation ===By the mid-1970s, the agency had achieved a semi-automated air traffic control system using both radar and computer technology.", "This system required enhancement to keep pace with air traffic growth, however, especially after the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 phased out the CAB's economic regulation of the airlines.", "A nationwide strike by the air traffic controllers union in 1981 forced temporary flight restrictions but failed to shut down the airspace system.", "During the following year, the agency unveiled a new plan for further automating its air traffic control facilities, but progress proved disappointing.", "In 1994, the FAA shifted to a more step-by-step approach that has provided controllers with advanced equipment.In 1979, Congress authorized the FAA to work with major commercial airports to define noise pollution contours and investigate the feasibility of noise mitigation by residential retrofit programs.", "Throughout the 1980s, these charters were implemented.In the 1990s, satellite technology received increased emphasis in the FAA's development programs as a means to improvements in communications, navigation, and airspace management.", "In 1995, the agency assumed responsibility for safety oversight of commercial space transportation, a function begun eleven years before by an office within DOT headquarters.", "The agency was responsible for the decision to ground flights after the September 11 attacks.===21st century===In December 2000, an organization within the FAA called the Air Traffic Organization, (ATO) was set up by presidential executive order.", "This became the air navigation service provider for the airspace of the United States and for the New York (Atlantic) and Oakland (Pacific) oceanic areas.", "It is a full member of the Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation.The FAA issues a number of awards to holders of its certificates.", "Among these are demonstrated proficiencies as an aviation mechanic (the AMT Awards), a flight instructor (Gold Seal certification), a 50-year aviator (Wright Brothers Master Pilot Award), a 50-year mechanic (Charles Taylor Master Mechanic Award) or as a proficient pilot.", "The latter, the FAA \"WINGS Program\", provides a lifetime series of grouped proficiency activities at three levels (Basic, Advanced, and Master) for pilots who have undergone several hours of ground and flight training since their last WINGS award, or \"Phase\".", "The FAA encourages volunteerism in the promotion of aviation safety.", "The FAA Safety Team, or FAASTeam, works with Volunteers at several levels and promotes safety education and outreach nationwide.On March 18, 2008, the FAA ordered its inspectors to reconfirm that airlines are complying with federal rules after revelations that Southwest Airlines flew dozens of aircraft without certain mandatory inspections.", "The FAA exercises surprise Red Team drills on national airports annually.On October 31, 2013, after outcry from media outlets, including heavy criticism from Nick Bilton of ''The New York Times'', the FAA announced it will allow airlines to expand the passengers use of portable electronic devices during all phases of flight, but mobile phone calls would still be prohibited (and use of cellular networks during any point when aircraft doors are closed remains prohibited to-date).", "Implementation initially varied among airlines.", "The FAA expected many carriers to show that their planes allow passengers to safely use their devices in airplane mode, gate-to-gate, by the end of 2013.Devices must be held or put in the seat-back pocket during the actual takeoff and landing.", "Mobile phones must be in airplane mode or with mobile service disabled, with no signal bars displayed, and cannot be used for voice communications due to Federal Communications Commission regulations that prohibit any airborne calls using mobile phones.", "From a technological standpoint, cellular service would not work in-flight because of the rapid speed of the airborne aircraft: mobile phones cannot switch fast enough between cellular towers at an aircraft's high speed.", "However, the ban is due to potential radio interference with aircraft avionics.", "If an air carrier provides Wi-Fi service during flight, passengers may use it.", "Short-range Bluetooth accessories, like wireless keyboards, can also be used.In July 2014, in the wake of the downing of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17, the FAA suspended flights by U.S. airlines to Ben Gurion Airport during the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict for 24 hours.", "The ban was extended for a further 24 hours but was lifted about six hours later.The FAA Reauthorization Act of 2018 gives the FAA one year to establish minimum pitch, width and length for airplane seats, to ensure they are safe for passengers.The first FAA licensed orbital human space flight took place on November 15, 2020, carried out by SpaceX on behalf of NASA.=== History of FAA Administrators ===The administrator is appointed for a five-year term.", "Portrait Administrator Term start date End date Status/Notes 100px Elwood Richard Quesada Nov 1, 1958 Jan 20, 1961 100px Najeeb Halaby Mar 3, 1961 Jul 1, 1965 100px William F. McKee Jul 1, 1965 Jul 31, 1968 100px John H. Shaffer Mar 24, 1969 Mar 14, 1973 100px Alexander Butterfield Mar 14, 1973 Mar 31, 1975 100px John L. McLucas Nov 24, 1975 Apr 1, 1977 100px Langhorne Bond May 4, 1977 Jan 20, 1981 100px J. Lynn Helms Apr 22, 1981 Jan 31, 1984 100px Donald D. Engen Apr 10, 1984 Jul 2, 1987 100px T. Allan McArtor Jul 22, 1987 Feb 17, 1989 100px James B. Busey IV Jun 30, 1989 Dec 4, 1991 100px Thomas C. Richards Jun 27, 1992 Jan 20, 1993 100px David R. Hinson Aug 10, 1993 Nov 9, 1996 100px Jane Garvey Aug 4, 1997 Aug 2, 2002 100px Marion Blakey Sep 12, 2002 Sep 13, 2007 100px Robert A. Sturgell Sep 14, 2007 Jan 15, 2009 (acting) 100px Lynne Osmus Jan 16, 2009 May 31, 2009 (acting) 100px Randy Babbitt Jun 1, 2009 Dec 6, 2011 100px Michael Huerta Dec 7, 2011 Jan 6, 2018 100px Daniel K. Elwell Jan 6, 2018 Aug 12, 2019 (acting) 100px Stephen Dickson Aug 12, 2019Mar 31, 2022 100px Billy Nolen Apr 1, 2022June 9, 2023 (acting) 100pxPolly TrottenbergJune 9, 2023October 27, 2023(acting) 100pxMichael WhitakerOctober 27, 2023''Incumbent''On March 19, 2019, President Donald Trump announced he would nominate Stephen Dickson, a former executive and pilot at Delta Air Lines, to be the next FAA Administrator.", "On July 24, 2019, the Senate confirmed Dickson by a vote of 52–40.He was sworn in as Administrator by Transportation Secretary Elaine Chao on August 12, 2019.On February 16, 2022, Dickson announced his resignation as FAA Administrator, effective March 31, 2022.In September 2023, President Joe Biden announced that he would be nominating Mike Whitaker to lead the FAA.", "Whitaker previously served as deputy administrator of the FAA under President Barack Obama." ], [ "Criticism", "===Conflicting roles===The FAA has been cited as an example of regulatory capture, \"in which the airline industry openly dictates to its regulators its governing rules, arranging for not only beneficial regulation, but placing key people to head these regulators.\"", "Retired NASA Office of Inspector General Senior Special Agent Joseph Gutheinz, who used to be a Special Agent with the Office of Inspector General for the Department of Transportation and with FAA Security, is one of the most outspoken critics of FAA.", "Rather than commend the agency for proposing a $10.2 million fine against Southwest Airlines for its failure to conduct mandatory inspections in 2008, he was quoted as saying the following in an Associated Press story: \"Penalties against airlines that violate FAA directives should be stiffer.", "At $25,000 per violation, Gutheinz said, airlines can justify rolling the dice and taking the chance on getting caught.", "He also said the FAA is often too quick to bend to pressure from airlines and pilots.\"", "Other experts have been critical of the constraints and expectations under which the FAA is expected to operate.", "The dual role of encouraging aerospace travel and regulating aerospace travel are contradictory.", "For example, to levy a heavy penalty upon an airline for violating an FAA regulation which would impact their ability to continue operating would not be considered encouraging aerospace travel.On July 22, 2008, in the aftermath of the Southwest Airlines inspection scandal, a bill was unanimously approved in the House to tighten regulations concerning airplane maintenance procedures, including the establishment of a whistleblower office and a two-year \"cooling off\" period that FAA inspectors or supervisors of inspectors must wait before they can work for those they regulated.", "The bill also required rotation of principal maintenance inspectors and stipulated that the word \"customer\" properly applies to the flying public, not those entities regulated by the FAA.", "The bill died in a Senate committee that year.In September 2009, the FAA administrator issued a directive mandating that the agency use the term \"customers\" to refer to only the flying public.===Lax regulatory oversight===In 2007, two FAA whistleblowers, inspectors Charalambe \"Bobby\" Boutris and Douglas E. Peters, alleged that Boutris said he attempted to ground Southwest after finding cracks in the fuselage of an aircraft, but was prevented by supervisors he said were friendly with the airline.", "This was validated by a report by the Department of Transportation which found FAA managers had allowed Southwest Airlines to fly 46 airplanes in 2006 and 2007 that were overdue for safety inspections, ignoring concerns raised by inspectors.", "Audits of other airlines resulted in two airlines grounding hundreds of planes, causing thousands of flight cancellations.", "The House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee held hearings in April 2008.Jim Oberstar, former chairman of the committee, said its investigation uncovered a pattern of regulatory abuse and widespread regulatory lapses, allowing 117 aircraft to be operated commercially although not in compliance with FAA safety rules.", "Oberstar said there was a \"culture of coziness\" between senior FAA officials and the airlines and \"a systematic breakdown\" in the FAA's culture that resulted in \"malfeasance, bordering on corruption\".", "In 2008 the FAA proposed to fine Southwest $10.2 million for failing to inspect older planes for cracks, and in 2009 Southwest and the FAA agreed that Southwest would pay a $7.5 million penalty and would adopt new safety procedures, with the fine doubling if Southwest failed to follow through.===Changes to air traffic controller application process===In 2014, the FAA modified its approach to air traffic control hiring.", "It launched more \"off the street bids\", allowing anyone with either a four-year degree or five years of full-time work experience to apply, rather than the closed college program or Veterans Recruitment Appointment bids, something that had last been done in 2008.Thousands were hired, including veterans, Collegiate Training Initiative graduates, and people who are true \"off the street\" hires.", "The move was made to open the job up to more people who might make good controllers but did not go to a college that offered a CTI program.", "Before the change, candidates who had completed coursework at participating colleges and universities could be \"fast-tracked\" for consideration.", "However, the CTI program had no guarantee of a job offer, nor was the goal of the program to teach people to work actual traffic.", "The goal of the program was to prepare people for the FAA Academy in Oklahoma City, OK. Having a CTI certificate allowed a prospective controller to skip the Air Traffic Basics part of the academy, about a 30- to 45-day course, and go right into Initial Qualification Training (IQT).", "All prospective controllers, CTI or not, have had to pass the FAA Academy in order to be hired as a controller.", "Failure at the academy means FAA employment is terminated.", "In January 2015 they launched another pipeline, a \"prior experience\" bid, where anyone with an FAA Control Tower Operator certificate (CTO) and 52 weeks of experience could apply.", "This was a revolving bid, every month the applicants on this bid were sorted out, and eligible applicants were hired and sent directly to facilities, bypassing the FAA academy entirely.In the process of promoting diversity, the FAA revised its hiring process.", "The FAA later issued a report that the \"bio-data\" was not a reliable test for future performance.", "However, the \"Bio-Q\" was not the determining factor for hiring, it was merely a screening tool to determine who would take a revised Air Traffic Standardized Aptitude Test (ATSAT).", "Due to cost and time, it was not practical to give all 30,000 some applicants the revised ATSAT, which has since been validated.", "In 2015 Fox News levied unsubstantiated criticism that the FAA discriminated against qualified candidates.In December 2015, a reverse discrimination lawsuit was filed against the FAA seeking class-action status for the thousands of men and women who spent up to $40,000 getting trained under FAA rules before they were abruptly changed.", "The prospects of the lawsuit are unknown, as the FAA is a self-governing entity and therefore can alter and experiment with its hiring practices, and there was never any guarantee of a job in the CTI program.=== Close Calls ===In August 2023 ''The New York Times'' published an investigative report that showed overworked air traffic controllers at understaffed facilities making errors that resulted in 46 near collisions in the air and on the ground in the month of July alone.===Next Generation Air Transportation System===A May 2017 letter from staff of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure to members of the same committee sent before a meeting to discuss air traffic control privatization noted a 35-year legacy of failed air traffic control modernization management, including NextGen.", "The letter said the FAA initially described NextGen as fundamentally transforming how air traffic would be managed.", "In 2015, however, the National Research Council noted that NextGen, as currently executed, was not broadly transformational and that it is a set of programs to implement a suite of incremental changes to the National Airspace System (NAS).More precise Performance Based Navigation can reduce fuel burn, emissions, and noise exposure for a majority of communities, but the concentration of flight tracks also can increase noise exposure for people who live directly under those flight paths.", "A feature of the NextGen program is GPS-based waypoints, which result in consolidated flight paths for planes.", "The result of this change is that many localities experience huge increases in air traffic over previously quiet areas.", "Complaints have risen with the added traffic and multiple municipalities have filed suit.===Boeing 737 MAX controversy===As a result of the March 10, 2019 Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302 crash and the Lion Air Flight 610 crash five months earlier, most airlines and countries began grounding the Boeing 737 MAX 8 (and in many cases all MAX variants) due to safety concerns, but the FAA declined to ground MAX 8 aircraft operating in the U.S. On March 12, the FAA said that its ongoing review showed \"no systemic performance issues and provides no basis to order grounding the aircraft.\"", "Some U.S.", "Senators called for the FAA to ground the aircraft until an investigation into the cause of the Ethiopian Airlines crash was complete.", "U.S. Transportation Secretary Elaine Chao said that \"If the FAA identifies an issue that affects safety, the department will take immediate and appropriate action.\"", "The FAA resisted grounding the aircraft until March 13, 2019, when it received evidence of similarities in the two accidents.", "By then, 51 other regulators had already grounded the plane, and by March 18, 2019, all 387 aircraft in service were grounded.", "Three major U.S. airlines--Southwest, United, and American Airlines—were affected by this decision.Further investigations also revealed that the FAA and Boeing had colluded on recertification test flights, attempted to cover up important information and that the FAA had retaliated against whistleblowers.===Space division===SpaceX CEO Elon Musk criticized the FAA as moving too slowly, after a 2020 launch of a Starship prototype rocket violated the company's license.", "Musk said the agency's regulations are tailored for \"a handful of expendable launches per year from a few government facilities\", and that humanity would never get to Mars under those rules." ], [ "Regulatory process", "===Designated Engineering Representative===A Designated Engineering Representative (DER) is an engineer who is appointed under 14 CFR section 183.29 to act on behalf of a company or as an independent consultant (IC).", "The DER system enables the FAA to delegate certain involvement in airworthiness exams, tests, and inspections to qualified technical people outside of the FAA.", "Qualifications and policies for appointment of Designated Airworthiness Representatives are established in FAA Order 8100.8, ''Designee Management Handbook''.", "Working procedures for DERs are prescribed in FAA Order 8110.37, ''Designated Engineering Representative (DER) Handbook''.", "*Company DERs act on behalf of their employer and may only approve, or recommend that the FAA approves, technical data produced by their employer.", "*Consultant DERs are appointed to act as independent DERs and may approve, or recommend that the FAA approves, technical data produced by any person or organization.Neither type of DER is an employee of either the FAA or the United States government.", "While a DER represents the FAA when acting under the authority of a DER appointment; a DER has no federal protection for work done or the decisions made as a DER.", "Neither does the FAA provide any indemnification for a DER from general tort law.", "\"The FAA cannot shelter or protect DERs from the consequences of their findings.", "\"===Designated Airworthiness Representative (DAR)===A DAR is an individual appointed in accordance with 14 CFR 183.33 who may perform examination, inspection, and testing services necessary to the issuance of certificates.", "There are two types of DARs: manufacturing, and maintenance.", "*Manufacturing DARs must possess aeronautical knowledge, experience, and meet the qualification requirements of FAA Order 8100.8.", "*Maintenance DARs must hold:*# a mechanic's certificate with an airframe and powerplant rating, under 14 CFR part 65 ''Certification: Airmen Other Than Flight Crewmembers'', or*# a repairman certificate and be employed at a repair station certificated under 14 CFR part 145, or an air carrier operating certificate holder with an FAA-approved continuous airworthiness program, and must meet the qualification requirements of Order 8100.8, Chapter 14.Specialized Experience – Amateur-Built and Light-Sport Aircraft DARs Both Manufacturing DARs and Maintenance DARs may be authorized to perform airworthiness certification of light-sport aircraft.", "DAR qualification criteria and selection procedures for amateur-built and light-sport aircraft airworthiness functions are provided in Order 8100.8.=== Continued Airworthiness Notification to the International Community (CANIC) ===A Continued Airworthiness Notification to the International Community (commonly abbreviated as CANIC) is a notification from the FAA to civil airworthiness authorities of foreign countries of pending significant safety actions.The FAA Airworthiness Directives Manual, states the following:8.Continued Airworthiness Notification to the International Community (CANIC).:a.", "A CANIC is used to notify civil airworthiness authorities of other countries of pending significant safety actions.", "A significant safety action can be defined as, but not limited to, the following:::(1) Urgent safety situations;::(2) The pending issuance of an Emergency AD;::(3) A safety action that affects many people, operators;::(4) A Special Federal Aviation Regulation (SFAR);::(5) Other high interest event (e.g., a special certification review).", "==== Notable CANICs ====The FAA issued a CANIC to state the continued airworthiness of the Boeing 737 MAX, following the crash of Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302.Another CANIC notified the ungrounding of the MAX, ending a 20-month grounding.=== Proposed regulatory reforms =======FAA reauthorization and air traffic control reform====U.S.", "law requires that the FAA's budget and mandate be reauthorized on a regular basis.", "On July 18, 2016, President Obama signed a second short-term extension of the FAA authorization, replacing a previous extension that was due to expire that day.The 2016 extension (set to expire itself in September 2017) left out a provision pushed by Republican House leadership, including House Transportation and Infrastructure (T&I) Committee Chairman Bill Shuster (R-PA).", "The provision would have moved authority over air traffic control from the FAA to a non-profit corporation, as many other nations, such as Canada, Germany and the United Kingdom, have done.", "Shuster's bill, the Aviation Innovation, Reform, and Reauthorization (AIRR) Act, expired in the House at the end of the 114th Congress.The House T&I Committee began the new reauthorization process for the FAA in February 2017.It is expected that the committee will again urge Congress to consider and adopt air traffic control reform as part of the reauthorization package.", "Shuster has additional support from President Trump, who, in a meeting with aviation industry executives in early 2017 said the U.S. air control system is \"....totally out of whack.\"" ], [ "See also", "*Acquisition Management System*Airport Improvement Program*Federal Aviation Regulations*Civil aviation authority (generic term)*Office of Dispute Resolution for Acquisition*SAFO, Safety Alert for Operators*United States government role in civil aviation*Weather Information Exchange Model" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Records of the Federal Aviation Administration in the National Archives (Record Group 237) * Federal Aviation Administration in the Federal Register**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "French Revolution" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''French Revolution''' was a period of political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789, and ended with the coup of 18 Brumaire in November 1799 and the formation of the French Consulate.", "Many of its ideas are considered fundamental principles of liberal democracy, while its values and institutions remain central to modern French political discourse.Its causes are generally agreed to be a combination of social, political and economic factors, which the ''Ancien Régime'' proved unable to manage.", "A financial crisis and widespread social distress led, in May 1789, to the convocation of the Estates General which was converted into a National Assembly in June.", "The Storming of the Bastille on 14 July led to a series of radical measures by the Assembly, among them the abolition of feudalism, state control over the Catholic Church in France, and a declaration of rights.The next three years were dominated by the struggle for political control, exacerbated by economic depression.", "Military defeats following the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in April 1792 resulted in the Insurrection of 10 August 1792.The monarchy was abolished and replaced by the French First Republic in September, while Louis XVI was executed in January 1793.After another revolt in June 1793, the constitution was suspended and effective political power passed from the National Convention to the Committee of Public Safety.", "About 16,000 people were executed in a Reign of Terror, which ended in July 1794.Weakened by external threats and internal opposition, the Republic was replaced in 1795 by the Directory.", "Four years later in 1799, the Consulate seized power in a military coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte.", "This is generally seen as marking the end of the Revolutionary period." ], [ "Causes", "The Revolution was the result of multiple long-term and short-term factors that culminated in a social, economic, financial and political crisis in the late 1780s.", "Combined with resistance to reform by the ruling elite, and indecisive policy by Louis XVI and his ministers, the state was unable to manage the crisis.Between 1715 and 1789, the French population grew from an estimated 21 to 28 million.", "The proportion of the population living in towns increased to 20%, and Paris alone had over 600,000 inhabitants.", "Peasants comprised about 80% of the population, but the middle classes tripled over the century, reaching almost 10% of the population by 1789.Although the 18th century was a period of increasing prosperity, the benefits were distributed unevenly across regions and social groups.", "Those whose income derived from agriculture, rents, interest and trade in goods from France's slave colonies benefited most, while the living standards of wage labourers and farmers on rented land fell.", "Increasing inequality led to more social conflict.", "Economic recession from 1785 and bad harvests in 1787 and 1788 led to high unemployment and food prices which coincided with a financial and political crisis for the monarchy.While the state also experienced a debt crisis, the level of debt itself was not high compared with Britain's.", "A major problem was that tax rates varied widely from one region to another, were often different from the official amounts, and collected inconsistently.", "Its complexity meant uncertainty over the amount any authorised tax actually contributed, and caused resentment among all taxpayers.", "Attempts to simplify the system were blocked by the regional ''Parlements'' which approved financial policy.", "The resulting impasse led to the calling of the Estates-General, which became radicalised by the struggle for control of public finances.Louis XVI was willing to consider reforms, but often backed down when faced with opposition from conservative elements within the nobility.", "Enlightenment critiques of social institutions were widely discussed among the educated French elite, while the American Revolution and the European revolts of the 1780s inspired public debate on issues such as patriotism, liberty, equality and the participation of the people in making laws.", "These debates helped shape the response of the educated public to the crisis facing the state.", "A series of public scandals such as the Diamond Necklace Affair also fuelled popular anger at the court, nobility and church officials." ], [ "Crisis of the ''Ancien Régime''", "The regional ''Parlements'' in 1789; note area covered by the Parlement of Paris=== Financial and political crisis ===The monarchy faced a series of budgetary crises during the 18th century, as revenues failed to keep pace with expenditure on the military and state pensions.", "Although the French economy grew solidly, the tax system did not capture the new wealth.", "Tax collection was contracted to tax farmers and receivers who often kept much of the tax collected as personal profit.", "As the nobility and Church benefited from many exemptions, the tax burden fell mainly on peasants.", "Reform was difficult because new tax laws had to be registered with regional judicial bodies known as ''parlements'' that could deny registration if the laws conflicted with existing rights and privileges.", "The king could impose laws by decree but this risked open conflict with the ''parlements'', the nobility and those subject to new taxes.France mostly funded the Anglo-French War of 1778–1783 through loans.", "Following the peace, the monarchy continued to borrow heavily, culminating in a debt crisis.", "By 1788, half of state revenue was required to service its debt.", "In 1786 the French finance minister, Calonne, proposed a package of reforms including a universal land tax, the abolition of grain controls and internal tariffs, and new provincial assemblies appointed by the king.", "The new taxes, however, were rejected, first by a hand-picked Assembly of Notables dominated by the nobility, then by the parlements when submitted by Calonne's successor Brienne.", "The notables and parlements argued that the proposed taxes could only be approved by an Estates-General, a representative body that had last met in 1614.The conflict between the crown and the parlements became a national political crisis.", "Both sides issued a series of public statements, the government arguing that it was combating privilege, the parlements that it was defending the ancient rights of the nation.", "Public opinion was firmly on the side of the parlements and rioting broke out in several towns.", "Brienne's attempts to raise new loans failed, and on 8 August 1788 he announced that the king would summon an Estates-General to convene the following May.", "Brienne resigned and was replaced by Necker.In September 1788, the parlement of Paris ruled that the Estates-General should convene in the same form as in 1614, meaning that the three estates (the clergy, nobility and Third Estate or \"commons\") would meet and vote separately and votes would be counted by estate rather than by head.", "As a result, the clergy and nobility could combine to outvote the Third Estate despite representing less than 5% of the population.Following the relaxation of censorship and laws against political clubs, a group of liberal nobles and middle class activists, known as the Society of Thirty, launched a campaign for the doubling of Third Estate representation and voting by head.", "The public debate saw an average of 25 new political pamphlets published a week from 25 September 1788.The Abbé Sieyès issued influential pamphlets denouncing the privilege of the clergy and nobility and arguing that the Third Estate represented the nation and should sit alone as a National Assembly.", "Activists such as Mounier, Barnave and Robespierre organised meetings, petitions and literature on behalf of the Third Estate in regional towns.", "In December, the king agreed to double the representation of the Third Estate but left the question of counting votes by head for the Estates-General to decide.=== Estates-General of 1789 ===Caricature of the Third Estate carrying the First Estate (clergy) and the Second Estate (nobility) on its backThe Estates-General contained three separate bodies, the First Estate representing 100,000 clergy, the Second the nobility, and the Third the \"commons\".", "Since each met separately, and any proposals had to be approved by at least two, the First and Second Estates could outvote the Third despite representing less than 5% of the population.Although the Catholic Church in France owned nearly 10% of all land, as well as receiving annual tithes paid by peasants, three-quarters of the 303 clergy elected were parish priests, many of whom earned less than unskilled labourers and had more in common with their poor parishioners than with the Bishops of the first estate.The Second Estate elected 322 deputies, representing about 400,000 men and women, who owned about 25% of the land and collected seigneurial dues and rents from their tenants.", "Most delegates were town-dwelling members of the ''noblesse d'épée'', or traditional aristocracy.", "Courtiers and representatives of the ''noblesse de robe'' (those who derived rank from judicial or administrative posts) were underrepresented.Of the 610 deputies of the Third Estate, about two-thirds held legal qualifications and almost half were venal office holders.", "Less than 100 were in trade or industry and none were peasants or artisans.", "To assist delegates, each region completed a list of grievances, known as ''Cahiers de doléances''.", "Tax inequality and seigneurial dues (feudal payments owed to landowners) headed the grievances in the ''cahiers de doleances'' for the estate.On 5 May 1789, the Estates-General convened at Versailles.", "Necker outlined the state budget and reiterated the king's decision that each estate should decide on which matters it would agree to meet and vote in common with the other estates.", "On the following day, each estate was to separately verify the credentials of their representatives.", "The Third Estate, however, voted to invite the other estates to join them in verifying all the representatives of the Estates-General in common and to agree that votes should be counted by head.", "Fruitless negotiations lasted to 12 June when the Third Estate began verifying its own members.", "On 17 June, the Third Estate declared itself to be the National Assembly of France and that all existing taxes were illegal.", "Within two days, more than 100 members of the clergy had joined them.", "''Le Serment du Jeu de paume'' by Jacques-Louis David (), depicting the Tennis Court OathShaken by this challenge to his authority, the king agreed to a reform package that he would announce at a Royal Session of the Estates-General.", "The ''Salle des États'' was closed to prepare for the joint session, but the members of the Estates-General were not informed in advance.", "On 20 June, when the members of the Third Estate found their meeting place closed, they moved to a nearby tennis court and swore not to disperse until a new constitution had been agreed.At the Royal Session the king announced a series of tax and other reforms and stated that no new taxes or loans would be implemented without the consent of the Estates-General.", "However, he stated that the three estates were sacrosanct and it was up to each estate to agree to end their privileges and decide on which matters they would vote in common with the other estates.", "At the end of the session the Third Estate refused to leave the hall and reiterated their oath not to disperse until a constitution had been agreed.", "Over the next days more members of the clergy joined the National Assembly.", "On 27 June, faced with popular demonstrations and mutinies in his French Guards, Louis XVI capitulated.", "He commanded the members of the first and second estates to join the third in the National Assembly." ], [ "Constitutional monarchy (July 1789 – September 1792)", "=== Abolition of the ''Ancien Régime'' ===Even the limited reforms the king had announced went too far for Marie Antoinette and Louis' younger brother the Comte d'Artois.", "On their advice, Louis dismissed Necker again as chief minister on 11 July.", "On 12 July, the Assembly went into a non-stop session after rumours circulated he was planning to use the Swiss Guards to force it to close.", "The news brought crowds of protestors into the streets, and soldiers of the elite regiment refused to disperse them.On the 14th, many of these soldiers joined the mob in attacking the Bastille, a royal fortress with large stores of arms and ammunition.", "Its governor, Bernard-René de Launay, surrendered after several hours of fighting that cost the lives of 83 attackers.", "Taken to the , he was executed, his head placed on a pike and paraded around the city; the fortress was then torn down in a remarkably short time.", "Although rumoured to hold many prisoners, the Bastille held only seven: four forgers, a lunatic, a failed assassin, and a deviant nobleman.", "Nevertheless, as a potent symbol of the , its destruction was viewed as a triumph and Bastille Day is still celebrated every year.", "In French culture, some see its fall as the start of the Revolution.The Storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789; the iconic event of the Revolution, still commemorated each year as Bastille DayAlarmed by the prospect of losing control of the capital, Louis appointed the Marquis de Lafayette commander of the National Guard, with Jean-Sylvain Bailly as head of a new administrative structure known as the Commune.", "On 17 July, Louis visited Paris accompanied by 100 deputies, where he was greeted by Bailly and accepted a tricolore cockade to loud cheers.", "However, it was clear power had shifted from his court; he was welcomed as 'Louis XVI, father of the French and king of a free people.", "'The short-lived unity enforced on the Assembly by a common threat quickly dissipated.", "Deputies argued over constitutional forms, while civil authority rapidly deteriorated.", "On 22 July, former Finance Minister Joseph Foullon and his son were lynched by a Parisian mob, and neither Bailly nor Lafayette could prevent it.", "In rural areas, wild rumours and paranoia resulted in the formation of militia and an agrarian insurrection known as .", "The breakdown of law and order and frequent attacks on aristocratic property led much of the nobility to flee abroad.", "These ''émigrés'' funded reactionary forces within France and urged foreign monarchs to back a counter-revolution.In response, the Assembly published the August Decrees which abolished feudalism.", "Over 25% of French farmland was subject to feudal dues, providing the nobility with most of their income; these were now cancelled, along with church tithes.", "While their former tenants were supposed to pay them compensation, collecting it proved impossible, and the obligation was annulled in 1793.Other decrees included equality before the law, opening public office to all, freedom of worship, and cancellation of special privileges held by provinces and towns.With the suspension of the 13 regional in November, the key institutional pillars of the old regime had all been abolished in less than four months.", "From its early stages, the Revolution therefore displayed signs of its radical nature; what remained unclear was the constitutional mechanism for turning intentions into practical applications.=== Creating a new constitution ===On 9 July, the National Assembly appointed a committee to draft a constitution and statement of rights.", "Twenty drafts were submitted, which were used by a sub-committee to create a Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, with Mirabeau being the most prominent member.", "The Declaration was approved by the Assembly and published on 26 August as a statement of principle.The Assembly now concentrated on the constitution itself.", "Mounier and his monarchist supporters advocated a bicameral system, with an upper house appointed by the king, who would also have the right to appoint ministers and veto legislation.", "On 10 September, the majority of the Assembly, led by Sieyès and Talleyrand, voted in favour of a single body, and the following day approved a \"suspensive veto\" for the king, meaning Louis could delay implementation of a law, but not block it indefinitely.", "In October, the Assembly voted to restrict political rights, including voting rights, to \"active citizens\", defined as French males over the age of 25 who paid direct taxes equal to three days' labour.", "The remainder were designated \"passive citizens\", restricted to \"civil rights\", a distinction opposed by a significant minority, including the Jacobin clubs.", "By mid-1790, the main elements of a constitutional monarchy were in place, although the constitution was not accepted by Louis until 1791.Food shortages and the worsening economy caused frustration at the lack of progress, and led to popular unrest in Paris.", "This came to a head in late September 1789, when the Flanders Regiment arrived in Versailles to reinforce the Royal bodyguard, and were welcomed with a formal banquet as was common practice.", "The radical press described this as a 'gluttonous orgy', and claimed the tricolour cockade had been abused, while the Assembly viewed their arrival as an attempt to intimidate them.On 5 October, crowds of women assembled outside the ''Hôtel de Ville'', agitating against high food prices and shortages.", "These protests quickly turned political, and after seizing weapons stored at the ''Hôtel de Ville,'' some 7,000 of them marched on Versailles, where they entered the Assembly to present their demands.", "They were followed to Versailles by 15,000 members of the National Guard under Lafayette, who was virtually \"a prisoner of his own troops\".When the National Guard arrived later that evening, Lafayette persuaded Louis the safety of his family required their relocation to Paris.", "Next morning, some of the protestors broke into the Royal apartments, searching for Marie Antoinette, who escaped.", "They ransacked the palace, killing several guards.", "Order was eventually restored, and the Royal family and Assembly left for Paris, escorted by the National Guard.", "Louis had announced his acceptance of the August Decrees and the Declaration, and his official title changed from 'King of France' to 'King of the French'.===The Revolution and the Church ===Historian John McManners argues \"in eighteenth-century France, throne and altar were commonly spoken of as in close alliance; their simultaneous collapse ... would one day provide the final proof of their interdependence.\"", "One suggestion is that after a century of persecution, some French Protestants actively supported an anti-Catholic regime, a resentment fuelled by Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire.", "Jean-Jacques Rousseau, considered a philosophical founder of the revolution, wrote it was \"manifestly contrary to the law of nature... that a handful of people should gorge themselves with superfluities, while the hungry multitude goes in want of necessities.", "\"In this caricature, monks and nuns enjoy their new freedom after the decree of 16 February 1790.The Revolution caused a massive shift of power from the Catholic Church to the state; although the extent of religious belief has been questioned, elimination of tolerance for religious minorities meant by 1789 being French also meant being Catholic.", "The church was the largest individual landowner in France, controlling nearly 10% of all estates and levied tithes, effectively a 10% tax on income, collected from peasant farmers in the form of crops.", "In return, it provided a minimal level of social support.The August decrees abolished tithes, and on 2 November the Assembly confiscated all church property, the value of which was used to back a new paper currency known as .", "In return, the state assumed responsibilities such as paying the clergy and caring for the poor, the sick and the orphaned.", "On 13 February 1790, religious orders and monasteries were dissolved, while monks and nuns were encouraged to return to private life.The Civil Constitution of the Clergy of 12 July 1790 made them employees of the state, as well as establishing rates of pay and a system for electing priests and bishops.", "Pope Pius VI and many French Catholics objected to this since it denied the authority of the Pope over the French Church.", "In October, thirty bishops wrote a declaration denouncing the law, further fuelling opposition.When clergy were required to swear loyalty to the Civil Constitution in November 1790, it split the church between the 24% who complied, and the majority who refused.", "This stiffened popular resistance against state interference, especially in traditionally Catholic areas such as Normandy, Brittany and the Vendée, where only a few priests took the oath and the civilian population turned against the revolution.", "The result was state-led persecution of \"Refractory clergy\", many of whom were forced into exile, deported, or executed.=== Political divisions ===The period from October 1789 to spring 1791 is usually seen as one of relative tranquility, when some of the most important legislative reforms were enacted.", "However, conflict over the source of legitimate authority was more apparent in the provinces, where officers of the had been swept away, but not yet replaced by new structures.", "This was less obvious in Paris, since the National Guard made it the best policed city in Europe, but disorder in the provinces inevitably affected members of the Assembly.The on 14 July 1790 celebrated the establishment of the constitutional monarchy.Centrists led by Sieyès, Lafayette, Mirabeau and Bailly created a majority by forging consensus with like Mounier, and independents including Adrien Duport, Barnave and Alexandre Lameth.", "At one end of the political spectrum, reactionaries like Cazalès and Maury denounced the Revolution in all its forms, with radicals like Maximilien Robespierre at the other.", "He and Jean-Paul Marat opposed the criteria for \"active citizens\", gaining them substantial support among the Parisian proletariat, many of whom had been disenfranchised by the measure.On 14 July 1790, celebrations were held throughout France commemorating the fall of the Bastille, with participants swearing an oath of fidelity to \"the nation, the law and the king.\"", "The in Paris was attended by the Royal family, with Talleyrand performing a mass.", "Despite this show of unity, the Assembly was increasingly divided, while external players like the Paris Commune and National Guard competed for power.", "One of the most significant was the Jacobin club; originally a forum for general debate, by August 1790 it had over 150 members, split into different factions.The Assembly continued to develop new institutions; in September 1790, the regional were abolished and their legal functions replaced by a new independent judiciary, with jury trials for criminal cases.", "However, moderate deputies were uneasy at popular demands for universal suffrage, labour unions and cheap bread, and over the winter of 1790 and 1791, they passed a series of measures intended to disarm popular radicalism.", "These included exclusion of poorer citizens from the National Guard, limits on use of petitions and posters, and the June 1791 Le Chapelier Law suppressing trade guilds and any form of worker organisation.The traditional force for preserving law and order was the army, which was increasingly divided between officers, who largely came from the nobility, and ordinary soldiers.", "In August 1790, the loyalist General Bouillé suppressed a serious mutiny at Nancy; although congratulated by the Assembly, he was criticised by Jacobin radicals for the severity of his actions.", "Growing disorder meant many professional officers either left or became émigrés, further destabilising the institution.===Varennes and after===Held in the Tuileries Palace under virtual house arrest, Louis XVI was urged by his brother and wife to re-assert his independence by taking refuge with Bouillé, who was based at Montmédy with 10,000 soldiers considered loyal to the Crown.", "The royal family left the palace in disguise on the night of 20 June 1791; late the next day, Louis was recognised as he passed through Varennes, arrested and taken back to Paris.", "The attempted escape had a profound impact on public opinion; since it was clear Louis had been seeking refuge in Austria, the Assembly now demanded oaths of loyalty to the regime, and began preparing for war, while fear of 'spies and traitors' became pervasive.After the Flight to Varennes; the Royal family are escorted back to ParisDespite calls to replace the monarchy with a republic, Louis retained his position but was generally regarded with acute suspicion and forced to swear allegiance to the constitution.", "A new decree stated retracting this oath, making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would be considered abdication.", "However, radicals led by Jacques Pierre Brissot prepared a petition demanding his deposition, and on 17 July, an immense crowd gathered in the Champ de Mars to sign.", "Led by Lafayette, the National Guard was ordered to \"preserve public order\" and responded to a barrage of stones by firing into the crowd, killing between 13 and 50 people.The massacre badly damaged Lafayette's reputation; the authorities responded by closing radical clubs and newspapers, while their leaders went into exile or hiding, including Marat.", "On 27 August, Emperor Leopold II and King Frederick William II of Prussia issued the Declaration of Pillnitz declaring their support for Louis, and hinting at an invasion of France on his behalf.", "In reality, the meeting between Leopold and Frederick was primarily to discuss the Partitions of Poland; the Declaration was intended to satisfy Comte d'Artois and other French émigrés but the threat rallied popular support behind the regime.Based on a motion proposed by Robespierre, existing deputies were barred from elections held in early September for the French Legislative Assembly.", "Although Robespierre himself was one of those excluded, his support in the clubs gave him a political power base not available to Lafayette and Bailly, who resigned respectively as head of the National Guard and the Paris Commune.", "The new laws were gathered together in the 1791 Constitution, and submitted to Louis XVI, who pledged to defend it \"from enemies at home and abroad\".", "On 30 September, the Constituent Assembly was dissolved, and the Legislative Assembly convened the next day.=== Fall of the monarchy ===The Legislative Assembly is often dismissed by historians as an ineffective body, compromised by divisions over the role of the monarchy, an issue exacerbated when Louis attempted to prevent or reverse limitations on his powers.", "At the same time, restricting the vote to those who paid a minimal amount of tax disenfranchised a significant proportion of the 6 million Frenchmen over 25, while only 10% of those able to vote actually did so.", "Finally, poor harvests and rising food prices led to unrest among the urban class known as ''Sans-culottes'', who saw the new regime as failing to meet their demands for bread and work.This meant the new constitution was opposed by significant elements inside and outside the Assembly, itself split into three main groups.", "264 members were affiliated with Barnave's , constitutional monarchists who considered the Revolution had gone far enough, while another 136 were Jacobin leftists who supported a republic, led by Brissot and usually referred to as .", "The remaining 345 belonged to , a centrist faction who switched votes depending on the issue, but many of whom shared doubts as to whether Louis was committed to the Revolution.", "After he officially accepted the new Constitution, one recorded response was \"\", or \"Long live the king – if he keeps his word\".Although a minority in the Assembly, control of key committees allowed the to provoke Louis into using his veto.", "They first managed to pass decrees confiscating émigré property, and threatening them with the death penalty.", "This was followed by measures against non-juring priests, whose opposition to the Civil Constitution led to a state of near civil war in southern France, which Bernave tried to defuse by relaxing the more punitive provisions.", "On 29 November, the Assembly approved a decree giving refractory clergy eight days to comply, or face charges of 'conspiracy against the nation', an act opposed even by Robespierre.", "When Louis vetoed both, his opponents were able to portray him as opposed to reform in general.The storming of the Tuileries Palace, 10 August 1792Brissot accompanied this with a campaign for war against Austria and Prussia, often interpreted as a mixture of calculation and idealism.", "While exploiting popular anti-Austrianism, it reflected a genuine belief in exporting the values of political liberty and popular sovereignty.", "Simultaneously, conservatives headed by Marie Antoinette also favoured war, seeing it as a way to regain control of the military, and restore royal authority.", "In December 1791, Louis made a speech in the Assembly giving foreign powers a month to disband the émigrés or face war, an act greeted with enthusiasm by supporters, but suspicion from opponents.Bernave's inability to build a consensus in the Assembly resulted in the appointment of a new government, chiefly composed of .", "On 20 April 1792, the French Revolutionary Wars began when French armies attacked Austrian and Prussian forces along their borders, before suffering a series of disastrous defeats.", "In an effort to mobilise popular support, the government ordered non-juring priests to swear the oath or be deported, dissolved the Constitutional Guard and replaced it with 20,000 ; Louis agreed to disband the Guard, but vetoed the other two proposals, while Lafayette called on the Assembly to suppress the clubs.Popular anger increased when details of the Brunswick Manifesto reached Paris on 1 August, threatening 'unforgettable vengeance' should any oppose the Allies in seeking to restore the power of the monarchy.", "On the morning of 10 August, a combined force of the Paris National Guard and provincial fédérés attacked the Tuileries Palace, killing many of the Swiss Guards protecting it.", "Louis and his family took refuge with the Assembly and shortly after 11:00 am, the deputies present voted to 'temporarily relieve the king', effectively suspending the monarchy." ], [ "First Republic (1792–1795)", "=== Proclamation of the First Republic ===Execution of Louis XVI in the Place de la Concorde, facing the empty pedestal where the statue of his grandfather, Louis XV previously stoodIn late August, elections were held for the National Convention.", "New restrictions on the franchise meant the number of votes cast fell to 3.3 million, versus 4 million in 1791, while intimidation was widespread.", "The ''Brissotins'' now split between moderate ''Girondins'' led by Brissot, and radical ''Montagnards'', headed by Robespierre, Georges Danton and Jean-Paul Marat.", "While loyalties constantly shifted, voting patterns suggest roughly 160 of the 749 deputies can generally be categorised as ''Girondists'', with another 200 ''Montagnards''.", "The remainder were part of a centrist faction known as ''La Plaine'', headed by Bertrand Barère, Pierre Joseph Cambon and Lazare Carnot.In the September Massacres, between 1,100 and 1,600 prisoners held in Parisian jails were summarily executed, the vast majority being common criminals.", "A response to the capture of Longwy and Verdun by Prussia, the perpetrators were largely National Guard members and ''fédérés'' on their way to the front.", "While responsibility is still disputed, even moderates expressed sympathy for the action, which soon spread to the provinces.", "One suggestion is that the killings stemmed from concern over growing lawlessness, rather than political ideology.On 20 September, the French defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Valmy, in what was the first major victory by the army of France during the Revolutionary Wars.", "Emboldened by this, on 22 September the Convention replaced the monarchy with the French First Republic (1792–1804) and introduced a new calendar, with 1792 becoming \"Year One\".", "The next few months were taken up with the trial of ''Citoyen Louis Capet'', formerly Louis XVI.", "While evenly divided on the question of his guilt, members of the convention were increasingly influenced by radicals based within the Jacobin clubs and Paris Commune.", "The Brunswick Manifesto made it easy to portray Louis as a threat to the Revolution, especially when extracts from his personal correspondence showed him conspiring with Royalist exiles.On 17 January 1793, Louis was sentenced to death for \"conspiracy against public liberty and general safety\".", "361 deputies were in favour, 288 against, while another 72 voted to execute him, subject to delaying conditions.", "The sentence was carried out on 21 January on the ''Place de la Révolution'', now the Place de la Concorde.", "Conservatives across Europe now called for the destruction of revolutionary France, and in February the Convention responded by declaring war on Britain and the Dutch Republic.", "Together with Austria and Prussia, these two countries were later joined by Spain, Portugal, Naples, and Tuscany in the War of the First Coalition (1792–1797).=== Political crisis and fall of the Girondins ===The Girondins hoped war would unite the people behind the government and provide an excuse for rising prices and food shortages, but found themselves the target of popular anger.", "Many left for the provinces.", "The first conscription measure or ''levée en masse'' on 24 February sparked riots in Paris and other regional centres.", "Already unsettled by changes imposed on the church, in March the traditionally conservative and royalist Vendée rose in revolt.", "On 18th, Dumouriez was defeated at Neerwinden and defected to the Austrians.", "Uprisings followed in Bordeaux, Lyon, Toulon, Marseilles and Caen.", "The Republic seemed on the verge of collapse.The crisis led to the creation on 6 April 1793 of the Committee of Public Safety, an executive committee accountable to the convention.", "The Girondins made a fatal political error by indicting Marat before the Revolutionary Tribunal for allegedly directing the September massacres; he was quickly acquitted, further isolating the Girondins from the ''sans-culottes''.", "When Jacques Hébert called for a popular revolt against the \"henchmen of Louis Capet\" on 24 May, he was arrested by the Commission of Twelve, a Girondin-dominated tribunal set up to expose 'plots'.", "In response to protests by the Commune, the Commission warned \"if by your incessant rebellions something befalls the representatives of the nation,...Paris will be obliterated\".", "''The Death of Marat'' by Jacques-Louis David (1793)Growing discontent allowed the clubs to mobilise against the Girondins.", "Backed by the Commune and elements of the National Guard, on 31 May they attempted to seize power in a coup.", "Although the coup failed, on 2 June the convention was surrounded by a crowd of up to 80,000, demanding cheap bread, unemployment pay and political reforms, including restriction of the vote to the ''sans-culottes'', and the right to remove deputies at will.", "Ten members of the commission and another twenty-nine members of the Girondin faction were arrested, and on 10 June, the Montagnards took over the Committee of Public Safety.Meanwhile, a committee led by Robespierre's close ally Saint-Just was tasked with preparing a new Constitution.", "Completed in only eight days, it was ratified by the convention on 24 June, and contained radical reforms, including universal male suffrage.", "However, normal legal processes were suspended following the assassination of Marat on 13 July by the Girondist Charlotte Corday, which the Committee of Public Safety used as an excuse to take control.", "The 1793 Constitution was suspended indefinitely in October.Key areas of focus for the new government included creating a new state ideology, economic regulation and winning the war.", "They were helped by divisions among their internal opponents; while areas like the Vendée and Brittany wanted to restore the monarchy, most supported the Republic but opposed the regime in Paris.", "On 17 August, the Convention voted a second ''levée en masse''; despite initial problems in equipping and supplying such large numbers, by mid-October Republican forces had re-taken Lyon, Marseilles and Bordeaux, while defeating Coalition armies at Hondschoote and Wattignies.", "The new class of military leaders included a young colonel named Napoleon Bonaparte, who was appointed commander of artillery at the siege of Toulon thanks to his friendship with Augustin Robespierre.", "His success in that role resulted in promotion to the Army of Italy in April 1794, and the beginning of his rise to military and political power.=== Reign of Terror ===émigrés'' are executed by guillotine, 1793Although intended to bolster revolutionary fervour, the Reign of Terror rapidly degenerated into the settlement of personal grievances.", "At the end of July, the Convention set price controls on a wide range of goods, with the death penalty for hoarders.", "On 9 September, 'revolutionary groups' were established to enforce these controls, while the Law of Suspects on 17th approved the arrest of suspected \"enemies of freedom\".", "This initiated what has become known as the \"Terror\".", "From September 1793 to July 1794, around 300,000 were arrested, with some 16,600 people executed on charges of counter-revolutionary activity, while another 40,000 may have been summarily executed, or died awaiting trial.Price controls made farmers reluctant to sell their produce in Parisian markets, and by early September, the city was suffering acute food shortages.", "At the same time, the war increased public debt, which the Assembly tried to finance by selling confiscated property.", "However, few would buy assets that might be repossessed by their former owners, a concern that could only be achieved by military victory.", "This meant the financial position worsened as threats to the Republic increased, while printing ''assignats'' to deal with the deficit further increased inflation.On 10 October, the Convention recognised the Committee of Public Safety as the supreme Revolutionary Government, and suspended the Constitution until peace was achieved.", "In mid-October, Marie Antoinette was convicted of a long list of crimes, and guillotined; two weeks later, the Girondist leaders arrested in June were also executed, along with Philippe Égalité.", "The \"Terror\" was not confined to Paris, with over 2,000 killed in Lyons after its recapture.Georges Danton; Robespierre's close friend and ''Montagnard'' leader, executed 5 April 1794At Cholet on 17 October, the Republican army won a decisive victory over the Vendée rebels, and the survivors escaped into Brittany.", "Another defeat at Le Mans on 23 December ended the rebellion as a major threat, although the insurgency continued until 1796.The extent of the repression that followed has been debated by French historians since the mid-19th century.", "Between November 1793 to February 1794, over 4,000 were drowned in the Loire at Nantes under the supervision of Jean-Baptiste Carrier.", "Historian Reynald Secher claims that as many as 117,000 died between 1793 and 1796.Although those numbers have been challenged, François Furet concluded it \"not only revealed massacre and destruction on an unprecedented scale, but a zeal so violent that it has bestowed as its legacy much of the region's identity.\"", "At the height of the Terror, not even its supporters were immune from suspicion, leading to divisions within the ''Montagnard'' faction between radical ''Hébertists'' and moderates led by Danton.", "Robespierre saw their dispute as de-stabilising the regime, and, as a deist, objected to the anti-religious policies advocated by the atheist Hébert, who was arrested and executed on 24 March with 19 of his colleagues, including Carrier.", "To retain the loyalty of the remaining Hébertists, Danton was arrested and executed on 5 April with Camille Desmoulins, after a show trial that arguably did more damage to Robespierre than any other act in this period.The Law of 22 Prairial (10 June) denied \"enemies of the people\" the right to defend themselves.", "Those arrested in the provinces were now sent to Paris for judgement; from March to July, executions in Paris increased from five to twenty-six a day.", "Many Jacobins ridiculed the festival of the Cult of the Supreme Being on 8 June, a lavish and expensive ceremony led by Robespierre, who was also accused of circulating claims he was a second Messiah.", "Relaxation of price controls and rampant inflation caused increasing unrest among the ''sans-culottes'', but the improved military situation reduced fears the Republic was in danger.", "Fearing their own survival depended on Robespierre's removal, on 29 June three members of the Committee of Public Safety openly accused him of being a dictator.The execution of Robespierre on 28 July 1794 marked the end of the Reign of Terror.Robespierre responded by refusing to attend Committee meetings, allowing his opponents to build a coalition against him.", "In a speech made to the convention on 26 July, he claimed certain members were conspiring against the Republic, an almost certain death sentence if confirmed.", "When he refused to provide names, the session broke up in confusion.", "That evening he repeated these claims at the Jacobins club, where it was greeted with demands for execution of the 'traitors'.", "Fearing the consequences if they did not act first, his opponents attacked Robespierre and his allies in the Convention next day.", "When Robespierre attempted to speak, his voice failed, one deputy crying \"The blood of Danton chokes him!", "\"After the Convention authorised his arrest, he and his supporters took refuge in the ''Hotel de Ville'', which was defended by elements of the National Guard.", "Other units loyal to the Convention stormed the building that evening and detained Robespierre, who severely injured himself attempting suicide.", "He was executed on 28 July with 19 colleagues, including Saint-Just and Georges Couthon, followed by 83 members of the Commune.", "The Law of 22 Prairial was repealed, any surviving Girondists reinstated as deputies, and the Jacobin Club was closed and banned.There are various interpretations of the Terror and the violence with which it was conducted; Marxist historian Albert Soboul saw it as essential to defend the Revolution from external and internal threats.", "François Furet argues the intense ideological commitment of the revolutionaries and their utopian goals required the extermination of any opposition.", "A middle position suggests violence was not inevitable but the product of a series of complex internal events, exacerbated by war.=== Thermidorian reaction ===The bloodshed did not end with the death of Robespierre; Southern France saw a wave of revenge killings, directed against alleged Jacobins, Republican officials and Protestants.", "Although the victors of Thermidor asserted control over the Commune by executing their leaders, some of those closely involved in the \"Terror\" retained their positions.", "They included Paul Barras, later chief executive of the French Directory, and Joseph Fouché, director of the killings in Lyon who served as Minister of Police under the Directory, the Consulate and Empire.", "Despite his links to Augustin Robespierre, military success in Italy meant Napoleon Bonaparte escaped censure.Former Viscount and Montagnard Paul Barras, who took part in the Thermidorian reaction and later headed the French DirectoryThe December 1794 Treaty of La Jaunaye ended the Chouannerie in western France by allowing freedom of worship and the return of non-juring priests.", "This was accompanied by military success; in January 1795, French forces helped the Dutch Patriots set up the Batavian Republic, securing their northern border.", "The war with Prussia was concluded in favour of France by the Peace of Basel in April 1795, while Spain made peace shortly thereafter.However, the Republic still faced a crisis at home.", "Food shortages arising from a poor 1794 harvest were exacerbated in Northern France by the need to supply the army in Flanders, while the winter was the worst since 1709.By April 1795, people were starving and the ''assignat'' was worth only 8% of its face value; in desperation, the Parisian poor rose again.", "They were quickly dispersed and the main impact was another round of arrests, while Jacobin prisoners in Lyon were summarily executed.A committee drafted a new constitution, approved by plebiscite on 23 September 1795 and put into place on 27th.", "Largely designed by Pierre Daunou and Boissy d'Anglas, it established a bicameral legislature, intended to slow down the legislative process, ending the wild swings of policy under the previous unicameral systems.", "The Council of 500 was responsible for drafting legislation, which was reviewed and approved by the Council of Ancients, an upper house containing 250 men over the age of 40.Executive power was in the hands of five Directors, selected by the Council of Ancients from a list provided by the lower house, with a five-year mandate.Deputies were chosen by indirect election, a total franchise of around 5 million voting in primaries for 30,000 electors, or 0.6% of the population.", "Since they were also subject to stringent property qualification, it guaranteed the return of conservative or moderate deputies.", "In addition, rather than dissolving the previous legislature as in 1791 and 1792, the so-called 'law of two-thirds' ruled only 150 new deputies would be elected each year.", "The remaining 600 ''Conventionnels'' kept their seats, a move intended to ensure stability." ], [ "The Directory (1795–1799)", "Troops under Napoleon fire on Royalist insurgents in Paris, 5 October 1795Jacobin sympathisers viewed the Directory as a betrayal of the Revolution, while Bonapartists later justified Napoleon's coup by emphasising its corruption.", "The regime also faced internal unrest, a weak economy, and an expensive war, while the Council of 500 could block legislation at will.", "Since the Directors had no power to call new elections, the only way to break a deadlock was rule by decree, or use force.", "As a result, the Directory was characterised by \"chronic violence, ambivalent forms of justice, and repeated recourse to heavy-handed repression.", "\"Retention of the ensured the Thermidorians held a majority in the legislature and three of the five Directors, but they were increasingly challenged by the right.", "On 5 October, Convention troops led by Napoleon put down a royalist rising in Paris; when the first elections were held two weeks later, over 100 of the 150 new deputies were royalists of some sort.", "The power of the Parisian had been broken by the suppression of the May 1795 revolt; relieved of pressure from below, the Jacobin clubs became supporters of the Directory, largely to prevent restoration of the monarchy.Removal of price controls and a collapse in the value of the led to inflation and soaring food prices.", "By April 1796, over 500,000 Parisians were unemployed, resulting in the May insurrection known as the Conspiracy of the Equals.", "Led by the revolutionary François-Noël Babeuf, their demands included immediate implementation of the 1793 Constitution, and a more equitable distribution of wealth.", "Despite support from sections of the military, the revolt was easily crushed, while Babeuf and other leaders were executed.", "Nevertheless, by 1799 the economy had been stabilised, and important reforms made allowing steady expansion of French industry.", "Many of these remained in place for much of the 19th century.Prior to 1797, three of the five Directors were firmly Republican; Barras, Révellière-Lépeaux and Jean-François Rewbell, as were around 40% of the legislature.", "The same percentage were broadly centrist or unaffiliated, along with two Directors, Étienne-François Letourneur and Lazare Carnot.", "Although only 20% were committed Royalists, many centrists supported the restoration of the exiled Louis XVIII of France in the belief this would bring peace.", "The elections of May 1797 resulted in significant gains for the right, with Royalists Jean-Charles Pichegru elected President of the Council of 500, and Barthélemy appointed a Director.Napoléon Bonaparte in the Council of 500 during 18 Brumaire, 9 November 1799With Royalists apparently on the verge of power, Republicans attempted a pre-emptive coup on 4 September.", "Using troops from Napoleon's Army of Italy under Pierre Augereau, the Council of 500 was forced to approve the arrest of Barthélemy, Pichegru and Carnot.", "The elections were annulled, sixty-three leading Royalists deported to French Guiana, and new laws passed against émigrés, Royalists and ultra-Jacobins.", "The removal of his conservative opponents opened the way for direct conflict between Barras, and those on the left.Fighting continued despite general war weariness, and the 1798 elections saw a resurgence in Jacobin strength.", "Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in July 1798 confirmed European fears of French expansionism, and the War of the Second Coalition began in November.", "Without a majority in the legislature, the Directors relied on the army to enforce decrees, and extract revenue from conquered territories.", "Generals like Napoleon and Joubert were now central to the political process, while both the army and Directory became notorious for their corruption.It has been suggested the Directory collapsed because by 1799, many 'preferred the uncertainties of authoritarian rule to the continuing ambiguities of parliamentary politics'.", "The architect of its end was Sieyès, who when asked what he had done during the Terror allegedly answered \"I survived\".", "Nominated to the Directory, his first action was to remove Barras, with the help of allies including Talleyrand, and Napoleon's brother Lucien, President of the Council of 500.On 9 November 1799, the Coup of 18 Brumaire replaced the five Directors with the French Consulate, which consisted of three members, Napoleon, Sieyès, and Roger Ducos.", "Most historians consider this the end point of the French Revolution." ], [ "Role of ideology", "The role of ideology in the Revolution is controversial with Jonathan Israel stating that the \"radical Enlightenment\" was the primary driving force of the Revolution.", "Cobban, however, argues \"the actions of the revolutionaries were most often prescribed by the need to find practical solutions to immediate problems, using the resources at hand, not by pre-conceived theories.", "\"The identification of ideologies is complicated by the profusion of revolutionary clubs, factions and publications, absence of formal political parties, and individual flexibility in the face of changing circumstances.", "In addition, although the Declaration of the Rights of Man was a fundamental document for all revolutionary factions, its interpretation varied widely.While all revolutionaries professed their devotion to liberty in principle, \"it appeared to mean whatever those in power wanted.\"", "For example, the liberties specified in the Rights of Man were limited by law when they might \"cause harm to others, or be abused\".", "Prior to 1792, Jacobins and others frequently opposed press restrictions on the grounds these violated a basic right.", "However, the radical National Convention passed laws in September 1793 and July 1794 imposing the death penalty for offences such as \"disparaging the National Convention\", and \"misleading public opinion.", "\"While revolutionaries also endorsed the principle of equality, few advocated equality of wealth since property was also viewed as a right.", "The National Assembly opposed equal political rights for women, while the abolition of slavery in the colonies was delayed until February 1794 because it conflicted with the property rights of slave owners, and many feared it would disrupt trade.", "Political equality for male citizens was another divisive issue, with the 1791 constitution limiting the right to vote and stand for office to males over 25 who met a property qualification, so-called \"active citizens\".", "This restriction was opposed by many activists, including Robespierre, the Jacobins, and Cordeliers.The principle that sovereignty resided in the nation was a key concept of the Revolution.", "However, Israel argues this obscures ideological differences over whether the will of the nation was best expressed through representative assemblies and constitutions, or direct action by revolutionary crowds, and popular assemblies such as the sections of the Paris commune.", "Many considered constitutional monarchy as incompatible with the principle of popular sovereignty, but prior to 1792, there was a strong bloc with an ideological commitment to such a system, based on the writings of Hobbes, Locke, Montesquieu and Voltaire.Israel argues the nationalisation of church property and the establishment of the Constitutional Church reflected an ideological commitment to secularism, and a determination to undermine a bastion of old regime privilege.", "While Cobban agrees the Constitutional Church was motivated by ideology, he sees its origins in the anti-clericalism of Voltaire and other Enlightenment figures.Jacobins were hostile to formal political parties and factions which they saw as a threat to national unity and the general will, with \"political virtue\" and \"love of country\" key elements of their ideology.", "They viewed the ideal revolutionary as selfless, sincere, free of political ambition, and devoted to the nation.", "The disputes leading to the departure first of the ''Feuillants'', then later the ''Girondists'', were conducted in terms of the relative political virtue and patriotism of the disputants.", "In December 1793, all members of the Jacobin clubs were subject to a \"purifying scrutiny\", to determine whether they were \"men of virtue\"." ], [ "French Revolutionary Wars", "French victory at the Battle of Valmy on 20 September 1792 validated the Revolutionary idea of armies composed of citizensThe Revolution initiated a series of conflicts that began in 1792 and ended only with Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo in 1815.In its early stages, this seemed unlikely; the 1791 Constitution specifically disavowed \"war for the purpose of conquest\", and although traditional tensions between France and Austria re-emerged in the 1780s, Emperor Joseph II cautiously welcomed the reforms.", "Austria was at war with the Ottomans, as were the Russians, while both were negotiating with Prussia over partitioning Poland.", "Most importantly, Britain preferred peace, and as Emperor Leopold II stated after the Declaration of Pillnitz, \"without England, there is no case\".In late 1791, factions within the Assembly came to see war as a way to unite the country and secure the Revolution by eliminating hostile forces on its borders and establishing its \"natural frontiers\".", "France declared war on Austria in April 1792 and issued the first conscription orders, with recruits serving for twelve months.", "By the time peace finally came in 1815, the conflict had involved every major European power as well as the United States, redrawn the map of Europe and expanded into the Americas, the Middle East, and the Indian Ocean.From 1701 to 1801, the population of Europe grew from 118 to 187 million; combined with new mass production techniques, this allowed belligerents to support large armies, requiring the mobilisation of national resources.", "It was a different kind of war, fought by nations rather than kings, intended to destroy their opponents' ability to resist, but also to implement deep-ranging social change.", "While all wars are political to some degree, this period was remarkable for the emphasis placed on reshaping boundaries and the creation of entirely new European states.In April 1792, French armies invaded the Austrian Netherlands but suffered a series of setbacks before victory over an Austrian-Prussian army at Valmy in September.", "After defeating a second Austrian army at Jemappes on 6 November, they occupied the Netherlands, areas of the Rhineland, Nice and Savoy.", "Emboldened by this success, in February 1793 France declared war on the Dutch Republic, Spain and Britain, beginning the War of the First Coalition.", "However, the expiration of the 12-month term for the 1792 recruits forced the French to relinquish their conquests.", "In August, new conscription measures were passed and by May 1794 the French army had between 750,000 and 800,000 men.", "Despite high rates of desertion, this was large enough to manage multiple internal and external threats; for comparison, the combined Prussian-Austrian army was less than 90,000.Italian campaigns reshaped the map of ItalyBy February 1795, France had annexed the Austrian Netherlands, established their frontier on the left bank of the Rhine and replaced the Dutch Republic with the Batavian Republic, a satellite state.", "These victories led to the collapse of the anti-French coalition; Prussia made peace in April 1795, followed soon after by Spain, leaving Britain and Austria as the only major powers still in the war.", "In October 1797, a series of defeats by Bonaparte in Italy led Austria to agree to the Treaty of Campo Formio, in which they formally ceded the Netherlands and recognised the Cisalpine Republic.Fighting continued for two reasons; first, French state finances had come to rely on indemnities levied on their defeated opponents.", "Second, armies were primarily loyal to their generals, for whom the wealth achieved by victory and the status it conferred became objectives in themselves.", "Leading soldiers like Hoche, Pichegru and Carnot wielded significant political influence and often set policy; Campo Formio was approved by Bonaparte, not the Directory, which strongly objected to terms it considered too lenient.Despite these concerns, the Directory never developed a realistic peace programme, fearing the destabilising effects of peace and the consequent demobilisation of hundreds of thousands of young men.", "As long as the generals and their armies stayed away from Paris, they were happy to allow them to continue fighting, a key factor behind sanctioning Bonaparte's invasion of Egypt.", "This resulted in aggressive and opportunistic policies, leading to the War of the Second Coalition in November 1798." ], [ "Slavery and the colonies", "Saint-Domingue slave revolt in 1791In 1789, the most populous French colonies were Saint-Domingue (today Haiti), Martinique, Guadeloupe, the Île Bourbon (Réunion) and the Île de la France.", "These colonies produced commodities such as sugar, coffee and cotton for exclusive export to France.", "There were about 700,000 slaves in the colonies, of which about 500,000 were in Saint-Domingue.", "Colonial products accounted for about a third of France's exports.In February 1788, the ''Société des Amis des Noirs'' (Society of the Friends of Blacks) was formed in France with the aim of abolishing slavery in the empire.", "In August 1789, colonial slave owners and merchants formed the rival ''Club de Massiac'' to represent their interests.", "When the Constituent Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in August 1789, delegates representing the colonial landowners successfully argued that the principles should not apply in the colonies as they would bring economic ruin and disrupt trade.", "Colonial landowners also gained control of the Colonial Committee of the Assembly from where they exerted a powerful influence against abolition.People of colour also faced social and legal discrimination in mainland France and its colonies, including a bar on their access to professions such as law, medicine and pharmacy.", "In 1789–90, a delegation of free coloureds, led by Vincent Ogé and Julien Raimond, unsuccessfully lobbied the Assembly to end discrimination against free coloureds.", "Ogé left for Saint-Domingue where an uprising against white landowners broke out in October 1790.The revolt failed and Ogé was killed.In May 1791, the National Assembly granted full political rights to coloureds born of two free parents, but left the rights of freed slaves to be determined by the colonial assemblies.", "The assemblies refused to implement the decree and fighting broke out between the coloured population of Saint-Domingue and white colonists, each side recruiting slaves to their forces.", "A major slave revolt followed in August.In March 1792, the Legislative Assembly responded to the revolt by granting citizenship to all free coloureds and sending two commissioners, Sonthonax and Polvérel, and 6,000 troops to Saint-Domingue to enforce the decree.", "On arrival in September, the commissioners announced that slavery would remain in force.", "Over 72,00 slaves were still in revolt, mostly in the north.Brissot and his supporters envisaged an eventual abolition of slavery but their immediate concern was securing trade and the support of merchants for the revolutionary wars.", "After Brissot's fall, the new constitution of June 1793 included a new Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, but excluded the colonies from its provisions.", "In any event, the new constitution was suspended until France was at peace.In early 1793, royalist planters from Guadeloupe and Saint-Domingue formed an alliance with Britain.", "The Spanish supported insurgent slaves, led by Jean-François Papillon and Georges Biassou, in the north of Saint-Domingue.", "White planters loyal to the republic sent representatives to Paris to convince the Jacobin controlled Convention that those calling for the abolition of slavery were British agents and supporters of Brissot, hoping to disrupt trade.In June, the commissioners in Saint-Domingue freed 10,000 slaves fighting for the republic.", "As the royalists and their British and Spanish supporters were also offering freedom for slaves willing to fight for their cause, the commissioners outbid them by abolishing slavery in the north in August, and throughout the colony in October.", "Representatives were sent to Paris to gain the approval of the convention for the decision.The Convention voted for the abolition of slavery in the colonies on 4 February 1794 and decreed that all residents of the colonies had the full rights of French citizens irrespective of colour.", "An army of 1,000 sans-culottes led by Victor Hugues was sent to Guadeloupe to expel the British and enforce the decree.", "The army recruited former slaves and eventually numbered 11,000, capturing Guadeloupe and other smaller islands.", "Abolition was also proclaimed on Guyane.", "Martinique remained under British occupation, while colonial landowners in Réunion and the Îles Mascareignes repulsed the republicans.", "Black armies drove the Spanish out of Saint-Domingue in 1795, and the last of the British withdrew in 1798.In republican controlled areas from 1793 to 1799, freed slaves were required to work on their former plantations or for their former masters if they were in domestic service.", "They were paid a wage and gained property rights.", "Black and coloured generals were effectively in control of large areas of Guadeloupe and Saint-Domingue, including Toussaint Louverture in the north of Saint-Domingue, and André Rigaud in the south.", "Historian Fréderic Régent states that the restrictions on the freedom of employment and movement of former slaves meant that, \"only whites, persons of color already freed before the decree, and former slaves in the army or on warships really benefited from general emancipation.\"" ], [ "Media and symbolism", "=== Newspapers ===A copy of ''L'Ami du peuple'' stained with the blood of MaratNewspapers and pamphlets played a central role in stimulating and defining the Revolution.", "Prior to 1789, there have been a small number of heavily censored newspapers that needed a royal licence to operate, but the Estates-General created an enormous demand for news, and over 130 newspapers appeared by the end of the year.", "Among the most significant were Marat's ''L'Ami du peuple'' and Elysée Loustallot's ''''.", "Over the next decade, more than 2,000 newspapers were founded, 500 in Paris alone.", "Most lasted only a matter of weeks but they became the main communication medium, combined with the very large pamphlet literature.Newspapers were read aloud in taverns and clubs, and circulated hand to hand.", "There was a widespread assumption that writing was a vocation, not a business, and the role of the press was the advancement of civic republicanism.", "By 1793 the radicals were most active but initially the royalists flooded the country with their publication the \"\" (Friends of the King) until they were suppressed.===Revolutionary symbols===To illustrate the differences between the new Republic and the old regime, the leaders needed to implement a new set of symbols to be celebrated instead of the old religious and monarchical symbols.", "To this end, symbols were borrowed from historic cultures and redefined, while those of the old regime were either destroyed or reattributed acceptable characteristics.", "These revised symbols were used to instil in the public a new sense of tradition and reverence for the Enlightenment and the Republic.====La Marseillaise====Marche des Marseillois, 1792, satirical etching, London\"\" () became the national anthem of France.", "The song was written and composed in 1792 by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle, and was originally titled \"\".", "The French National Convention adopted it as the First Republic's anthem in 1795.It acquired its nickname after being sung in Paris by volunteers from Marseille marching on the capital.The song is the first example of the \"European march\" anthemic style, while the evocative melody and lyrics led to its widespread use as a song of revolution and incorporation into many pieces of classical and popular music.", "De Lisle was instructed to 'produce a hymn which conveys to the soul of the people the enthusiasm which it (the music) suggests.", "'====Guillotine====Cartoon attacking the excesses of the Revolution as symbolised by the guillotineThe guillotine remains \"the principal symbol of the Terror in the French Revolution.\"", "Invented by a physician during the Revolution as a quicker, more efficient and more distinctive form of execution, the guillotine became a part of popular culture and historic memory.", "It was celebrated on the left as the people's avenger, for example in the revolutionary song ''La guillotine permanente'', and cursed as the symbol of the Terror by the right.Its operation became a popular entertainment that attracted great crowds of spectators.", "Vendors sold programmes listing the names of those scheduled to die.", "Many people came day after day and vied for the best locations from which to observe the proceedings; knitting women (tricoteuses) formed a cadre of hardcore regulars, inciting the crowd.", "Parents often brought their children.", "By the end of the Terror, the crowds had thinned drastically.", "Repetition had staled even this most grisly of entertainments, and audiences grew bored.====Cockade, ''tricolore'', and liberty cap====A ''sans-culotte'' and TricoloureCockades were widely worn by revolutionaries beginning in 1789.They now pinned the blue-and-red cockade of Paris onto the white cockade of the ''Ancien Régime''.", "Camille Desmoulins asked his followers to wear green cockades on 12 July 1789.The Paris militia, formed on 13 July, adopted a blue and red cockade.", "Blue and red are the traditional colours of Paris, and they are used on the city's coat of arms.", "Cockades with various colour schemes were used during the storming of the Bastille on 14 July.The Liberty cap, also known as the Phrygian cap, or pileus, is a brimless, felt cap that is conical in shape with the tip pulled forward.", "It reflects Roman republicanism and liberty, alluding to the Roman ritual of manumission, in which a freed slave receives the bonnet as a symbol of his newfound liberty." ], [ "Role of women", "Club of patriotic women in a churchDeprived of political rights by the ''Ancien Régime'', the Revolution initially allowed women to participate, although only to a limited degree.", "Activists included Girondists like Olympe de Gouges, author of the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen, and Charlotte Corday, killer of Marat.", "Others like Théroigne de Méricourt, Pauline Léon and the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women supported the Jacobins, staged demonstrations in the National Assembly and took part in the October 1789 March to Versailles.", "Despite this, the 1791 and 1793 constitutions denied them political rights and democratic citizenship.In 1793, the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women campaigned for strict price controls on bread, and a law that would compel all women to wear the tricolour cockade.", "Although both demands were successful, in October the male-dominated Jacobins who then controlled the government denounced the Society as dangerous rabble-rousers, and made all women's clubs and associations illegal.", "Organised women were permanently shut out of the French Revolution after 30 October 1793.At the same time, especially in the provinces, women played a prominent role in resisting social changes introduced by the Revolution.", "This was particularly so in terms of the reduced role of the Catholic Church; for those living in rural areas, closing of the churches meant a loss of normality.", "This sparked a counter-revolutionary movement led by women; while supporting other political and social changes, they opposed the dissolution of the Catholic Church and revolutionary cults like the Cult of the Supreme Being.", "Olwen Hufton argues some wanted to protect the Church from heretical changes enforced by revolutionaries, viewing themselves as \"defenders of faith\".=== Prominent women ===Olympe de Gouges, Girondist author of the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen, executed in November 1793Olympe de Gouges was an author whose publications emphasised that while women and men were different, this should not prevent equality under the law.", "In her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen she insisted women deserved rights, especially in areas concerning them directly, such as divorce and recognition of illegitimate children.", "Along with other Girondists, she was executed in November 1793 during the Terror.Madame Roland, also known as Manon or Marie Roland, was another important female activist whose political focus was not specifically women but other aspects of the government.", "A Girondist, her personal letters to leaders of the Revolution influenced policy; in addition, she often hosted political gatherings of the Brissotins, a political group which allowed women to join.", "She too was executed in November 1793." ], [ "Economic policies", "The Revolution abolished many economic constraints imposed by the ''Ancien Régime'', including church tithes and feudal dues although tenants often paid higher rents and taxes.", "All church lands were nationalised, along with those owned by Royalist exiles, which were used to back paper currency known as assignats, and the feudal guild system eliminated.", "It also abolished the highly inefficient system of tax farming, whereby private individuals would collect taxes for a hefty fee.", "The government seized the foundations that had been set up (starting in the 13th century) to provide an annual stream of revenue for hospitals, poor relief, and education.", "The state sold the lands but typically local authorities did not replace the funding and so most of the nation's charitable and school systems were massively disruptedlivresBetween 1790 and 1796, industrial and agricultural output dropped, foreign trade plunged, and prices soared, forcing the government to finance expenditure by issuing ever increasing quantities ''assignats''.", "When this resulted in escalating inflation, the response was to impose price controls and persecute private speculators and traders, creating a black market.", "Between 1789 and 1793, the annual deficit increased from 10% to 64% of gross national product, while annual inflation reached 3,500% after a poor harvest in 1794 and the removal of price controls.", "The assignats were withdrawn in 1796 but inflation continued until the introduction of the gold-based ''Franc germinal'' in 1803." ], [ "Impact", "The French Revolution had a major impact on western history, by ending feudalism in France and creating a path for advances in individual freedoms throughout Europe.", "The revolution represented the most significant challenge to political absolutism up to that point in history and spread democratic ideals throughout Europe and ultimately the world.", "Its impact on French nationalism was profound, while also stimulating nationalist movements throughout Europe.", "Some modern historians argue the concept of the nation state was a direct consequence of the revolution.", "As such, the revolution is often seen as the dividing point between the early modern and late modern periods of western history.=== France ===The long-term impact on France was profound, shaping politics, society, religion and ideas, and polarising politics for more than a century.", "Historian François Aulard wrote:\"From the social point of view, the Revolution consisted in the suppression of what was called the feudal system, in the emancipation of the individual, in greater division of landed property, the abolition of the privileges of noble birth, the establishment of equality, the simplification of life....", "The French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity.", "\"The revolution permanently crippled the power of the aristocracy and drained the wealth of the Church, although the two institutions survived.", "Hanson suggests the French underwent a fundamental transformation in self-identity, evidenced by the elimination of privileges and their replacement by intrinsic human rights.", "After the collapse of the First French Empire in 1815, the French public lost many of the rights and privileges earned since the revolution, but remembered the participatory politics that characterised the period.", "According to Paul Hanson, \"Revolution became a tradition, and republicanism an enduring option.", "\"The Revolution meant an end to arbitrary royal rule and held out the promise of rule by law under a constitutional order.", "Napoleon as emperor set up a constitutional system and the restored Bourbons were forced to retain one.", "After the abdication of Napoleon III in 1871, the French Third Republic was launched with a deep commitment to upholding the ideals of the Revolution.", "The Vichy regime (1940–1944), tried to undo the revolutionary heritage, but retained the republic.", "However, there were no efforts by the Bourbons, Vichy or any other government to restore the privileges that had been stripped away from the nobility in 1789.France permanently became a society of equals under the law.Agriculture was transformed by the Revolution.", "With the breakup of large estates controlled by the Church and the nobility and worked by hired hands, rural France became more a land of small independent farms.", "Harvest taxes were ended, such as the tithe and seigneurial dues.", "Primogeniture was ended both for nobles and peasants, thereby weakening the family patriarch, and led to a fall in the birth rate since all children had a share in the family property.", "Cobban argues the Revolution bequeathed to the nation \"a ruling class of landowners.", "\"Economic historians are divided on the economic impact of the Revolution.", "One suggestion is the resulting fragmentation of agricultural holdings had a significant negative impact in the early years of 19th century, then became positive in the second half of the century because it facilitated the rise in human capital investments.", "Others argue the redistribution of land had an immediate positive impact on agricultural productivity, before the scale of these gains gradually declined over the course of the 19th century.In the cities, entrepreneurship on a small scale flourished, as restrictive monopolies, privileges, barriers, rules, taxes and guilds gave way.", "However, the British blockade virtually ended overseas and colonial trade, hurting the cities and their supply chains.", "Overall, the Revolution did not greatly change the French business system, and probably helped freeze in place the horizons of the small business owner.", "The typical businessman owned a small store, mill or shop, with family help and a few paid employees; large-scale industry was less common than in other industrialising nations.=== Europe outside France ===Historians often see the impact of the Revolution as through the institutions and ideas exported by Napoleon.", "Economic historians Dan Bogart, Mauricio Drelichman, Oscar Gelderblom, and Jean-Laurent Rosenthal describe Napoleon's codified law as the French Revolution's \"most significant export.\"", "According to Daron Acemoglu, Davide Cantoni, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson the French Revolution had long-term effects in Europe.", "They suggest that \"areas that were occupied by the French and that underwent radical institutional reform experienced more rapid urbanization and economic growth, especially after 1850.There is no evidence of a negative effect of French invasion.", "\"The Revolution sparked intense debate in Britain.", "The Revolution Controversy was a \"pamphlet war\" set off by the publication of ''A Discourse on the Love of Our Country'', a speech given by Richard Price to the Revolution Society on 4 November 1789, supporting the French Revolution.", "Edmund Burke responded in November 1790 with his own pamphlet, ''Reflections on the Revolution in France'', attacking the French Revolution as a threat to the aristocracy of all countries.", "William Coxe opposed Price's premise that one's country is principles and people, not the State itself.Conversely, two seminal political pieces of political history were written in Price's favour, supporting the general right of the French people to replace their State.", "One of the first of these \"pamphlets\" into print was ''A Vindication of the Rights of Men'' by Mary Wollstonecraft .", "Wollstonecraft's title was echoed by Thomas Paine's ''Rights of Man'', published a few months later.", "In 1792 Christopher Wyvill published ''Defence of Dr. Price and the Reformers of England'', a plea for reform and moderation.", "This exchange of ideas has been described as \"one of the great political debates in British history\".In Ireland, the effect was to transform what had been an attempt by Protestant settlers to gain some autonomy into a mass movement led by the Society of United Irishmen involving Catholics and Protestants.", "It stimulated the demand for further reform throughout Ireland, especially in Ulster.", "The upshot was a revolt in 1798, led by Wolfe Tone, that was crushed by Britain.German reaction to the Revolution swung from favourable to antagonistic.", "At first it brought liberal and democratic ideas, the end of guilds, serfdom and the Jewish ghetto.", "It brought economic freedoms and agrarian and legal reform.", "Above all the antagonism helped stimulate and shape German nationalism.France invaded Switzerland and turned it into the \"Helvetic Republic\" (1798–1803), a French puppet state.", "French interference with localism and traditions was deeply resented in Switzerland, although some reforms took hold and survived in the later period of restoration.During the Revolutionary Wars, the French invaded and occupied the region now known as Belgium between 1794 and 1814.The new government enforced reforms, incorporating the region into France.", "Resistance was strong in every sector, as Belgian nationalism emerged to oppose French rule.", "The French legal system, however, was adopted, with its equal legal rights, and abolition of class distinctions.The Kingdom of Denmark adopted liberalising reforms in line with those of the French Revolution.", "Reform was gradual and the regime itself carried out agrarian reforms that had the effect of weakening absolutism by creating a class of independent peasant freeholders.", "Much of the initiative came from well-organised liberals who directed political change in the first half of the 19th century.The Constitution of Norway of 1814 was inspired by the French Revolution, and was considered to be one of the most liberal and democratic constitutions at the time.=== North America ===Initially, most people in the Province of Quebec were favourable toward the revolutionaries' aims.", "The Revolution took place against the background of an ongoing campaign for constitutional reform in the colony by Loyalist emigrants from the United States.", "Public opinion began to shift against the Revolution after the Flight to Varennes and further soured after the September Massacres and the subsequent execution of Louis XVI.", "French migration to the Canadas experienced a substantial decline during and after the Revolution.", "Only a limited number of artisans, professionals, and religious emigres were allowed to settle in the region during this period.", "Most emigres settled in Montreal or Quebec City.", "The influx of religious emigres also revitalised the local Catholic Church, with exiled priests establishing a number of parishes across the Canadas.In the United States, the French Revolution deeply polarised American politics, and this polarisation led to the creation of the First Party System.", "In 1793, as war broke out in Europe, the Democratic-Republican Party led by former American minister to France Thomas Jefferson favored revolutionary France and pointed to the 1778 treaty that was still in effect.", "George Washington and his unanimous cabinet, including Jefferson, decided that the treaty did not bind the United States to enter the war.", "Washington proclaimed neutrality instead." ], [ "Historiography", "The first writings on the French revolution were near contemporaneous with events and mainly divided along ideological lines.", "These included Edmund Burke's conservative critique Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) and Thomas Paine's response Rights of Man (1791).", "From 1815, narrative histories dominated, often based on first-hand experience of the revolutionary years.", "By the mid-nineteenth century, more scholarly histories appeared, written by specialists and based on original documents and a more critical assessment of contemporary accounts.Hippolyte Taine, conservative historian of the French RevolutionDupuy identifies three main strands in nineteenth century historiography of the Revolution.", "The first is represented by reactionary writers who rejected the revolutionary ideals of popular sovereignty, civil equality, and the promotion of rationality, progress and personal happiness over religious faith.", "The second stream is those writers who celebrated its democratic, and republican values.", "The third were liberals like Germaine de Staël and Guizot, who accepted the necessity of reforms establishing a constitution and the rights of man, but rejected state interference with private property and individual rights, even when supported by a democratic majority.Jules Michelet was a leading 19th-century historian of the democratic republican strand, and Thiers, Mignet and Tocqueville were prominent in the liberal strand.", "Hippolyte Taine's ''Origins of Contemporary France'' (1875–1894) was modern in its use of departmental archives, but Dupuy sees him as reactionary, given his contempt for the crowd, and Revolutionary values.Georges Lefebvre, Marxist historian of the French RevolutionThe broad distinction between conservative, democratic-republican and liberal interpretations of the Revolution persisted in the 20th-century, although historiography became more nuanced, with greater attention to critical analysis of documentary evidence.", "Alphonse Aulard (1849–1928) was the first professional historian of the Revolution; he promoted graduate studies, scholarly editions, and learned journals.", "His major work, ''The French Revolution, a Political History, 1789–1804'' (1905), was a democratic and republican interpretation of the Revolution.Socio-economic analysis and a focus on the experiences of ordinary people dominated French studies of the Revolution from the 1930s.", "Georges Lefebvre elaborated a Marxist socio-economic analysis of the revolution with detailed studies of peasants, the rural panic of 1789, and the behaviour of revolutionary crowds.", "Albert Soboul, also writing in the Marxist-Republican tradition, published a major study of the ''sans-culottes'' in 1958.Alfred Cobban challenged Jacobin-Marxist social and economic explanations of the revolution in two important works, ''The Myth of the French Revolution'' (1955) and ''Social Interpretation of the French Revolution'' (1964).", "He argued the Revolution was primarily a political conflict, which ended in a victory for conservative property owners, a result which retarded economic development.In their 1965 work, ''La Revolution française'', François Furet and Denis Richet also argued for the primacy of political decisions, contrasting the reformist period of 1789 to 1790 with the following interventions of the urban masses which led to radicalisation and an ungovernable situation.From the 1990s, Western scholars largely abandoned Marxist interpretations of the revolution in terms of bourgeoisie-proletarian class struggle as anachronistic.", "However, no new explanatory model has gained widespread support.", "The historiography of the Revolution has expanded into areas such as cultural and regional histories, visual representations, transnational interpretations, and decolonisation." ], [ "See also", "* Age of Revolution* Bourgeois revolution* Cordeliers* Glossary of the French Revolution* History of France* List of people associated with the French Revolution* List of political groups in the French Revolution* List of films set during the French Revolution and French Revolutionary Wars* Musée de la Révolution française* Paris in the 18th century* Timeline of the French Revolution" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * in .", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * in .", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * in .", "* * * in .", "* * * * * * * * * * in .", "* * * * * in .", "* * * * * * * * * * in .", "* * * * * * * * * * in .", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Museum of the French Revolution (French)* Primary source documents from The Internet Modern History Sourcebook.", "* Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution, a collaborative site by the Center for History and New Media (George Mason University) and the American Social History Project (City University of New York).", "* Vancea, S. The Cahiers de Doleances of 1789, Clio History Journal, 2008.", "* French Revolution Digital Archive a collaboration of the Stanford University Libraries and the Bibliothèque nationale de France, containing 12000 digitised images* The guillotined of the French Revolution factsheets of all the sentenced to death of the French Revolution* Jean-Baptiste Lingaud papers, Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts, University of Pennsylvania.", "Includes a vast number of name lists and secret surveillance records as well as arrest warrants for aristocrats and their sympathisers.", "Most notable in this part of the collection are letters and documents from the Revolutionary Committee and the Surveillance Committee.", "* French Revolution Pamphlets, Division of Special Collections, University of Alabama Libraries.", "Over 300 digitised pamphlets, from writers including Robespierre, St. Juste, Desmoulins, and Danton.", "* \"The French Revolution's Legacy\" BBC Radio 4 discussion with Stefan Collini, Anne Janowitz and Andrew Roberts (''In Our Time'', 14 June 2001)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Francis Fukuyama" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Francis Yoshihiro Fukuyama''' (; born October 27, 1952) is an American political scientist, political economist, international relations scholar and writer.", "Fukuyama is best known for his book ''The End of History and the Last Man'' (1992), which argues that the worldwide spread of liberal democracies and free-market capitalism of the West and its lifestyle may signal the end point of humanity's sociocultural evolution and political struggle and become the final form of human government, an assessment met with numerous and substantial criticisms.", "In his subsequent book ''Trust: Social Virtues and Creation of Prosperity'' (1995), he modified his earlier position to acknowledge that culture cannot be cleanly separated from economics.", "Fukuyama is also associated with the rise of the neoconservative movement, from which he has since distanced himself.Fukuyama has been a senior fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies since July 2010 and the Mosbacher Director of the Center on Democracy, Development and the Rule of Law at Stanford University.", "In August 2019, he was named director of the Ford Dorsey Master's in International Policy at Stanford.Before that, he served as a professor and director of the International Development program at the School of Advanced International Studies of Johns Hopkins University.", "Previously, he was Omer L. and Nancy Hirst Professor of Public Policy at the School of Public Policy at George Mason University.He is a council member of the International Forum for Democratic Studies founded by the National Endowment for Democracy and was a member of the Political Science Department of the RAND Corporation.", "He is also one of the 25 leading figures on the Information and Democracy Commission launched by Reporters Without Borders." ], [ "Early life and education", "Francis Fukuyama was born in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago, Illinois, United States.", "His paternal grandfather fled the Russo-Japanese War in 1905 and started a shop on the west coast before being incarcerated in the Second World War.", "His father, Yoshio Fukuyama, a second-generation Japanese American, was trained as a minister in the Congregational Church, received a doctorate in sociology from the University of Chicago, and taught religious studies.", "His mother, Toshiko Kawata Fukuyama (), was born in Kyoto, Japan, and was the daughter of , founder of the Economics Department of Kyoto University and first president of Osaka City University.", "Francis, whose Japanese name is Yoshihiro, grew up in Manhattan as an only child, had little contact with Japanese culture, and did not learn Japanese.", "His family moved to State College, Pennsylvania, in 1967.Francis Fukuyama participating in a night owl session in Tbilisi, Georgia.Fukuyama received his Bachelor of Arts degree in classics from Cornell University, where he studied political philosophy under Allan Bloom.", "He initially pursued graduate studies in comparative literature at Yale University, going to Paris for six months to study under Roland Barthes and Jacques Derrida but became disillusioned and switched to political science at Harvard University.", "There, he studied with Samuel P. Huntington and Harvey Mansfield, among others.", "He earned his Ph.D. in political science at Harvard for his thesis on Soviet threats to intervene in the Middle East.", "In 1979, he joined the global policy think tank RAND Corporation.Fukuyama lived at the Telluride House and has been affiliated with the Telluride Association since his undergraduate years at Cornell.", "Telluride is an education enterprise that has been home to other significant leaders and intellectuals, including Steven Weinberg, Paul Wolfowitz and Kathleen Sullivan.Fukuyama was the Omer L. and Nancy Hirst Professor of Public Policy in the School of Public Policy at George Mason University from 1996 to 2000.Until July 10, 2010, he was the Bernard L. Schwartz Professor of International Political Economy and Director of the International Development Program at the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies of Johns Hopkins University in Washington, D.C.", "He is now Olivier Nomellini Senior Fellow and resident in the Center on Democracy, Development, and the Rule of Law at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies at Stanford University, and director of the Ford Dorsey Master's in International Policy at Stanford." ], [ "Scholarship", "=== ''The End of History and the Last Man'' ===Fukuyama is best known as the author of ''The End of History and the Last Man'', in which he argued that the progression of human history as a struggle between ideologies was largely at an end, with the world settling on liberal democracy after the end of the Cold War and the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989.The book was an expansion on ideas expressed in an earlier article, \"The End of History?\"", "published in ''The National Interest.''", "In the article, Fukuyama predicted the coming global triumph of political and economic liberalism:Authors like Ralf Dahrendorf argued in 1990 that the essay gave Fukuyama his 15 minutes of fame, which would soon be followed by a slide into obscurity.", "However, Fukuyama remained a relevant and cited public intellectual, leading American communitarian Amitai Etzioni to declare him \"one of the few enduring public intellectuals.", "They are often media stars who are eaten up and spat out after their 15 minutes.", "But he has lasted.\"", "Bernard Crick in his book titled ''Democracy'' spoke of Fukayama's principle of 'the end of the world' as being a poor misreading of the historical processes involved in the development of modern democracy.According to Fukuyama, one of the main critiques of ''The End of History'' was of his aggressive stance towards postmodernism.", "Postmodern philosophy had, in Fukuyama's opinion, undermined the ideology behind liberal democracy, leaving the western world in a potentially weaker position.", "The fact that Marxism and fascism had proven untenable for practical use while liberal democracy still thrived was reason enough to embrace the hopeful attitude of the Progressive era, as this hope for the future was what made a society worth struggling to maintain.", "Postmodernism, which, by this time, had become embedded in the cultural consciousness, offered no hope and nothing to sustain a necessary sense of community, instead relying only on lofty intellectual premises.=== ''The Origins of Political Order'' ===In the 2011 book, Fukuyama describes what makes a state stable, using comparative political history to develop a theory of the stability of a political system.", "According to Fukuyama, an ideal political order needs a modern and effective state, the rule of law governing the state and be accountable.=== ''Political Order and Political Decay'' ===The 2014 book is the second book on political order, following the 2011 book ''The Origins of Political Order.''", "In this book, Fukuyama covers events taking place since the French Revolution and sheds light on political institutions and their development in different regions.After tracing how a modern and effective government was developed in the U.S., Fukuyama asserts that it is experiencing political decay.", "Fukuyama believes that political decay can be seen in the deterioration of bureaucracies, special interest groups capturing the legislature, and inevitable but cumbersome judicial processes challenging all types of government action.=== Other works ===Fukuyama has written a number of other books, among them ''Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity'' and ''Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution''.", "In the latter, he qualified his original \"end of history\" thesis, arguing that since biotechnology increasingly allows humans to control their own evolution, it may allow humans to alter human nature, thereby putting liberal democracy at risk.", "One possible outcome could be that an altered human nature could end in radical inequality.", "He is a fierce enemy of transhumanism, an intellectual movement asserting that posthumanity is a desirable goal.In another work, ''The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstruction of Social Order'', Fukuyama explores the origins of social norms, and analyses the current disruptions in the fabric of our moral traditions, which he considers as arising from a shift from the manufacturing to the information age.", "This shift is, he thinks, normal and will prove self-correcting, given the intrinsic human need for social norms and rules.In 2006, in ''America at the Crossroads'', Fukuyama discusses the history of neoconservatism, with particular focus on its major tenets and political implications.", "He outlines his rationale for supporting the Bush administration, as well as where he believes it has gone wrong.In 2008, Fukuyama published the book ''Falling Behind: Explaining the Development Gap Between Latin America and the United States'', which resulted from research and a conference funded by Grupo Mayan to gain understanding on why Latin America, once far wealthier than North America, fell behind in terms of development in only a matter of centuries.", "Discussing this book at a 2009 conference, Fukuyama outlined his belief that inequality within Latin American nations is a key impediment to growth.", "An unequal distribution of wealth, he stated, leads to social upheaval, which then results in stunted growth.In 2018 in ''Identity: The Demand for Dignity and the Politics of Resentment'' Fukuyama enlists Plato's notion of thymos in order to understand the politics of grievance and ressentiment.At the start of the following decade, he published some reflections on his work in the form of conversations under the title ''After the End of History''.In 2022, Fukuyama published the book ''Liberalism and Its Discontents'', in which he defended liberalism from critics on the populist right and the progressive left.", "He also criticized neoliberalism and identity politics." ], [ "Political views", "===Neoconservatism===As a key Reagan Administration contributor to the formulation of the Reagan Doctrine, Fukuyama is an important figure in the rise of neoconservatism, although his works came out years after Irving Kristol's 1972 book crystallized neoconservatism.", "Fukuyama was active in the Project for the New American Century think tank starting in 1997, and as a member co-signed the organization's 1998 letter recommending that President Bill Clinton support Iraqi insurgencies in the overthrow of then-President of Iraq Saddam Hussein.", "He was also among forty co-signers of William Kristol's September 20, 2001 letter to President George W. Bush after the September 11, 2001 attacks that suggested the U.S. not only \"capture or kill Osama bin Laden\", but also embark upon \"a determined effort to remove Saddam Hussein from power in Iraq\".As a supporter of the Iraq war Fukuyama defended the war against critics who accused the US of unilateralism and violating international law, saying \"Americans are right to insist that there is no such thing as an 'international community' in the abstract, and that nation-states must ultimately look out for themselves when it comes to critical matters of security\".In a ''New York Times'' article from February 2006, Fukuyama, in considering the ongoing Iraq War, stated: \"What American foreign policy needs is not a return to a narrow and cynical realism, but rather the formulation of a 'realistic Wilsonianism' that better matches means to ends.\"", "In regard to neoconservatism, he went on to say: \"What is needed now are new ideas, neither neoconservative nor realist, for how America is to relate to the rest of the world – ideas that retain the neoconservative belief in the universality of human rights, but without its illusions about the efficacy of American power and hegemony to bring these ends about.", "\"===Current views===Fukuyama began to distance himself from the neoconservative agenda of the Bush administration, citing its excessive militarism and embrace of unilateral armed intervention, particularly in the Middle East.", "By mid-2004, Fukuyama had voiced his growing opposition to the Iraq War and called for Donald Rumsfeld's resignation as Secretary of Defense.At an annual dinner of the American Enterprise Institute in February 2004, Dick Cheney and Charles Krauthammer declared the beginning of a unipolar era under American hegemony.", "\"All of these people around me were cheering wildly,\" Fukuyama remembers.", "He believes that the Iraq War was being blundered.", "\"All of my friends had taken leave of reality.\"", "He has not spoken to Paul Wolfowitz (previously a good friend) since.Fukuyama declared he would not be voting for Bush, and that the Bush administration had made three mistakes:* Overstating the threat of Islamist extremism to the US.", "* Failing to foresee the fierce negative reaction to its \"benevolent hegemony\".", "From the very beginning showing a negative attitude toward the United Nations and other intergovernmental organizations and not seeing that it would increase anti-Americanism in other countries.", "* Misjudging what was needed to bring peace in Iraq and being overly optimistic about the success with which social engineering of western values could be applied to Iraq and the Middle East in general.Fukuyama believes the US has a right to promote its own values in the world, but more along the lines of what he calls \"realistic Wilsonianism\", with military intervention only as a last resort and only in addition to other measures.", "A latent military force is more likely to have an effect than actual deployment.", "The US spends 43% of global military spending, but Iraq shows there are limits to its effectiveness.The US should instead stimulate political and economic development and gain a better understanding of what happens in other countries.", "The best instruments are setting a good example and providing education and, in many cases, money.", "The secret of development, be it political or economic, is that it never comes from outsiders, but always from people in the country itself.", "One thing the US proved to have excelled in during the aftermath of World War II was the formation of international institutions.", "A return to support for these structures would combine American power with international legitimacy, but such measures require a lot of patience.", "This is the central thesis of his 2006 work ''America at the Crossroads''.In a 2006 essay in ''The New York Times Magazine'' strongly critical of the invasion, he identified neoconservatism with Leninism.", "He wrote that neoconservatives \"believed that history can be pushed along with the right application of power and will.", "Leninism was a tragedy in its Bolshevik version, and it has returned as farce when practiced by the United States.", "Neoconservatism, as both a political symbol and a body of thought, has evolved into something I can no longer support.", "\"Fukuyama announced the end of the neoconservative moment and argued for the demilitarization of the War on Terrorism:Fukuyama endorsed Barack Obama in the 2008 US presidential election.", "He states:In 2007 Fukuyama criticized the American government's attitude to Iran, \"If the only thing we're putting on the table is that we'll talk to you, it isn't going to work..What the Iranians have really wanted over a long period of time is the grand bargain\".", "In 2009 he described Iran as \"not quite a tyranny, petty or grand\" but also not a liberal democracy and added that \"Iran could evolve towards a genuine rule-of-law democracy within the broad parameters of the 1979 constitution\".In a 2018 interview with ''New Statesman'', when asked about his views on the resurgence of socialist politics in the United States and the United Kingdom, he responded:In a review for ''The Washington Post'', Fukuyama discussed Ezra Klein's 2020 book ''Why We're Polarized'' regarding US politics, and outlined Klein's central conclusion about the importance of race and white identity to Donald Trump voters and Republicans.In 2020, Fukuyama became the chair of the editorial board for ''American Purpose,'' a magazine established in 2020 to promote three central ideas.", "Firstly, it wants to promote liberal democracy in the United States.", "Secondly, it seeks to understand and opine on the challenges to liberal democracy in other countries.", "Thirdly, it wants to \"offer criticism and commentary on history and biography, high art and pop culture, science and technology.", "\"Fukuyama has also perceived Joe Biden's victory in the 2020 presidential election as the result of the Western system's ability to correct mistakes.===Views following Russian invasion of Ukraine===Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, Fukuyama made several prognoses in the magazine ''American Purpose'':* Russia is heading for an outright defeat in Ukraine.", "Russian planning was incompetent, based on a flawed assumption that Ukrainians were favorable to Russia and that their military would collapse immediately following an invasion.", "* The collapse of their position could be sudden and catastrophic, rather than happening slowly through a war of attrition.", "* There is no diplomatic solution to the war possible prior to this happening.", "There is no conceivable compromise that would be acceptable to both Russia and Ukraine given the losses they have taken at this point.", "* Russian President Vladimir Putin will not survive the defeat of his army.", "He gets support because he is perceived to be a strongman; what does he have to offer once he demonstrates incompetence and is stripped of his coercive power?", "* The invasion has already done huge damage to populists all over the world, who prior to the attack uniformly expressed sympathy for Putin.", "That includes Matteo Salvini, Jair Bolsonaro, Éric Zemmour, Marine Le Pen, Viktor Orbán, and of course Donald Trump.", "The politics of the war has exposed their openly authoritarian leanings.", "* Drones will become increasingly critical in the battlefield.", "* A Russian defeat will make possible a \"new birth of freedom\", and get us out of our funk about the declining state of global democracy.", "The spirit of 1989 will live on, thanks to the bravery of certain Ukrainians.Fukuyama has also put emphasis on the importance of national identity for a sound defense of liberal values—and thus the need to reconcile the nation-state with liberal universalism, even if they seem at odds at first—in a ''Foreign Affairs'' article:Liberalism, with its universalist pretensions, may sit uneasily alongside seemingly parochial nationalism, but the two can be reconciled.", "The goals of liberalism are entirely compatible with a world divided into nation-states.", ".", ".", ".", "Liberal rights are meaningless if they cannot be enforced by a state .", ".", ".", "The territorial jurisdiction of a state necessarily corresponds to the area occupied by the group of individuals who signed on to the social contract.", "People living outside that jurisdiction must have their rights respected, but not necessarily enforced, by that state.", ".", ".", ".", "The need for international cooperation in addressing issues such as global warming and pandemics has never been more evident.", "But it remains the case that one particular form of power, the ability to enforce rules through the threat or the actual use of force, remains under the control of nation-states.", ".", ".", ".", "Ultimate power, in other words, continues to be the province of nation-states, which means that the control of power at this level remains critical.", ".", ".", ".", "There is thus no necessary contradiction between liberal universalism and the need for nation-states.", "Although the normative value of human rights may be universal, enforcement power is not; it is a scarce resource that is necessarily applied in a territorially delimited way.In a 2022 interview with ''El País'', Fukuyama expressed support for social democratic policies: \"In Germany, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, you've had social democratic parties in power for a long time.", "They've done a lot of redistribution – you don't get this kind of polarized politics and you have an alteration between the center-left and center-right, which I think is much healthier.\"", "However, Fukuyama also said that while he \"was never opposed to social democracy.", "I think that it really depends on the historical period and the degree of state intervention.", "By the 1960s, many social democratic societies had become mired in low growth and high inflation.", "At that point, I think it was important to roll some of that back.", "That is, in fact, what happened in Scandinavia.", "Most of those countries reduced tax rates, reduced levels of regulation and therefore became more productive.", "But I think that in the current period, we need more social democracy, especially in the United States.\"" ], [ "Affiliations", "* Between 2006 and 2008, Fukuyama advised Muammar Gaddafi as part of the Monitor Group, a consultancy firm based in Cambridge, MA.", "* In August 2005, Fukuyama co-founded ''The American Interest'', a bimonthly magazine devoted to the broad theme of \"America in the World\".", "He served as chairman of the editorial board until his resignation.", "In a published letter posted on his public Medium page on July 27, 2020, Fukuyama cited a disagreement with the publisher's decision to terminate Jeff Gedmin as editor-in-chief.", "Fukuyama also indicated other changes underway at the publication as an additional reason for his resignation.", "* Fukuyama was a member of the RAND Corporation's Political Science Department from 1979 to 1980, 1983 to 1989, and 1995 to 1996.He is now a member of the board of trustees.", "* Fukuyama was a member of the President's Council on Bioethics from 2001 to 2004.", "* Fukuyama is a Fellow of the World Academy of Art and Science (WAAS).", "* Fukuyama was on the steering committee for the Scooter Libby Legal Defense Trust.", "Fukuyama is a long-time friend of Libby.", "They served together in the State Department in the 1980s.", "* Fukuyama is a member of the Board of Counselors for the Pyle Center of Northeast Asian Studies at the National Bureau of Asian Research.", "* Fukuyama is on the board of Global Financial Integrity.", "* Fukuyama is a member of the Inter-American Dialogue.", "*Fukuyama is the chair of the editorial board for ''American Purpose,'' a magazine established in 2020.", "* Fukuyama is a member of the International Advisory Board for Bellingcat." ], [ "Personal life", "Fukuyama is a part-time photographer.", "He also has an interest in early American furniture, which he reproduces by hand.", "Another hobby of Fukuyama's is sound recording and reproduction.", "He explained, \"These days I seem to spend as much time thinking about gear as I do analyzing politics for my day job.\"", "Since the mid-1990s, Fukuyama has been building his own personal computers.Fukuyama is married to Laura Holmgren, whom he met when she was a University of California in Los Angeles graduate student after he started working for the RAND Corporation.", "He dedicated his book ''Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity'' to her.", "They live in California, with their three children, Julia, David, and John.He is the first cousin to crime novelist Joe Ide.", "Fukuyama helped him get his first book published." ], [ "Selected bibliography", "===Scholarly works===* ''The Soviet Union and Iraq since 1968''.", "RAND Corporation (1980).===Books===* ''The End of History and the Last Man''.", "Free Press, 1992.", "* ''Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity''.", "Free Press, 1995.", "* ''The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order''.", "Free Press.", "1999.", "* ''Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution''.", "New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.", "2002.", "* ''State-Building: Governance and World Order in the 21st century''.", "Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.", "2004.", "* ''America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy''.", "New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.", "2006.US edition''After the Neo Cons: Where the Right went Wrong''.", "London: Profile Books.", "2006.UK edition* ''Falling Behind: Explaining the Development Gap Between Latin America and the United States'' (editor).", "New York, NY: Oxford University Press.", "2008.", "* ''The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution''.", "New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.", "2011.", "* ''Political Order and Political Decay: From the Industrial Revolution to the Present Day''.", "New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.", "2014.", "* ''Identity: The Demand for Dignity and the Politics of Resentment'', New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.", "2018.", "* ''Liberalism and Its Discontents'', New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.", "2022.===Essays===* \"The End of History?\"", "''The National Interest'', no.", "16 (Summer 1989).", "* \"Women and the Evolution of World Politics.\"", "''Foreign Affairs'' (Oct.", "1998).", "* \"Immigrants and Family Values.\"", "The Immigration Reader (1998).", ".", "* \"Human Nature and the Reconstruction of Social Order.\"", "''The Atlantic Monthly'' (May 1999).", "* \"Social Capital and Civil Society.\"", "Paper prepared for delivery at the International Monetary Fund Conference on Second Generation Reforms (Oct. 1, 1999).", "* \"The Neoconservative Moment.\"", "''The National Interest'' (Summer 2004).", "* \"After Neoconservatism.\"", "''New York Times Magazine'' (Feb. 19, 2006).", "* \"Supporter's Voice Now Turns on Bush.\"", "''New York Times Magazine'' (Mar.", "14, 2006).", "* \"Why Shouldn't I Change My Mind?\"", "''Los Angeles Times'' (Apr.", "9, 2006).", "* \"The Fall of America, Inc.\" ''Newsweek'' (Oct. 13, 2008).", "* \"The New Nationalism and the Strategic Architecture of Northeast Asia.\"", "''Asia Policy'' (Jan. 2007)* \"Left Out.\"", "''The American Interest'' (Jan.", "2011).", "* \"Is China Next?\"", "''The Wall Street Journal'' (Mar.", "12, 2011).", "* \"The Future of History: Can Liberal Democracy Survive the Decline of the Middle Class?\"", "''Foreign Affairs'' (Jan./Feb.", "2012).", "* \"What is Governance?\"", "''Governance'' (Mar.", "2013).", "* \"Against Identity Politics: The New Tribalism and the Crisis of Democracy.\"", "''Foreign Affairs'' (Sep./Oct.", "2018).", "* \"Liberalism and Its Discontents: The Challenges from the Left and the Right.\"", "''American Purpose'' (Oct.", "2020).", "* \"Still the End of History.\"", "''The Atlantic'' (Oct.", "2022).", "* See Ronald T. Libby, \"The Death of Political Science and Rebirth of Politics.", "\"* China’s Road to Ruin, ''Foreign Affairs'', August 22, 2023 (co-authored with Michael Bennon)" ], [ "See also", "* Biopolitics* High trust and low trust societies* ''Brave New World'' argument* Obama Republicans (disambiguation)* Vetocracy" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Francis Fukuyama's blog at American Purpose* Islam and America... Friends or Foes?", "* ** ''In Depth'' interview with Fukuyama, March 5, 2006* ANU Public Lecture Series MP3 of a public lecture by Fukuyama titled ''The Missing Dimension of Stateness'' delivered at The Australian National University, December 15, 2006* Francis Fukuyama explains his last book: \"The Origins of Political Order\"* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fingerspelling" ], [ "Introduction", "American manual alphabet, as used in American Sign Language'''Fingerspelling''' (or '''dactylology''') is the representation of the letters of a writing system, and sometimes numeral systems, using only the hands.", "These '''manual alphabets''' (also known as '''finger alphabets''' or '''hand alphabets''') have often been used in deaf education and have subsequently been adopted as a distinct part of a number of sign languages.", "There are about forty manual alphabets around the world.", "Historically, manual alphabets have had a number of additional applications—including use as ciphers, as mnemonics and in silent religious settings." ], [ "Forms of manual alphabets", "As with other forms of manual communication, fingerspelling can be comprehended visually or tactually.", "The simplest visual form of fingerspelling is tracing the shape of letters in the air and the simplest tactual form is tracing them on the hand.", "Fingerspelling can be one-handed such as in American Sign Language, French Sign Language and Irish Sign Language, or it can be two-handed such as in British Sign Language." ], [ "Fingerspelling in sign languages", "Fingerspelling has been introduced into certain sign languages by educators and as such has some structural properties that are unlike the visually motivated and multi-layered signs that are typical in deaf sign languages.", "In many ways fingerspelling serves as a bridge between the sign language and the oral language that surrounds it.Fingerspelling is used in different sign languages and registers for different purposes.", "It may be used to represent words from an oral language that have no sign equivalent or for emphasis or clarification or when teaching or learning a sign language.In American Sign Language (ASL) more lexical items are fingerspelled in casual conversation than in formal or narrative signing.", "Different sign language speech communities use fingerspelling to a greater or lesser degree.", "At the high end of the scale fingerspelling makes up about 8.7% of casual signing in ASL and 10% of casual signing in Auslan.", "The proportion is higher in older signers.", "Across the Tasman Sea only 2.5% of the corpus of New Zealand Sign Language was found to be fingerspelling.", "Fingerspelling did not become a part of NZSL until the 1980s.", "Before that words could be spelled or initialised by tracing letters in the air.", "Fingerspelling does not seem to be used much in the sign languages of Eastern Europe except in schools, and Italian Sign Language is also said to use very little fingerspelling, and mainly for foreign words.", "Sign languages that make no use of fingerspelling at all include Kata Kolok and Ban Khor Sign Language.The speed and clarity of fingerspelling also vary among different signing communities.", "In Italian Sign Language fingerspelled words are produced relatively slowly and clearly, whereas fingerspelling in standard British Sign Language (BSL) is often rapid so that the individual letters become difficult to distinguish and the word is grasped from the overall hand movement.", "Most of the letters of the BSL alphabet are produced with two hands but when one hand is occupied the dominant hand may fingerspell onto an imaginary subordinate hand and the word can be recognised by the movement.", "As with written words, the first and last letters and the length of the word are the most significant factors for recognition.When people fluent in sign language read fingerspelling they do not usually look at the signer's hand(s) but maintain eye contact, as is normal for sign language.", "People who are learning fingerspelling often find it impossible to understand it using just their peripheral vision and must look straight at the hand of someone who is fingerspelling.", "Often they must also ask the signer to fingerspell slowly.", "It frequently takes years of expressive and receptive practice to become skilled with fingerspelling." ], [ "Families of manual alphabets in sign languages", "Relationships between the manual alphabets of sign languages, expressed as a phylogenetic networkPower et al.", "(2020) conducted a large-scale data study into the evolution and contemporary character of 76 current and defunct manual alphabets (MAs) of sign languages, postulating the existence of eight groups: an Afghan–Jordanian Group, an Austrian-origin Group (with a Danish Subgroup), a British-origin Group, a French-origin Group, a Polish Group, a Russian Group, a Spanish Group, and a Swedish Group.", "Notably, several defunct versions of German, Austrian, Hungarian and Danish manual alphabets were part of the Austrian-origin group, while the current MAs of these sign languages are closely related to the French, American, International Sign and other MAs in the French-origin Group.", "Latvian Sign Language's MA dangled somewhere between the Polish and Russian Groups, Finnish Sign Language (which belongs to the Swedish Sign Language family) had a French-origin MA, while Indo-Pakistani Sign Language (whose lexicon and grammar have independent origins) currently used a two-handed manual alphabet of British origin.Yoel (2009) demonstrated that American Sign Language is influencing the lexicon and grammar of Maritime Sign Language in various ways, including the fact that the original BANZSL two-handed manual alphabet is no longer used in the Maritimes and has been replaced by the one-handed American manual alphabet, which has been influencing lexicalisation.", "Although all participants in her survey had learnt and could still produce the BANZSL fingerspelling, they had difficulty doing so, and all participants indicated that it had been a long time since they last used it.===One-handed===Dutch manual alphabetTwo families of manual alphabets are used for representing the Latin alphabet in the modern world.", "The more common of the two is mostly produced on one hand and can be traced back to alphabetic signs used in Europe from at least the early 15th century.Some manual representations of non-Roman scripts such as Chinese, Japanese, Devanagari (e.g.", "the Nepali manual alphabet), Hebrew, Greek, Thai and Russian alphabets are based to some extent on the one-handed Latin alphabet described above.", "In some cases, however, the 'basis' is more theory than practice.", "Thus, for example, in the Japanese manual syllabary only the five vowels (ア /a/,　イ /i/,　ウ /u/,　エ /e/,　オ /o/) and the Ca (consonant plus \"a' vowel) letters (カ /ka/, サ /sa/, ナ /na/, ハ /ha/, マ /ma/, ヤ /ya/, ラ /ra/, ワ /wa/, but notably ''not'' タ /ta/, which would resemble a somewhat rude gesture) derive from the American manual alphabet.", "In the Nepali Sign Language only four 'letters' derive from the American manual alphabet: अ /a/, ब /b/, म /m/, and र /r/).The Yugoslav manual alphabet represents characters from the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet as well as Gaj's Latin alphabet.Ukrainian manual alphabetManual alphabets based on the Arabic alphabet, the Ethiopian Ge'ez script and the Korean Hangul script use handshapes that are more or less iconic representations of the characters in the writing system.===Two-handed===British Sign Language uses a two-handed alphabet.Two-handed manual alphabets are used by a number of deaf communities; one such alphabet is shared by users of British Sign Language, Auslan and New Zealand Sign Language (collectively known as the BANZSL language family) and another is used in Turkish Sign Language.", "Some of the letters are represented by iconic shapes and in the BANZSL languages the vowels are represented by pointing to the fingertips.Letters are formed by a dominant hand, which is on top of or alongside the other hand at the point of contact, and a subordinate hand, which uses either the same or a simpler handshape as the dominant hand.", "Either the left or right hand can be dominant.", "In a modified tactile form used by deafblind people the signer's hand acts as the dominant hand and the receiver's hand becomes the subordinate hand.Some signs, such as the sign commonly used for the letter ''C'', may be one-handed." ], [ "History of manual alphabets", "===Latin manual alphabet===Some writers have suggested that the body and hands were used to represent alphabets in Greek, Roman, Egyptian and Assyrian antiquity.", "Certainly, \"finger calculus\" systems were widespread, and capable of representing numbers up to 10,000; they are still in use today in parts of the Middle East.", "The practice of substituting letters for numbers and vice versa, known as gematria, was also common, and it is possible that the two practices were combined to produce a finger calculus alphabet.", "The earliest known manual alphabet, described by the Benedictine monk Bede in 8th century Northumbria, did just that.", "While the usual purpose of the Latin and Greek finger alphabets described by Bede is unknown, they were unlikely to have been used by deaf people for communication — even though Bede lost his own hearing later in life.", "Historian Lois Bragg concludes that these alphabets were \"only a bookish game.", "\"1494 illustration of a finger alphabet and counting system originally described by Bede in 710.The Greek alphabet is represented, with three additional letters making a total of 27, by the first three columns of numbers.", "The first two columns are produced on the left hand, and the next two columns on the right.", "Luca Pacioli modified the finger alphabet to the form shown above, where the handshapes for 1 and 10 on the left hand correspond to the 100s and 1000s on the right.Beginning with R. A. S. Macalister in 1938, several writers have speculated that the 5th century Irish Ogham script, with its quinary alphabet system, was derived from a finger alphabet that predates even Bede.European monks from at least the time of Bede have made use of forms of manual communication, including alphabetic gestures, for a number of reasons: communication among the monastery while observing vows of silence, administering to the ill, and as mnemonic devices.", "They also may have been used as ciphers for discreet or secret communication.", "Clear antecedents of many of the manual alphabets in use today can be seen from the 16th century in books published by friars in Spain and Italy.", "From the same time, monks such as the Benedictine Fray Pedro Ponce de León began tutoring deaf children of wealthy patrons — in some places, literacy was a requirement for legal recognition as an heir — and the manual alphabets found a new purpose.", "They were originally part of the earliest known Mouth Hand Systems.", "The first book on deaf education, published in 1620 by Juan Pablo Bonet in Madrid, included a detailed account of the use of a manual alphabet to teach deaf students to read and speak.This alphabet was adopted by the Abbé de l'Épée's deaf school in Paris in the 18th century and then spread to deaf communities around the world in the 19th and 20th centuries via educators who had learned it in Paris.", "Over time variations have emerged, brought about by the natural phonetic changes that have occurred over time, adaptations for local written forms with special characters or diacritics (which are sometimes represented with the other hand) and avoidance of handshapes considered obscene in some cultures.Meanwhile, in Britain, manual alphabets were also in use for a number of purposes, such as secret communication, public speaking, or used for communication by deaf people.", "In 1648, John Bulwer described \"Master Babington\", a deaf man proficient in the use of a manual alphabet, \"contryved on the joynts of his fingers\", whose wife could converse with him easily, even in the dark through the use of tactile signing.", "In 1680, George Dalgarno published ''Didascalocophus, or, The deaf and dumb mans tutor'', in which he presented his own method of deaf education, including an arthropological alphabet.", "Charles de La Fin published a book in 1692 describing an alphabetic system where pointing to a body part represented the first letter of the part (e.g.", "Brow=B), and vowels were located on the fingertips as with the other British systems.", "He described codes for both English and Latin.The vowels of these early British manual alphabets, across the tips of the fingers, have survived in the contemporary alphabets used in British Sign Language, Auslan and New Zealand Sign Language.", "The earliest known printed pictures of consonants of the modern two-handed alphabet appeared in 1698 with ''Digiti Lingua'', a pamphlet by an anonymous author who was himself unable to speak.", "He suggested that the manual alphabet could also be used by mutes, for silence and secrecy, or purely for entertainment.", "Nine of its letters can be traced to earlier alphabets, and 17 letters of the modern two-handed alphabet can be found among the two sets of 26 handshapes depicted." ], [ "See also", "*American manual alphabet*Catalan manual alphabet*Chilean manual alphabet*Cued Speech*French manual alphabet*Initialized sign*Irish manual alphabet*Japanese manual syllabary*Korean manual alphabet*Nepali manual alphabet*Polish manual alphabet*Russian manual alphabet*Sign name*Spanish manual alphabet*Turkish Sign Language*Two-handed manual alphabet" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Lengua de Signos (Juan Pablo Bonet, 1620) A.jpg|AFile:Lengua de Signos (Bonet, 1620) B, C, D.jpg|B, C, DFile:Lengua de Signos (Bonet, 1620) E, F, G.jpg|E, F, GFile:Lengua de Signos (Bonet, 1620) H, I, J.jpg|H, I, LFile:Lengua de Signos (Bonet, 1620) M, N.jpg|M, NFile:Lengua de Signos (Bonet, 1620) O, P, Q.jpg|O, P, QFile:Lengua de Signos (Bonet, 1620) R, S, T.jpg|R, S, TFile:Lengua de Signos (Bonet, 1620) V, X, Y, Z.jpg|V, X, Y, ZFile:Gallego retablo panel 313.jpg|Alphabetic gestures have been discovered in hundreds of medieval and renaissance paintings.", "The above is from Fernando Gallego's retablo panels, 1480–1488, in Ciudad Rodrigo.File:Dalgarno manual alphabet.jpg|Plate from John Bulwer's 1648 publication ''Philocophus, or the Deaf and Dumbe Mans Friend'' (London)File:Public documents of the legislature of Connecticut, session (1882) (14763332785).jpg|American Manual Alphabet (1882).", "Letters are shown from a variety of orientations.File:16 103p from ralph major slide collection.jpg|Antique hand memory system, three variants.", "Originally published in \"Thesavrvs Artificiosae Memoriae\", in Venice, 1579." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ASL Fingerspelling Chart A free, printable ASL fingerspelling chart & other resources.", "* Fingerspell A free, online practice site with realistic, animated ASL fingerspelling.", "* ASL Fingerspelling Resource Site Free online fingerspelling lessons, quizzes, and activities.", "* Fingerspell Flashcards Practice ASL, German and Swiss German alphabets online.", "* ASL Fingerspelling Resources Free online fingerspelling resources - Alphabet Chart, Word Printer, Game.", "* ASL Fingerspelling App A free, simple, and beautiful ASL fingerspelling application.===Historic texts===*Bonet, Juan Pablo (1620).", "Reducción de las letras y arte para enseñar a hablar a los mudos .", "Scan from Biblioteca Histórica de la Universidad de Sevilla.", "*Dalgarno, George (1834).", "Didascalocophus, Or the Deaf and Dumb Man's Tutor in The Works of George Dalgarno of Aberdeen (Maitland Club publications 29) pp. 110–160.", "*Rossellius, Cosmas (1579).", "Thesaurus Artificiosae Memoriae p. 101-105.", "*Wilkins, John (1641) Mercvry, or, the Secret and Swift Messenger*de Yebra, Melchor (1593) Refugium Infirmorum (''Refuge of the Sick'')" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Four Weddings and a Funeral" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Four Weddings and a Funeral''''' is a 1994 British romantic comedy film directed by Mike Newell.", "It is the first of several films by screenwriter Richard Curtis to star Hugh Grant, and follows the adventures of Charles (Grant) and his circle of friends through a number of social occasions as they each encounter romance.", "Andie MacDowell co-stars as Charles's love interest Carrie, with Kristin Scott Thomas, James Fleet, Simon Callow, John Hannah, Charlotte Coleman, David Bower, Corin Redgrave, and Rowan Atkinson in supporting roles.The film was made in six weeks, cost under £3 million, and became an unexpected success and the highest-grossing British film in history at the time, with worldwide box office total of $245.7 million, and receiving Academy Award nominations for Best Picture and Best Original Screenplay.", "Additionally, Grant won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy and the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role, and the film won the BAFTA Awards Best Film, Best Direction, and Best Actress in a Supporting Role for Scott Thomas.", "The film's success propelled Hugh Grant to international stardom, particularly in the United States.In 1999, ''Four Weddings and a Funeral'' was placed 23rd on the British Film Institute's 100 greatest British films of the 20th century.", "In 2016, ''Empire'' magazine ranked it 21st in their list of the 100 best British films.", "A 2017 poll of 150 actors, directors, writers, producers, and critics for ''Time Out'' magazine ranked it the 74th best British film ever.Curtis reunited director Newell and the surviving cast for a 25th anniversary reunion Comic Relief short entitled ''One Red Nose Day and a Wedding'', which aired in the UK during Red Nose Day on 15 March 2019." ], [ "Plot", " On 1 May 1993, at the wedding of Angus and Laura in Somerset, the unmarried best man Charles; his flatmate Scarlett; his friend Fiona and her brother, Tom; Gareth and his partner Matthew; and Charles's deaf brother, David, endure the festivities.", "At the reception, Charles is attracted to Carrie, a young American who has been working in England.", "They spend the night together.", "In the morning, Carrie, who is returning to the U.S., laments they may have \"missed a great opportunity\".Three months later at the London wedding of Bernard and Lydia – who became an item at the previous wedding – Charles is excited to run into Carrie, who has returned to the U.K.", "He is quickly disappointed after meeting Hamish, Carrie's much older Scottish fiancé.", "During the reception, Charles experiences further humiliation from several ex-girlfriends, including the distraught Henrietta, who claims Charles is a \"serial monogamist\" who fears commitment.", "He retreats to an empty hotel suite where he sees Carrie and Hamish depart by taxi.", "Charles becomes trapped in the room when the newlyweds stumble in to have sex.", "Carrie returns to the reception, and she and Charles spend another night together.A month later, Charles receives an invitation to Carrie's wedding.", "While shopping for a gift, he runs into her.", "While Charles helps Carrie look for a wedding dress, she recounts her 33 sexual partners; Charles, who was number 32, awkwardly confesses he loves her, which Carrie reluctantly rebuffs.A month later, Charles and his friends attend Carrie and Hamish's wedding in Perthshire.", "The gregarious Gareth instructs the group to seek potential mates; Scarlett meets Chester, a Texan.", "As Charles watches Carrie and Hamish dance, Fiona senses his heartbreak.", "She tells him that she remains single because she loves him; though sympathetic, Charles does not reciprocate her feelings.", "During Hamish's toast, Gareth suffers a fatal heart attack.At Gareth's funeral, Matthew recites \"Funeral Blues\", a poem by British-American poet W. H. Auden.", "Carrie and Charles share a brief moment and, later, Charles and Tom ponder that despite their clique's pride in being single, Gareth and Matthew were as a \"married\" couple.", "They wonder whether the search for \"one true love\" is futile.Ten months later, Charles's own wedding day arrives; his bride is Henrietta.", "While seating guests, Tom meets and is immediately smitten with his distant cousin, Deirdre, whom he has not seen since childhood.", "Carrie arrives and tells Charles that she and Hamish have separated following a difficult marriage.", "Charles, stunned, privately has an emotional crisis.", "After David and Matthew counsel him, he resolves to proceed with the wedding.", "During the ceremony, the vicar asks if anyone present has any reason why the couple should not marry; David interrupts and, using sign language, says the groom has doubts and loves someone else.", "Charles confirms this, and Henrietta angrily knocks him out, halting the ceremony.A few hours later, Carrie arrives at Charles' flat and apologizes for causing the fiasco.", "Charles again says he loves her and proposes a lifelong commitment without marriage, which Carrie accepts.", "As they kiss, a thunderbolt flashes across the sky.", "In an ending photo montage, Henrietta has married an officer in the Grenadier Guards; David married Serena, whom he met at the second wedding; Scarlett has married Chester, the Texan at Carrie and Hamish's wedding; Tom married Deirdre; Matthew has found a new partner; Fiona is shown with Prince Charles; and Charles and Carrie have had their first child." ], [ "Cast" ], [ "Production", "===Writing===Screenwriter Richard Curtis's own experiences as a wedding attendee inspired ''Four Weddings and a Funeral''.", "According to Curtis he began writing the script at age 34, after realising he had attended 65 weddings in an 11-year period.", "At one wedding he was propositioned by a fellow guest, but he turned her down and forever regretted it; accordingly he based the origin of Charles and Carrie's romance on that situation.It took Curtis 17 drafts to reach the final version.", "He has commented on director Mike Newell's influence; \"I come from a school where making it funny is what matters.", "Mike was obsessed with keeping it real.", "Every character, no matter how small, has a story, not just three funny lines.", "It's a romantic film about love and friendship that swims in a sea of jokes.", "\"Curtis chose to omit any mention of the characters' careers, because he didn't think a group of friends would realistically discuss their jobs while together at a wedding.===Casting===Curtis, Newell and the producers began the casting process for ''Four Weddings'' in early 1992.Alex Jennings was cast as Charles, but funding for the production fell through in mid-1992.Jennings would eventually go on to play a supporting role in Mindy Kaling's 2019 television miniseries adaptation of the film.", "The team continued holding auditions for over a year, seeing roughly 70 actors for the role of Charles before Hugh Grant.Grant was ready to give up acting as a career when he received the script for ''Four Weddings and a Funeral''; he stated in 2016 that: \"I wasn't really getting any work at all, and then to my great surprise this script came through the letterbox from my agent, and it was really good.", "And I rang on and said there must be a mistake, you've sent me a good script.\"", "Initially, writer Richard Curtis, who had modelled the character of Charles after himself, was opposed to casting Grant in the role, because he thought Grant was too handsome.", "Curtis favoured casting Alan Rickman, but Rickman refused to audition.", "Curtis was eventually persuaded by Newell and the producers to approve Grant's casting.Jeanne Tripplehorn was originally cast as Carrie, but she had to drop out before filming when her mother died.", "The role was offered to Marisa Tomei, but she turned it down, because her grandfather was sick at the time.", "Sarah Jessica Parker was also reportedly considered.", "Andie MacDowell was in London doing publicity for ''Groundhog Day'' when she read the script and was subsequently cast.", "MacDowell took a 75% cut in her fee to appear, receiving $250,000 upfront, but due to the success of the film, she earned around $3 million.Grant's participation hit another stumbling block when his agent requested a £5,000 rise over the £35,000 salary Grant was offered.", "The producers initially refused because of the extremely tight budget, but eventually agreed.", "The supporting cast-members were paid £17,500 apiece.===Production===Duncan Kenworthy produced the film while on sabbatical from Jim Henson Productions.", "Pre-production for the movie was a long process because funding was erratic, falling through in mid-1992 and leading to much uncertainty.", "Finally in early 1993, Working Title Films stepped in to close the gap.", "Nonetheless, another $1.2 million was cut just before production began in the summer of 1993, forcing the film to be made in just 36 days with a final budget of £2.7 million (appr.", "$4.4 million in 1994).", "Channel Four Films contributed £800,000.The budget was so tight that extras had to wear their own wedding clothes, while Rowan Atkinson appeared as a vicar at two of the weddings so production wouldn't have to pay another actor.Future Home Secretary and Member of Parliament (MP) Amber Rudd was given the credit of \"Aristocracy Coordinator\" after she arranged for several aristocrats to make uncredited appearances as wedding extras, including Peregrine Cavendish, who was at the time Marquess of Hartington, and the Earl of Woolton, who conveniently wore their own morning suits.To make Grant look more nerdy, the producers styled him with shaggy hair, glasses, and deliberately unflattering, ill-fitting clothes.", "Grant was encouraged by director Mike Newell to mess up and trip over his lines, written in \"convoluted syntax\" as Grant describes them, in order to give Charles a stammering, nervous quality.", "Grant, who struggled with hay fever throughout filming, was unsure of Newell's direction and his own performance, which he thought was \"atrocious.\"", "Regarding Newell, Grant commented that: \"He seemed to be giving direction against what I thought were the natural beats of the comedy.", "He was making a film with texture, grounding it, playing the truths rather than the gags\".The film was shot mainly in London and the Home Counties, including: Hampstead, Islington where the final moments take place on Highbury Terrace, Greenwich Hospital, Betchworth in Surrey, Amersham in Buckinghamshire, St Bartholomew-the-Great (wedding number four) and West Thurrock in Essex.", "Exterior shots of guests arriving for the funeral were filmed in Thurrock, Essex overlooking the River Thames with the backdrop of the Dartford River Crossing.", "Stately homes in Bedfordshire (Luton Hoo for wedding two's reception) and Hampshire provided exteriors for weddings.===Post-production===According to Hugh Grant, the initial screening of a rough-cut of ''Four Weddings'' went very badly.", "Throughout production, Gramercy Pictures, the U.S. distributor for the film, sent frequent transatlantic faxes objecting to the explicit language and sexual content, fearing the final product would not be suitable for American distribution or television airings.", "They particularly objected to the opening scene of the movie, in which Charles and Scarlett say the word \"Fuck\" over and over, after an initial screening of the movie in Salt Lake City led the conservative Mormon members of the city council to walk out.", "Accordingly, Mike Newell and the actors agreed to reshoot the scene with the British swear word \"Bugger\" to be used in the American version.", "The executives also objected to the title, believing ''Four Weddings and a Funeral'' would turn off male viewers from the film.", "In its place they suggested such titles as ''True Love and Near Misses'', ''Loitering in Sacred Places'', ''Skulking Around'', and ''Rolling in the Aisles'', none of which were accepted.===Music and soundtrack===The original score was composed by British composer Richard Rodney Bennett.", "The movie also featured a soundtrack of popular songs, including a cover version of The Troggs' \"Love Is All Around\" performed by Wet Wet Wet that remained at number 1 on the UK Singles Chart for fifteen weeks and was then the ninth (now twelfth) biggest selling single of all time in Britain.", "This song would later be adapted into \"Christmas Is All Around\" and sung by the character of Billy Mack in Richard Curtis' 2003 film ''Love Actually'', in which Grant also stars.", "The soundtrack album sold more than 750,000 units." ], [ "Release", "''Four Weddings and a Funeral'' had its world premiere in January 1994 at the Sundance Film Festival in Salt Lake City, Utah.It opened in the United States on 11 March 1994 in five theatres.", "The box office receipts from the first five days of the film's general release in the United States so impressed the movie's distributor that it decided to spend lavishly on promotion, buying full-page newspaper ads and TV-spots totaling some $11 million.", "The movie also benefited from much free publicity because of Grant's reception in the United States, where he became an instant sex symbol and undertook a successful media tour promoting the film.", "Producer Duncan Kenworthy stated that \"It was the most amazing luck that when Hugh went on the publicity trail he turned out to be incredibly funny, and very like the character of Charles.", "That doesn't ever happen.\"", "The film had a wide release in the United States on 15 April 1994.At the UK premiere in Leicester Square on 11 May 1994, Hugh Grant's then-girlfriend Elizabeth Hurley garnered much publicity for the film when she wore a black Versace safety-pin dress which became a sensation in the press.", "The film opened in the UK on 13 May 1994." ], [ "Reception", "===Critical response===On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 96% based on 69 reviews, with an average rating of 7.7/10.The site's critics consensus states, \"While frothy to a fault, ''Four Weddings and a Funeral'' features irresistibly breezy humor, and winsome performances from Hugh Grant and Andie MacDowell.\"", "Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 81 out of 100 based on 19 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim\".Film critic Roger Ebert gave the film three-and-a-half stars out of four, calling it \"delightful and sly\", and directed with \"light-hearted enchantment\" by Newell.", "He praised Grant's performance, describing it as a kind of \"endearing awkwardness\".", "Todd McCarthy of ''Variety'' called it a \"truly beguiling romantic comedy\" which was \"frequently hilarious without being sappily sentimental or tiresomely retrograde.\"", "Producer Duncan Kenworthy later attributed much of the success of ''Four Weddings'' at the box office to McCarthy's review.Writing for the ''Chicago Reader'', Jonathan Rosenbaum called the film \"generic\" and \"standard issue\", stating that the audience shouldn't \"expect to remember it ten minutes later\".", "''Time'' magazine writer Richard Corliss was less scathing, but agreed that it was forgettable, saying that people would \"forget all about the movie by the time they leave the multiplex,\" even joking at the end of his review that he had forgotten the film's name.===Box office===Upon its limited release in the United States, ''Four Weddings and a Funeral'' opened with $138,486 from five theatres.", "In its wide release, the film topped the box office with $4.2 million.", "The film would go on to gross $52.7 million in the United States and Canada.In the United Kingdom, the film grossed £1.4 million in its opening weekend, a record for a UK production, and £2.7 million in its opening week from 211 theatres.", "It was number one for nine consecutive weeks, grossing £27.8 million, making it the second highest-grossing film of all-time in the United Kingdom behind ''Jurassic Park''.", "It surpassed ''A Fish Called Wanda'' as the highest-grossing British film.", "In France, it was number one at the box office for ten weeks, grossing $34.4 million.", "It was also number one at the Australian box office for five weeks and was the second-highest-grossing film of the year, grossing $A21.4 million.", "Overall, it grossed $245.7 million worldwide, generating the highest percentage return on cost of films released in 1994.The success of the film cleared Working Title's past losses and generated over $50 million for Polygram, clearing most of their losses in the four years since they started producing films.===Recognition===The film was voted the 27th greatest comedy film of all time by readers of ''Total Film'' in 2000.In 2004, the same magazine named it the 34th greatest British film of all time.", "It is number 96 on Bravo's \"100 Funniest Movies\".", "''The Guardian'', in a 20th anniversary retrospective of ''Four Weddings'', stated that \"Its influence on the British film industry, on romantic-comedy writing, on the pop charts, on funeral readings, on ''haircuts'', was enormous.", "\"Hugh Grant commented in 2016 on the experience of the film's phenomenal success and its effect on his career: \"I was making ''An Awfully Big Adventure'' at the time that ''Four Weddings'' came out, with Mike Newell again, same director, even tinier budget, in Dublin.", "And we'd get back from brutal days on the set, very long and no money, and the fax machines...were coming out saying that now your film ''Four Weddings'' is #5 in America, now it's #3, now it's #1 and here's an offer Hugh, for ''Captain Blood'' and they'll pay you $1 million.", "It was completely surreal.", "\"===Awards and accolades======= Year-end lists ====* 1st – Glenn Lovell, ''San Jose Mercury News''* 2nd – Sandi Davis, ''The Oklahoman''* 3rd – National Board of Review* 5th – Joan Vadeboncoeur, ''Syracuse Herald American''* 5th – John Hurley, ''Staten Island Advance''* 6th – Peter Travers, ''Rolling Stone''* 6th – Sean P. Means, ''The Salt Lake Tribune''* 7th – Michael MacCambridge, ''Austin American-Statesman''* 7th – Kenneth Turan, ''Los Angeles Times''* 7th – Janet Maslin, ''The New York Times''* 7th – Todd Anthony, ''Miami New Times''* 7th – Steve Persall, ''St.", "Petersburg Times''* 8th – James Berardinelli, ''ReelViews''* 8th – Mack Bates, ''The Milwaukee Journal''* 10th – Kevin Thomas, ''Los Angeles Times''* 10th – Douglas Armstrong, ''The Milwaukee Journal''* Top 7 (not ranked) – Duane Dudek, ''Milwaukee Sentinel''* Top 9 (not ranked) – Dan Webster, ''The Spokesman-Review''* Top 10 (listed alphabetically, not ranked) – Bob Ross, ''The Tampa Tribune''* Top 10 (listed alphabetically, not ranked) – Eleanor Ringel, ''The Atlanta Journal-Constitution''* Top 10 (not ranked) – Howie Movshovitz, ''The Denver Post''* Top 10 (not ranked) – George Meyer, ''The Ledger''* Top 10 (not ranked) – Bob Carlton, ''The Birmingham News''* Best \"sleepers\" (not ranked) – Dennis King, ''Tulsa World''* Honorable mention – Betsy Pickle, ''Knoxville News-Sentinel''* Honorable mention – William Arnold, ''Seattle Post-Intelligencer''* Honorable mention – David Elliott, ''The San Diego Union-Tribune''* Honorable mention – Robert Denerstein, ''Rocky Mountain News''* Honorable mention – Michael Mills, ''The Palm Beach Post''* Honorable mention – Jeff Simon, ''The Buffalo News''==== Awards ==== Award Category Recipient Result Academy Awards Best Picture Duncan Kenworthy Best Original Screenplay Richard Curtis BAFTA Awards Best Film Duncan Kenworthy Best Direction Mike Newell Best Original Screenplay Richard Curtis Best Actor Hugh Grant Best Supporting Actor Simon Callow John Hannah Best Supporting Actress Kristin Scott Thomas Charlotte Coleman Best Editing Jon Gregory Best Film Music Richard Rodney Bennett Golden Globe Awards Best Musical or Comedy ''Four Weddings and a Funeral'' Best Actor – Musical or Comedy Hugh Grant Best Actress – Musical or Comedy Andie MacDowell Best Screenplay Richard Curtis Directors Guild of America Awards Outstanding Directing – Feature Film Mike Newell Australian Film Institute Awards Best Foreign Film ''Four Weddings and a Funeral'' British Comedy Awards Best Comedy Film ''Four Weddings and a Funeral'' César Awards Best Foreign Film ''Four Weddings and a Funeral'' Chicago Film Critics Awards Most Promising Actor Hugh Grant Evening Standard British Film Awards Best Actress Kristin Scott Thomas Best Screenplay Richard Curtis London Critics' Circle Film Awards British Film of the Year ''Four Weddings and a Funeral'' British Director of the Year Mike Newell British Producer of the Year Duncan Kenworthy British Screenwriter of the Year Richard Curtis Writers Guild of America Awards Best Original Screenplay Writers' Guild of Great Britain Awards Film – Screenplay" ], [ "Franchise", "===Hulu anthology television miniseries===It was reported in November 2017 that the streaming service Hulu was developing an eponymous anthology television series based upon the film, to be written and executive produced by Mindy Kaling and Matt Warburton, with Richard Curtis also serving as an executive producer.", "In October 2018, it was announced Jessica Williams, Nikesh Patel, Rebecca Rittenhouse, and John Reynolds had joined the cast.", "The miniseries premiered on 31 July 2019.===''One Red Nose Day and a Wedding''===On 5 December 2018, it was announced that Richard Curtis had written ''One Red Nose Day and a Wedding'', a 25th anniversary Comic Relief television reunion short film.", "The original film's director, Mike Newell, returned, along with the film's surviving cast, including Hugh Grant, Andie MacDowell, Kristin Scott Thomas, John Hannah, Rowan Atkinson, James Fleet, David Haig, Sophie Thompson, David Bower, Robin McCaffrey, Anna Chancellor, Rupert Vansittart, Simon Kunz, Sara Crowe and Timothy Walker.", "It was filmed on 13–14 December 2018 at St James' Church, Islington, London.", "It centered on the reunion of all the characters from the original film at the wedding of Charles and Carrie's daughter to Fiona's daughter.", "The involvement of additional cast members Lily James and Alicia Vikander, who played the young lesbians getting married, was not announced until the day the film aired in the UK.", "The film aired in the US on their Red Nose Day on Thursday 23 May 2019." ], [ "See also", "* BFI Top 100 British films* ''Notting Hill'' (1999), also written by Curtis and starring Grant* ''Love Actually'' (2003), another film by Curtis starring Grant and Atkinson * Black Versace dress of Elizabeth Hurley, worn by Hurley to the film's premiere* List of films featuring the deaf and hard of hearing* Parey Hut Love" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ''Four Weddings and a Funeral'' at the British Film Institute* * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ferrari" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Ferrari S.p.A.''' (; ) is an Italian luxury sports car manufacturer based in Maranello, Italy.", "Founded in 1939 by Enzo Ferrari (1898–1988), the company built its first car in 1940, adopted its current name in 1945, and began to produce its current line of road cars in 1947.Ferrari became a public company in 1960, and from 1963 to 2014 it was a subsidiary of Fiat S.p.A.", "It was spun off from Fiat's successor entity, Fiat Chrysler Automobiles, in 2016.The company currently offers a large model range which includes several supercars, grand tourers, and one SUV.", "Many early Ferraris, dating to the 1950s and 1960s, count among the most expensive cars ever sold at auction.", "Owing to a combination of its cars, enthusiast culture, and successful licensing deals, in 2019 Ferrari was labelled the world's strongest brand by the financial consultancy Brand Finance.", "As of May 2023, Ferrari is also one of the largest car manufacturers by market capitalisation, with a value of approximately US$52 billion.Throughout its history, the company has been noted for its continued participation in racing, especially in Formula One, where its team, Scuderia Ferrari, is the series' single oldest and most successful.", "Scuderia Ferrari has raced since 1929, first in Grand Prix events and later in Formula One, where since 1952 it has fielded fifteen champion drivers, won sixteen Constructors' Championships, and accumulated more race victories, 1–2 finishes, podiums, pole positions, fastest laps and points than any other team in F1 history.", "Historically, Ferrari was also highly active in sports car racing, where its cars took many wins in races like the Mille Miglia, Targa Florio and 24 Hours of Le Mans, as well as several overall victories in the World Sportscar Championship.", "Scuderia Ferrari fans, commonly called , are known for their passion and loyalty to the team." ], [ "History", "=== Early history ===Three Scuderia Ferrari cars in 1934, all Alfa Romeo P3s.", "Drivers, left to right: Achille Varzi, Louis Chiron, and Carlo Felice Trossi.Enzo Ferrari, formerly a salesman and racing driver for Alfa Romeo, founded Scuderia Ferrari, a racing team, in 1929.Originally intended to service gentleman drivers and other amateur racers, Alfa Romeo's withdrawal from racing in 1933, combined with Enzo's connections within the company, turned Scuderia Ferrari into its unofficial representative on the track.", "Alfa Romeo supplied racing cars to Ferrari, who eventually amassed some of the best drivers of the 1930s and won many races before the team's liquidation in 1937.Late in 1937, Scuderia Ferrari was liquidated and absorbed into Alfa Romeo, but Enzo's disagreements with upper management caused him to leave in 1939.He used his settlement to found his own company, where he intended to produce his own cars.", "He called the company \"Auto Avio Costruzioni\", and headquartered it in the facilities of the old Scuderia Ferrari; due to a noncompete agreement with Alfa Romeo, the company could not use the Ferrari name for another four years.", "The company produced a single car, the Auto Avio Costruzioni 815, which participated in only one race before the outbreak of World War II.", "During the war, Enzo's company produced aircraft engines and machine tools for the Italian military; the contracts for these goods were lucrative, and provided the new company with a great deal of capital.", "In 1943, under threat of Allied bombing raids, the company's factory was moved to Maranello.", "Though the new facility was nonetheless bombed twice, Ferrari remains in Maranello to this day.=== Under Enzo Ferrari ===Ferrari's factory in the early 1960s: everything in its production line was handmade by machinists, who followed technical drawings with extreme precision.", "Much of this work is now done by industrial robots.In 1945, Ferrari adopted its current name.", "Work started promptly on a new V12 engine that would power the 125 S, which was the marque's first car, and many subsequent Ferraris.", "The company saw success in motorsport almost as soon as it began racing: the 125 S won many races in 1947, and several early victories, including the 1949 24 Hours of Le Mans and 1951 Carrera Panamericana, helped build Ferrari's reputation as a high-quality automaker.", "Ferrari won several more races in the coming years, and early in the 1950s its road cars were already a favourite of the international elite.", "Ferrari produced many families of interrelated cars, including the America, Monza, and 250 series, and the company's first series-produced car was the 250 GT Coupé, beginning in 1958.In 1960, Ferrari was reorganized as a public company.", "It soon began searching for a business partner to handle its manufacturing operations: it first approached Ford in 1963, though negotiations fell through; later talks with Fiat, who bought 50% of Ferrari's shares in 1969, were more successful.", "In the second half of the decade, Ferrari also produced two cars that upended its more traditional models: the 1967 Dino 206 GT, which was its first mass-produced mid-engined road car, and the 1968 365 GTB/4, which possessed streamlined styling that modernised Ferrari's design language.", "The Dino in particular was a decisive movement away from the company's conservative engineering approach, where every road-going Ferrari featured a V12 engine placed in the front of the car, and it presaged Ferrari's full embrace of mid-engine architecture, as well as V6 and V8 engines, in the 1970s and 1980s.=== Contemporary ===Enzo Ferrari died in 1988, an event that saw Fiat expand its stake to 90%.", "The last car that he personally approved — the F40 — expanded on the flagship supercar approach first tried by the 288 GTO four years earlier.", "Enzo was replaced in 1991 by Luca Cordero di Montezemolo, under whose 23-year-long chairmanship the company greatly expanded.", "Between 1991 and 2014, he increased the profitability of Ferrari's road cars nearly tenfold, both by increasing the range of cars offered and through limiting the total number produced.", "Montezemolo's chairmanship also saw an expansion in licensing deals, a drastic improvement in Ferrari's Formula One performance (not least through the hiring of Michael Schumacher and Jean Todt), and the production of three more flagship cars: the F50, the Enzo, and the LaFerrari.", "In addition to his leadership of Ferrari, Montezemolo was also the chairman of Fiat proper between 2004 and 2010.After Montezemolo resigned, he was replaced in quick succession by many new chairmen and CEOs.", "He was succeeded first by Sergio Marchionne, who would oversee Ferrari's initial public offering and subsequent spin-off from Fiat Chrysler Automobiles, and then by Louis Camilleri as CEO and John Elkann as chairman.", "Beginning in 2021, Camilleri was replaced as CEO by Benedetto Vigna, who has announced plans to develop Ferrari's first fully electric model.", "During this period, Ferrari has expanded its production, owing to a global increase in wealth, while becoming more selective with its licensing deals." ], [ "Motorsport", "Since the company's beginnings, Ferrari has been involved in motorsport.", "Through its works team, Scuderia Ferrari, it has competed in a range of categories including Formula One and sports car racing, though the company has also worked in partnership with other teams.=== Grand Prix and Formula One racing ===A Ferrari F2004 Formula One car, driven by Michael Schumacher.", "Schumacher is one of the most decorated drivers in F1 history.The earliest Ferrari entity, Scuderia Ferrari, was created in 1929 — ten years before the founding of Ferrari proper — as a Grand Prix racing team.", "It was affiliated with automaker Alfa Romeo, for whom Enzo had worked in the 1920s.", "Alfa Romeo supplied racing cars to Ferrari, which the team then tuned and adjusted to their desired specifications.", "Scuderia Ferrari was highly successful in the 1930s: between 1929 and 1937 the team fielded such top drivers as Antonio Ascari, Giuseppe Campari, and Tazio Nuvolari, and won 144 out of its 225 races.Ferrari returned to Grand Prix racing in 1947, which was at that point metamorphosing into modern-day Formula One.", "The team's first homebuilt Grand Prix car, the 125 F1, was first raced at the 1948 Italian Grand Prix, where its encouraging performance convinced Enzo to continue the company's costly Grand Prix racing programme.", "Ferrari's first victory in an F1 series was at the 1951 British Grand Prix, heralding its strong performance during the 1950s and early 1960s: between 1952 and 1964, the team took home six World Drivers' Championships and one Constructors' Championship.", "Notable Ferrari drivers from this era include Alberto Ascari, Juan Manuel Fangio, Phil Hill, and John Surtees.Ferrari's initial fortunes ran dry after 1964, and its began to receive its titles in isolated sprees.", "Ferrari first started to slip in the late 1960s, when it was outclassed by teams using the inexpensive, well-engineered Cosworth DFV engine.", "The team's performance improved markedly in the mid-1970s thanks to Niki Lauda, whose skill behind the wheel granted Ferrari a drivers' title in 1975 and 1977; similar success was accomplished in following years by the likes of Jody Scheckter and Gilles Villeneuve.", "The team also won the Constructors' Championship in 1982 and 1983.Following another drought in the 1980s and 1990s, Ferrari saw a long winning streak in the 2000s, largely through the work of Michael Schumacher.", "After signing onto the team in 1996, Schumacher gave Ferrari five consecutive drivers' titles between 2000 and 2004; this was accompanied by six consecutive constructors' titles, beginning in 1999.Ferrari was especially dominant in the 2004 season, where it lost only three races.", "After Schumacher's departure, Ferrari won one more drivers' title — given in 2007 to Kimi Räikkönen — and two constructors' titles in 2007 and 2008.These are the team's most recent titles to date; as of late, Ferrari has struggled to outdo recently ascendant teams like Red Bull and Mercedes-Benz.==== Ferrari Driver Academy ====Ferrari's junior driver programme is the Ferrari Driver Academy.", "Begun in 2009, the initiative follows the team's successful grooming of Felipe Massa between 2003 and 2006.Drivers who are accepted into the Academy learn the rules and history of formula racing as they compete, with Ferrari's support, in feeder classes such as Formula Three and Formula 4.As of 2019, 5 out of 18 programme inductees had graduated and become F1 drivers: one of these drivers, Charles Leclerc, came to race for Scuderia Ferrari, while the other four signed to other teams.", "Non-graduate drivers have participated in racing development, filled consultant roles, or left the Academy to continue racing in lower-tier formulae.=== Sports car racing ===312 P, driven by Jacky Ickx, during Ferrari's final year in the World Sportscar Championship.Aside from an abortive effort in 1940, Ferrari began racing sports cars in 1947, when the 125 S won six out of the ten races it participated in.", "Ferrari continued to see similar luck in the years to follow: by 1957, just ten years after beginning to compete, Ferrari had won three World Sportscar Championships, seven victories in the Mille Miglia, and two victories at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, among many other races.", "These races were ideal environments for the development and promotion of Ferrari's earlier road cars, which were broadly similar to their racing counterparts.This luck continued into the first half of the 1960s, when Ferrari won the WSC's 2000GT class three consecutive times and finished first at Le Mans for six consecutive years.", "Its winning streak at Le Mans was broken by Ford in 1966, and though Ferrari would win two more WSC titles — one in 1967 and another in 1972 — poor revenue allocation, combined with languishing performance in Formula One, led the company to cease competing in sports car events in 1973.From that point onward, Ferrari would help prepare sports racing cars for privateer teams, but would not race them itself.In 2023, Ferrari reentered sports car racing.", "For the 2023 FIA World Endurance Championship, Ferrari, in partnership with AF Corse, fielded two 499P sports prototypes.", "To commemorate the company's return to the discipline, one of the cars was numbered \"50\", referencing the fifty years that had elapsed since a works Ferrari competed in an endurance race.", "The 499P finished first at the 2023 24 Hours of Le Mans, ending Toyota Gazoo Racing's six-year winning streak there and becoming the first Ferrari in 58 years to win the race.=== Other disciplines ===From 1932 to 1935 Scuderia Ferrari operated a motorcycle racing division, which was conceived as a way to scout and train future Grand Prix drivers.", "Instead of Italian motorcycles, the team used British ones manufactured by Norton and Rudge.", "Though Ferrari was successful on two wheels, winning three national titles and 44 overall victories, it was eventually pushed out of the discipline both by the obsolescence of pushrod motorcycle engines and broader economic troubles stemming from the Great Depression.Ferrari formerly participated in a variety of non-F1 open-wheel series.", "As early as 1948, Ferrari had developed cars for Formula Two and Formula Libre events, and the company's F2 programme led directly to the creation of the Dino engine, which came to power various racing and road Ferraris.", "The final non-F1 formula in which Ferrari competed was the Tasman Series, wherein Chris Amon won the 1969 championship in a Dino 246 Tasmania.At least two water speed record boats have utilized Ferrari powertrains, both of them 800kg-class hydroplanes from the early 1950s.", "Neither boat was built by or affiliated with Ferrari, though one of them, ''Arno XI'', had its engine order approved directly by Enzo Ferrari.", "''Arno XI'' still holds the top speed record for an 800kg hydroplane.=== Race cars for other teams ===Throughout its history, Ferrari has supplied racing cars to other entrants, aside from its own works Scuderia Ferrari team.", "In the 1950s and 1960s, Ferrari supplied Formula One cars to a number of private entrants and other teams.", "One famous example was Tony Vandervell's team, which raced the Thinwall Special modified Ferraris before building their own Vanwall cars.", "The North American Racing Team's entries in the final three rounds of the 1969 season were the last occasions on which a team other than Scuderia Ferrari entered a World Championship Grand Prix with a Ferrari car.Ferrari supplied cars complete with V8 engines for the A1 Grand Prix series, from the 2008–09 season.", "The car was designed by Rory Byrne and is styled to resemble the 2004 Ferrari Formula one car.", "Ferrari currently runs a customer GT program for a racing version of its 458 and has done so for the 458's predecessors, dating back to the 355 in the late 1990s.", "Such private teams as the American Risi Competizione and Italian AF Corse teams have been very successful with Ferrari GT racers over the years.", "This car, made for endurance sportscar racing to compete against such racing versions of the Audi R8, McLaren MP4-12C, and BMW Z4 (E89) has proven to be successful, but not as successful as its predecessor, the F430.The Ferrari Challenge is a one-make racing series for the Ferrari 458.The FXX is not road legal and is therefore only used for track events." ], [ "Road cars", "166 Inter Touring BerlinettaThe first vehicle made with the Ferrari name was the 125 S. Only two of this small two-seat sports/racing V12 car were made.", "In 1949, the 166 Inter was introduced marking the company's significant move into the grand touring road car market.", "The first 166 Inter was a four-seat (2+2) berlinetta coupe with body work designed by Carrozzeria Touring Superleggera.", "Road cars quickly became the bulk of Ferrari sales.The early Ferrari cars typically featured bodywork designed and customised by independent coachbuilders such as Vignale, Touring, Ghia, Pininfarina, Scaglietti and Bertone.The original road cars were typically two-seat front-engined V12s.", "This platform served Ferrari very well through the 1950s and 1960s.", "In 1968 the Dino was introduced as the first two-seat rear mid-engined Ferrari.", "The Dino was produced primarily with a V6 engine, however, a V8 model was also developed.", "This rear mid-engine layout would go on to be used in many Ferraris of the 1980s, 1990s and to the present day.", "Current road cars typically use V8 or V12 engines, with V8 models making up well over half of the marque's total production.", "Historically, Ferrari has also produced flat 12 engines.For a time, Ferrari built 2+2 versions of its mid-engined V8 cars.", "Although they looked quite different from their 2-seat counterparts, both the GT4 and Mondial were closely related to the 308 GTB.Ferrari entered the mid-engined 12-cylinder fray with the Berlinetta Boxer in 1973.The later Testarossa (also mid-engined 12 cylinders) remains one of the most popular and famous Ferrari road cars of all time.The company has also produced several front-engined 2+2 cars, culminating in the recent V12 model Lusso and V8 models Roma, Portofino and Lusso T. The California is credited with initiating the popular current model line of V8 front-engined 2+2 grand touring performance sports cars.Starting in the early 2010s with the LaFerrari, the focus was shifted away from the use of independent coachbuilders to what is now the standard, Ferrari relying on in-house design from the Centro Stile Ferrari for the design of all its road cars.In February 2019, at the 89th Geneva International Motor Show, Ferrari revealed its latest mid-engine V8 supercar, the F8 Tributo.Ferrari SF90 Stradale is the first-ever Ferrari to feature PHEV (Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle) architecture which sees the internal combustion engine integrated with three electric motors, two of which are independent and located on the front axle, with the third at the rear between the engine and the gearbox.===Current models===Model Calendar yearintroducedVehicle description 200px 812 Superfast 2017 Front mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive grand tourer.", "200px Monza SP1 2019 Limited production single-seater sports car, part of the new Icona range.", "200px Monza SP2 2019 Limited production two-seater sports car, part of the new Icona range.", "200px SF90 Stradale 2019 Mid-engine, plug-in hybrid sports car.", "200px Roma 2020 Grand tourer sports car.", "200px 296 GTB 2022 Mid-engine, plug-in hybrid sports car.", "200px Daytona SP3 2022 Limited production mid-engine sports car, part of the new Icona range.", "200px Purosangue 2022 Ferrari's first SUV; uses the same platform as the Roma.=== Customisation ===In the 1950s and 1960s, clients often personalized their vehicles as they came straight from the factory.", "This philosophy added to the mystique of the brand at the time.", "Every Ferrari that came out of Maranello could be built to an individual customer's specification.Ferrari formalized this concept with its earlier Carrozzeria Scaglietti programme.", "The options offered here were more typical such as racing seats, rearview cameras, and other special trim.", "In late 2011, Ferrari announced a significant update of this philosophy.", "The Tailor Made programme allows clients to work with designers in Maranello to make decisions at every step of the process.", "Through this program almost any trim, any exterior color or any interior material is possible.", "The program carries on the original tradition and emphasizes the idea of each car being unique.=== Supercars ===MythosEnzo FerrariThe 1984 288 GTO may be considered the first in the line of Ferrari supercars.", "This pedigree extends through the Enzo Ferrari to the LaFerrari.=== Concept cars and specials ===Ferrari has produced a number of concept cars, such as the Mythos.", "While some of these were quite radical (such as the Modulo) and never intended for production, others such as the Mythos have shown styling elements that were later incorporated into production models.The most recent concept car to be produced by Ferrari themselves was the 2010 Millechili.A number of one-off special versions of Ferrari road cars have also been produced, commissioned to coachbuilders by wealthy owners.", "Recent examples include the P4/5 and the 612 Kappa.====Ferrari Special Projects====The Special Projects programme, also called the Portfolio Coachbuilding Programme, was launched in 2008 as a way to revive the tradition of past one-off and limited production coachbuilt Ferrari models, allowing clients to work with Ferrari and top Italian coachbuilders to create bespoke bodied models based on modern Ferrari road cars.", "Engineering and design is done by Ferrari, sometimes in cooperation with external design houses like Pininfarina or Fioravanti, and the vehicles receive full homologation to be road legal.", "Since the creation of Ferrari's in-house styling centre in 2010 though, the focus has shifted away somewhat from outside coachbuilders and more towards creating new in-house designs for clients.The first car to be completed under this programme was the 2008 SP1, commissioned by a Japanese business executive.", "The second was the P540 Superfast Aperta, commissioned by an American collector.", "The following is a list of Special Projects cars that have been made public: Name Picture Year Based on Commissioned by NotesSP1 120px 2008 F430 Junichiro Hiramatsu Design by Leonardo Fioravanti, inspired by the 1998 F100 concept by Fioravanti.", "P540 Superfast Aperta 120px 2009 599 GTB Edward Walson Inspired by a similarly gold-painted and open-topped one-off built by Carrozzeria Fantuzzi on a Ferrari 330 LMB chassis.", "Design by Pininfarina Superamerica 45 120px 2011 599 GTB Peter Kalikow Rotating targa top; design by Ferrari Styling Centre SP12 EC 120px 2012 458 Italia Eric Clapton Designed by Ferrari Styling Centre and Pininfarina, in homage to the 512 BB.SP30120x120px 2013 599 GTO Cheerag Arya Design by Ferrari Styling Centre SP FFX 120px 2014 FF Shin Okamoto Design by Pininfarina Ferrari F12 TRS 120px 2014 F12berlinetta — Barchetta body, inspired by the Ferrari 250 Testa Rossa.", "Design by Ferrari Styling Centre.", "Ferrari SP America 120px 2014 F12berlinetta Danny Wegman Design by PininfarinaFerrari 458 MM Speciale 120px 2016 458 Speciale —Design by Ferrari Styling Centre.", "SP275 RW Competizione 120px 2016 F12tdfRick WorkmanInspired by the 1964 275 GTB/C Speciale.", "Design by Pininfarina in collaboration with Ferrari Styling Centre.", "J50120x120px 2017 488 Spider N/ADesign by Ferrari Design Center team in Maranello directed by Flavio Manzoni.SP38120x120px2018488 GTB—Inspired by the F40 and 308.SP3JC 120x120px 2018 F12tdf John CollinsDesigned by the Ferrari Styling Centre.", "Two matching cars ordered, one in LHD, the other in RHD with different liveries.", "Took 3.5 years to complete.", "Presented in 2018.P80/C 120x120px 2019 488 GT3TK MakOne-off track-only car inspired by the 330 P3, 330 P4 and the Dino 206 S. Omologata 120px 2020 812 Superfast— Design by Ferrari Design Center team in Maranello directed by Flavio Manzoni BR20 120px 2021 GTC4Lusso—Fastback coupé instead of a shooting brake.", "Inspired by the 410 Superamerica and 500 SuperfastSP48 Unica120px2022F8 Tributo—SP51120px2022812 GTS—KC23120px2023488 GT3 Evo—SP-8120px2023F8—=== Bio-fuel and hybrid cars ===An F430 Spider that runs on ethanol was displayed at the 2008 Detroit Auto Show.", "At the 2010 Geneva Motor Show, Ferrari unveiled a hybrid version of their flagship 599.Called the \"HY-KERS Concept\", Ferrari's hybrid system adds more than 100 horsepower on top of the 599 Fiorano's 612 HP.", "Also in mid-2014, the flagship LaFerrari was put into production.=== Naming conventions ===From the beginning, the Ferrari naming convention consisted of a three-digit unitary displacement of an engine cylinder with an additional suffix representing the purpose of a vehicle.", "Therefore, Ferrari 125 S had V12 engine with a unitary displacement of 124.73 cc; whilst S-suffix represented Sport.", "Other race cars also received names invoking particular races like Ferrari 166 MM for Mille Miglia.", "With the introduction of road-going models, the suffix Inter was added, inspired by the Scuderia Inter racing team of Igor Troubetzkoy.", "Popular at that time 166-series had engines with 166.25 cc of unitary displacement and a very diverse 250-series had of total displacement and 246.10 cc of unitary.", "Later series of road cars were renamed Europa and top-of-the-line series America and Superamerica.Until the early 1990s, Ferrari followed a three-number naming scheme based on engine displacement and a number of cylinders:* V6 and V8 models used the total displacement (in decilitres) for the first two digits and the number of cylinders as the third.", "Thus, the 206 was a 2.0 L V6 powered vehicle, while the 348 used a 3.4 L V8, although, for the F355, the last digit refers to 5 valves per cylinder.", "Upon introduction of the 360 Modena, the digits for V8 models (which now carried a name as well as a number) refer only to total engine displacement.", "The numerical indication aspect of this name carried on to the F430; the F430's replacement, the 458 Italia, uses the same naming as the 206 and 348.The 488 uses the system formerly used by the V12 cars.", "* V12 models used the displacement (in cubic centimetres) of one cylinder.", "Therefore, the famed 365 Daytona had a V12.However, some newer V12-engined Ferraris, such as the 599, have three-number designations that refer only to total engine displacement or boxer-style designations such as the nominally six-litre, V12 612.", "* Flat 12 models used the displacement in litres for the first digit and the number of cylinders for the next two digits.", "Therefore, the 512 BB was five-litre flat 12 (a Berlinetta Boxer, in this case).", "However, the original Berlinetta Boxer was the 365 GT4 BB, which was named in a similar manner to the V12 models.", "* Flagship models (aka \"halo cars\") use the letter F followed by the anniversary in years, such as the F40 and F50.The Enzo skipped this rule, although the F60 name was applied to a Ferrari Formula One car and is sometimes attached to the Enzo.", "* Some models, such as the 1980 Mondial and 1984 Testarossa did not follow a three-number naming scheme.612 Scaglietti Sessanta EditionMost Ferraris were also given designations referring to their body style.", "In general, the following conventions were used:* '''M''' (\"Modificata\"), placed at the end of a model's number, denotes a modified version of its predecessor and not a complete evolution (see F512 M and 575 M Maranello).", "* '''GTB''' (\"Gran Turismo Berlinetta\") models are closed Berlinettas, or coupés.", "* '''GTS''' (\"Gran Turismo Scoperta\") this suffix can be seen in older spiders, or convertibles (see 365 GTS/4).", "Now the convertible models use the suffix \"Spider\" (spelt \"i\") (see F355 Spider, and 360 Spider).", "In more recent models, this suffix is used for targa top models (see Dino 246 GTS, and F355 GTS), which is an absolutely correct use of the suffix since \"scoperta\" means \"uncovered\".", "An increasing number of people tend to refer to GTS as \"Gran Turismo Spyder\", which creates the false assumption that Ferrari does not know the difference between \"spyder\" and \"targa\".", "The 348 TS, which is the only targa named differently, is an exception.", "* '''GTO''' (\"Gran Turismo Omologata\"), placed at the end of a model's number, denotes a modified version of its predecessor.", "It designates a model that has been designed and improved for racetrack use while still being street legal.", "Only three models bear those three letters: the 250 GTO of 1962, the 288 GTO of 1984, and the 599 GTO of 2010.This naming system can be confusing, as some entirely different vehicles used the same engine type and body style.", "Many Ferraris also had other names affixed (like Daytona) to identify them further.", "Many such names are actually not official factory names.", "The Daytona name commemorates Ferrari's triple success in the February 1967 24 Hours of Daytona with the 330 P4.Only in the 1973 Daytona 24 Hours, a 365 GTB/4 run by NART (who raced Ferraris in America) ran second, behind a Porsche 911.The various Dino models were named for Enzo's son, Dino Ferrari, and were marketed as Dinos by Ferrari and sold at Ferrari dealersfor all intents and purposes they are Ferraris.In the mid-1990s, Ferrari added the letter \"F\" to the beginning of all models (a practice abandoned after the F512 M and F355, but adopted again with the F430, but not with its successor, the Ferrari 458)." ], [ "Identity", "=== The \"Prancing Horse\" === flying Prancing Horse flags at the 2003 Italian Grand Prix.Ferrari's symbol is the \"Prancing Horse\" (), a prancing black horse on a yellow background.", "Minor details of its appearance have changed many times, but its shape has remained consistent: it is always presented either as a shield, with the Italian tricolour above the horse and the initials ''SF'' (\"Scuderia Ferrari\") below; or as a rectangle, replacing \"SF\" with the word \"Ferrari\" rendered in the company's trademark typeface.Enzo Ferrari offered an account of the horse's origins.", "In his story, after a 1923 victory in Ravenna, the family of Francesco Baracca, a deceased flying ace who painted the emblem on his airplane, paid him a visit.", "Paolina de Biancoli, Francesco's mother, suggested that Ferrari adopt the horse as a good luck charm: he accepted the request, and the Prancing Horse was first used by his racing team in 1932, applied to their Alfa Romeo 8C with the addition of a canary yellow background — the \"colour of Modena\", Enzo's hometown.", "The rectangular Prancing Horse has been used since 1947, when the Ferrari 125 S — also the first Ferrari-branded sports car — became the first to wear it.=== Colour ===A Ferrari 550 painted in rosso corsa.", "Both varieties of the Prancing Horse logo are present: the shield is located in front of the door, the rectangle is on the bonnet.", "The horse alone can also be found on the wheels, grille, and seats.For many years, () was the required colour of all Italian racing cars.", "It is also closely associated with Ferrari: even after livery regulations changed, allowing race teams to deviate from their national colours, Scuderia Ferrari continued to paint its cars bright red, as it does to this day.", "On Ferrari's road-going cars, the colour has always been among the company's most popular choices: in 2012, 40 per cent of Ferraris left the factory painted red, while in the early 1990s the figure was even higher, at 85 per cent.", "Some Ferrari vehicles, like the 288 GTO, have only been made available in red.Although rosso corsa is the colour most associated with Ferrari, it has not always been the colour of choice.", "Ferraris raced by privateers have run in a rainbow of colours, and one 250 GT SWB, used as a test mule for the 250 GTO, was a rare non-red factory-backed car: it raced in blue.In a particularly noteworthy case from 1964, while protesting the FIA's homologation requirements, the company moved its racing assets to the North American Racing Team, an affiliated team based in the United States.", "As a result, Ferrari and the driver John Surtees won the 1964 Formula One season in American colours — blue, with a white racing stripe.", "By the early 2010s, red had also become less common on Ferrari's road cars, fighting with newly popular colours like yellow, silver, and white.Speaking to both the popularity of rosso corsa and the power of the Ferrari brand, Enzo Ferrari is reported to have once said the following: \"Ask a child to draw a car, and he will certainly paint it red.", "\"=== Brand image ===Ferrari meticulously manages its brand image and public perception: it goes to great lengths to protect its trademarks, and its customers are expected to honour its rules and guidelines when caring for their cars.", "The company is noted for its frequent and diverse lawsuits, which have centred around such subjects as the shape of the Ferrari 250 GTO's bodywork, exclusive rights to model names (including \"Testarossa\" and \"Purosangue\"), replica vehicles, and several unsanctioned owner modifications.", "Via a bounty system, individuals may receive rewards for reporting counterfeit Ferrari products to the company.A pink Ferrari 360.Ferrari offers no pink paint from the factory, and has discouraged its customers from customising their cars in a manner contrary to the company's brand image.Ferrari aims to cultivate an image of exclusivity and refined luxury.", "To facilitate this, vehicle production is deliberately limited to below customer demand, and purchasers are internally ranked based on their desirability and loyalty.", "Some cars may only be purchased by customers who have already owned multiple Ferraris, and the company's most exclusive supercars, such as the LaFerrari, have wait lists many times in excess of total production, with only the most loyal customers selected to purchase one.", "In 2015, the company's head of sales stated that the purpose of this strategy was to maintain the brand's value, and to \"keep alive this ''sic'' dream that is called Ferrari.", "\"Sometimes, Ferrari's desire to maintain its brand perception goes against the wishes of its clientele.", "In one case, the company sued the fashion designer Philipp Plein over \"distasteful\" Instagram posts featuring his personal 812 Superfast.", "The posts, which showcased two models in suggestive positions atop the car, were seen by Ferrari as \"unlawfully appropriating\" the Ferrari brand to promote Plein's clothing, and as being outside Ferrari's intended brand perception.", "Furthermore, the company places restrictions on what owners may do with their cars: they are not allowed to undertake certain modifications, and the company's right of first refusal contract, designed to discourage speculation and flipping, prohibits unauthorised sales within the first two years of ownership.", "Purchasers who break these rules are placed on a \"blacklist\", and may not be permitted to buy a Ferrari vehicle through official means.", "These owner restrictions came to high profile in 2014, when the musician Deadmau5 was sent a cease and desist letter regarding his highly customised 458 Italia: the car, which he dubbed the \"Purrari\", possessed custom badges and a Nyan Cat-themed wrap, and was put up for sale on Craigslist.Ferrari does encourage its buyers to personalise their cars, but only through official channels, which include its Tailor Made programme for bespoke trim packages and special coachbuilding initiatives for more demanding commissions.", "The customisation options offered through these channels are extensive, though they are always in line with Ferrari's desired branding — for example, the company offers no pink paint for its cars.", "In 2017, the CEO of the company's Australasia branch commented that this and similar customisations are \"against the company's ethos,\" and that such a stance is \"a brand rule.", "No pink.", "No ''Pokémon'' Ferraris!\"" ], [ "Corporate affairs", "In 1963, Enzo Ferrari was approached by the Ford Motor Company about a possible buy out.", "Ford audited Ferrari's assets but legal negotiations and talks were unilaterally cut off by Ferrari when he realized that the deal offered by Ford would not enable him to stay at the helm of the company racing program.", "Henry Ford II consequently directed his racing division to negotiate with Lotus, Lola, and Cooper to build a car capable of beating Ferrari on the world endurance circuit, eventually resulting in the production of the Ford GT40 in 1964.As the Ford deal fell through, FIAT approached Ferrari with a more flexible proposal and purchased controlling interests in the company in 1969.Enzo Ferrari retained a 10% share, which is currently owned by his son Piero Lardi Ferrari.Ferrari has an internally managed merchandising line that licences many products bearing the Ferrari brand, including eyewear, pens, pencils, electronic goods, perfume, cologne, clothing, high-tech bicycles, watches, cell phones, and laptop computers.Ferrari also runs a museum, the Museo Ferrari in Maranello, which displays road and race cars and other items from the company's history.=== Formula Uomo programme ===In 1997, Ferrari launched a long term master planned effort to improve overall corporate efficiency, production and employee happiness.", "The program was called Formula Uomo and became a case study in social sustainability.", "It took over ten years to fully implement and included over €200 million (2008) in investment.=== Technical partnerships ===Ferrari has had a long-standing relationship with petroleum company Shell Oil from the late 1950s to the early 1970s, and currently since 1996.Shell develops and supplies fuel and oils to the Scuderia Ferrari's Formula One and World Endurance Championship teams, as well as Ducati Corse's MotoGP and World Superbike teams.", "The Shell V-Power premium gasoline fuel is claimed to have been developed with the many years of technical expertise between Shell and Ferrari.Ferrari has had agreements to supply Formula One engines to a number of other teams over the years, and currently supply the Alfa Romeo and Haas F1 F1 teams.=== Sales history ===As of the end of 2019, the total of Ferrari built and sold cars in their whole company history is 219,062.In October 2023, Ferrari started accepting payment in cryptocurrency for its vehicles in the US with intentions to expand the scheme to Europe in 2024.The cryptocurrency payments will be immediately traded into traditional currency to avoid price swings.", ";Annual Ferrari sales to end customers (number of type-approved vehicles)+Year Sales1947 31948 51949 211950 251951 331952 441953 571954 581955 611956 811957 1131958 1831959 2481960 3061961 4411962 4931963 5981964 6541965 6191966 928+Year Sales1967 7061968 7291969 6191970 9281971 1,2461972 1,8441973 1,7721974 1,4361975 1,3371976 1,4261977 1,7981978 1,9391979 2,2211980 2,4701981 2,5651982 2,2091983 2,3661984 2,8561985 3,0511986 3,663+Year Sales1987 3,9421988 4,0011989 3,8211990 4,2931991 4,4871992 3,3841993 2,3451994 2,6711995 3,1441996 3,3501997 3,5811998 3,6521999 3,7752000 4,0702001 4,2892002 4,2362003 4,2382004 4,9752005 5,4092006 5,671+Year Sales2007 6,4652008 6,5872009 6,2502010 6,4612011 7,0012012 7,3182013 6,9222014 7,2552015 7,6642016 8,0142017 8,3982018 9,2512019 10,1312020 9,1192021 11,1152022 13,221::+ '''Annual Ferrari sales to end customers (number of type-approved vehicles)''' ImageSize = width:650 height:auto barincrement:22PlotArea = left:45 bottom:20 top:10 right:18AlignBars = justifyDateFormat = yyyyPeriod = from:0 till:15000TimeAxis = orientation:horizontalColors = id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7)ScaleMajor = unit:year start:0 increment:1000 gridcolor:line2ScaleMinor = start:0 increment:100 gridcolor:line1PlotData= color:skyblue width:18 bar:1999 from:start till:3775 text:3,775 align:left bar:2000 from:start till:4070 text:4,070 align:left bar:2001 from:start till:4289 text:4,289 align:left bar:2002 from:start till:4236 text:4,236 align:left bar:2003 from:start till:4238 text:4,238 align:left bar:2004 from:start till:4975 text:4,975 align:left bar:2005 from:start till:5409 text:5,409 align:left bar:2006 from:start till:5671 text:5,671 align:left bar:2007 from:start till:6465 text:6,465 align:left bar:2008 from:start till:6587 text:6,587 align:left bar:2009 from:start till:6250 text:6,250 align:left bar:2010 from:start till:6461 text:6,461 align:left bar:2011 from:start till:7001 text:7,001 align:left bar:2012 from:start till:7318 text:7,318 align:left bar:2013 from:start till:6922 text:6,922 align:left bar:2014 from:start till:7255 text:7,255 align:left bar:2015 from:start till:7664 text:7,664 align:left bar:2016 from:start till:8014 text:8,014 align:left bar:2017 from:start till:8398 text:8,398 align:left bar:2018 from:start till:9251 text:9,251 align:left bar:2019 from:start till:10131 text:10,131 align:left bar:2020 from:start till:9119 text:9,119 align:left bar:2021 from:start till:11115 text:11,115 align:left bar:2022 from:start till:13221 text:13,221 align:left=== Recalls ===In January 2020, the Italian carmaker said it will recall 982 vehicles for passenger airbags due to the Takata airbag recalls.", "If the inflator explodes, the airbag will spew metal shrapnel at passengers, which can cause severe injury.", "Every car involved will get a new passenger-side airbag assembly, complete with a new inflator without the dangerous propellant.On 8 August 2022, the company recalled almost every car it's sold in the US since 2005 over a potential for brake failure.", "According to an NHTSA recall filing, 23,555 Ferrari models sold in America are fitted with a potentially faulty brake fluid reservoir cap that may not vent pressure adequately.", "The affected cars will be fitted with a replacement cap and receive a software update.=== Stores and attractions ===Roughly thirty Ferrari boutiques exist worldwide, with two owned by Ferrari and the rest operating as franchises.", "The stores sell branded clothes, accessories and racing memorabilia; some stores also feature racing simulators where visitors can drive virtual Ferrari vehicles.", "Clothing includes upscale and lower-priced collections for men, women, and children There are also two Ferrari-themed amusement parks.", "Opened in 2010, Ferrari World Abu Dhabi is the first Ferrari-branded theme park in the world and boasts 37 rides and attractions.", "Located on Yas Island in Abu Dhabi, it is home to the world's fastest roller coaster - Formula Rossa, and a dynamic coaster with one of the world's tallest loop - Flying Aces.", "Opened in 2017, Ferrari Land, located in PortAventura World resort, is the second such Ferrari-themed amusement park in the world, after Ferrari World Abu Dhabi.", "With 16 rides and attractions, it is home to Europe's fastest and highest vertical accelerator coaster - Red Force." ], [ "See also", "* List of Ferrari road cars* List of Ferrari engines* List of Ferrari competition cars* Scuderia Ferrari* List of car brands* List of companies of Italy" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "General references", "* * Adler, Dennis, ''Ferrari: The Road from Maranello''.", "Random House, 2006.." ], [ "External links", "* * Ferrari Official Car Configurator* Ferrari Past Models on auto.ferrari.com* Ferrari Single-seaters on formula1.ferrari.com* Ferrari Special Projects listing on Coachbuild.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Freemasonry" ], [ "Introduction", "The Masonic Square and Compasses (found with or without the letter ''G'')'''Freemasonry''' or '''Masonry''' refers to fraternal organisations and guilds of stonemasons that, from the end of the 14th century, regulated the qualifications of stonemasons and their interaction with authorities and clients.", "Modern Freemasonry broadly consists of two main recognition groups: Regular Freemasonry, which insists that a volume of scripture be open in a working lodge, that every member professes belief in a Supreme Being, that no women be admitted, and that the discussion of religion and politics do not take place within the lodge; and Continental Freemasonry, which consists of the jurisdictions that have removed some, or all, of these restrictions.The basic, local organisational unit of Freemasonry is the Lodge.", "These private Lodges are usually supervised at the regional level (usually coterminous with a state, province, or national border) by a Grand Lodge or Grand Orient.", "There is no international, worldwide Grand Lodge that supervises all of Freemasonry; each Grand Lodge is independent, and they do not necessarily recognise each other as being legitimate.The degrees of Freemasonry retain the three grades of medieval craft guilds, those of Entered Apprentice, Journeyman or fellow (now called Fellowcraft), and Master Mason.", "The candidate of these three degrees is progressively taught the meanings of the symbols of Freemasonry and entrusted with grips, signs, and words to signify to other members that he has been so initiated.", "The degrees are part allegorical morality play and part lecture.", "These three degrees form Craft (or Blue Lodge) Freemasonry, and members of any of these degrees are known as '''Freemasons''' or '''Masons'''.", "Once the Craft degrees have been conferred upon a Mason, he is qualified to join various \"Concordant bodies\" which offer additional degrees.", "These organisations are usually administered separately from the Grand Lodges who administer the Craft degrees.", "The extra degrees vary with locality and jurisdiction." ], [ "Masonic lodge", "Lodge in Palazzo Roffia, Florence, set out for French (Moderns) ritualThe Masonic lodge is the basic organisational unit of Freemasonry.", "The Lodge meets regularly and conducts the usual formal business of any small organisation (approve minutes, elect new members, appoint officers and take their reports, consider correspondence, bills and annual accounts, organise social and charitable events, etc.).", "In addition to such business, the meeting may perform a ceremony to confer a Masonic degree or receive a lecture, which is usually on some aspect of Masonic history or ritual.", "At the conclusion of the meeting, the Lodge may hold a formal dinner, or ''festive board'', sometimes involving toasting and song.The bulk of Masonic ritual consists of degree ceremonies.", "Candidates for Freemasonry are progressively ''initiated'' into Freemasonry, first in the degree of '''Entered Apprentice'''.", "At some later time, in separate ceremonies, they will be ''passed'' to the degree of '''Fellowcraft'''; and then ''raised'' to the degree of '''Master Mason'''.", "In each of these ceremonies, the candidate must first take the new obligations of the degree, and is then entrusted with secret knowledge including passwords, signs and grips (secret handshakes) confined to his new rank.Another ceremony is the annual installation of the Master of the Lodge and his appointed or elected officers.", "In some jurisdictions, an ''Installed Master'' elected, obligated, and invested to preside over a Lodge, is valued as a separate rank with its own secrets and distinctive title and attributes; after each full year in the chair the Master invests his elected successor and becomes a Past Master with privileges in the Lodge and Grand Lodge.", "In other jurisdictions, the grade is not recognised, and no inner ceremony conveys new secrets during the installation of a new Master of the Lodge.Most Lodges have some sort of social functions, allowing members, their partners, and non-Masonic guests to meet openly.", "Often coupled with these events is the discharge of every Mason's and Lodge's collective obligation to contribute to charity.", "This occurs at many levels, including in annual dues, subscriptions, fundraising events, Lodges and Grand Lodges.", "Masons and their charities contribute for the relief of need in many fields, such as education, health and old age.Private Lodges form the backbone of Freemasonry, with the sole right to elect their own candidates for initiation as Masons or admission as joining Masons, and sometimes with exclusive rights over residents local to their premises.", "There are non-local Lodges where Masons meet for wider or narrower purposes, such or in association with some hobby, sport, Masonic research, business, profession, regiment or college.", "The rank of Master Mason also entitles a Freemason to explore Masonry further through other degrees, administered separately from the basic Craft or \"Blue Lodge\" degrees described here, but generally having a similar structure and meetings.There is much diversity and little consistency in Freemasonry because each Masonic jurisdiction is independent and sets its own rules and procedures while Grand Lodges have limited jurisdiction over their constituent member Lodges, which are ultimately private clubs.", "The wording of the ritual, the number of officers present, the layout of the meeting room, etc.", "varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.Almost all officers of a Lodge are elected or appointed annually.", "Every Masonic Lodge has a Master, two Wardens, a treasurer and a secretary.", "There is also always a Tyler, or outer guard, outside the door of a working Lodge, who may be paid to secure its privacy.", "Other offices vary between jurisdictions.Each Masonic Lodge exists and operates according to ancient principles known as the ''Landmarks of Freemasonry'', which elude any universally accepted definition.===Joining a lodge===Print from 1870 portraying George Washington as Master of his LodgeCandidates for Freemasonry will usually have met the most active members of the Lodge they are joining before being elected for initiation.", "The process varies among Grand Lodges, but in modern times interested people often look up a local Lodge through the Internet and will typically be introduced to a Lodge social function or open evening.", "The onus is upon candidates to ask to join; while they may be encouraged to ask, they may not be invited.", "Once the initial inquiry is made, a formal application may be proposed and seconded or announced in open Lodge and a more or less formal interview usually follows.", "If the candidate wishes to proceed, references are taken up during a period of notice so that members may enquire into the candidate's suitability and discuss it.", "Finally, the Lodge takes an officially secret ballot on each application before a candidate is either initiated or rejected.", "The exact number of adverse ballots (\"blackballs\") required to reject a candidate varies between Masonic jurisdictions.", "As an example, the United Grand Lodge of England only requires a single \"blackball\", while the Grand Lodge of New York requires three.A minimum requirement of every body of Freemasons is that each candidate must be \"free and of good reputation\".", "The question of freedom, a standard feudal requirement of mediaeval guilds, is nowadays one of independence: the object is that every Mason should be a proper and responsible person.", "Thus, each Grand Lodge has a standard minimum age, varying greatly and often subject to dispensation in particular cases.", "(For example, in England the standard minimum age to join is 18, but university lodges are given dispensations to initiate undergraduates below that age.)", "Additionally, most Grand Lodges require a candidate to declare a belief in a Supreme Being (although every candidate must interpret this condition in his own way, as all religious discussion is commonly prohibited).", "In a few cases, the candidate may be required to be of a specific religion.", "The form of Freemasonry most common in Scandinavia (known as the Swedish Rite), for example, accepts only Christians.", "At the other end of the spectrum, \"Liberal\" or Continental Freemasonry, exemplified by the Grand Orient de France, does not require a declaration of belief in any deity and accepts atheists (the cause of the distinction from the rest of Freemasonry).During the ceremony of initiation, the candidate is required to undertake an obligation, swearing on the religious volume sacred to his personal faith to do good as a Mason.", "In the course of three degrees, Masons will promise to keep the secrets of their degree from lower degrees and outsiders, as far as practicality and the law permit, and to support a fellow Mason in distress.", "There is formal instruction as to the duties of a Freemason, but on the whole, Freemasons are left to explore the craft in the manner they find most satisfying.", "Some will simply enjoy the dramatics, or the management and administration of the lodge, others will explore the history, ritual and symbolism of the craft, others will focus their involvement on their Lodge's sociopolitical side, perhaps in association with other lodges, while still others will concentrate on the lodge's charitable functions." ], [ "Organization", "===Grand Lodges===Freemasons Hall, London, home of the United Grand Lodge of EnglandGrand Lodges and Grand Orients are independent and sovereign bodies that govern Masonry in a given country, state or geographical area (termed a ''jurisdiction'').", "There is no single overarching governing body that presides over worldwide Freemasonry; connections between different jurisdictions depend solely on mutual recognition.Estimates of the worldwide membership of Freemasonry in the early 21st century ranged from about two million to more than six.", "The fraternity is administratively organised into independent Grand Lodges (or sometimes Grand Orients), each of which governs its own Masonic jurisdiction, which consists of subordinate (or ''constituent'') Lodges.", "The largest single jurisdiction, in terms of membership, is the United Grand Lodge of England (with local organisation into Provincial Grand Lodges possessing a combined membership estimated at around 175,000).", "The Grand Lodge of Ireland claims it has approximately 19,000 members.In the United States, there are 51 Grand Lodges (one in each state and the District of Columbia) which together have a total membership of around 875,000 according to the Masonic Service Association of North America.Grand Orient de France, the largest jurisdiction in Continental Freemasonry in terms of membership, claims to have over 50,000 members.===Recognition, amity and regularity===Relations between Grand Lodges are determined by the concept of ''Recognition''.", "Each Grand Lodge maintains a list of other Grand Lodges that it recognises.", "When two Grand Lodges recognise and are in Masonic communication with each other, they are said to be ''in amity'', and the brethren of each may visit each other's Lodges and interact Masonically.", "When two Grand Lodges are not in amity, inter-visitation is not allowed.", "There are many reasons one Grand Lodge will withhold or withdraw recognition from another, but the two most common are ''Exclusive Jurisdiction'' and ''Regularity''.====Exclusive Jurisdiction====Exclusive Jurisdiction is a concept whereby normally only one Grand Lodge will be recognised in any geographical area.", "If two Grand Lodges claim jurisdiction over the same area, the other Grand Lodges will have to choose between them, and they may not all decide to recognise the same one.", "(In 1849, for example, the Grand Lodge of New York split into two rival factions, each claiming to be the legitimate Grand Lodge.", "Other Grand Lodges had to choose between them until the schism was healed.)", "Exclusive Jurisdiction can be waived when the two overlapping Grand Lodges are themselves in amity and agree to share jurisdiction.", "For example, since the Grand Lodge of Connecticut is in amity with the Prince Hall Grand Lodge of Connecticut, the principle of Exclusive Jurisdiction does not apply, and other Grand Lodges may recognise both.", "Likewise, the five distinct kinds of lodges in Germany have nominally united under one Grand Lodge in order to obtain international recognition.====Regularity====Freemasons' Hall, London, c. 1809Regularity is a concept based on adherence to Masonic Landmarks, the basic membership requirements, tenets and rituals of the craft.", "Each Grand Lodge sets its own definition of what these landmarks are, and thus what is Regular and what is Irregular (and the definitions do not necessarily agree between Grand Lodges).", "Essentially, every Grand Lodge will hold that ''its'' landmarks (its requirements, tenets and rituals) are Regular, and judge other Grand Lodges based on those.", "If the differences are significant, one Grand Lodge may declare the other \"Irregular\" and withdraw or withhold recognition.The most commonly shared rules for Recognition (based on Regularity) are those given by the United Grand Lodge of England in 1929:* The Grand Lodge should be established by an existing regular Grand Lodge, or by at least three regular Lodges.", "* A belief in a supreme being and scripture is a condition of membership.", "* Initiates should take their vows on that scripture.", "* Only men can be admitted, and no relationship exists with mixed Lodges.", "* The Grand Lodge has complete control over the first three degrees and is not subject to another body.", "* All Lodges shall display a volume of scripture with the square and compasses while in session.", "* There is no discussion of politics or religion.", "* \"Ancient landmarks, customs and usages\" observed." ], [ "Other degrees, orders, and bodies", "Blue Lodges, known as Craft Lodges in the United Kingdom, offer only the three traditional degrees.", "In most jurisdictions, the rank of past or installed master is also conferred in Blue/Craft Lodges.", "Master Masons are able to extend their Masonic experience by taking further degrees, in appendant or other bodies whether or not approved by their own Grand Lodge.The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite is a system of 33 degrees, including the three Blue Lodge degrees administered by a local or national Supreme Council.", "This system is popular in North America, South America and in Continental Europe.", "In America, the York Rite, with a similar range, administers three orders of Masonry, namely the Royal Arch, Cryptic Masonry, and Knights Templar.In Britain, separate bodies administer each order.", "Freemasons are encouraged to join the Holy Royal Arch, which is linked to Mark Masonry in Scotland and Ireland, but completely separate in England.", "In England, the Royal Arch is closely associated with the Craft, automatically having many Grand Officers in common, including H.R.H the Duke of Kent as both Grand Master of the Craft and First Grand Principal of the Royal Arch.", "The English Knights Templar and Cryptic Masonry share the Mark Grand Lodge offices and staff at Mark Masons Hall.", "The Ancient and Accepted Rite (similar to the Scottish Rite), requires a member to proclaim the Trinitarian Christian faith, and is administered from Duke Street in London.", "While the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia is a fully independent esoteric organization that requires members be United Grand Lodge of England Master Masons.", "In the Nordic countries, the Swedish Rite is dominant; a variation of it is also used in parts of Germany." ], [ "Ritual and symbolism", "Ottoman noble Ahmad Nami dressed in full Masonic attire in 1925Example of Masonic symbols in Szprotawa PolandFreemasonry structure showing the symbols associated with the organizationFreemasonry describes itself as a \"beautiful system of morality, veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols\".", "The symbolism is mainly, but not exclusively, drawn from the tools of stonemasons – the square and compasses, the level and plumb rule, the trowel, the rough and smooth ashlars, among others.", "Moral lessons are attributed to each of these tools, although the assignment is by no means consistent.", "The meaning of the symbolism is taught and explored through ritual, and in lectures and articles by individual Masons who offer their personal insights and opinions.According to the scholar of Western esotericism Jan A. M. Snoek: \"the best way to characterize Freemasonry is in terms of what it is not, rather than what it is\".", "All Freemasons begin their journey in the \"craft\" by being progressively \"initiated\", \"passed\" and \"raised\" into the three degrees of Craft, or Blue Lodge Masonry.", "During these three rituals, the candidate is progressively taught the Masonic symbols, and entrusted with grips or tokens, signs, and words to signify to other Masons which degrees he has taken.", "The dramatic allegorical ceremonies include explanatory lectures and revolve around the construction of the Temple of Solomon, and the artistry and death of the chief architect, Hiram Abiff.", "The degrees are those of \"Entered apprentice\", \"Fellowcraft\" and \"Master Mason\".", "While many different versions of these rituals exist, with various lodge layouts and versions of the Hiramic legend, each version is recognizable to any Freemason from any jurisdiction.In some jurisdictions, the main themes of each degree are illustrated by tracing boards.", "These painted depictions of Masonic themes are exhibited in the lodge according to which degree is being worked and are explained to the candidate to illustrate the legend and symbolism of each degree.The idea of Masonic brotherhood probably descends from a 16th-century legal definition of a \"brother\" as one who has taken an oath of mutual support to another.", "Accordingly, Masons swear at each degree to keep the contents of that degree secret, and to support and protect their brethren unless they have broken the law.", "In most Lodges, the oath or obligation is taken on a ''Volume of Sacred Law'', whichever book of divine revelation is appropriate to the religious beliefs of the individual brother (usually the Bible in the Anglo-American tradition).", "In ''Progressive'' continental Freemasonry, books other than scripture are permissible, a cause of rupture between Grand Lodges." ], [ "History", "===Origins===Since the middle of the 19th century, Masonic historians have sought the origins of the movement in a series of similar documents known as the Old Charges, dating from the Regius Poem in about 1425 to the beginning of the 18th century.", "Alluding to the membership of a lodge of operative masons, they relate it to a mythologised history of the craft, the duties of its grades, and the manner in which oaths of fidelity are to be taken on joining.", "The 15th century also sees the first evidence of ceremonial regalia.There is no clear mechanism by which these local trade organisations became today's Masonic Lodges.", "The earliest rituals and passwords known, from operative lodges around the turn of the 17th–18th centuries, show continuity with the rituals developed in the later 18th century by accepted or speculative Masons, as those members who did not practice the physical craft gradually came to be known.", "The minutes of the Lodge of Edinburgh (Mary's Chapel) No.", "1 in Scotland show a continuity from an operative lodge in 1598 to a modern speculative Lodge.", "It is reputed to be the oldest Masonic Lodge in the world.View of room at the Masonic Hall, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, England, early 20th century, set up for a Holy Royal Arch convocationAlternatively, Thomas De Quincey in his work titled ''Rosicrucians and Freemasonry'' put forward the theory that suggested that Freemasonry may have been an outgrowth of Rosicrucianism.", "The theory had also been postulated in 1803 by German professor; J. G. Buhle.The first Grand Lodge, the Grand Lodge of London and Westminster, later called the Grand Lodge of England, was founded on St John's Day, 24 June 1717, when four existing London Lodges met for a joint dinner.", "Over the next decade, most of the existing Lodges in England joined the new regulatory body, which itself entered a period of self-publicity and expansion.", "New lodges were created, and the fraternity began to grow.During the course of the 18th century, as aristocrats and artists crowded out the craftsmen originally associated with the organization, Freemasonry became fashionable throughout Europe and the American colonies.Between 1730 and 1750, the Grand Lodge endorsed several significant changes that some Lodges could not endorse.", "A rival Grand Lodge was formed on 17 July 1751, which called itself the \"Antient Grand Lodge of England\" to signify that these lodges were maintaining older traditions and rejected changes that \"modern\" Lodges had adopted (historians still use these terms - \"Ancients\" and \"Moderns\" - to differentiate the two bodies).", "These two Grand Lodges vied for supremacy until the Moderns promised to return to the ancient ritual.", "They united on 27 December 1813 to form the United Grand Lodge of England.The Grand Lodge of Ireland and the Grand Lodge of Scotland were formed in 1725 and 1736, respectively, although neither persuaded all of the existing lodges in their countries to join for many years.===North America===Erasmus James Philipps, first Freemason in present-day Canada, Old Burying Ground (Halifax, Nova Scotia)The earliest known American lodges were in Pennsylvania.", "The collector for the port of Pennsylvania, John Moore, wrote of attending lodges there in 1715, two years before the putative formation of the first Grand Lodge in London.", "The Grand Lodge of England appointed a Provincial Grand Master for North America in 1731, based in Pennsylvania, leading to the creation of the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania.In Canada, Erasmus James Philipps became a Freemason while working on a commission to resolve boundaries in New England and, in 1739, he became provincial Grand Master for Nova Scotia; Philipps founded the first Masonic lodge in Canada at Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia.Other lodges in the colony of Pennsylvania obtained authorisations from the later Antient Grand Lodge of England, the Grand Lodge of Scotland, and the Grand Lodge of Ireland, which was particularly well represented in the travelling lodges of the British Army.", "Many lodges came into existence with no warrant from any Grand Lodge, applying and paying for their authorisation only after they were confident of their own survival.After the American Revolution, independent U.S. Grand Lodges developed within each state.", "Some thought was briefly given to organising an overarching \"Grand Lodge of the United States,\" with George Washington, who was a member of a Virginian lodge, as the first Grand Master, but the idea was short-lived.", "The various state Grand Lodges did not wish to diminish their own authority by agreeing to such a body.====Jamaican Freemasonry====Freemasonry was imported to Jamaica by British immigrants who colonized the island for over 300 years.", "In 1908, there were eleven recorded Masonic lodges, which included three Grand Lodges, two Craft lodges, and two Rose Croix chapters.", "During slavery, the lodges were open to all \"freeborn\" men.", "According to the Jamaican 1834 census, that potentially included 5,000 free black men and 40,000 free people of colour (mixed race).", "After the full abolition of slavery in 1838, the Lodges were open to all Jamaican men of any race.", "Jamaica also kept close relationships with Masons from other countries.", "Jamaican Freemasonry historian Jackie Ranston, noted that:On 25 May 2017, Masons around the world celebrated the 300th anniversary of the fraternity.", "Jamaica hosted one of the regional gatherings for this celebration.====Prince Hall Freemasonry====Prince Hall Freemasonry exists because of the refusal of early American lodges to admit African Americans.", "In 1775, an African American named Prince Hall, along with 14 other African American men, was initiated into a British military lodge with a warrant from the Grand Lodge of Ireland, having failed to obtain admission from the other lodges in Boston.", "When the British military Lodge left North America after the end of the Revolution, those 15 men were given the authority to meet as a Lodge, but not to initiate Masons.", "In 1784, these individuals obtained a Warrant from the Grand Lodge of England (Moderns) and formed African Lodge, Number 459.When the two English grand lodges united in 1813, all U.S.-based Lodges were stricken from their rolls – largely because of the War of 1812.Thus, separated from both English jurisdiction and any concordantly recognised U.S. Grand Lodge, African Lodge retitled itself as the African Lodge, Number 1 – and became a ''de facto'' Grand Lodge.", "(This lodge is not to be confused with the various Grand Lodges in Africa.)", "As with the rest of U.S. Freemasonry, Prince Hall Freemasonry soon grew and organised on a Grand Lodge system for each state.Widespread racial segregation in 19th- and early 20th-century North America made it difficult for African Americans to join Lodges outside of Prince Hall jurisdictions – and impossible for inter-jurisdiction recognition between the parallel U.S. Masonic authorities.", "By the 1980s, such discrimination was a thing of the past.", "Today most U.S. Grand Lodges recognise their Prince Hall counterparts, and the authorities of both traditions are working towards full recognition.", "The United Grand Lodge of England has no problem with recognising Prince Hall Grand Lodges.", "While celebrating their heritage as lodges of African Americans, Prince Hall is open to all men regardless of race or religion.===Emergence of Continental Freemasonry===Masonic initiation, Paris, 1745English Freemasonry spread to France in the 1720s, first as lodges of expatriates and exiled Jacobites, and then as distinctively French lodges that still follow the ritual of the Moderns.", "From France and England, Freemasonry spread to most of Continental Europe during the course of the 18th century.", "The Grande Loge de France was formed under the Grand Mastership of the Duke of Clermont, who exercised only nominal authority.", "His successor, the Duke of Orléans, reconstituted the central body as the Grand Orient de France in 1773.Briefly eclipsed during the French Revolution, French Freemasonry continued to grow in the next century, at first under the leadership of Alexandre Francois Auguste de Grasse, Comte de Grassy-Tilly.", "A career Army officer, he lived with his family in Charleston, South Carolina from 1793 to the early 1800s, after leaving Saint-Domingue, now Haiti, during the years of the Haitian Revolution.=== Freemasonry in the Middle East ===After the failure of the 1830 Italian revolution, a number of Italian Freemasons were forced to flee.", "They secretly set up an approved chapter of Scottish Rite in Alexandria, a town already inhabited by a large Italian community.", "Meanwhile, the French Freemasons publicly organised a local chapter in Alexandria in 1845.During the 19th and 20th century Ottoman Empire, Masonic lodges operated widely across all parts of the empire and numerous Sufi orders shared a close relationship with them.", "Many Young Turks affiliated with the Bektashi order were members and patrons of Freemasonry.", "They were also closely allied against European imperialism.", "Many Ottoman intellectuals believed that Sufism and Freemasonry shared close similarities in doctrines, spiritual outlook and mysticism.=== Schism ===The ritual form on which the Grand Orient of France was based was abolished in England in the events leading to the formation of the United Grand Lodge of England in 1813.However, the two jurisdictions continued in amity, or mutual recognition, until events of the 1860s and 1870s drove a seemingly permanent wedge between them.", "In 1868 the ''Supreme Council of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of the State of Louisiana'' appeared in the jurisdiction of the Grand Lodge of Louisiana, recognised by the Grand Orient de France, but regarded by the older body as an invasion of their jurisdiction.", "The new Scottish Rite body admitted black people.", "The resolution of the Grand Orient the following year that neither colour, race, nor religion could disqualify a man from Masonry prompted the Grand Lodge to withdraw recognition, and it persuaded other American Grand Lodges to do the same.A dispute during the Lausanne Congress of Supreme Councils of 1875 prompted the Grand Orient de France to commission a report by a Protestant pastor, which concluded that, as Freemasonry was not a religion, it should not require a religious belief.", "The new constitutions read, \"Its principles are absolute liberty of conscience and human solidarity\", the existence of God and the immortality of the soul being struck out.", "It is possible that the immediate objections of the United Grand Lodge of England were at least partly motivated by the political tension between France and Britain at the time.", "The result was the withdrawal of recognition of the Grand Orient of France by the United Grand Lodge of England, a situation that continues today.Not all French lodges agreed with the new wording.", "In 1894, lodges favouring the compulsory recognition of the Great Architect of the Universe formed the Grande Loge de France.", "In 1913, the United Grand Lodge of England recognised a new Grand Lodge of Regular Freemasons, a Grand Lodge that follows a similar rite to Anglo-American Freemasonry with a mandatory belief in a deity.There are now three strands of Freemasonry in France, which extend into the rest of Continental Europe: -* Liberal, also called adogmatic or progressive – Principles of liberty of conscience, and laicity, particularly the separation of the Church and State.", "* Traditional – Old French ritual with a requirement for a belief in a Supreme Being.", "(This strand is typified by the Grande Loge de France).", "* Regular – Standard Anglo-American ritual, mandatory belief in Supreme Being.The term Continental Freemasonry was used in Mackey's 1873 ''Encyclopedia of Freemasonry'' to \"designate the Lodges on the Continent of Europe which retain many usages which have either been abandoned by, or never were observed in, the Lodges of England, Ireland, and Scotland, as well as the United States of America\".", "Today, it is frequently used to refer to only the Liberal jurisdictions typified by the Grand Orient de France.The majority of Freemasonry considers the Liberal (Continental) strand to be Irregular, and thus withhold recognition.", "The Continental lodges, however, did not want to sever masonic ties.", "In 1961, an umbrella organisation, Centre de Liaison et d'Information des Puissances maçonniques Signataires de l'Appel de Strasbourg (CLIPSAS) was set up, which today provides a forum for most of these Grand Lodges and Grand Orients worldwide.", "Included in the list of over 70 Grand Lodges and Grand Orients are representatives of all three of the above categories, including mixed and women's organisations.", "The United Grand Lodge of England does not communicate with any of these jurisdictions and expects its allies to follow suit.", "This creates the distinction between Anglo-American and Continental Freemasonry.===Freemasonry and women===The status of women in the old guilds and corporations of medieval masons remains uncertain.", "The principle of \"femme sole\" allowed a widow to continue the trade of her husband, but its application had wide local variations, such as full membership of a trade body or limited trade by deputation or approved members of that body.", "In masonry, the small available evidence points to the less empowered end of the scale.At the dawn of the Grand Lodge era, during the 1720s, James Anderson composed the first printed constitutions for Freemasons, the basis for most subsequent constitutions, which specifically excluded women from Freemasonry.", "As Freemasonry spread, women began to be added to the Lodges of Adoption by their husbands who were continental masons, which worked three degrees with the same names as the men's but different content.", "The French officially abandoned the experiment in the early 19th century.", "Later organisations with a similar aim emerged in the United States but distinguished the names of the degrees from those of male masonry.Maria Deraismes was initiated into Freemasonry in 1882, then resigned to allow her lodge to rejoin their Grand Lodge.", "Having failed to achieve acceptance from any masonic governing body, she and Georges Martin started a mixed masonic lodge that worked masonic ritual.", "Annie Besant spread the phenomenon to the English-speaking world.", "Disagreements over ritual led to the formation of exclusively female bodies of Freemasons in England, which spread to other countries.", "Meanwhile, the French had re-invented Adoption as an all-female lodge in 1901, only to cast it aside again in 1935.The lodges, however, continued to meet, which gave rise, in 1959, to a body of women practising continental Freemasonry.In general, Continental Freemasonry is sympathetic to Freemasonry among women, dating from the 1890s when French lodges assisted the emergent co-masonic movement by promoting enough of their members to the 33rd degree of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite to allow them, in 1899, to form their own grand council, recognised by the other Continental Grand Councils of that Rite.", "The United Grand Lodge of England issued a statement in 1999 recognising the two women's grand lodges there, The Order of Women Freemasons and The Honourable Fraternity of Ancient Freemasons, to be regular in all but the participants.", "While they were not, therefore, recognised as regular, they were part of Freemasonry \"in general\".", "The attitude of most regular Anglo-American grand lodges remains that women Freemasons are not legitimate Masons.In 2018, guidance was released by the United Grand Lodge of England stating that, in regard to transgender women, \"A Freemason who after initiation ceases to be a man does not cease to be a Freemason\".", "The guidance also states that transgender men are allowed to apply to become Freemasons." ], [ "Political activity", "===18th century Enlightenment===Grand Lodge of England, was founded.During the Age of the Enlightenment in the 18th century, Freemasons comprised an international network of like-minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges.", "They promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment and helped diffuse these values across Britain and France and other places.", "British Freemasonry offered a systematic creed with its own myths, values and set of rituals.", "It fostered new codes of conduct – including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability – \"liberty, fraternity, and equality\" Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of fraternity which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism.", "Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France – by 1789, there were between 50,000 and 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations.Jacob argues that Masonic lodges probably had an effect on society as a whole, for they \"reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections and representatives\".", "In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative model for society as a whole.", "This was especially true on the Continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities.", "For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid-1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles.", "Furthermore, freemasons all across Europe made reference to the Enlightenment in general in the 18th century.", "In French lodges, for example, the line \"As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened\" was a part of their initiation rites.", "British lodges assigned themselves the duty to \"initiate the unenlightened\".", "Many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe.On the other hand, historian Robert Roswell Palmer noted that lodges operated separately and Masons politically did not act together as a group.", "American historians note that Benjamin Franklin and George Washington were leading Masons, but the significance of freemasonry in the revolution is a topic of debate.", "Daniel Roche contests freemasonry's claims for egalitarianism, writing that \"the real equality of the lodges was elitist\", only attracting men of similar social backgrounds.In long-term historical perspective, Norman Davies has argued that Freemasonry was a powerful force in Europe, from about 1700 to the twentieth century.", "It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe, as well as the European colonies in the New World and Asia.", "Davies states, \"In the nineteenth century and beyond it would be strongly associated with the cause of Liberalism.\"", "In Catholic lands it was anti-clerical and came under heavy attack from the Catholic Church.", "In the 20th century, it was suppressed by Fascist and Communist regimes.", "It was especially attractive to royalty, aristocrats and politicians and businessmen, as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists.", "Davies notes that prominent members included Montesquieu, Voltaire, Sir Robert Walpole, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Benjamin Franklin, and George Washington.", "Steven Bullock notes that in the late 18th century, English lodges were headed by the Prince of Wales, Prussian lodges by king Frederick the Great, and French lodges by royal princes.", "Emperor Napoleon selected as Grand Master of France his own brother.===France===In the 18th century, liberal French politicians met together in Masonic lodges to develop some of the Enlightenment ideas that dominated the French Revolution of 1789.Avner Halpern has traced French Freemasonry's major role in building France's first modern political party in 1901, the Radical Party.", "It used two Masonic devices: the \"civil leadership model\", which Freemasonry developed in late 19th century France, and the local Masonic congresses of the Grand Orient of France federations.===Russia===Freemasons had been active in Russia in the 18th century, working to introduce Enlightenment ideals; however, they were increasingly suppressed by the government.", "According to Ludwick Hass, Freemasonry was officially illegal in Tsarist Russia, but would later be introduced by exiles who returned after the 1905 revolution.", "These individuals had been active Masons in Paris, where lodges were politically active in the new Radical Party.", "In Russia, the Freemasons supported constitutional liberalism, and maintained ties with France while simplifying many of the ceremonial rituals.", "Their secret meetings became a centre of progressive ideals, attracting politicians and activists.", "The lodges initially supported World War I, promoting close ties with France.", "Alexander Kerensky was an important Masonic activist who came to political power with the overthrow of the czars, in 1917.The organization collapsed as the Bolsheviks took power and was again outlawed.===Italy===According to Adrian Lyttelton, in the early 20th century, Freemasonry was an influential but semi-secret force in Italian politics; with a strong presence among professionals and the middle class across Italy, its appeal spread to the leadership of the parliament, public administration, and the army.", "The two main organisations were the Grand Orient and the Grand Lodge of Italy.", "They had around 25,000 members in some 500 lodges.", "Freemasons typically espoused anticlericalism and promoted unification.", "The Catholic Church was a vigorous opponent of unification, and thus of the Freemasons; various national governments would repeatedly alternate and backpedal between the anticlerical side and the Church side.", "Politically, they promoted Italian nationalism focused on unification and undermining the power of the Catholic Church.", "Freemasons took on the challenge of mobilizing the press, encouraging public opinion and the leading political parties in support of Italy's joining of the Allies of the First World War in 1914–1915.In 1919, they favoured a League of Nations to promote a new post-war, universal order based upon the peaceful coexistence of independent and democratic nations.", "In the early 1920s, many of Mussolini's collaborators, especially the leaders in organizing the March on Rome, were Masons.", "The lodges hailed fascism as the saviour of Italy from Bolshevism; however, Mussolini decided he needed to come to terms with the Catholic Church, in the mid-1920s, outlawing Freemasonry.===Latin America===The Spanish government outlawed Freemasonry in its overseas empire in the mid-18th century, and energetically enforced the ban.", "Nevertheless, many Freemasons were active in planning and plotting for independence.", "Leaders with Freemason membership included Grand Master Francisco de Miranda, José de San Martin, Simón Bolivar, Bernardo O'Higgins, and many others.", "The movement was important after independence was achieved in the 1820s.", "In Brazil, many prominent men were Freemasons, and they played a leading role in the abolition of slavery.====Mexico====Freemasons were leaders in liberalism and anti-clericalism in 19th and 20th-century Mexico.", "Members included numerous top leaders.", "The Freemasons were divided regarding relations with the United States, with a pro-U.S. faction supported by the American ambassador Joel Poinsett known as the \"Yorkinos.\"", "According to historian Karen Racine, Freemasons in the presidency of Mexico included: Guadalupe Victoria, Valentín Gómez Farías, Antonio López de Santa Anna, Benito Juárez, Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada, Porfirio Díaz, Francisco I. Madero, Venustiano Carranza, Plutarco Elías Calles, Lázaro Cárdenas, Emilio Portes Gil, Pascual Ortiz Rubio, Abelardo L. Rodríguez, and Miguel Alemán Valdés." ], [ "Anti-Masonry", "Masonic Temple of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, one of the few Masonic temples that survived the Franco dictatorship in Spain''Anti-Masonry'' (alternatively called ''Anti-Freemasonry'') has been defined as \"opposition to Freemasonry\", but there is no homogeneous anti-Masonic movement.", "Anti-Masonry consists of widely differing criticisms from diverse (and often incompatible) groups who are hostile to Freemasonry in some form.", "Critics have included religious groups, political groups, and conspiracy theorists, in particular, those espousing Masonic conspiracy theories or the Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory.", "Certain prominent Anti-Masons, such as Nesta Helen Webster (1876–1960), have exclusively criticized \"Continental Masonry\" while considering \"Regular Masonry\" an honourable association.There have been many disclosures and exposés dating as far back as the 18th century.", "These often lack context, may be outdated for various reasons, or could be outright hoaxes on the part of the author, as in the case of the Taxil hoax.These hoaxes and exposés have often become the basis for criticism of Masonry, often religious or political in nature or are based on suspicion of corrupt conspiracy of some form.", "The political opposition that arose after the American \"Morgan Affair\" in 1826 gave rise to the term ''Anti-Masonry'', which is still in use in America today, both by Masons in referring to their critics and as a self-descriptor by the critics themselves.===Religious opposition===Freemasonry has attracted criticism from theocratic states and organised religions for supposed competition with religion or supposed heterodoxy within the fraternity itself and has long been the target of conspiracy theories, which assert Freemasonry to be an occult and evil power.====Christianity and Freemasonry====Although members of various faiths cite objections, certain Christian denominations have had high-profile negative attitudes to Masonry, banning or discouraging their members from being Freemasons.", "The denomination with the longest history of objection to Freemasonry is the Catholic Church.", "The objections raised by the Catholic Church are based on the allegation that Masonry teaches a naturalistic deistic religion which is in conflict with Church doctrine.", "More than 600 Papal pronouncements have been issued against Freemasonry.", "The first was Pope Clement XII's ''In eminenti apostolatus,'' 28 April 1738; the most recent was Pope Leo XIII's ''Ab apostolici,'' 15 October 1890.Other Vatican documents include the following: ''Providas Romanorum'' (Benedict XIV, 18 May 1751); ''Ecclesiam a Iesu'' (Pius VII, 13 September 1821); ''Quo Graviora'' (Leo XII, 15 March 1825); ''Traditi Humilitati''; ''Ad Gravissimas'' (Gregory XVI, 31 August 1843); ''Qui pluribus'' (Pius IX, 9 November 1846); ''Quibus Quantisque Malis'' (20 April 1849); ''Quanta cura'' (8 Decembre 1864); bull ''Multiplices inter'' (25 September 1865); ''Apostolicae Sedis'' (12 October 1869); ''Etsi multa'' (21 November 1873, in which the Pope defined Freemasonry as the \"Synagogue of Satan); ''Diuturnum Illud'' (Pope Leo XIII, 29 June 1881); ''Etsi Nos'' (15 February 1882); ''Humanum Genus'' (20 March 1884); ''Officio Sanctissimo'' (22 December 1887); ''Rerum novarum'' (15 May 1891); ''Inimica Vis'' (8 December 1892); ''Annum ingressi'' (18 March 1902).The ''1917 Code of Canon Law'' explicitly declared that joining Freemasonry entailed automatic excommunication and banned books favouring Freemasonry.In 1983, the Church issued a new code of canon law.", "Unlike its predecessor, the ''1983 Code of Canon Law'' did not explicitly name Masonic orders among the secret societies it condemns.", "It states: \"A person who joins an association which plots against the Church is to be punished with a just penalty; one who promotes or takes office in such an association is to be punished with an interdict.\"", "This named omission of Masonic orders caused both Catholics and Freemasons to believe that the ban on Catholics becoming Freemasons may have been lifted, especially after the perceived liberalisation of Vatican II.", "However, the matter was clarified when Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI), as the Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, issued a Declaration on Masonic Associations, which states: \"... the Church's negative judgment in regard to Masonic association remains unchanged since their principles have always been considered irreconcilable with the doctrine of the Church and therefore membership in them remains forbidden.", "The faithful who enroll in Masonic associations are in a state of grave sin and may not receive Holy Communion.\"", "In 2023, Pope Francis reaffirmed the ban on Catholics becoming Freemasons stating the «... irreconcilability between Catholic doctrine and Freemasonry ...» in response to Julito Cortes, Bishop of Dumanguete, who stated concerns over the growing number of Freemasons in the Philippines.", "The renewed ban cited both the ''1983 Code of Canon Law'', as well as the ''Guidelines'' made by a Bishops Conference in 2003.For its part, Freemasonry has never objected to Catholics joining their fraternity.", "Those Grand Lodges in amity with the United Grand Lodge of England deny the Church's claims, stating that \"Freemasonry does not seek to replace a Mason's religion or provide a substitute for it.", "\"In contrast to Catholic allegations of rationalism and naturalism, Protestant objections are more likely to be based on allegations of mysticism, occultism, and even Satanism.", "Masonic scholar Albert Pike is often quoted (in some cases misquoted) by Protestant anti-Masons as an authority for the position of Masonry on these issues.", "However, Pike, although undoubtedly learned, was not a spokesman for Freemasonry and was also controversial among Freemasons in general.", "His writings represented his personal opinion only, and furthermore, an opinion grounded in the attitudes and understandings of late 19th century Southern Freemasonry of the US.", "Notably, his book carries in the preface a form of disclaimer from his own Grand Lodge.", "No one voice has ever spoken for the whole of Freemasonry.The official stance of the Southern Baptist Convention is that \"membership in a Masonic Order be a matter of personal conscience\"; however, the topic of Freemasonry remains controversial within the convention.", "James L. Holly, president of Mission and Ministry to Men, published a three volume book series titled \"The Southern Baptist Convention and Freemasonry,\" critiquing the report to the Southern Baptist Convention in addition to the influence of Gary Leazer, then Director of the Interfaith Witness Department of the North American Mission Board.", "Gary Leazer published \"Fundamentalism and Freemasonry\", arguing that the convention's discussion of Freemasonry was influenced by Southern Baptist Convention conservative resurgence.Free Methodist Church founder B.T.", "Roberts was a vocal opponent of Freemasonry in the mid 19th century.", "Roberts opposed the society on moral grounds and stated, \"The god of the lodge is not the God of the Bible.\"", "Roberts believed Freemasonry was a \"mystery\" or \"alternate\" religion and encouraged his church not to support ministers who were Freemasons.", "Freedom from secret societies is one of the \"frees\" upon which the Free Methodist Church was founded.Since the founding of Freemasonry, many Bishops of the Church of England have been Freemasons, including Archbishop Geoffrey Fisher.", "In the past, few members of the Church of England would have seen any incongruity in concurrently adhering to Anglican Christianity and practising Freemasonry.", "In recent decades, however, reservations about Freemasonry have increased within Anglicanism, perhaps due to the increasing prominence of the evangelical wing of the church.", "The former archbishop of Canterbury, Dr Rowan Williams, appeared to harbour some reservations about Masonic ritual, while being anxious to avoid causing offence to Freemasons inside and outside the Church of England.", "In 2003 he felt it necessary to apologise to British Freemasons after he said that their beliefs were incompatible with Christianity and that he had barred the appointment of Freemasons to senior posts in his diocese when he was Bishop of Monmouth.In 1933, the Orthodox Church of Greece officially declared that being a Freemason constitutes an act of apostasy and thus, until he repents, the person involved with Freemasonry cannot partake of the Eucharist.", "This has been generally affirmed throughout the whole Eastern Orthodox Church.", "The Orthodox critique of Freemasonry agrees with both the Catholic and Protestant versions: \"Freemasonry cannot be at all compatible with Christianity as far as it is a secret organisation, acting and teaching in mystery and secret and deifying rationalism.", "\"Regular Freemasonry has traditionally not responded to these claims, beyond the often-repeated statement that Freemasonry explicitly adheres to the principle that \"Freemasonry is not a religion, nor a substitute for religion.", "There is no separate 'Masonic deity,' and there is no separate proper name for a deity in Freemasonry.", "\"Christian men, who were discouraged from joining the Freemasons by their Churches or who wanted a more religiocentric society, joined similar fraternal organisations, such as the Knights of Columbus and Knights of Peter Claver for Catholics, and the Royal Black Institution for Protestants, although these fraternal organisations have been \"organized in part on the style of and use many symbols of Freemasonry\".There are some elements of Freemasonry within the temple rituals of Mormonism.====Islam and Freemasonry====Many Islamic anti-Masonic arguments are closely tied to anti-Zionism.", "Though other criticisms are made, such as linking Freemasonry to Al-Masih ad-Dajjal (the false Messiah in Islamic Scripture).", "Syrian-Egyptian Islamic theologian Mūhammād Rashīd Ridâ (1865–1935) played the crucial role in leading the opposition to Freemasonry across the Islamic world during the early twentieth century.", "Influenced by Rida, Islamic anti-Masons argue that Freemasonry promotes the interests of the Jews around the world and that one of its aims is to destroy the Al-Aqsa Mosque compound in order to rebuild the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem.", "Through his popular pan-Islamic journal ''Al-Manar'', Rashid Rida spread anti-Masonic ideas which would directly influence the Muslim Brotherhood and subsequent Islamist movements, such as Hamas.", "In article 28 of its Covenant, Hamas states that Freemasonry, Rotary, and other similar groups \"work in the interest of Zionism and according to its instructions ...\"Several predominantly Muslim countries have banned Freemasonry within their borders, while others have not.", "Turkey and Morocco have established Grand Lodges, while in countries such as Malaysia and Lebanon, there are District Grand Lodges operating under a warrant from an established Grand Lodge.", "In 1972, in Pakistan, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, then Prime Minister of Pakistan, placed a ban on Freemasonry.", "Lodge buildings were confiscated by the government.Masonic lodges existed in Iraq as early as 1917, when the first lodge under the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE) was opened.", "Nine lodges under UGLE existed by the 1950s, and a Scottish lodge was formed in 1923.However, the position changed following the revolution, and all lodges were forced to close in 1965.This position was later reinforced under Saddam Hussein; the death penalty was \"prescribed\" for those who \"promote or acclaim Zionist principles, including freemasonry, or who associate themselves with Zionist organisations.", "\"===Political opposition===In 1799, English Freemasonry almost came to a halt due to Parliamentary proclamation.", "In the wake of the French Revolution, the Unlawful Societies Act banned any meetings of groups that required their members to take an oath or obligation.The Grand Masters of both the Moderns and the Antients Grand Lodges called on Prime Minister William Pitt (who was not a Freemason) and explained to him that Freemasonry was a supporter of the law and lawfully constituted authority and was much involved in charitable work.", "As a result, Freemasonry was specifically exempted from the terms of the Act, provided that each private lodge's Secretary placed with the local \"Clerk of the Peace\" a list of the members of his lodge once a year.", "This continued until 1967, when the obligation of the provision was rescinded by Parliament.Freemasonry in the United States faced political pressure following the 1826 kidnapping of William Morgan by Freemasons and his subsequent disappearance.", "Reports of the \"Morgan Affair\", together with opposition to Jacksonian democracy (Andrew Jackson was a prominent Mason), helped fuel an Anti-Masonic movement.", "The short-lived Anti-Masonic Party was formed, which fielded candidates for the presidential elections of 1828 and 1832.Lodge in Erlangen, Germany.", "First meeting after World War II with guests from US, France and Czechoslovakia, 1948.In Italy, Freemasonry has become linked to a scandal concerning the Propaganda Due lodge (a.k.a.", "P2).", "This lodge was chartered by the Grande Oriente d'Italia in 1877, as a lodge for visiting Masons unable to attend their own lodges.", "Under Licio Gelli's leadership, in the late 1970s, P2 became involved in the financial scandals that nearly bankrupted the Vatican Bank.", "However, by this time the lodge was operating independently and irregularly, as the Grand Orient had revoked its charter and expelled Gelli in 1976.Conspiracy theorists have long associated Freemasonry with the New World Order and the Illuminati, and state that Freemasonry as an organisation is either bent on world domination or already secretly in control of world politics.", "Historically Freemasonry has attracted criticism, and suppression from both the politically far right (e.g., Nazi Germany) and the far left (e.g., the former Communist states in Eastern Europe).Freemasonry is viewed with distrust even in some modern democracies.", "In the UK, Masons working in the justice system, such as judges and police officers, were required to disclose their membership from 1999 to 2009.While a parliamentary inquiry found that there had been no evidence of wrongdoing, the government believed that Masons' potential loyalties to support fellow Masons should be transparent to the public.", "The policy of requiring a declaration of masonic membership by applicants for judicial office (judges and magistrates) was ended in 2009 by Justice Secretary Jack Straw (who had initiated the requirement in the 1990s).", "Straw stated that the rule was considered disproportionate since no impropriety or malpractice had been shown as a result of judges being Freemasons.Freemasonry is both successful and controversial in France.", "As of the early 21st century, membership is rising, but reporting of it in popular media is often negative.In some countries, anti-Masonry is often related to antisemitism and anti-Zionism.", "For example, in 1980, the Iraqi legal and penal code was changed by Saddam Hussein's ruling Ba'ath Party, making it a felony to \"promote or acclaim Zionist principles, including Freemasonry, or who associate themselves with Zionist organisations\".", "Professor Andrew Prescott of the University of Sheffield writes: \"Since at least the time of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, antisemitism has gone hand in hand with anti-masonry, so it is not surprising that allegations that 11 September was a Zionist plot have been accompanied by suggestions that the attacks were inspired by a masonic world order\".====The Holocaust====alt=Forget-me-not|Forget-me-notThe preserved records of the ''Reichssicherheitshauptamt'' (the Reich Security Main Office) show the persecution of Freemasons during the Holocaust.", "RSHA Amt VII (Written Records), overseen by Professor Franz Six, was responsible for \"ideological\" tasks, by which was meant the creation of antisemitic and anti-Masonic propaganda.", "While the number of victims is not accurately known, historians estimate that between 80,000 and 200,000 Freemasons were killed under the Nazi regime.", "Masonic concentration camp inmates were classified as political prisoners and wore an inverted red triangle.", "Hitler believed Freemasons had succumbed to Jews conspiring against Germany.The small blue forget-me-not flower was first used by the Grand Lodge ''Zur Sonne'' in 1926, as a Masonic emblem at the annual convention in Bremen, Germany.", "In 1938, a forget-me-not badge, made by the same factory as the Masonic badge, was chosen for the Nazi Party's ''Winterhilfswerk'', the annual charity drive of the National Socialist People's Welfare (the welfare branch of the Nazi party).", "This coincidence enabled Freemasons to wear the forget-me-not badge as a secret sign of membership.After World War II, the forget-me-not flower was used again as a Masonic emblem in 1948 at the first Annual Convention of the United Grand Lodges of Germany in 1948.The badge is now sometimes worn in the coat lapel by Freemasons around the world to remember all who suffered in the name of Freemasonry, especially those during the Nazi era." ], [ "See also", "* * List of general fraternities* * Secret society* Co-Freemasonry" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Belton, John L., et al.", "''Freemasonry in context: history, ritual, controversy'' (Lexington Books, 2004) online.", "* Berger, Joachim.", "\"The great divide: Transatlantic brothering and masonic internationalism, c. 1870–c.", "1930.\"", "''Atlantic Studies'' 16.3 (2019): 405–422.", "* Dickie, John.", "''The Craft: How the Freemasons Made the Modern World'' (PublicAffairs, 2020).", "* Fozdar, Vahid. \"", "'That Grand Primeval and Fundamental Religion': The Transformation of Freemasonry into a British Imperial Cult.\"", "''Journal of World History'' 22#3 (2011), pp.", "493–525.online* Hamill, John.", "''The Craft: A History of English Freemasonry'' (1986) * Harland-Jacobs, Jessica L. ''Builders of Empire: Freemasons and British Imperialism, 1717–1927'' (2007)* Hoffmann, Stefan-Ludwig.", "''Freemasonry and German Civil Society, 1840–1918'' (U of Michigan Press, 2007).", "* Jacob, Margaret C. ''Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe'' (1991) * Jacob, Margaret C. ''The Origins of Freemasonry: Facts and Fictions'' (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2007).", "* Jacob, Margaret, and Matthew Crow.", "\"Freemasonry and the Enlightenment.\"", "in ''Handbook of Freemasonry'' (Brill, 2014) pp.", "100–116.online* Loiselle, Kenneth.", "\"Freemasonry and the Catholic Enlightenment in Eighteenth-Century France.\"", "''Journal of Modern History'' 94.3 (2022): 499–536.online* Önnerfors, Andreas.", "''Freemasonry: a very short introduction'' (Oxford University Press, 2017) excerpt.", "* Racine, Karen.", "\"Freemasonry\" in Michael S. Werner, ed.", "''Encyclopedia of Mexico: History, Society, and Culture'' (Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997) 1:538–540.", "* Ridley, Jasper.", "''The Freemasons'' (1999), wide-ranging global popular history.", "* Snoek Jan A.M. and Henrik Bogdan.", "\"The History of Freemasonry: An Overview\" in Bogdan and Snoek, eds.", "''Handbook of Freemasonry'' (Brill, 2014) ch.", "2 pp 13–32.online* Stevenson, David.", "\"Four Hundred Years of Freemasonry in Scotland.\"", "''Scottish Historical Review,'' 90#230 (2011), pp.", "280–295.online* Stevenson, David.", "''The First Freemasons.", "Scotland's Early Lodges and Their Members'' (1988)* Weisberger, R. William et al.''", "Freemasonry on Both Sides of the Atlantic: Essays concerning the Craft in the British Isles, Europe, the United States, and Mexico'' (2002), 969 pp* Weisberger, R. William.", "''Speculative Freemasonry and the Enlightenment: A Study of the Craft in London, Paris, Prague and Vienna'' (Columbia University Press, 1993) 243 pp.===United States===* Bullock, Steven C. ''Revolutionary brotherhood: Freemasonry and the transformation of the American social order, 1730–1840'' (UNC Press Books, 2011).", "* Formisano, Ronald P., and Kathleen Smith Kutolowski.", "\"Antimasonry and Masonry: The Genesis of Protest, 1826–1827.\"", "''American Quarterly'' 29.2 (1977): 139–165.online* Hackett, David G. ''That Religion in Which All Men Agree : Freemasonry in American Culture'' (U of California Press, 2015) * Hinks, Peter P. et al.", "''All Men Free and Brethren: Essays on the History of African American Freemasonry'' (Cornell UP, 2013).", "* Kantrowitz, Stephen. \"", "'Intended for the Better Government of Man': The Political History of African American Freemasonry in the Era of Emancipation.\"", "''Journal of American History'' 96#4, (2010), pp. 1001–1026.online.", "* Weisberger, R. William et al.", "''Freemasonry on Both Sides of the Atlantic: Essays concerning the Craft in the British Isles, Europe, the United States, and Mexico'' (2002), 969pp* York, Neil L. \"Freemasons and the American Revolution.\"", "''Historian'' 55#2 (1993), pp.", "315–330.online===Historiography and memory===* Jacob, Margaret.", "\"The Radical Enlightenment and Freemasonry: where we are now.\"", "''REHMLAC: Revista de Estudios Históricos de la Masonería Latinoamericana y Caribeña'' 1 (2013): 11–25.online." ], [ "External links", "* * Web of Hiram at the University of Bradford.", "A database of donated Masonic material.", "* Masonic Books Online of the ''Pietre-Stones Review of Freemasonry''* ''The Constitutions of the Free-Masons'' (1734), James Anderson, Benjamin Franklin, Paul Royster.", "Hosted by the Libraries at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln* ''The Mysteries of Free Masonry'', by William Morgan, from Project Gutenberg* , * The United Grand Lodge of England's Library and Museum of Freemasonry , London* Articles on Judaism and Freemasonry* Anti-Masonry: Points of View – Edward L. King's Masonic website* The International Order of Co-Freemasonry ''Le Droit Humain''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fulham F.C." ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fulham Football Club''' is a professional football club based in Fulham, Greater London, England.", "The team competes in the , the top level of the English football league system.", "They have played home games at Craven Cottage since 1896, other than a two-year period spent at Loftus Road whilst Craven Cottage underwent redevelopments that were completed in 2004.They contest West London derby rivalries with Chelsea, Queens Park Rangers and Brentford.", "The club adopted a white shirt and black shorts as its kit in 1903, which has been used ever since.Founded in 1879, they are London's oldest professional football club.", "They joined the Southern League in 1898 and won two First Division titles (1905–06 and 1906–07), as well as two Second Division titles and a Western League title.", "Elected into the Second Division of the Football League in 1907, Fulham would win the Third Division South in 1931–32, four years after being relegated.", "They won the Second Division title in 1948–49, though were relegated after three seasons.", "Promoted back to the First Division again in 1958–59, the form of star player Johnny Haynes helped Fulham to remain in the top-flight until consecutive relegations occurred by 1969.They were promoted in 1970–71 and went on to reach the final of the 1974–75 FA Cup.Fulham drifted between the second and fourth tiers until being taken over by Mohamed Al-Fayed in 1997.They went on to win two divisional titles in three seasons to reach the Premier League by 2001.They won the UEFA Intertoto Cup in 2002 and were beaten in the 2010 final of the UEFA Europa League.", "However, thirteen consecutive seasons in the top-flight culminated in relegation in 2014.Since that time, the club have moved between the first and second tiers under new owner Shahid Khan.", "Fulham had changed divisions in five successive seasons between 2017–18 to 2021–22, being relegated after winning the 2018 and 2020 EFL Championship play-off finals.", "They then won the 2021–22 EFL Championship title, finally settling in the Premier League, where they have played since 2022." ], [ "History", "===1879–1907: Formation and Southern League years===The Second XI team, in 1886Fulham were formed in 1879 as Fulham St Andrew's Church Sunday School F.C., founded by worshippers (mostly adept at cricket) at the Church of England on Star Road, West Kensington (St Andrew's, Fulham Fields).", "Fulham's mother church still stands today with a plaque commemorating the team's foundation.", "They won the West London Amateur Cup in 1887 and, having shortened the name from Fulham St Andrews to its present form in December 1888, they then won the West London League in 1893 at the first attempt.", "One of the club's first ever kits was half red, half white shirts with white shorts worn in the 1886–87 season.", "Fulham started playing at their current ground at Craven Cottage in 1896, their first game against now defunct rivals Minerva.", "Fulham are one of the oldest established clubs in southern England currently playing professional football, though there are many non-league sides like Kent side Cray Wanderers who are several decades older.Postcard of the 1903–04 line-upThe club gained professional status on 12 December 1898, the same year that they were admitted into the Southern League's Second Division.", "They were the third club from London to turn professional, following Arsenal, then named Royal Arsenal 1891, and Millwall in 1893.They adopted a red and white kit during the 1896–97 season.", "In 1902–03, the club won promotion from this division, entering the Southern League First Division.", "The club's first recorded all-white club kit came in 1903, and ever since then the club has been playing in all-white shirts and black shorts, with socks going through various evolutions of black and/or white, but are now normally white-only.", "The club won the Southern League twice, in 1905–06 and 1906–07.===1907–1949: Football League===The \"Rabbit Hutch\" stand along Stevenage Road sometime before Archibald Leitch's redesign in 1904–05Fulham joined The Football League after the second of their Southern League triumphs.", "The club's first league game, playing in the Second Division's 1907–08 season, saw them lose 1–0 at home to Hull City in September 1907.The first win came a few days later at Derby County's Baseball Ground by a score line of 1–0.Fulham finished the season three points short of promotion in fourth place.", "The club progressed all the way to the semi-final of that season's FA Cup, a run that included an 8–3 away win at Luton Town.", "In the semi-final, however, they were heavily beaten, 6–0, by Newcastle United.", "This is still a record loss for an FA Cup semi-final game.", "Two years later, the club won the London Challenge Cup in the 1909–10 season.", "Fulham's first season in Division Two turned out to be the highest that the club would finish for 21 years, until in 1927–28 when the club were relegated to the 3rd Division South, created in 1920.Hussein Hegazi, an Egyptian forward, was one of the first non-British players to appear in The Football League, though he only played one game for Fulham in 1911, marked with a goal, afterwards playing for non-league Dulwich Hamlet.During this period, businessman and politician Henry Norris was the club chairman and curiously he had an indirect role in the foundation of Fulham's local rivals Chelsea.", "When he rejected an offer from businessman Gus Mears to move Fulham to land where the present-day Chelsea stadium Stamford Bridge is situated, Mears decided to create his own team to occupy the ground.", "In 1910, Norris started to combine his role at Fulham with the chairmanship of Arsenal.", "Fulham became the first British team to sell hot dogs at their ground in 1926.Fulham had several high-profile international players during the 1920s, including Len Oliver and Albert Barrett.Yearly performance of Fulham in the Football LeagueAfter finishing fifth, seventh and ninth (out of 22 teams) in their first three seasons in the Third Division South, Fulham won the division in the 1931–32 season.", "In doing so they beat Torquay United 10–2, won 24 out of 42 games and scored 111 goals, thus being promoted back to the Second Division.", "The next season they missed out on a second consecutive promotion, finishing third behind Tottenham Hotspur and Stoke City.", "A mixed bag of league performances followed, although the club also reached another FA Cup semi-final during the 1935–36 season.", "Fulham were also to draw with Austria in 1936 before Anschluss.", "On 8 October 1938, Craven Cottage saw its all-time highest attendance at a match against Millwall, with a crowd of 49,335 watching the game.League and cup football were severely disrupted by the outbreak of World War II in 1939, with the Football League split into regional divisions temporarily, with a national Football League War Cup and a London War Cup up for grabs.", "Craven Cottage was used like many grounds for fitness and training of the army youth reserves.", "Post-war, a full league programme was only restored for 1946–47.In the third season of what is now considered the modern era of football, Fulham finished top of the Second Division, with a win–loss–draw record of 24–9–9 (identical to that which won them the Third Division South 17 years previously).", "John Fox Watson made a pioneering transfer to Real Madrid in 1948, becoming one of the first players from the United Kingdom to sign for a high-profile side abroad.===1949–1970: First Division Cottagers===Promotion to the top tier of English football saw the club perform poorly, finishing 17th in their first year and 18th in their second.", "In only their third season of First Division football, Fulham finished rock bottom of the 22-team league in the 1951–52 season, winning only eight of 42 games.", "On 20 May 1951, Fulham played one of their first ever games in North America in an exhibition match against Celtic at Delorimier Stadium in Montreal in front of 29,000 spectators.", "''Fulham FC'' in 1958 with Johnny Haynes, player number two from right in the front line.Possibly the single most influential character in Fulham's history is Johnny Haynes.", "\"Mr. Fulham\" or \"The Maestro,\" as Haynes later came to be known, signed for The Cottagers as a schoolboy in 1950, making his first team debut on Boxing Day against Southampton at Craven Cottage in the 1951/52 relegation season.", "Haynes played for another 18 years, notching 657 appearances (along with many other club records too), his last appearance for Fulham coming on 17 January 1970.He is often considered as the greatest player in Fulham history, and never played for another team in Britain.", "He gained 56 caps for England (22 as captain), with many being earned while playing for Fulham in the Second Division.", "Haynes was injured in a car accident in Blackpool in 1962, but by his own admissions never regained the fitness or form to play for England again, missing out on England's victory in the FIFA World Cup 1966 for which he would have stood a chance of being selected.", "The Stevenage Road Stand was renamed in his honour after his death in a car crash in 2005.Fulham reached the 1957–58 FA Cup semi-finals, the best cup run of Haynes' career and nearest he came to a major trophy win playing in England.", "They were eliminated in a replay by the remnants of Manchester United's Busby Babes team that had been decimated in the Munich air disaster the month before.", "United were the first top division team Fulham played in that cup run.", "Fulham won promotion back to the First Division in the following season by finishing second to Sheffield Wednesday.", "Also joining Fulham in 1958 was Graham Leggat, who went on to score 134 goals in 277 appearances, (making him the club's fifth all-time top scorer).", "In the 1959–60 season, they achieved tenth position in the First Division, which until finishing ninth in the 2003–04 season was their highest-ever league position.", "This accompanied another appearance in the last four of the FA Cup in 1962.By this time, the club were regularly playing in front of 30,000 plus crowds at Craven Cottage, despite struggling in the league.The club earned a reputation for constantly battling against relegation most seasons, with numerous narrow escapes; none more so than in 1965–66.On the morning of 26 February 1966, Fulham were bottom with just 15 points from 29 matches.", "The last 13 games saw Fulham win nine and draw two to reach safety.", "Eventually, however, the club suffered relegation in the 1967–68 season, having won just ten out of their 42 games.", "Even that, however, was not as catastrophic as the calamity of next season.", "Winning only seven in 42, the club were relegated to the Third Division.===1970–1994: Mixed fortunes outside the top flight===The aforementioned Third Division hiatus lasted only two seasons before the club was promoted back to the Second Division as runners-up in 1970–71.This spell also saw Fulham invited to the Anglo-Italian Cup, which saw the club draw four out of four games in 1972–73 season.", "This preceded a period of high-profile signings for the club under Alec Stock in the mid-1970s, including Alan Mullery and Bobby Moore.", "Fulham reached their only FA Cup final to date in 1975, having won their first semi-final in five attempts.", "The club lost 2–0 to West Ham United in the final at Wembley Stadium.", "This gained the club qualification for another European tournament, the Anglo-Scottish Cup, where they reached the final, losing to Middlesbrough.George Best played 47 times for the club in the 1976–77 season.", "Rodney Marsh, who having grown up with Fulham in the 1960s went on to play First Division football and play for England, rejoined the club in the same season, playing only 16 games.", "This capped one of the most successful eras in Fulham history.The club were relegated again after winning only 11 in 42 matches in the 1979–80 season, which eventually resulted in Bobby Campbell's dismissal in October 1980, to be replaced by Malcolm Macdonald.", "With a strong squad during his 1980–1984 period in charge (with players such as Ray Houghton, Tony Gale, Paul Parker, Gerry Peyton and Ray Lewington), they won promotion again in 1981–82 back to the Second Division, although the promotion was overshadowed by the suicide of former defender Dave Clement a few weeks before promotion was sealed.In 1980, Fulham founded the rugby league club that is now London Broncos designed to be an extra stream of income for the football club, but which made financial losses every year while linked to Fulham F.C.", "Then called \"Fulham Rugby League,\" they played at Craven Cottage until moving away from the parent club in 1984.In 1978, Fulham had signed Gordon \"Ivor\" Davies who, during two spells at Fulham, became the club's leading goalscorer of all time with a total of 178 goals in all competitions; the record still stands.", "Fulham narrowly missed out on back-to-back promotions to the First Division, losing 1–0 to Derby County away on the last day of the 1982–83 season – although the match was abandoned after 88 minutes due to a pitch invasion and inexplicably never replayed or finished.", "The side which had shown so much promise was quickly sold off as the club were in debt, so it was little surprise when the club were relegated again to the Third Division in 1986.The club nearly went out of business in 1987 via an ill-advised merger attempt with Queens Park Rangers.", "It was only the intervention of ex-player Jimmy Hill that allowed the club to stay in business by formation of a new company, Fulham FC (1987) Ltd.", "In 1987, the club took part in what was then the longest penalty deciders ever recorded – it needed 28 spot kicks to sort out a winner between them and Aldershot following a Football League Trophy match.In 1992, the foundation of the Premier League, and the resignation of 22 clubs from The Football League, restored Fulham to that league's Second Division.", "However, the club were relegated to the new Third Division after a poor 1993–94 season, following which Ian Branfoot was appointed as team manager.===1994–1997: Fulham's lowest ebb===After an eighth-place finish in Branfoot's first season in charge, the club hit its lowest-ever final league position in the 1995–96 season, finishing 17th out of 24.Branfoot was dismissed as manager, but remained at the club in other capacities for a short while.", "In February 1996, Micky Adams became player-manager.", "Adams oversaw an upturn in form that lifted the side out of relegation danger.", "The next season, he engineered a second-place league finish, missing out on first place because several years previously the league had dropped the old \"goal difference\" system in favour of a \"goals scored\" tally, meaning Fulham finished behind Wigan Athletic.", "The club's chairman Jimmy Hill had argued in 1992 that goals scored should decide places of teams tied on points, and the Football League clubs had voted the system in.===1997–2001: Al-Fayed takeover===Egyptian businessman Mohamed Al-Fayed bought the club for £6.25 million in the summer of 1997.The club was purchased via Bill Muddyman's Muddyman Group.", "Al-Fayed had Micky Adams replaced in the aftermath of a mid-table start to the season.", "He installed a two-tier management \"dream team\" of Ray Wilkins as First Team Manager and Kevin Keegan as chief operating officer, pledging that the club would reach the Premier League within five years.", "After an argument over team selection, Wilkins left the club in May 1998 to hand over the full managerial duties to Keegan.", "Keegan then helped steer the club to promotion the next season, winning 101 points out of a possible 138, after spending £1.1 million to sign Paul Peschisolido from West Bromwich Albion.", "Peschisolido was top scorer and captained by Chris Coleman – then the most expensive footballer outside the top two divisions of the English league.In 1999, Keegan left Fulham to become manager of England, and Paul Bracewell was put in charge.Bracewell was dismissed in March 2000, as Fulham's promising early season form dwindled away to a mid-table finish.", "Frenchman Jean Tigana was put in charge and, having signed a number of young stars (including French striker Louis Saha), he guided Fulham to their third promotion in five seasons in the 2000–01 season, giving Fulham top-flight status for the first time since 1968.Fulham once again amassed 101 points out of a possible 138 in their scintillating title run, which was crowned with an open-top bus parade down Fulham Palace Road.", "They are the only team to have twice reached 100 points in a season.", "During the season, Chris Coleman was involved in a car crash that put him out of action for well over a year and eventually ended his playing career after he failed to make a sufficient recovery.", "Fulham's run through the divisions saw a large turnover of players, with the only player to play for the club in all four leagues being Sean Davis.===2001–2007: Early Premier League years===Portsmouth (blue) in front of Fulham fans in the Hammersmith EndA minute's silence for Jim LangleyFulham returned to the top division of English football, and competed in the Premier League for the first time.", "The club finished the 2001–02 season in 13th place.", "Fulham were the only team to host top-flight football with some standing areas in the 21st century, but due to restrictions on standing, this was not allowed to continue; clubs promoted from the second division had only three years to make their ground all-seater.", "Fulham were forced to groundshare with QPR at Loftus Road during the 2002–03 and 2003–04 seasons while Craven Cottage was rebuilt as an all-seated stadium.", "There were fears that Fulham would not return to the Cottage, after it was revealed that Al-Fayed had sold the first right to build on the ground to a property development firm.In 2002–03, Fulham spent most of the season in the lower half of the table.", "Chairman Al-Fayed told manager Jean Tigana that his contract would not be renewed at the end of the season.", "However, with five games left to play and relegation still possible, Tigana was dismissed, and Chris Coleman was temporarily put in charge.", "Fulham won 10 points from a possible 15 and managed to avoid relegation.", "Coleman was appointed manager on a permanent basis in the summer of 2003; despite predictions that the inexperience of Coleman would result in Fulham's relegation, he kept the club well clear of relegation, guiding them to a club record ninth-place finish in his debut season.", "This might have been greater had the club not come under significant financial pressure to sell Louis Saha to Manchester United, for whom they received a club record £13 million.Fulham lost a legal case against former manager Tigana in 2004 after Al-Fayed wrongly alleged that Tigana had overpaid more than £7 million for new players and had negotiated transfers in secret.Coleman notched up another satisfactory performance in the 2004–05 season and guided Fulham to a secure 13th-place finish.", "The following season Fulham improved by one place, finishing 12th – the high point of the season was a 1–0 win over local rivals and reigning champions Chelsea in the West London derby – Chelsea had only lost two games in two and a half years.", "The 2006–07 season proved to be Coleman's last, as on 10 April 2007, Fulham terminated his contract with immediate effect.", "His replacement was Northern Ireland manager Lawrie Sanchez.", "Fulham only gained four points from five games with Sanchez as caretaker manager.", "They ensured top-flight survival that season by defeating a weakened Liverpool side 1–0 in the penultimate match of the season, and Sanchez was appointed manager.Fulham playing in their light blue away kit against Bolton Wanderers in the 2004–05 FA Cup.Robin van Persie takes a free kick as Fulham players form a defensive wall.===2007–2010: Hodgson's transformation===Roy Hodgson as manager at FulhamSanchez received strong financial backing from the board and made a number of signings during the summer break, but, after just two league wins in the first five months of the season and with Fulham in the relegation zone, he was dismissed on 21 December 2007 after a defeat to Newcastle United.", "Roy Hodgson was named as the new manager of Fulham on 28 December 2007 and took up his contractual duties on 30 December, just two days before the January transfer window opened.Hodgson's tenure did not start well and it took a month to secure his first win, against Aston Villa, courtesy of a Jimmy Bullard free-kick.", "Fulham continued to struggle and a 3–1 home defeat in April at the hands of fellow strugglers Sunderland left Hodgson on the verge of tears in the post-match press conference and many pundits writing off Fulham's survival chances.", "Despite the negative press, Hodgson continued to believe survival was attainable.", "The turning point of the season came in the third-to-last match, against Manchester City.", "Fulham trailed 2–0 at half-time and had the Premier League scores at that time become results, they would have been relegated.", "However, the introduction of Diomansy Kamara heralded the start of a fantastic comeback—Kamara struck twice as Fulham registered an amazing 3–2 victory.", "Fulham then won a crucial match against fellow strugglers Birmingham City at Craven Cottage, leaving survival in the club's own hands.", "Barring a goal-rush from fellow strugglers Reading, a win against a Portsmouth side looking ahead to their fourth FA Cup final would guarantee survival.With 15 minutes to play at Portsmouth, Fulham were drawing, and with Birmingham City and Reading leading comfortably against Blackburn Rovers and Derby County respectively, they looked likely to be relegated.", "However, Fulham earned a free-kick with 76 minutes played; Jimmy Bullard's delivery found Danny Murphy, who headed home the decisive goal, sparking manic celebrations from the travelling fans.", "Hodgson had ensured survival against all odds, breaking several club records in the process and cementing his place in Fulham folklore.", "Fulham narrowly missed out on a UEFA Cup place via Fairplay by a dubious 0.8 of a point behind Manchester City, who lost 8–1 at Middlesbrough.In the 2008–09 season, Fulham finished seventh, their highest-ever league placing, earning qualification for the inaugural UEFA Europa League, the second time that the club had entered a UEFA competition.2009–10 was arguably the most successful season in the club's history.", "They were eliminated from the FA Cup in the quarter-finals for the second year running, and finished 12th in the Premier League, despite fielding weakened teams in the last few matches.", "In the inaugural Europa League season, however, Fulham reached the final, meeting Spanish club Atlético Madrid, who had dropped down from the Champions League, at the Volksparkstadion in Hamburg.", "In their first European cup final, the Cottagers were beaten 2–1 after extra time, having drawn 1–1 after full-time.", "The achievement of taking Fulham so unexpectedly far, beating famous teams like Hamburger SV, Juventus, holders Shakhtar Donetsk and Basel in the competition, led to Roy Hodgson being voted the LMA Manager of the Year by the widest margin in the history of the award.", "The home match in the round of 16 was arguably Fulham's greatest result in the history of the club.", "Despite losing 3–1 in the first leg at Italian giants Juventus and falling behind minutes into the second leg at Craven Cottage, Fulham scored four goals with no reply from Juventus.At the end of the season, Hodgson left Fulham to manage Liverpool.===2010–2013: Established in the Premier League===On 29 July 2010, Mark Hughes was named the successor to Hodgson, signing a two-year contract with the club.", "Hughes had previously managed Manchester City, the Welsh national team and Blackburn.", "Hughes' first match in charge was against Bolton Wanderers at the Reebok Stadium.", "The highlight of the season was a 4–0 win in the FA Cup over London rivals Tottenham Hotspur, all goals coming in the first half.", "Hughes resigned as manager of Fulham on 2 June 2011, having spent fewer than 11 months at the club.", "The Whites had an encouraging finish in eighth position and qualified for the Europa League via Fairplay.On 7 June 2011, Martin Jol signed a two-year contract with Fulham, becoming successor to Hughes.", "Jol's first match was a 3–0 Europa League win against NSÍ Runavík of the Faroe Islands on 30 June.", "Fulham then navigated their way with some ease to the group stage in the Europa League through late summer.", "However, the Cottagers were knocked out with the last seconds of the group stage matches, Odense Boldklub equalising to make a draw, leaving Fulham in third place, with Polish side Wisła Kraków instead progressing to the next round.Fulham's Premier League form in the 2011–12 season was mixed, with the continuing away-record hangover of previous seasons dragging on.", "In October 2011, Fulham had an emphatic 6–0 home win over neighbours QPR, with Andrew Johnson scoring a hat-trick for Fulham in the match.", "The January 2012 transfer window saw Bobby Zamora move over the Hammersmith flyover to Loftus Road, with Russian striker Pavel Pogrebnyak coming in place from VfB Stuttgart.Clint Dempsey scored a club record 50 Premier League goals for Fulham between 2007 and 2012.The New Year saw two further hat-tricks scored by Clint Dempsey.", "On 11 February 2012, Progrebnyak scored on his debut in the 2–1 win over Stoke City.", "In March 2012, a 5–0 win against Wolverhampton Wanderers saw a hat-trick from Pogrebnyak.", "The Cottagers broke their historic drought on Merseyside with a 1–0 win over Liverpool at Anfield on May Day and another win against Sunderland in the last home game meant Fulham were only one point short of equalling their largest points haul in the Premier League, with just one game remaining.", "However, they failed to achieve this after losing their last game away at Tottenham.In the 2012–13 season, Fulham ended a seven-match winless run by beating Swansea City 3–0 away at the Liberty Stadium on the final game of the season on 19 May 2013.Fulham finished the season in 12th place.===2013–present: Shahid Khan's ownership===Shahid Khan took over as chairman in July 2013, but after a poor start to the 2013–14 season, having only amassed 10 points from 13 games, Martin Jol was dismissed as manager in December 2013, with René Meulensteen taking charge as head coach.", "Meulensteen was replaced by Felix Magath after just 17 games in charge following no upturn in form, but fortunes did not improve, and Fulham were eventually relegated to the Championship after a 4–1 defeat away to Stoke on 3 May.Fulham broke the Championship transfer record that summer in a restructuring of the squad by Magath, but after a disastrous start to the new season, amassing just one point in seven games, Magath was dismissed in September 2014, with Kit Symons appointed as caretaker manager.", "Fulham eventually finished the season in 17th place.", "The team suffered an inconsistent start to the following season and after a 5–2 loss at home to Birmingham City, and lying in 12th place, Kit Symons was dismissed as manager in November 2015.It paved the way for Serbian Slaviša Jokanović to be appointed on 27 December 2015.Fulham's fortunes did not improve greatly following Jokanović's appointment, but the team finished the 2015–16 Championship season in 20th place, avoiding relegation by 11 points.The 2016–17 season saw huge improvements in both results and performances.", "Despite an inconsistent start, the team saw a significant improvement from October onwards which saw them secure a 6th-place finish.", "They entered the play-offs, but lost to Reading 2–1 on aggregate in the semi-final.", "During this time, club owner Shahid Khan's son Tony Khan was named as Vice Chairman and Director of Football Operations, and he also holds the roles of General Manager and Sporting Director.", "Despite a slow start to the following season, the club went on a club-record 23 game unbeaten run in the league which led to a 3rd-place finish, narrowly missing out automatic promotion.", "The team went on to win the EFL Championship play-off final against Aston Villa to return to the Premier League on 26 May 2018.During the season, the club signed Aleksandar Mitrović, initially on loan until the end of the season.", "Mitrović would go on to score more than 100 goals for the club, becoming the eighth player in Fulham's history to do so.Following a poor start to life back in the Premier League, Jokanović was dismissed in November 2018 and replaced with former Leicester manager Claudio Ranieri.", "Results ultimately did not improve under Ranieri, as well as him alienating several key players, and he left the club in February 2019.He was replaced by Scott Parker as caretaker manager who could not save the club from relegation on 3 April 2019.Parker was appointed as manager on a permanent basis on 10 May 2019.In a season that was interrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic, Parker led the club straight back to the Premier League on 4 August 2020, defeating London rivals Brentford 2–1 in the play-off final after a fourth-place finish.", "However, the club would once again be relegated after just a single season back in the top flight after a 2–0 defeat to Burnley on 10 May 2021.In the aftermath of relegation, Parker left the club by mutual consent and was replaced by former Everton manager Marco Silva.After relegation, Fulham under Silva earned promotion back to the top tier with four games to go, winning the 2021–22 Championship title.Fulham started the 2022–23 Premier League season much better than prior years.", "At the halfway point, Fulham sat in 6th place, had tallied a 2–1 win over West London rivals Chelsea, whom they had not defeated in nearly 16 years, and collected a string of four consecutive top-flight victories for the first time since April 1966." ], [ "Grounds", "Between the years 1879 and when Fulham had a ground to call their own in 1896, they played at a number of stadiums, only some of which were recorded and this should not be regarded as a full or complete list.", "Only rivals and former landlords Queens Park Rangers have played at more home stadiums.", "Some of the early grounds listed below are likely to have been parks and parkland, which have now been developed.", "Even when the club purchased Craven Cottage and the surrounding land in 1894, they had to wait two years before they could play a game there.", "* 1879–1883: 'The Mud Pond', Star Road, Fulham* 1883–1886: Lillie Road, Fulham* 1886–1888: Ranelagh House, Fulham* 1888–1889: Barn Elms Playing Fields, Barnes (this was the site of The Ranelagh Club)* 1889–1891: Parsons Green, Fulham and Roskell's Fields (next to Parsons Green Underground station)* 1891–1895: The Half Moon, Putney* 1895–1896: Captain James Field, near Halford Road, West Brompton* 1896–2002: Craven Cottage, Fulham* 2002–2004: Loftus Road, Shepherd's Bush (groundshare with Queens Park Rangers during Craven Cottage's renovation)* 2004–present: Craven Cottage, Fulham" ], [ "Club identity", "===Kit===Fulham's sponsorship by Betfair in 2002–03 was the first gambling sponsorship in English football, and came before the Gambling Act 2005 permitted the industry to advertise on television and radio; within fifteen years half of Premier League teams were sponsored by such companies.On 27 July 2021, it was announced that World Mobile would become the official principal partner for the next three years.In July 2022, it was announced that the gambling company W88 would sponsor the team in a kit deal for the 2022–23 season.", "The deal saw the betting firm's logo placed on the front of both the men's and women's kit.", "The confirmation of the deal came during a decrease in gambling sponsors for Premier League teams.", "In June 2023, it was announced that betting company SBOBET would replace W88 as the team's main sponsor for the 2023–24 season.===Mascot===The Fulham mascot is Billy the Badger, who was the winning design sent in by Kyle Jackson after an online competition by the club.", "Billy the Badger wears the number 79 Fulham shirt, in reference to the club's year of founding, 1879.Controversy first surrounded Billy when he tried to cheer up Chelsea manager Avram Grant during a home match in front of the television cameras.", "Secondly, Billy was seen on television being sent off during the home game against Aston Villa on 3 February 2008 for break-dancing in the corner of the pitch after the referee had commenced the game.", "Billy blamed his badger hearing and eyesight for the incident, and apologised to referee Chris Foy.", "On 11 March 2009, Billy walked across the goal during a match although it was not spotted by the referee.", "The former mascot for Fulham was Sir Craven of Cottage, the Knight.", "The cheerleaders were known as the Cravenettes.PeriodKit manufacturerShirt sponsor1974–1977Umbro''None''1977–1981Adidas1981–1984Osca1984–1985UmbroWilliam Younger1985–1987Prestige Travel1987Scoreline''None''1988Emirates1988–1990TeleConnect1990–1991Ribero1991–1992''None''1992–1993DMF Sportswear1993–1996VandanelGMB1996–1997Le Coq Sportif1997–1998Adidas1998–2001Demon Internet2001–2002Pizza Hut2002–2003Betfair.com2003–2005Pumadabs.com2005–2006Pipex2006–2007Airness2007–2010NikeLG2010–2013KappaFxPro2013–2015AdidasMarathonbet2015–2017Visit Florida2017–2018Grosvenor Casinos2018–2020Dafabet2020–2021BetVictor2021–2022World Mobile2022–2023W882023–2024SBOBET" ], [ "Rivalries and supporters", "Fulham fans consider their main rivals to be Chelsea.", "Despite this fixture not being played that often in the years preceding Fulham's ascent to the top division, this is a clear local derby as Chelsea's ground, Stamford Bridge, is within Fulham and only 1.8 miles from Craven Cottage.Fulham consider their secondary rivals to be Queens Park Rangers.", "Fulham beat QPR twice in the 2011–12 Premier League season.", "They won 6–0 at Craven Cottage, and also 1–0 away from home at Loftus Road.", "The two clubs have played each other several times since in the Championship.Fulham's third closest rivalry is with Brentford, who they defeated 2–1 on 4 August 2020 in the Championship play-off final.", "Fulham also have rivalries with several other London clubs to a lesser extent, such as Crystal Palace.Outside of London, Gillingham are still considered rivals to some Fulham supporters despite the two clubs not having played in the same division since the 2000–01 season.", "Fulham and Gillingham were involved in several ill-tempered matches in the lower leagues, including the death of a Fulham supporter.Fulham's fan base has fluctuated over the years, with high crowds coinciding with the club's success in the Premier League.", "Fulham supporters have played a vital role in the club's long term stay at Craven Cottage.", "When the club moved temporarily to Loftus Road, a committee known as Back to the Cottage was formed, committed to ensuring the club continued to play at their traditional home.", "Fulham fans have traditionally come from the Fulham and Hammersmith areas, and also from other areas in South-West London, such as Putney, Richmond, Sutton and Worcester Park.In July 2012, the club website asked supporters using Facebook and Twitter to pick their best FFC Premier League XI from 2001 to the present.", "The supporters picked their favourite goalkeeper, full-backs, centre-backs, wingers, centre midfielders and forwards in a classic 4–4–2 formation.", "In August 2022, the club asked fans for an updated all time Premier League XI as part of the Premier League's 30th anniversary celebrations." ], [ "Records and statistics", "===Fulham in Europe===Fulham are a member of the European Club Association, having qualified four times for European Competition, firstly the UEFA Intertoto Cup after their inaugural season in the Premier League, then the UEFA Cup as a result of winning that, and then the UEFA Europa League twice.", "Fulham are unbeaten at home in European competition, in 23 games, with a record of 17 wins and six draws.", "In 2010, Fulham reached the UEFA Europa League final, which they lost 2–1 to Atlético Madrid." ], [ "Players", "===Current squad======Out on loan======Academy======Women’s team===" ], [ "Club management", "===Coaching positions===PositionNameHead coachMarco SilvaAssistant coachStuart GrayFirst-team coachLuís Boa MorteGoalkeeping coachHugo OliveiraFitness coachGoncalo PedroFirst-team analystAntonios LemonakisHead of performanceBruno MendesAcademy directorMike CaveUnder-23s head coachSteve Wigley Under-18s head coachAli Melloul===Managerial history===Fulham have had 37 managers in 114 years.", "Prior to the appointment of the first manager at the club (Bradshaw in 1904), the duties normally assigned to a modern-day manager would have been shared between club secretary, captain, and other officials.NameFromToHarry Bradshaw19041909Phil Kelso19091924Andy Ducat19241926Joe Bradshaw19261929Ned Liddell19291931Jimmy McIntyre19311934Jimmy Hogan19341935Jack Peart19351948Frank Osborne*19481949Bill Dodgin, Sr.19491953Frank Osborne*19531956Doug Livingstone19561958Bedford Jezzard19581964Vic Buckingham19651968Bobby Robson19681968Bill Dodgin, Jr.19691972Alec Stock19721976Bobby Campbell19761980Malcolm Macdonald19801984Ray Harford19841986Ray Lewington19861990Alan Dicks19901991Don Mackay19911994Ian Branfoot**19941996Micky Adams19961997Ray Wilkins19971998Kevin Keegan†19981999Paul Bracewell19992000Jean Tigana20002003Chris Coleman20032007Lawrie Sanchez20072007Roy Hodgson20072010Mark Hughes20102011Martin Jol20112013René Meulensteen§±20132014Felix Magath20142014Kit Symons20142015Slaviša Jokanović±20152018Claudio Ranieri20182019Scott Parker±20192021Marco Silva±2021''Present''* * Frank Osborne was employed continuously by the club from 1948 to 1963, but only spent the above periods as designated manager.", "* ** Ian Branfoot continued to be employed by the club after his dismissal as manager.", "* † Kevin Keegan was employed by the club as chief operating officer (during which time he essentially acted as an assistant manager) during the time of his predecessor (Ray Wilkins) being the actual manager.", "* § René Meulensteen was appointed as head coach under previous manager Martin Jol (during which time he essentially acted as an assistant manager), but never took on the title of \"manager\" after Jol's departure, despite assuming the duties usually assigned to one.", "He remained as head coach for four days after Magath's appointment before being released.", "* ± Some managers have only had the official description of \"head coach\" rather than \"manager\": René Meulensteen, Slaviša Jokanović, Scott Parker, and Marco Silva, as well as interim head coach Peter Grant.", "'''Managerial records:'''*Only one man has managed the club through two different spells, Frank Osborne, in 1948–49 and then 1953–56.", "*The longest spell as Fulham manager was by Phil Kelso, 15 years (1909–1924)*Several managers have failed to last more than a year at the club: Bobby Robson, Ray Wilkins, Paul Bracewell, Lawrie Sanchez, Mark Hughes, René Meulensteen, Felix Magath, and Claudio Ranieri.", "Further to this, Frank Osborne only had a year after his initial arrival at the club during which he was principally in charge of the team (before Dodgin, senior) arrived, although he later took sole charge of the club for an extended period.", "'''Temporary managers''' at the club have included:*Johnny Haynes: Took over after Bobby Robson was dismissed in 1968 for only a handful of matches.", "''The Maestro'' was offered the role permanently but had no inclination to become a manager.", "*Karl-Heinz Riedle: when Paul Bracewell was dismissed halfway through the 1999–2000 season, there was a temporary period of Fulham being managed by their striker Karl-Heinz Riedle, assisted his old boss at Liverpool, Roy Evans.", "Riedle injured a lung in the season's penultimate game.", "*Chris Coleman: after Tigana resigned four months before planned in 2003, Chris Coleman was appointed as caretaker manager, much to the delight of the fans.", "Having initially denied he wanted the post, Coleman accepted the role of full-time manager that summer.", "*Lawrie Sanchez: when Coleman was dismissed, Sanchez came in to take control of the club for the remaining five games of the season.", "(See above)*Ray Lewington: took temporary charge of Fulham for three games following Lawrie Sanchez's dismissal in December 2007.Lewington also took temporary charge of the club in July 2010 after Roy Hodgson had left the club until the appointment of Mark Hughes.", "*Kit Symons: temporarily took charge of Fulham after Felix Magath's dismissal in September 2014 before being appointed on 29 October.", "*Peter Grant: took charge of Fulham for three games after Kit Symons' dismissal.", "*Stuart Gray: succeeded Grant as temporary manager (holding down the job title of \"senior coach\") after poor results in Grant's three games in charge whilst the board looked for a permanent successor to Kit Symons.", "*Scott Parker: took over as caretaker after Claudio Ranieri left the club on 28 February 2019 until he was permanently appointed on 10 May 2019.===Ownership===Shahid Khan, owner and chairmanPositionNameChairmanShahid KhanChief executive officerAlistair MackintoshFinance directorSean O'LoughlinNon-executive directorMark LampingFulham Football Club is owned by Shahid Khan.", "Khan completed his purchase of the club from Mohamed Al-Fayed on 12 July 2013 for a reported £150–200 million.During his ownership of Fulham, Al-Fayed had provided the club with £187 million in interest-free loans.", "In March 2011, Fulham posted annual losses of £16.9 million, with Al-Fayed stating that he would \"continue to make funds available to achieve our goals both on and off the pitch\" and that \"the continued success of Fulham and its eventual financial self-sustainability is my priority.\"", "Fulham were effectively debt-free as Al-Fayed converted the loans into equity in the club." ], [ "Honours and achievements", ":Source:'''League'''*Second Division / First Division / Championship (level 2)**Champions: 1948–49, 2000–01, 2021–22**Second-place promotion: 1958–59**Play-off winners: 2018, 2020*Third Division South / Third Division / Second Division (level 3)**Champions: 1931–32, 1998–99**Second-place promotion: 1970–71**Third-place promotion: 1981–82*Third Division (level 4)**Second-place promotion: 1996–97'''Cup'''*FA Cup**Runners-up: 1974–75*UEFA Europa League**Runners-up: 2009–10*UEFA Intertoto Cup**Winners: 2002'''Minor titles'''*Southern League First Division**Champions: 1905–06, 1906–07*Southern League Second Division**Champions: 1901–02, 1902–03*Western League Division One Section A**Champions: 1906–07*West London League**Champions: 1892–93*London Challenge Cup **Winners: 1909–10, 1931–32, 1951–52*West London Cup**Winners: 1886–87, 1890–91 1892–93*London Fives Tournament**Winners: 1955, 1957, 1982" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Frankie Goes to Hollywood" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frankie Goes to Hollywood''' are an English pop band that formed in Liverpool in 1980.They comprise Holly Johnson (vocals) and Paul Rutherford (backing vocals), Mark O'Toole (bass), Brian Nash (guitar) and Peter Gill (drums).Frankie Goes to Hollywood signed to ZTT Records in 1983.Their debut album, ''Welcome to the Pleasuredome'' (1984), produced by Trevor Horn, achieved advance sales of more than a million, and their first three singles, \"Relax\", \"Two Tribes\" and \"The Power of Love\", reached number one on the UK Singles Chart.", "Their provocative sexual themes led them to be briefly banned by the BBC, drawing further publicity.", "In 2014, the music journalist Paul Lester wrote that \"no band has dominated a 12-month period like Frankie ruled 1984\".Johnson, Gill and O'Toole received the 1984 Ivor Novello Award for Best Song Musically and Lyrically for \"Two Tribes\".", "In 1985, Frankie Goes to Hollywood won the Brit Award for British Breakthrough Act and were nominated for Best New Artist at the Grammy Awards and MTV Video Music Awards.Frankie Goes to Hollywood's second album, ''Liverpool'' (1986), sold fewer copies, and they disbanded acrimoniously in 1987.Johnson successfully sued ZTT to leave his contract and began a solo career.", "He declined invitations to reunite and tried to block the band from using the name.", "In 2004, Frankie Goes to Hollywood reunited without Johnson and Nash to perform at a Prince's Trust charity concert, with Ryan Molloy on vocals, and held a tour in 2005.The band reunited with Johnson and Nash for the first time since 1987 to perform for the 2023 Eurovision Song Contest." ], [ "History", "===1980–1982: formation===Frankie Goes to Hollywood formed in Liverpool in 1980.The lead singer, Holly Johnson, had previously played in Big in Japan and had released some unsuccessful solo singles.", "He formed the first version of Frankie Goes to Hollywood with local musicians Phil Hurst (drums), Ambrose (bass), Steve Lovell (guitar), but the group soon split.", "The band's name comes from an advertisement announcing the first film by Frank Sinatra.In 1982, Johnson restarted the group with Peter Gill (drums) and the brothers Mark (bass) and Jed O'Toole (guitar).", "Jed left before 1983, replaced by his cousin, Brian Nash.", "Within the band, O'Toole, Nash and Gill constituted a group known as the Lads.", "Frankie Goes to Hollywood played their first gig at a Liverpool pub, Pickwick's, where they recruited the dancer and backing singer Paul Rutherford.Nash said the band admired the Liverpool groups Echo & the Bunnymen, Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark and the Teardrop Explodes: \"That was music from Liverpool but from our generation.", "You would see these people walking around town, you'd see Ian McCulloch getting on the bus.", "I never saw any of the Beatles on the bus.", "\"=== 1983–1984: \"Relax\", \"Two Tribes\" and success ===Trevor Horn, pictured in 1984 wearing a Frankie Goes to Hollywood shirt, signed the band to ZTT and produced their first album.In February 1983, Frankie Goes to Hollywood performed on the Channel 4 show ''The Tube'', dressed in fetish wear.", "That May, they became the first act signed by ZTT Records, a new record label co-founded by the producer Trevor Horn.", "Horn admired the \"dangerous\" sexuality of their music.", "\"Relax\" was selected as their first single.", "After recording several versions, Horn created a dramatically different arrangement without the band, using electronic instruments such as a drum machine and the Fairlight, an early sampling synthesiser.", "\"Relax\" was released in October 1983, backed by a music video set in an S&M club.", "''Sound on Sound'' described it as a \"hi-NRG brand of dance-synth-pop\" that \"broke new sonic ground, while epitomising '80s excess in all its garish, overblown glory\".", "Initial sales were slow, but rose after the band appeared on the BBC series ''Top of the Pops'' the following January.", "Soon after, the BBC banned \"Relax\" from its radio and television broadcasts, deeming it obscene.", "The ban created publicity, associating Frankie Goes to Hollywood with youth rebellion.", "Within two weeks, \"Relax\" reached number one on the UK Singles Chart and stayed there for four weeks, and the BBC was forced to reverse its ban.", "\"Relax\" won the 1985 Brit Award for Best British Single.One of the ZTT co-founders, Paul Morley, devised a promotional campaign involving \"advertising-based slogans, playful propaganda and pseudo-philosophy\".", "This included a line of T-shirts inspired by shirts created by Katharine Hamnett, bearing slogans such as \"Frankie say relax\" and \"Frankie say arm the unemployed\".", "Morley said he wanted to challenge the idea of music merchandise, asking: \"Why did it have to have a face on it, couldn't it be a walking billboard?\"", "The shirts quickly became popular, and ''Music Week'' reported in July 1984 that they were outselling the singles in some stores.", "By the end of the year, more than 250,000 T-shirts had been sold.", "Frankie Goes to Hollywood appeared in the 1984 thriller ''Body Double'' by Brian De Palma.", "In June, Frankie Goes to Hollywood released their second single, \"Two Tribes\", featuring an \"annihilating\" bassline and lyrics about the Cold War.", "Its music video, depicting a fight between Ronald Reagan and Konstantin Chernenko, was played extensively on MTV.", "The single spent nine weeks at number one on the UK Singles Chart.", "That August, \"Relax\" climbed the chart to number two, marking the first time the top two positions had been held by a single act since the Beatles in January 1968.=== 1984–1985: ''Welcome to the Pleasuredome'' ===Frankie Goes to Hollywood released their debut album, ''Welcome to the Pleasuredome'', featuring \"Relax\" and \"Two Tribes\", in October 1984.It had advance sales of a million copies.", "A third single, the ballad \"The Power of Love\", was released in November and reached number one in December.", "The group became the second in the history of the UK charts to reach number one with their first three singles, after another Liverpool band, Gerry and the Pacemakers, in the 1960s.", "This record remained unbeaten until the Spice Girls achieved a six-single streak in 1996–1997.Writing in the ''Guardian'' in 2014, Paul Lester wrote that \"no band has dominated a 12-month period like Frankie ruled 1984\".", "As of 2014, \"Relax\" and \"Two Tribes\" were the sixth and 22nd-bestselling singles in UK history.", "By the end of the 1984, during sell-out shows in Los Angeles and promotional touring in the United States, Johnson had distanced himself from the band, spending time with his new boyfriend, Wolfgang Kuhle.", "In 1985, Frankie Goes to Hollywood won the Brit Award for British Breakthrough Act.", "In the US, where they were associated with the Second British Invasion, they received nominations for Best New Artist at the 27th Annual Grammy Awards and the 1985 MTV Video Music Awards.", "Their fourth single, \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\", was released in March 1985, and reached number two.Ocean Software published a Frankie Goes to Hollywood game for the Commodore 64, Amstrad CPC and ZX Spectrum in 1985.The player completes a series of minigames to solve a murder mystery, featuring references to the band's lyrics, videos and artwork.=== 1985–1986: ''Liverpool'' and decline ===In 1985, Frankie Goes to Hollywood left the UK for a year for tax purposes and wrote songs for their second album in Ireland.", "The media reported that disputes had formed within the band.", "They began recording their second album, ''Liverpool'', in Wisseloord Studios, near Amsterdam, in November 1985.Between March and June 1986, they worked in ZTT's studio Sarm West in London.", "The album was produced by the ZTT engineer Stephen Lipson; Horn took over mixing in its final stages.", "Johnson was distant from the band during the sessions and was unhappy about the album's focus on rock over dance.", "Jill Sinclair, Horn's wife and one of the ZTT founders, later alleged that Johnson had been uncooperative and absent for most of the sessions.", "According to Nash, the Duran Duran singer Simon Le Bon declined an invitation to replace Johnson.", "Pete Wylie was also approached, but Johnson remained with the band and completed ''Liverpool''.In August 1986, the first single from ''Liverpool'', \"Rage Hard\", was released, reaching number 4 in the UK.", "''Liverpool'' was released in October 1986 and reached UK No.", "5.It received poor reviews and chart returns declined rapidly with the follow-up singles \"Warriors of the Wasteland\" (No.", "19) and \"Watching the Wildlife\" (No. 28).", "Horn spent three months creating remixes of \"Watching the Wildlife\" and \"Warriors of the Wasteland\" for the single releases, spending an estimated £50,000.By March 1988, ''Liverpool'' had sold around 800,000 copies.=== 1987–1988: disbandment and lawsuit ===During the ''Liverpool'' tour, the relationship between Johnson and the rest of the band deteriorated.", "Before a concert at Wembley Arena on 12-13 January, a fight broke out backstage between Johnson and O'Toole.", "Johnson said that ZTT had encouraged the rift as a means of divide and rule, and said that Horn had once suggested Johnson and Rutherford fire the other members and work as a duo.", "Sinclair instead blamed Johnson's manager and boyfriend, Kuhle, whom she said was a negative influence and had triggered resentment in the band when Johnson brought him on tour.", "Nash recalled: \"During the last tour, everybody knew it would end, as the relationship between Holly and the rest of us was so strained.", "He didn't want to be in a band situation anymore.", "Everybody was fed up with the whole thing.\"", "Their last live concert was on 1 March at Rotterdam Ahoy.On July 23, 1987, Johnson told ZTT that he planned to leave and sign to MCA Records.", "ZTT filed an injunction to prevent this, as their record contract specified that any member who left the band would remain contracted to ZTT.", "In court, ZTT argued that the success of Frankie Goes to Hollywood was a result of ZTT's production and marketing and that Johnson had been disruptive and uncooperative.", "Johnson's team argued that ZTT had been financially irresponsible when recording ''Liverpool'', and that their contract constituted an unreasonable restraint of trade.", "In 1988, the High Court found in Johnson's favour and the band members were released from their contract.", "Horn later wrote that his decision to pursue the lawsuit had been \"stupid\".", "Soon after the breakup, Nash, O'Toole and Gill attempted to re-form Frankie Goes to Hollywood with the singer Grant Boult.", "According to Nash, they recorded songs in a deal with London Records.", "Johnson blocked the project, saying it would devalue their achievements.=== 1989–present: solo projects ===Holly Johnson performing solo in 2014Johnson began a solo career with MCA, and released a number-one album, ''Blast'', in 1989.His second solo album, ''Dreams That Money Can't Buy'', released in 1991, was unsuccessful.", "That year, Johnson was diagnosed with HIV and retreated from public life to focus on his health.", "In 1994, he published an autobiography, ''A Bone in My Flute''.", "He has since released further albums and studied at the Royal College of Art.Nash returned to work as an electrician, and signed to Swanyard Records to record music with Boult as Low.", "He later became an officiator of weddings and funerals and a tour guide of Liverpool's musical heritage.", "He published a memoir, ''Nasher Says Relax'', in 2012.O'Toole moved to Los Angeles, where he wrote and demoed new music, and later moved to Florida.", "Gill toured as part of an Australian soap actor's band, and formed a music production company, Love Station, which released singles featuring vocalists including Lisa Hunt.", "Rutherford released a single, a cover of the Chic track \"I Want Your Love\", and an album, ''Oh World'', in 1989, which were unsuccessful.", "He released another single, \"That Moon\", as Paul Rutherford with Pressure Zone in 1991, and worked as a stylist for bands.", "He appeared in the music videos for \"Walking on Broken Glass\" (1992) by Annie Lennox and \"Give In to Me\" (1993) by Michael Jackson.", "He later moved to New Zealand.=== 1998–2000: American impostor band ===In 1998, a band using the name Frankie Goes to Hollywood began to tour the United States.", "The band was led by an American using the stage name Davey Johnson, who claimed he was Holly Johnson's brother and had performed as an uncredited session musician on ''Welcome to the Pleasuredome''.", "The members of Frankie Goes to Hollywood and Horn refuted both claims.", "O'Toole, who had been living in Florida, became aware of the band and warned concert promoters not to hire them.", "The Flock of Seagulls frontman Mike Score, who had been a Liverpool acquaintance of the members of Frankie Goes to Hollywood, removed the fraudulent band from his tour.", "After Johnson contacted the trade magazine ''Pollstar'' to confirm that the act was unauthorised, they were dropped by a booking agent, but were booked by small clubs throughout the southern United States.", "They continued to perform until at least September 2000, when a feature on the episode was published in ''Spin''.", "In 2000, ZTT released a Frankie Goes to Hollywood greatest-hits compilation, ''Maximum Joy'', featuring remixes by acts including Apollo 440.=== 2003–2007: reunion, performances with Ryan Molloy and trademark dispute ===The band members reunited in Holloway, London, for a 2003 episode of the VH1 show ''Bands Reunited'', but did not perform.", "In an interview the following year for ''Uncut'', Johnson said he had not wanted to perform with the band again and felt the episode was a \"debacle\".", "In his 2012 memoir, Nash, who had also been uninterested in a reunion, described the VH1 episode as a \"circus\" that had tried to depict Johnson negatively.On 11 November 2004, Frankie Goes to Hollywood reunited without Johnson and Nash to perform at a Prince's Trust charity concert at Wembley Arena celebrating Horn's 25 years as a record producer.", "Johnson and Nash declined to take part.", "In his memoir, Nash wrote that he gave the band his blessing and attended the event.", "Following open auditions held on 31 October in Leicester Square, London, Ryan Molloy was selected as the new vocalist.", "O'Toole's brother Jed, who had played in the band in the 1980s, replaced Nash.", "''PopMatters'' wrote that the Wembley performance had \"unstoppable 1984 pop glory\" and \"even strong detractors of the group would likely be won over by energy the band members radiate\".", "The ''Independent'' wrote that it \"fell somewhat flat\".", "Writing in ''The'' ''Guardian'', Alexis Petridis wrote that the show \"ultimately underwhelms\" and that the songs \"were designed as studio-bound production extravaganzas, not live showstoppers\".", "Nash praised the performance and wrote that \"Molloy did a great job filling Holly's shoes\".", "In his memoir, Horn wrote that Molloy \"was a hell of a good frontman\".The Wembley performance was followed by a series of concerts across Europe in 2005, including at Northampton Balloon Festival, and Big Gay Out in Finsbury Park, London.", "In 2006, Molloy said he had written new songs for Frankie Goes to Hollywood.", "However, the material went unreleased and a European tour was canceled.", "The group remained active until 2007 using the name Forbidden Hollywood, as Johnson would not allow them to use the original name.", "In April 2004, Johnson attempted to register the name Frankie Goes to Hollywood as a trademark for his exclusive use, arguing that it was his intellectual property as he had used it for a previous band.", "The other original four band members opposed the registration, and in 2007 it was blocked by a Intellectual Property Office trademark judge, who ruled that Johnson had acted in bad faith in an attempt to prevent the band performing without him.=== 2011–2023: reissues, reunion with Johnson and biopic ===In 2011, ZTT reissued ''Liverpool'' in an expanded edition, plus ''The Art of the 12\"'', a compilation of tracks from ZTT artists including Frankie Goes to Hollywood.", "Universal Music acquired the Frankie Goes to Hollywood back catalogue when it purchased ZTT in 2017.On 7 May 2023, the original members, including Johnson and Nash, reunited for a concert featuring multiple acts celebrating Liverpool music for the Eurovision Song Contest.", "They performed one song, \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\".", "It was their first performance together since 1987.The performance drew praise but disappointed those hoping for more songs.", "The ''Telegraph'' gave it three out of five, writing that Johnson remained \"a commanding presence\" but that the short set was disappointing.", "The BBC wrote: \"Maybe one song is as much time as the five band members can bear to share a stage for—but at least they proved that they and their music can still sound compelling and fresh.", "\"On 10 May, Working Title Films announced it was developing a Frankie Goes to Hollywood biographical film, ''Relax'', based on Johnson's memoir.", "It will be written and directed by Bernard Rose, the director of the first \"Relax\" music video, with Callum Scott Howells as Johnson." ], [ "Style and legacy", "Johnson and Rutherford are openly gay, and Frankie Goes to Hollywood made gay rights and sexuality a theme of their music and performances.", "They were connected to a rise in gay culture in the 1980s British mainstream, alongside bands such as Bronski Beat.", "In 2014, Morley reflected that Frankie Goes to Hollywood had combined the \"exploratory gay energy\" of Johnson and Rutherford with the \"heterosexual scouse energy\" of the other band members.As Frankie Goes to Hollywood rose in popularity, some outlets reported that they were a \"manufactured\" group controlled by ZTT.", "A 1984 article in the ''Washington Post'' described them as \"a modern-day Monkees, a post-punk Village People sprung forth fully armed from the brow of junk culture\".", "As only Johnson performed on the studio version of \"Relax\", and the band did not tour during 1984 at the height of their popularity, rumours spread that they could not play their instruments.", "Johnson said the media had undermined them and underestimated their contributions to their records.", "Horn said later that the British music media often misunderstood the processes involved in studio recording.", "He said the band were \"better than people gave them credit for\", and cited \"The Power of Love\", \"Born to Run\" and \"Krisco Kisses\" as examples of their playing on ''Welcome to the Pleasuredome''.In 2014, the music journalist Paul Lester wrote that although Frankie Goes to Hollywood were \"arguably the last great British pop sensation\", they were rarely cited as an influence on other artists.", "He wrote that this was because \"it would be impossible to recreate what they did\".", "Morley observed that despite having released two of most successful records of the 1980s, they had become \"slightly lost ...", "The fact that something was so successful yet is part of a shadowy history is ultimate proof that it was special.", "They were like some contorted, profound novelty band.\"", "However, he argued that they had changed how commercial pop music was marketed, with more artistic and \"beautiful\" packaging and music videos." ], [ "Personnel", "* Holly Johnson – vocals (1980–1987, 2023)* Paul Rutherford – vocals, keyboards, tambourine (1982–1987, 2004–2007, 2023)* Mark O'Toole – bass, vocals (1981–1987, 2004–2007, 2023)* Brian Nash – guitars, vocals (1982–1987, 2023)* Peter Gill – drums (1981–1987, 2004–2007, 2023)'''Past members'''* Jed O'Toole – guitars, vocals (1981–1982, 2004–2007)* Ryan Molloy – vocals (2004–2007)" ], [ "Awards and nominations", " Year Awards Work Category Result 1984 Ivor Novello Awards \"Two Tribes\" Best Song Musically And Lyrically NME Awards Promo Video ''Welcome to the Pleasuredome'' Best Dressed Sleeve \"Relax\" Best Single 1985 Ivor Novello Awards Best Contemporary Song Brit Awards Best British Single Themselves Best British Newcomer Best British Group ''Welcome to the Pleasuredome'' Best British Album \"Two Tribes\" Best British Single MTV Video Music Awards Best New Artist Best Concept Video Pollstar Concert Industry Awards Themselves Which Artist is Most Likely to Successfully Headline Arenas for the First time in 1985?", "1986 Tour Small Hall/Club Tour of the Year 2010 Q Awards \"Relax\" Classic Song" ], [ "Discography", "* ''Welcome to the Pleasuredome'' (1984)* ''Liverpool'' (1986)" ], [ "Concert tours", "* English Tour (1983)* North American-English \"Welcome To The Pleasuredome\" Tour (1984)* British-European-North American-Japanese Tour (1985) * British-European \"Liverpool\" Tour (1987)* European-British \"Reunion\" Tour (2005)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Frankie Goes to Hollywood official website* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Factors of production" ], [ "Introduction", "In economics, '''factors of production''', '''resources''', or '''inputs''' are what is used in the production process to produce output—that is, goods and services.", "The utilized amounts of the various inputs determine the quantity of output according to the relationship called the production function.", "There are four ''basic'' resources or factors of production: land, labour, capital and entrepreneur (or enterprise).", "The factors are also frequently labeled \"'''producer goods or services'''\" to distinguish them from the goods or services purchased by consumers, which are frequently labeled \"consumer goods\".There are two types of factors: ''primary'' and ''secondary''.", "The previously mentioned primary factors are land, labour and capital.", "Materials and energy are considered secondary factors in classical economics because they are obtained from land, labour, and capital.", "The primary factors facilitate production but neither becomes part of the product (as with raw materials) nor becomes significantly transformed by the production process (as with fuel used to power machinery).", "Land includes not only the site of production but also natural resources above or below the soil.", "Recent usage has distinguished human capital (the stock of knowledge in the labor force) from labour.", "Entrepreneurship is also sometimes considered a factor of production.", "Sometimes the overall state of technology is described as a factor of production.", "The number and definition of factors vary, depending on theoretical purpose, empirical emphasis, or school of economics." ], [ "Historical schools and factors", "In the interpretation of the currently dominant view of classical economic theory developed by neoclassical economists, the term \"factors\" did not exist until after the classical period and is not to be found in any of the literature of that time.Differences are most stark when it comes to deciding which factor is the most important.=== Physiocracy ===Physiocracy (from the Greek for \"government of nature\") is an economic theory developed by a group of 18th century Enlightenment French economists who believed that the wealth of nations was derived solely from the value of \"land agriculture\" or \"land development\" and that agricultural products should be highly priced.=== Classical ===An advertisement for labor from Sabah and Sarawak seen in Jalan Petaling, Kuala LumpurThe classical economics of Adam Smith, David Ricardo, and their followers focus on physical resources in defining its factors of production and discuss the distribution of cost and value among these factors.", "Adam Smith and David Ricardo referred to the \"component parts of price\" as the costs of using:* Land or natural resource — naturally occurring goods like water, air, soil, minerals, flora, fauna and climate that are used in the creation of products.", "The payment given to a landowner is rent, loyalties, commission and goodwill.", "* Labor — human effort used in production which also includes technical and marketing expertise.", "The payment for someone else's labor and all income received from one's own labor is wages.", "Labor can also be classified as the physical and mental contribution of an employee to the production of the good(s).", "* Capital stock — human-made goods which are used in the production of other goods.", "These include machinery, tools, and buildings.", "They are of two types, fixed and working.", "Fixed are one time investments like machines, tools and working consists of liquid cash or money in hand and raw material.The classical economists also employed the word \"capital\" in reference to money.", "Money, however, was not considered to be a factor of production in the sense of capital stock since it is not used to directly produce any good.", "The return to loaned money or to loaned stock was styled as interest while the return to the actual proprietor of capital stock (tools, etc.)", "was styled as profit.", "See also returns.=== Marxism ===Marx considered the \"elementary factors of the labor-process\" or \"productive forces\" to be:* Labor* Subject of labor (objects transformed by labor)* Instruments of labor (or means of labor).The \"subject of labor\" refers to natural resources and raw materials, including land.", "The \"instruments of labor\" are tools, in the broadest sense.", "They include factory buildings, infrastructure, and other human-made objects that facilitate labor's production of goods and services.This view seems similar to the classical perspective described above.", "But unlike the classical school and many economists today, Marx made a clear distinction between labor actually done and an individual's \"labor power\" or ability to work.", "Labor done is often referred to nowadays as \"effort\" or \"labor services.\"", "Labor-power might be seen as a stock which can produce a flow of labor.Labor, not labor power, is the key factor of production for Marx and the basis for earlier economists' labor theory of value.", "The hiring of labor power only results in the production of goods or services (\"use-values\") when organized and regulated (often by the \"management\").", "How much labor is actually done depends on the importance of conflict or tensions within the labor process.=== Neoclassical economics ===Neoclassical economics, one of the branches of mainstream economics, started with the classical factors of production of land, labor, and capital.", "However, it developed an alternative theory of value and distribution.", "Many of its practitioners have added various further factors of production (see below).Further distinctions from classical and neoclassical microeconomics include the following:* Capital — this has many meanings, including the financial capital raised to operate and expand a business.", "In much of economics, however, \"capital\" (without any qualification) means goods that can help produce other goods in the future, the result of investment.", "It refers to machines, roads, factories, schools, infrastructure, and office buildings which humans have produced to create goods and services.", "* Fixed capital — this includes machinery, factories, equipment, new technology, buildings, computers, and other goods that are designed to increase the productive potential of the economy for future years.", "Nowadays, many consider computer software to be a form of fixed capital and it is counted as such in the National Income and Product Accounts of the United States and other countries.", "This type of capital does not change due to the production of the good.", "* Working capital — this includes the stocks of finished and semi-finished goods that will be economically consumed in the near future or will be made into a finished consumer good in the near future.", "These are often called inventory.", "The phrase \"working capital\" has also been used to refer to liquid assets (money) needed for immediate expenses linked to the production process (to pay salaries, invoices, taxes, interests...) Either way, the amount or nature of this type of capital usually changes during the production process.", "* Financial capital — this is simply the amount of money the initiator of the business has invested in it.", "\"Financial capital\" often refers to his or her net worth tied up in the business (assets minus liabilities) but the phrase often includes money borrowed from others.", "* Technological progress — For over a century, economists have known that capital and labor do not account for all economic growth.", "To include the technological progress into the theory, it was proposed to introduce capital service and labour service as production factors in line with capital and labour.", "This is reflected in ''total factor productivity'' and the ''Solow residual'' used in economic models called ''production functions'' that account for the contributions of capital and labor, yet have some unexplained contributor which is commonly called ''technological progress''.", "Russian economist Vladimir Pokrovskii proposed to consider capital service as one of independent production factors in line with labour and capital.", "Capital service as production factor was interpreted by Ayres and Warr as useful work of production equipment, which makes it possible to reproduce historical rates of economic growth with considerable precision and without recourse to exogenous and unexplained technological progress, thereby overcoming the major flaw of the Solow Theory of economic growth.=== Ecological economics ===Ecological economics is an alternative to neoclassical economics.", "It integrates, among other things, the first and second laws of thermodynamics (see: Laws of thermodynamics) to formulate more realistic economic systems that adhere to fundamental physical limitations.", "In addition to the neoclassical focus on efficient allocation, ecological economics emphasizes sustainability of scale and just distribution.", "Ecological economics also differ from neoclassical theories in its definitions of factors of production, replacing them with the following:* Matter — the material from which products are produced.", "Matter can be recycled or reused through refining or reforming, but it cannot be created or destroyed, placing an upper limit on the amount of material that can be withdrawn and used.", "Consequently, the total amount of available matter is fixed, and once all the available matter is used, nothing more can be produced without recycling or reusing matter from prior products.", "* Energy — the physical but non-material inputs of production.", "We can place different forms of energy on a scale of utility depending on how useful it is for creating a product.", "Due to the law of entropy, energy tends to decrease in utility over time.", "(e.g.", "electricity, a very useful form of energy, is used to run a machine that builds a stuffed bear.", "In the process, however, electricity is converted to heat, a less useful form of energy).", "Like matter, energy can neither be created nor destroyed and thus there is also an upper limit to the total amount usable energy.", "* Design intelligence — a factor that incorporates the knowledge, creativity, and efficiency of how goods are created - the better the design, the more efficient and beneficial the creation is.", "Designs are usually improvements on their predecessors since our store of accumulated knowledge grows with time.", "One possible neoclassical analogue of design intelligence is technological progress.Integral to ecological economics is the following notion: at the maximum rates of sustainable matter and energy uptake, the only way to increase productivity would be through an increase in design intelligence.", "This provides the basis for a core tenet of ecological economics, namely that infinite growth is impossible." ], [ "The fourth factor", "In the first half of the 20th century, some authors added the work of organization or entrepreneurship as a fourth factor of production.", "This became standard in the post-war Neoclassical synthesis.", "For example, J.", "B. Clark saw the co-ordinating function in production and distribution as being served by entrepreneurs; Frank Knight introduced managers who co-ordinate using their own money (financial capital) and the financial capital of others.", "In contrast, many economists today consider \"human capital\" (skills and education) as the fourth factor of production, with entrepreneurship as a form of human capital.", "Yet others refer to intellectual capital.", "More recently, many have begun to see \"social capital\" as a factor, as contributing to production of goods and services.=== Entrepreneurship ===In markets, entrepreneurs combine the other factors of production, land, labor, and capital, to make a profit.", "Often these entrepreneurs are seen as innovators, developing new ways to produce new products.", "In a planned economy, central planners decide how land, labor, and capital should be used to provide for maximum benefit for all citizens.", "Just as with market entrepreneurs, the benefits may mostly accrue to the entrepreneurs themselves.The sociologist C. Wright Mills refers to \"new entrepreneurs\" who work within and between corporate and government bureaucracies in new and different ways.", "Others (such as those practicing public choice theory) refer to \"political entrepreneurs\", i.e., politicians and other actors.Much controversy rages about the benefits produced by entrepreneurship.", "But the real issue is about how well institutions they operate in (markets, planning, bureaucracies, government) serve the public.", "This concerns such issues as the relative importance of market failure and government failure.In the book ''Accounting of Ideas'', \"intequity\", a neologism, is abstracted from equity to add a newly researched production factor of the capitalist system.", "Equity, which is regarded as part of capital, was divided into equity and intequity.", "Intequity means capital of ideas.", "Entrepreneurship was divided into network-related matters and creating-related matters.", "Network-related matters function in the sphere of equity, and creating-related matters in spheres of intequities.=== Natural resources ===Ayres and Warr (2010) are among the economists who criticize orthodox economics for overlooking the role of natural resources and the effects of declining resource capital.", "See also: ''Natural resource economics''=== Energy ===Exercise can be seen as individual factor of production, with an elastication larger than labor.", "A cointegration analysis support results derived from linear exponential (LINEX) production functions.=== Cultural heritage ===C.", "H. Douglas disagreed with classical economists who recognized only three factors of production.", "While Douglas did not deny the role of these factors in production, he considered the \"Cultural heritage\" as the primary factor.", "He defined cultural inheritance as the knowledge, techniques, and processes that have accrued to us incrementally from the origins of civilization (i.e., progress).", "Consequently, mankind does not have to keep \"reinventing the wheel\".", "\"We are merely the administrators of that cultural inheritance, and to that extent, the cultural inheritance is the property of all of us, without exception.", "Adam Smith, David Ricardo, and Karl Marx claimed that labor creates all value.", "While Douglas did not deny that all costs ultimately relate to labour charges of some sort (past or present), he denied that the present labour of the world creates all wealth.", "Douglas carefully distinguished between value, costs and prices.", "He claimed that one of the factors resulting in a misdirection of thought in terms of the nature and function of money was economists' near-obsession about values and their relation to prices and incomes.", "While Douglas recognized \"value in use\" as a legitimate theory of values, he also considered values as subjective and not capable of being measured in an objective manner.Peter Kropotkin argued for the common ownership of all intellectual and useful property due to the collective work that went into creating it.", "Kropotkin does not argue that the product of a worker's labor should belong to the worker.", "Instead, Kropotkin asserts that every individual product is essentially the work of everyone since every individual relies on the intellectual and physical labor of those who came before them as well as those who built the world around them.", "Because of this, Kropotkin proclaims that every human deserves an essential right to well-being because every human contributes to the collective social product: Kropotkin goes on to say that the central obstacle preventing humanity from claiming this right is the state's violent protection of private property.", "Kropotkin compares this relationship to feudalism, saying that even if the forms have changed, the essential relationship between the propertied and the landless is the same as the relationship between a feudal lord and their serfs." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fort Wayne, Indiana" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fort Wayne''' is a city in and the county seat of Allen County, Indiana, United States.", "Located in northeastern Indiana, the city is west of the Ohio border and south of the Michigan border.", "The city's population was 263,886 as of the 2020 census, making it the second-most populous city in Indiana after Indianapolis, and the 83rd-most populous city in the United States.", "It is the principal city of the Fort Wayne metropolitan area, consisting of Allen and Whitley counties which had an estimated population of 423,038 as of 2021.Fort Wayne is the cultural and economic center of northeastern Indiana.", "In addition to the two core counties, the combined statistical area (CSA) includes Adams, DeKalb, Huntington, Noble, Steuben, and Wells counties, with an estimated population of 649,105 in 2021.Fort Wayne was built in 1794 by the United States Army under the direction of American Revolutionary War general Anthony Wayne, the last in a series of forts built near the Miami village of Kekionga.", "Named in Wayne's honor, the European-American settlement developed at the confluence of the St. Joseph, St. Marys, and Maumee rivers, known originally as Fort Miami, a trading post constructed by Jean Baptiste Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes around 1706.The modern city was platted in 1823 following its revitalization after the War of 1812 and its siege.", "It underwent tremendous growth after completion of the Wabash and Erie Canal and advent of the railroad.", "Once a booming manufacturing town located in what became known as the Rust Belt, Fort Wayne's economy in the 21st century is based upon distribution, transportation and logistics; healthcare, professional and business services; leisure and hospitality, and financial services.", "The city is a center for the defense industry which employs 1-2% of the population.Fort Wayne was an All-America City Award recipient in 1983, 1998, 2009, and 2021.The city also received an Outstanding Achievement City Livability Award by the U.S. Conference of Mayors in 1999." ], [ "History", "===Early history=======The Native Americans and New France====An illustrated 1789 map of KekiongaLittle TurtleAnthony Wayne==== Original settlement and French control (1706-1760) ====This area here on the river confluence was occupied by successive cultures of indigenous peoples for as long as 10,000 years.", "The Miami tribe would eventually establish its settlement of Kekionga at this confluence of the Maumee, St. Joseph, and St. Marys rivers in the late stages of the Beaver Wars in the 1690s.", "It was the capital of the Miami nation and related Algonquian tribes.In 1696, Comte de Frontenac appointed Jean Baptiste Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes, who began visiting Kekionga in 1702, and would later build the original Fort Miami here in the wilderness and pays d'en Haut of New France around 1706; Initially, a small trading outpost.", "It was part of a group of forts and trading posts built between Quebec and St. Louis.", "The first census in 1744 recorded a population of approximately 40 Frenchmen and 1,000 Miamians.====From the British back to the Miami (1760-1776)====Increasing tension between France and Great Britain developed over control of the territory.", "In 1760, France ceded the area to Britain after its forces in North America surrendered during the Seven Years' War, known on the North American front as the French and Indian War.", "Managing to hold down the fort for only a mere couple of years, the British lost control of it in 1763 when various Native American nations rebelled against British rule and retook the fort as part of Pontiac's Rebellion.", "From this point forward in 1763, no active fort existed at Kekionga for the next three decades until American General Anthony Wayne established Fort Wayne in 1794, following the Battle of Fallen Timbers.", "The fort throughout this period was described as a, \"Defiant mixture of Indian warriors and lawless renegades of the frontier, such as the Girties.", "It was also the home of a heterogeneous population of English and French traders and their families, French 'engages\", and Miami, Delaware and Shawnee tribes.", "\"In 1772, the British regained influence over the village after Sir William Johnson suggested to the government that the fort be reoccupied.", "The mixed population of the Kekionga area had moved past antipathy with the British by this point, and accepted their friendship.", "In 1776, Officer Jacques LaSalle moved into the village to conduct strict supervision on behalf of the British government, ensuring that the natives remained loyal to the British, and to check passports with travelers coming down from Fort Detroit.====American Revolution to the Old Northwest====The British continued to monitor Kekionga and Fort Miami throughout the American Revolutionary War.", "In 1780, French Canadian soldiers coming to assist the U.S. with the revolution were slaughtered in several nearby locations in what is known as La Balme's Defeat.", "At the end of the Revolutionary War, in the Treaty of Paris in 1783, Britain ceded this area to the new United States, though they continued to maintain an influence on trading activity and the forts of Miami, with the primary objective being to slow American expansion into the Great Lakes region.", "The young United States formally organized the region in the Land Ordinance of 1785 and negotiated treaties allowing settlement, but the Western Confederacy of Native American nations were not party to these treaties and did not cede their ownership of those lands.American land speculators and pioneers began flooding down the Ohio River into the area, leading to conflict with an alliance of native tribes known as the Western Confederacy.", "It was headquartered at Kekionga, where the Miami had permitted two refugee tribes dislodged by white homesteaders, the Delaware and the Shawnee, to resettle.", "The confederacy—which included other Great Lakes and Algonquin tribes as well—began sending war parties to raid settlers, hoping to drive them back across the Appalachian Mountains, and refused to meet for negotiations over a possible treaty to instead cede land for white settlement.", "The growing violence led to the Northwest Indian War.In 1790, President George Washington ordered the U.S. Army to subdue and pacify the tribes.", "The first expedition, led by General Josiah Harmar reached Kekionga and exercised scorched earth tactics on the village and crops.", "Miami war chief Little Turtle, who had been long tracking the whereabouts of Harmar though the aid of various agents such as Simon Girty, would quickly drive Harmar and the US troops away.", "The confederacy warriors attacked the second invading force, led in 1791 by General Arthur St. Clair, before it could get that far and wiped it out, in a massacre known as St. Clair's Defeat at modern-day Fort Recovery, Ohio.", "It's known as the greatest defeat of the U.S. Army by Native Americans in history.", "This defeat left the US army crippled and borders open to attacks from the British and allied native tribes.", "General Anthony Wayne was recalled from civilian life to lead a third expedition, defeating the confederacy's warriors at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, near modern-day Toledo, Ohio on August 20, 1794.Wayne's men then marched up the Maumee River, systematically burning evacuated native towns, crops, and winter food stores, until they reached its headwaters, where Kekionga remained in ruins.", "Wayne then confronted the British at Fort Miami, where the British debated an attack.", "Later, Wayne selected the site for construction of Fort Wayne, he ordered a fort that could withstand heavy British artillery, especially a 24-pound cannon, along with attacks from their army or native allies.The following year, Wayne negotiated a peace accord, the Treaty of Greenville with tribal leaders, in which they agreed to stop fighting, end support of the British, and ceded most of what is now Ohio along with certain tracts further west, including the area around Fort Wayne encompassing Kekionga and the land portage.", "Wayne promised the remainder would remain Indian lands, which is why the territory west of Ohio was named Indiana.", "Wayne would die one year later and a Spanish spy James Wilkinson would assume his role as General.", "In subsequent years, the government used Fort Wayne to hand out annual payments under the treaty.", "But in a recurring cycle, the tribes ran up debts to white traders who came there to sell them alcohol and manufactured goods, and the government pushed tribal leaders—including through bribes—to sell more reservation land to pay off those debts and, when the land was gone, then to agree to have the tribe removed to the Far West.In 1802, a United States fur trade factory was established in Fort Wayne.", "It was burned by the local Indians at the beginning of the War of 1812.====Settlement permitted by Treaty of St. Mary's====An illustration depicting the 1812 military garrisonThe first settlement started in 1815.In 1819, the military garrison abandoned the fort and moved to Detroit.", "In 1822, a federal land office opened to sell land ceded by local Native Americans by the Treaty of St. Mary's in 1818.Platted in 1823 at the Ewing Tavern, the village became an important frontier outpost and was incorporated as the Town of Fort Wayne in 1829, with a population of 300.The Wabash and Erie Canal's opening improved travel conditions to the Great Lakes and Mississippi River, exposing Fort Wayne to expanded economic opportunities.", "The population topped 2,000 when the town was incorporated as the City of Fort Wayne on February 22, 1840.Pioneer newspaperman George W. Wood was elected the city's first mayor.", "Fort Wayne's \"Summit City\" nickname dates from this period, referring to the city's position at the highest elevation along the canal's route.", "As influential as the canal was to the city's earliest development, it quickly became obsolete after briefly competing with the city's first railroad, the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago Railway, completed in 1854.===Modern history===A lithograph of Fort Wayne (1868)At the turn of the 20th century, the population of Fort Wayne nearly reached 50,000, attributed to a large influx of German and Irish immigrants.", "Fort Wayne's \"urban working class\" thrived in industrial and railroad-related jobs.", "The city's economy was substantially based on manufacturing, ushering in an era of innovation with several notable inventions and developments coming out of the city over the years, such as gasoline pumps (1885), the refrigerator (1913), and in 1972, the first home video game console.", "The Great Flood of 1913 caused seven deaths, left 15,000 homeless, and damaged over 5,500 buildings in the worst natural disaster in the city's history.As the automobile's prevalence grew, Fort Wayne became a fixture on the Lincoln Highway.", "Aviation arrived in 1919 with the opening of the city's first airport, Smith Field.", "The airport served as Fort Wayne's primary commercial airfield until Baer Field (now Fort Wayne International Airport) was transferred to the city in 1947 after serving as a military base during World War II.Lincoln Bank Tower, completed as Indiana's tallest building, in 1930Fort Wayne was hit by the Great Depression beginning in 1929, with most factories cutting their workforce.", "The stock market crash did not discourage plans to build the city's first skyscraper and Indiana's tallest building at the time, the Lincoln Bank Tower.", "By 1935, the New Deal's WPA put over 7,000 residents back to work through local infrastructure improvements, including the construction of new parks, bridges, viaducts, and a $5.2 million sewage treatment facility.The post-World War II economic boom helped the city prosper once again.", "Between 1950 and 1955, more than 5,000 homes were built, many in large subdivisions in rural Allen County.", "In 1950, Fort Wayne's first bypass, Coliseum Boulevard, opened on the north side of the city, followed by the city's first arena, War Memorial Coliseum, bringing new opportunities for suburban expansion.", "The Coliseum was home to the NBA's Fort Wayne Pistons from 1952 to 1957.The opening of enclosed shopping malls and the construction of Interstate 69 through rural areas north and west of the city proper further drove the exodus of retail from downtown through the 1960s.", "According to the Fort Wayne Home Builders Association estimates, more than 80 percent of new home construction occurred outside the city proper in the 1970s.Like many cities in the Rust Belt, deindustrialization in the 1980s brought urban blight, increased crime, and a decrease in blue-collar manufacturing jobs.", "Downtown and surrounding neighborhoods continued declining as residents and businesses sprawled further into rural Allen County.", "A 1982 flood forced an evacuation of 9,000 residents, damaging 2,000 buildings, and costing $56.1 million (1982 USD, $137 million 2015 USD), prompting a visit from then president of the United States, Ronald Reagan.In the 1990s, the city began a turnaround.", "Local leaders focused on crime reduction, economic diversification, and downtown redevelopment.", "By 1999, Fort Wayne's crime rate decreased to the lowest levels since 1974, and the city's economy recovered, with the unemployment rate hovering at 2.4 percent in 1998.Clearing blighted buildings downtown resulted in new public greenspaces, including Headwaters Park, which has become the premier community gathering space and centerpiece in the city's $50 million flood control project.", "Fort Wayne celebrated its bicentennial in 1994.The city continued to concentrate on downtown redevelopment and investment in the 2000s.", "The decade saw the beginnings of its transformation, with renovations and expansions of the Allen County Public Library, Grand Wayne Convention Center, and Fort Wayne Museum of Art.", "In 2007, the $130 million Harrison Square development was launched, creating Parkview Field.", "Suburban growth continued, with the opening of Fort Wayne's first lifestyle center, Jefferson Pointe, and the half-billion dollar Parkview Regional Medical Center in 2012." ], [ "Geography", "Fort Wayne is in the East North Central region of the Midwestern United States, in northeastern Indiana, west of Ohio and south of Michigan.", "According to the 2010 census, Fort Wayne has a total area of , of which (or 99.81%) is land and (or 0.19%) is water.===Topography===Aerial of Fort Wayne in 2019The St. Marys River (left) and St. Joseph River (right) converge to form the Maumee River (foreground).", "A flooded Superior Street in 1982 A flood gauge along the St. Mary's PathwayFor a regional summit, the city is situated on flat land characterized by little topographical relief, a result of the Wisconsin glaciation episode.", "Receding glaciers eroded the land, depositing an evenly distributed layer of sediment during the last glacial period.", "The most distinguishable topographical feature is Cedar Creek Canyon, just north of the city proper near Huntertown.", "The Fort Wayne Moraine follows two of the city's three rivers: the St. Marys and St. Joseph.", "The two rivers converge to form the Maumee, which eventually empties into Lake Erie.", "Land east of the moraine includes the former Great Black Swamp, a lacustrine plain formed by Glacial Lake Maumee.", "The Little River flows southwest of Fort Wayne, a tributary of the Wabash River, and remnant of the Maumee Torrent.Fort Wayne is situated on the Saint Lawrence River Divide, a continental divide separating the Great Lakes Basin from the Gulf of Mexico watershed.The most important geographical feature of the area is the short distance over land between the Three Rivers system, which eventually flows to the Atlantic, and the Wabash system, which eventually flows to the Gulf of Mexico.", "This came to be the \"portage\" or carrying place, over which travelers could transport their cargoes from one system to the next.", "This natural crossroads attracted the Native Americans for thousands of years.", "It later attracted the European explorers and traders and the American pioneer settlers who continued to develop the area as a transportation and communications center.", "Chief Little Turtle of the Miami Nation expressed its importance eloquently at the treaty of Greenville in 1795 when he called it \"that glorious gate...through which all the words of our chiefs had to pass through from north to south and from east to west\".Fort Wayne's urban tree canopy is 29 percent, double the state average of 14.5 percent and above the national average of 27.1 percent.", "The canopy is decreasing, notably from development and the emerald ash borer infestation.", "Fort Wayne has been designated a Tree City USA since 1990.===Cityscape===Historically, Fort Wayne has been divided into four unofficial quadrants: northeast, northwest, southeast, and southwest.", "Calhoun Street divides the southwest and southeast, while the St. Joseph River divides the northwest and northeast quadrants.", "The Maumee River separates the northeast and southeast, while portions of the St. Marys River and Chicago, Fort Wayne and Eastern Railroad separate the northwest and southwest quadrants.Fort Wayne's early-20th century development was influenced by the City Beautiful movement and centered on a park and boulevard plan conceived by urban planner Charles Mulford Robinson in 1909 and finalized by landscape architect George Kessler in 1912.The master plan proposed a network of parkways and boulevards connecting the city's three rivers and Spy Run Creek to dozens of neighborhoods and parks.", "Several parks were designed by noted landscape architect Arthur Asahel Shurcliff.", "Much of the original plan was implemented by 1955.In 2010, the Fort Wayne Park and Boulevard System was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, consisting of 11 public parks, four parkways, and ten boulevards, covering .====Architecture====During the 19th century, Fort Wayne was dominated by Greek Revival, Gothic Revival, and Italianate architecture.", "Examples of Greek Revival architecture remain in the city, with one being the Richardville House (1827), a National Historic Landmark.", "Gothic and Gothic Revival architecture can be found in some of the city's most prominent churches, including Trinity English Lutheran Church (1846), Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception (1860), Trinity Episcopal Church (1865), and Saint Paul's Evangelical Lutheran Church (1889).Popular early-20th century architectural styles found in the city include Queen Anne, Richardsonian Romanesque, Neoclassical, Colonial Revival, Dutch Colonial Revival, Tudor Revival, Prairie, American Craftsman, American Foursquare, and Art Deco.", "Richardsonian Romanesque buildings include Fort Wayne City Hall (1893) and John H. Bass Mansion (1902), each designed by Wing & Mahurin.", "Notable examples of Neoclassical architecture include the Masonic Temple (1926) and North Side High School (1927).", "Beaux-Arts, an architectural style closely related to Neoclassical, gained popularity during the City Beautiful movement of the 1890s and early 1900s, which is reflected in the Allen County Courthouse (1902).The Allen County Courthouse is one of two National Historic Landmarks in the city.", "The Pennsylvania Railroad Station, also known as Baker Street Station (1914), was designed in American Craftsman style.", "At , the Art Deco-style Lincoln Bank Tower was Fort Wayne's first high-rise and Indiana's tallest building from 1930 to 1962.The E. Ross Adair Federal Building and United States Courthouse (1932) is another example of Art Deco architecture.", "Williams–Woodland Park Historic District includes examples of Queen Anne and Colonial Revival residential homes, while the Forest Park Boulevard Historic District includes Tudor Revival homes.Modern and Postmodern architecture can be found in buildings constructed during the second half of the 20th century in Fort Wayne.", "The John D. Haynes House (1952) was designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, while the campus of Concordia Theological Seminary (1953) was designed by Eero Saarinen.", "Postmodern architect Michael Graves' first commissions were built in the city, including Hanselmann House (1967) and Snyderman House (1972, now demolished).", "Louis Kahn's design for the Arts United Center (1973) was inspired by a violin and its case.", "Other notable buildings include Indiana Michigan Power Center (1982), the tallest building in the city and tallest building in Indiana outside of Indianapolis, at .The 1970s characterized an era in Fort Wayne that saw substantial changes to the downtown area in accommodation of increasing suburbanization and urban sprawl that began in the city during the early 50s, of which resulted in the demolition of a number of both prominent and historical buildings and homes around the downtown area.", "This included several hotels, such as the historic thirteen-floor Hotel Anthony.", "Most of which, were demolished for surface-level parking lots.", "One example was the Ewing Homestead, built by William Ewing in 1838, it once stood at the northwest corner of Berry street:This three-story brick mansion was one of the finest examples of Greek Revival architecture in Fort Wayne until it was destroyed in 1970 to make way for a parking lot.=== Rivers ===Since at least the early 20th century, Fort Wayne has maintained a combined sewage overflow program, which has resulted in the city routinely discharging untreated human waste, raw sewage from businesses and homes, toxic waste from industrial sites, and agricultural runoff into all three rivers in a number of locations, particularly when it rains.", "However, as of 2023, a several million dollar citywide sewage overflow tunnel project is set to be completed, among additional efforts, such as a $135 million investment from the city into rain gardens, to prevent further discharge into the rivers.", "There has been growing investment and development along the riverfront since at least 2019.===Climate===The Oakdale neighborhood after a January snowFort Wayne lies in the humid continental climate zone (Köppen: ''Dfa''), experiencing four distinct seasons.", "The city is located in USDA hardiness zones 5b and 6a.", "Typically, summers are hot, humid, and wet.", "Winters are generally cold with moderate snowfall.", "The average annual precipitation is , recorded at Fort Wayne International Airport.", "During the winter season, snowfall accumulation averages per year.", "Lake-effect snow is not uncommon to the region, but usually appears in the form of light snow flurries.The National Weather Service reports the highest recorded temperature in the city at , most recently on June 28, 2012, and the lowest recorded temperature at on January 12, 1918.The wettest month on record was June 2015, with of precipitation.", "The greatest 24-hour rainfall was on August 1, 1926.The snowiest month on record was January 2014, with of snowfall.", "The greatest calendar-day snowfall was on February 28, 1900.Severe weather is not uncommon, particularly in the spring and summer months; the city experiences an average of 39 thunderstorm days and about 10 severe weather days annually.", "An F2 tornado struck northern Fort Wayne on May 26, 2001, injuring three and causing damage along the Coliseum Boulevard corridor and a subdivision.", "Fort Wayne experienced wind gusts in the June 2012 North American derecho, knocking out power to 78,000, uprooting approximately 500 trees, and costing $2.5 million." ], [ "Demographics", "===2020 census===+'''Fort Wayne city, Indiana – Racial and ethnic composition'''(''NH = Non-Hispanic'')Race / EthnicityPop 2010Pop 2020% 2010% 2020ChangeWhite alone (NH)178,436165,86570.34%62.85% -7.49%Black or African American alone (NH)38,51439,56015.18%14.99% -.19%Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH)7306270.29%0.24% -.05%Asian alone (NH)8,27915,2293.26%5.77% +2.51%Pacific Islander alone (NH)911080.04%0.04% -Some Other Race alone (NH)5421,5170.21%0.57% +.36%Mixed Race/Multi-Racial (NH)6,89913,0842.72%4.96% +2.24%Hispanic or Latino (any race)20,20027,8967.96%10.57% +2.61%'''Total''''''253,691''''''263,886''''''100.00%''''''100.00%''' -===2010 census===Map of racial distribution in Fort Wayne, 2010 U.S. Census.", "Each dot is 25 people: According to the 2010 census, there were 253,691 people and 113,541 households.", "The racial makeup of the city is 73.62% White, 15.41% Black or African American, 0.37% Native American or Alaska Native, 3.3% Asian (1.4% Burmese, 0.4% Indian, 0.3% Vietnamese, 0.2% Chinese, 0.2% Filipino, 0.1% Korean, 0.1% Laotian, 0.1% Thai), 0.06% Pacific Islander, 3.72% from other races, and 3.52% from two or more races.", "7.96% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race.", "Among the Hispanic population, 6.1% are Mexican, 0.4% Puerto Rican, and 0.3% Guatemalan.", "Non-Hispanic Whites were 70.3% of the population in 2010, down from 87.7% in 1970.There were 101,585 households, of which 30.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.3% were married couples living together, 14.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 38.0% were non-families.", "31.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.09.The median age in the city was 34.5 years.", "26.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 10.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.5% were from 25 to 44; 24.9% were from 45 to 64; and 12% were 65 years of age or older.", "The gender makeup of the city was 48.4% male and 51.6% female.Fort Wayne has one of the largest Burmese American population in the U.S., estimated at 8,000.Burmese refugee settlement and \"secondary migrants\" doubled the city's Asian population between 2000 and 2010.===Religion===Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, co-cathedral of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Fort Wayne-South BendFort Wayne is sometimes referred to as the \"City of Churches\", an unofficial moniker dating to the late-19th century when the city was the regional hub of Catholic, Lutheran, and Episcopal faiths.", "Today, there are 360 churches in the city.", "54 percent of Fort Wayne residents identify as religious, where 16 percent are Catholic, 9 percent are Lutheran, 6.5 percent are Baptist, 5 percent are Methodist, and 0.14 percent are Jewish, with 16.5 percent adhering to other Christian faiths.", "Increasing religious minorities are found among the city's immigrant communities, including Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam.Major churches include the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, Saint Paul's Evangelical Lutheran Church and Trinity Episcopal Church.", "Fort Wayne's Reform Judaism population is served by Congregation Achduth Vesholom, the oldest Jewish congregation in Indiana, founded in 1848.In 2013, construction began on the first Burmese Muslim mosque to be built worldwide since the mid-1970s.As of December 2012, four national Christian denominations were headquartered in the city: the American Association of Lutheran Churches, the Fundamental Baptist Fellowship Association, the Missionary Church and the Fellowship of Evangelical Churches.", "Fort Wayne is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Fort Wayne–South Bend, covering 14 counties in Northern Indiana, and the Indiana District of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod, encompassing all of Indiana and north central Kentucky." ], [ "Economy", "In 2017, the Fort Wayne metropolitan area had a gross domestic product (GDP) of $25.7 billion.", "The top four industries were manufacturing ($8.1B), health care ($2.54B), retail trade ($1.4B), and finance and insurance ($1.3B) Government, if it had been a private industry, would have tied for third, generating $1.4 billion.Manufacturing is deeply rooted in Fort Wayne's economic history, dating to the earliest days of the city's growth as an important trade stop along the Wabash and Erie Canal.", "Railroads, introduced shortly after the canal's arrival, eased travel from Fort Wayne to other booming industrial centers along the Great Lakes, such as Chicago, Detroit, Toledo, and Cleveland.", "Throughout the early and mid-20th century, manufacturing dominated the city's economic landscape.", "From 1900 to 1930, Fort Wayne's industrial output expanded by 747 percent, with total production valued at $95 million in 1929, up from $11 million in 1899.The total workforce also increased from 18,000 in 1900 to nearly 50,000 in 1930.Companies that had a significant presence in the city include Dana Holding Corporation, Falstaff Brewing Corporation, Fruehauf Corporation, General Electric, International Harvester, Magnavox, Old Crown Brewing Corporation, and Tokheim, among several others, producing goods such as refrigerators, washing machines, automatic phonographs, meat packing products, televisions, garbage disposals, automotive parts and motors, trailers, gasoline pumps, trucks, beer, tents and awnings.", "Magnet wire production became an especially vital component to the city's economy.", "In 1960, Fort Wayne was at the center of the United States magnet wire industry, home to New Haven Wire and Cable Company, Phelps Dodge, Rea Magnet Wire, Superior Essex, and an operation at General Electric, producing nearly 90 percent of North America's magnet wire.", "''Abraham Lincoln: The Hoosier Youth'' stands in front of Lincoln Financial Group's downtown offices.The 1970s and 1980s were times of economic depression in Fort Wayne, when much of the city's manufacturing foundation eroded and the blue-collar workforce shrank.", "Fort Wayne joined several other cities reeling economically within the Rust Belt.", "At the same time, General Electric also downsized much of its more than 10,000-person workforce.", "Amid other area plant closures and downsizing, coupled with the early 1980s recession, the city lost 30,000 jobs and reached a 12.1 percent unemployment rate.", "The arrival of General Motors in 1987 helped fill the void from shuttered manufacturers and aided in the area's recovery, employing 3,000 at its Fort Wayne Assembly.", "In 2017, General Motors was the largest manufacturer in the city, employing 4,100 assembling Chevrolet Silverado regular and double cab light- and heavy-duty pickup trucks.Through the 1990s and into the 2000s, the city diversified its economy; manufacturing now employs 16.9 percent of Allen County's workforce.", "Other sectors include distribution, transportation, and logistics (23.1 percent), health care (17.9 percent), professional and business services (12.1 percent), leisure and hospitality (11.1 percent), and financial services (6.3 percent).", "The leisure and hospitality sector has especially grown, with 5.8 million visitors spending $545 million in 2013, a 4.3 percent increase over the previous year.", "The city is a center for the defense industry, employing thousands at such companies as BAE Systems (1,150), L3Harris (888), Raytheon Technologies (950), and the Fort Wayne Air National Guard Station (423).Despite economic diversification, the city was significantly impacted by the Great Recession.", "According to a report from Pew Research Center, the city lost nearly a quarter of its manufacturing jobs and 11% of its economic status between 2000 and 2014.Economic Innovation Group's 2016 Distressed Communities Index Report ranked Fort Wayne among the most unequal large cities in the U.S. in terms of linking economic opportunities to its distressed ZIP codes.", ", Allen County's labor force was 180,637 with an unemployment rate of 2.5 percent.Companies based in Fort Wayne include Brotherhood Mutual, Do it Best, Franklin Electric, Frontier Communications – Central Region, Genteq, Home Reserve, Indiana Michigan Power, K&K Insurance, MedPro Group, North American Van Lines, Rea Magnet Wire, Steel Dynamics, Sweetwater Sound, and Vera Bradley.", "Steel Dynamics is the only ''Fortune'' 500 company headquartered in the city, ranking 354th.", "Founded in 1905, Lincoln Financial Group was based in Fort Wayne until its move to suburban Philadelphia in 1999.The company maintains a large presence in the city, employing nearly 2,000." ], [ "Culture", "===Performing arts===Embassy Theatre opened in 1928 as a movie palace.The Embassy Theatre is a 2,471-seat performing arts theater, which hosts over 200,000 patrons annually.", "Since its founding in 1944, the Fort Wayne Philharmonic Orchestra has often been hosted at the Embassy.", "The University of Saint Francis Robert Goldstine Performing Arts Center, located on its Downtown Campus, contains a 2,086-seat auditorium.Since its establishment in 2010, Arts Campus Fort Wayne has been home to several of the city's cultural institutions, including the Fort Wayne Museum of Art, Auer Center for Arts and Culture, Arts United Center, and Hall Community Arts Center.", "Arts United Center houses the Fort Wayne Civic Theater, Fort Wayne Dance Collective, and Fort Wayne Youtheatre.", "Auer Center for Arts and Culture houses Fort Wayne Ballet.", "Hall Community Arts Center houses Cinema Center, an independent film venue.Though used mainly for exhibitions and conventions, the Grand Wayne Convention Center hosts dance and choir productions, such as the annual Foundation for Art and Music in Education (FAME) Northeast Festival.", "Foellinger Theatre, a 2,500-seat amphitheater in Franke Park, hosts seasonal acts and outdoor concerts during warmer months.", "Located west of downtown, Arena Dinner Theatre is a nonprofit community arts corporation with a focus on live theater production, annually hosting seven full-length theatrical productions.===Attractions===Science Central opened in the city's former municipal power plant in 1995.The Fort Wayne Children's Zoo has been lauded as one of the nation's foremost zoos.", "Covering and containing 1,000 animals of 200 different species, the zoo is the largest regional attraction, regularly drawing over 500,000 visitors annually.", "The Foellinger-Freimann Botanical Conservatory gardens cover , displaying over 1,200 plants of 502 different species and 72 types of cacti.", "Science Central, an interactive science center, contains permanent displays and temporary exhibits, drawing 130,000 visitors annually.Established in 1921, the Fort Wayne Museum of Art (FWMoA) is accredited by the American Alliance of Museums, specializing in the collection and exhibition of American art.", "The FWMoA annually receives 100,000 visitors.The History Center, located in Fort Wayne's Old City Hall, manages a collection of more than 23,000 artifacts recalling the region's history.", "The center is overseen by the Allen County–Fort Wayne Historical Society, which maintains the Richardville House, one of two National Historic Landmarks in the city.", "Historic Fort Wayne, a replica of the 1815 fortification, hosts scheduled tours and historical reenactments throughout the year.", "Other cultural museums include the African/African–American Historical Museum, Fort Wayne Firefighters Museum, Greater Fort Wayne Aviation Museum, and Baer Field Heritage Air Park.The Allen County Public Library's Fred J. Reynolds Historical Genealogy Department is the second-largest genealogy collection in North America.", "The collection contains 350,000 printed volumes and 513,000 items of microfilm and microfiche.===Festivals and events===A concert during the 42nd Three Rivers Festival in 2010The city hosts a variety of cultural festivals and events annually.", "Festivals commemorating ethnic food, dance, music, and art include Germanfest, Greek Festival, and Japanese Cherry Blossom Festival.", "Initiated in 1997, Fort Wayne Pride celebrates northeast Indiana's LGBTQ community.", "BBQ RibFest showcases barbecue rib cooks and live entertainment, attracting 40,000 visitors annually.Fort4Fitness is a certified half marathon, run/walk, and health fair.", "Over 9,000 participated in the 2011 half marathon.", "In 2012, Fort4Fitness debuted a spring cycle, Bike-the-Fort, which included three bicycling tours with over 1,000 participants.", "HolidayFest begins with the Night of Lights on Thanksgiving eve, with the lighting of the PNC Santa and Reindeer, Wells Fargo Holiday Display, and Indiana Michigan Power Christmas Wreath, ending with a fireworks finale at Parkview Field.Fort Wayne style Coney Island hot dogs, developed in 1914 by Macedonian immigrants in the cityThe largest annual events in the city are the Johnny Appleseed Festival, Taste of the Arts, Middlewaves and the Three Rivers Festival.", "The Johnny Appleseed Festival draws 300,000 visitors.", "The festival is held at Johnny Appleseed Park, where American folklore legend John Chapman is believed to be buried.", "Apple-themed cuisine, crafts, and historical demonstrations recalling 19th century American pioneering are among some of the festival's events.", "Three Rivers Festival, a celebration of Fort Wayne, spans nine days each July, attracting 400,000 visitors.", "Three Rivers features over 200 events, including a parade, midway, hot dog eating contest, bed race, raft race, arts fair, and fireworks spectacular.", "Other annual events include the Allen County Fair, BAALS Music Festival, National Soccer Festival, and the Vera Bradley Outlet Sale." ], [ "Sports", "Fort Wayne is home to two minor league sports franchises: the ECHL's Fort Wayne Komets and the High-A Central's Fort Wayne TinCaps.Fort Wayne also hosts the Fort Wayne Derby Girls of the Women's Flat Track Derby Association Division 2.These teams compete at the Allen County War Memorial Coliseum.", "Parkview Field is home to the TinCaps.The city has been home to other professional sports franchises, including the National Basketball Association's Fort Wayne Pistons (which moved to Detroit in 1957), the Fort Wayne Daisies of the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League, and the Fort Wayne Kekiongas of the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (precursor to Major League Baseball).Intercollegiate sports in the city include the Purdue Fort Wayne Mastodons, representing Purdue University Fort Wayne (PFW) in the NCAA's Division I Horizon League, and NAIA schools Indiana Tech (Wolverine–Hoosier Athletic Conference) and University of Saint Francis (Crossroads League and Mid-States Football Association).", "The Mastodons had represented Indiana University – Purdue University Fort Wayne (IPFW) prior to its 2018 split into two separate institutions (see below), and from 2016 to 2018 were branded as the Fort Wayne Mastodons, but the athletic brand was changed to \"Purdue Fort Wayne\" shortly before the split took effect.Some notable events in sports history occurred in Fort Wayne.", "On June 2, 1883, Fort Wayne hosted the Quincy Professionals for one of the first lighted evening baseball games ever recorded.", "Fort Wayne is also credited as the birthplace of the NBA, as Pistons' coach Carl Bennett brokered the merger of the BAA and the NBL in 1948 from his Alexander Street home.", "On March 10, 1961, Wilt Chamberlain became the first player in the NBA to reach 3,000 points in a single season while competing at the War Memorial Coliseum." ], [ "Parks and recreation", "Tulips bloom in Foster ParkFort Wayne Parks and Recreation maintains 86 public parks totaling .", "Three public and 20 private golf courses are located in Allen County.", "Franke Park is the most extensive city park, covering .", "Franke is home to the Foellinger Theatre, Shoaff Lake, and the Fort Wayne Children's Zoo.Starting in the 1970s, the city developed a system of recreational trails along the riverbanks, known as the Rivergreenway, with the aim of beautifying the riverfronts and promoting active lifestyles for residents.", "The Rivergreenway was designated a National Recreation Trail in 2009.As of 2018, the Rivergreenway had expanded with additional trails to encompass nearly throughout the city and county, with about 550,000 annual users.", "With the expansion of trails in recent years, cycling has become an emerging mode of transportation for residents.", "In 2009, the city's first bicycle lanes were established with the installation of 250 bike parking places.", "In 2016, Fort Wayne was designated a Bronze Level bicycle friendly community by the League of American Bicyclists.Several notable parks include Johnny Appleseed Park (home to a campground and John Chapman's grave), McCulloch Park (home to Samuel Bigger's grave), and the Old Fort Park (The first and oldest park in Fort Wayne, site of the original well used in this fort).", "Downtown, there are a number of parks including Foellinger-Freimann Botanical Conservatory, Headwaters Park, Promenade Park, Swinney Park, and Lawton Skatepark.Hurshtown Reservoir, near Grabill, is the largest body of water in Allen County and is popular with watersports enthusiasts for sailing and fishing.", "Some 300 lakes are located within of the city.", "Located downtown along the St. Marys River, Fort Wayne Outfitters offers canoe, kayak, stand-up paddle board, and pontoon boat rentals for recreation along the three rivers.St.", "Marys RiverAccording to the Trust for Public Land's 2017 ParkScore Index, some 56% of Fort Wayne residents are underserved." ], [ "Government", "A statue of General \"Mad\" Anthony Wayne, namesake of the city, stands in Freimann Square.Allen County Courthouse (center) and the Rousseau Centre (right), home to city and county officesFort Wayne has a mayor–council government.", "The mayor, city clerk, and city council members serve four-year terms.Fort Wayne's mayor is Tom Henry, a Democrat, who was elected in 2007.Henry succeeded Democrat Graham Richard who chose not to run for re-election after two terms as mayor.", "Henry was re-elected to a third term in 2015 and a fourth term in 2019.Fort Wayne City Council has nine elected members, one representative from each of the city's six council districts and three at-large members, serving four-year terms.The city is represented in the Indiana General Assembly by three Senate Districts and seven House Districts.", "Fort Wayne's state senators include Dennis Kruse (14th District), Liz Brown (15th), and David Long (16th).", "Representatives include Dan Leonard (50th District), Ben Smaltz (52nd), Phil GiaQuinta (80th), Martin Carbaugh (81st), Christopher Judy (83rd), Bob Morris (84th), and Dave Heine (85th).", "Federally, Fort Wayne is part of Indiana's 3rd congressional district, represented by Republican Jim Banks, who was first elected in 2016.Under the Unigov provision of Indiana Law, Fort Wayne would have automatically consolidated with Allen County when its population exceeded 250,000, previously the minimum population for a first class city in Indiana.", "Fort Wayne nearly met the state requirements for first class city designation on January 1, 2006, when of neighboring Aboite Township (and a small section of Wayne Township) including 25,094 people were annexed.", "However, a 2004 legislative change raised the population threshold for first-class status from 250,000 to 600,000, which ensured Indianapolis' status as the only first class city in Indiana.Fort Wayne's E. Ross Adair Federal Building and U.S.", "Courthouse houses the United States District Court for the Northern District of Indiana, which was authorized by Congress in 1928.===Public safety===Municipal and state laws are enforced by the Fort Wayne Police Department, an organization of 460 officers.", "In 2006, Fort Wayne's crime rate was 5104.1 per 100,000 people, slightly above the national average of 4479.3.There were 18 murders, 404 robberies, and 2,128 burglaries in 2006.Steve Reed was appointed to the position of police chief in 2016.In 2014, former police chief Rusty York was appointed to the position of director of public safety.", "York previously served as police chief from 2000 to 2014.The city is currently served by the Allen County Jail in downtown Fort Wayne, controlled by the Allen County Sheriff's department.", "In January 2020, a class action lawsuit was filed by Vincent Morris, an inmate at the jail, and the ACLU of Indiana against the Sheriff of Allen County.", "The lawsuit alleges understaffing of the jail, as well as overpopulation, among other complaints resulting in dangerous housing conditions.", "In March 2022, Judge Damon Leichty of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Indiana ruled that conditions in the jail were in violation of the 8th Amendment and 14th Amendment.", "In his injunction, Judge Leichty ruled that there needed to be substantial progress in the construction of a new jail with expanding capacity.", "Since this injunction there have been 8 proposed sites for the new jail to be constructed, with the most prominent being at the Allen County Sheriffs department training facility land off of Paulding and Adams Center Roads, which the county already owns.", "However, this location is being heavily contested for being on the Southeast side of Fort Wayne, as another negative for an already disadvantaged area.", "At its current location, the jail also sits on what is very valuable land given the city's recent riverfront development, right in between some hallmark developments for the revitalization of the downtown area.As of 2010, the Fort Wayne Fire Department included 375 uniformed firefighters and 18 fire stations.", "Eric Lahey was appointed fire chief in 2014.===Politics=== Voter registration and Partisan Primary Participation Party Number of voters Percentage Democratic31,79820.61% Republican 35,452 22.97% Unaffiliated 86,154 55.83% Other 917 0.59% Total 154,321 100%" ], [ "Education", "===Primary and secondary education===FWCS (pink), EACS (yellow), NACS (blue), SACS (green)Fort Wayne Community Schools (FWCS) is the largest public school district in Indiana, enrolling 30,981 students as of the 2013–2014 academic year.", "FWCS operate 51 facilities, including 31 elementary schools, ten middle schools, and five high schools.", "The student body is diverse, with 75 spoken languages in the district.", "East Allen County Schools (EACS) operate 14 schools, with a total enrollment of 10,010.Northwest Allen County Schools (NACS) operate seven elementary schools, two middle schools, and one high school, with a total enrollment of 6,853.Southwest Allen County Schools (SACS) operate six elementary schools, two middle schools, and one high school, with a total enrollment of 6,995.Private primary and secondary education is offered largely through Lutheran Schools of Indiana and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Fort Wayne–South Bend.", "Amish Parochial Schools of Indiana has schools through eighth grade in rural eastern Allen County.===Higher education===Fort Wayne hosts institutions affiliated with both of Indiana's major state university systems.", "Indiana University Fort Wayne (IU Fort Wayne) and Purdue University Fort Wayne (PFW) were established in July 2018 after the dissolution of Indiana University – Purdue University Fort Wayne (IPFW), which had enrolled over 13,000 students prior to its closure and was the state's fifth-largest public university.", "IPFW's degree programs in health sciences are now operated by IU Fort Wayne; as such, that institution is now home to the Fort Wayne Center for Medical Education, a branch of the Indiana University School of Medicine.", "All remaining IPFW degree programs were taken over by PFW.Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana also contains two campuses in the city.", "Three private universities are located in the city, including Concordia Theological Seminary, Indiana Institute of Technology, and the University of Saint Francis.", "Private universities with regional branches in Fort Wayne include Crossroads Bible College, Grace College and Theological Seminary, Huntington University, Indiana Wesleyan University, Manchester University College of Pharmacy, and Trine University.===Libraries===Composed of 14 branches, the Allen County Public Library is among the 20 largest public libraries in the U.S., and ranks 89th factoring in academic libraries, with 3.4 million volumes.", "The library's foundation is also among the nation's largest, with $14 million in assets.", "The entire library system underwent an $84.1 million overhaul from 2002 to 2007.In 2009, over 7.4 million materials were borrowed by patrons, with over 3 million visits made throughout the library system.", "The library houses the second largest genealogy research collection in the United States, and the largest in a public library." ], [ "Media", "Major broadcasting network affiliates include WANE-TV (CBS), WPTA-TV (ABC/NBC), WISE-TV (CW), WFFT-TV (Fox), and WFWA-TV (PBS), Northeast Indiana's PBS member station.", "Religious broadcasters include WINM.", "Access Fort Wayne maintains Fort Wayne and Allen County's Public Access capabilities serving from the Allen County Public Library.", "One National Public Radio station is based in the city, WBOI, with the new WELT Community Radio Station transmitting from the Allen County Public Library.Fort Wayne is served by two primary newspapers, the ''Journal Gazette'' and Pulitzer Prize-winning ''News-Sentinel''.", "The two dailies have separate editorial departments, but under a joint operating agreement, printing, advertising, and circulation are handled by Fort Wayne Newspapers, Inc.", "The ''News-Sentinel'' announced that it would cease printing operations in favor of digital publishing in August 2017." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Transportation===An A-10 Warthog after completing a training mission at the Fort Wayne Air National Guard StationFort Wayne includes two municipal airports, both managed by the Fort Wayne–Allen County Airport Authority.", "Fort Wayne International Airport (FWA) is the city's primary commercial airport, with five airlines offering direct service to 13 domestic connections.", "The airport is Indiana's second busiest, with over 350,000 passenger enplanements in 2015.Fort Wayne International is also home to the 122nd Fighter Wing's Fort Wayne Air National Guard Station.", "Smith Field, in northern Fort Wayne, is used primarily for general aviation.Fort Wayne is served by a single Interstate, (Interstate 69), along with an auxiliary beltway (Interstate 469).", "Once the State Road 37 expressway between Bloomington and Martinsville is completed in 2018, filling a gap in I-69 that exists south of Indianapolis, the road will run south to Evansville; it currently runs north to the Canada–United States border at Port Huron, Michigan.", "In the coming years, I-69 will extend to the US–Mexico border in Texas, with branches ending in Laredo, Pharr, and Brownsville.", "Four U.S.", "Routes bisect the city, including US 24, US 27, US 30, and US 33.Five Indiana State Roads also meet in the city, including State Road 1, State Road 3, State Road 14, State Road 37, and State Road 930.Airport Expressway, a four-lane divided highway, links Fort Wayne International Airport directly to I-69.About 85 percent of residents commute alone by personal vehicle, while another eight percent carpool.Unlike most cities comparable to its size, Fort Wayne does not have an urban freeway system.", "In 1946, planners proposed a $27 million federally funded freeway, crossing east–west and north–south through downtown.", "Opponents successfully campaigned against the proposal, objecting to the demolition of nearly 1,500 homes at the time of the post-World War II housing shortage, while playing on fears that the project would force displaced minorities into white neighborhoods.", "In 1947, Fort Wayne residents voted down the referendum that would have allowed for its construction, dubbed the 'Anthony Wayne Parkway.'", "Beginning in 1962, construction commenced for I-69 in suburban Fort Wayne.The I-469 beltway around the southern and eastern fringes of Fort Wayne and New Haven was constructed between 1988 and 1995 as the largest public works project in Allen County history, at $207 million.Pennsylvania Railroad Station has stood as a landmark to the city's railroad heritage since 1914.Amtrak's ''Capitol Limited'' (Chicago - Toledo - Cleveland - Pittsburgh - Washington, D.C.) and Amtrak's ''Lake Shore Limited'' (Chicago - Toledo - Cleveland - Buffalo - Albany - split to Boston and to New York City) are the closest passenger rail services to Fort Wayne, located north at Waterloo Station.", "Service by Amtrak ended in 1990 when the ''Broadway Limited'' was rerouted away from Fort Wayne's Pennsylvania Station.", "Until 1961 the Pennsylvania Railroad operated the north–south ''Northern Arrow'' through the station.", "Other stations in Fort Wayne served the passenger trains of the Chicago, Indianapolis, and Louisville Railway ('Monon Railroad') and the Wabash Railroad (hosting the east–west ''Wabash Cannon Ball).", "''There has been a movement to bring direct passenger rail service back in the form of Amtrak or high-speed rail service.", "In 2013, a feasibility study was published outlining the impacts of a proposed Columbus—Fort Wayne—Chicago high-speed rail corridor.", "At , the route would cost $1.29 billion and generate some $7.1 billion in economic benefits to the region.", "Freight service is provided by a class I railroad (Norfolk Southern) and two class III railroads.", "Fort Wayne is headquarters and main operations hub of Norfolk Southern's Triple Crown Services subsidiary, the largest truckload shipper in the U.S.Citilink operates and manages the city's public bus system, including paratransit and fixed-route service in the cities of Fort Wayne and New Haven via downtown's Central Station.", "CampusLink debuted in 2009 as a free shuttle service for students, faculty, and general public traveling between Ivy Tech's Coliseum and North campuses, IPFW and its student housing on the Waterfield Campus, and shopping and residential areas.", "MedLink debuted in 2013 connecting Parkview Regional Medical Center with Parkview Health's Randallia campus.", "Despite annual ridership of 2.2 million, less than one percent of residents commute by public transportation.", "Fort Wayne is served by two intercity bus providers: Greyhound Lines (Indianapolis—Toledo—Detroit) and Lakefront Lines (Chicago—Columbus—Akron).In 2016, the city introduced its first bike-sharing program, including five stations and 25 bicycles.===Healthcare===Fort Wayne is served by ten medical centers belonging to one of two regional healthcare providers in the city: Parkview Health System and Lutheran Health Network.", "Notable hospitals include Dupont Hospital, Lutheran Hospital of Indiana, Parkview Regional Medical Center, Parkview Hospital Randallia, and St. Joseph Hospital.", "Over 1,600 patient beds are available throughout the city's healthcare system.", ", both healthcare systems were the city's first and second largest employers, respectively, and contribute to a total healthcare workforce in Allen County of 34,000.VA Northern Indiana Health Care System's Fort Wayne Campus provides medical services through the Department of Veterans Affairs.===Utilities===City Utilities is the largest municipally owned water utility in Indiana, supplying residents with of water per day from the St. Joseph River via the Three Rivers Water Filtration Plant.", "Sanitary sewer treatment is also managed by City Utilities.", "The city of Fort Wayne offers full curbside recycling and solid waste collection services for residents, currently contracted through GFL Environmental.", "Electricity is provided by Indiana Michigan Power, a subsidiary of American Electric Power, while natural gas is supplied by Northern Indiana Public Service Company (NIPSCO), a subsidiary of NiSource.", "All tier 1 networks and several additional telecommunication service providers cover the Fort Wayne rate area." ], [ "Notable people" ], [ "Sister cities", "Fort Wayne has four sister cities as designated by Sister Cities International:* Takaoka, Toyama, Japan (1977)* Płock, Masovian, Poland (1990)* Gera, Thuringia, Germany (1992)* Taizhou, Zhejiang, China (2012)'''Friendship city'''* Mawlamyine, Mon State, Burma (Myanmar) (2015)" ], [ "See also", "* Fort Wayne (fort)* Kekionga* Fort Miami* List of public art in Fort Wayne, Indiana* Northern Indiana* Siege of Fort Wayne" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * Brice, Wallace.", "''History of Fort Wayne'' (Applewood Books, 2009) online.", "* Brown, Nancy Eileen.", "\"The 1901 Fort Wayne, Indiana City Election: A Political Dialogue of Ethnic Tension\" (IUPUI Diss.", "2013)* * * Griswold, Bert Joseph.", "''The Pictorial History of Fort Wayne, Indiana: A Review of Two Centuries of Occupation of the Region about the Head of the Maumee River'' (1917) online* * online* Morgan, Iwan.", "\"Fort Wayne and the Great Depression: The Early Years, 1929-1933.\"", "''Indiana Magazine of History'' (1984): 122–145.online* Murphey, Kathleen A.", "\"Schooling, Teaching, and Change in Nineteenth-Century Fort Wayne, Indiana.\"", "'' Indiana Magazine of History'' (1998): 1-28.online* * Robertson, Nellie A.", "\"John Hays and the Fort Wayne Indian Agency.\"", "''Indiana Magazine of History'' (1943): 221–236.", "* Scott, Clifford H. \"Hoosier Kulturkampf: Anglo-German Cultural Conflicts in Fort Wayne, 1840-1920.\"", "''Journal of German-American Studies'' 15.1 (1980): 9–18.online* Seigel, Peggy.", "\"Pushing the Color Line: Race and Employment in Fort Wayne, Indiana, 1933-1963.\"", "''Indiana Magazine of History'' (2008): 241–276.online* Seigel, Peggy.", "\"Winning the Vote in Fort Wayne, Indiana: The Long, Cautious Journey in a German American City.\"", "''Indiana Magazine of History'' (2006): 220–257.online*" ], [ "External links", "* * Visit Fort Wayne" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fart (word)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fart''' is a word in the English language most commonly used in reference to flatulence that can be used as a noun or a verb.", "The immediate roots are in the Middle English words ''ferten'', ''feortan'' and ''farten'', kin of the Old High German word ''ferzan''.", "Cognates are found in Old Norse, Slavic and also Greek and Sanskrit.", "The word ''fart'' has been incorporated into the colloquial and technical speech of a number of occupations, including computing.", "It is often considered unsuitable in formal situations as it may be considered vulgar or offensive." ], [ "Etymology", "The English word ''fart'' is one of the oldest words in the English lexicon.", "Its Indo-European origins are confirmed by the many cognate words in some other Indo-European languages: It is cognate with Greek verb πέρδομαι (perdomai), as well as the Latin ''pēdĕre'', Sanskrit ''pardate'', Ashkun ''pidíṅ'', Avestan , Italian , French \"péter\", Russian пердеть (perdet') and Polish \"\" ''/f/'', and ''/d/'' > ''/t/'', as the German cognate ''furzen'' also manifests." ], [ "Vulgarity and offensiveness", "Lucas Cranach, commissioned by Martin Luther.", "Title: Kissing the Pope's Feet.", "German peasants respond to a papal bull of Pope Paul III.", "Caption reads: \"Don't frighten us Pope, with your ban, and don't be such a furious man.", "Otherwise we shall turn around and show you our rears.", "\"In certain circles the word is considered merely a common profanity with an often humorous connotation.", "For example, a person may be referred to as a 'fart', or an 'old fart', not necessarily depending on the person's age.", "This may convey the sense that a person is boring or unduly fussy and be intended as an insult, mainly when used in the second or third person.", "For example, '\"he's a boring old fart!\"", "However the word may be used as a colloquial term of endearment or in an attempt at humorous self-deprecation (e.g., in such phrases as \"I know I'm just an old fart\" or \"you do like to fart about!\").", "'Fart' is often only used as a term of endearment when the subject is personally well known to the user.In both cases though, it tends to refer to personal habits or traits that the user considers to be a negative feature of the subject, even when it is a self-reference.", "For example, when concerned that a person is being overly methodical they might say 'I know I'm being an old fart', potentially to forestall negative thoughts and opinions in others.", "When used in an attempt to be offensive, the word is still considered vulgar, but it remains a mild example of such an insult.", "This usage dates back to the Medieval period, where the phrase 'not worth a fart' would be applied to an item held to be worthless.===Historical examples===John Bull emits an explosive bout of flatulence at a poster of George III as an outraged William Pitt the Younger admonishes him.", "Newton's etching was probably a comment on Pitt's threat (realized the following month) to suspend habeas corpus.The word ''fart'' in Middle English occurs in \"Sumer Is Icumen In\", where one sign of summer is \"bucke uerteþ\" (the buck farts).", "It appears in several of Geoffrey Chaucer's ''Canterbury Tales''.", "In \"The Miller's Tale\", Absolon has already been tricked into kissing Alison's buttocks when he is expecting to kiss her face.", "Her boyfriend Nicholas hangs his buttocks out of a window, hoping to trick Absolon into kissing his buttocks in turn and then farts in the face of his rival.", "In \"The Summoner's Tale\", the friars in the story are to receive the smell of a fart through a twelve-spoked wheel.In the early modern period, the word ''fart'' was not considered especially vulgar; it even surfaced in literary works.", "For example, Samuel Johnson's ''A Dictionary of the English Language'', published in 1755, included the word.", "Johnson defined it with two poems, one by Jonathan Swift, the other by Sir John Suckling.Benjamin Franklin prepared an essay on the topic for the Royal Academy of Brussels in 1781 urging scientific study.", "In 1607, a group of Members of Parliament had written a ribald poem entitled ''The Parliament Fart'', as a symbolic protest against the conservatism of the House of Lords and the king, James I.===Modern usage===While not one of George Carlin's original seven dirty words, he noted in a later routine that the word ''fart'' ought to be added to \"the list\" of words that were not acceptable (for broadcast) in any context (which have non-offensive meanings), and described television as (then) a \"fart-free zone\".", "Thomas Wolfe had the phrase \"a fizzing and sulphuric fart\" cut out of his 1929 work ''Look Homeward, Angel'' by his publisher.", "Ernest Hemingway, who had the same publisher, accepted the principle that \"fart\" could be cut, on the grounds that words should not be used purely to shock.", "The hippie movement in the 1970s saw a new definition develop, with the use of \"fart\" as a personal noun, to describe a \"detestable person, or someone of small stature or limited mental capacity\", gaining wider and more open usage as a result.Rhyming slang developed the alternative form \"raspberry tart\", later shortened to \"raspberry\", and occasionally abbreviated further to \"razz\".", "This was associated with the phrase \"blowing a raspberry\".", "The word has become more prevalent, and now features in children's literature, such as the ''Walter the Farting Dog'' series of children's books, Robert Munsch's ''Good Families Don't'' and ''The Gas We Pass'' by Shinta Cho." ], [ "See also", "* Flatulence humor* Le Pétomane* Queef" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Dictionary of Fart Slang" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "FA Cup" ], [ "Introduction", "'''The Football Association Challenge Cup''', more commonly known as the '''FA Cup''', is an annual knockout football competition in men's domestic English football.", "First played during the 1871–72 season, it is the oldest national football competition in the world.", "It is organised by and named after The Football Association (The FA).", "Since 2015, it has been known as '''The Emirates FA Cup''' after its headline sponsor.", "A concurrent Women's FA Cup has been held since 1970.The competition is open to all eligible clubs down to Level 9 of the English football league system with Level 10 clubs acting as stand-ins in the event of non-entries from above.", "A record 763 clubs competed in 2011–12.The tournament consists of 12 randomly drawn rounds followed by the semi-finals and the final.", "Entrants are not seeded, although a system of byes based on league level ensures higher ranked teams enter in later rounds – the minimum number of games needed to win, depending on which round a team enters the competition, ranges from six to fourteen.The first six rounds are the Qualifying Competition, and are contested by clubs in the National League System, levels 5 to 10 of the English football system, more commonly called ''non-league''.", "32 of these teams progress to the first round of the Competition Proper, meeting the first of the 48 professional teams from Leagues One and Two.", "The last entrants are the 20 Premier League and 24 Championship clubs, into the draw for the third round proper.", "In the modern era, only one non-League team has ever reached the quarter-finals, and teams below Level 2 have never reached the final.", "As a result, significant focus is given to the smaller teams who progress furthest, especially if they achieve an unlikely \"giant-killing\" victory.Winners receive the FA Cup trophy, of which there have been two designs and five actual cups; the latest is a 2014 replica of the second design, introduced in 1911.Winners also qualify for the UEFA Europa League and a place in the upcoming FA Community Shield.", "Arsenal are the most successful club with fourteen titles, most recently in 2020, and their former manager Arsène Wenger is the competition's most successful, having won seven finals with the team.", "Manchester City are the current holders, having defeated local rivals Manchester United in the 2023 final." ], [ "History", "Harry Hampton scores one of his two goals in the 1905 FA Cup final, when Aston Villa defeated Newcastle UnitedIn 1863, the newly founded Football Association (the FA) published the Laws of the Game of Association Football, unifying the various different rules in use before then.", "On 20 July 1871, in the offices of ''The Sportsman'' newspaper, the FA Secretary C. W. Alcock proposed to the FA committee that \"it is desirable that a Challenge Cup should be established in connection with the Association for which all clubs belonging to the Association should be invited to compete\".", "The inaugural FA Cup tournament kicked off in November 1871.After thirteen games in all, Wanderers were crowned the winners in the final, on 16 March 1872.Wanderers retained the trophy the following year.", "The modern cup was beginning to be established by the 1888–89 season, when qualifying rounds were introduced.Following the 1914–15 edition, the competition was suspended due to the First World War, and did not resume until 1919–20.The 1923 FA Cup Final, commonly known as the \"White Horse Final\", was the first final to be played in the newly opened Wembley Stadium (known at the time as the Empire Stadium).", "The 1927 final saw \"Abide with Me\" being sung for the first time at the Cup final, which has become a pre-match tradition.", "Due to the outbreak of World War II, the competition was not played between the 1938–39 and 1945–46 editions.", "Due to the wartime breaks, the competition did not celebrate its centenary year until 1980–81; fittingly the final featured a goal by Ricky Villa which was later voted the greatest goal ever scored in an FA Cup Final, but has since been replaced by Steven Gerrard.After some confusion over the rules in its first competition, the FA decided that any drawn match would lead to a replay, with teams competing in further replays until a game was eventually won.", "Alvechurch and Oxford City contested the most replayed tie in the 1971–72 qualification, in a tie which went to 6 matches.", "Multiple replays were scrapped for the competition proper in 1991–92, and the qualifying rounds in 1997–98.Replays were removed altogether from the semi-final and final matches in 2000, from the quarter-finals in 2016–17 and the fifth round in 2019–20.Redevelopment of Wembley saw the final played outside of England for the first time, the 2001–2006 finals being played at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff.", "The final returned to Wembley in 2007, followed by the semi-finals from 2008." ], [ "Eligibility", "An application window is open to clubs before entry lists, round byes and scheduling are announced in July.", "All clubs in the top four levels (the Premier League and the three divisions of the English Football League) are automatically eligible.", "Clubs from Level 5–9 (non-league football) are also eligible provided they play in either the FA Trophy or FA Vase competitions in the current season.", "All participating clubs must also have a stadium suitable for the competition and The Association may reject applications at its discretion.Previously, Level 10 clubs were a prominent feature in early qualifying rounds.", "The gradual remodelling of the National League System to a 'perfect' 1–2–4–8–16 system, with a first phase in 2018–19, a final phase in 2021–22 (which included the promotion of 107 clubs), and played to a full quota in 2022–23 has resulted in a larger number of teams playing in Level 7–9.Consequently, for the FA Cup, entries equal the number in tiers 1–9 and is cut off to those below.", "Though still able to apply, Level 10 clubs are used as alternatives \"subject to availability\" in the event of a non/rejected applicant (with vacancies filled by Level 10 applicants with the best PPG in the previous league season).The total number of entries in the FA Cup has changed as Non-League football has gradually been expanded and reorganised over time.", "In the 2004–05 season, 660 clubs entered the competition, beating the long-standing record of 656 from the 1921–22 season.", "In 2005–06 this increased to 674 entrants, in 2006–07 to 687, in 2007–08 to 731 clubs, in 2008–09 and 2009–10 to 762.The total number of entries has also varied naturally from year-to-year as new clubs form and others dissolve at unequal rates.", "Though most leagues in the National League System maintain the same number of teams via reprieves, inevitably entry-level divisions (typically at tier 10) have to be impacted when a club leaves the pyramid.", "Therefore, for example, 759 teams entered in 2010–11, a record 763 in 2011–12, 758 in 2012–13, 737 in 2013–14 and 736 in 2014–15.However, since 2021–22, The FA has cut off automatic eligibility to the 10th tier (to appear only subject to availability) and instead set the size of the draw to match the more stable number of teams in Level 1–9.This means that the competition may now see a standardised number of entries from one year to the next.", "This number is currently 732 but could rise to 748 for 2023–24 with plans for a new SWPL 9th tier division to share the South East with the existing Western League.It is very rare for top clubs to miss the competition, although it can happen in exceptional circumstances.", "Manchester United did not defend their title in 1999–2000, as they were already in the inaugural Club World Championship.", "The club stated that entering both tournaments would overload their fixture schedule and make it more difficult to defend their Champions League and Premier League titles.", "The club claimed that they did not want to devalue the FA Cup by fielding a weaker side.", "The move benefited United as they received a two-week break and won the 1999–2000 league title by an 18-point margin, although they did not progress past the group stage of the Club World Championship.", "The withdrawal from the FA Cup, however, drew considerable criticism as this weakened the tournament's prestige and Sir Alex Ferguson later admitted his regret regarding their handling of the situation.Welsh sides that play in English leagues are eligible, although since the creation of the League of Wales there are only five clubs remaining: Cardiff City (the only non-English team to win the tournament, in 1927), Swansea City, Newport County, Wrexham, and Merthyr Town.", "In the early years other teams from Wales, Ireland and Scotland also took part in the competition, with Glasgow side Queen's Park losing the final to Blackburn Rovers in 1884 and 1885 before being barred from entering by the Scottish Football Association.Entries from clubs affiliated to \"offshore\" associations are also eligible subject to consideration on an annual basis, with special provisions that may apply.", "In the 2013–14 season the first Channel Island club entered the competition when Guernsey F.C.", "competed.", "The first game played in the Channel Islands – and thus the southernmost FA Cup tie played – took place on 7 August 2021 between Jersey Bulls and Horsham YMCA.", "A third club, F.C.", "Isle of Man, was also eligible to play in 2022–23, but in the end all Crown Dependency teams either did not appear on the entry list or later withdrew." ], [ "Competition format", "===Overview===Beginning in August, the competition proceeds as a knockout tournament throughout, consisting of twelve rounds, a semi-final and then a final, in May.", "A system of byes ensures clubs above Level 9 enter the competition at later stages.", "There is no seeding, the fixtures in each round being determined by a random draw.", "Prior to the fifth round, fixtures ending in a tie are replayed once only.", "The first six rounds are qualifiers, with the draws organised on a regional basis.", "The next six rounds are the \"proper\" rounds where all clubs are in one draw.===Schedule===All entrants from Level 9 begin the competition in the extra preliminary round, as well as any Level 10 team filling in for a vacancy.", "Teams from Level 8 are ranked on their PPG in the previous season, except newly promoted teams automatically ranked towards the bottom and newly relegated teams ranked to the top; teams are then split between entering at either the Extra-Preliminary or preliminary round so as to ensure the right balance of fixtures throughout the competition.", "From there, clubs from higher levels are added in later rounds, as per the table below.The months in which rounds are played are traditional, with exact dates subject to each calendar.", "The number of new entries, winners from previous rounds, and division of Level 8 teams in the two preliminary rounds are based on an entry list of 732 modelled on the English league system as of 2022–23.From 2023 to 2024, the entry list could rise to 746 in line with sixteen additional clubs at Level 9 meaning that the extra preliminary round will have 444 teams with only 50 Level 8 clubs entering at the preliminary round.RoundMonthLeagues entering this roundNew entries this roundWinners fromprevious roundNumber of fixtures'''Qualifying Competition'''Extra preliminary roundAugustAny vacancies filled by Level 10Level 9 clubsLevel 8 clubs (96 lowest ranked)416208Preliminary roundLevel 8 clubs (64 highest ranked)64208136First roundSeptemberLevel 7 clubs88136112Second roundLevel 6 clubs4811280Third roundOctobernone08040Fourth roundLevel 5 clubs244032'''Competition Proper'''First roundNovemberLevel 3 and 4 clubs483240Second roundDecembernone04020Third roundJanuaryLevel 1 and 2 clubs442032Fourth roundnone03216Fifth roundFebruary0168Quarter-finalsMarch084Semi-finalsApril042FinalMay021The qualifying rounds are regionalised to reduce the travel costs for smaller non-league sides.", "The first and second proper rounds were also previously split into Northern and Southern sections, but this practice was ended after the 1997–98 competition.", "The final is normally held the Saturday after the Premier League season finishes in May.", "The only seasons in recent times when this pattern was not followed were: 1999–2000, when most rounds were played a few weeks earlier than normal as an experiment; 2010–11 and 2012–13 when the FA Cup Final was played before the Premier League season had finished, to allow Wembley Stadium to be ready for the UEFA Champions League final, as well as in 2011–12 to allow England time to prepare for that summer's European Championships;, 2019–20 when the final was delayed until August due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom, and the 2021-22 when the final was held a week before the end of the league.===Draws===The draws for the Extra Preliminary, Preliminary, and first qualifying rounds used to all occur at the same time.", "Thereafter, the draw for each subsequent round is not made until after the scheduled dates for the previous round, meaning that in the case of replays, clubs will often know their future opponents in advance.The draw for each of the proper rounds is broadcast live on television, usually taking place at the conclusion of live coverage of one of the games of the previous round.", "Public interest is particularly high during the draw for the third round, which is where the top-ranked teams are added to the draw.===Tiebreaking===In rounds up to and including the fourth round proper, fixtures resulting in a draw (after normal time) go to a replay, played at the venue of the away team, at a later date; if that replay is still tied, the winner is settled by a period of extra time, and if still necessary, a penalty shootout.", "Since 2016–17, ties have been settled on the day from the quarter-finals onwards, using extra time and penalties.", "From 2018–19, Fifth round ties are also settled by extra time and penalties.Until 1990–91, further replays would be played until one team was victorious.", "In 1971–72, a fourth qualifying round game between Alvechurch and Oxford City was played six times until Alvechurch won in the fifth replay.", "In their 1975 campaign, Fulham played 12 games over six rounds, which remains the most games played by a team to reach a final.", "Replays were traditionally played three or four days after the original game, but from 1991–92 they were staged at least 10 days later on police advice for the rounds proper.", "This led to penalty shoot-outs being introduced, the first of which came on 26 November 1991 when Rotherham United eliminated Scunthorpe United.From 1980–81 to 1998–99, the semi-finals went to extra time on the day if the score after 90 minutes was a draw.", "If the score was still level after extra time, the match would go to a replay.", "Replays for the semi-finals were scrapped for 1999–2000; the last semi-final to go into a replay was in 1998–99, when Manchester United beat rivals Arsenal 2–1 after extra time, following a 0–0 draw in the original match.The first FA Cup Final to go to extra time and a replay was the 1875 final, between the Royal Engineers and the Old Etonians.", "The initial tie finished 1–1 but the Royal Engineers won the replay 2–0 in normal time.", "The last replayed final was the 1993 FA Cup Final, when Arsenal and Sheffield Wednesday fought a 1–1 draw.", "The replay saw Arsenal win the FA Cup, 2–1 after extra time.The last quarter-final to go to a replay was Manchester United vs West Ham United in the 2015–16 FA Cup.", "The original game at Old Trafford ended in a 1–1 draw, while Manchester United won the replay at the Boleyn Ground, 2–1.It was also the last FA Cup game ever played at the Boleyn Ground.The last fifth round replay saw Tottenham Hotspur defeat Rochdale 6–1 at Wembley in the 2017–18 FA Cup after the first match at Spotland Stadium ended in a 2–2 draw." ], [ "Qualification for subsequent competitions", "===European football===The FA Cup winners qualify for the following season's UEFA Europa League (formerly named the UEFA Cup; from its launch in 1960 until 1998, they entered the now-defunct UEFA Cup Winners' Cup instead).", "This European place applies even if the team is relegated or is not in the English top flight.", "In the past, if the FA Cup winning team also qualified for the following season's Champions League or Europa League through their league or European performance, then the losing FA Cup finalists were given the European berth of the League Cup winners and the League Cup winners would be given the league berth instead (in the Cup Winners' Cup era, teams qualifying for the UEFA Cup via other competitions would be promoted to the Cup Winners' Cup instead).", "FA Cup winners enter the Europa League at the group stage.", "Losing finalists, if they had not qualified for Europe via the league, began earlier, at the play-off or third qualifying round stage.", "From the 2015–16 UEFA Europa League season, however, UEFA does not allow the runners-up to qualify for the Europa League through the competition.", "If the winner of the FA Cup has already qualified for a European Competition through their Premier League position, the FA Cup berth is then given to the highest placed team in the Premier League who has not yet qualified for a European Competition.===FA Community Shield===The FA Cup winners also qualify for the following season's single-match FA Community Shield, the traditional season opener played against the previous season's Premier League champions (or the Premier League runners-up if the FA Cup winners also won the league – the double)." ], [ "Venues", "FA Cup final has been held at Wembley Stadium, on the site of the previous stadium which hosted it from 1923 to 2000.Fixtures in the 12 rounds of the competition are usually played at the home ground of one of the two teams.", "The semi-finals and final are played at a neutral venue – the rebuilt Wembley Stadium.===Competition rounds===In the matches for the 12 competition rounds, the team who plays at home is decided when the fixtures are drawn – simply the first team drawn out for each fixture.", "Occasionally games may have to be moved to other grounds due to other events taking place, security reasons or a ground not being suitable to host popular teams.", "However, since 2003, clubs cannot move grounds to the away side's for capacity or financial reasons.", "If any move has to be made, it has to be to a neutral venue and any additional monies earned by the move goes into the central pot.", "In the event of a draw, the replay is played at the ground of the team who originally played away from home.In the days when multiple replays were possible, the second replay (and any further replays) were played at neutral grounds.", "The clubs involved could alternatively agree to toss for home advantage in the second replay.===Semi-finals===The semi-finals have been played exclusively at the rebuilt Wembley Stadium since 2008, one year after it opened and after it had already hosted a final (in 2007).", "For the first decade of the competition, the Kennington Oval was used as the semi-final venue.", "In the period between this first decade and the reopening of Wembley, semi-finals were played at high-capacity neutral venues around England; usually the home grounds of teams not involved in that semi-final, chosen to be roughly equidistant between the two teams for fairness of travel.", "The top three most used venues in this period were Villa Park in Birmingham (55 times), Hillsborough in Sheffield (34 times) and Old Trafford in Manchester (23 times).", "The original Wembley Stadium was also used seven times for semi-final, between 1991 and 2000 (the last held there), but not always for fixtures featuring London teams.", "In 2005, both were held at the Millennium Stadium.In 2003 the FA decided to permanently use the new Wembley for semi-finals to recoup debts in financing the new stadium.", "This was controversial, with the move seen as both unfair to fans of teams located far from London, as well as taking some of the prestige away from a Wembley final.", "In defending the move, the FA has also cited the extra capacity Wembley offers, although the 2013 fixture between Millwall and Wigan Athletic led to the unprecedented step of placing 6,000 tickets on sale to neutral fans after the game failed to sell out.", "A fan poll by ''The Guardian'' in 2013 found 86% opposition to Wembley semi-finals.===Final===The final has been played at the rebuilt Wembley Stadium since it opened, in 2007.The rebuilding process meant that between 2001 and 2006 they were hosted at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff in Wales.", "Prior to rebuilding, the final was hosted by the original Wembley Stadium since it opened in 1923 (being originally named the Empire Stadium).", "One exception to this 78 year series of Empire Stadium finals (including five replays) was the 1970 replay between Leeds United and Chelsea, held at Old Trafford in Manchester.In the 51 years prior to the Empire Stadium opening, the final (including 8 replays) was held in a variety of locations, predominantly in London, and mainly at the Kennington Oval and then Crystal Palace.", "It was played 22 times at The Oval (the inaugural competition in 1872, and then all but two times until 1892).", "After The Oval, Crystal Palace hosted 21 finals from 1895 to 1914, broken up by four replays elsewhere.", "The other London venues were Stamford Bridge from 1920 to 1922 (the last three finals before the move to Empire Stadium); and the University of Oxford's Lillie Bridge in Fulham for the second ever final, in 1873.The other venues used sparingly in this period were all outside of London, as follows:* Racecourse Ground, Derby (1886)* Fallowfield Stadium, Manchester (1893)* Goodison Park, Liverpool (1894)* Burnden Park, Bolton (1901 replay)* Goodison Park (1910 replay)* Old Trafford, Manchester (1911 replay)* Bramall Lane, Sheffield (1912 replay)* Old Trafford (1915)===Artificial turf===The FA permitted artificial turf (3G) pitches in all rounds of the competition from the 2014–15 edition and beyond.", "Under the 2015–16 rules, the pitch must be of FIFA One Star quality, or Two Star for ties if they involve one of the 92 professional clubs.", "This followed approval two years previously for their use in the qualifying rounds only – if a team with a 3G pitch progressed to the competition proper, they had to switch their tie to the ground of another eligible entrant with a natural grass pitch.", "Having been strong proponents of the surface, the first match in the proper rounds to be played on a 3G surface was a televised first round replay at Maidstone United's Gallagher Stadium on 20 November 2014." ], [ "Trophy", "King George V presents the FA Cup trophy to Tommy Boyle of Burnley, April 1914The eventual winners of the competition receive the FA Cup.", "It is only loaned to the club by the FA; under the current (2015–16) rules it must be returned by 1 March, or earlier if given seven days' notice.", "Traditionally, the holders had the Cup until the following year's presentation, although more recently the trophy has been taken on publicity tours by the FA in between finals.The trophy comes in three parts – the cup itself, plus a lid and a base.", "There have been two designs of trophy in use, but five physical trophies have been presented.", "The original trophy, known as the \"little tin idol\", was 18 inches high and made by Martin, Hall & Co.", "It was stolen in 1895 and never recovered, and so was replaced by an exact replica, used until 1910.The FA decided to change the design after the 1909 winners, Manchester United, made their own replica, leading the FA to realise they did not own the copyright.", "This new, larger design was by Fattorini and Sons, and was used from 1911.In order to preserve this original, from 1992 it was replaced by an exact replica, although this had to be replaced after just over two decades, after showing wear and tear from being handled more than in previous eras.", "This third replica, first used in 2014, was built heavier to withstand the increased handling.", "Of the four surviving trophies, only the 1895 replica has entered private ownership.The name of the winning team is engraved on the silver band around the base as soon as the final has finished, in order to be ready in time for the presentation ceremony.", "This means the engraver has just five minutes to perform a task which would take 20 under normal conditions, although time is saved by engraving the year on during the match, and sketching the presumed winner.", "During the final, the trophy is decorated with ribbons in the colours of both finalists, with the loser's ribbons being removed at the end of the game.", "The tradition of tying ribbons started after Tottenham Hotspur won the 1901 FA Cup Final and the wife of a Spurs director decided to tie blue and white ribbons to the handles of the cup.", "Traditionally, at Wembley finals, the presentation is made at the Royal Box, with players, led by the captain, mounting a staircase to a gangway in front of the box and returning by a second staircase on the other side of the box.", "At Cardiff the presentation was made on a podium on the pitch.George Armstrong celebrating with the FA Cup trophy following Arsenal's win over Liverpool in the 1971 final.The tradition of presenting the trophy immediately after the game did not start until the 1882 final; after the first final in 1872 the trophy was not presented to the winners, Wanderers, until a reception held four weeks later in the Pall Mall Restaurant in London.", "Under the original rules, the trophy was to be permanently presented to any club which won the competition three times, although when inaugural winners Wanderers achieved this feat by the 1876 final, the rules were changed by FA Secretary CW Alcock (who was also captain of Wanderers in their first victory).Portsmouth have the distinction of being the football club which has held the FA Cup trophy for the longest uninterrupted period - seven years.", "Portsmouth had defeated Wolverhampton Wanderers 4–1 in the 1939 FA Cup Final and were awarded the trophy as 1938–39 FA Cup winners.", "But with the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, the regular Football League and FA Cup competitions for the 1939–40 season were cancelled for the duration of the war.", "Portsmouth's manager Jack Tinn was rumoured to have kept the FA Cup trophy 'safe under his bed' throughout the duration of the war, but this is an urban myth.", "Because the naval city of Portsmouth was a primary strategic military target for German Luftwaffe bombing, the FA Cup trophy was actually taken ten miles to the north of Portsmouth, to the nearby Hampshire village of Lovedean, and there it resided in a quaint thatched roof country pub called ''The Bird in Hand'' for the seven years of the war.", "After the conclusion of World War II, the FA Cup trophy was presented back to the Football Association by the club in time for the 1946 FA Cup Final.===Original design from 1871=======1871 original====The first trophy, the 'little tin idol', was made by Martin, Hall & Co at a cost of £20.It was stolen from a Birmingham shoe shop window belonging to William Shillcock while held by Aston Villa on 11 September 1895 and was never seen again.", "Despite a £10 reward for information, the crime was never solved.", "As it happened while it was in their care, the FA fined Villa £25 to pay for a replacement.Just over 60 years later, 80 year old career criminal Henry (Harry) James Burge claimed to have committed the theft, confessing to a newspaper, with the story being published in the ''Sunday Pictorial'' newspaper on 23 February 1958.He claimed to have carried out the robbery with two other men, although when discrepancies with a contemporaneous report in the ''Birmingham Post'' newspaper (the crime pre-dated written police reports) in his account of the means of entry and other items stolen, detectives decided there was no realistic possibility of a conviction and the case was closed.", "Burge claimed the cup had been melted down to make counterfeit half-crown coins, which matched known intelligence of the time, in which stolen silver was being used to forge coins which were then laundered through betting shops at a local racecourse, although Burge had no history of forgery in a record of 42 previous convictions for which he had spent 42 years in prison.", "He had been further imprisoned in 1957 for seven years for theft from cars.", "Released in 1961, he died in 1964.====1895 replica====The second FA Cup trophy, used between 1896 and 1910After the theft, a replica of the trophy was made, which was used until a redesign of the trophy in 1911.The 1895 replica was then presented to the FA's long-serving president Lord Kinnaird.", "Kinnaird died in 1923, and his family kept it in their possession, out of view, until putting it up for auction in 2005.It was sold at Christie's auction house on 19 May 2005 for £420,000 (£478,400 including auction fees and taxes).", "The sale price set a new world record for a piece of football memorabilia, surpassing the £254,000 paid for the Jules Rimet World Cup Trophy in 1997.The successful bidder was David Gold, the then joint chairman of Birmingham City; claiming the FA and government were doing nothing proactive to ensure the trophy remained in the country, Gold stated his purchase was motivated by wanting to save it for the nation.", "Accordingly, Gold presented the trophy to the National Football Museum in Preston on 20 April 2006, where it went on immediate public display.", "It later moved with the museum to its new location in Manchester.", "In November 2012, it was ceremonially presented to Royal Engineers, after they beat Wanderers 7–1 in a charity replay of the first FA Cup final.", "In September 2020, Gold sold the replica trophy for £760,000 through the Bonhams auction house.", "In January 2021, it was revealed that the trophy had been purchased by Sheikh Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan, the owner of Manchester City, who stated that it would be returned on loan to the National Football Museum.===Current design from 1911=======1911 original====The redesigned trophy first used in 1911 was larger at 61.5 cm (24.2 inches) high, and was designed and manufactured by Fattorini & Sons of Bradford, coincidentally being won by Bradford City in its first outing.On the 27 March 2016 episode of the BBC television programme ''Antiques Roadshow'', this trophy was valued at £1 million by expert Alastair Dickenson, although he suggested that, due to the design featuring depictions of grapes and vines, it may not have been specifically produced for the FA, but was instead an off-the-shelf design originally meant to be a wine or champagne cooler.", "This was later disproved when Thomas Fattorini was invited to the Antiques Roadshow to \"ambush\" Alastair Dickenson with the competition winning design by Fattorini & Sons.", "The show was filmed at Baddesley Clinton and subsequently aired on 23 October 2016.A smaller, but otherwise identical, replica was also made by the company Thomas Fattorini, the North Wales Coast FA Cup trophy, and is contested annually by members of that regional Association.====1992 replica====The 1992 replica was made by Toye, Kenning and Spencer.", "A copy of this trophy was also produced, in case anything happened to the primary trophy.====2014 replica====The 2014 replica was made by Thomas Lyte, handcrafted in sterling 925 silver over 250 hours.", "A weight increase for greater durability has taken it to ." ], [ "Medals", "Each club in the final receives 40 winners or runners-up medals to be distributed among players, staff and officials.", "The traditional styles of gold-cased medals – the winners' medal, which had remained largely unchanged since the 1890s, and runners-up medals, which were last updated in 1946 – were replaced for the 2021 final by new designs of gold winners' medals and silver runners-up medals suspended on a ribbon." ], [ "Sponsorship", "pre-match ceremony ahead of the 2010 FA Cup Final featuring sponsorship by E.ONSince the start of the 1994–95 season, the FA Cup has been sponsored.", "However, to protect the identity of the competition, the sponsored name has always included 'The FA Cup' in addition to the sponsor's name, unlike sponsorship deals for the League Cup where the word 'cup' is preceded by only the sponsor's name.", "Sponsorship deals run for four years, though – as in the case of E.ON – one-year extensions may be agreed.", "Emirates Airline has been the sponsor since 2015, initially renaming the competition as 'The Emirates FA Cup', unlike previous editions, which included 'The FA Cup in association with E.ON' and 'The FA Cup with Budweiser'.", "The Emirates sponsorship deal, originally scheduled to terminate in 2018, was later extended until 2021 and again until 2024.Period Sponsor Name Trophy1871–1994'''The FA Cup''' Original1994–1998Littlewoods'''The FA Cup sponsored by Littlewoods'''1998–2002AXA'''The AXA sponsored FA Cup''' (1998–1999)'''The FA Cup sponsored by AXA''' (1999–2002)2002–2006'''The FA Cup'''2006–2011E.ON'''The FA Cup sponsored by E.ON'''2011–2014Budweiser'''The FA Cup with Budweiser'''2014–2015'''The FA Cup'''2015–2024Emirates'''The Emirates FA Cup''' (2015–2020)'''Emirates FA Cup''' (2020–2024)2024 onwardsUnknown'''The FA Cup'''From 2006 to 2013, Umbro supplied match balls for all FA Cup matches.", "They were replaced at the start of the 2013–14 season by Nike, who produced the competition's official match ball for five seasons.", "Mitre took over for the 2018–19 season, beginning a three-year partnership with the FA." ], [ "Records and statistics", "===Final=======Team====*'''Most wins:''' 14, Arsenal (1930, 1936, 1950, 1971, 1979, 1993, 1998, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2020)*'''Most consecutive wins:''' 3, joint record:**Wanderers (1876, 1877, 1878)**Blackburn Rovers (1884, 1885, 1886)*'''Most appearances in a final:''' 21, joint record:**Arsenal (1927, 1930, 1932, 1936, 1950, 1952, 1971, 1972, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1993, 1998, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2020)**Manchester United (1909, 1948, 1957, 1958, 1963, 1976, 1977, 1979, 1983, 1985, 1990, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1999, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2016, 2018, 2023)*'''Most consecutive finals losses:''' 3**Chelsea (2020, 2021, 2022)*'''Most Final appearances without ever winning:''' 2, joint record: **''Queen's Park'' (1884, 1885)**Birmingham City (1931, 1956)**Crystal Palace (1990, 2016)**Watford (1984, 2019)*'''Most Final appearances without ever losing:''' 5, ''Wanderers'' (1872, 1873, 1876, 1877, 1878)*'''Most Final appearances without losing (streak):''' 7, joint record:**Tottenham Hotspur (1901, 1921, 1961, 1962, 1967, 1981, 1982)**Arsenal (2002, 2003, 2005, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2020)* '''Longest gap between wins:''' 69 years, Portsmouth (1939–2008)*'''Biggest win in a final:''' 6 goals, joint record: **Bury 6–0 Derby County (1903)**Manchester City 6–0 Watford (2019)*'''Most goals in a final:''' 7:**Blackburn Rovers 6–1 Sheffield Wednesday (1890)**Blackpool 4–3 Bolton Wanderers (1953)*'''Most goals by a losing side:''' 3:**Bolton Wanderers: Lost 3–4 against Blackpool (1953)**West Ham United: Drew 3–3 but lost in a penalty shootout against Liverpool (2006)*'''Most defeats in a final:''' 9:**Manchester United (1957, 1958, 1976, 1979, 1995, 2005, 2007, 2018, 2023)====Individual====Ian Rush, the former Liverpool striker and record goalscorer in FA Cup final historyAshley Cole won a record seven FA Cup finals*'''Most wins by player:''' 7: Ashley Cole (Arsenal) (2002, 2003, 2005) & (Chelsea) (2007, 2009, 2010, 2012)*'''Most wins by manager:''' 7, Arsène Wenger (Arsenal) (1998, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2014, 2015, 2017)*'''Most appearances:''' 9, Arthur Kinnaird (Wanderers) (1872–73, 1875–76, 1876–77, 1877–78) & (Old Etonians) (1874–75, 1878–79, 1880–81, 1881–82, 1882–83)*'''Most goals (one final):''' 3:**Billy Townley (Blackburn Rovers) (1890)**James Logan (Notts County) (1894)**Stan Mortensen (Blackpool) (1953)*'''Most goals (all finals):''' 5, Ian Rush (Liverpool) (2 in 1986, 2 in 1989, 1 in 1992)*'''Most finals scored in:''' 4, Didier Drogba (Chelsea) (1 each in 2007, 2009, 2010, 2012)*'''Youngest FA Cup finalist:''' Curtis Weston (Millwall), 17 years and 119 days (2004)*'''Youngest player to score in an FA Cup final:''' Norman Whiteside (Manchester United), 18 years and 19 days (1983)*'''Oldest player:''' Billy Hampson (Newcastle United), 41 years and 257 days (1924)===All rounds===*'''Biggest win:''' Preston North End 26–0 Hyde (First round, 15 October 1887)*'''Biggest away win:''' Clapton 0–14 Nottingham Forest (First round, 17 January 1891)*'''Highest attendance at Wembley:''' 126,047 (official) up to 300,000 (estimate) at the \"White Horse Final\" (Bolton Wanderers ''v.''", "West Ham United, 28 April 1923)*'''Most clubs competing for trophy in a season:''' 763 (2011–12)*'''Longest tie:''' 660 minutes (6 matches in total), Oxford City ''v.''", "Alvechurch (Fourth qualifying round, November 6/9/15/17/20/22 1971; Alvechurch won the sixth match 1–0)*'''Longest penalty shoot-out:''' 20 penalties each, Tunbridge Wells ''v.''", "Littlehampton Town (Preliminary round replay, 31 August 2005; Tunbridge Wells won 16–15)*'''Most rounds played in a season:''' 9, for:**Brighton & Hove Albion (1932–33: 1st–4th qualifying rounds, 1st–5th rounds)**New Brighton (1956–57: Preliminary, 1st–4th qualifying rounds, 1st–4th rounds)**Blyth Spartans (1977–78: 1st–4th qualifying rounds, 1st–5th rounds)**Harlow Town (1979–80: Preliminary, 1st–4th qualifying rounds, 1st–4th rounds)*'''Most games played in a season:''' 13, Bideford (1973–74: one First Qualifying, two Second Qualifying, five Third Qualifying, four Fourth Qualifying and one first round)*'''Fastest goal:''' 4 seconds, Gareth Morris (for Ashton United ''v.''", "Skelmersdale United, 1st qualifying round, 17 September 2001)*'''Most consecutive games without defeat:''' 22, Blackburn Rovers (First round, 1884 through Second round, replay, 1886.Won three FA Cups.)", "*'''Fastest hat-trick:''' 2 min 20 sec, Andy Locke (for Nantwich Town ''v.''", "Droylsden, Preliminary round, August 1995)*'''Most career goals:''' 49 Harry Cursham (for Notts County in 12 tournaments from 1877–78 to 1888–89).", "*'''Most goals by a player in a single FA Cup season:''' 19, Jimmy Ross (for Preston North End, 1887–88.)", "(Preston outscored opponents 50–5 over 7 matches, including \"Biggest win\" shown above.", ")*'''Most goals by a player in a single FA Cup game:''' 9, Ted MacDougall (for AFC Bournemouth in 11–0 defeat of Margate, First round proper, 20 November 1971)*'''Most goals without winning:''' 7, joint record **Dulwich Hamlet 8–7 St Albans City (Fourth qualifying round replay, 22 November 1922)**Dulwich Hamlet 7–7 Wealdstone (Fourth qualifying round, 16 November 1929).", "*'''Youngest player:''' Andy Awford, 15 years and 88 days (for Worcester City ''v.''", "Boreham Wood, 3rd qualifying round, 10 October 1987).", "*'''Youngest goalscorer:''' Finn Smith, 16 years and 1 day (for Newport (IOW) F.C.", "''v.''", "Fleet Town, Extra preliminary round, 2 August 2022).", "*'''Youngest goalscorer (proper rounds):''' George Williams, 16 years and 66 days (for Milton Keynes Dons ''v.''", "Nantwich Town, First round proper, 12 November 2011).", "* '''Biggest gap between two teams in an FA Cup match''': 161 difference in rank between 8th-tier Marine and Premier League Tottenham Hotspur, Third round proper, 10 January 2021." ], [ "Cup runs and giant killings", "The possibility of unlikely victories in the earlier rounds of the competition, where lower ranked teams beat higher placed opposition in what is known as a \"giant killing\", is much anticipated by the public.", "Such upsets are considered an integral part of the tradition and prestige of the competition, and the attention gained by giant-killing teams can be as great as that for winners of the cup.", "Almost every club in the League Pyramid has a fondly remembered giant-killing act in its history.", "It is considered particularly newsworthy when a top Premier League team suffers an upset defeat, or where the giant-killer is a non-league club, i.e.", "from outside The Football League.One analysis of four years of FA Cup results showed that it was 99.85 per cent likely that at least one team would beat one from its next higher division in a given year.", "The probability drops to 48.8 per cent for a two-division gap, and 39.28 per cent for a three-division gap.===Early years===The Football League was founded in 1888, 16 years after the first FA Cup competition.", "Before its establishment as the dominant football competition in England, teams from rival leagues did make the final of the FA Cup.", "The Wednesday (later Sheffield Wednesday) in 1890 reached the final as a member of the Football Alliance, two years before that competition merged with the Football League.", "Later, with the Football League predominantly in the North and Midlands of England, leading clubs of the Southern Football League were of a level with Football League teams, and in 1901 Southern League members Tottenham Hotspur became the only non-League side to win the Cup, while fellow Southern League team Southampton were losing finalists in 1900 and 1902.In 1920–21, the Football League expanded to incorporate teams from the Southern League's first division, and the following year it added a further division consisting of leading northern and midlands clubs.", "This consolidated the Football League's position as the leading competition in English football, and established the hierarchy in which non-League clubs in the English football league system competing in the FA Cup would face Football League teams as clear underdogs.===Non-League giant killings===Since the expansion of the Football League in 1921, the best performance of a team from outside the Football League was National League side Lincoln City's run to the quarter-finals of the 2016–17 FA Cup, during which they defeated Championship side Brighton 3–1 in the fourth round and Premier League side Burnley 1–0 in the fifth, before falling to ultimate Cup champions Arsenal 5–0 at the Emirates.", "Lincoln’s defeat of Burnley was only the third (and most recent) FA Cup victory for a non-league team over a top-flight side since 1989.Giant-killings can also be applied where the defeated team is from lower down the Football League, particularly where the defeated club is very notable or the winning team particularly obscure.", "Liverpool, having already won five league titles in their history, were in the Second Division in 1959 when they lost 2–1 to Worcester City of the Southern League.The best-known non-league giant-killing came in the 1971–72 FA Cup, when non-league Hereford United defeated First Division Newcastle United.", "Hereford were trailing 1–0 with less than seven minutes left in the Third round proper replay, when Hereford's Ronnie Radford scored the equaliser – a goal still shown regularly when FA Cup fixtures are broadcast.", "Hereford finished the shocking comeback by defeating Newcastle 2–1 in the match.", "They finished that season as runners-up of the Southern League, behind Chelmsford City, and were voted into the Football League at the expense of Barrow.Some small clubs gain a reputation for being \"cup specialists\" after two or more giant killing feats within a few years.", "Yeovil Town hold the record for the most victories over league opposition as a non-league team, having recorded 20 wins through the years before they achieved promotion into The Football League in 2003.The record for a club which has never entered the Football League is held by Altrincham, with 17 wins against league teams.===Non-League cup runs===For non-League teams, reaching the third round proper – where all Level 1 sides now enter – is considered a major achievement.", "In the 2008–09 FA Cup, a record eight non-League teams achieved this feat.", "As of the 2021–22 season, only ten non-League teams have reached the fifth round proper (final 16) since 1945, and only Lincoln City have progressed to the sixth round (final 8), during the 2016–17 edition of the tournament.Chasetown, while playing at Level 8 of English football during the 2007–08 competition, were the lowest-ranked team to ever play in the third round proper (final 64, of 731 teams entered that season).", "Chasetown was then a member of the Southern League Division One Midlands (a lower level within the Southern Football League), when they lost to Football League Championship (Level 2) team Cardiff City, the eventual FA Cup runners-up that year.", "Their success earned the lowly organisation over £60,000 in prize money.", "Marine matched this in the 2020–21 competition as a member of the Northern Premier League Division One North West, and were drawn against Premier League (Level 1) team Tottenham Hotspur, to whom they lost 5–0.During the 2023–24 tournament, Maidstone United who were 4th in National League South won 2–1 away at EFL Championship side Ipswich Town to advance into the Fifth round, making them the eleventh non-League club to reach the Fifth round of the FA Cup.===Giant killings between League clubs===Giant-killings can apply to matches between league clubs, particularly where teams from tier 4 have defeated tier 1 sides.", "In games between League sides, one of the most notable results was the 1992 victory by Wrexham, bottom of the previous season's League (avoiding relegation due to expansion of The Football League), over reigning champions Arsenal.", "Another similar shock was when Shrewsbury Town beat Everton 2–1 in 2003.Everton finished seventh in the Premier League and Shrewsbury Town were relegated to the Football Conference that same season.During the 2022–23 tournament, Grimsby Town who were 16th in EFL League Two won 2–1 away at Premier League side Southampton to advance into the quarter finals." ], [ "Winners and finalists", "===Results by team===Since its establishment, the FA Cup has been won by 44 different teams.", "Teams shown in ''italics'' are no longer in existence.", "Additionally, Queen's Park ceased to be eligible to enter the FA Cup after a Scottish Football Association ruling in 1887.+Results by teamClubWinsFirst final wonLast final wonRunners-upLast final lostTotal finalappearancesArsenal14193020207200121Manchester United12190920169202321Chelsea8197020188202216Liverpool8196520227201215Tottenham Hotspur819011991119879Manchester City7190420235201312Aston Villa7188719574201511Newcastle United6191019557199913Blackburn Rovers618841928219608Everton5190619958200913West Bromwich Albion5188819685193510Wanderers5187218780—5Wolverhampton Wanderers418931960419398Bolton Wanderers419231958319537Sheffield United418991925219366Sheffield Wednesday318961935319936West Ham United319641980220065Preston North End218891938519647Old Etonians218791882418836Portsmouth219392008320105Sunderland219371973219924Nottingham Forest218981959119913Bury2190019030—2Huddersfield Town119221922 419385Leicester City120212021419695Oxford University118741874318804Royal Engineers118751875318784Derby County119461946319034Leeds United119721972319734Southampton119761976320034Burnley119141914219623Cardiff City119271927220083Blackpool119531953219513''Clapham Rovers''118801880118792Notts County118941894118912Barnsley119121912119102Charlton Athletic119471947119462Old Carthusians1188118810—1''Blackburn Olympic''1188318830—1Bradford City1191119110—1Ipswich Town1197819780—1Coventry City1198719870—1''Wimbledon''1198819880—1Wigan Athletic1201320130—1Queen's Park0218852Birmingham City0219562Crystal Palace0220162Watford0220192Bristol City0119091Luton Town0119591Fulham0119751Queens Park Rangers0119821Brighton & Hove Albion0119831Middlesbrough0119971Millwall0120041Stoke City0120111Hull City0120141===Consecutive winners===Four clubs have won consecutive FA Cups on more than one occasion: Wanderers (1872, 1873 and 1876, 1877, 1878), Blackburn Rovers (1884, 1885, 1886 and 1890, 1891), Tottenham Hotspur (1961, 1962 and 1981, 1982) and Arsenal (2002, 2003 and 2014, 2015).===Winning managers===The record for most titles for a manager is held by Arsène Wenger, who won the FA Cup with Arsenal seven times (1998, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2014, 2015, 2017).", "Wenger is also the only manager to have won the Cup at the old Wembley Stadium, the Millennium Stadium, and the new Wembley Stadium.===Doubles/Trebles===Manchester City (2019) are the only club to have achieved a domestic treble of league, FA Cup and League Cup, having beaten Chelsea 4–3 on penalties in the League Cup Final, finished at the top of the Premier League, and beaten Watford 6–0 in the FA Cup Final.Manchester United (1999) and Manchester City (2023) are the only two English teams to have won the continental treble of league, FA Cup, and Champions League.", "They are two of only nine European sides to do so.", "Liverpool won the FA Cup, League Cup and UEFA Cup in (2001) to complete a cup treble.Eight clubs have won the FA Cup as part of a League and Cup double, namely Preston North End (1889), Aston Villa (1897), Tottenham Hotspur (1961), Arsenal (1971, 1998, 2002), Liverpool (1986), Manchester United (1994, 1996, 1999), Chelsea (2010) and Manchester City (2019, 2023).", "In 1993, Arsenal became the first side to win both the FA Cup and the League Cup in the same season when they beat Sheffield Wednesday in both finals.", "Liverpool (2001, 2022), Chelsea (2007) and Manchester City (2019) have since repeated this feat.", "In 2012, Chelsea won both the FA Cup and the Champions League.===Outside England===The FA Cup has only been won by a non-English team once.", "Cardiff City achieved this in 1927 when they beat Arsenal in the final at Wembley.", "They had previously made it to the final only to lose to Sheffield United in 1925 and lost another final to Portsmouth in 2008.Cardiff City are also the only team to win the national cups of two different countries in the same season, having also won the Welsh Cup in 1927.The Scottish team Queen's Park reached and lost the final in both 1884 and 1885.===Outside the top division===Since the creation of the Football League in 1888, the final has never been contested by two teams from outside the top division, and there have only been eight winners who were not in the top flight: Notts County (1894); Tottenham Hotspur (1901); Wolverhampton Wanderers (1908); Barnsley (1912); West Bromwich Albion (1931); Sunderland (1973), Southampton (1976) and West Ham United (1980).", "With the exception of Tottenham, these clubs were all playing in the second tier (the old Second Division) – Tottenham were playing in the Southern League and were only elected to the Football League in 1908, meaning they are the only non-League winners of the FA Cup since the League's creation.", "Other than Tottenham's victory, only 24 finalists have come from outside English football's top tier, with a record of 7 wins and 17 runners-up: and none at all from the third tier or lower, Southampton (1902, then in the Southern League) being the last finalist from outside the top two tiers.Sunderland's win in 1973 was considered a major upset, having beaten Leeds United who finished third in the top flight that season, as was West Ham's victory over Arsenal in 1980 as the Gunners were in their third successive FA Cup Final and were the cup holders as well as just having finished 4th in the First Division, whereas West Ham had ended the season 7th in Division 2.This also marked the last time (as of 2022–23) a team from outside the top division won the FA Cup.", "Uniquely, in 2008 three of the four semi-finalists (Barnsley, Cardiff City and West Bromwich) were from outside the top division, although the eventual winner was the last remaining top-flight team, Portsmouth.", "West Bromwich (1931) are the only team to have won the FA Cup and earned promotion to the top flight in the same season; whereas Wigan Athletic (2013) are the only team to have won the Cup and been relegated from the top flight in the same season." ], [ "Media coverage", "===Domestic broadcasters===The FA Cup Final is one of 10 events reserved for live broadcast on UK terrestrial television under the Ofcom Code on Sports and Other Listed and Designated Events.In the early years of coverage the BBC had exclusive radio coverage with a picture of the pitch marked in the ''Radio Times'' with numbered squares to help the listener follow the match on the radio.", "The first FA Cup Final on Radio was in 1926 between Bolton Wanderers and Manchester City but this was only broadcast in Manchester, the first national final on BBC Radio was between Arsenal and Cardiff City in 1927.The first final on BBC Television was in 1937 in a match which featured Sunderland and Preston North End but this was not televised in full.", "The following season's final between Preston and Huddersfield Town was covered in full by the BBC.", "When ITV was formed in 1955 they shared final coverage with the BBC in one of the only club matches shown live on television, during the 1970s and 1980s coverage became more elaborate with BBC and ITV trying to steal viewers from the others by starting coverage earlier and earlier some starting as early as 9 a.m. which was six hours before kick off.", "The sharing of rights between BBC and ITV continued from 1955 to 1988, when ITV lost coverage to the BBC.From 1988 to 1997, the BBC was the exclusive broadcaster of the competition on terrestrial television and covered the competition from the third round onwards, showing one live match per round alongside highlights.", "In 1990, British Satellite Broadcasting (BSB) obtained rights to the competition, and showed a live match from rounds 1 and 2.This continued to be the case after Sky took over BSB in 1991.From 1997 to 2001, ITV and Sky shared live coverage with both having two matches per round and BBC continuing with highlights on ''Match of the Day''.", "From 2001 to 2008, BBC and Sky again shared coverage with BBC having two or three matches per round and Sky having one or two.", "From 2008–09 to 2013–14, FA Cup matches are shown live by ITV across England and Wales, with UTV broadcasting to Northern Ireland but STV refusing to show them.", "ITV shows 16 FA Cup games per season, including the first pick of live matches from each of the first to sixth rounds of the competition, plus one semi-final exclusively live.", "The final is also shown live on ITV.", "Under the same 2008 contract, Setanta Sports showed three games and one replay in each round from round three to five, two quarter-finals, one semi-final and the final.", "The channel also broadcast ITV's matches exclusively to Scotland, after the ITV franchise holder in Scotland, STV, decided not to broadcast FA Cup games.", "Setanta entered administration in June 2009 and as a result the FA terminated Setanta's deal to broadcast FA-sanctioned competitions and England internationals.", "As a result of Setanta going out of business ITV showed the competition exclusively in the 2009–10 season with between three and four matches per round, all quarter finals, semi-finals and final live as the FA could not find a pay TV broadcaster in time.", "ESPN bought the competition for the 2010–11 to 2012–13 season and during this time Rebecca Lowe became the first woman to host the FA Cup Final in the UK.In October 2009, The FA announced that ITV would show an additional match in the First and second rounds on ITV, with one replay match shown on ITV4.One match and one replay match from the first two rounds will broadcast on The FA website for free, in a similar situation to the 2010 World Cup Qualifier between Ukraine and England.", "The 2009–10 first-round match between Oldham Athletic and Leeds United was the first FA Cup match to be streamed online live.Many expected BSkyB to make a bid to show some of the remaining FA Cup games for the remainder of the 2009–10 season which would include a semi-final and shared rights to the final.", "ESPN took over the package Setanta held for the FA Cup from the 2010–11 season.", "The 2011 final was also shown live on Sky 3D in addition to ESPN (who provided the 3D coverage for Sky 3D) and ITV.", "Following the sale of ESPN's UK and Ireland channels to BT, ESPN's rights package transferred to BT Sport from the 2013–14 season.BBC Radio 5 Live and Talksport provides radio coverage including several full live commentaries per round, with additional commentaries broadcast on BBC Local Radio.Until the 2008–09 season, the BBC and Sky Sports shared television coverage, with the BBC showing three matches in the earlier rounds.", "Some analysts argued the decision to move away from the Sky and, in particular, the BBC undermined the FA Cup in the eyes of the public.The early rounds of the 2008–09 competition were covered for the first time by ITV's online service, ITV Local.", "The first match of the competition, between Wantage Town and Brading Town, was broadcast live online.", "Highlights of eight games of each round were broadcast as catch up on ITV Local.", "Since ITV Local closed, this coverage did not continue.ITV lost the rights to the FA Cup beginning with the 2014–15 FA Cup, terrestrial rights returned to BBC Sport, with the final being shown on BBC One while BT Sport hold the pay TV rights.", "Under this deal, the BBC will show around the same number of games as ITV and still having the first pick for each round.Matches involving Welsh clubs are sometimes exclusively broadcast on Welsh language channel S4C, which is also available to view across the rest of the United Kingdom on satellite and cable television, and through the channel's website.", "A similar arrangement is shared with BBC Cymru Wales when the corporation obtained the rights from 2014–15, potentially giving the BBC an extra match per round.On 23 May 2019, it was announced that ITV would replace BT Sport in broadcasting the FA Cup from the 2021–22 season, this new deal will see BBC and ITV become joint broadcasters of the tournament for the first time since 1988, this will mean for the first time that all FA Cup matches would all be exclusively broadcast on free-to-air television.===Overseas broadcasters===The FA sells overseas rights separately from the domestic contract.", "Territory Current broadcaster(s) Former broadcaster(s) Australia Network 10, Paramount+ Sports SBS, ESPN Africa Supersport, since 2015–16 Albania '''DigitAlb / SuperSport''' Tring Sport, 2009–10 Kosovo Tring Sport, 2009–10 Belgium Eleven Sports Network, since 2015–2016 Prime (2008–09 until 2011–12) Brazil ESPN Brasil since 2002–03 until 2017–18, returned in 2021–22 DAZN (2018–19 until 2020–21) Austria DAZN, since 2018–19 Germany SPORT1 (2003–04 until 2013–14), Italy SKY Italia (2003–04 until 2011–12), Mediaset Premium (2012–13), Fox Sports (2013–14 until 2017–18) Japan Spain Movistar+ (2008–2012), Teledeporte (2016–17) Switzerland Canada Sportsnet World, since 2011–12 Setanta Sports, (2008–09 until 2010–11) Denmark Kanal 5, 6'eren since 2012–13 7'eren (2012–13 and 2013–14) Eurosport since 2012–13 (DEN) 2018–19 (SWE) Sweden TV10, (2013–14 until 2017–18) France beIN Sport, since 2012–13 Canal+ (2007–08), France Télévisions (2008–09 until 2011–12) India Sony Sports, since 2012–13 Indonesia beIN Sports, since 2013–14 until 2015–16, returned in 2018–19, SCTV (1993–94 until 1997–98 and final four only in 2013–14 until 2015–16), Super Soccer TV (2016–17 and 2017–18)RCTI (2019-20 and 2021-22) Netherlands Ziggo Sport, since 2018–19 Fox Sports, (2010–11 until 2017–18) New Zealand Sky Sport, since 2021–22 Russia Match TV, since 2015–16 United States ESPN+, since 2018–19, 1st round to final" ], [ "References", "===Notes===" ], [ "External links", "* * Thomas Fattorini Ltd. makers of the 1911 FA Cup – manufacturers of the 1911 FA Cup and other sporting trophies* FA Cup statistics* FA Cup going under the hammer – BBC News story on the sale of the second trophy* FA Supporters – Independent FA Cup Supporters Club" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fenway Park" ], [ "Introduction", "View of Fenway Park from atop the Green Monster'''Fenway Park''' is a baseball stadium located in Boston, Massachusetts, less than one mile from Kenmore Square.", "Since 1912, it has been the ballpark of Major League Baseball’s Boston Red Sox.", "While the stadium was built in 1912, it was substantially rebuilt in 1934, and underwent major renovations and modifications in the 21st century.It is the oldest active ballpark in MLB.", "Because of its age and constrained location in Boston's dense Fenway–Kenmore neighborhood, the park has many quirky features, including \"The Triangle\", Pesky's Pole, and the Green Monster in left field.", "It is the fifth-smallest among MLB ballparks by seating capacity, second-smallest by total capacity, and one of eight that cannot accommodate at least 40,000 spectators.Fenway has hosted the World Series 11 times, with the Red Sox winning six of them and the Boston Braves winning one.", "Besides baseball games, it has also been the site of many other sporting and cultural events including professional football games for the Boston Redskins, Boston Yanks, and the Boston Patriots; concerts; soccer and hockey games (such as the 2010 NHL Winter Classic); and political and religious campaigns.On March 7, 2012 (Fenway's centennial year), the park was added to the National Register of Historic Places.", "It is a landmark at the end of the Boston Irish heritage trail.", "Former pitcher Bill Lee has called Fenway Park \"a shrine\".", "It is a pending Boston Landmark, which will regulate any further changes to the park.", "The ballpark is considered to be one of the most well-known sports venues in the world and a symbol of Boston." ], [ "History", "Fenway Park in 1915In 1911, while the Red Sox were still playing on Huntington Avenue Grounds, owner John I. Taylor purchased the land bordered by Brookline Avenue, Jersey Street, Van Ness Street and Lansdowne Street and developed it into a larger baseball stadium known as Fenway Park.", "Taylor claimed the name Fenway Park came from its location in the Fenway neighborhood of Boston, which was partially created late in the nineteenth century by filling in marshland or \"fens\", to create the Back Bay Fens urban park.", "However, given that Taylor's family also owned the Fenway Realty Company, the promotional value of the naming at the time has been cited as well.Like many classic ballparks, Fenway Park was constructed on an asymmetrical block, with consequent asymmetry in its field dimensions.", "The park was designed by architect James E. McLaughlin, and the General Contractor was the Charles Logue Building Company.The first game was played April 20, 1912, with mayor John F. Fitzgerald throwing out the first pitch and Boston defeating the New York Highlanders, 7–6 in 11 innings.", "Newspaper coverage of the opening was overshadowed by continuing coverage of the ''Titanic'' sinking five days earlier.In June 1919, a rally supporting Irish Independence turned out nearly 50,000 supporters to see the President of the Irish Republic, Éamon de Valera, and was allegedly the largest crowd ever in the ballpark.Fenway Park Rally Supporting Irish Independence (1919)The park's address was originally 24 Jersey Street.", "In 1977, the section of Jersey Street nearest the park was renamed Yawkey Way in honor of longtime Red Sox owner Tom Yawkey, and the park's address was 4 Yawkey Way until 2018, when the street's name was reverted to Jersey Street in light of current Red Sox ownership distancing itself from Mr. Yawkey due to his history of racism (the Red Sox were the last team in Major League Baseball to integrate).", "The address is now 4 Jersey Street.Fenway Park during the 1914 World Series===Changes to Fenway Park===The old wooden seats of Fenway's Grandstand sectionSome of the changes include:* In 1934, a hand-operated scoreboard was added, with (what was then considered cutting-edge technology) lights to indicate balls and strikes.", "The scoreboard is still updated by hand today from behind the wall.", "The National League scores were removed in 1976, but restored in 2003 and still require manual updates from on the field.", "* In 1946, the first upper deck seats were installed.", "* In 1947, arc lights were installed at Fenway Park.", "The Boston Red Sox were the third-to-last team out of 16 major league teams to have lights in their home park.", "* In 1976, metric distances were added to the conventionally stated distances because it was thought at the time that the United States would adopt the metric system.", "As of 2022, only Miami's LoanDepot Park and Toronto's Rogers Centre list metric distances.", "Fenway Park retained the metric measurements until mid-season 2002, when they were painted over.", "Also, Fenway's first electronic message board was added over the center field bleachers.", "* In 1988, a glass-protected seating area behind home plate named ''The 600 Club'' was built.", "After Ted Williams' death in 2002, it was renamed the ''.406 Club'' in honor of his 1941 season in which he produced a .406 batting average.", "The section was renamed again in 2006 to the ''EMC Club''.", "* In 1993 the public restrooms were renovated and the original trough urinals were removed from the men's rooms.", "* In 1999 the auxiliary press boxes were added on top of the roof boxes along the first and third base sides of the field.", "* In 2000, a new video display from Daktronics, measuring high by wide, was added in center field.", "* Before the 2003 season, seats were added to the Green Monster.", "* Before the 2004 season, seats were added to the right field roof, above the grandstand, called the Budweiser Right Field Roof.", "In December 2017 Samuel Adams renamed the deck the \"Sam Deck.", "\"* Before the 2008 season, the Coke bottles, installed in 1997, were removed to return the light towers to their original state.", "The temporary luxury boxes installed for the 1999 All-Star Game were removed and permanent ones were added to the State Street Pavilion level.", "Seats were also added down the left field line called the Coca-Cola Party-Deck.", "* Before the 2011 season, three new scoreboards beyond right-center field were installed: a scoreboard in right-center field, a video screen in center field, a video board in right field, along with a new video control room.", "The Gate D concourse has undergone a complete remodel with new concession stands and improved pedestrian flow.", "The wooden grandstand seats were all removed to allow the completion of the waterproofing of the seating bowl and completely refurbished upon re-installation.===New Fenway Park===On May 15, 1999, then-Red Sox CEO John Harrington announced plans for a new Fenway Park to be built near the existing structure.", "It was to have seated 44,130 and would have been a modernized replica of the current Fenway Park, with the same field dimensions except for a shorter right field and reduced foul territory.", "Some sections of the existing ballpark were to be preserved (mainly the original Green Monster and the third base side of the park) as part of the overall new layout.", "Most of the current stadium was to be demolished to make room for new development, with one section remaining to house a baseball museum and public park.", "The proposal was highly controversial; it projected that the park had less than 15 years of usable life, would require hundreds of millions of dollars of public investment, and was later revealed to be part of a scheme by current ownership to increase the marketable value of the team as they were ready to sell.", "Several groups (such as \"Save Fenway Park\") formed in an attempt to block the move.A significant renovation of Fenway Park stretched over a 10-year period beginning around 2002 headed by Janet Marie Smith, then Vice President of Planning and Development for the Sox.", "The Boston Globe has described Smith as \"the architect credited with saving Fenway Park.\"", "At completion of the renovations, it was reported that Fenway Park remains usable until as late as 2062." ], [ "Capacity and sellout streak", "Fenway's capacity differs between day and night games because, during day games, the seats in center field (Section 35) are covered with a black tarp in order to provide a batter's eye.Fenway's lowest attendance was recorded on October 1, 1964, when a game against the Cleveland Indians drew only 306 paid spectators.On May 15, 2003, the Red Sox game against the Texas Rangers sold out, beginning a sellout streak that lasted until 2013.On September 8, 2008, when the Red Sox hosted the Tampa Bay Rays, Fenway Park broke the all-time Major League record for consecutive sellouts with 456, surpassing the record previously held by Jacobs Field in Cleveland.", "On June 17, 2009, the park celebrated its 500th consecutive Red Sox sellout.", "According to WBZ-TV, the team joined three NBA teams which achieved 500 consecutive home sellouts.", "The sellout streak ended on April 10, 2013 (with an attendance of 30,862) after the Red Sox sold out 794 regular season games and an additional 26 postseason games.A view of Fenway Park and the surrounding neighborhood, as seen from the Prudential TowerFenway in 2012, with additions to the left field grandstandYear(s)Seating CapacityYear(s)Seating CapacityDayNightDayNight 1912–1946 35,000 1992 33,925 1947–1948 35,500 1993–1994 34,218 1949–1952 35,200 1995–2000 33,455 33,871 1953–1957 34,824 2001–2002 33,577 33,993 1958–1959 34,819 2003 34,482 34,898 1960 33,368 2004–2005 34,679 35,095 1961–1964 33,357 2006 35,692 36,108 1965–1967 33,524 2007 36,109 36,525 1968–1970 33,375 2008 36,945 37,373 1971–1975 33,379 2009 36,984 37,400 1976 33,437 2010 36,986 37,402 1977–1978 33,513 2011 37,065 37,493 1979–1980 33,538 2012 37,067 37,495 1981–1982 33,536 2013–2014 37,071 37,499 1983–1984 33,465 2015 37,227 37,673 1985–1988 33,583 2016 37,497 37,949 1989–1990 34,182 2017 37,281 37,731 1991 34,171 2018–present 37,305 37,755 Unless noted otherwise, all capacity figures are from ''Green Cathedrals: The Ultimate Celebrations of All 273 Major League and Negro League Ballparks Past and Present'' by Philip Lowry" ], [ "Features", "The park is located along Lansdowne Street and Jersey Street in the Kenmore Square area of Boston.", "The area includes many buildings of similar height and architecture and thus it blends in with its surroundings.", "When pitcher Roger Clemens arrived in Boston for the first time in 1984, he took a taxi from Logan Airport and was sure the driver had misunderstood his directions when he announced their arrival at the park.", "Clemens recalled telling the driver \"No, Fenway Park, it's a baseball stadium ... this is a warehouse.\"", "Only when the driver told Clemens to look up and he saw the light towers did he realize he was in the right place.1917 map of Fenway ParkFenway Park is one of the two remaining jewel box ballparks still in use in Major League Baseball, the other being Wrigley Field; both have a significant number of obstructed view seats, due to pillars supporting the upper deck.", "These are sold as such, and are a reminder of the architectural limitations of older ballparks.George Will asserts in his book ''Men at Work'' that Fenway Park is a \"hitters' ballpark\", with its short right-field fence (302 feet), narrow foul ground (the smallest of any current major league park), and generally closer-than-normal outfield fences.", "By Rule 1.04, Note(a), all parks built after 1958 have been required to have foul lines at least long and a center-field fence at least from home plate.", "(This rule had the unintended consequence of leading to the \"Cookie-Cutter Stadium\" era, which ended when Camden Yards opened in 1993.)", "Regarding the narrow foul territory, Will writes:Will states that some observers might feel that these unique aspects of Fenway give the Red Sox an advantage over their opponents, given that the Red Sox hitters play 81 games at the home stadium while each opponent plays no more than nine games as visiting teams but Will does not share this view.Fenway Park's bullpen wall is much lower than most other outfield walls; outfielders are known to end up flying over this wall when chasing balls hit that direction, such as with Torii Hunter when chasing a David Ortiz game-tying grand slam that direction in game 2 of the 2013 ALCS.===The Green Monster===The Green Monster measures tall.The Green Monster is the nickname of the left field wall in the park.", "It is located from home plate; this short distance often benefits right-handed hitters.Part of the original ballpark construction of 1912, the wall is made of wood, but was covered in tin and concrete in 1934, when the scoreboard was added.", "The wall was covered in hard plastic in 1976.The scoreboard is manually updated throughout the game.", "If a ball in play goes through a hole in the scoreboard while the scorers are replacing numbers, the batter is awarded a ground rule double.The inside walls of the Green Monster are covered with players' signatures from over the years.", "Despite the name, the Green Monster was not painted green until 1947; before that, it was covered with advertisements.", "The ''Monster'' designation is relatively new; for most of its history, it was simply called \"the wall.\"", "In 2003, terrace-style seating was added on top of the wall.===\"The Triangle\"===The TriangleThe screen above the Triangle\"The Triangle\" is a region of center field where the walls form a triangle whose far corner is from home plate.", "That deep right-center point is conventionally given as the center field distance.", "The true center is unmarked, from home plate, to the left of \"the Triangle\" when viewed from home plate.There was once a smaller \"Triangle\" at the left end of the bleachers in center field, posted as .", "The end of the bleachers form a right angle with the Green Monster and the flagpole stands within that little triangle.", "That is not the true power alley, but deep left-center.", "The true power alley distance is not posted.", "The foul line intersects with the Green Monster at nearly a right angle, so the power alley could be estimated at , assuming the power alley is 22.5° away from the foul line as measured from home plate.===\"Williamsburg\"===\"Williamsburg\" was the name, invented by sportswriters, for the bullpen area built in front of the right-center field bleachers in 1940.It was built there primarily for the benefit of Ted Williams, to enable him and other left-handed batters to hit more home runs, since it was closer than the bleacher wall.===The Lone Red Seat===The lone red seat in the right field bleachers (Section 42, Row 37, Seat 21) signifies the longest home run ever hit at Fenway.", "The home run, hit by Ted Williams on June 9, 1946, was officially measured at , well beyond \"Williamsburg\".", "According to Hit Tracker Online, the ball, if unobstructed, would have flown .The ball landed on Joseph A. Boucher, penetrating his large straw hat and hitting him in the head.", "A confounded Boucher was later quoted as saying: There have been other home runs hit at Fenway that have contended for the distance title.", "In the 2007 book ''The Year Babe Ruth Hit 104 Home Runs'', researcher Bill Jenkinson found evidence that on May 25, 1926, Babe Ruth hit one in the pre-1934 bleacher configuration which landed five rows from the top in right field.", "This would have placed it at an estimated from home plate.", "On June 23, 2001, Manny Ramirez hit one that struck a light tower above the Green Monster, which would have cleared the park had it missed.", "The park's official estimate placed the home run one foot short of Williams' record at .", "An April 2019 home run by Rowdy Tellez of the Toronto Blue Jays was initially reported as , but later found to be significantly shorter, approximately .The Red Seat is seen completely surrounded by dark green seats in center field and right field in Fenway Park.===Foul poles===Although it is only 302 feet to \"Pesky's Pole\", the fence directly behind it sharply curves away.The bottom portion of Pesky's Pole, with the Green Monster in the background and Fenway Park's right field seats in the foregroundPesky's Pole during a night game in 2007'''Pesky's Pole''' is the name for the pole on the right field foul line, which stands from home plate, the shortest outfield distance (left or right field) in Major League Baseball.", "Like the measurement of the left-field line at Fenway Park, this has been disputed.", "Aerial shots show it to be noticeably shorter than the (actual) 302 foot line in right field, and Pesky has been quoted as estimating it to be \"around 295 feet\".", "There is no distance posted on the wall.Despite the short wall, home runs in this area are relatively rare, as the fence curves away from the foul pole sharply.", "The pole was named after Johnny Pesky, a light-hitting shortstop and long-time coach for the Red Sox, who hit some of his six home runs at Fenway Park around the pole but never off the pole.", "Pesky (playing 1942 to 1952, except for 1943 to 1945) was a contact hitter who hit just 17 home runs in his career (6 at Fenway Park).", "It's not known how many of these six actually landed near the pole.", "The Red Sox give credit to pitcher (and later, Sox broadcaster) Mel Parnell for coining the name.", "The most notable for Pesky is a two-run homer in the eighth inning of the 1946 Opening Day game to win the game.", "According to Pesky, Mel Parnell named the pole after Pesky won a game for Parnell in with a home run down the short right field line, just around the pole.", "However, Pesky hit just one home run in a game pitched by Parnell, a two-run shot in the first inning of a game against Detroit played on June 11, 1950.The game was eventually won by the visiting Tigers in the 14th inning on a three-run shot by Tigers right fielder Vic Wertz and Parnell earned a no-decision that day.The term, though it had been in use since the 1950s, became far more common when Parnell became a Red Sox broadcaster in 1965.Mark Bellhorn hit what proved to be the game-winning home run off of Julián Tavárez in game 1 of the 2004 World Series off that pole's screen.On September 27, 2006, Pesky's 87th birthday, the Red Sox officially dedicated the right field foul pole as \"Pesky's Pole\", with a commemorative plaque placed at its base.The seat directly on the foul side of Pesky's Pole in the front row is Section 94, Row E, Seat 5 and is usually sold as a lone ticket.In a ceremony before the Red Sox' 2005 game against the Cincinnati Reds, the pole on the left field foul line atop the Green Monster was named the Fisk Foul Pole, or ''Pudge's Pole'', in honor of Carlton Fisk.", "Fisk provided one of baseball's most enduring moments in Game 6 of the 1975 World Series against the Reds.", "Facing Reds right-hander Pat Darcy in the 12th inning with the score tied at 6, Fisk hit a long fly ball down the left field line.", "It appeared to be heading foul, but Fisk, after initially appearing unsure of whether or not to continue running to first base, famously jumped and waved his arms to the right as if to somehow direct the ball fair.", "It ricocheted off the foul pole, winning the game for the Red Sox and sending the series to a seventh and deciding game the next night, which Cincinnati won.", "Like Johnny Pesky's No.", "6, Carlton had his No.", "27 player number retired by the team.===\"Duffy's Cliff\"===The original ad-covered Green Monster in 1914, with \"overflow\" fan seating in ''front'' of the wall's base, atop \"Duffy's Cliff\" (seen in the distance, nearest the flagpole)Fenway Park diagram for the 1912 World SeriesFrom 1912 to 1933, there was a high incline in front of the then -high left field wall at Fenway Park, extending from the left-field foul pole to the center field flag pole (and thus under \"The Triangle\" of today).", "As a result, a left fielder had to play part of the territory running uphill (and back down).", "Boston's first star left fielder, Duffy Lewis, mastered the skill so well that the area became known as \"Duffy's Cliff\".The incline served two purposes: it was a support for a high wall and it was built to compensate for the difference in grades between the field and Lansdowne Street on the other side of that wall.", "The wall also served as a spectator-friendly seating area during the dead ball era when overflow crowds, in ''front'' of the later Green Monster, would sit on the incline behind ropes.As part of the 1934 remodeling of the ballpark, the bleachers, and the wall itself, Red Sox owner Tom Yawkey arranged to flatten the ground along the base of the wall, so that Duffy's Cliff no longer existed.", "The base of the left field wall is several feet below the grade level of Lansdowne Street, accounting for the occasional rat that might spook the scoreboard operators.There has been debate as to the true left field distance, which was once posted as .", "A reporter from ''The Boston Globe'' was able to sneak into Fenway Park and measure the distance.", "When the paper's evidence was presented to the club in 1995, the distance was remeasured by the Red Sox and restated at .", "The companion sign remained unchanged until 1998, when it was corrected to .===Dell EMC Club===In 1983, private suites were added to the roof behind home plate.", "In 1988, 610 stadium club seats enclosed in glass and named the \"600 Club\", were added above the home plate grandstand replacing the existing press box.", "The press box was then added to the top of the 600 Club.", "The 1988 addition has been thought to have changed the air currents in the park to the detriment of hitters.", "In 2002, the organization renamed the club seats the \".406 Club\" (in honor of Ted Williams' batting average in 1941).Between the 2005 and 2006 seasons the existing .406 club was rebuilt as part of the continuing ballpark expansion efforts.", "The second deck now features two open-air levels: the bottom level is the new \"Dell EMC Club\" featuring 406 seats and concierge services and the upper level, the State Street Pavilion, has 374 seats and a dedicated standing room area.", "The added seats are wider than the previous seats.===Program hawkers===In 1990, Mike Rutstein started handing out the first issue of ''Boston Baseball Magazine'' (originally called ''Baseball Underground'') outside of the park.", "He was frustrated with the quality of the program being sold inside the park, which also came out once every two months.", "The program was sold for $1, half the cost of the programs inside the park.", "To sell the program, Rutstein's employees would stand outside the park wearing bright red shirts and greet fans by holding a program up and shouting \"Program, Scorecard, One Dollar!\".", "By 1992, the Red Sox organization filed complaints with the city code enforcement arguing that the scorecard inside the magazine was not covered under the First Amendment protecting magazines and that Rutstein's employees were operating on the streets without a permit.", "Despite a lot of attention in the news, Rutstein said the charges were not pursued and no further legal action was taken.", "In 2012, one of Rutstein's long time employees Sly Egidio quit Boston Baseball to start \"The Yawkey Way Report\" named after Yawkey Way.", "By that time, Boston Baseball was selling for $3 per program, $2 cheaper than the in-park programs selling for $5.The Yawkey Way Report cost $1 and Egidio stationed his hawkers close to Boston Baseball's hawkers, starting a \"hawker war.\"", "The Yawkey Way Report also came with baseball cards, ponchos and tote bags, which caused Rutstein to file his own complaints with Boston city code enforcement.", "Despite the rivalry, both programs continue to be hawked outside of Fenway Park and are often the first thing fans see when they approach the stadium on game-day." ], [ "Use", "===Baseball===Fenway Park in July 2022The Red Sox' one-time cross-town rivals, the Boston Braves, used Fenway Park for the 1914 World Series and the 1915 season until Braves Field was completed; ironically, the Red Sox would then use Braves Field – which had a much higher seating capacity – for their own World Series games in 1915 and 1916.Since 1990 (except in 2005 when, because of field work, it was held in a minor league ballpark, and 2020, as the tournament was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic), Fenway Park has also hosted the final round of a Boston-area intercollegiate baseball tournament called the Baseball Beanpot, an equivalent to the more well-known hockey Beanpot tourney.", "The teams play the first rounds in minor league stadiums before moving on to Fenway for the final and a consolation game.", "Boston College, Harvard University, Northeastern University, and the University of Massachusetts Amherst compete in the four-team tournament.Jersey StreetSince at least 1997 Neil Diamond's \"Sweet Caroline\" has been played at Fenway Park during Red Sox games, in the middle of the eighth inning since 2002.On opening night of the 2010 season at Fenway Park, the song was performed by Diamond himself in the middle of the eighth inning.Beginning in 2006, the Red Sox have hosted the \"Futures at Fenway\" event, where two of their minor-league affiliates play a regular-season doubleheader as the \"home\" teams.", "Before the Futures day started, the most recent minor-league game held at Fenway had been the Eastern League All-Star Game in 1977.From 1970 to 1987, the Cape Cod Baseball League (CCBL) played its annual all-star game at various major league stadiums.", "The games were interleague contests between the CCBL and the Atlantic Collegiate Baseball League (ACBL).", "The 1975, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1983, 1985 and 1987 games were played at Fenway.", "The MVP of the 1977 contest was future major league slugger Steve Balboni, who clobbered two home runs over the Green Monster that day.", "The CCBL returned to Fenway in 2009, 2010 and 2011 for its intraleague all-star game matching the league's East and West divisions.", "The 2009 game starred East division MVP and future Boston Red Sox Chris Sale of Florida Gulf Coast University.", "The CCBL also holds an annual workout day at Fenway where CCBL players are evaluated by major league scouts.==== Baseball Records and Events of Note ====* Red Sox First Baseman Hugh Bradley hit the first home run at Fenway Park on April 26, 1912.", "* The first Grand slam hit at Fenway Park was by Rabbit Maranville of the Boston Braves in a 6-2 victory over the Chicago Cubs on September 26, 1914.", "* On June 21, 1916, Rube Foster pitches the first no-hitter at Fenway in a 2-0 victory over the Yankees.", "* On August 4, 1959, Elijah \"Pumpsie\" Green became the first African-American player in the Red Sox lineup to play at Fenway.", "* On August 19, 1967, Red Sox switch-hitter Reggie Smith became the first player in Fenway Park to hit a home run from both sides of the plate.===Boxing===On October 9, 1920, Fenway Park was the site of the first open-air boxing show in Boston.", "The card featured four bouts.", "Although Eddie Shevlin and Paul Doyle fought in the feature bout, Daniel J. Saunders of the ''Boston Daily Globe'' described heavyweights Battling McCreery and John Lester Johnson as \"the only boxers who caused any excitement\".", "McCreery, who according to Saunders, \"was to take a flop in five rounds\", won by judge's decision in ten rounds.", "After the fight, Johnson punched McCreery while McCreery was trying to shake his hand.", "McCreery then knocked Johnson out of the ring and hit him over the head with his chair.", "The card drew 5,000 spectators (half of what was expected) and brought in $6,100 (several thousand less than what was promised to the fighters).In 1928, New England Welterweight Champion Al Mello headlined three cards at Fenway.", "He defeated Billy Murphy in front of a crowd of 12,000 on June 26, Charlie Donovan on August 31, and Murphy again on September 13.On July 2, 1930, future World Heavyweight Champion James J. Braddock made his debut in that weight class.", "He defeated Joe Monte in ten rounds.On September 2, 1930, Babe Hunt defeated Ernie Schaaf in what ''The Boston Daily Globe'' described as a \"dull bout\" and a \"big disappointment\".", "The undercard included future light heavyweight champion George Nichols, who defeated Harry Allen of Brockton, Massachusetts in ten rounds.In 1932, Eddie Mack promoted ten cards at Fenway Park.", "The August 2 card featured World Light Heavyweight Champion Maxie Rosenbloom defeating Joe Barlow of Roxbury and Taunton' Henry Emond defeating The Cocoa Kid.", "On August 23, Dave Shade defeated Norman Conrad of Wilton, New Hampshire in front of 3,500 attendees.", "The September 6 card was headlined by World junior lightweight champion Kid Chocolate, who defeated Steve Smith.On June 25, 1936, former world heavyweight champion Jack Sharkey defeated Phil Brubaker in what would be his final career victory.In 1937, Rip Valenti and the Goodwin Athletic Club promoted five cards at Fenway.", "Three of these were headlined by New England Heavyweight Champion Al McCoy.", "On June 16 McCoy defeated Natie Brown in front of a crowd of 4,516.On July 29 he knocked out Jack McCarthy in the third round.", "On August 24 he and Tony Shucco fought to a draw.", "Future WBA featherweight champion Sal Bartolo fought one of his first professional fights on the May 24 undercard.On June 25, 1945, Tami Mauriello knocked out Lou Nova in 2:47.An estimated crowd of 8,000 was in attendance.On July 12, 1954, Tony DeMarco knocked out George Araujo 58 seconds into the fifth round in front of 12,000 spectators.The most recent boxing event at Fenway took place on June 16, 1956.The undercard consisted of Eddie Andrews vs. George Chimenti, Bobby Courchesne vs. George Monroe for the New England Lightweight Championship, and Barry Allison vs. Don Williams for the New England Middleweight Championship.", "In the main event, Tony DeMarco defeated Vince Martinez by decision.", "An estimated 15,000 were in attendance - far below promoter Sam Silverman's expectations.===Soccer===On October 17, 1925, the Boston Soccer Club and the Fall River F.C.", "of the American Soccer League played a scoreless tie before 4,000 fans.", "Boston also hosted the Providence Clamdiggers and Indiana Flooring at Fenway later that season.", "On June 18, 1928, Boston played Rangers F.C.", "to a 2–2 tie in front of a crowd of 10,000.In 1929, Boston hosted two more matches at Fenway Park; a 3–2 victory over the New Bedford Whalers on August 10 and a 3–2 loss to Fall River on August 17.On May 30, 1931, 8,000 fans were on hand to see the American Soccer League champion New York Yankees defeat Celtic 4–3.The Yankees goalkeeper, Johnny Reder, would later return to play for the Boston Red Sox.", "During 1968, the park was home to the Boston Beacons of the now-defunct NASL.On July 21, 2010, Fenway hosted an exhibition game between European soccer clubs Celtic F.C.", "and Sporting C.P.", "in an event called \"Football at Fenway\".", "A crowd of 32,162 watched the two teams play to a 1–1 draw.", "Celtic won 6–5 on penalty shoot out, winning the first ''Fenway football challenge Trophy''.", "Recent matches have taken place between Liverpool, an English Premier League club owned by Fenway Sports Group, and A.S. Roma, an Italian Serie A club owned by FSG partner Thomas R. DiBenedetto.", "The July 25, 2012 match ended in a 2–1 win for AS Roma before a crowd of 37,169.AS Roma also won the rematch on July 23, 2014, by a score of 1–0.On July 21, 2019, Liverpool returned to Fenway for a preseason match against Sevilla, the Spanish team won 2–1 at the end of full-time.===American football===Holy Cross takes on Boston College in 1916 at Fenway Park.", "BC won the game, 17–14.Football has been played at Fenway since 1912, the year the venue opened.", "In 1926, the Boston Bulldogs of the first American Football League played at both Fenway and Braves Field; the Boston Shamrocks of the second American Football League did the same in 1936 and 1937.The Boston Redskins of the National Football League (NFL) played at Fenway for four seasons (1933–1936) after playing their inaugural season in 1932 at Braves Field as the Boston Braves.", "The Boston Yanks played there in the 1940s; and the Boston Patriots of the 1960s American Football League called Fenway Park home from 1963 to 1968 after moving there from Nickerson Field.", "At various times in the past, Dartmouth College, Boston College, Brown University, and Boston University teams have also played football games at Fenway Park.", "Boston College and Notre Dame played a game at Fenway in 2015 as part of Notre Dame's Shamrock Series.", "The annual Harvard–Yale game in November 2018 was played at Fenway.In September 2019, it was announced that the Fenway Bowl, a postseason bowl game, would be played at Fenway Park beginning in 2020, pitting a team from the Atlantic Coast Conference against a team from the American Athletic Conference.", "However, both the 2020 and 2021 games were canceled, due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "The bowl was finally played for the first time in December 2022, as Louisville defeated Cincinnati.====Team records at Fenway====TeamNo.", "of GamesRecord (W-L-T) Boston College Eagles 78 57–17–5===Professional wrestling===On July 9, 1929, World Heavyweight Champion Gus Sonnenberg defeated Ed \"Strangler\" Lewis in front of a crowd of 25,000 at Fenway Park.In 1932, Charlie Gordon promoted shows at Fenway Park.", "On June 16, 1932, a card headlined by \"The Georgia Leech\" Paul Adams and George Myerson drew 8,000 spectators.", "10,000 people turned out on July 6, 1932 to see a show main evented by Ted Germaine and Stewart Spears.", "The following week, Steve Passas handed German wrestler Mephisto his first loss in the United States at Fenway.", "The next week's card was headlined by Myerson and Germaine.", "Myerson was knocked unconscious, but was declared the winner after referee Joe Beston disqualified Germaine for using a choke hold.", "The card scheduled for July 27 was postponed until August 3 due to rain.", "It rained again on August 3 and the card was pushed back another week.", "However, due to a schedule conflict, Steve Passas, was forced to withdraw from his main event bout with Fred Bruno.", "On August 10, 1932, Adams defeated Louis Poplin in front of 8,000 fans in the substitute main event.On August 18, 1934, a crowd of 30,000 turned out for a card headlined by AWA World Heavyweight Champion Ed Don George and NWA World Heavyweight Champion Jim Londos.", "The fight ended in a draw after 3:14:13.On June 27, 1935, Danno O'Mahony captured the NWA World Heavyweight Championship from Londos in front of 30,000 fans.On July 18, 1935, Ed Don George defeated Frank Sexton in an exhibition bout during a musical and athletic carnival benefiting Boston's department of public welfare that also featured a five-mile race, firearms exhibition drill, a boxing exhibition, tug of war contest, and a baseball game.", "Due to rain, only 5,000 attended the event and the ball game was called off after three innings.On September 10, 1935, O'Mahony successfully defeated his title against George in front of an estimated crowd of 25,000.The bout, the second between O'Mahony and George, was refereed by world heavyweight boxing champion James J. Braddock.", "The Paul Bowser-promoted card also featured Ed \"Strangler\" Lewis, Frank Sexton, Jack Spellman, and Karl Pojello.", "During the main event, a spectator suffered a heart attack and died.", "It was the eighth such death at a Boston wrestling bout in the past two years.On June 29, 1937, around 7,000 spectators saw Steve Casey defeat Ed Don George in a card that also featured Danno O'Mahony, Tor Johnson, and William \"Wee Willie\" Davis.", "On July 20, 1937, Casey defeated another former world heavyweight champion, Danno O'Mahony, in front of 8,000.On July 26, 1938, Casey successfully defended his AWA World Heavyweight Championship against Dick Shikat before a crowd of 5,000.The WWE (then the World Wide Wrestling Federation), hosted its only event at Fenway Park on June 28, 1969.17,000 turned out to see WWWF World Heavyweight Champion Bruno Sammartino defeat Killer Kowalski in a stretcher match and a undercard that featured a steel cage match between The Sheik and Bulldog Brower, a ten-man battle royal won by Mitsu Arakawa, a six-man midget wrestling tag match, a best three out of five falls six woman tag team matchbetween The Fabulous Moolah, Donna Christanello, and Toni Rose and Vivian Vachon and Rita and Bette Boucher, and singles matches between George Steele and Victor Rivera, Antonio Pugliese and Baron Mikel Scicluna, Dominic DeNucci and Lou Albano, and Ricky Sexton and Duke Savage.===Hockey===The rink layout for the 2010 NHL Winter ClassicFenway Park has hosted ice hockey games on five separate occasions, beginning in 2010 when the third annual NHL Winter Classic was held at the stadium on New Year's Day.", "The Boston Bruins beat the Philadelphia Flyers 2–1 in sudden-death overtime, securing the first home-team victory in the relatively short history of the annual series.", "The 2010 Winter Classic paved the way for further use of the stadium for ice hockey, as the \"Frozen Fenway\" series was introduced.", "Frozen Fenway is a semi-annual series of collegiate and amateur games featuring ice hockey teams from local and regional high schools, colleges, and universities.", "Division I matches between Hockey East rivals have been a staple of the Frozen Fenway series, which has seen games played in 2012, 2014, 2017, and 2023 at the ballpark.", "When not in use for games, the rink is also opened to the public for free ice skating.", "Fenway Park became the first stadium to host two Winter Classic games in January 2023, as the Boston Bruins once again secured a 2–1 victory, this time defeating the Pittsburgh Penguins.===Hurling and Gaelic football===Fenway has hosted Gaelic games over the years.", "On June 6, 1937, Mayo, the All-Ireland Football champions, defeated a Massachusetts team, 17–8, and on November 8, 1954, Cork, the All-Ireland Hurling champions, defeated an American line-up, 37–28.In more recent times, the Fenway Hurling Classic for the Players Champions Cup has been staged, first in November 2015 when Galway defeated Dublin, and subsequently in November 2017 and November 2018.===Concerts===Dave Matthews Band in concert, 2006Fenway has been home to various concerts beginning in 1973 when Stevie Wonder and Ray Charles first played there.", "No further concerts were played there until 2003 when Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band played a leg of their The Rising Tour.", "Since 2003, there has been at least one concert every year at Fenway by such artists as Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band, Jimmy Buffett, Billy Joel, Journey, Def Leppard, The Rolling Stones, Neil Diamond, The Police, Jason Aldean, Mötley Crüe, Dave Matthews Band, Tom Petty & The Heartbreakers, Aerosmith, Phish, Roger Waters, Paul McCartney, James Taylor (2015–2017 consecutively: 2015 & 2017 with Bonnie Raitt, 2016 with Jackson Browne), Pearl Jam, Foo Fighters, Dead & Company and New Kids On The Block 2011 (with Backstreet Boys), 2017 and 2021.In 2017, Lady Gaga brought her Joanne World Tour to the stadium, making her the first woman to headline a concert there.", "In 2022, she returned with The Chromatica Ball.", "In 2019, The Who played their first ever show at the stadium with the Boston Symphony Orchestra.", "On August 3, 2021, Guns N' Roses played a show as a part of their 2020 Tour, where they revealed a new song \"Absurd\".", "Aerosmith returned for their 50th-anniversary celebrations on September 8, 2022, and the show labeled the venue's highest ticket sales to date.On July 31 and August 1, 2023, Pink performed at the stadium as part of her Summer Carnival tour, and broke the record for biggest two-day attendance.===Ski and snowboard===A 140 foot tall ski jump from center field to the pitcher's mound.Polartec Big Air At Fenway is the first big air snowboarding and skiing competition that was held on February 11–12, 2016.This event was part of the U.S. Grand Prix Tour and the International Ski Federation's World Tour.", "Notable winter athletes that competed are Ty Walker, Sage Kotsenburg, and Joss Christensen.", "The big air jump was constructed to be about tall, standing above the lights of the stadium." ], [ "Public address announcers", "The press boxFrank Fallon was the first public address (PA) announcer for the Red Sox, and held the job from 1953 to 1957.Fred Cusick, better known for his career of announcing Boston Bruins hockey games, joined him in 1956 and also left after 1957.Jay McMaster took over in 1958, until his replacement by Sherm Feller in 1967.Feller served as the announcer for 26 years until his death after the 1993 season.", "He was known for beginning his games by welcoming the fans with \"Good afternoon, ladies and gentlemen, boys and girls.", "Welcome to Fenway Park\", and ending them by saying \"Thank you.\"", "Leslie Sterling took the job for the 1994 season, becoming the second female PA announcer in the history of Major League Baseball.", "Ed Brickley took over in 1997, and was replaced by Carl Beane in 2003.Beane was regarded as an \"iconic\" announcer, and served until his death in 2012, which was caused by a heart attack suffered while driving.", "Fenway used a series of guest announcers to finish the 2012 season before hiring its current announcers: Henry Mahegan, Bob Lobel, and Dick Flavin." ], [ "Retired numbers", "There are eleven retired numbers above the right field grandstand.", "The numbers retired by the Red Sox are red on a white circle.", "Jackie Robinson's 42, which was retired by Major League Baseball, is blue on a white circle.", "The two are further delineated through the font difference; Boston numbers are in the same style as the Red Sox jerseys, while Robinson's number is in the more traditional \"block\" numbering found on the Dodgers jerseys.The numbers originally hung on the right-field facade in the order in which they were retired: 9-4-1-8.Dan Shaughnessy pointed out that the numbers, when read as a date (9/4/18), marked the eve of the first game of the 1918 World Series, the last championship that the Red Sox won before 2004.After the facade was repainted, the numbers were rearranged in numerical order.", "The numbers remained in numerical order until the 2012 season, when the numbers were rearranged back into the order in which they were retired by the Red Sox.Retired numbers on the outside of the stadium in 2010The Red Sox policy on retiring uniform numbers was once one of the most stringent in baseball—the player had to be elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame, play at least 10 years with the team, and retire as a member of the Red Sox.", "The final requirement was waived for Carlton Fisk as he had finished his playing career with the Chicago White Sox.", "However, Fisk was assigned a Red Sox front office job and effectively \"finished\" his baseball career with the Red Sox in this manner.", "In 2008, the ownership relaxed the requirements further with the retirement of Johnny Pesky's number 6.Pesky has not been inducted into the Hall of Fame, but in light of his over 50 years of service to the club, the management made an exception.", "Pesky would have had 10 seasons, but he was credited with the three seasons he served as an Operations Officer in the U.S. Navy during World War II.", "The most recent number retired was 34, worn by 2013 World Series Most Valuable Player David Ortiz.", "'''Red Sox retired numbers''' No.PlayerPositionRed Sox YearsDate RetiredNotes '''1''' Bobby Doerr 2B 1937–441946–51 May 21, 1988 US Army, 1945 '''4''' Joe Cronin SS 1935–45 May 29, 1984 Player-Manager '''6''' Johnny Pesky SS, 3B, 2B 1942, 46–52 September 28, 2008 US Navy, 1943–45 '''8''' Carl Yastrzemski LF, 1B, DH 1961–83 August 6, 1989 '''9''' Ted Williams LF 1939–421946–60 May 29, 1984 US Marines, 1943–45, 52–53 '''14''' Jim Rice LF, DH 1974–89 July 28, 2009 '''26''' Wade Boggs 3B 1983–1992 May 26, 2016 '''27''' Carlton Fisk C 1969, 71–80 September 4, 2000 '''34''' David Ortiz DH 2003–2016 June 23, 2017 3× World Series Champion (2004, 2007, 2013)2004 ALCS MVP2013 World Series MVP '''45''' Pedro Martínez P 1998–2004 July 28, 2015 World Series Champion () '''42''' Jackie Robinson Brooklyn Dodgers 1947–1956, retired by Major League Baseball, April 15, 1997" ], [ "Ground rules", "* A ball going through the scoreboard, either on the bounce or fly, is a ground rule double.", "* A fly ball striking left-center field wall to right of or on the line behind the flag pole is a home run.", "* A fly ball striking wall or flag pole and bouncing into bleachers is a home run.", "* A fly ball striking line or right of same on wall in center is a home run.", "* A fly ball striking wall left of line and bouncing into bullpen is a home run.", "* A ball sticking in the bullpen screen or bouncing into the bullpen is a ground rule double.", "* A batted or thrown ball remaining behind or under canvas or in tarp cylinder is a ground rule double.", "* A ball striking the top of the scoreboard in left field in the ladder below top of wall and bouncing out of the park is a ground rule double.", "* A fly ball that lands above the red line on top of the Green Monster and bounces onto the field of play is ruled a home run.", "* A fly ball that hits the rail in the right-center triangle is a home run.It is a misconception among fans that a fly ball that gets stuck in the ladder above the scoreboard on the left field wall is ruled a ground rule triple.", "There is no mention of it in the Red Sox ground rules list." ], [ "Access and transportation", "* Fenway Park can be reached by the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) Green Line subway's Kenmore station on the \"B\", \"C\" and \"D\" branches, as well as Fenway station on the \"D\" branch.", "* Lansdowne station is served by all MBTA Framingham/Worcester Line commuter rail trains.", "This line provides service from South Station or Back Bay and points west of Boston.", "In 2014, the new station was completed with full-length platforms, elevators, and access to Brookline Avenue and Beacon Street.", "* Another option is taking the Orange Line or commuter rail to Back Bay or Ruggles.", "The stations are a 30-minute walk to Fenway.", "* Although the Massachusetts Turnpike passes close to Fenway Park, there is no direct connection.", "Motorists are directed to use local streets or Storrow Drive to access the park." ], [ "See also", "* List of Major League Baseball stadiums* National Register of Historic Places listings in southern Boston, Massachusetts* Cask'n Flagon" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Stadium site on MLB.com* Fenway Park Seating Chart at Precise Seating* Fenway Park info, including information on visiting* Fenway Park facts, photos, statistics and trivia* Boston Ballpark History .", "''MLB.com''.", "* Fenway Park dynamic diagram at Clem's Baseball* Google Maps Aerial view* VisitingFan.com: Reviews of Fenway Park* Fenway Park Seating Chart* Fenway Park 100th Anniversary page ''MLB.com''* Fenway Park at Stadium Journey* Fenway Park at Sportlistings directory* Sanborn map showing Fenway Park, 1914" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Flatulence" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Flatulence''' is the expulsion of gas from the intestines via the anus, commonly referred to as '''farting'''.", "\"Flatus\" is the medical word for gas generated in the stomach or bowels.", "A proportion of intestinal gas may be swallowed environmental air, and hence flatus is not entirely generated in the stomach or bowels.", "The scientific study of this area of medicine is termed '''flatology'''.Flatus is brought to the rectum and pressurized by muscles in the intestines.", "It is normal to pass flatus (\"to fart\"), though volume and frequency vary greatly among individuals.", "It is also normal for intestinal gas to have a feculent or unpleasant odor, which may be intense.", "The noise commonly associated with flatulence is produced by the anus and buttocks, which act together in a manner similar to that of an embouchure.", "Both the sound and odor are sources of embarrassment, annoyance or amusement (flatulence humor).", "In many societies, flatus is a taboo.", "Thus, many people either let their flatus out quietly or even hold it completely.", "However, holding the gases inside is not healthy.There are several general symptoms related to intestinal gas: pain, bloating and abdominal distension, excessive flatus volume, excessive flatus odor, and gas incontinence.", "Furthermore, eructation (colloquially known as \"burping\") is sometimes included under the topic of flatulence.", "When excessive or malodorous, flatus can be a sign of a health disorder, such as irritable bowel syndrome, celiac disease or lactose intolerance." ], [ "Terminology", "Non-medical definitions of the term include \"the uncomfortable condition of having gas in the stomach and bowels\", or \"a state of excessive gas in the alimentary canal\".", "These definitions highlight that many people consider \"bloating\", abdominal distension or increased volume of intestinal gas, to be synonymous with the term flatulence (although this is technically inaccurate).Colloquially, flatulence may be referred to as \"farting\", \"pumping\", \"trumping\", \"blowing off\", \"pooting\", \"passing gas\", \"breaking wind\", \"backfiring\", or simply (in American English) \"gas\" or (British English) \"wind\".", "Derived terms include vaginal flatulence, otherwise known as a ''queef''." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "Generally speaking, there are four different types of complaints that relate to intestinal gas, which may present individually or in combination.===Bloating and pain===Patients may complain of bloating as abdominal distension, discomfort and pain from \"trapped wind\".", "In the past, functional bowel disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome that produced symptoms of bloating were attributed to increased production of intestinal gas.However, three significant pieces of evidence refute this theory.", "First, in normal subjects, even very high rates of gas infusion into the small intestine (30mL/min) is tolerated without complaints of pain or bloating and harmlessly passed as flatus per rectum.", "Secondly, studies aiming to quantify the total volume of gas produced by patients with irritable bowel syndrome (some including gas emitted from the mouth by eructation) have consistently failed to demonstrate increased volumes compared to healthy subjects.", "The proportion of hydrogen produced may be increased in some patients with irritable bowel syndrome, but this does not affect the total volume.", "Thirdly, the volume of flatus produced by patients with irritable bowel syndrome who have pain and abdominal distension would be tolerated in normal subjects without any complaints of pain.Patients who complain of bloating frequently can be shown to have objective increases in abdominal girth, often increased throughout the day and then resolving during sleep.", "The increase in girth combined with the fact that the total volume of flatus is not increased led to studies aiming to image the distribution of intestinal gas in patients with bloating.", "They found that gas was not distributed normally in these patients: there was segmental gas pooling and focal distension.", "In conclusion, abdominal distension, pain and bloating symptoms are the result of abnormal intestinal gas dynamics rather than increased flatus production.===Excessive volume===The range of volumes of flatus in normal individuals varies hugely (476–1,491 mL/24 h).", "All intestinal gas is either swallowed environmental air, present intrinsically in foods and beverages, or the result of gut fermentation.Swallowing small amounts of air occurs while eating and drinking.", "This is emitted from the mouth by eructation (burping) and is normal.", "Excessive swallowing of environmental air is called aerophagia, and has been shown in a few case reports to be responsible for increased flatus volume.", "This is, however, considered a rare cause of increased flatus volume.", "Gases contained in food and beverages are likewise emitted largely through eructation, e.g., carbonated beverages.Endogenously produced intestinal gases make up 74 percent of flatus in normal subjects.", "The volume of gas produced is partially dependent upon the composition of the intestinal microbiota, which is normally very resistant to change, but is also very different in different individuals.", "Some patients are predisposed to increased endogenous gas production by virtue of their gut microbiota composition.", "The greatest concentration of gut bacteria is in the colon, while the small intestine is normally nearly sterile.", "Fermentation occurs when unabsorbed food residues arrive in the colon.Therefore, even more than the composition of the microbiota, diet is the primary factor that dictates the volume of flatus produced.", "Diets that aim to reduce the amount of undigested fermentable food residues arriving in the colon have been shown to significantly reduce the volume of flatus produced.", "Again, increased volume of intestinal gas will not cause bloating and pain in normal subjects.", "Abnormal intestinal gas dynamics will create pain, distension, and bloating, regardless of whether there is high or low total flatus volume.===Odor===Although flatus possesses an odor, this may be abnormally increased in some patients and cause social distress to the patient.", "Increased odor of flatus presents a distinct clinical issue from other complaints related to intestinal gas.", "Some patients may exhibit over-sensitivity to bad flatus odor, and in extreme forms, olfactory reference syndrome may be diagnosed.", "Recent informal research found a correlation between flatus odor and both loudness and humidity content.===Incontinence of flatus===\"Gas incontinence\" could be defined as loss of voluntary control over the passage of flatus.", "It is a recognised subtype of faecal incontinence, and is usually related to minor disruptions of the continence mechanisms.", "Some consider gas incontinence to be the first, sometimes only, symptom of faecal incontinence." ], [ "Cause", "Intestinal gas is composed of varying quantities of exogenous sources and endogenous sources.", "The exogenous gases are swallowed (aerophagia) when eating or drinking or increased swallowing during times of excessive salivation (as might occur when nauseated or as the result of gastroesophageal reflux disease).", "The endogenous gases are produced either as a by-product of digesting certain types of food, or of incomplete digestion, as is the case during steatorrhea.", "Anything that causes food to be incompletely digested by the stomach or small intestine may cause flatulence when the material arrives in the large intestine, due to fermentation by yeast or prokaryotes normally or abnormally present in the gastrointestinal tract.Flatulence-producing foods are typically high in certain polysaccharides, especially oligosaccharides such as inulin.", "Those foods include beans, lentils, dairy products, onions, garlic, spring onions, leeks, turnips, swedes, radishes, sweet potatoes, potatoes, cashews, Jerusalem artichokes, oats, wheat, and yeast in breads.", "Cauliflower, broccoli, cabbage, Brussels sprouts and other cruciferous vegetables that belong to the genus ''Brassica'' are commonly reputed to not only increase flatulence, but to increase the pungency of the flatus.In beans, endogenous gases seem to arise from complex oligosaccharides (carbohydrates) that are particularly resistant to digestion by mammals, but are readily digestible by microorganisms (methane-producing archaea; ''Methanobrevibacter smithii'') that inhabit the digestive tract.", "These oligosaccharides pass through the small intestine largely unchanged, and when they reach the large intestine, bacteria ferment them, producing copious amounts of flatus.When excessive or malodorous, flatus can be a sign of a health disorder, such as irritable bowel syndrome, celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity or lactose intolerance.", "It can also be caused by certain medicines, such as ibuprofen, laxatives, antifungal medicines or statins.", "Some infections, such as giardiasis, are also associated with flatulence.Interest in the causes of flatulence was spurred by high-altitude flight and human spaceflight; the low atmospheric pressure, confined conditions, and stresses peculiar to those endeavours were cause for concern.", "In the field of mountaineering, the phenomenon of high altitude flatus expulsion was first recorded over two hundred years ago." ], [ "Mechanism", "===Production, composition, and odor===Flatus (intestinal gas) is mostly produced as a byproduct of bacterial fermentation in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, especially the colon.", "There are reports of aerophagia (excessive air swallowing) causing excessive intestinal gas, but this is considered rare.Over 99% of the volume of flatus is composed of odorless gases.", "These include oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and methane.", "Nitrogen is not produced in the gut, but a component of environmental air.", "Patients who have excessive intestinal gas that is mostly composed of nitrogen have aerophagia.", "Hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane are all produced in the gut and contribute 74% of the volume of flatus in normal subjects.", "Methane and hydrogen are flammable, and so flatus can be ignited if it contains adequate amounts of these components.Not all humans produce flatus that contains methane.", "For example, in one study of the faeces of nine adults, only five of the samples contained archaea capable of producing methane.", "The prevalence of methane over hydrogen in human flatus may correlate with obesity, constipation and irritable bowel syndrome, as archaea that oxidise hydrogen into methane promote the metabolism's ability to absorb fatty acids from food.The remaining trace (<1% volume) compounds contribute to the odor of flatus.", "Historically, compounds such as indole, skatole, ammonia and short chain fatty acids were thought to cause the odor of flatus.", "More recent evidence proves that the major contribution to the odor of flatus comes from a combination of volatile sulfur compounds.", "Hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan (also known as methanethiol), dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl disulfide and dimethyl trisulfide are present in flatus.", "The benzopyrrole volatiles indole and skatole have an odor of mothballs, and therefore probably do not contribute greatly to the characteristic odor of flatus.In one study, hydrogen sulfide concentration was shown to correlate convincingly with perceived bad odor of flatus, followed by methyl mercaptan and dimethyl sulfide.", "This is supported by the fact that hydrogen sulfide may be the most abundant volatile sulfur compound present.", "These results were generated from subjects who were eating a diet high in pinto beans to stimulate flatus production.Others report that methyl mercaptan was the greatest contributor to the odor of flatus in patients not under any specific dietary alterations.", "It has now been demonstrated that methyl mercaptan, dimethyl sulfide, and hydrogen sulfide (described as decomposing vegetables, unpleasantly sweet/wild radish and rotten eggs respectively) are all present in human flatus in concentrations above their smell perception thresholds.It is recognized that increased dietary sulfur-containing amino acids significantly increases the odor of flatus.", "It is therefore likely that the odor of flatus is created by a combination of volatile sulfur compounds, with minimal contribution from non-sulfur volatiles.", "This odor can also be caused by the presence of large numbers of microflora bacteria or the presence of faeces in the rectum.", "Diets high in protein, especially sulfur-containing amino acids, have been demonstrated to significantly increase the odor of flatus.===Volume and intestinal gas dynamics===Normal flatus volume is 476 to 1491 mL per 24 hours.", "This variability between individuals is greatly dependent upon diet.", "Similarly, the number of flatus episodes per day is variable; the normal range is given as 8–20 per day.", "The volume of flatus associated with each flatulence event again varies (5–375 mL).", "The volume of the first flatulence upon waking in the morning is significantly larger than those during the day.", "This may be due to buildup of intestinal gas in the colon during sleep, the peak in peristaltic activity in the first few hours after waking or the strong prokinetic effect of rectal distension on the rate of transit of intestinal gas.", "It is now known that gas is moved along the gut independently of solids and liquids, and this transit is more efficient in the erect position compared to when supine.", "It is thought that large volumes of intestinal gas present low resistance, and can be propelled by subtle changes in gut tone, capacitance and proximal contraction and distal relaxation.", "This process is thought not to affect solid and liquid intra-lumenal contents.Researchers investigating the role of sensory nerve endings in the anal canal did not find them to be essential for retaining fluids in the anus, and instead speculate that their role may be to distinguish between flatus and faeces, thereby helping detect a need to defecate or to signal the end of defecation.The sound varies depending on the tightness of the sphincter muscle and velocity of the gas being propelled, as well as other factors, such as water and body fat.", "The auditory pitch (sound) of the flatulence outburst can also be affected by the anal embouchure.", "Among humans, flatulence occasionally happens accidentally, such as incidentally to coughing or sneezing or during orgasm; on other occasions, flatulence can be voluntarily elicited by tensing the rectum or \"bearing down\" on stomach or bowel muscles and subsequently relaxing the anal sphincter, resulting in the expulsion of flatus." ], [ "Management", "Since problems involving intestinal gas present as different (but sometimes combined) complaints, the management is cause-related.===Pain and bloating===While not affecting the production of the gases themselves, surfactants (agents that lower surface tension) can reduce the disagreeable sensations associated with flatulence, by aiding the dissolution of the gases into liquid and solid faecal matter.", "Preparations containing simethicone reportedly operate by promoting the coalescence of smaller bubbles into larger ones more easily passed from the body, either by burping or flatulence.", "Such preparations do not decrease the total amount of gas generated in or passed from the colon, but make the bubbles larger and thereby allowing them to be passed more easily.Other drugs including prokinetics, lubiprostone, antibiotics and probiotics are also used to treat bloating in patients with functional bowel disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome, and there is some evidence that these measures may reduce symptoms.A flexible tube, inserted into the rectum, can be used to collect intestinal gas in a flatus bag.", "This method is occasionally needed in a hospital setting, when the patient is unable to pass gas normally.===Volume===One method of reducing the volume of flatus produced is dietary modification, reducing the amount of fermentable carbohydrates.", "This is the theory behind diets such as the low-FODMAP diet (a diet low in fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, alcohols, and polyols).Most starches, including potatoes, corn, noodles, and wheat, produce gas as they are broken down in the large intestine.", "Intestinal gas can be reduced by fermenting the beans, and making them less gas-inducing, or by cooking them in the liquor from a previous batch.", "For example, the fermented bean product miso is less likely to produce as much intestinal gas.", "Some legumes also stand up to prolonged cooking, which can help break down the oligosaccharides into simple sugars.", "Fermentative lactic acid bacteria such as ''Lactobacillus casei'' and ''Lactobacillus plantarum'' reduce flatulence in the human intestinal tract.Probiotics (live yogurt, kefir, etc.)", "are reputed to reduce flatulence when used to restore balance to the normal intestinal flora.", "Live (bioactive) yogurt contains, among other lactic bacteria, ''Lactobacillus acidophilus'', which may be useful in reducing flatulence.", "''L.", "acidophilus'' may make the intestinal environment more acidic, supporting a natural balance of the fermentative processes.", "''L.", "acidophilus'' is available in supplements.", "Prebiotics, which generally are non-digestible oligosaccharides, such as fructooligosaccharide, generally increase flatulence in a similar way as described for lactose intolerance.Digestive enzyme supplements may significantly reduce the amount of flatulence caused by some components of foods not being digested by the body and thereby promoting the action of microbes in the small and large intestines.", "It has been suggested that alpha-galactosidase enzymes, which can digest certain complex sugars, are effective in reducing the volume and frequency of flatus.", "The enzymes alpha-galactosidase, lactase, amylase, lipase, protease, cellulase, glucoamylase, invertase, malt diastase, pectinase, and bromelain are available, either individually or in combination blends, in commercial products.The antibiotic rifaximin, often used to treat diarrhea caused by the microorganism ''E.", "coli'', may reduce both the production of intestinal gas and the frequency of flatus events.===Odor==='''Bismuth'''The odor created by flatulence is commonly treated with bismuth subgallate, available under the name Devrom.", "Bismuth subgallate is commonly used by individuals who have had ostomy surgery, bariatric surgery, faecal incontinence and irritable bowel syndrome.", "Bismuth subsalicylate is a compound that binds hydrogen sulfide, and one study reported a dose of 524 mg four times a day for 3–7 days bismuth subsalicylate yielded a >95% reduction in faecal hydrogen sulfide release in both humans and rats.Another bismuth compound, bismuth subnitrate was also shown to bind to hydrogen sulfide.", "Another study showed that bismuth acted synergistically with various antibiotics to inhibit sulfate-reducing gut bacteria and sulfide production.", "Some authors proposed a theory that hydrogen sulfide was involved in the development of ulcerative colitis and that bismuth might be helpful in the management of this condition.", "However, bismuth administration in rats did not prevent them from developing ulcerative colitis despite reduced hydrogen sulfide production.", "Also, evidence suggests that colonic hydrogen sulfide is largely present in bound forms, probably sulfides of iron and other metals.", "Rarely, serious bismuth toxicity may occur with higher doses.'''", "Activated charcoal'''Despite being an ancient treatment for various digestive complaints, activated charcoal did not produce reduction in both the total flatus volume nor the release of sulfur-containing gasses, and there was no reduction in abdominal symptoms (after 0.52g activated charcoal four times a day for one week).", "The authors suggested that saturation of charcoal binding sites during its passage through the gut was the reason for this.", "A further study concluded that activated charcoal (4g) does not influence gas formation in vitro or in vivo.", "Other authors reported that activated charcoal was effective.", "A study in 8 dogs concluded activated charcoal (unknown oral dose) reduced hydrogen sulfide levels by 71%.", "In combination with yucca schidigera, and zinc acetate, this was increased to an 86% reduction in hydrogen sulfide, although flatus volume and number was unchanged.", "An early study reported activated charcoal (unknown oral dose) prevented a large increase in the number of flatus events and increased breath hydrogen concentrations that normally occur following a gas-producing meal.", "'''Garments and external devices'''In 1998, Chester \"Buck\" Weimer of Pueblo, Colorado, received a patent for the first undergarment that contained a replaceable charcoal filter.", "The undergarments are air-tight and provide a pocketed escape hole in which a charcoal filter can be inserted.", "In 2001 Weimer received the Ig Nobel Prize for Biology for his invention.A similar product was released in 2002, but rather than an entire undergarment, consumers are able to purchase an insert similar to a pantiliner that contains activated charcoal.", "The inventors, Myra and Brian Conant of Mililani, Hawaii, still claim on their website to have discovered the undergarment product in 2002 (four years after Chester Weimer filed for a patent for his product), but state that their tests \"concluded\" that they should release an insert instead.===Incontinence===Flatus incontinence where there is involuntary passage of gas, is a type of faecal incontinence, and is managed similarly." ], [ "Society and culture", "''He-gassen'' (detail), an art scroll depicting a battle of flatulence, from Japan during the Edo periodA Japanese ukiyo-e print employing fart humorIn many cultures, flatulence in public is regarded as embarrassing, but, depending on context, may also be considered humorous.", "People will often strain to hold in the passing of gas when in polite company, or position themselves to silence or conceal the passing of gas.", "In other cultures, it may be no more embarrassing than coughing.While the act of passing flatus in some cultures is generally considered to be an unfortunate occurrence in public settings, flatulence may, in casual circumstances and especially among children, be used as either a humorous supplement to a joke (\"pull my finger\"), or as a comic activity in and of itself.", "The social acceptability of flatulence-based humour in entertainment and the mass media varies over the course of time and between cultures.", "A sufficient number of entertainers have performed using their flatus to lead to the coining of the term flatulist.", "The whoopee cushion is a joking device invented in the early 20th century for simulating a fart.", "In 2008, a farting application for the iPhone earned nearly $10,000 in one day.A farting game named ''Touch Wood'' was documented by John Gregory Bourke in the 1890s.", "It existed under the name of ''Safety'' in the 20th century in the U.S., and has been found being played in 2011.In January 2011, the Malawi Minister of Justice, George Chaponda, said that Air Fouling Legislation would make public \"farting\" illegal in his country.", "When reporting the story, the media satirised Chaponda's statement with punning headlines.", "Later, the minister withdrew his statement.", "Eproctophilla is the fetish of flatulence.===Environmental impact===cows is only a small portion (around one-twentieth) of cows' methane release.", "Cows also ''burp'' methane, due to the physiology of their digestive systems.", "Flatulence is often blamed as a significant source of greenhouse gases, owing to the erroneous belief that the methane released by livestock is in the flatus.", "While livestock account for around 20% of global methane emissions, 90–95% of that is released by exhaling or burping.", "In cows, gas and burps are produced by methane-generating microbes called methanogens, that live inside the cow's digestive system.", "Proposals for reducing methane production in cows include the feeding of supplements such as oregano and seaweed, and the genetic engineering of gut biome microbes to produce less methane.Since New Zealand produces large amounts of agricultural products, it is in the unique position of having high methane emissions from livestock compared to other greenhouse gas sources.", "The New Zealand government is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol and therefore attempts are being made to reduce greenhouse emissions.", "To achieve this, an agricultural emissions research levy was proposed, which promptly became known as a \"fart tax\" or \"flatulence tax\".", "It encountered opposition from farmers, farming lobby groups and opposition politicians.===Entertainment===Historical comment on the ability to fart at will is observed as early as Saint Augustine's ''The City of God'' (5th century A.D.).", "Augustine mentions \"people who produce at will without any stench such rhythmical sounds from their fundament that they appear to be making music even from that quarter.\"", "Intentional passing of gas and its use as entertainment for others appear to have been somewhat well known in pre-modern Europe, according to mentions of it in medieval and later literature, including Rabelais.Le Pétomane (\"the Fartomaniac\") was a famous French performer in the 19th century who, as well as many professional farters before him, did flatulence impressions and held shows.", "The performer Mr. Methane carries on le Pétomane's tradition today.", "Also, a 2002 fiction film ''Thunderpants'' revolves around a boy named Patrick Smash who has an ongoing flatulence problem from the time of his birth.Since the 1970s, farting has increasingly been featured in film, especially comedies such as ''Blazing Saddles'' and ''Scooby-Doo''.===Religion===In Islam, flatulence, if audible or odorous, invalidates ''wudu'' (ablution or ritual purity), if the person who passed gas suffers from OCD about passing wind.", "However, in normal cases, flatulence, even if inaudible and odorless, nullifies ritual ablution if the person is certain that he or she had passed gas." ], [ "Personal experiences", "People find other peoples' flatus unpleasant, but are unfazed by, and may even enjoy, the scent of their own.", "While there has been little research carried out upon the subject, some speculative guesses have been made as to why this might be so.", "For example, one explanation for this phenomenon is that people are very familiar with the scent of their own flatus, and that survival in nature may depend on the detection of and reaction to foreign scents." ], [ "See also", "* Antiflatulent* Armpit fart* Borborygmus* Eproctophilia* Fart lighting* Flatulence humor* ''The Gas We Pass''* Tympany* Fart (word)" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General and cited references ===* Allen, V. (2007).", "''On Farting: Language and Laughter in the Middle Ages''.", "Palgrave MacMillan.", ".", "* * * * * Persels, J., & Ganim, R. (2004).", "''Fecal Matters in Early Modern Literature and Art: Studies in Scatology''.", "(Chap.", "1: \"The Honorable Art of Farting in Continental Renaissance\").", ".", "*" ], [ "External links", "* The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy, Gas* Dictionary of Fart Slang* Invisible College of Experimental Flatology" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within''''' is a 2001 adult animated science fiction film directed by Hironobu Sakaguchi, creator of the ''Final Fantasy'' franchise.", "It was the first photorealistic computer-animated feature film and the most expensive video game-inspired film until the release of ''Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time'' in 2010.The film stars the voices of Ming-Na Wen, Alec Baldwin, Donald Sutherland, James Woods, Ving Rhames, Peri Gilpin, and Steve Buscemi, and follows scientists Aki Ross and Doctor Sid in their efforts to free a post-apocalyptic Earth from the Phantoms, a mysterious, deadly alien race who has driven the remnants of humanity into \"barrier cities\".", "Aki and Sid must fight against General Hein, who wants to use more violent means to end the conflict.Square Pictures rendered the film using some of the most advanced processing capabilities available at the time.", "A render farm of 960 workstations was tasked with rendering each of the film's 141,964 frames.", "It took a staff of 200 about four years to complete ''The Spirits Within''.", "Square intended to make the character of Aki Ross into the world's first photorealistic computer-animated actress, with plans for appearances in multiple films in different roles.", "''The Spirits Within'' premiered in Los Angeles on July 2, 2001, and was theatrically released in the United States on July 11.It received mixed reviews, but was widely praised for its characters' realism.", "Due to rising costs, the film greatly exceeded its original budget toward the end of production, reaching a final cost of $137 million (equivalent to $ million in ); it grossed only $85.1 million at the box office.", "The film has been called a box-office bomb and is blamed for the demise of Square Pictures." ], [ "Plot", "In 2065, Earth is infested by alien life forms known as Phantoms.", "By physical contact Phantoms consume the Gaia spirit of living beings, killing them instantly, although minor contact may only result in an infection.", "The surviving humans live in \"barrier cities\" protected by energy shields that prevent Phantoms from entering, and are engaged in an ongoing struggle to free the planet.", "After being infected by a Phantom during one of her experiments, scientist Dr. Aki Ross (Ming-Na Wen) and her mentor, Dr. Sid (Donald Sutherland), discover a means of defeating the Phantoms by gathering eight spirits: unique energy patterns contained by various lifeforms.", "When joined, the resulting energy wave can negate the Phantoms.", "Aki searches for the sixth spirit in the ruins of New York City when she is cornered by Phantoms but rescued by Captain Gray Edwards (Alec Baldwin) and his squad Deep Eyes, consisting of Master Sergeant Ryan Whittaker (Ving Rhames), Neil Fleming (Steve Buscemi) and Corporal Jane Proudfoot (Peri Gilpin).", "It is revealed that Gray was once romantically involved with Aki.Returning to her barrier city, Aki joins Sid and appears before the leadership council along with General Douglas Hein (James Woods).", "Hein is determined to use the Zeus cannon, a powerful weapon aboard a space station, to destroy the Phantoms, though Sid is concerned the cannon will damage Earth's Gaia (a spirit representing its ecosystem).", "Aki delays the use of the cannon by revealing that she has been infected and the collected spirits are keeping her infection stable, convincing the council that there may be another way to defeat the Phantoms.", "However, this revelation leads Hein to incorrectly conclude that she is being controlled by the Phantoms.", "Aki and the Deep Eyes squad succeed in finding the seventh spirit as Aki's infection begins to worsen and she slips into unconsciousness.", "Her dream reveals to her that the Phantoms are the spirits of dead aliens brought to Earth on a fragment of their destroyed planet.", "Sid uses the seventh spirit to bring Aki's infection back under control, reviving her.To scare the council into giving him clearance to fire the Zeus cannon, Hein lowers part of the barrier shield protecting the city.", "Though Hein intended that only a few Phantoms enter, his plan goes awry and legions of Phantoms invade the entire city.", "Aki, Sid and the Deep Eyes attempt to reach Aki's spaceship, their means of escape, but Ryan, Neil and Jane are killed by Phantoms.", "Hein escapes and boards the Zeus cannon's space station, where he finally receives authorization to fire the cannon.Sid finds the eighth spirit at the crater site of the alien asteroid's impact on Earth at the Caspian Mountains.", "He lowers a shielded vehicle, with Aki and Gray aboard, into the crater to locate the final spirit.", "Just before they can reach it, Hein fires the Zeus cannon into the crater, not only destroying the eighth spirit but also revealing the Phantom Gaia.", "Aki has a vision of the Phantom home planet, where she is able to receive the eighth spirit from the alien particles in herself.", "When Aki awakens, she and Gray combine it with the other seven.", "Hein continues to fire the Zeus cannon despite overheating warnings and unintentionally destroys the cannon and himself.", "Gray sacrifices himself as a medium needed to physically transmit the completed spirit into the alien Gaia.", "The Earth's Gaia is returned to normal as the Phantoms ascend into space, finally at peace.", "Aki is pulled from the crater holding Gray's body, and is seen looking into the newly liberated world.==Production=====Development===''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within'' was filmed entirely in English.", "The original script, written by Sakaguchi, was titled ''Gaia''.", "The screenplay was later rewritten by Al Reinert and Jeff Vintar.", "The film was co-directed by Motonori Sakakibara, with Jun Aida and Chris Lee both serving as producers.", "Lee compared ''The Spirits Within'', the first full-length photorealistic animated film, to Walt Disney's ''Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs'', the first full-length cel animated film.", "In order to keep the film in line with Hironobu Sakaguchi's vision as director, several script rewrites took place, most in the initial stages of production.", "In April 2000, it was announced that the film would be co-produced by Columbia Pictures, making it the first animated feature Columbia had worked on since ''Care Bears Movie II: A New Generation'' in 1986.Columbia was given the rights to distribute the film worldwide, with the exception of Asia.", "''The Spirits Within'' was completed over a period of four-years, during which approximately 200 people put in a combined 120 years of work on it.", "The first 18 months of development were spent creating the in-house software SQFlesh, which plugged into the programs Autodesk Maya and RenderMan.", "The majority of the rest of production was spent on animation.", "Square accumulated four SGI Origin 2000 series servers, four Onyx2 systems, and 167 Octane workstations for the film's production.", "The basic film was rendered at a custom render farm created by Square in Hawaii.", "It housed 960 Pentium III-933 MHz workstations.", "Character movements were filmed using motion capture technology.", "Animator Matthew Hackett stated that while motion capture was effective for many of the scenes, in others animators still had to add movements manually.", "Hand and facial movements were all done manually.", "Some of General Hein's facial features and poses were based on Hackett.", "As animators did not want to use any actual photographs in the film, all backgrounds were done using matte paintings.", "1,327 scenes in total needed to be filmed to animate the digital characters.", "The film consists of 141,964 frames, with each frame taking an average of 90 minutes to render.", "By the end of production Square had a total of 15 terabytes of artwork for the film.Aki Ross's voice actor, Ming-Na Wen, was selected for a perceived fit between her personality and Aki's.", "Ming-Na, who found the role via her publicist, said she felt like she had given birth with her voice to the character.", "She gradually accustomed herself to the difficulty of working without the presence and spontaneity of real actors, and commented that the voice-acting work did not take much time, as she would just go into the studio \"once or twice a month for about four months\" with no need for make-up and costuming sessions.", "The workload was so light it did not interfere with her acting commitments in the television series ''ER''.Sakaguchi said that he was pleased with the film's final cut, and he would not have changed anything if given the chance.", "The film had high cost overruns towards the end of filming.", "New funds had to be sourced to cover the increasing production costs while maintaining staff salaries.", "The film's final cost of $137 million, which included about $30 million spent on marketing by Columbia Pictures, escalated from an original budget rumored to be around $70 million.", "$45 million alone was spent on the construction of Square's studio in Hawaii.===Themes===Director Sakaguchi named the main character after his mother, Aki, who died in an accident several years prior to the production of the film.", "Her death led Sakaguchi to reflect on what happened to the spirit after death, and these thoughts resurfaced while he was planning the film, eventually taking the form of the Gaia hypothesis.", "He later explained that the theme he wanted to convey was \"more of a complex idea of life and death and spirit\", believing that the best way to portray this would be to set the film on Earth.", "By comparison, ''Final Fantasy'' video games are set in fictional worlds.", "Dan Mayers from ''Sight & Sound'' said that the film followed the same theme typically found in ''Final Fantasy'' video games: \"A party of heroes averts impending global holocaust by drawing on their individual skills, gaining knowledge through challenges and emerging victorious with new-found love and respect for themselves and their companions\".", "Writing in the book ''Robot Ghosts and Wired Dreams'', Livia Monnet wrote the film remediated \"the notion of life in the neovitalistic, evolutionary biology of Lynn Margulis and in contemporary theories on artificial life\", going on to state that the film's exploration of the Gaia hypothesis raised interesting questions regarding the life and death process of both cinema and digital media, as well as contemporary life sciences, cybernetics, philosophy and science fiction.", "The concept of artificial life and resurrection was also discussed, and compared to similar themes in the 1914 book ''Locus Solus''; the Phantoms in ''The Spirits Within'' were considered to be brought to life by various forces: by the alien planet's red Gaia and then by human spiritual energy.===Character design===alt=A screenshot from the film showing Aki Ross, a young woman with black hair.Each character's base body model was built from more than 100,000 polygons, plus more than 300,000 for clothing alone.", "Aki's character model bears 60,000 hairs, each of which were separately and fully animated and rendered.", "In creating the characters, designers had to transition between using PowerAnimator, Autodesk Maya and RenderMan.Aki's appearance was conceived by the lead animator of the project, Roy Sato, who created several conceptual designs for Sakaguchi to consider, and then used the selected design as a guide for her character model.", "Sato perceived Aki's original look as a \"supermodel\", and subsequently removed her make-up and shortened her hair in order to give her a more intelligent look that would \"convince people that she's a scientist\".", "In an interview, Sato described actively trying to make her appear as realistic as possible, making her similar to himself in as many ways as he could in the animation, including elements of his personality through facial expressions.", "He concluded that Aki ended up being similar to him in almost every way, with the exception that \"she's a lot cuter\".", "The model for Aki was designed to closely follow human appearance, with Sakaguchi commenting in an interview: \"I think it's OK to look at Aki and be convinced that she's a human\".While Square ruled out any chance of a sequel to ''The Spirits Within'' before it was even completed, Sakaguchi intended to position Aki as being the \"main star\" for Square Pictures, using her in later games and films by Square, and including the flexibility of being able to modify aspects such as her age for such appearances.", "Ming-Na said that she would be willing if asked to continue voicing Aki.", "Aki only made one appearance outside of the film; in 2002 she appeared in a demonstration video that Square Pictures made to present to The Wachowskis before developing ''Final Flight of the Osiris'' for ''The Animatrix''.", "The short film, appearing in the DVD's bonus content and featuring her with a slightly modified design, shows her acrobatically dueling a robot from the ''Matrix'' setting.", "Shortly afterwards, Square Pictures was closed and absorbed into Square, which ceased using the character.===Music and soundtrack===The soundtrack to the film was released on July 3, 2001 by Sony Music.", "Elliot Goldenthal composed the entire score, as well as the film's theme song, \"The Dream Within\", which had lyrics written by Richard Rudolf and vocals performed by Lara Fabian.", "Director Hironobu Sakaguchi opted for the acclaimed Goldenthal instead of Nobuo Uematsu, the composer of the ''Final Fantasy'' games' soundtracks, a decision met with mixed opinions as the former was completely unknown to many of the games' fans.", "The last song on the album and the second and final song to play during the film's credits (after \"The Dream Within\") is \"Spirit Dreams Inside\" by Japanese rock band L'Arc-en-Ciel.The film's score was performed by the London Symphony Orchestra with Belgian composer Dirk Brossé conducting.", "It was recorded in the United Kingdom at the Watford Coloseum and the London AIR Lyndhurst Hall and was mixed at the Manhattan Center Studios in the United States.", "In the liner notes to the album, Goldenthal describes the soundtrack as combining orchestration techniques associated with the late 20th-century Polish avant-garde, as well as his experiments from ''Alien 3'', and 19th-century Straussian brass and string instrumentation.", "In the film's 'Making of' featurette, Goldenthal states he used \"ghostly choral\" music when the Phantoms are emerging, in an attempt to give a celestial feeling, and focused on low brass clusters and taiko drum rhythms for violent scenes.", "When Aki talks about a dying girl, Goldenthal used a piano in order to give a domestic home-like feeling to a completely foreign environment, also choosing to use a flute each time Aki focusses on Gaia, as he believed it to be the most \"human kind of instrument\".The album was met with positive reviews.", "Neil Shurley from AllMusic, who gave the album 4 out of 5, opined the album would probably have been nominated for an Oscar if the film itself had been more popular, as did the reviewer from Soundtrack Express, who gave the soundtrack 5 out of 5.Christopher Coleman from Tracksounds gave the soundtrack 10 out of 10, saying the feel of the album was \"expansive and majestic\" and that the score elevated the viewing experience of the film.", "A review from ''Filmtracks'' gave the album 4 out of 5, calling it \"an easy album to recommend\".", "Dan Goldwasser from Soundtrack.net also gave the soundtrack 4 out of 5, calling it a \"must have\".The album peaked at No.", "19 on ''Billboard'''s Top Soundtracks list and No.", "193 on the ''Billboard'' 200 on July 28, 2001.The track \"The Dream Within\" was nominated for \"Best Original Song Written for a Film\" at the 2002 World Soundtrack Awards, but lost to \"If I Didn't Have You\" which was composed for ''Monsters, Inc.''." ], [ "Release", "===Box office===Before the film's release, there was already skepticism of its potential to be financially successful.", "Chris Taylor from ''Time'' magazine noted that video game adaptations had a poor track record at the box office and that it was Sakaguchi's first feature film.", "The film debuted on July 2, 2001 at the Mann Bruins Theater in Los Angeles, California, and was released in the United States on July 11, where it made $11.4 million during its opening weekend, ranking in fourth place behind ''Legally Blonde'', ''The Score'' and ''Cats & Dogs''.", "The film would end up making $32 million in North America and selling 5,961,378 tickets in the United States.", "The film grossed $85 million in worldwide box office receipts, including in Japan.", "1,456,523 tickets were sold in France, 4,299,604 tickets in other European countries and 446,728 tickets in Brazil.", "The film achieved average to poor results at the box office in most of Southeast Asia; however, it performed well in Australia, New Zealand and South Korea; 160,100 tickets were sold in Seoul City.In 2006, Boston.com regarded it as the 4th biggest box office bomb, estimating the film's losses at the end of its cinema run at over $94 million.", "In March 2012, CNBC considered it to be the 9th biggest box office bomb.===Critical reception===''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within'' holds an approval rating of 44% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 144 reviews, with an average rating of 5.30/10.The website's critical consensus reads: \"The movie raises the bar for computer animated movies, but the story is dull and emotionally removed\".", "Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, gives the film a score of 49 out of 100 based on 28 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".", "Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore on opening night gave the film an average grade of \"C+\" on an A+ to F scale.Roger Ebert of the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' was a strong advocate of the film; he gave it 3½ stars out of four, praising it as a \"technical milestone\".", "While having some minor criticism of the plot, he concluded the reason to see the film was \"simply, gloriously, to look at it\", especially praising the realism in Aki's face.", "He also expressed a desire for the film to succeed in hopes of seeing others made in its image, though he was skeptical of its ability to be accepted.", "Peter Bradshaw of ''The Guardian'' echoed concerns about the plot, describing it as \"adequate\" though also stating it quickly slipped into cliche.", "He also had high praise for the animation in general, though lamented that the character's faces did not look quite real enough.Writing in a 2007 article about the uncanny valley, John Mangan from ''The Age'' cited character's eyes in the film as an example of this phenomenon, where attempts to create realistic humans unintentionally cause revulsion; Peter Travers from ''Rolling Stone'' said that it was enjoyable watching the characters at first, \"but then you notice a coldness in the eyes, a mechanical quality in the movements\".", "Nell Minow from ''Common Sense Media'' also expressed concerns about realism in the characters, describing the visuals as stunning overall but finding subtle issues with characters talking and acting.", "Describing the dialogue as \"passable\", Nell also said the script read like a reject from ''Pokémon'', and that its \"confusing gibberish about the earth's spirit would not do justice to the beliefs of environmentalists or pantheists\".", "Todd McCarthy from ''Variety'' gave a positive review, praising the voice work and visuals though saying the characters were no more emotionally expressive than those in traditional animation.", "McCarthy described the acting as \"no worse\" than the majority of science-fiction films, also saying that as far as video game adaptation films went, ''The Spirits Within'' \"sure beats ''Lara Croft: Tomb Raider''\".===Reception of Aki Ross===Maxim''s featuring of Aki in their \"Hot 100\" list resulted in increased media attention towards the character.|alt=Aki Ross in a bikini, as featured in Maxim magazine.Aki's appearance was received positively by critics, with praise for the finer details of the character model such as the rendering of her hair.", "''Entertainment Weekly'' named Aki an \"it girl\", stating that \"calling this action heroine a cartoon would be like calling a Rembrandt a doodle\".", "Ruth La Ferla from ''The New York Times'' described her as having the \"sinewy efficiency\" of ''Alien'' franchise character Ellen Ripley and visual appeal of Julia Roberts' portrayal of Erin Brockovich.", "The book ''Digital Shock: Confronting the New Reality'' by Herve Fischer described her as a virtual actress having a \"beauty that is 'really' impressive\", comparing her to video game character Lara Croft.", "In contrast, Livia Monnet criticized her character as an example of the constantly kidnapped female in Japanese cinema, further \"diluted\" by her existence solely as a computer-generated character representing \"an ideal, cinematic female character that has no real referent\".Writing in the book ''Action and Adventure Cinema'', Marc O'Day described her as among the \"least overtly eroticised\" female characters in science fiction, though stated that Aki was \"transformed in a variety of poses into an erotic fantasy machine\" in a bikini photo shoot that was included on the DVD's special features.", "She appeared dressed in the bikini on the cover of ''Maxim'', and was ranked by the magazine and its readers as one of the sexiest women of 2001, placing at No.", "87 out of 100 and becoming the first fictional woman to ever make the list.", "The same image of her appeared in the \"Babes: The Girls of Sci Fi\" special issue of ''SFX''.===Legacy and related media===The merger between Square and Enix, which had been under consideration since at least 2000 according to Yasuhiro Fukushima, Enix chairman at the time, was delayed because of the failure of the film and Enix's hesitation at merging with a company that had just lost a substantial amount of money.", "Square Pictures was closed in late January 2002, largely due to the commercial failure of ''The Spirits Within''.The film's CGI effects have been compared favourably with those in later films, such as ''Avatar'' (2009).", "In 2011, BioWare art director Derek Watts cited ''The Spirits Within'' as a major influence on the successful ''Mass Effect'' series of action role-playing games.", "In the first episode of the Square Enix-published 2015 video game ''Life Is Strange'', when the lead character interacts with a TV, she mentions the idea of watching the film, and says \"I don't care what anybody says, that's one of the best sci-fi films ever made\".Although the film was loosely based on a video game series, there were never any plans for a game adaptation of the film itself.", "Sakaguchi indicated the reason for this was the lack of powerful gaming hardware at the time, feeling the graphics in any game adaptation would be far too much of a step down from the graphics in the film itself.", "A novelization was written by Dean Wesley Smith and published by ''Pocket Books'' in June 2001.", "''The Making of Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within'', a companion book, was published by ''BradyGames'' in August 2001.Edited by Steven L. Kent, the 240-page color book contains a foreword by director Sakaguchi and extensive information on all aspects of the film's creation, including concept art, storyboards, sets and props, layout, motion capture and animation, as well as a draft of the full script.===Accolades===The film won the \"Jury Prize\" at the 2002 Japan Media Arts Festival.", "It was nominated for \"Best Sound Editing – Animated Feature Film, Domestic and Foreign\" at the 49th Golden Reel Awards as well as \"Best Animated Feature\" at the 5th Online Film Critics Society awards.", "Conversely, the film was also nominated in the worst screenplay category at the 2001 Stinkers Bad Movie Awards, but lost to ''Pearl Harbor''.", "The film's trailer was nominated for the \"Golden Fleece\" award at the 3rd Golden Trailer Awards.", "Year Event Award Nominee Result 2002 Golden Reel Awards Best Sound Editing – Animated Feature Film Sound editing team Golden Trailer Awards Golden Fleece ''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within'' trailer(Giaronomo Productions, Inc.) Japan Media Arts Festival Jury Prize ''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within'' Online Film Critics Society Awards Best Animated Feature ''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within'' Saturn AwardsBest DVD Special Edition Release ''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within'' DVDWorld Soundtrack AwardsBest Original Song Written for a Film\"The Dream Within\" (Elliot Goldenthal, Richard Rudolf, and Lara Fabian)Stinker AwardWorst Screenplay for a Film Grossing More Than $100M Worldwide Using Hollywood Math ''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within''===Home media===A two-disc DVD version of the film was released on October 23, 2001, with the Blu-ray edition released on August 7, 2007.Two weeks before it was released the DVD version was listed on Amazon.com as one of the most-anticipated releases, and it was expected to recoup some of the money lost on the film's disappointing box office performance.", "The DVD was initially a top seller; in February 2002, Jun Aida said that while sales were still strong, they were not good enough to save Square Pictures from closing.", "Both versions contained two full-length commentary tracks (one featuring Motonori Sakakibara, sequence supervisor Hiroyuki Hayashida, lead artist Tatsuro Maruyama, and creature supervisor Takoo Noguchi; the second featuring animation director Andy Jones, editor Chris S. Capp, and staging director Tani Kunitake) as well as an isolated score with commentary.", "They also contained a version of the film in its basic CGI and sketch form, with the option of pop-up comments on the film.", "An easter egg shows the cast of the film re-enacting the dance from ''Michael Jackson's Thriller''.", "Fifteen featurettes, including seven on character biographies, three on vehicle comparisons and an interactive \"Making Of\" featurette, were also included.", "Other features included Aki's dream viewable as a whole sequence, the film's original opening sequence, and intentional outtakes.", "Peter Bracke from ''High-Def Digest'' stated the DVD was \"so packed with extras it was almost overwhelming\", stating that Sony went \"all-out\" on the extra features in a likely attempt to boost DVD sales and recover losses.", "A single-disc edition of the film with significantly less special features was released on August 27, 2002.As of December 2001, the film grossed in video rental revenue in the United States, equivalent to 83.4% of its box office gross in the country.", "The DVD was nominated for \"Best DVD Special Edition Release\" at the 28th Saturn Awards.", "Aaron Beierle from ''DVD Talk'' gave a positive review of the DVD, rating it 4½ out of 5 stars for audio quality, video quality and special features.", "Dustin Somner from ''Blu-ray.com'' gave the Blu-ray version 5 out of 5 stars for video quality and special features, and 4½ stars for audio quality.", "Peter Bracke gave the Blu-ray version 4 out of 5 stars overall.", "The film was released in 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray in November 2021, with improved audio to Dolby Atmos/TrueHD 7.1 channel format.Sony made the film available for free on the YouTube channel Throwback Toons on December 5, 2023." ], [ "See also", "* List of films based on video games" ], [ "References", "'''Bibliography'''* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Filter" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Filtration''' is a physical process that separates solid matter and fluid from a mixture.", "'''Filter''', '''filtering''', '''filters''' or '''filtration''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Science and technology", "===Computing===* Filter (higher-order function), in functional programming* Filter (software), a computer program to process a data stream* Filter (video), a software component that performs some operation on a multimedia stream* Email filtering, the processing of email to organize it according to specified criteria* Content-control software also known as an Internet filter* Wordfilter, a script typically used on Internet forums or chat rooms* Berkeley Packet Filter, filter expression used in the qualification of network data* DSL filter, a low-pass filter installed between analog devices and a telephone line* Helicon Filter, a raster graphics editor* Filter (large eddy simulation), a mathematical operation intended to remove a range of small scales from the solution to the Navier-Stokes equations* Kalman filter, an approximating algorithm in optimal control applications and problems* Filter (social media), an appearance-altering digital image effect for social media=== Device ===* Filter (chemistry), a device which separates solids from fluids (liquids or gases) by adding a medium through which only the fluid can pass** Filter (aquarium), critical components of both freshwater and marine aquaria** Filter paper, a semi-permeable paper barrier placed perpendicular to a liquid or air flow.", "It is used to separate fine solids from liquids or air** Air filter, a device composed of fibrous materials which removes solid particulates such as dust, pollen, mold, and bacteria from the air** Oil filter, a filter to remove contaminants from engine oil, transmission oil, lubricating oil, or hydraulic oil** Pneumatic filter, a device which removes contaminants from a compressed air stream** Water filter, removes impurities from water by means of a fine physical barrier, a chemical process or a biological process** Cigarette filter, a part of a cigarette intended to filter the smoke inhaled by a smoker** Coffee filter, a utensil used to separate coffee grounds from liquid coffee** Fuel filter, found in most internal combustion engines** Filtration (wine)* Sieve or macroscopic filter, a device for separating wanted elements from unwanted material=== Mathematics ===* Filter (mathematics), a special subset of a partially ordered set.", "* Filter (set theory), a special family of subsets that forms an (order theoretic) filter with respect to set inclusion* Filters in topology, the use of collections of subsets to describe convergence.", "* Filtering problem (stochastic processes), a mathematical model for a number of filtering problems in signal processing and the like.", "* Filtration (mathematics), an indexed set of subobjects of a given algebraic structure S.=== Optics ===* Optical filter, selectively transmits light of different wavelengths** Interference filter, reflects one or more spectral bands or lines and transmits others, while maintaining a nearly zero coefficient of absorption for all wavelengths of interest** Dichroic filter, a very accurate color filter used to selectively pass light of a small range of colors while reflecting other colors** Hydrogen-alpha filter, an optical filter that transmits a narrow bandwidth of light centred on the H-alpha wavelength** Photographic filter, a camera accessory consisting of an optical filter that can be inserted in the optical path** Infrared cut-off filter, designed to reflect or block mid-infrared wavelengths while passing visible light** Chelsea filter, a dichromatic optical filter used for identifying coloured stones** Astronomical filter, a telescope accessory used to enhance the details of celestial objects===Signal processing===* Filter (signal processing)** Electronic filter, an electronic circuit which processes signals, for example to remove unwanted frequency components** Digital filter, a system that performs mathematical operations to reduce or enhance certain aspects of a signal** Analogue filter, a basic building block of signal processing much used in electronics** Filters used in digital image processing" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "* ''Filter'' (TV series), a show on the G4 channel* ''Filter'' (magazine), an indie music magazine* Filter Theatre, a British theatre company* The Filter, a digital content services company based in England* Filter (band), an American rock band* \"Filter\", a song from the album ''Bend'' by 8stops7* \"Filter\", a song from the album ''Map of the Soul: 7'' by BTS" ], [ "Other uses", "* Filtering (housing), the process of housing units becoming more affordable with age* Category-based filtering of perception, according to (objectivist interpretations of) Kant** Affective filter, an impediment to learning or acquisition caused by negative emotional (\"affective\") responses to one's environment* Lane splitting, a practice that cyclists use to pass slow or stopped congested traffic*The ability of a person to self-censor themselves (their thoughts) whilst speaking" ], [ "See also", "* Filter coffee, a method for preparing coffee* Filter feeder, an animal that strains food particles from water* Filtration camp (disambiguation)* Lifter (signal processing)* Philtre (disambiguation)* Separation process* Ultrafilter" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Free Methodist Church" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''Free Methodist Church''' ('''FMC''') is a Methodist Christian denomination within the holiness movement, based in the United States.", "It is evangelical in nature and is Wesleyan–Arminian in theology.The Free Methodist Church has members in over 100 countries, with 62,516 members in the United States and 1,547,820 members worldwide.", "The ''Light & Life Magazine'' is their official publication.", "The Free Methodist Church World Ministries Center is in Indianapolis, Indiana." ], [ "History", "Free Methodist Church USA General Conference 2023The Free Methodist Church was organized at Pekin, New York, in 1860.The founders had been members of the Methodist Episcopal Church but were excluded from its membership for earnestly advocating what they saw as the doctrines and usages of authentic Wesleyan Methodism.", "Under the leadership of the Rev.", "Benjamin Titus (B. T.) Roberts, a graduate of Wesleyan University, the movement spread rapidly.", "Societies were organized, churches built, and the work established.Before the founding of the church, Roberts began publication of a monthly journal, ''The Earnest Christian''.", "In 1868, ''The Free Methodist'' (now ''Light & Life'') was begun.", "A publishing house was established in 1886 to produce books, periodicals, and Sunday school curriculum and literature.The name \"Methodist\" was retained for the newly organized church because the founders felt their expulsion from the Methodist Episcopal Church happened because of their adherence to doctrines and standards of Methodism.", "The word \"Free\" was suggested and adopted because the new church (1) was anti-slavery; (2) wanted pews to be free to all regardless of status, rather than sold or rented (as was common); (3) promoted freedom of worship in the Holy Spirit, as opposed to stifling formality; (4) upheld the principle of \"freedom\" from secret and oath-bound societies (in particular the Masonic Lodge), so as to have full loyalty to Christ; (5) stood for \"freedom\" from the abuse of ecclesiastical authority (due to the bishop's action in allowing expulsion of 120 clergy and lay); and (6) desired its members experience \"freedom\" of transformation in sanctification via the Holy Spirit due to personal consecration and faith, rather than 'sin-management' or gradual growth following justification.At the 1910 session of the General Conference of the Methodist Church at Rochester, New York, a full acknowledgement was made of the wrong done to the late Roberts fifty years before, and the credentials taken from him were restored in a public meeting on his behalf to his son, Rev.", "Benson Roberts.Holiness Conservatives within the Free Methodist Church left to form the Reformed Free Methodist Church in 1932, the United Holiness Church in 1966 (which joined the Bible Methodist Connection of Churches in 1994) and the Evangelical Wesleyan Church in 1963.Free Methodist headquarters were located in Winona Lake, Indiana, until 1990 when the denomination moved to Indianapolis, Indiana.", "The Free Methodist Church released a 21st Century Articulation of their Historic Freedoms to include the following: # Freedom of all races to worship together in unity.# Freedom for the poor to be treated with dignity in the church and with justice in the world.# Freedom for women and men to be treated respectfully and use their gifts equally in the church, in the home, and in the world.# Freedom for laity to be fairly represented in the governing bodies of the church.# Freedom from spiritual, political, social or conceptual alliances that compromise or subvert the exclusive allegiance we profess to Jesus Christ.# Freedom to engage in worship that is moved and inspired by the Holy Spirit.# Freedom from sin’s power through full surrender to God." ], [ "Statistics", "The church has about 62,516 members in the United States as of 2021.Worldwide its membership is over 1,500,000.with large segments of membership in East Central Africa (Rwanda, Burundi, DRC) and other countries.", "==Beliefs and practices== In doctrine, Free Methodists’ beliefs are the standard beliefs of Wesleyan-Arminian Protestantism, with distinctive emphasis on the teaching of entire sanctification as held by John Wesley, to whom the Free Methodist Church traces its origins.The Free Methodist Church, along with the United Methodist Church, shares a common heritage linked to the Methodist revival in England during the 18th century.", "The Free Methodist Church itself arose within the context of the holiness movement within 19th century Methodism.The first general superintendent, B. T. Roberts, was in favor of ordaining women, but never saw it take place in his lifetime.", "Out of his own conviction he wrote ''Ordaining Women: Biblical and Historical Insights''.", "The impact of his writings eventually prevailed in the church.", "The Free Methodist Church affirmed the ordination of women in 1911.As of June 2008, women represented 11% of ordained clergy (216 of 2,011) and 26% of candidates for the ministry.Free Methodists recognize and license unordained persons for particular ministries.", "They mandate lay representation in numbers equal to clergy in the councils of the church.As a reaction to paid musicians in the Methodist Episcopal Church, early Free Methodists enjoyed a capella congregational hymns during worship.", "However, the General Conference of 1943 voted to allow each Conference to vote on whether or not their churches could have instrumental music.", "As a result, pianos and organs became common across most conferences.", "Currently, many churches have worship teams composed of vocalists, drums, keyboards, guitars, and other instruments." ], [ "Organization", "The Free Methodist Church's highest governing body is the World Conference, which is composed of representatives, both lay and clergy, from all countries with a Free Methodist General Conference.", "As the church in each country develops, its status progresses from Mission District to Annual Conference to General Conference.", "There are currently 20 General Conferences in the world, which are linked together through the articles of religion and common constitution of the first two chapters of the Book of Discipline, the World Conference, and the Council of Bishops.The USA branch of the Free Methodist Church is currently led by three bishops: Bishop Keith Cowart, Bishop Kaye Kolde, and Bishop Kenny Martin.", "Bishop Cowart was first elected in 2019 and re-elected in 2023.Bishops Kolde and Martin were first elected in 2023." ], [ "World Missions", "Primary school in Costa Rica built by a local mission of the Free Methodist ChurchFree Methodist World Missions oversees ministries across Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America, and the Middle East.", "Today, 95% of Free Methodists are located outside the United States, and that number is growing daily.", "International Child Care Ministries (ICCM), a child sponsorship initiative serves more than 21,000 children in 29 countries around the world.", "Through education, meals and medical care, children in need are given an opportunity for a better life.", "Each sponsored child is connected to a Free Methodist congregation or ministry at a local level.", "Set Free Movement is seeking to mobilize faith communities, financial partners, and all segments of society towards ending human trafficking and creating new futures through community-based action.", "Volunteers in Service Abroad (VISA) connects volunteers from the Free Methodist Church in the US and UK with Free Methodist World Missions for hands-on ministry internationally.The church currently has ministry over 88 countries, including:AfricaAsiaEuropeLatin AmericaMiddle EastNorth America" ], [ "Higher education", "B. T. Roberts began what is now Roberts Wesleyan College in 1866.Spring Arbor College followed in 1873 (renamed Spring Arbor University in 2001), Seattle Pacific University in 1891, and Greenville College (renamed Greenville University in 2017) in 1892.Central College began in 1914, a continuation of Orleans Seminary begun in 1884.Los Angeles Pacific College existed from 1903 to 1965.The following educational institutions are a part of the Association of Free Methodist Educational Institutions.", "The schools are not owned by the denomination but meet a set of requirements to maintain this relationship.", "* Central Christian College, McPherson, KS* Greenville University, Greenville, IL* Roberts Wesleyan University, North Chili, NY* Spring Arbor University, Spring Arbor, MI* Seattle Pacific University, Seattle, WAIn addition, the Free Methodist Church is one of several denominations supporting Azusa Pacific University (Azusa, CA).", "Wessington Springs College is a former, now closed institution which was located in South Dakota.", "Internationally, there is Osaka Christian College of the Japanese Free Methodist Church, Hope Africa University, a recently founded school in Bujumbura, Burundi, Haiti Providence University, and the Faculdade de Teologia Metodista Livre, São Paulo, Brazil.Through the John Wesley Seminary Foundation (JWSF) graduate students who are preparing for full-time ministry in the Free Methodist Church are provided a grant or loan at the following affiliated schools:* Asbury Theological Seminary – (KY, FL, TN, OK, CO Campuses)* Azusa Pacific Seminary, Azusa, CA* Northeastern Seminary at Roberts Wesleyan College, Rochester, NY* Portland Seminary at George Fox Evangelical Seminary, Portland, OR* Seattle Pacific Seminary, Seattle, WA* Wesley Biblical Seminary, Jackson, MS* Wesley House of Studies at Baylor University’s Truett Theological Seminary, Waco, TX* Wesley Seminary at Indiana Wesleyan University, Marion, IN" ], [ "Publishing", "Like John Wesley before him, B. T. Roberts recognized the Christian's responsibility for publishing.Before the founding of the church in 1860, B. T. Roberts began publication of a monthly journal, ''The Earnest Christian''.", "In 1868 ''The Free Methodist'' (now ''Light & Life'' Magazine) began.", "A publishing house was established in 1886 to produce books, periodicals and Sunday school curriculum and literature.===Beginnings===Early leaders, T. B. Arnold and B. T. Roberts privately financed and produced several publications.The official publishing institution was established by the church at the 1886 General Conference.", "The church purchased the publishing business built by Rev.", "T. B. Arnold for $8,000.Arnold was named first publisher and B. T. Roberts was elected editor of ''The Free Methodist''.", "The Free Methodist Publishing House is recognized under its trade name Light and Life Press.===Growth and development===The Free Methodist Publishing House operated at three locations in Chicago, Illinois.", "In February 1935, it moved along with Free Methodist Headquarters to Winona Lake, Indiana.During its history, the Free Methodist Publishing House built up a plant and accumulated property worth several hundred thousand dollars.", "It also contributed thousands of dollars out of its profits to other activities of the church.Over the years, as the ministry of the Free Methodist Church expanded, various departments of the general church gradually moved into Free Methodist Publishing House accommodations.", "This was provided at vast cost and without the investment of any capital by the general church.In 1960, the Free Methodist Publishing House board issued a deed in favor of the general church, whereby the church became the owner of the old property, plus nearly eight acres of land.", "For this the general church paid nothing, but agreed to make payments of $5,000 per year over a ten-year period to the Free Methodist Publishing House.=== Audio publications ===In 1944 the Free Methodist Church began a weekly radio show called The Light and Life Radio Hour which featured hymns, sermons, prayer, and scripture reading.", "The show ran until 1980 and featured several different hosts over the years including Dr. Leroy Lowell, Myron F. Boyd, and Robert Andrews.In 2016 Josh Avery began The FMC Radio Show which was a spiritual successor to The Light and Life Radio Hour but embodied a very different focus.", "In a podcast format, the show is subtitled \"your officially unofficial source for all things Free Methodist\".", "Instead of worship and sermon, the show means to act as a uniting factor in the Free Methodist Church by informing listeners about different things that are happening in the denomination.Today, the Light+Life podcast features ministries of the Free Methodist Church that tell their stories of ministry fruitfulness.", "===Ministry===''Arnold’s Commentary'' was published from 1894–1980.In the late 1950s and early 1960s the church pioneered fully graded church school materials.", "In 1960 the ''Aldersgate Biblical Series'' was developed as the only inductive curriculum of its time.A fully equipped printing area consisting of letterpresses, offset press, cutters, folders, bindery, linotypes etc.", "contributed toward making the church independent of commercial printers for the production for its printing needs at that time.Acting on the recommendation of its executive committee, the board voted in 1988 to phase out printing operations.", "This decision and the 1989 General Conference decision to move the Press and Headquarters from Winona Lake to Indianapolis in 1990 shifted the focus of the Press.", "Where formerly, the Press produced and published Sunday school curriculum, this venture is now carried on in cooperation with other holiness denominations.Beginning in 2008, the Wesleyan Publishing House, publishing arm of the Wesleyan Church, began serving the distribution and customer service needs of Light and Life Press.===Mission statement===Light & Life Communications, the official publishing arm of the Free Methodist Church, is a not-for-profit corporation that exists to serve in partnership with its parent body, the Free Methodist Church.", "Its primary purpose is to publish and distribute materials that enable the church to fulfill its stated mission.", "Light & Life Communications also offers its services and materials to all who seek to make Christ known." ], [ "Publications", "Light + Life Communications is the publishing division of the Free Methodist Church.", "Light + Life Magazine is the official magazine of the Free Methodist Church USA, published online.", "It includes in-depth journalism and interviews exploring Christian faith.", "Each issue is also translated into Spanish and published concurrently as Revista Luz y Vida.", "Jeff Finley is the magazine's executive editor.", "Light + Life Bookstore is the official bookstore of Free Methodist Church USA.", "Free Methodist books and exclusive titles on Christian faith and Wesleyan holiness theology.", "The Light + Life podcast hosts conversations that deepen people's faith through the Light+Life of Jesus Christ.Free Methodist World Missions Heartbeat is the monthly magazine of Free Methodist World Missions.", "Free Methodist Conversations is an online resource for discussing important values and issues." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official site* Free Methodist World Missions* International Child Care Ministries" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "John Falstaff" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir John Falstaff''' is a fictional character who appears in three plays by William Shakespeare and is eulogised in a fourth.", "His significance as a fully developed character is primarily formed in the plays ''Henry IV, Part 1'' and ''Part 2'', where he is a companion to Prince Hal, the future King Henry V of England.", "Falstaff is also featured as the buffoonish suitor of two married women in ''The Merry Wives of Windsor''.", "Though primarily a comic figure, Falstaff embodies a depth common to Shakespeare's major characters.", "A fat, vain, and boastful knight, he spends most of his time drinking at the Boar's Head Inn with petty criminals, living on stolen or borrowed money.", "Falstaff leads the apparently wayward Prince Hal into trouble, and is ultimately repudiated after Hal becomes king.Falstaff has appeared in other works, including operas by Giuseppe Verdi, Ralph Vaughan Williams, and Otto Nicolai, a \"symphonic study\" by Edward Elgar, and in Orson Welles's 1966 film ''Chimes at Midnight''.", "The operas focus on his role in ''The Merry Wives of Windsor'', while the film adapts from the Henriad and ''The Merry Wives''.", "Welles, who played Falstaff in his film, considered the character to be \"Shakespeare's greatest creation\".", "The word \"Falstaffian\" has entered the English language with a connotation of being corpulent, jolly and debauched.==Role in the plays== Mistress Page and Falstaff in ''The Merry Wives of Windsor'', staged by Pacific Repertory Theatre in 1999Falstaff appears in three of Shakespeare's plays: ''Henry IV, Part 1'', ''Henry IV, Part 2'', and ''The Merry Wives of Windsor''.", "His death is mentioned in ''Henry V'', but he has no lines, nor is it directed that he appear on stage.", "However, many stage and film adaptations have seen it necessary to include Falstaff for the insight he provides into King Henry V's character.", "The most notable examples in cinema are Laurence Olivier's 1944 version and Kenneth Branagh's 1989 film, both of which draw additional material from the ''Henry IV'' plays.The character is known to have been very popular with audiences at the time, and for many years afterwards.", "According to Leonard Digges, writing shortly after Shakespeare's death, while many plays could not get good audiences, \"let but Falstaff come, Hal, Poins, the rest, you scarce shall have a room\".===''Henry IV, Part 1''===1829 watercolor by Johann Heinrich Ramberg of Act II, Scene iv: Falstaff enacts the part of the kingKing Henry is troubled by the behaviour of his son and heir, the Prince of Wales.", "Hal (the future Henry V) has lost his authority at court and spends his time in taverns with low companions.", "He has become an object of scorn to the nobility and his worthiness to succeed his father is doubted.", "Hal's main companion in enjoying the low life is Sir John Falstaff.", "Fat, old, drunk, and corrupt as he is, he has a charisma and a zest for life that captivates the Prince.Hal likes Falstaff but makes no pretence of being like him.", "He enjoys insulting his dissolute friend and makes sport of him.", "He and Poins pretend to go along with a plan by Falstaff and three friends to carry out a highway robbery, but then attack the robbers in disguise and in turn steal their loot, after which Hal returns it to its owner.", "Hal tells the audience that he will soon abandon this life and assume his rightful high place in affairs by showing himself worthy through some (unspecified) noble exploits.", "Hal believes that this sudden change will gain him additional approval and earn him respect at court.Falstaff, who has \"misused the King's press damnably\", by taking money from able-bodied men who wished to evade service and by keeping the wages of those he recruited who were killed in battle (\"food for powder, food for powder\") is obliged to play a role in the Battle of Shrewsbury.", "Left on his own during Hal's duel with Hotspur, he feigns death to avoid attack by Douglas.", "After Hal leaves both Hotspur and Falstaff on the field and being thought dead, Falstaff revives, stabs Hotspur's corpse in the thigh and claims credit for the kill.", "Though Hal knows better, he is merciful to Falstaff, who subsequently states that he wants to amend his life and begin \"to live cleanly as a nobleman should do\".===''Henry IV, Part 2''===Falstaff with Doll Tearsheet in the Boar's Head tavern, illustration to Act 2, Scene 4 of the play by Eduard von GrütznerThe play focuses on Prince Hal's journey toward kingship, and his ultimate rejection of Falstaff.", "However, unlike ''Part One'', Hal's and Falstaff's stories are almost entirely separate, as the two characters meet only twice and very briefly.", "The tone of much of the play is elegiac, focusing on Falstaff's age and his closeness to death, which parallels that of the increasingly sick king.Falstaff is still drinking and engaging in petty criminality in the London underworld.", "He first appears, followed by a new character, a young page whom Prince Hal has assigned him as a joke.", "Falstaff enquires what the doctor has said about the analysis of his urine, and the page cryptically informs him that the urine is healthier than the patient.", "Falstaff delivers one of his most characteristic lines: \"I am not only witty in myself, but the cause that wit is in other men.\"", "Falstaff promises to outfit the page in \"vile apparel\" (ragged clothing).", "He then complains of his insolvency, blaming it on \"consumption of the purse.\"", "They go off, Falstaff vowing to find a wife \"in the stews\" (i.e., the local brothels).The Lord Chief Justice enters, looking for Falstaff.", "Falstaff at first feigns deafness in order to avoid conversing with him.", "When this tactic fails, Falstaff pretends to mistake him for someone else.", "As the Chief Justice attempts to question Falstaff about a recent robbery, Falstaff insists on turning the subject of the conversation to the nature of the illness afflicting the King.", "He then adopts the pretense of being a much younger man than the Chief Justice: \"You that are old consider not the capacities of us that are young.\"", "Finally, he asks the Chief Justice for one thousand pounds to help outfit a military expedition, but is denied.Robert Smirke, He has a relationship with Doll Tearsheet, a prostitute, who gets into a fight with Ancient Pistol, Falstaff's ensign.", "After Falstaff ejects Pistol, Doll asks him about the Prince.", "Falstaff is embarrassed when his derogatory remarks are overheard by Hal, who is present disguised as a musician.", "Falstaff tries to talk his way out of it, but Hal is unconvinced.", "When news of a second rebellion arrives, Falstaff joins the army again, and goes to the country to raise forces.", "There he encounters an old school friend, Justice Shallow, and they reminisce about their youthful follies.", "Shallow brings forward potential recruits for the loyalist army: Mouldy, Bullcalf, Feeble, Shadow and Wart, a motley collection of rustic yokels.", "Falstaff and his cronies accept bribes from two of them, Mouldy and Bullcalf, not to be conscripted.In the final scene, Falstaff, having learned from Pistol that Hal is now King, travels to London in expectation of great rewards.", "But Hal rejects him, saying that he has now changed, and can no longer associate with such people.", "The London lowlifes, expecting a paradise of thieves under Hal's governance, are instead purged and imprisoned by the authorities.===''Henry V''===Although Falstaff does not appear on stage in ''Henry V'', his death is the main subject of Act 2, Scene 3, in which Mistress Quickly delivers a memorable eulogy:There is a similarity in Shakespeare's description of the death of Falstaff, and in Plato's description of the death of Socrates.", "In a description in Plato's dialogue ''Phaedo'', after Socrates has drunk hemlock, the man who gave him the poisonfelt him, and after an interval examined his feet and legs; he then pinched his foot hard and asked if he would feel it, and Socrates said not.", "And then he felt his shins once more; and moving upwards in this way, he showed us that he was becoming cold and numb.", "He went on feeling him and said that when the coldness reached his heart, he would be gone.===''The Merry Wives of Windsor''===''Falstaff at Herne's Oak, from \"The Merry Wives of Windsor\", Act V, Scene v'', James Stephanoff, 1832Falstaff arrives in Windsor very short on money.", "To obtain financial advantage, he decides to court two wealthy married women, Mistress Ford and Mistress Page.", "Falstaff decides to send the women identical love letters and asks his servants – Pistol and Nym – to deliver them to the wives.", "When they refuse, Falstaff sacks them, and, in revenge, the men tell Ford and Page (the husbands) of Falstaff's intentions.", "Page is not concerned, but the jealous Ford persuades the Host of the Garter Inn to introduce him to Falstaff as a 'Master Brook' so that he can find out Falstaff's plans.When the women receive the letters, each goes to tell the other, and they quickly find that the letters are almost identical.", "The \"merry wives\" are not interested in the ageing, overweight Falstaff as a suitor; however, for the sake of their own amusement and to gain revenge for his indecent assumptions towards them both, they pretend to respond to his advances.This all results in great embarrassment for Falstaff.", "Mr. Ford poses as 'Mr.", "Brook' and says he is in love with Mistress Ford but cannot woo her as she is too virtuous.", "He offers to pay Falstaff to court her, saying that once she has lost her honour he will be able to tempt her himself.", "Falstaff cannot believe his luck, and tells 'Brook' he has already arranged to meet Mistress Ford while her husband is out.", "Falstaff leaves to keep his appointment and Ford soliloquises that he is right to suspect his wife and that the trusting Page is a fool.When Falstaff arrives to meet Mistress Ford, the merry wives trick him into hiding in a laundry basket (\"buck basket\") full of filthy, smelly clothes awaiting laundering.", "When the jealous Ford returns to try and catch his wife with the knight, the wives have the basket taken away and the contents (including Falstaff) dumped into the river.", "Although this affects Falstaff's pride, his ego is surprisingly resilient.", "He is convinced that the wives are just playing hard to get with him, so he continues his pursuit of sexual advancement, with its attendant capital and opportunities for blackmail.Again Falstaff goes to meet the women but Mistress Page comes back and warns Mistress Ford of her husband's approach again.", "They try to think of ways to hide him other than the laundry basket which he refuses to get into again.", "They trick him again, this time into disguising himself as Mistress Ford's maid's obese aunt, known as \"the fat woman of Brentford\".", "Ford tries once again to catch his wife with the knight but ends up beating the \"old woman\", whom he despises, and throwing her out of his house.", "Black and blue, Falstaff laments his bad luck.Eventually the wives tell their husbands about the series of jokes they have played on Falstaff, and together they devise one last trick which ends up with the Knight being humiliated in front of the whole town.", "They tell Falstaff to dress as \"Herne, the Hunter\" and meet them by an old oak tree in Windsor Forest (now part of Windsor Great Park).", "They then dress several of the local children as fairies and get them to pinch and burn Falstaff to punish him.The wives meet Falstaff, and almost immediately the \"fairies\" attack.", "After the chaos, the characters reveal their true identities to Falstaff.", "Although he is embarrassed, Falstaff takes the joke surprisingly well, as he sees it was what he deserved.", "Ford says he must pay back the 20 pounds 'Brook' gave him and takes the Knight's horses as recompense.", "Eventually they all leave together and Mistress Page even invites Falstaff to come with them: \"let us every one go home, and laugh this sport o'er by a country fire; Sir John and all\"." ], [ "Origins", "Eduard von Grützner: ''Falstaff mit großer Weinkanne und Becher'' (1896) (Falstaff with big wine jar and cup)===John Oldcastle===Shakespeare originally named Falstaff \"John Oldcastle\", a real historical personage who died in 1417.Lord Cobham, a descendant of Oldcastle, complained, forcing Shakespeare to change the name.", "Shakespeare's ''Henry IV'' plays and ''Henry V'' adapted and developed the material in an earlier play called ''The Famous Victories of Henry V'', in which Sir John \"Jockey\" Oldcastle appears as a dissolute companion of the young Henry.", "Prince Hal refers to Falstaff as \"my old lad of the castle\" in the first act of the play; the epilogue to ''Henry IV, Part 2'', moreover, explicitly disavows any connection between Falstaff and Oldcastle: \"Oldcastle died a martyr, and this is not the man.", "\"The historical Oldcastle was a knight from Herefordshire who became a Lollard who was executed for heresy and rebellion, and he was respected by many Protestants as a martyr.", "In addition to the anonymous ''The Famous Victories of Henry V'', in which Oldcastle is Henry V's companion, Oldcastle's history is described in Raphael Holinshed's ''Chronicles'', Shakespeare's usual source for his histories.===Cobhams===It is not clear, however, if Shakespeare characterised Falstaff as he did for dramatic purposes, or because of a specific desire to satirise Oldcastle or the Cobhams.", "Cobham was a common butt of veiled satire in Elizabethan popular literature; he figures in Ben Jonson's ''Every Man in His Humour'' and may have been part of the reason ''The Isle of Dogs'' was suppressed.", "Shakespeare's desire to burlesque a hero of early English Protestantism could indicate Roman Catholic sympathies, but Henry Brooke, 11th Baron Cobham was sufficiently sympathetic to Catholicism that in 1603, he was imprisoned as part of the Main Plot to place Arbella Stuart on the English throne, so if Shakespeare wished to use Oldcastle to embarrass the Cobhams, he seems unlikely to have done so on religious grounds.The Cobhams appear to have intervened while Shakespeare was in the process of writing either ''The Merry Wives of Windsor'' or the second part of ''Henry IV''.", "The first part of ''Henry IV'' was probably written and performed in 1596, and the name Oldcastle had almost certainly been allowed by Master of the Revels Edmund Tilney.", "William Brooke, 10th Baron Cobham may have become aware of the offensive representation after a public performance; he may also have learned of it while it was being prepared for a court performance (Cobham was at that time Lord Chamberlain).", "As father-in-law to the newly widowed Robert Cecil, Cobham certainly possessed the influence at court to get his complaint heard quickly.", "Shakespeare may have included a sly retaliation against the complaint in his play ''The Merry Wives of Windsor'' (published after the ''Henry IV'' series).", "In the play, the paranoid, jealous Master Ford uses the alias \"Brook\" to fool Falstaff, perhaps in reference to William Brooke.", "At any rate, the name is Falstaff in the ''Henry IV, Part 1'' quarto, of 1598, and the epilogue to the second part, published in 1600, contains this clarification:===Sir John Fastolf===The new name \"Falstaff\" probably derived from the medieval knight Sir John Fastolf.", "The historical Fastolf fought at the Battle of Patay against Joan of Arc, which the English lost.", "His previous career as a soldier had earned him wide respect but he seems to have become a scapegoat after the debacle.", "He was among the few English military leaders to avoid death or capture during the battle, and although there is no evidence that he acted with cowardice, he was temporarily stripped of his knighthood.", "Fastolf appears in ''Henry VI, Part 1'' in which he is portrayed as an abject coward.", "In the'' First Folio ''his name is spelled \"Falstaffe\", so Shakespeare may have directly appropriated the spelling of the name he used in the earlier play.===Robert Greene===It has been suggested that the dissolute writer Robert Greene may also have been an inspiration for the character of Falstaff.", "This theory was first proposed in 1930 and has been championed by Stephen Greenblatt.", "Notorious for a life of dissipation and debauchery somewhat similar to Falstaff, he was among the first to mention Shakespeare in his work (in ''Greene's Groats-Worth of Wit''), suggesting to Greenblatt that the older writer may have influenced Shakespeare's characterisation." ], [ "Cultural adaptations", "Falstaff, part of Ronald Gower's Shakespeare memorial in Stratford-upon-AvonThere are several works about Falstaff, inspired by Shakespeare's plays:===Literature===*''Falstaff's Wedding'' (1766), a drama by William Kenrick, was set after the events of ''Henry IV, Part 2''.", "To restore his financial position after his rejection by Hal, Falstaff is forced to marry Mistress Ursula (a character briefly mentioned by Shakespeare, whom Falstaff has \"weekly\" promised to marry).", "The play exists in two very different versions.", "In the first version Falstaff is drawn into Scroop's plot to murder the king, but wins back Henry's favour by exposing the plot.", "In the second this story is dropped for a purely farcical storyline.", "*English lawyer and occasional writer George Radford sketched a \"biography\" of Falstaff based on clues drawn from plays in which the character appears, surmising, for example, that Falstaff was of Scandinavian descent and hailed from Norfolk.===Music=== Stephen Kemble, \"the best Sir John Falstaff which the British stage ever saw\"*''Falstaff'' (1799), Antonio Salieri's opera, with a libretto by Carlo Prospero Defranceschi, which is based upon ''The Merry Wives of Windsor''.", "*''Falstaff'' (1838), an opera by Michael William Balfe to an Italian libretto by S. Manfredo Maggione that is based upon ''The Merry Wives of Windsor''.", "*''Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor'' (1849) by Otto Nicolai, based upon ''The Merry Wives of Windsor''.", "*''Le songe d'une nuit d'été'' (1850), an opera by Ambroise Thomas in which Shakespeare and Falstaff meet.", "*''Falstaff'' (1893), Giuseppe Verdi's last opera, with a libretto by Arrigo Boito.", "It is mostly based upon ''The Merry Wives of Windsor''.", "*''Falstaff'' (1913), a \"symphonic study\" (or symphonic poem) by Edward Elgar, depicts Falstaff's life.", "*''At the Boar's Head'' (1925), a short opera by Gustav Holst based on the ''Henry IV'' plays.", "*''Sir John in Love'' (1929), an opera by Ralph Vaughan Williams based upon ''The Merry Wives of Windsor''.", "* ''Plump Jack'' (1985/2005), an opera with both libretto and music by Gordon Getty, adapted from the text of ''Henry IV'' and ''Henry V ''.===Film and television===*On film, Falstaff appeared in Laurence Olivier's acclaimed 1944 version of ''Henry V''.", "Although Falstaff does not appear in the play, Olivier inserted an original scene depicting the fat knight – played by George Robey, who first previously performed the role in a stage production of ''Henry IV, Part 1'' in 1935 – as a dying, heartbroken old man attended by Mistress Quickly, pathetically reliving in his mind his rejection by Henry.", "This was immediately followed by the actual scene from the play of Mistress Quickly describing Falstaff's death to his grieving followers.", "*Orson Welles's ''Chimes at Midnight'' (1965) compiles the two ''Henry IV'' plays into a single, condensed storyline, while adding a handful of scenes from ''Richard II'' and ''Henry V''.", "The film, also known as ''Falstaff'', features Welles himself in the title role, with film critic Vincent Canby stating in 1975 that it \"may be the greatest Shakespearean film ever made, bar none\".", "*Falstaff appeared in the 1960 series ''An Age of Kings'', which was actually a 15 part series depicting Shakespeare's history plays from ''Richard II'' to ''Richard III''; in the ''Henry IV'' episodes he was played by Frank Pettingell.", "*In the 1979 season of the ''BBC Shakespeare'' series, in both parts of ''Henry IV'' Falstaff was played by Anthony Quayle, and in ''The Merry Wives of Windsor'' which followed in the 1982 season, by Richard Griffiths.", "*In Kenneth Branagh's acclaimed 1989 version of ''Henry V'', Falstaff, here played by Robbie Coltrane, as in the Olivier version is given an original scene, this time dying in his bed and attended by Mistress Quickly, while downstairs his followers share a flashback – put together from various bits from both parts of ''Henry IV'' – showing the fat knight carousing with Henry back when he was \"madcap prince\" Hal, but it ends abruptly when the prince makes an ominous hint that some day when he becomes King he will be banishing his old friend.", "Later, prior to the actual scene where Mistress Quickly describes his death, there is a fleeting close-up shot of her sadly examining the knight's now deceased body one last time before going downstairs to his followers.", "*Falstaff appeared in the Michael Bogdanov/Michael Pennington's English Shakespeare Company's presentation of Shakespeare's plays concerning ''The Wars of the Roses''; originally taped live during their final tour with the series in 1989.In the ''Henry IV'' episodes, Falstaff was played by Barry Stanton, who later played the Chorus in ''Henry V''.", "Although Falstaff never actually appeared in the production of ''Henry V'', there is a humorous scene in silhouette prior to the scene where Mistress Quickly describing his funeral, depicting Falstaff's funeral procession, with a group of soldiers staggering under the weight of his coffin (an obvious nod to the final scene in ''Chimes at Midnight'').", "*Gus Van Sant's ''My Own Private Idaho'' is partially a retelling of the ''Henry IV'' plays, set in the contemporary US, and with the character of Bob Pigeon (William Richert) representing Falstaff.", "In the scene immediately following Bob's first appearance in the film, Scott Favor (Keanu Reeves)the film's version of Halis seen drinking from a bottle of Falstaff brand beer.", "Bob Pigeon's final scene in the film mirrors that of Falstaff, with Scott/Prince Hal delivering a version of the famous ''I know thee not, old man'' speech.", "*In the 2012 television series ''The Hollow Crown'', which likewise consisted of Shakespeare's plays concerning the ''Wars of the Roses'', Falstaff was played by Simon Russell Beale.", "Just as in Olivier's and Branagh's film versions of ''Henry V'', the Falstaff in this series appeared in the ''Henry V'' episode as well the ''Henry IV'' ones, sadly recollecting his rejection by his former friend while he is dying.", "*In Phyllida Lloyd's 2017 all-female Donmar Warehouse production of ''Henry IV'' (combining both parts), which was videotaped and broadcast, Sophie Stanton played Falstaff.", "*In the 2019 Netflix film ''The King'', Falstaff (played by Joel Edgerton) proposes to Henry V the military tactics employed by the English in the Battle of Agincourt and dies in the battle.", "*In the comedy series ''Upstart Crow'', William Shakespeare, played by David Mitchell, is inspired by his wastrel father's antics to create a character called ''John Foulstuff''.===Print===*Alexander Smith (pseud.)", "\"Sir John Falstaff a Notorious Highwayman\" in ''A Compleat History of the Lives and Robberies of the most Notorious Highway-Men, Foot-Pads, Shop-Lifts, and Cheats, of Both Sexes'' (London: J. Morphew, 1714)*James White's book ''Falstaff's Letters'' (1796) purports to be a collection of letters written by Falstaff, provided by a descendant of Mistress Quickly's sister.", "She had inherited them from Mistress Quickly herself, who kept them in a drawer in the Boar's Head Tavern until her death in \"August 1419\".", "*''The Life of Sir John Falstaff'' (1858), a novel by Robert Barnabas Brough.", "*''Falstaff'' (1976), a novel by Robert Nye.", "*Volstagg the Voluminous, a Marvel Comics character and companion to Thor, is based on Falstaff.", "*\"Falstaff, Fakir\" is the alter ego of author Axel Wallengren, a name chosen to juxtapose the vanity, affluence and figure of Shakespeare's Falstaff with the asceticism of a fakir." ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Sources'''* ** ******* *********** * ****'''Further reading'''*******" ], [ "External links", "* ''Henry the Fourth part 1'' at Project Gutenberg* All lines spoken by Falstaff in** ''Henry IV, Part 1''** ''Henry IV, Part 2''** ''The Merry Wives of Windsor''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Floorball" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Floorball''' (also known by other names) is a type of floor hockey with five players and a goalkeeper in each team.", "It is played indoors with sticks and a plastic ball with holes.", "Matches are played in three twenty-minute periods.", "The sport of bandy also played a role in the game's development.The game was invented in Sweden in the late 1960s.", "The basic rules were established in 1979 when the first floorball club in the world, Sala IBK, from Sala, was founded in Sweden.", "Official rules for matches were first written down in 1981.The sport is organized internationally by the International Floorball Federation (IFF).", "As of 2019, there were about 377,000 registered floorball players worldwide, up from around 300,000 in 2014.Events include an annual Champions Cup, EuroFloorball Cup and EuroFloorball Challenge for club teams and the biennial World Floorball Championships with separate divisions for men and women.", "Men's semi-professional club leagues include Finland's F-liiga, Sweden's Svenska Superligan, Switzerland's Unihockey Prime League, and the Czech Republic's Superliga florbalu.", "Women's semi-professional leagues from the same countries are F-liiga, Svenska Superligan, Unihockey Prime League and Extraliga žen.While the IFF contains 75 members, floorball is most popular where it has been developed the longest, such as the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland.", "It is gaining popularity in Australia, New Zealand, India, Canada, Germany, Ireland, Japan, Singapore, Malaysia, the United States, and the United Kingdom.Floorball was included in the World Games for the first time in 2017 in Wrocław, Poland, where Sweden became the first team to win a gold medal." ], [ "Etymology", "The game of floorball is also known by many other names, such as (in Estonia), (in Finland), (in Sweden and Norway), '''unihockey''' (in Switzerland and Ireland) and (in Lithuania).", "The names and are derived from ''bandy'' and translate to \"hall bandy\" and \"indoor bandy\" respectively; in Sweden, voices have been raised to get rid of the word as name of the sport, to avoid confusions with bandy.", "The name ''unihockey'' is shortened from ''universal hockey'' since it is meant to be a special and simplified hockey form." ], [ "History", "In various forms the game of floor hockey has been played since the early 20th Century in Canada as a recreational sport, especially in high school gymnasiums, as a playful variant of hockey.", "The basic design of floorball sticks is believed to have come from the ice skating team sport of bandy.By the 1950s and 1960s many public school systems within Michigan in the United States incorporated floorball into their primary and secondary school gym classes.", "Americans have since claimed to have invented floorball.", "America held interstate tournaments in the 1960s.Floorball was formally organized as an international and more organized sport in the late 1970s in Gothenburg, Sweden.", "The sport began as something that was played for fun as a pastime in schools.", "After a decade or so, floorball began showing up in Nordic countries where the former schoolyard pastime was becoming a developed sport.", "Formal rules were soon developed, and clubs began to form.", "After some time, several countries developed national associations, and the IFF was founded in 1986.=== Expansion ===When the IFF was founded in 1986, the sport was played mostly in the Nordic countries, several parts of the rest of Europe and Japan.", "By 1990, floorball was recognized in 7 countries, and by the time of the first European Floorball Championships in 1994, the number had risen to 14.That number included the United States, who was the first country outside Europe and Asia to recognize floorball.", "By the time of the first men's world championships in 1996, 20 nations played floorball, with 12 of them participating at the tournament.As of 2009, the sport of floorball has been played in almost 80 countries.", "Of those, 58 have national floorball associations that are recognized by the IFF.", "With the addition of Sierra Leone, Africa's first floorball nation, the IFF has at least one national association on each continent of the world, with the exception of Antarctica.=== Development ===10 years after the IFF was founded, the first world championships were played, with a sold out final of 15,106 people at the Globen in Stockholm, Sweden.", "In addition to that, the world's two largest floorball leagues, Finland's Salibandyliiga and Sweden's Svenska Superligan were formed, in 1986 and 1995 respectively.==== Recognition ====In December 2008, the IFF and the sport of floorball received recognition from the International Olympic Committee (IOC).", "In July 2011, the IOC officially welcomed the IFF into its family of Recognised International Sports Federations (ARISF).", "This will pave the way for floorball to enter the official sport programme.", "The IFF hoped that this recognition would help allow floorball to become a part of the 2020 Summer Olympics.In January 2009, the IFF and the sport of floorball received recognition from the Special Olympics.In addition to recognition by the IOC and Special Olympics, the IFF is also a member of the Global Association of International Sports Federations (GAISF, formerly SportAccord), and co-operates with the International University Sports Federation (FISU).", "Floorball is now also member of IWGA, which runs the World Games, and floorball was on the programme for the first time in Wrocław 2017." ], [ "World championships", "Mika Kohonen, a Finnish floorball player and a four-time world champion in the sport, was voted best floorball player in the world in 2005, 2009, 2010, 2011 and 2012.The world floorball championships is annual event, but each class only meet every other year—the men and women under 19 meet in even years, and the women and men under 19 meet in odd years.", "The Czech Republic, Finland, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland remain the only five countries to have ever captured a medal at a World Championship event.", "* The Men's World Floorball Championship takes place every December (since 2008) in every even year.", "* The Women's World Floorball Championship takes place every December (since 2009) in every odd year.", "* The Men's under-19 World Floorball Championship takes place every May (since 2009) in every odd year.", "* The Women's under-19 World Floorball Championships takes place every May (since 2008) in every even year.From 1996 to 2009, the IFF used a World Floorball Championship format where the last team in the A-Division was relegated to the B-Division, while the top team in the B-Division was promoted to the A-Division.", "This format caused much hardship for countries such as Australia, Canada, Slovakia, and Spain, who have all been trying to get to the B-Division from the C-Division since 2004.In 2010, the IFF adopted a FIFA-like continental qualification system, where teams must qualify to play at the world championships.", "Depending on the number of countries registered per continent or region, the IFF gives spots for the world championships.", "For example, Argentina, Brazil, Canada and the United States would need to play for one spot at the world championships in a continental qualification tournament for the Americas." ], [ "Gameplay", "The dimensions of a floorball rink=== Measurements ===Floorball is played indoors on a rink whose size can officially vary from wide to long, and which is surrounded by high enclosed boards with rounded corners.", "The goals are wide and high.", "Their depth is and they are from the end of the nearest boards.", "Face-off dots are marked on the center line.", "Dots are also marked from both sides of the rink on the goal lines imaginary extensions.", "The dots do not exceed in diameter.", "They do not have to be dots, they can also be crosses.=== Equipment ===Floorball stick blade that is held on the left sideTypical equipment for a floorball player consists of a stick, a pair of shorts, a shirt, socks, and indoor sport shoes.", "Players may wear shin guards, eye protectors and protective padding for vital areas although most do not.", "Protective eyewear is, in some countries, compulsory for junior players.A floorball stick is short compared with one for ice hockey; the maximum size for a stick is .", "As a stick cannot weigh any more than , floorball sticks are often made of carbon and composite materials.", "The blade of the stick can either be \"right\" or \"left\" which indicates which way stick is supposed to be held from the player's point of view.", "A player who is right-handed will often use a \"left\" blade since they will be holding the stick to right, and the other way around for left-handed people.=== Goalkeepers ===Goalkeepers wear limited protection provided by padded pants, a padded chest protector, knee pads and a helmet.", "Some goalkeepers like to wear gloves and/or wristbands The goalkeeper may also wear other protective equipment such as elbow pads and jock straps but bulky padding is not permitted.", "Goalkeepers do not use sticks and may use their hands to play the ball when they are within the goalkeeper's box.", "There, they are allowed to throw the ball out to their teammates provided that the ball touches the ground before the half court mark.", "When they are completely outside the box, goalkeepers are considered field players and are not allowed to touch the ball with their hands.=== Ball ===A floorball ball.", "This is a plastic precision type ball, characterized by 1,516 tiny dimples that reduce air resistance, as well as friction on the floor.A floor ball weighs and its diameter is .", "It has 26 holes in it, each of which are in diameter.", "Many of these balls now are made with aerodynamic technology, where the ball has over a thousand small dimples in it that reduce air resistance.", "There have been several times where a ball has been recorded to have traveled at a speed of approximately .=== Rules ===Each team can field six players at a time on the court, one player being a goalkeeper.", "But the coach can take the goalkeeper off and substitute them for a field player whenever they like, although it usually only happens in the end to increase the chances of scoring with one more outfield player.", "This can bring an advantage for the attacking side of the team but also disadvantages when it comes to their own defense.", "Both teams are also allowed to change players any time in the game; usually, a change comprises the whole team.", "Individual substitution happens sometimes, but usually only when a player is exhausted or hurt.A floorball game is officially played over three periods lasting 20 minutes each (15 minutes for juniors).", "The clock is stopped in the case of penalties, goals, time-outs and any situation where the ball is not considered to be in play.", "The signal of a timeout is a triple honking sound.", "An intermission of 10 minutes (or maximum 15 minutes in some competitions) takes place between each period, where teams change ends and substitution areas.", "Each team is allowed one timeout of 30 seconds, which is often used late in matches.", "There are two referees to oversee the game, each with equal authority.", "If a game ends in a tie, teams play ten minutes extra, and the team that scores first wins.", "If the game is still drawn after extra-time, a penalty shootout similar to ice-hockey decides the winner.Checking is prohibited in floorball.", "Controlled shoulder-to-shoulder contact is allowed but ice hockey-like checking is forbidden.", "Pushing players without the ball or competing for a loose ball is also disallowed, and many of these infractions lead to two-minute penalties.", "The best comparison in terms of legal physical contact is Association football (soccer), where checking is used to improve one's positioning in relation to the ball rather than to remove an opposing player from the play.", "In addition to checking, players cannot lift an opponent's stick or perform any stick infractions in order to get to the ball.", "Moreover, players may not raise their stick or play the ball above knee level, and a stick may not be placed in between a player's legs.", "Passing the ball by foot is allowed, but only once.", "After that, the ball has to be moved with the stick.", "After stopping the ball by foot the ball has to be touched with the stick before it can be passed to a teammate by foot (Rule change 2014).", "Passing by hand or head deliberately may result in a two minutes penalty for the offending player.", "A field player may not enter the marked goal area and playing without stick is prohibited.When a player commits a foul or when the ball is deemed unplayable, play is resumed from a free hit or a face-off.", "A free hit means that a player from one of the teams restarts the play from the place where the ball was last deemed unplayable.", "A comparable situation to this is a free kick in association football.", "For many fouls, such as stick infractions, a free hit is the only disciplinary action prescribed.", "However, at their own discretion the referee may additionally award a two or five minute penalty to the offending player.", "In that case, the player who committed the foul has to leave the field and sit out his punishment in a dedicated penalty area, leaving his team shorthanded for the time of the penalty.", "If an 'extreme' foul is committed, such as physical contact or unsportsmanlike conduct, a player may receive a 10-minute personal penalty.==== Penalties ====Two-minute penalties can arise from a number of infractions and result in the offending player being sat on a penalty seat next to the scorers/timekeepers and away from the team benches.", "Each penalty has a specific code that is recorded on the official match record along with the time of the foul.", "The team of the offending player will play short-handed for the full length of the penalty.", "The codes are as follows;Two Minute Penalties* 201: Hit* 202: Blocking Stick* 203: Lifting Stick* 204: Incorrect Kick* 205: High Kick* 206: High Stick* 207: Incorrect Push* 208: Tackle/Trip* 209: Holding* 210: Obstruction* 211: Incorrect Distance* 212: Lying Play* 213: Hands* 214: Header* 215: Incorrect Substitution* 216: Too Many Players* 217: Repeated Offences* 218: Delaying* 219: Protest* 220: Incorrect Entering of the Rink* 221: Incorrect Equipment* 222: Measuring Stick* 223: Incorrect Numbering* 224: Play without Stick* 225: Non-removal of Broken Stick* 226: Penalty at Penalty Shot5 Minute Penalties* 501: Violent Hit* 502: Dangerous Play* 503: Hooking* 504: Roughing* 505: Repeated OffencesPersonal Fouls/Penalties* 101: Unsportsman-like Conduct" ], [ "Forms", "=== Freebandy ===Freebandy is a sport that developed in the 2000s from floorball fanatics who specialize in a technique called \"zorro\", which involves lifting the ball onto a stick and allowing air resistance and fast movements to keep the ball \"stuck\" to the stick.", "This technique is also referred to as \"airhooking\" or \"skyhooking\".", "In freebandy, the rules are very much the same of those of floorball, with the exception of high nets and no infractions for high sticking.", "As well, the sticks are slightly tweaked from those of a floorball variety to include a \"pocket\" where the ball can be placed.=== Special Olympics ===Floorball at the Special Olympics is slightly modified from the \"regular\" form of floorball.", "Matches are played 3-on-3 with a goaltender, on a smaller court that measures long by wide.", "This form of floorball was developed for the intellectually disabled, and has yet to be played at the Special Olympics.", "Floorball was played as a demonstration sport at the 2013 Special Olympics World Winter Games, and was played as an official sport at the games in 2017.=== Streetbandy ===A simplified less formal version of floorball, played with smaller team numbers and shorter periods, and typically outdoors on various surfaces, including AstroTurf.", "In its most basic form, it is an informal pick up game amongst friends.", "However, a more formal version is played in Sweden, with the following structure:* three field players on each team, with smaller overall team sizes (including subs.", ")* small goals, with no goalie* smaller playing area, usually closer to a half rink.", "* 10-minute length.", "* tendency towards \"first team to score 5 goals in the time limit\" rather than traditional scoring.", "Sudden death on a draw.", "* penalties are taken from the centre line.", "* most situations arising from the ball leaving play are resumed from a fixed point (e.g.", "corner, centre line)* no physical contact, high sticks or dangerous activity allowed.=== Swiss floorball ===Swiss floorball called unihockey is a revised version of a floorball match.", "The match is played on a slightly smaller court and often involves only three field players playing on each side, in 3-on-3 floorball.", "This form of floorball is also slightly shorter, with only two periods of 15 to 20 minutes each played.", "In Switzerland this form of playing is called \"smallcourt\" (Kleinfeld), opposed to the usual style of playing on a bigger court, which is called \"bigcourt\" (Grossfeld).=== Wheelchair floorball ===Originally developed for players with disabilities, wheelchair floorball is played with exactly the same rules as \"regular\" floorball.", "Players use the same stick and ball, and goaltenders are also allowed to play.The first ever IFF-sanctioned wheelchair floorball matches were played between the men's teams of the Czech Republic and Sweden during the 2008 Men's World Floorball Championships in Prague.In addition to this, there is also an electric wheelchair variation." ], [ "Competitions", "In addition to the Floorball World Championships, there are other IFF Events for club teams such as the Champions Cup which is for the national competition winners from the Top-4 ranked nations, and the EuroFloorball Cup for the national competition winners from the 5th and lower ranked nations.", "There are also many international floorball club competitions.=== Asia Pacific Floorball Championship ===The Asia Pacific Floorball Championships are played every single year in New Zealand, Australia, Singapore, or Japan.", "The event was created by the Singapore Floorball Association together with the cooperation of the Asia Oceania Floorball Confederation (AOFC).", "Members of the AOFC get together during this tournament to play for the Asia Pacific Floorball Championship every year.As of 2010, the Asia Pacific Floorball Championship is also the qualifying tournament for the World Floorball Championships.=== Canada Cup ===The Canada Cup is an international club tournament that is held every year in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.", "It is the largest floorball club tournament outside of Europe, and attracts 55+ clubs from worldwide, every year.=== Czech Open ===The world's largest club team tournament, the Czech Open is a traditional summer tournament held in Prague, Czech Republic.", "It is famous not only for its on-court activities, but also for those off-court.", "The tournament attracts 200+ clubs every year from 20 countries.=== Champions Cup ===The Champions Cup was played for the first time in 2011.It is now the premier IFF event for Men's and Women's Club teams.", "The national championship winners from the Top-4 ranked nations compete in the event.=== EuroFloorball Cup ===The EuroFloorball Cup (formerly European Cup) is an IFF-organised club event for both men's and women's teams.", "It has taken place every single year since 1993, and in 2000 it changed its format to a 2-year event (i.e.", "2000–01).", "In 2008, the tournament switched back to its one-year format.", "In 2011 it underwent another change when the Champions Cup was introduced for the first time.The EuroFloorball Cup (EFC) is now for the national competition winners from the 5th and lower ranked nations.", "Qualification can be made via a number of processes.", "Firstly, the teams from the 5th, 6th & 7th ranked nations receive automatic qualification.", "A team nominated by the local event organiser also gets automatic qualification, and then the last two spots are determined by qualification tournaments.=== North American Floorball League ===The North American Floorball League is the first and only semi professional floorball league outside of Europe.", "It is not affiliated with any federation, so it has players from around the world.", "The inaugural set of teams are entirely based in the United States, though there is potential for expansion into Canada." ], [ "See also", "* Indoor hockey* Field hockey" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "External links", "* International Floorball Federation" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Premier League" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Premier League''' is the highest level of the English football league system.", "Contested by 20 clubs, it operates on a system of promotion and relegation with the English Football League (EFL).", "Seasons typically run from August to May, with each team playing 38 matches against all other teams, both home and away.", "Most games are played on Saturday and Sunday afternoons, with occasional weekday evening fixtures.The competition was founded as the '''FA Premier League''' on 20 February 1992 following the decision of First Division (top-tier league from 1888 until 1992) clubs to break away from the English Football League.", "However, teams may still be relegated to and promoted from the EFL Championship.", "The Premier League takes advantage of a £5 billion television rights deal, with Sky and BT Group securing the domestic rights to broadcast 128 and 32 games, respectively.", "This deal will rise to £6.7 billion for the four seasons from 2025 to 2026.The league is projected to earn $7.2bn in overseas TV rights from 2022 to 2025.The Premier League is a corporation managed by a chief executive, with member clubs acting as shareholders.", "Clubs were apportioned central payment revenues of £2.4 billion in 2016–17, with a further £343 million in solidarity payments to EFL clubs.The Premier League is the most-watched sports league in the world, broadcast in 212 territories to 643 million homes, with a potential TV audience of 4.7 billion people.", "For the 2018–19 season, the average Premier League match attendance was at 38,181, second to the German Bundesliga's 43,500, while aggregated attendance across all matches was the highest of any association football league at 14,508,981, and most stadium occupancies are near capacity.", "As of 2023, the Premier League is ranked first in the UEFA coefficient rankings based on performances in European competitions over the past five seasons, ahead of Spain's La Liga.", "The English top-flight has produced the second-highest number of European Cup / UEFA Champions League titles, with a record six English clubs having won fifteen European championships in total.Fifty-one clubs have competed in the Premier League since its inception in 1992: 49 from England and two from Wales.", "Seven of them have won the title: Manchester United (13), Manchester City (7), Chelsea (5), Arsenal (3), Blackburn Rovers (1), Leicester City (1) and Liverpool (1); the two Manchester clubs hold the distinction of having won three titles in a row, while six clubs have avoided relegation: Arsenal, Chelsea, Everton, Liverpool, Manchester United and Tottenham Hotspur." ], [ "History", "===Origins===Despite significant European success in the 1970s and early 1980s, the late 1980s marked a low point for English football.", "Stadiums were deteriorating and supporters endured poor facilities, hooliganism was rife, and English clubs had been banned from European competition for five years following the Heysel Stadium disaster in 1985.The Football League First Division, the top level of English football since 1888, was behind leagues such as Italy's Serie A and Spain's La Liga in attendances and revenues, and several top English players had moved abroad.By the turn of the 1990s, the downward trend was starting to reverse.", "At the 1990 FIFA World Cup, England reached the semi-finals; UEFA, European football's governing body, lifted the five-year ban on English clubs playing in European competitions in 1990, resulting in Manchester United lifting the Cup Winners' Cup in 1991.The Taylor Report on stadium safety standards, which proposed expensive upgrades to create all-seater stadiums in the aftermath of the Hillsborough disaster, was published in January 1990.During the 1980s, major English clubs had begun to transform into business ventures, applying commercial principles to club administration to maximize revenue.", "Martin Edwards of Manchester United, Irving Scholar of Tottenham Hotspur, and David Dein of Arsenal were among the leaders in this transformation.", "The commercial imperative led to the top clubs seeking to increase their power and revenue: the clubs in Division One threatened to break away from the Football League, and in doing so, they managed to increase their voting power and gain a more favorable financial arrangement, taking a 50% share of all television and sponsorship income in 1986.They demanded that television companies should pay more for their coverage of football matches, and revenue from television grew in importance.", "The Football League received £6.3 million for a two-year agreement in 1986, but by 1988, in a deal agreed with ITV, the price rose to £44 million over four years, with the leading clubs taking 75% of the cash.", "According to Scholar, who was involved in the negotiations of television deals, each of the First Division clubs received only around £25,000 per year from television rights before 1986, this increased to around £50,000 in the 1986 negotiation, then to £600,000 in 1988.The 1988 negotiations were conducted under the threat of ten clubs leaving to form a \"super league\", but they were eventually persuaded to stay, with the top clubs taking the lion's share of the deal.", "The negotiations also convinced the bigger clubs that in order to receive enough votes, they needed to take the whole of First Division with them instead of a smaller \"super league\".", "By the beginning of the 1990s, the big clubs again considered breaking away, especially now that they had to fund the cost of stadium upgrade as proposed by the Taylor Report.In 1990, the managing director of London Weekend Television (LWT), Greg Dyke, met with the representatives of the '''\"big five\"''' football clubs in England (Manchester United, Liverpool, Tottenham Hotspur, Everton and Arsenal) over a dinner.", "The meeting was to pave the way for a breakaway from The Football League.", "Dyke believed that it would be more lucrative for LWT if only the larger clubs in the country were featured on national television and wanted to establish whether the clubs would be interested in a larger share of television rights money.", "The five clubs agreed with the suggestion and decided to press ahead with it; however, the league would have no credibility without the backing of The Football Association, and so David Dein of Arsenal held talks to see whether the FA were receptive to the idea.", "The FA did not have an amicable relationship with the Football League at the time and considered it as a way to weaken the Football League's position.", "The FA released a report in June 1991, ''Blueprint for the Future of Football'', that supported the plan for the Premier League with the FA as the ultimate authority that would oversee the breakaway league.===Foundation (1990s)===+ 1990s, foundations and early Manchester United dominance Season Champions Runners-up 1992–93 '''Manchester United''' Aston Villa 1993–94 '''Manchester United''' Blackburn Rovers 1994–95 '''Blackburn Rovers''' Manchester United 1995–96 '''Manchester United''' Newcastle United 1996–97 '''Manchester United''' Newcastle United 1997–98 '''Arsenal''' Manchester United 1998–99 '''Manchester United''' Arsenal 1999–2000 '''Manchester United''' Arsenal Double winners Treble winnersAt the close of the 1990–1991 season, a proposal was tabled for the establishment of a new league that would bring more money into the game overall.", "The Founder Members Agreement, signed on 17 July 1991 by the game's top-flight clubs, established the basic principles for setting up the FA Premier League.", "The newly formed top division was to have commercial independence from The Football Association and the Football League, giving the FA Premier League licence to negotiate its own broadcast and sponsorship agreements.", "The argument given at the time was that the extra income would allow English clubs to compete with teams across Europe.", "Although Dyke played a significant role in the creation of the Premier League, he and ITV (of which LWT was part) lost out in the bidding for broadcast rights: BSkyB won with a bid of £304 million over five years, with the BBC awarded the highlights package broadcast on ''Match of the Day''.The First Division clubs resigned en masse from the Football League in 1992, and on 27 May that year the FA Premier League was formed as a limited company, working out of an office at the Football Association's then headquarters in Lancaster Gate.", "The 22 inaugural members of the new Premier League were:*Arsenal*Aston Villa*Blackburn Rovers*Chelsea*Coventry City*Crystal Palace*Everton*Ipswich Town*Leeds United*Liverpool*Manchester City*Manchester United*Middlesbrough*Norwich City*Nottingham Forest*Oldham Athletic*Queens Park Rangers*Sheffield United*Sheffield Wednesday*Southampton*Tottenham Hotspur*WimbledonThis meant a break-up of the 104-year-old Football League that had operated until then with four divisions; the Premier League would operate with a single division and the Football League with three.", "There was no change in competition format; the same number of teams competed in the top flight, and promotion and relegation between the Premier League and the new First Division remained the same as the old First and Second Divisions with three teams relegated from the league and three promoted.The league held its first season in 1992–93.It was composed of 22 clubs for that season (reduced to 20 in the 1995–96 season).", "The first Premier League goal was scored by Brian Deane of Sheffield United in a 2–1 win against Manchester United.", "Luton Town, Notts County, and West Ham United were the three teams relegated from the old First Division at the end of the 1991–92 season, and did not take part in the inaugural Premier League season.Manchester United won the inaugural edition of the new league, ending a twenty-six year wait to be crowned champions of England.", "Bolstered by this breakthrough, United immediately became the competition's dominant team, winning seven of the first nine trophies, two League and FA Cup 'doubles' and a European treble, initially under a team of hardened veterans such as Bryan Robson, Steve Bruce, Paul Ince, Mark Hughes and Eric Cantona, before Cantona, Bruce and Roy Keane led a young dynamic new team filled with the Class of 92, a group of young players including David Beckham who came through the Manchester United Academy.Between 1993 and 1997, Blackburn Rovers and Newcastle United came close to challenging Manchester United's early dominance; Blackburn won the 1994–95 FA Premier League and Newcastle led the title charge over United for much of the 1995–96 season.", "As the decade closed, Arsenal replicated Manchester United's dominance by winning the League and FA Cup double in 1997–98 and together the '''\"Big 2\"''' would form a duopoly over the league between 1997 and 2004.===\"Big Four\" dominance (2000–10)===+ Results of the 'Big Four' during the 2000s Season 2000–01 2 6 3 '''1''' 2001–02 '''1''' 6 2 3 2002–03 2 4 5 '''1''' 2003–04 '''1''' 2 4 3 2004–05 2 '''1''' 5 3 2005–06 4 '''1''' 3 2 2006–07 4 2 3 '''1''' 2007–08 3 2 4 '''1''' 2008–09 4 3 2 '''1''' 2009–10 3 '''1''' 7 2 '''''' '''10''' 8 7 '''10'''out of 10 League champions Champions League group stage Champions League third qualifying / play-off round Champions League first qualifying round UEFA Cup / Europa LeagueThe 2000s saw the rise of first Liverpool, and then Arsenal to real competitiveness, Chelsea finally breaking the duopoly by winning the league in 2004–05.The dominance of the so-called '''\"Big Four\"''' clubsArsenal, Chelsea, Liverpool and Manchester Unitedsaw them finish at the top of the table for the bulk of the decade, thereby guaranteeing qualification for the UEFA Champions League.", "Only three other clubs managed to qualify for the competition during this period: Newcastle United (2001–02 and 2002–03), Everton (2004–05) and Tottenham Hotspur (2009–10) – each occupying the final Champions League spot, with the exception of Newcastle in the 2002–03 season, who finished third.Following the 2003–04 season, Arsenal acquired the nickname \"The Invincibles\" as it became the first, and to date, only club to complete a Premier League campaign without losing a single game.In May 2008, Kevin Keegan stated that \"Big Four\" dominance threatened the division: \"This league is in danger of becoming one of the most boring but great leagues in the world.\"", "Premier League chief executive Richard Scudamore said in defence: \"There are a lot of different tussles that go on in the Premier League depending on whether you're at the top, in the middle or at the bottom that make it interesting.", "\"Between 2005 and 2012 there was a Premier League representative in seven of the eight Champions League finals, with only \"Big Four\" clubs reaching that stage.", "Liverpool (2005), Manchester United (2008) and Chelsea (2012) won the competition during this period, with Arsenal (2006), Liverpool (2007), Chelsea (2008) and Manchester United (2009 and 2011) all losing Champions League finals.", "Leeds United were the only non-\"Big Four\" side to reach the semi-finals of the Champions League, in the 2000–01 season.", "There were three Premier League teams in the Champions League semi-finals in 2006–07, 2007–08, and 2008–09, a feat only ever achieved five times (along with Serie A in 2002–03 and La Liga in 1999–2000).Additionally, between the 1999–2000 and 2009–10 seasons, four Premier League sides reached UEFA Cup or Europa League finals, with only Liverpool managing to win the competition in 2001.Arsenal (2000), Middlesbrough (2006) and Fulham (2010) all lost their finals.Although the group's dominance was reduced to a degree after this period with the emergence of Manchester City and Tottenham, in terms of all-time Premier League points won they remain clear by some margin.", "As of the end of the 2021–22 season – the 27th season of the Premier League – Liverpool, in fourth place in the all-time points table, were over 300 points ahead of the next team, Tottenham Hotspur.", "They are also the only teams to maintain a winning average of over 50% throughout their entire Premier League tenures.===Emergence of the \"Big Six\" (2010s)===+ Results of the 'Big Six' during the 2010s Season 2010–11 4 2 6 3 '''1''' 5 2011–12 3 6 8 '''1''' 2 4 2012–13 4 3 7 2 '''1''' 5 2013–14 4 3 2 '''1''' 7 6 2014–15 3 '''1''' 6 2 4 5 2015–16 2 10 8 4 5 3 2016–17 5 '''1''' 4 3 6 2 2017–18 6 5 4 '''1''' 2 3 2018–19 5 3 2 '''1''' 6 4 2019–20 8 4 '''1''' 2 3 6 '''''' 6 7 5 '''10''' 6 5 '''''' 9 9 7 '''10''' 9 '''10'''out of 10 League champions Champions League group stage Champions League play-off round Europa LeagueThe years following 2009 marked a shift in the structure of the \"Big Four\" with Tottenham Hotspur and Manchester City both breaking into the top four places on a regular basis, turning the \"Big Four\" into the \"'''Big Six'''\".", "In the 2009–10 season, Tottenham finished fourth and became the first team to break into the top four since Everton five years prior.", "Criticism of the gap between an elite group of \"super clubs\" and the majority of the Premier League has continued, nevertheless, due to their increasing ability to spend more than the other Premier League clubs.", "Manchester City won the title in the 2011–12 season, becoming the first club outside the \"Big Four\" to win since Blackburn Rovers in the 1994–95 season.", "That season also saw two of the \"Big Four\" (Chelsea and Liverpool) finish outside the top four places for the first time since that season.With only four UEFA Champions League qualifying places available in the league, greater competition for qualification now exists, albeit from a narrow base of six clubs.", "In the five seasons following the 2011–12 campaign, Manchester United and Liverpool both found themselves outside of the top four three times, while Chelsea finished 10th in the 2015–16 season.", "Arsenal finished 5th in 2016–17, ending their record run of 20 consecutive top-four finishes.In the 2015–16 season, underdogs Leicester City won the Premier League.", "With 5000/1 odds of winning the league at the beginning of the season, Leicester became the first club outside the \"Big Six\" to win the Premier League since Blackburn Rovers in the 1994–95 season.Off the pitch, the \"Big Six\" wield significant financial power and influence, with these clubs arguing that they should be entitled to a greater share of revenue due to the greater stature of their clubs globally and the attractive football they aim to play.", "Objectors argue that the egalitarian revenue structure in the Premier League helps to maintain a competitive league which is vital for its future success.", "The 2016–17 Deloitte Football Money League report showed the financial disparity between the \"Big Six\" and the rest of the division.", "All of the \"Big Six\" had revenues greater than €350 million, with Manchester United having the largest revenue in the league at €676.3 million.", "Leicester City was the closest club to the \"Big Six\" in terms of revenue, recording a figure of €271.1 million for that season – helped by participation in the Champions League.", "The eighth-largest revenue generator, West Ham – who did not play in European competition – had revenues of €213.3 million, less than half of those of the club with the fifth-largest revenue, Liverpool (€424.2 million).", "A substantial part of the clubs' revenue by then came from television broadcast deals, with the biggest clubs each taking from around £150 million to nearly £200 million in the 2016–17 season from such deals.", "In Deloitte's 2019 report, all the \"Big Six\" were in the top ten of the world's richest clubs.+ Number of top 6 finishes during 2010s Club Top 6 finishes Manchester City 10 Tottenham Hotspur 10 Arsenal 9 Chelsea 9 Manchester United 9 Liverpool 7 Everton 2 Leicester City 2 Newcastle United 1 Southampton 1===2020s===+ Results of the 'Big Six' during the 2020s Season 2020–21 8 4 3 '''1''' 2 7 2021–22 5 3 2 '''1''' 6 4 2022–23 2 12 5 '''1''' 3 8 '''''' 1 2 2 '''3''' 2 1 '''''' 2 2 '''3''' '''3''' '''3''' 1out of 3 League champions Champions League group stage Europa League Europa Conference LeagueFrom the 2019–20 season, video assistant referees were used in the league.Project Big Picture was announced in October 2020 that described a plan to reunite the top Premier League clubs with the English Football League, proposed by leading Premier League clubs Manchester United and Liverpool.", "It has been criticised by the Premier League leadership and the UK government's Department for Culture, Media and Sport.On 26 April 2021, play was stopped during a match between Leicester City and Crystal Palace to allow players Wesley Fofana and Cheikhou Kouyaté to break Ramadan fast.", "It is believed to be the first time in Premier League history that a game was paused to allow Muslim players to eat and drink after the sun had set in accordance with the rules of the faith.The 2022–23 season was the first to take a six-week break between November and December 2022 to allow for the first winter World Cup, with a return for the Boxing Day fixtures.", "The Premier League players decided to take the knee at selected \"significant moments\".", "They assured to \"remain resolutely committed to eradicate racial prejudice\".", "That season was notable for Newcastle United and Brighton & Hove Albion breaching the traditional \"big six\", as they finished fourth and sixth, respectively, while Tottenham and Chelsea were eighth and twelfth, respectively.", "Meanwhile, 2015–16 champions Leicester City were relegated, becoming the second league-winning club to suffer relegation since 1992, after Blackburn Rovers.", "+ Number of top 6 finishes during 2020s Club Top 6 finishes Liverpool 3 Manchester City 3 Manchester United 3 Arsenal 2 Chelsea 2 Brighton & Hove Albion 1 Leicester City 1 Newcastle United 1 West Ham United 1 Tottenham Hotspur 1" ], [ "Corporate structure", "The Football Association Premier League Ltd (FAPL) is operated as a corporation and is owned by the 20 member clubs.", "Each club is a shareholder, with one vote each on issues such as rule changes and contracts.", "The clubs select a chairman, chief executive, and board of directors to oversee the daily operations of the league.", "The Football Association is not directly involved in the day-to-day operations of the Premier League, but has veto power as a special shareholder during the election of the chairman and chief executive and when new rules are adopted by the league.The current chief executive is Richard Masters, who was appointed in December 2019.The chair is currently Alison Brittain, who took over the role in early 2023.The Premier League sends representatives to UEFA's European Club Association, the number of clubs and the clubs themselves chosen according to UEFA coefficients.", "For the 2012–13 season, the Premier League has 10 representatives in the Association: Arsenal, Aston Villa, Chelsea, Everton, Fulham, Liverpool, Manchester City, Manchester United, Newcastle United and Tottenham Hotspur.", "The European Club Association is responsible for electing three members to UEFA's Club Competitions Committee, which is involved in the operations of UEFA competitions such as the Champions League and UEFA Europa League.Office holdersOfficeNo.NameTenureChief Executive1Rick Parry1991–19972Richard Scudamore1999–2018'''3''''''Richard Masters''''''2019–'''Chair1Sir John Quinton1991–19992Dave Richards1999–20133Anthony Fry2013–20144Richard Scudamore2014–20185Gary Hoffman2020–2022'''6''''''Alison Brittain''''''2023–'''===Criticism of governance ===The Premier League has faced criticism of its governance due to an alleged lack of transparency and accountability.Following the Premier League's blocking of the attempted takeover of Newcastle United by a PIF-backed consortium through the league's Owners' and Directors' test, many MPs, Newcastle United fans and related parties to the deal denounced the Premier League for its perceived lack of transparency and accountability throughout the process.", "On 6 July 2021, consortium member Amanda Staveley of PCP Capital Partners said that \"fans surely deserve absolute transparency from the regulators across all their processes – to best ensure that they act responsibly.", "They (the Premier League) are performing a function like that of a government regulator – but without the same systems for accountability.", "\"On 22 July 2021, Tracey Crouch MP – chair of the fan-led review into the UK's football governance – announced in the review's interim findings that the Premier League had \"lost the trust and confidence\" of fans.", "The review also recommended that a new independent regulator be created to oversee matters such as club takeovers.Premier League chief executive Richard Masters had earlier spoken out against the implementation of an independent regulator, saying in May 2021, \"I don't think that the independent regulator is the answer to the question.", "I would defend the Premier League's role as regulator of its clubs over the past 30 years.\"" ], [ "Competition format", "===Competition===There are 20 clubs in the Premier League.", "During the course of a season (from August to May) each club plays the others twice (a double round-robin system), once at their home stadium and once at that of their opponents, for 38 games.", "Teams receive three points for a win and one point for a draw.", "No points are awarded for a loss.", "Teams are ranked by total points, then goal difference, and then goals scored.", "If still equal, teams are deemed to occupy the same position.", "If there is a tie for the championship, for relegation, or for qualification to other competitions, the head-to-head record between the tied teams is taken into consideration (points scored in the matches between the teams, followed by away goals in those matches.)", "If two teams are still tied, a play-off match at a neutral venue decides rank.===Promotion and relegation===A system of promotion and relegation exists between the Premier League and the EFL Championship.", "The three lowest placed teams in the Premier League are relegated to the Championship, and the top two teams from the Championship promoted to the Premier League, with an additional team promoted after a series of play-offs involving the third, fourth, fifth and sixth placed clubs.", "The number of clubs was reduced from 22 to 20 in 1995, when four teams were relegated from the league and only two teams promoted.", "The top flight had only been expanded to 22 teams at the start of the 1991–92 season – the year prior to the formation of the Premier League.On 8 June 2006, FIFA requested that all major European leagues, including Italy's Serie A and Spain's La Liga, be reduced to 18 teams by the start of the 2007–08 season.", "The Premier League responded by announcing their intention to resist such a reduction.", "Ultimately, the 2007–08 season kicked off again with 20 teams.===Video Assistant Referee===Video assistant referee (VAR), was introduced to the Premier League at the beginning of the 2019–20 season.", "It uses technology and officials to assist the referee in making decisions on the pitch.", "However, its use has been met with mixed receptions from fans and pundits, with some praising its accuracy while others criticise its impact on the flow of the game and consistency of decision-making.The on-field referee still makes the final decision, but VAR can assist the referee in the decision-making process.", "VAR can only be used for four types of decisions: goals, penalty decisions, direct red card incidents, and cases of mistaken identity.", "VAR officials review the video footage and communicate with the on-field referee via a headset.", "The VAR officials are located in a central control room, which is equipped with multiple camera angles and the ability to replay footage at various speeds.A study evaluating fan reception of VAR in the Premier League was made by Otto Kolbinger and Melanie Knopp and was done by analysing Twitter data.", "The researchers used sentiment analysis to measure the overall positive or negative attitudes towards VAR, as well as topic modelling to identify specific issues that fans are discussing related to VAR.", "The study found that the reception of VAR on Twitter is largely negative, with fans expressing frustration and criticism of the technology's impact on the flow of the game and the inconsistency of decisions.", "The researchers also identified specific issues, such as handball and offside decisions, that fans are particularly critical of.", "The study concludes that VAR has not been well received by fans in the Premier League, and that efforts to improve the technology and increase transparency in decision-making are needed to address these concerns." ], [ "Clubs", "Fifty clubs have played in the Premier League from its inception in 1992, up to and including the 2022–23 season.===Champions===ClubWinnersWinning seasons137, , , , , , , , , , , , Manchester City 73, , , , , , Chelsea54, , , , Arsenal37, , Liverpool15''Blackburn Rovers''11''Leicester City''10One time champions Leicester City and Blackburn Rovers are currently outside the Premier League.===2023–24 season===Twenty clubs are competing in the 2023–24 season – top seventeen from the previous season and three promoted from the Championship.2023–24Club2022–23PositionFirst season intop divisionFirst season inPremier LeagueSeasonsin topdivisionSeasonsin PremierLeagueFirst season ofcurrent spell intop divisionNo.", "of seasonsof current spellin Premier LeagueTopdivisiontitlesMostrecent topdivision title Arsenal 2nd 1904–05 1992–93 107 32 1919–20 (105 seasons) 32 13 2003–04 Aston Villa 7th 1888–89 1992–93 110 29 2019–20 (5 seasons) 5 7 1980–81 Bournemouth 15th 2015–16 2015–16 7 7 2022–23 (2 seasons) 2 0 – Brentford 9th 1935–36 2021–22 8 3 2021–22 (3 seasons) 3 0 – Brighton & Hove Albion 6th 1979–80 2017–18 11 7 2017–18 (7 seasons) 7 0 – Burnley 1st (EFL) 1888–89 2009–10 60 8 2023–24 (1 season) 1 2 1959–60 Chelsea 12th 1907–08 1992–93 89 32 1989–90 (35 seasons) 32 6 2016–17 Crystal Palace 11th 1969–70 1992–93 24 15 2013–14 (11 seasons) 11 0 – Everton 17th 1888–89 1992–93 121 32 1954–55 (70 seasons) 32 9 1986–87 Fulham 10th 1949–50 2001–02 29 17 2022–23 (2 seasons) 2 0 – Liverpool 5th 1894–95 1992–93 109 32 1962–63 (62 seasons) 32 19 2019–20 Luton Town 3rd (EFL) 1955–56 2023–24 17 1 2023–24 (1 season) 1 0 – Manchester City 1st 1899–1900 1992–93 95 27 2002–03 (22 seasons) 22 9 2022–23 Manchester United 3rd 1892–93 1992–93 99 32 1975–76 (49 seasons) 32 20 2012–13 Newcastle United 4th 1898–99 1993–94 92 29 2017–18 (7 seasons) 7 4 1926–27 Nottingham Forest 16th 1892–93 1992–93 58 7 2022–23 (2 seasons) 2 1 1977–78 Sheffield United 2nd (EFL) 1893–94 1992–93 63 6 2023–24 (1 season) 1 1 1897–98 Tottenham Hotspur 8th 1909–10 1992–93 89 32 1978–79 (46 seasons) 32 2 1960–61 West Ham United 14th 1923–24 1993–94 66 28 2012–13 (12 seasons) 12 0 – Wolverhampton Wanderers 13th 1888–89 2003–04 69 10 2018–19 (6 seasons) 6 3 1958–59*Leicester City, Leeds United, and Southampton were relegated to the EFL Championship for the 2023–24 season, while Burnley, Sheffield United and Luton Town, as winners, runners-up and play-off final winners, respectively, were promoted from the 2022–23 season.", "*Only three clubs have remained in the Premier League since their first promotion: Brentford, Brighton & Hove Albion and Luton Town, who have been in 3, 7 and 1 season(s) (out of 32), respectively.===Non-English clubs===In 2011, after Swansea City gained promotion, a Welsh club participated in the Premier League for the first time.", "The first Premier League match to be played outside England was Swansea City's home match at the Liberty Stadium against Wigan Athletic on 20 August 2011.The number of Welsh clubs in the Premier League increased to two in 2013–14, as Cardiff City gained promotion, but they were relegated after their maiden season.", "Cardiff were promoted again in 2017–18 but the number of Welsh clubs remained the same for the 2018–19 Premier League season, as Swansea City had been relegated from the Premier League in 2017–18.Following Cardiff City's relegation after the 2018–19 season, there are currently no Welsh clubs participating in the Premier League.Because they are members of the Football Association of Wales (FAW), the question of whether clubs like Swansea should represent England or Wales in European competitions has caused long-running discussions in UEFA.", "Swansea took one of England's three available places in the Europa League in 2013–14 by winning the League Cup in 2012–13.The right of Welsh clubs to take up such English places was in doubt until UEFA clarified the matter in March 2012, allowing them to participate.Participation in the Premier League by some Scottish or Irish clubs has sometimes been discussed, but without result.", "The idea came closest to reality in 1998, when Wimbledon received Premier League approval to relocate to Dublin, Ireland, but the move was blocked by the Football Association of Ireland.", "Additionally, the media occasionally discusses the idea that Scotland's two biggest teams, Celtic and Rangers, should or will take part in the Premier League, but nothing has come of these discussions." ], [ "International competitions", "===Qualification for European competitions=======Qualification criteria for 2024–25====The top four teams in the Premier League qualify automatically for the subsequent season's UEFA Champions League league stage.", "The winners of the Champions League and UEFA Europa League may earn an additional qualification for the subsequent season's Champions League league stage if did not finish in the top four.", "If this means six Premier League teams qualify, then the fourth-placed team in the Premier League is instead entered in the Europa League, as any single nation is limited to a maximum of five teams in the Champions League.", "However, starting from 2024–25 UEFA Champions League there's additional berth for two best associations in the previous season's ranking, which may result in a maximum of 6 teams from one assiociation in the Champions League.The fifth-placed team in the Premier League, as well as the winners of the FA Cup, qualify for the subsequent season's Europa League group stage, but if the winner of the FA Cup also finished in the top five places in the Premier League or has won one of UEFA's major tournaments, then this place reverts to the team that finished sixth.", "The winner of the EFL Cup qualifies for the subsequent season's UEFA Europa Conference League, but if the winner had already qualified for a UEFA competition via their performance in another competition, then this place reverts to the team that finished sixth in the Premier League, or seventh if the FA Cup result had already caused the sixth-placed team to qualify.The number of places allocated to English clubs in UEFA competitions is dependent upon the position the country holds in the UEFA coefficient rankings, which are calculated based on the performance of teams in UEFA competitions over the previous five years.", "Currently, England is ranked first, ahead of Spain.As of 14 December 2023, the coefficients for are as follows (only top five European leagues are shown):RankingMember associationCoefficientTeamsPlaces in 2024–25 season202420232019–202020–212021–222022–232023–24TotalUCLUELUECLTotal11 – England 18.571'''24.357''''''21.000''''''23.000'''13.625'''110.553'''6/8421722 – Spain '''18.928'''19.50018.42816.57112.68786.1146/834 +1 Italy 14.92816.28515.71422.357'''14.000'''83.2847/743 –1 Germany 18.71415.21416.21417.12513.64280.9096/755 – France 11.6667.91618.41612.58311.58362.1646/6====Previous seasons====An exception to the usual European qualification system happened in 2005, after Liverpool won the Champions League the season before, but did not finish in a Champions League qualification place in the Premier League.", "UEFA gave special dispensation for Liverpool to enter the Champions League, giving England five qualifiers.", "The governing body subsequently ruled that the defending champions qualify for the competition the following year regardless of their domestic league placing.", "However, for those leagues with four entrants in the Champions League, this meant that if the Champions League winners finished outside the top four in its domestic league, it would qualify at the expense of the fourth-placed team.", "At that time, no association could have more than four entrants in the Champions League.", "This occurred in 2012, when Chelsea – who had won the Champions League that summer, but finished sixth in the league – qualified for the 2012–13 Champions League in place of Tottenham Hotspur, who went into the Europa League.From 2015–16, the Europa League winners qualify for the Champions League, increasing the maximum number of participants per country to five.", "This took effect in England in 2016–17, when Manchester United finished sixth in the Premier League and won the Europa League, giving England five Champions League entrants for 2017–18.In these instances, any Europa League berth vacated is not handed down to the next-best Premier League finisher outside of a qualifying place.", "If both Champions League and Europa League winners are of the same association and both finish outside the top four, then the fourth-placed team is transferred to the Europa League.===Performance in international competition===With 48 continental trophies won, English clubs are the third-most successful in European football, behind Italy (49) and Spain (65).", "In the top-tier UEFA Champions League, a record six English clubs have won a total of 15 titles and lost a further 11 finals, behind Spanish clubs with 19 and 11, respectively.", "In the second-tier UEFA Europa League, English clubs are also second, with nine victories and eight losses in the finals.", "In the former second-tier UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, English teams won a record eight titles and had a further five finalists.", "In the non-UEFA organized Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, English clubs provided four winners and four runners-up, the second-most behind Spain with six and three, respectively.", "In the newly created third-tier UEFA Europa Conference League, English clubs have won a joint-record one title so far.", "In the former fourth-tier UEFA Intertoto Cup, England won four titles and had a further final appearance, placing it fifth in the rankings, although English clubs were notorious for treating the tournament with disdain, either sending \"B\" squads or withdrawing from it altogether.", "In the one-off UEFA Super Cup, England has ten winners and ten runners-up, the second-most behind Spain with 16 and 15, respectively.", "Similarly to the Intertoto Cup, English teams did not take the former Intercontinental Cup seriously enough, despite its international status of the ''Club World Championship''.", "They a made a total of six appearances in the one-off competition, winning only one of them, and withdrew a further three times.", "English clubs have won the FIFA-organized Club World Cup four times, tied for the second-most with Brazil, and behind only Spain, with eight." ], [ "Sponsorship", "After an inaugural season with no sponsorship, the Premier League was sponsored by Carling from 1993 until 2001, during which time it was known as the FA Carling Premiership.", "In 2001, a new sponsorship deal with Barclaycard saw the league rebranded the FA Barclaycard Premiership, which was changed to the FA Barclays Premiership in time for the 2004–05 season.For the 2007–08 season, the league was rebranded the Barclays Premier League.PeriodSponsorBrand1992–1993No sponsor FA Premier League1993–2001 Carling FA Carling Premiership2001–2004Barclaycard FA Barclaycard Premiership2004–2007 Barclays FA Barclays Premiership2007–2016 Barclays Premier League No sponsor Premier LeagueBarclays' deal with the Premier League expired at the end of the 2015–16 season.", "The FA announced on 4 June 2015 that it would not pursue any further title sponsorship deals for the Premier League, arguing that they wanted to build a \"clean\" brand for the competition more in line with those of major U.S. sports leagues.Nike \"Maxim\" ball used in the Premier League in 2012As well as sponsorship for the league itself, the Premier League has a number of official partners and suppliers.", "The official ball supplier for the league is Nike who have had the contract since the 2000–01 season when they took over from Mitre.", "Under its ''Merlin'' brand, Topps held the licence to produce collectables for the Premier League between 1994 and 2019 including stickers (for their sticker album) and trading cards.", "Launched in the 2007–08 season, Topps' Match Attax, the official Premier League trading card game, is the best selling boys collectable in the UK, and is also the biggest selling sports trading card game in the world.", "In October 2018, Panini were awarded the licence to produce collectables from the 2019–20 season.", "The chocolate company Cadbury has been the official snack partner of the Premier League since 2017, and sponsored the Golden Boot, Golden Glove and Playmaker of the Season awards from the 2017–18 season to 2019–20 season.", "The Coca-Cola Company (under its Coca-Cola Zero Sugar product line) sponsored these awards during the 2020–21 season with Castrol being the current sponsor as of the 2021–22 season." ], [ "Finances", "The Premier League has the highest revenue of any association football league in the world, with total club revenues of €2.48 billion in 2009–10.In 2013–14, due to improved television revenues and cost controls, the Premier League clubs collectively made a net profit in excess of £78 million, exceeding all other football leagues.", "In 2010 the Premier League was awarded the Queen's Award for Enterprise in the International Trade category for its outstanding contribution to international trade and the value it brings to English football and the United Kingdom's broadcasting industry.The Premier League includes some of the richest football clubs in the world.", "Deloitte's \"Football Money League\" listed seven Premier League clubs in the top 20 for the 2009–10 season, and all 20 clubs were in the top 40 globally by the end of the 2013–14 season, largely as a result of increased broadcasting revenue.", "In 2019, the league generated around £3.1 billion per year in domestic and international television rights.Premier League clubs agreed in principle in December 2012, to radical new cost controls.", "The two proposals consist of a break-even rule and a cap on the amount clubs can increase their wage bill by each season.", "With the new television deals on the horizon, momentum has been growing to find ways of preventing the majority of the cash going straight to players and agents.Central payments for the 2016–17 season amounted to £2,398,515,773 across the 20 clubs, with each team receiving a flat participation fee of £35,301,989 and additional payments for TV broadcasts (£1,016,690 for general UK rights to match highlights, £1,136,083 for each live UK broadcast of their games and £39,090,596 for all overseas rights), commercial rights (a flat fee of £4,759,404) and a notional measure of \"merit\" which was based upon final league position.", "The merit component was a nominal sum of £1,941,609 multiplied by each finishing place, counted from the foot of the table (e.g., Burnley finished 16th in May 2017, five places counting upwards, and received 5 × £1,941,609 = £9,708,045 merit payment).===Relegation===Since its split with the Football League, established clubs in the Premier League have a funding disparity from counterparts in lower leagues.", "Revenue from television rights between the leagues has played a part in this.Promoted teams have found it difficult to avoid relegation in their first Premier League season.", "One Premier League newcomer has been relegated back to the Football League every season, save the 2001–02, 2011–12, 2017–18 & 2022–23 seasons.", "In the 1997–98 season, all three promoted clubs were relegated by the season's end.The Premier League distributes a portion of its television revenue as \"parachute payments\" to relegated clubs for adjustment to television revenue loss.", "The average Premier League team receives £41 million while the average Championship club receives £2 million.", "Starting with the 2013–14 season, these payments are in excess of £60 million over four seasons.", "Critics maintain that the payments widen the gap between teams that have reached the Premier League and those that have not, leading to the common occurrence of teams \"bouncing back\" soon after their relegation.Clubs which have failed to win immediate promotion back to the Premier League have seen financial problems, in some cases administration or liquidation.", "Further relegations down the footballing ladder have occurred for multiple clubs unable to cope with the gap." ], [ "Media coverage", "===United Kingdom and Ireland===+ Matches broadcast in the United Kingdom and IrelandSeasonsSkyOthers1992–200160–602001–20041101102004–20071381382007–200992Setanta46–1382009–201092ESPN461382010–2013115ESPN231382013–2016116TNT381542016–2019126421682019–202512852Amazon20200Eden Hazard in possession of the ball during a 2012 match between Chelsea and Norwich CityTelevision has played a major role in the history of the Premier League.", "The League's decision to assign broadcasting rights to Sky in 1992 was at the time a radical decision, but one that has paid off.", "At the time, paid television was an almost untested proposition in the UK market as was charging fans to watch live televised football.", "However, a combination of Sky's strategy, the quality of Premier League football and the public's appetite for the game has seen the value of the Premier League's TV rights soar.The Premier League sells its television rights on a collective basis.", "This is in contrast to some other European leagues, including La Liga, in which each club sells its rights individually, leading to a much higher share of the total income going to the top few clubs.", "The money is divided into three parts: half is divided equally between the clubs; one quarter is awarded on a merit basis based on final league position, the top club getting twenty times as much as the bottom club, and equal steps all the way down the table; the final quarter is paid out as facilities fees for games that are shown on television, with the top clubs generally receiving the largest shares of this.", "The income from overseas rights is divided equally between the twenty clubs.Not all Premier League matches are televised in the United Kingdom, as the league upholds the long-standing prohibition on telecasts of any association football match (domestic or otherwise) that kicks off between 2:45 p.m. and 5:15 p.m. on Saturday matchdays.The first Sky television rights agreement was worth £304 million over five seasons.", "The next contract, negotiated to start from the 1997–98 season, rose to £670 million over four seasons.", "The third contract was a £1.024 billion deal with BSkyB for the three seasons from 2001 to 2004.The league brought in £320 million from the sale of its international rights for the three-year period from 2004 to 2007.It sold the rights itself on a territory-by-territory basis.", "Sky's monopoly was broken from August 2006 when Setanta Sports was awarded rights to show two out of the six packages of matches available.", "This occurred following an insistence by the European Commission that exclusive rights should not be sold to one television company.", "Sky and Setanta paid £1.7 billion, a two-thirds increase which took many commentators by surprise as it had been widely assumed that the value of the rights had levelled off following many years of rapid growth.", "Setanta also hold rights to a live 3 pm match solely for Irish viewers.", "The BBC retained the rights to show highlights for the same three seasons (on ''Match of the Day'') for £171.6 million, a 63 per cent increase on the £105 million it paid for the previous three-year period.", "Sky and BT agreed to jointly pay £84.3 million for delayed television rights to 242 games (that is the right to broadcast them in full on television and over the internet) in most cases for a period of 50 hours after 10 p.m. on matchday.", "Overseas television rights fetched £625 million, nearly double the previous contract.", "The total raised from those deals was more than £2.7 billion, giving Premier League clubs an average media income from league games of around £40 million-a-year from 2007 to 2010.Cristiano Ronaldo preparing to take a free kick in a 2009 match between Manchester United and LiverpoolThe TV rights agreement between the Premier League and Sky faced accusations of being a cartel, and a number of court cases arose as a result.", "An investigation by the Office of Fair Trading in 2002 found BSkyB to be dominant within the pay TV sports market, but concluded that there were insufficient grounds for the claim that BSkyB had abused its dominant position.", "In July 1999 the Premier League's method of selling rights collectively for all member clubs was investigated by the UK Restrictive Practices Court, which concluded that the agreement was not contrary to the public interest.The BBC's highlights package on Saturday and Sunday nights, as well as other evenings when fixtures justify, ran until 2016.Television rights alone for the period 2010 to 2013 were purchased for £1.782 billion.", "On 22 June 2009, due to troubles encountered by Setanta Sports after it failed to meet a final deadline over a £30 million payment to the Premier League, ESPN was awarded two packages of UK rights containing 46 matches that were available for the 2009–10 season as well as a package of 23 matches per season from 2010 to 2013.On 13 June 2012, the Premier League announced that BT had been awarded 38 games a season for the 2013–14, 2014–15 and 2015–16 seasons at £246 million-a-year.", "The remaining 116 games were retained by Sky, which paid £760 million-a-year.", "The total domestic rights raised £3.018 billion, an increase of 70.2% over the 2010–11 to 2012–13 rights.", "The value of the licensing deal rose by another 70.2% in 2015, when Sky and BT paid £5.136 billion to renew their contracts with the Premier League for another three years up to the 2018–19 season.A new rights cycle began in the 2019–20 season, with the domestic package increasing to 200 matches overall; in February 2018, BT were awarded the package of 32 lunchtime fixtures on Saturdays, while Sky was awarded four of the seven packages, covering the majority of weekend fixtures (including eight new prime time fixtures on Saturdays), as well as Monday and Friday matches.", "Two remaining packages of 20 fixtures each were to be sold at a later date, including three rounds of mid-week fixtures and a bank holiday round.", "As Sky already owned the maximum number of matches it could hold without breaching a 148-match cap, it was speculated that at least one of the new packages could go to a new entrant, such as a streaming service.", "The five packages sold to BT and Sky were valued at £4.464 billion.", "In June 2018, it was announced that Amazon Prime Video and BT had acquired the remaining two packages; Amazon acquired rights to 20 matches per-season, covering a mid-week round in December, and all Boxing Day fixtures.", "The Amazon telecasts are produced in association with Sunset + Vine and BT Sport.With the resumption of play in the 2019–20 Premier League due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom, the Premier League announced that all remaining matches would be carried on British television, split primarily across Sky, BT, and Amazon.", "A large number of these matches were also scheduled for free-to-air broadcasts, with Sky airing 25 on Pick, Amazon streaming its four matches on Twitch, and the BBC – for the first time in league history – carrying four live matches.As matches would continue to be played without spectators upon the start of the 2020–21 Premier League, its clubs voted on 8 September to continue broadcasting all matches through at least September (with the BBC and Amazon each holding one additional match), and \"appropriate arrangements\" being made for October.", "It was later announced that matches not selected for broadcast would be carried on pay-per-view via BT Sport Box Office and Sky Box Office at a cost of £14.95 per-match.", "The PPV scheme was poorly received; the Football Supporters' Federation felt that the price was too high, and there were concerns that it could encourage piracy.", "There were calls from supporters to boycott the pay-per-views, and make donations to support charitable causes instead (with Newcastle's \"Charity Not PPV\" campaign raising £20,000 for a local food bank, and Arsenal fans raising £34,000 for Islington Giving).", "On 13 November, amid the reintroduction of measures across the UK, the Premier League officially announced that the non-televised matches would be assigned to its main broadcast partners, and again including additional matches for the BBC and Amazon Prime.The next cycle of rights between 2022–23 and 2024–25 season was renewed without tender due to compelling and exceptional circumstances in light of the COVID-19 pandemic.", "Therefore, rights remained as they were since the 2019–20 season.", "BT Sport was also renamed TNT Sports ahead of the 2023–24 season.", "'''UK highlights'''Highlights programmeDurationChannel''Match of the Day''1992–2001BBC''The Premiership''2001–2004ITVIn August 2016, it was announced the BBC would be creating a new magazine-style show for the Premier League entitled ''The Premier League Show''.===Worldwide===The Premier League is the most-watched football league in the world, broadcast in 212 territories to 643 million homes and a potential TV audience of 4.7 billion people.", "The Premier League's production arm, Premier League Productions, is operated by IMG Productions and produces content for its international television partners.The Premier League is the most widely distributed sports programme in Asia.", "In the Indian subcontinent, the matches are broadcast live on STAR Sports.", "In MENA region, BeIN Sports holds exclusive rights to the Premier League.", "In China, the broadcast rights were awarded to iQiyi, Migu and CCTV that began in the 2021–22 season.", "SCTV broadcast the matches for Indonesia, and Astro for Malaysia.", "In Australia, Optus telecommunications holds exclusive rights to the Premier League, providing live broadcasts and online access (Fox Sports formerly held rights).", "As of the 2022–23 season, Canadian media rights to the Premier League are owned by FuboTV, after having been jointly owned by Sportsnet and TSN, and most recently DAZN.The Premier League is broadcast in the United States by NBC Sports, a division of Sky parent Comcast.", "Acquiring the rights to the Premier League in 2013 (replacing Fox Soccer and ESPN), NBC Sports has been widely praised for its coverage.", "NBC Sports reached a six-year extension with the Premier League in 2015 to broadcast the league until the end of the 2021–22 season in a deal valued at $1 billion (£640 million).", "In November 2021, NBC reached another six-year extension through 2028 in a deal valued at $2.76 billion (£2 billion).The Premier League is broadcast by SuperSport across sub-Saharan Africa.", "Broadcasters to continental Europe until 2025 include Canal+ for France, Sky Sport Germany for Germany and Austria, Match TV for Russia, Sky Sport Italy for Italy, Eleven Sports for Portugal, DAZN for Spain, beIN Sports Turkey to Turkey, Digi Sport for Romania, and NENT to Nordic countries (Sweden, Denmark and Norway), Poland and the Netherlands.", "In South America, ESPN covers much of the continent, with coverage in Brazil shared between ESPN Brasil and Fox Sports (later rebranded as '''ESPN4)'''.", "Paramount+ broadcasts the league in Central America." ], [ "Stadiums", "As of the 2023–24 season, Premier League football has been played in 61 stadiums since the formation of the division.", "The Hillsborough disaster in 1989 and the subsequent Taylor Report saw a recommendation that standing terraces should be abolished.", "As a result, all stadiums in the Premier League are all-seater.", "Since the formation of the Premier League, football grounds in England have seen constant improvements to capacity and facilities, with some clubs moving to new-build stadiums.", "Eleven stadiums that have seen Premier League football have now been demolished.", "The stadiums for the 2023–24 season show a large disparity in capacity.", "For example, Old Trafford, the home of Manchester United, has a capacity of 74,031 while Dean Court, the home of Bournemouth, has a capacity of 11,307.The combined total capacity of the Premier League in the 2023–24 season is 787,002 with an average capacity of 39,350.Stadium attendances are a significant source of regular income for Premier League clubs.", "For the 2022–23 season, average attendances across the league clubs were 40,235 for Premier League matches with an aggregate attendance of 15,289,340.This represents an increase of 19,109 from the average attendance of 21,126 recorded in the Premier League's first season (1992–93).", "However, during the 1992–93 season, the capacities of most stadiums were reduced as clubs replaced terraces with seats in order to meet the Taylor Report's 1994–95 deadline for all-seater stadiums.", "The 2022–23 season also set a competition record for total attendance with more than 15 million spectators, with average attendance also reaching record levels, surpassing the previous record of 39,989 set in the 2021–22 season, which in turn broke over 70 years old record set in 1948–49 season." ], [ "Managers", "Managers in the Premier League are involved in the day-to-day running of the team, including the training, team selection and player acquisition.", "Their influence varies from club-to-club and is related to the ownership of the club and the relationship of the manager with fans.", "Managers are required to have a UEFA Pro Licence which is the final coaching qualification available, and follows the completion of the UEFA 'B' and 'A' Licences.", "The UEFA Pro Licence is required by every person who wishes to manage a club in the Premier League on a permanent basis (''i.e.", "'', more than 12 weeks, the amount of time an unqualified caretaker manager is allowed to take control).", "Caretaker appointments are managers that fill the gap between a managerial departure and a new appointment.", "Several caretaker managers have gone on to secure a permanent managerial post after performing well as a caretaker, including Paul Hart at Portsmouth, David Pleat at Tottenham Hotspur and Ole Gunnar Solskjær at Manchester United.Arsène Wenger is the longest-serving manager, having been in charge of Arsenal in the Premier League from 1996 to his departure at the conclusion of the 2017–18 season, and holds the record for most matches managed in the Premier League with 828, all with Arsenal.", "He broke the record set by Alex Ferguson, who had managed 810 matches with Manchester United from the Premier League's inception to his retirement at the end of the 2012–13 season.", "Ferguson was in charge of Manchester United from November 1986 until his retirement at the end of the 2012–13 season, meaning he was manager for the last five years of the old Football League First Division and all of the first 21 seasons of the Premier League.Notably, since its creation the Premier League has never been won by an English manager.There have been several studies into the reasoning behind, and effects of, managerial sackings.", "Most famously, Professor Sue Bridgewater of the University of Liverpool and Dr. Bas ter Weel of the University of Amsterdam, performed two separate studies which helped to explain the statistics behind managerial sackings.", "Bridgewater's study found clubs generally sack their managers upon dropping below an average of one point per match.Former Arsenal manager alt=Arsene Wenger, the longest-serving manager in Premier League history+ Current Premier League managersManagerNationalityClubAppointedTime as manager Liverpool Manchester City Brentford Arsenal West Ham United Fulham Newcastle United Manchester United Burnley Brighton & Hove Albion Aston Villa Luton Town Everton Chelsea Tottenham Hotspur Bournemouth Wolverhampton Wanderers Sheffield United Nottingham Forest Crystal Palace" ], [ "Players", "===Appearances===Gareth Barry is the most capped player in Premier League history with 653 appearances.+ Most appearancesRankPlayer 1 653 2 '''''James Milner''''' (ENG) 634 3 632 4 609 5 572 6 535 7 516 8 514 9 50810 505===Transfer regulations and foreign players===Player transfers may only take place within transfer windows set by the Football Association.", "The two transfer windows run from the last day of the season to 31 August and from 31 December to 31 January.", "Player registrations cannot be exchanged outside these windows except under specific licence from the FA, usually on an emergency basis.", "As of the 2010–11 season, the Premier League introduced new rules mandating that each club must register a maximum 25-man squad of players aged over 21, with the squad list only allowed to be changed in transfer windows or in exceptional circumstances.", "This was to enable the \"home grown\" rule to be enacted, whereby the Premier League would also from 2010 require at least eight members of the named 25-man squad to be \"home-grown players\".At the inception of the Premier League in 1992–93, just 11 players named in the starting line-ups for the first round of matches hailed from outside of the United Kingdom or Ireland.", "By 2000–01, the number of foreign players participating in the Premier League was 36% of the total.", "In the 2004–05 season, the figure had increased to 45%.", "On 26 December 1999, Chelsea became the first Premier League side to field an entirely foreign starting line-up, and on 14 February 2005, Arsenal were the first to name a completely foreign 16-man squad for a match.", "By 2009, under 40% of the players in the Premier League were English.", "By February 2020, 117 different nationalities had played in the Premier League, and 101 nationalities had scored in the competition.In 1999, in response to concerns that clubs were increasingly passing over young English players in favour of foreign players, the Home Office tightened its rules for granting work permits to players from countries outside of the European Union.", "A non-EU player applying for the permit must have played for his country in at least 75 per cent of its competitive 'A' team matches for which he was available for selection during the previous two years, and his country must have averaged at least 70th place in the official FIFA world rankings over the previous two years.", "If a player does not meet those criteria, the club wishing to sign him may appeal.Following the implementation of Brexit in January 2021, new regulations were introduced which require all foreign players to obtain a Governing Body Endorsement (GBE) in order to play football in the United Kingdom, regardless of EU status.===Top scorers===Alan Shearer is the top scorer in Premier League history with 260 goals.RankPlayerYearsGoalsAppsRatio1 1992–20062604412 ''''2012–20232133203 2002–20182084914 1992–20081874145 2011–20211842756 1995–20151776097 1999–200720121752588 1993–200720081633799 2001–20032004–20142015–201916249610 ''''''2014–20162017–153251Thierry Henry won a record four Premier League Golden Boot awardsThe Premier League Golden Boot is awarded each season to the top scorer in the division.", "Former Blackburn Rovers and Newcastle United striker Alan Shearer holds the record for most Premier League goals with 260.Thirty-three players have reached the 100-goal mark.", "Since the first Premier League season in 1992–93, 23 players from 11 clubs have won or shared the top scorer title.", "Thierry Henry won his fourth overall scoring title by scoring 27 goals in the 2005–06 season.", "Erling Haaland holds the record for most goals in a Premier League season (38 matches) with 36 goals as of 15 May 2023.Ryan Giggs of Manchester United holds the record for scoring goals in consecutive seasons, having scored in the first 21 seasons of the league.", "Giggs also holds the record for the most Premier League assists, with 162.===Wages===There is no team or individual salary cap in the Premier League.", "As a result of the increasingly lucrative television deals, player wages rose sharply following the formation of the Premier League, when the average player wage was £75,000 per year.", "In the 2018–19 season the average annual salary stood at £2.99 million.The total salary bill for the 20 Premier League clubs in the 2018–19 season was £1.62 billion; this compares to £1.05 billion in La Liga, £0.83 billion in Serie A, £0.72 billion in Bundesliga, and £0.54 billion in Ligue 1.The club with the highest average wage is Manchester United at £6.5 million.", "This is smaller than the club with the highest wage bill in Spain (Barcelona £10.5 million) and Italy (Juventus £6.7 million), but higher than in Germany (Bayern Munich £6.4 million) and France (Paris Saint-Germain £6.1 million).", "For the 2018–19 season, the ratio of the wages of the highest-paid team to lowest-paid in the Premier League is 6.82 to 1.This is much lower than in La Liga (19.1 to 1), Serie A (16 to 1), Bundesliga (20.5 to 1), and Ligue 1 (26.6 to 1).", "Because of the lower differential between team wage bills in the Premier League, it is often regarded as being more competitive than other top European leagues.===Player transfer fees===The record transfer fee for a Premier League player has risen steadily over the lifetime of the competition.", "Before the start of the first Premier League season, Alan Shearer became the first British player to command a transfer fee of more than £3 million.", "The record has increased steadily and Enzo Fernández is now the most expensive transfer fee paid by a Premier League club at £106.8 million, whilst Philippe Coutinho is the biggest transfer involving a Premier League club at £105 million.+Top transfer fees paid by Premier League clubs Rank Player Fee (£ million) Year Transfer Reference(s) 1 £106.8 2023 Benfica Chelsea2 £100 2023 Brighton & Hove Albion Chelsea £100 2023 West Ham United Arsenal £100 2021 Aston Villa Manchester City 5 £97.5 2021 Inter Milan Chelsea 6 £89 2016 Juventus Manchester United 7 £82 2022 Ajax Manchester United 8 £80 2019 Leicester City Manchester United 9 £77 2023 RB Leipzig Manchester City 10 £752017 Everton Manchester United+Top transfer fees received by Premier League clubs Rank Player Fee (£ million) Year Transfer Reference(s) 1 £105 2018 Liverpool Barcelona2 £100 2023 Brighton & Hove Albion Chelsea £100 2023 West Ham United Arsenal £100 2021 Aston Villa Manchester City 5 £89 2019 Chelsea Real Madrid 6 £86.4 2023 Tottenham Hotspur Bayern Munich 7 £86 2013 Tottenham Hotspur Real Madrid8 £80 2009 Manchester United Real Madrid £80 2019 Leicester City Manchester United 10 £75 2017 Everton Manchester United £75 2018 Southampton Liverpool" ], [ "Awards", "===Trophy===The Premier League trophyArsenal for winning the 2003–04 title without defeatThe Premier League maintains two trophies – the genuine trophy (held by the reigning champions) and a spare replica.", "Two trophies are held for the purpose of making the award within minutes of the title being secured, in the event that on the final day of the season two clubs are still within reach of winning the League.", "In the rare event that more than two clubs are vying for the title on the final day of the season, a replica won by a previous club is used.The current Premier League trophy was created by Royal Jewellers Garrard & Co/Asprey of London and was designed in house at Garrard & Co by Trevor Brown and Paul Marsden.", "It consists of a trophy with a golden crown and a malachite plinth base.", "The plinth weighs and the trophy weighs .", "The trophy and plinth are tall, wide and deep.Its main body is solid sterling silver and silver gilt, while its plinth is made of malachite, a semi-precious stone.", "The plinth has a silver band around its circumference, upon which the names of the title-winning clubs are listed.", "The green of the malachite represents the green field of play.", "The design of the trophy is based on the heraldry of Three Lions that is associated with English football.", "Two of the lions are found above the handles on either side of the trophy – the third is symbolised by the captain of the title-winning team as he raises the trophy, and its gold crown, above his head at the end of the season.", "The ribbons that drape the handles are presented in the team colours of the league champions that year.", "In 2004, a special gold version of the trophy was commissioned to commemorate Arsenal winning the title without a single defeat.===Player and manager awards===In addition to the winner's trophy and the individual winner's medals awarded to players who win the title, the Premier League also issues other awards throughout the season.A man-of-the-match award is awarded to the player who has the greatest impact in an individual match.Monthly awards are also given for the Manager of the Month, Player of the Month and Goal of the Month.", "These are also issued annually for Manager of the Season, Player of the Season.", "and Goal of the Season.", "The Young Player of the Season award is given to the most outstanding U-23 player starting from the 2019–20 season.The Golden Boot award is given to the top goalscorer of every season, the Playmaker of the Season award is given to the player who makes the most assists of every season, and the Golden Glove award is given to the goalkeeper with the most clean sheets at the end of the season.From the 2017–18 season, players receive a milestone award for 100 appearances and every century there after and also players who score 50 goals and multiples thereof.", "Each player to reach these milestones is to receive a presentation box from the Premier League containing a special medallion and a plaque commemorating their achievement.===20 Seasons Awards===In 2012, the Premier League celebrated its second decade by holding the 20 Seasons Awards:* Fantasy Team of the 20 Seasons** '''Panel Choice:''' Peter Schmeichel, Gary Neville, Tony Adams, Rio Ferdinand, Ashley Cole, Cristiano Ronaldo, Roy Keane, Paul Scholes, Ryan Giggs, Thierry Henry, Alan Shearer** '''Public Vote:''' Peter Schmeichel, Gary Neville, Tony Adams, Nemanja Vidić, Ashley Cole, Cristiano Ronaldo, Steven Gerrard, Paul Scholes, Ryan Giggs, Thierry Henry, Alan Shearer* Best Manager: Sir Alex Ferguson* Best Player: Ryan Giggs* Most Appearances: Gareth Barry (652)* Top Goalscorer: Alan Shearer (260)* Most Clean Sheets: David James (173)* 500 Club: Steven Gerrard, Jamie Carragher, Gareth Barry, Ryan Giggs, David James, Gary Speed, Frank Lampard, Emile Heskey and Sol Campbell* Best Goal: Wayne Rooney, 12 February 2011, Manchester United vs Manchester City* Best Save: Craig Gordon, 18 December 2010, Sunderland vs Bolton Wanderers* Best Team: Arsenal 2003–04" ], [ "See also", "* List of English football champions* List of English Football League managers* FA Women's Super League (highest league of women's football in England)* Football records and statistics in England* List of professional sports teams in the United Kingdom" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "'''Bibliography'''*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fine Gael" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fine Gael''' (, ; English: \"Family (or Tribe) of the Irish\") is a liberal-conservative and Christian-democratic political party in Ireland.", "Fine Gael is currently the third-largest party in the Republic of Ireland in terms of members of Dáil Éireann and largest in terms of Irish members of the European Parliament.", "The party had a membership of 25,000 in 2021.Leo Varadkar succeeded Enda Kenny as party leader on 2 June 2017 and as Taoiseach on 14 June; Kenny had been leader since 2002, and Taoiseach since 2011.Fine Gael was founded on 8 September 1933 following the merger of its parent party Cumann na nGaedheal, the National Centre Party and the Blueshirts.", "Its origins lie in the struggle for Irish independence and the pro-Treaty side in the Irish Civil War, with the party claiming the legacy of Michael Collins.", "In its early years, the party was commonly known as ''Fine Gael – The United Ireland Party'', abbreviated ''UIP'', and its official title in its constitution remains '''Fine Gael (United Ireland)'''.Fine Gael is generally considered to be more of a proponent of economic liberalism than its traditional rival, Fianna Fáil.", "Fine Gael describes itself as a \"party of the progressive centre\" which it defines as acting \"in a way that is right for Ireland, regardless of dogma or ideology\".", "It lists its core values as \"equality of opportunity, free enterprise and reward, security, integrity and hope.\"", "In international politics, the party is highly supportive of the European Union, along with generally supporting strengthened relations with the United Kingdom and opposition to physical force Irish republicanism.", "The party's autonomous youth wing, Young Fine Gael (YFG), was formed in 1977.Having governed in coalition with the Labour Party between 2011 and 2016, and in a minority government along with Independent TDs from 2016 to 2020, Fine Gael currently forms part of a historic coalition government with its traditional rival, Fianna Fáil, and the Green Party, with Leo Varadkar serving as Taoiseach since December 2022." ], [ "History", "===Foundation===Fine Gael was created in 1933 following the merger of three political organisations; Cumann na nGaedhael (CnaG) led by W. T. Cosgrave, the National Centre Party led by Frank MacDermot and James Dillon, and the National Guard (better known as the Blueshirts), led by Eoin O'Duffy.", "Cumann na nGaedhael, born out of the pro-Anglo-Irish Treaty side in the Irish Civil War, had been the party of government from the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922 until the 1932 general election, which it lost to the newly emergent Fianna Fáil.", "The National Centre Party was a new party that had done well at the '32 election, and represented the interests of farmers.", "The National Guard were not a political party, but a militant group made up of former pro-Treaty Irish Army soldiers, and was previously known as the Army Comrades Association.", "Following the disruption of Cumann na nGaedhael meetings by members of the Irish Republican Army, the ACA had begun providing security at their events.", "This led to the leadership of the ACA being taken over by a number of CnaG TDs, including Thomas F. O'Higgins.", "In early 1933, Eoin O'Duffy took over the ACA, renamed them the National Guard, and began instilling the organisation with elements of European fascism.", "However, in August 1933 the Fianna Fáil government banned the National Guard, fearing a planned parade in Dublin might be an attempt to emulate the March on Rome, which saw Benito Mussolini rise to power in Italy.It was following this, in September 1933, that the three groups combined forces and merged to form Fine Gael.", "The National Guard (referred to informally by this point as \"the Blueshirts\") were to serve as the youth wing of the new party, \"The League of Youth\".", "CnaG members dominated the new party.", "However, to avoid the perception that Fine Gael was simply Cumann na nGaedhael under a new name, O'Duffy was made leader of the new party.", "Following poor results at the 1934 Irish local elections and concerns over his increasingly rabid rhetoric, O'Duffy resigned from the leadership after the party attempted to control what he said in public.", "He was replaced by W.T.", "Cosgrave, with James Dillon becoming deputy leader.", "O'Duffy attempted to regain control of the Blueshirts, but was rebuffed by the majority of them, who chose to stay with Fine Gael.", "Under the stewardship of Cosgrave and Dillon, the party returned to the more traditional conservatism espoused by Cumann na nGaedhael, with the moribund League of Youth disbanded by 1936.===Finding success with coalitions with Labour===Garret FitzGerald is credited as having had a liberalising effect on the party in the 1980sFine Gael remained out of government and at a low ebb for a prolonged period until the aftermath of the 1948 general election, which saw the party form a grand coalition with several other parties in order to oust Fianna Fáil and place Fine Gael member John A. Costello as Taoiseach.", "The coalition was short-lived but revived again between 1954 and 1957.However, following this stint Fine Gael were once again sent into the political wilderness.", "The party went through a period of soul-searching during the 1960s, in which a new generation of Fine Gael politicians led by Declan Costello sought to revitalise Fine Gael with new ideas.", "In what has later been hailed as a landmark moment in Fine Gael history, Costello proposed moving the party to the left in a social democratic direction with a document entitled \"Towards a Just Society\".", "The document was adopted as the basis for the party's manifesto for the 1965 Irish general election; however, when the party failed to make headway at the polls the momentum behind the Just Society document wilted and faded.It was not until leader Liam Cosgrave secured an election pact with the Labour Party that Fine Gael returned to power in 1973.This period also saw Fine Gael becoming increasingly liberal in ethos, particularly under the leadership of Garret FitzGerald who took the reins of the party in 1977; It was during this time that Fine Gael campaigned in a number of referendums: the party supported Irish entry into the European Economic Community, supported lowering the voting age from 21 to 18, and supported a proposal to remove the \"special position\" of the Roman Catholic Church from the constitution.", "It was successful in all three of these campaigns.", "The party also began a liberal approach to the introduction of contraceptives (Birth control) to Ireland, although an attempt by the Fine Gael/Labour coalition to legalise contraceptives in 1974 stumbled after six members of Fine Gael, most prominently then Taoiseach Liam Cosgrave, voted against their own bill.The arrangement between Fine Gael and Labour proved pleasing to both parties and their election pacts remained throughout the rest of the 1970s and into the 1980s, seeing the pair enter government a number of times together.", "In 1985, Fine Gael/Labour voted to vastly liberalise access to contraceptives.", "That same year FitzGerald signed the Anglo-Irish Agreement with Margaret Thatcher, paving the way to devolved government in Northern Ireland.", "In 1986 the party campaigned for a Yes in that year's referendum on legalising divorce, but the No side won by a margin of 0.5%.===Decline and rebuilding===The 1980s had proven fruitful electorally for Fine Gael, but the 1990s and early 2000s saw this momentum decline quickly.", "One of the first signs of this was the party's poor result in the 1990 Irish presidential election, in which their candidate Austin Currie only secured 17% of the initial vote.", "Although the party was able to form the government between 1994 and 1997 thanks to coalition partners the Labour Party and the Democratic Left, as well as legalise divorce in 1995 after a successful referendum, the party's share of TDs fell from 54 in 1997 to only 31 in the 2002 general election, its second-worst result ever at that point.", "It was at this point Enda Kenny took over leadership of the party and began the process of rebuilding it.", "At the 2007 general election Kenny was able to bring Fine Gael back to its 1997 levels with 51 TDs.===Recovery===The collapse of the Celtic Tiger resulted in the post-2008 Irish economic downturn, which threw Ireland not only into economic turmoil but also political upheaval.", "The 2011 Irish general election saw the governing Fianna Fáil collapse at the polls, while Fine Gael and the Labour Party returned with their best results ever.", "For the first time in its history, Fine Gael became the largest party in Dáil Eireann.", "Once more Fine Gael and Labour paired up to form a government, their tenure marked by the difficulty of trying to guide Ireland towards economic recovery.", "In 2013, a number of Fine Gael parliamentary party members, including Lucinda Creighton, were expelled from the party for defying the party whip on anti-abortion grounds to oppose the Protection of Life During Pregnancy Bill.", "These members subsequently formed a political party called Renua.===Since 2015===Leo Varadkar, Leader of Fine Gael since 2017In 2015, the Fine Gael/Labour government held a referendum on the legislation of gay marriage in Ireland.", "The government campaigned for a yes vote and were successful.", "Following the 2016 general election, Fine Gael retained control of the government as a minority government, made possible by a confidence and supply agreement with Fianna Fáíl, who agreed to abstain in confidence votes.", "Enda Kenny resigned as party leader in 2017, and following a leadership contest, Leo Varadkar became his successor as well as Taoiseach.", "In doing so, Varadkar became one of the first openly LGBT heads of government in the world.", "In 2018 the Fine Gael government held a referendum on the Eighth Amendment, the provision in the Irish constitution which forbid abortion.", "The party campaigned to repeal the amendment and were successful.After the 2020 general election, for the first time in history, Fine Gael entered into a coalition government with its traditional rival Fianna Fáil, as well as the Green Party, with Leo Varadkar serving as Tánaiste for the first half of the government's five-year term, then becoming Taoiseach in December 2022." ], [ "Ideology and policies", "As a political party of the centre-right, Fine Gael has been described as liberal-conservative, Christian-democratic, liberal, conservative liberal, conservative, and pro-European, with an ideological base combining elements of cultural conservatism and economic liberalism.Although Ireland's political spectrum was traditionally divided along Civil War lines, rather than the traditional European left–right spectrum, Fine Gael is described generally as a centre-right party, with a focus on \"fiscal rectitude\".", "As the descendant of the pro-Treaty factions in the Irish Civil War, Fine Gael takes inspiration from Michael Collins and claims his legacy.", "He remains a symbol for the party, and the anniversary of his death is commemorated each year in August.Although Fine Gael was historically a Catholic party, it became the de facto home for Irish Protestants.", "Its membership base had a higher proportion of Protestants than that of Fianna Fáil or Labour.", "The party promoted a strong Catholic image and depicted itself as a defender of Catholicism against Atheistic Communism, of which it accused the two aforementioned parties of being sympathetic to.Michael Collins, whom they use as a symbol to bolster their law and order image===Social policies===Fine Gael adopted the \"Just Society\" policy statement in the 1960s, based on principles of social justice and equality.", "It was created by the emerging social democratic wing of the party, led by Declan Costello.", "The ideas expressed in the policy statement had a significant influence on the party in the years to come.While Fine Gael was traditionally socially conservative for most of the twentieth century due to the conservative Christian ethos of Irish society during this time, its members are variously influenced by social liberalism, social democracy and Christian democracy on issues of social policy.", "Under Garret FitzGerald, the party's more socially liberal, or pluralist, wing gained prominence.", "Proposals to allow divorce were put to referendum by two Fine Gael–led governments, in 1986 under FitzGerald, and in 1995 under John Bruton, passing very narrowly on this second attempt.", "Its modern supporters have shown a preference for postmaterialist values.====LGBT+ issues====Members of Fine Gael participating in the 2016 Dublin Pride paradeFine Gael supported civil unions for same-sex couples from 2003, voting for the Civil Partnership and Certain Rights and Obligations of Cohabitants Bill 2010, and the party approved a motion at its 2012 Ardfheis to prioritise the consideration of same-sex marriage in the upcoming constitutional convention.", "In 2013 party leader and Taoiseach Enda Kenny declared his support for same-sex marriage.", "The Fine Gael-led government held a referendum on the subject on 22 May 2015.The referendum passed, with the electorate voting to extend full marriage rights to same-sex couples, with 62.1% in favour and 37.9% opposed.In 2015, months before the marriage equality referendum, Leo Varadkar became the first Irish government minister to come out as gay.", "In May 2019, former Rose of Tralee Maria Walsh, was elected as a Fine Gael MEP for the Midlands-Northwest constituency in the 2019 European Parliament election, running alongside Mairéad McGuinness MEP.", "Walsh was Fine Gael's first openly lesbian candidate.Fine Gael has an LGBT+ section, Fine Gael LGBT, and in 2017, Leo Varadkar became the first Taoiseach to march in Dublin's Pride Parade.==== Abortion ====In 1983, having initially supported the proposal, Fine Gael came out in opposition to the Eighth Amendment to the Irish Constitution that was being submitted in a referendum in 1983, which sought to introduce a constitutional prohibition on abortion.", "Under then leader and Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald it campaigned for a 'No' vote, arguing, on the advice of the Attorney General Peter Sutherland, that the wording, which had been drafted under the previous government, when analysed was ambiguous and open to many interpretations.", "This referendum resulted in the Eighth Amendment to the Irish constitution, giving the unborn child a qualified equal right to life to that of the mother.", "Its stance conflicted with that of the Pro-Life Amendment Campaign (PLAC) and Catholic bishops, and Fianna Fáil, the largest party in the State at the time, but then in opposition.The party also campaigned against the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution in 2002, which proposed to remove suicide as a grounds for granting a termination of a pregnancy.", "Suicide had been ruled as a ground, under the 8th amendment, in the X Case judgement of the Irish Supreme Court.", "The amendment was rejected by Irish voters.In 2013 it proposed, and supported, the enactment of the Protection of Life During Pregnancy Act 2013, which implemented in statute law the ''X case'' ruling of the Irish Supreme Court, granting access to a termination of a pregnancy where there is a real and substantial risk to the life, not the health, of the mother, including a threat of suicide.", "Five TDs & two Senators, including Minister of State Lucinda Creighton, lost the Fine Gael party whip for voting against the legislation.", "Creighton later left Fine Gael to found Renua.", "The Act was criticised by various anti-abortion groups and Catholic bishops, but supported by a majority of the electorate in opinion polls, with many indicating they wished to see a more liberal law on abortion.Enda Kenny's Fine Gael–led minority government took office after the 2016 election with a programme which promised a randomly selected Citizens' Assembly to report on possible changes to the Eighth Amendment, which would be considered by an Oireachtas committee, to whose report the government would respond officially in debates in both houses of the Oireachtas.", "Fine Gael Oireachtas members were promised a free vote on the issue.", "Leo Varadkar succeeded Enda Kenny as Taoiseach on 14 June 2017 and promised to hold a referendum on abortion in 2018.Several Fine Gael TDs, notably Health Minister Simon Harris and Kate O'Connell, were prominent supporters of the pro-choice side before and during the referendum.", "While the party was divided, the majority of Fine Gael TDs and Senators, as well as most members, were in favour of repealing the Eighth Amendment.", "A referendum to repeal the Eighth Amendment was held on 25 May 2018 and was passed by 66.4% of voters.==== Drug policies ====The party has traditionally held a strong stance against the decriminalisation of drugs.", "In 2007, Fine Gael's leader at the time Enda Kenny called for drug and alcohol testing to be performed in schools, saying cocaine usage at schools was \"rampant\" in some areas.At the party's 2014 Ard Fheis, a proposed motion to support the legalisation of cannabis was voted down by the membership.In 2016, the Fine Gael health minister James Reilly said that they would not be changing their policy on the legalisation of cannabis, due to \"serious concerns about the health impacts\" of cannabis.===Economic policies===Fine Gael has, since its inception, portrayed itself as a party of fiscal rectitude and minimal government interference in economics, advocating pro-enterprise policies.", "In that they followed the line of the previous pro-Treaty government that believed in minimal state intervention, low taxes and social expenditures.", "Newly elected politicians for the party in the Dáil have strongly advocated liberal economic policies.", "Lucinda Creighton (who has since left the party) and Leo Varadkar in particular have been seen as strong advocates of a neoliberal approach to Ireland's economic woes and unemployment problems.", "Varadkar in particular has been a strong proponent of small, indigenous business, advocating in 2008 that smaller firms should have benefitted from the government's recapitalisation program.", "Its former finance spokesman Richard Bruton's proposals were seen as approaching problems from a pro-enterprise point of view.", "Its fairer budget website in 2011 suggested that its solutions are \"tough but fair\".", "Other solutions conform generally to conservative governments' policies throughout Europe, focusing on cutting numbers in the public sector, while maintaining investment in infrastructure.Fine Gael's proposals have sometimes been criticised mostly by smaller political groupings in Ireland, and by some of the trade unions, who have raised the idea that the party's solutions are more conscious of business interests than the interests of the worker.", "In 2008 the SIPTU trade union stated its opposition to then-Taoiseach Enda Kenny's assertion, in response to Ireland's economic crisis, that the national wage agreement ought to have been suspended.", "Kenny's comments had support however and the party attributed its significant rise in polls in 2008 to this.Fine Gael's Simon Coveney launched what the party termed a radical re-organisation of the Irish semi-state company sector.", "Styled the New Economy and Recovery Authority (or NewERA), Coveney said that it is an economic stimulus plan that will \"reshape the Irish economy for the challenges of the 21st century\".", "Requiring an €18.2 billion investment in Energy, Communications and Water infrastructure over a four-year period, it was promoted as a way to enhance energy security and the digital reputation of Ireland.", "A very broad-ranging document, it proposed the combined management of a portfolio of semi-state assets, and the sale of all other, non-essential services.", "The release of equity through the sale of the various state resources, including electricity generation services belonging to the ESB, Bord na Móna and Bord Gáis, in combination with use of money in the National Pensions Reserve Fund, was Fine Gael's proposed funding source for its national stimulus package.The plan was seen as the longer term contribution to Fine Gael's economic agenda and the basis of its program for government.", "It was publicised in combination with a more short term policy proposal from Leo Varadkar.", "This document, termed ''\"Hope for a Lost Generation\"'', promised to bring 30,000 young Irish people off the Live Register in a year by combining a National Internship Program, a Second Chance Education Scheme, an Apprenticeship Guarantee and Community Work Program, as well as instituting a German style Workshare program.===Constitutional reform policies===In 2010 Fine Gael's Phil Hogan published the party's proposals for political and constitutional reform.", "In a policy document entitled ''New Politics'', Hogan suggested creating a country with \"a smaller, more dynamic and more responsive political system\" by reducing the size of the Dáil by 20, changing the way the Dáil works, and by abolishing the Irish senate, Seanad Éireann.The question of whether to abolish the Seanad or not was put to a referendum in 2013, with voters voting 51% to 49% to retain bicameralism in Ireland.===Health policies===The Irish health system, being administered centrally by the Health Service Executive, is seen to be poor by comparison to other countries in Europe, ranking outside expected levels at 25th according to the Euro Health Consumer Index 2006.Fine Gael has long wanted Ireland to break with the system of private health insurance, public medical cards and what it calls the two tiers of the health system and has launched a campaign to see the system reformed.", "Speaking in favour of the campaign, Fine Gael then health spokesman James Reilly stated \"Over the last 10 years the health service has become a shambles.", "We regularly have over 350 people on trolleys in A&E, waiting lists that go on for months, outpatient waiting lists that go on for years and cancelled operations across the country...\"Fine Gael launched its FairCare campaign and website in April 2009, which stated that the health service would be reformed away from a costly ineffective endeavour, into a publicly regulated system where compulsory universal health insurance would replace the existing provisions.This strategy was criticised by Fianna Fáil's then-Minister for Children, Barry Andrews.", "The spokesperson for family law and children, Alan Shatter TD, robustly defended its proposals as the only means of reducing public expenditure, and providing a service in Ireland more akin to the Canadian, German, Dutch and Austrian health systems.Fine Gael's current healthcare policy revolves around the implementation of Sláintecare, a cross-party plan for the reform of the Irish health system.", "Sláintecare is focused on introducing \"a universal single-tiered health service, which guarantees access based on need, not income… through Universal Health Insurance\".===Pro-Europeanism and defence policies===Fine Gael is among the most pro-European integration parties in Ireland, having supported the European Constitution, the Lisbon Treaty, and advocating participation in European common defence.", "The party have been supportive of NATO.", "In 1998, party leader John Bruton called on Ireland to join the NATO-led Partnership for Peace.", "The party's youth wing, Young Fine Gael, passed a motion in 2016 calling on the government to apply for membership of NATO.Under Enda Kenny, the party called on the state to end Irish neutrality and to sign up for a European defence structure, with Kenny claiming that \"the truth is, Ireland is not neutral.", "We are merely unaligned.\"", "Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Fine Gael called for an increase in defence spending, with Minister for Foreign Affairs Simon Coveney proposing an increase of €500 million a year and suggesting Ireland needed a \"fundamental rethink\" of its security approach.Since Brexit, Fine Gael has taken a strong pro-European stance, stating that Ireland's place is \"at the heart of Europe\".", "In government, the party has launched the \"Global Ireland\" plan to develop alliances with other small countries across Europe and the world." ], [ "European affiliations", "Fine Gael is a founding member of the European People's Party (EPP), the largest European political party comprising liberal conservative and Christian democratic national-level parties from across Europe.", "Fine Gael's MEPs sit with the EPP Group in the European Parliament, and Fine Gael parliamentarians also sit with the EPP Groups in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe and Committee of the Regions.", "Young Fine Gael is a member of the Youth of the European People's Party (YEPP).It is inferred from the party's relationship with its European counterparts via membership of the European People's Party that Fine Gael belongs on the centre-right.", "The party conforms generally with European political parties that identify themselves as being Christian democratic." ], [ "Planning and payment tribunals", "The Moriarty Tribunal has sat since 1997 and has investigated the granting of a mobile phone license to Esat Telecom by Michael Lowry when he was Fine Gael Minister for Transport, Energy and Communications in the Rainbow Coalition of the mid-1990s.", "Lowry resigned from the Cabinet after it was revealed at the Moriarty Tribunal that businessman Ben Dunne had paid for an IR£395,000 extension to Lowry's County Tipperary home.", "Lowry, now an independent TD, supported the Fianna Fáil–Green Party government in Dáil Éireann until March 2011.It was also revealed in December 1996 that Fine Gael had received some £180,000 from Ben Dunne in the period 1987 to 1993.This was composed of £100,000 in 1993, £50,000 in 1992 and £30,000 in 1989.In addition, Michael Noonan received £3,000 in 1992 towards his election campaign, Ivan Yates received £5,000, Michael Lowry received £5,000 and Sean Barrett received £1,000 in the earlier 1987 election.", "John Bruton said he had received £1,000 from Dunne in 1982 towards his election campaign, and Dunne had also given £15,000 to the Labour Party during the 1990 Presidential election campaign.Following revelations at the Moriarty Tribunal on 16 February 1999, in relation to Charles Haughey and his relationship with AIB, former Taoiseach Garret Fitzgerald confirmed that AIB and Ansbacher wrote off debts of almost £200,000 that he owed in 1993, when he was in financial difficulties because of the collapse of the aircraft leasing company, GPA, in which he was a shareholder.", "The write-off occurred after Fitzgerald left politics.", "Fitzgerald also said he believed his then Fine Gael colleague, Peter Sutherland, who was chairman of AIB at the time, was unaware of the situation." ], [ "Leadership", "The current leader of the Fine Gael party is Leo Varadkar, who, as well as being Ireland's youngest ever Taoiseach is the country's first openly gay leader.", "The position of deputy leader has been held since 2017 by Simon Coveney TD, the Minister for Foreign Affairs and Defence.===Party leader===The following are the terms of office as party leader, and as Taoiseach (bolded) if applicable: Leader Portrait Period Constituency Periods in office (Taoiseach unless otherwise noted) Eoin O'Duffy 1933–1934 Monaghan W. T. Cosgrave 1934–1944 Carlow–KilkennyPresident of the Executive Council (for Cumann na nGaedheal) 1922–1932(1st, 2nd, 3rd,4th and 5th Executive Council of the Irish Free State) Richard Mulcahy 1944–1959 Tipperary '''John A. Costello''' as Taoiseach1948–1951; 1954–1957(5th and 7th Government of Ireland) James Dillon 1959–1965 Monaghan '''Liam Cosgrave''' 1965–1977 Dún Laoghaire 1973–1977(14th Government of Ireland) '''Garret FitzGerald''' 1977–1987 Dublin South-East 1981 – Feb 1982; Nov 1982–1987(17th and 19th Government of Ireland) Alan Dukes 1987–1990 Kildare South '''John Bruton''' 1990–2001 Meath 1994–1997(24th Government of Ireland) Michael Noonan 2001–2002 Limerick East '''Enda Kenny''' 2002–2017 Mayo 2011–2017(29th and 30th Government of Ireland) '''Leo Varadkar''' 2017–present Dublin West 2017–2020; ''as Tánaiste'' 2020–2022(31st, 32nd and 33rd Government of Ireland)===Deputy leader=== Name Period Constituency Tom O'Higgins 1972–1977 Dublin County South Peter Barry 1977–1987 Cork South-Central John Bruton 1987–1990 Meath Peter Barry 1991–1993 Cork South-Central Nora Owen 1993–2001 Dublin North Jim Mitchell 2001–2002 Dublin Central Richard Bruton 2002–2010 Dublin North-Central James Reilly 2010–2017 Dublin North Simon Coveney 2017–present Cork South-Central===Seanad leader=== Name Period Panel Michael J. O'Higgins 1973–1977 Nominated member of Seanad Éireann Patrick Cooney 1977–1981 Cultural and Educational Panel Gemma Hussey 1981–1982 National University of Ireland James Dooge 1982–1987 National University of Ireland Maurice Manning 1987–2002 Cultural and Educational Panel Brian Hayes 2002–2007 Cultural and Educational Panel Michael Finucane 2007 (acting)Labour Panel Frances Fitzgerald 2007–2011Labour Panel Maurice Cummins 2011–2016Labour Panel Jerry Buttimer 2016–2020Labour Panel Regina Doherty 2020–present Nominated member of Seanad Éireann" ], [ "Electoral results", "===Dáil Éireann=== Election Leader 1st prefvotes % Seats ± Government 1937 W. T. Cosgrave 461,171 34.8 (#2) 11 1938 428,633 33.3 (#2) 3 1943 307,490 23.1 (#2) 12 1944 Richard Mulcahy 249,329 20.5 (#2) 2 1948 262,393\t 19.8 (#2) 1 1951 349,922 27.2 (#2) 9 1954 427,031 32.0 (#2) 10 1957 326,699 26.6 (#2) 10 1961 James Dillon 374,099 32.0 (#2) 7 1965 427,081 34.1 (#2) 1969 Liam Cosgrave 449,749 34.1 (#2) 3 1973 473,781 35.1 (#2) 4 1977 488,767 30.5 (#2) 11 1981 Garret FitzGerald 626,376 36.5 (#2) 22 Feb 1982 621,088\t 37.3 (#2) 2 Nov 1982 662,284 39.2 (#2) 7 1987 481,127 27.1 (#2) 19 1989 Alan Dukes 485,307 29.3 (#2) 4 1992 John Bruton422,10624.5 (#2) 10 1997 499,936 27.9 (#2) 9 2002 Michael Noonan 417,619 22.5 (#2) 23 2007 Enda Kenny 564,428 27.3 (#2) 20 2011 801,628 36.1 (#1) 25 2016 544,410 25.5 (#1) 26 2020 Leo Varadkar 455,568 20.9 (#3) 15 === Presidential elections === Election Candidate 1st pref.votes % +/– Position 1938 Supported Douglas Hyde as an independent 1945 Seán Mac Eoin 335,539 30.9% — 2 1959 Seán Mac Eoin 417,536 43.7% — 2 1966 Tom O'Higgins 548,144 49.5% 5.8 2 1973 Tom O'Higgins 587,771 48% 1.5 2 1974 Supported Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh with Fianna Fáil per agreement 1990 Austin Currie 267,902 17% — 3 1997 Mary Banotti 372,002 29.3% 12.3 2 2004 Supported Mary McAleese as an independent 2011 Gay Mitchell 113,321 6.4% — 4 2018 Supported Michael D Higgins as an independent===European Parliament=== Election 1st prefVotes % Seats +/– 1979 464,451 33.1 (#2) 1984 361,034 32.2 (#2) 2 1989 353,094 21.6 (#2) 2 1994 276,095 24.3 (#2) 1999 342,171 24.6 (#2) 2004 494,412 27.8 (#1) 1 2009 532,889 29.1 (#1) 1 2014 369,120 22.3 (#2) 2019 496,459 29.6 (#1) 1" ], [ "Electoral performance since 2009", "In the 2009 local elections held on 5 June 2009, Fine Gael won 556 seats, surpassing Fianna Fáil which won 407 seats, and making Fine Gael the largest party of local government nationally.", "They gained 88 seats from their 2004 result.In the 2009 European Parliament election held on the same day as the local elections, which saw a reduction in the number seats from 13 to 12 for Ireland, the party won four seats, retaining the largest number of seats of an Irish party in the European Parliament.", "This was a loss of one seat from its 2004 result.In the 2011 general election, Fine Gael gained 25 seats bringing them to a total of 76.The party ran candidates in all 43 constituencies and had candidates elected in every constituency except Dublin North-West.", "Fine Gael won 19 seats in Seanad Éireann following the 2011 election, a gain of four from the previous election in 2007.While Fine Gael was responsible for the initial nomination of the uncontested, first President of Ireland, Douglas Hyde, a Fine Gael candidate has never won an election to the office of president.", "The Fine Gael presidential candidate, Gay Mitchell, finished fourth in the 2011 presidential election, with 6.4% of the vote.", "In 2004, Fine Gael supported the re-election of President Mary McAleese.", "Similarly, it supported the re-election of Michael D. Higgins in the 2018 presidential election.In the 2016 general election the outgoing government consisting of Fine Gael and its partner the Labour Party was defeated.", "The previous government had the largest majority in the history of the state with a combined 113 seats out of the 166-seat Dáil Éireann.", "The aftermath of the general election resulted in months of negotiations for an agreement of government.", "A deal was reached with the main opposition and traditional rival Fianna Fáil to facilitate a minority Fine Gael-led government.", "Fine Gael governed Ireland alone with eight Independent members of the Dáil until 2020, when the party emerged as the third party following the general election.", "After governing for several months in a caretaker capacity, Fine Gael agreed to serve in a historic coalition government along with its traditional rival, Fianna Fáil, and the Green Party, with Fianna Fáil leader Micheál Martin serving as Taoiseach and Leo Varadkar serving as Tánaiste.As per the agreed Programme for Government, on 17 December 2022, Leo Varadkar returned to the role of Taoiseach with Micheál Martin as Tánaiste." ], [ "Front bench" ], [ "Young Fine Gael", "Young Fine Gael (YFG) is the autonomous youth movement of Fine Gael.", "It was founded in 1976 by the then leader Garret FitzGerald.", "It caters for young people under 35 with an interest in Fine Gael and politics, in cities, towns and third level colleges throughout Ireland.", "YFG is led by its national executive consisting of ten members elected on a regional basis, and on a national panel." ], [ "See also", "*List of political parties in the Republic of Ireland" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ''Nealon's Guide to the 29th Dáil and Seanad'' (Gill and Macmillan, 2002) ()* Stephen Collins, \"The Cosgrave Legacy\" (Blackwater, 1996) ()* Garret FitzGerald, \"Garret FitzGerald: An Autobiography\" (Gill and Macmillan, 1991) ()* Jack Jones, ''In Your Opinion: Political and Social Trends in Ireland through the Eyes of the Electorate'' (Townhouse, 2001) ()* Maurice Manning, ''James Dillon: A Biography'' (Wolfhound, 1999–2000) ()* Stephen O'Byrnes, ''Hiding Behind a Face: Fine Gael under FitzGerald'' (Gill and Macmillan: 1986) ()* Raymond Smith, ''Garret: The Enigma'' (Aherlow, 1985) (no ISBN)" ], [ "External links", "* * Young Fine Gael" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fu Manchu" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dr.", "Fu Manchu''' () is a supervillain who was introduced in a series of novels by the English author Sax Rohmer beginning shortly before World War I and continuing for another forty years.", "The character featured in cinema, television, radio, comic strips and comic books for over 90 years, and he has also become an archetype of the evil criminal genius and mad scientist, while lending his name to the Fu Manchu moustache." ], [ "Background and publication", "According to his own account, Sax Rohmer decided to start the Dr. Fu Manchu series after his Ouija board spelled out C-H-I-N-A-M-A-N when he asked what would make his fortune.", "Clive Bloom argues that the portrait of Fu Manchu was based on the popular music hall magician Chung Ling Soo, \"a white man in costume who had shaved off his Victorian moustache and donned a Mandarin costume and pigtail\".", "As for Rohmer's theories concerning \"Eastern devilry\" and \"the unemotional cruelty of the Chinese\", he seeks to give them intellectual credentials by referring to the travel writing of Bayard Taylor.", "Taylor was a would-be ethnographer who, though unversed in Chinese language and culture, used the pseudo-science of physiognomy to find in the Chinese race \"deeps on deeps of depravity so shocking and horrible, that their character cannot even be hinted\".", "Rohmer's protagonists treat him as an authority.Fu Manchu first appeared in Rohmer's short story \"The Zayat Kiss\" (1912).", "It and nine further stories were later collected into the 1913 novel ''The Mystery of Dr. Fu-Manchu''.", "Two more series were collected into ''The Devil Doctor'' (1916) and ''The Si-Fan Mysteries'' (1917), before the character entered a 14-year absence.", "Following 1931's ''The Daughter of Fu-Manchu'', Rohmer wrote nine more Fu Manchu novels before his death in 1959.Four previously published stories were posthumously collected into ''The Wrath of Fu-Manchu'' (1973).", "In total, Rohmer wrote 14 novels concerning the character.", "The image of \"Orientals\" invading Western nations became the foundation of Rohmer's commercial success, being able to sell 20 million copies in his lifetime." ], [ "Characters", "=== Dr Fu Manchu ===Supervillain Dr. Fu Manchu's murderous plots are marked by the extensive use of arcane methods; he disdains guns or explosives, preferring dacoits (armed robbers in India), Thugs (professional robbers and murderers in India) and members of other secret societies as his agents (usually armed with knives) or using \"pythons and cobras ... fungi and my tiny allies, the bacilli ... my black spiders\" and other peculiar animals or natural chemical weapons.", "He has a great respect for the truth (in fact, his word is his bond), and uses torture and other gruesome tactics to dispose of his enemies.Dr.", "Fu Manchu is described as a mysterious villain because he seldom appears on the scene.", "He always sends his minions to commit crimes for him.", "In the novel ''The Insidious Dr Fu-Manchu'', he sends a beautiful young girl to the crime scene to see that the victim is dead.", "He also sends a dacoit to attack Sir Denis Nayland Smith and Dr Petrie.In the novel ''Fu Manchu's Bride'' (1933), Dr. Fu Manchu claims to hold doctorates from four Western universities, while in ''Emperor Fu Manchu'' (1959), he states that he attended Heidelberg University, the Sorbonne and the University of Edinburgh.", "(In the film ''The Mask of Fu Manchu'', however, he states proudly that \"I am a doctor of philosophy from Edinburgh, a doctor of law from Christ's College, a doctor of medicine from Harvard.", "My friends, out of courtesy, call me 'Doctor.)", "At the time of their first encounter (1911) Dr. Petrie believed that Dr Fu Manchu was more than 70 years old.", "That would mean that he studied for his first doctorate in the 1860s or 1870s.According to Cay Van Ash, Rohmer's biographer and former assistant who became the first author to continue the series after Rohmer's death, \"Fu Manchu\" was a title of honor, which referred to \"the warlike Manchu\".", "Van Ash speculates that Dr. Fu Manchu was a member of the imperial family of China who backed the losing side in the Boxer Rebellion.", "In the early books (1913–1917), Dr. Fu Manchu is an agent of a Chinese tong, known as the ''Si-Fan'', and acts as the mastermind behind a wave of assassinations targeting Westerners living in China.", "In the later books (1931–1959), he has gained control of the ''Si-Fan'', which has been changed from a mere Chinese tong into an international criminal organization under his leadership.", "In addition to attempting to take over the world and restore China to its former glory (Dr. Fu Manchu's main goals right from the beginning), the ''Si-Fan'' now also tries to eliminate fascist dictators and halt the spread of communism around the globe, for its leader's own selfish reasons.", "Dr. Fu Manchu knows that both fascism and communism present major obstacles to his plans for world domination.", "The ''Si-Fan'' is largely funded through criminal activities, particularly the drug trade and human trafficking.", "Dr. Fu Manchu has extended his already considerable lifespan by use of the elixir of life, a formula that he has spent decades trying to perfect.=== Sir Denis Nayland Smith and Dr Petrie ===Denis Nayland Smith in The Mask Of Dr Fu Manchu (1951), art by Wally Wood.Opposing Dr Fu Manchu in the stories are Sir Denis Nayland Smith and, in the first three books, Dr Petrie.", "Petrie narrates the first three novels.", "(The later novels are narrated by various other characters allied with Smith right up to the end of the series.)", "Smith carries on the fight, combating Dr Fu Manchu more by sheer luck and dogged determination than intellectual brilliance except ''in extremis''.", "Smith and Dr Fu Manchu share a grudging respect for one another, as each believes that a man must keep his word, even to an enemy.In the first three books, Smith serves in the Indian Imperial Police as a police commissioner in Burma who has been granted a roving commission, allowing him to exercise authorities over any group who can help him in his mission.", "When Rohmer revived the series in 1931, Smith, who has been knighted for his efforts to defeat Fu Manchu, is an ex-Assistant Commissioner of Scotland Yard.", "He later accepts a position with MI6.Several books have him placed on special assignment with the FBI.=== Kâramanèh ===Prominent among Dr Fu Manchu's agents is the \"seductively lovely\" Kâramanèh.", "Her real name is unknown.", "She was sold to the ''Si-Fan'' by Egyptian slave traders while she was still a child.", "Kâramanèh falls in love with Dr Petrie, the narrator of the first three books in the series, and rescues Petrie and Nayland Smith many times.", "Eventually the couple are united and she wins her freedom.", "They marry and have a daughter, Fleurette, who figures in two later novels, ''Fu Manchu's Bride'' (1933) and its sequel, ''The Trail of Fu Manchu'' (1934).", "Lin Carter later created a son for Dr Petrie and Kâramanèh.=== Fah Lo Suee ===Fah Lo Suee on the cover of ''The Mask of Fu Manchu'' by Sax Rohmer.", "Illustration by Ronnie Lesser, 1962.Dr Fu Manchu's daughter, Fah Lo Suee, is a devious mastermind in her own right, frequently plotting to usurp her father's position in the ''Si-Fan'' and aiding his enemies both within and outside the organization.", "Her real name is unknown; Fah Lo Suee was a childhood term of endearment.", "She is introduced anonymously while still a teenager in the third book in the series and plays a larger role in several of the titles of the 1930s and 1940s.", "She is known for a time as Koreani after being brainwashed by her father, but her memory is later restored.", "Like her father, she takes on false identities, among them Madame Ingomar, Queen Mamaloi and Mrs van Roorden.", "In films she has been portrayed by numerous actresses over the years.", "Her character is usually renamed in film adaptations because of difficulties with the pronunciation of her name.", "Anna May Wong played Ling Moy in ''Daughter of the Dragon'' (1931).", "Myrna Loy portrayed the similarly named Fah Lo See in ''The Mask of Fu Manchu'' (1932).", "Gloria Franklin had the role of Fah Lo Suee in ''Drums of Fu Manchu'' (1940).", "Laurette Luez played Karamaneh in ''The Adventures of Dr. Fu Manchu'' (1956), but the character owed more to Fah Lo Suee than to Rohmer's depiction of Kâramanèh.", "Tsai Chin portrayed Dr Fu Manchu's daughter Lin Tang in the five Christopher Lee films of the 1960s." ], [ "Books", "=== Sax Rohmer ===* ''The Mystery of Dr. Fu-Manchu'' (1913) (U.S. title: ''The Insidious Dr. Fu-Manchu'')* ''The Devil Doctor'' (1916) (U.S. title: ''The Return of Dr Fu-Manchu'')* ''The Si-Fan Mysteries'' (1917) (U.S. title: ''The Hand of Fu-Manchu'')* ''Daughter of Fu Manchu'' (1931)* ''The Mask of Fu Manchu'' (1932)* ''The Bride of Fu Manchu'' (1933) (U.S. title: ''Fu Manchu's Bride'')* ''The Trail of Fu Manchu'' (1934)* ''President Fu Manchu'' (1936)* ''The Drums of Fu Manchu'' (1939)* ''The Island of Fu Manchu'' (1941)* ''Shadow of Fu Manchu'' (1948)* ''Re-Enter Dr. Fu Manchu'' (1957) (U.S. title: ''Re-Enter Fu Manchu'')* ''Emperor Fu Manchu'' (1959), Rohmer's last novel published before his death* ''The Wrath of Fu Manchu'' (1973), a posthumous anthology containing the title novella, first published in 1952, and three later short stories: \"The Eyes of Fu Manchu\" (1957), \"The Word of Fu Manchu\" (1958), and \"The Mind of Fu Manchu\" (1959).=== Cay Van Ash ===* ''Ten Years Beyond Baker Street'' (1984), the first of two authorised continuation novels by Cay Van Ash, Sax Rohmer's former assistant and biographer; set in early 1914, it sees Dr Fu Manchu come into conflict with Sherlock Holmes* ''The Fires of Fu Manchu'' (1987), the second authorized continuation novel by Cay Van Ash; it is set in 1917, and documents Smith and Petrie's encounter with Dr Fu Manchu during the First World War, culminating in Smith's knighthood.", "* A third continuation novel, ''The Seal of Fu Manchu'', was underway when Van Ash died in 1994 and it is believed to be lost.=== Other authors ===* ''The Terror of Fu Manchu'' (2009), the first of three authorised continuation novels by William Patrick Maynard; it expands on the continuity established in Van Ash's books and sees Dr Petrie teaming with both Nayland Smith and a Rohmer character from outside the series, Gaston Max, in an adventure set on the eve of the First World War* ''The Destiny of Fu Manchu'' (2012), the second authorised continuation novel by William Patrick Maynard, set between Rohmer's ''The Drums of Fu Manchu'' and ''The Island of Fu Manchu'' on the eve of the Second World War; it follows the continuity established in Maynard's first novel* ''The Triumph of Fu Manchu'' (announced), the third authorised continuation novel by William Patrick Maynard, set between Rohmer's ''The Trail of Fu Manchu'' and ''President Fu Manchu''* ''The League of Dragons'' by George Alec Effinger, an unpublished and unauthorised novel, narrated by Conan Doyle's character Reginald Musgrave, involving a young Sherlock Holmes matching wits with Dr Fu Manchu in the 19th century, of which two chapters have been published in the anthologies ''Sherlock Holmes in Orbit'' (1995) and ''My Sherlock Holmes'' (2003)Dr Fu Manchu also makes appearances in the following non-Fu Manchu/Rohmer works:* \"Sex Slaves of the Dragon Tong\" and \"Part of the Game\", a pair of related short stories by F. Paul Wilson in his collection ''Aftershocks and Others: 19 Oddities'' (2009), featuring anonymous appearances by Fu Manchu and characters from ''Little Orphan Annie''* Several stories in August Derleth's detective series Solar Pons, in which he appears as \"the Doctor\"; Derleth's successor, Basil Copper, also made use of the character.", "* Kurt Vonnegut's ''Slapstick'' (1976), in which he is the Chinese ambassador* ''The Destroyer'' #83, ''Skull Duggery'' (1976), in which It is revealed that Chiun, the Master of Sinanju has worked for the Devil Doctor, as have previous generations of Masters.", "* Kim Newman's ''Anno Dracula'' (1992), in which he appears as the leader of the Si Fan and chief crime lord of London, referred to as \"The Lord of Strange Deaths\".", "* Ben Aaronovitch's series ''Rivers of London'', in which Fu Manchu is a charlatan and con man rather than a supervillain, a Canadian married to a Chinese wife and only pretending to be Chinese himself; the grand criminal schemes attributed to him are mere myths concocted either by himself or by the sensationalist press and publicity-seeking police officers, the latter partly motivated by anti-Chinese prejudice." ], [ "Actors", "Actors who have played Dr Fu Manchu:* Harry Agar Lyons in ''The Mystery of Dr. Fu-Manchu'' (1923) and ''The Further Mysteries of Dr Fu-Manchu'' (1924)* Warner Oland in ''The Mysterious Dr. Fu Manchu'' (1929), ''The Return of Dr. Fu Manchu'' (1930), ''Paramount on Parade'' (1930), and ''Daughter of the Dragon'' (1931)* Boris Karloff in ''The Mask of Fu Manchu'' (1932)* Lou Marcelle in ''The Shadow of Fu Manchu'' (1939–1940)* Henry Brandon in ''Drums of Fu Manchu'' (1940)* John Carradine in ''Fu Manchu: The Zayat Kiss'' (1952)* Glen Gordon in ''The Adventures of Dr. Fu Manchu'' (1956)* Christopher Lee in ''The Face of Fu Manchu'' (1965), ''The Brides of Fu Manchu'' (1966), ''The Vengeance of Fu Manchu'' (1967), ''The Blood of Fu Manchu'' (1968), and ''The Castle of Fu Manchu'' (1969)* Peter Sellers in ''The Fiendish Plot of Dr. Fu Manchu'' (1980)* Nicolas Cage in ''Grindhouse'' (2007)Actors who have played Dr Petrie:* H. Humberston Wright in ''The Mystery of Dr Fu-Manchu'' (1923) and ''The Further Mysteries of Dr Fu-Manchu'' (1924)* Neil Hamilton in ''The Mysterious Dr Fu Manchu'' (1929) and ''The Return of Dr Fu Manchu'' (1930)* Holmes Herbert in ''Daughter of the Dragon'' (1931)* Gale Gordon in ''The Shadow of Fu Manchu'' (1939–1940)* Olaf Hytten in ''Drums of Fu Manchu'' (1940)* John Newland in ''Fu Manchu: The Zayat Kiss'' (1952)* Clark Howat in ''The Adventures of Dr Fu Manchu'' (1956)* Howard Marion-Crawford in ''The Face of Fu Manchu'' (1965), ''The Brides of Fu Manchu'' (1966), ''The Vengeance of Fu Manchu'' (1967), ''The Blood of Fu Manchu'' (1968) and ''The Castle of Fu Manchu'' (1969)Actors who have played Sir Denis Nayland Smith" ], [ "Cultural impact", "The style of facial hair associated with Fu Manchu in film adaptations has become known as the Fu Manchu moustache.", "The \"Fu Manchu\" moustache is defined in the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' as a \"long, narrow moustache whose ends taper and droop down to the chin\", although Rohmer's writings described the character as wearing no such adornment.Before the creation of Fu Manchu, Chinese people were often portrayed in Western media as victims.", "Fu Manchu indicated a new phase in which Chinese people were portrayed as perpetrators of crime and threats to Western society as a whole.", "Rohmer's villain is presented as the kingpin of a plot by the \"yellow races\" threatening the existence of \"the entire white race\", and his narrator opines, \"No white man, I honestly believe, appreciates the unemotional cruelty of the Chinese.", "\"The character of Dr. Fu Manchu became, for many, a stereotype embodying the \"Yellow Peril\".", "For others, Fu Manchu became the most notorious personification of Western views of the Chinese, and became the model for other villains in contemporary \"Yellow Peril\" thrillers: these villains often had characteristics consistent with xenophobic and racist stereotypes which coincided with a significant increase in Chinese emigration to Western countries.After the Second World War, the stereotype inspired by Fu Manchu increasingly became a subject of satire.", "Fred Fu Manchu, a \"famous Chinese bamboo saxophonist\", was a recurring character on ''The Goon Show'', a 1950s British radio comedy programme.", "He was featured in the episode \"The Terrible Revenge of Fred Fu Manchu\" in 1955 (announced as \"Fred Fu Manchu and his Bamboo Saxophone\"), and made minor appearances in other episodes (including \"China Story\", \"The Siege of Fort Night\", and in \"The Lost Emperor\" as \"Doctor Fred Fu Manchu, Oriental tattooist\").", "The character was created and performed by the comedian Spike Milligan, who used it to mock the racist attitudes which had led to the creation of the character.", "The character was also parodied in a later radio comedy, ''Round the Horne'', as Dr Chu En Ginsberg MA (failed), portrayed by Kenneth Williams.Dr.", "Fu Manchu was parodied as Dr. Wu in the action-comedy film ''Black Dynamite'' (2009), in which the executor of an evil plan against African Americans is an insidious, moustache-sporting kung fu master.Science historian Fred Cooper and colleagues draws a parallel between narratives that COVID-19 was created by China, and the machinations of Fu Manchu, who is “expert in the deadly application of animal and biological agents” and who has been depicted on US television shows as threatening the West with lethal diseases." ], [ "In other media", "=== Film ===Dr Fu Manchu first appeared on the big screen in the British silent film series ''The Mystery of Dr Fu Manchu'' (1923) starring Harry Agar Lyons, a series of 15 short feature films, each running around 20 minutes.", "Lyons returned to the role in ''The Further Mysteries of Dr Fu Manchu'' (1924), which comprised eight additional short feature films.Dr Fu Manchu made his American film debut in Paramount Pictures' early talkie ''The Mysterious Dr. Fu Manchu'' (1929) starring Warner Oland, soon to be known for his portrayal of Charlie Chan.", "Oland repeated the role in ''The Return of Dr. Fu Manchu'' (1930) and ''Daughter of the Dragon'' (1931) as well as in the short film ''Murder Will Out'' (part of the omnibus film ''Paramount on Parade'') in which Dr. Fu Manchu confronts both Philo Vance and Sherlock Holmes.The most controversial incarnation of the character was MGM's ''The Mask of Fu Manchu'' (1932) starring Boris Karloff and Myrna Loy.", "At the time of its first release the film was considered racist and offensive by representatives of the Chinese government.", "The film was suppressed for many years, but has been released on DVD uncut.Dr Fu Manchu returned to the serial format in Republic Pictures' ''Drums of Fu Manchu'' (1940), a 15-episode serial considered to be one of the best the studio ever made.", "It was later edited and released as a feature film in 1943.Other than an obscure, unauthorized Spanish spoof ''El Otro Fu Manchu'' (1946), the Devil Doctor was absent from the big screen for 25 years, until producer Harry Alan Towers began a series starring Christopher Lee in 1965.Towers and Lee made five Fu Manchu films: ''The Face of Fu Manchu'' (1965), ''The Brides of Fu Manchu'' (1966), ''The Vengeance of Fu Manchu'' (1967), ''The Blood of Fu Manchu'' (1968), and ''The Castle of Fu Manchu'' (1969).The character's last authorised film appearance was in the Peter Sellers spoof ''The Fiendish Plot of Dr. Fu Manchu'' (1980), with Sellers featured as both Dr Fu Manchu and Nayland Smith.", "The film bore little resemblance to any earlier film or the original books.", "Fu Manchu claims he was known as \"Fred\" at public school, a reference to the character in \"The Terrible Revenge of Fred Fu Manchu\", a 1955 episode of ''The Goon Show'' which had co-starred Sellers.Jesús Franco, who directed ''The Blood of Fu Manchu'' and ''The Castle of Fu Manchu'', also directed ''The Girl from Rio'', the second of three Harry Alan Towers films based on Rohmer's Fu Manchu-like female character Sumuru.", "He later directed an unauthorized 1986 Spanish film featuring Dr Fu Manchu's daughter, ''Esclavas del Crimen''.In the film ''Grindhouse'' (2007), Nicolas Cage makes an uncredited comedic cameo appearance as Dr Fu Manchu during the \"trailer\" for the fake film ''Werewolf Women of the SS'', directed by Rob Zombie.A composite character of Fu Manchu and the Mandarin, named Xu Wenwu, appears in Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four film ''Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings'', portrayed by Tony Leung Chiu-wai.", "The character was previously referenced in the ''Iron Man'' trilogy and ''All Hail the King''.", "Xialing, Wenwu's daughter and Shang-Chi's sister, was partially inspired by Fah Lo Suee.=== Television ===A half-hour pilot was produced in 1952 for NBC's consideration starring Cedric Hardwicke as Sir Denis Nayland Smith, John Carradine as Dr. Fu Manchu, and Reed Hadley as Dr. John Petrie.", "NBC turned it down without broadcasting it, but it has been screened at special events.The television arm of Republic Pictures produced a 13-episode syndicated series, ''The Adventures of Dr. Fu Manchu'' (1956), starring Glen Gordon as Dr. Fu Manchu, Lester Matthews as Sir Denis Nayland Smith, and Clark Howat as Dr. John Petrie.", "The title sequence depicted Smith and Dr. Fu Manchu in a game of chess as the announcer stated that \"the devil is said to play for men's souls.", "So does Dr. Fu Manchu, evil incarnate.\"", "At the conclusion of each episode, after Nayland Smith and Petrie had foiled Dr. Fu Manchu's latest fiendish scheme, Dr. Fu Manchu would be seen breaking a black chess piece in a fit of frustration (black king's bishop, always the same scene, repeated) just before the closing credits rolled.", "It was directed by Franklin Adreon, as well as William Witney.", "Dr. Fu Manchu was never allowed to succeed in this TV series.", "Unlike the Holmes/Watson type relationship of the films, the series featured Smith as a law enforcement officer and Petrie as a staff member for the Surgeon-General.", "Though Republic had planned to film 78 episodes for the series, a dispute with Sax Rohmer ended the series after only 13 episodes were produced.=== Music ===* American stoner rock band Fu Manchu was formed in Southern California in 1985.", "* Desmond Dekker had a 1969 reggae song titled \"Fu Man Chu\".", "* The Sparks song \"Moustache\" from the 1982 album ''Angst in My Pants'' includes a lyric \"My Fu Manchu was real fine\".", "* The Rockin' Ramrods had a 1965 song based on the film ''The Face of Fu Manchu'', \"Don't Fool with Fu Manchu\".", "* Quebec rock singer Robert Charlebois included an epic three-part song titled \"Fu Man Chu\" on his 1972 album ''Charlebois''.", "* Russian hardbass artist XS Project has a 2016 song named \"Fu Manchu\".", "* American country music singer Tim McGraw published a song called \"Live Like You Were Dying\".", "The song references Dr. Fu Manchu in the lyric \"I went two point seven seconds on a bull named Fu Manchu\".", "* American country music singer Travis Tritt published a song called \"It's a Great Day to Be Alive\".", "Dr. Fu Manchu's iconic moustache is referenced in the lyric \"Might even grow me a Fu Manchu\".", "* Japanese electronic music band Yellow Magic Orchestra published a song called \"La Femme Chinoise\", in which they reference the supervillain: \"Fu Manchu and Susie Que and the girls of the floating world\".", "* American rock musician Black Francis released a song entitled \"Fu Manchu\" on his 1993 solo album ''Frank Black'', which references both the style of moustache as well as the character after which it was named.", "* British band The Kinks song 'The Village Green Preservation Society', released in 1968, includes a reference to Fu Manchu in the lyric \"Help save Fu Manchu, Moriarty and Dracula\".=== Radio ===Dr.", "Fu Manchu's earliest radio appearances were on ''The Collier Hour'' 1927–1931 on the Blue Network.", "This was a radio program designed to promote ''Collier's'' magazine and presented weekly dramatizations of the current issue's stories and serials.", "Dr. Fu Manchu was voiced by Arthur Hughes.", "A self-titled show on CBS followed in 1932–33.John C. Daly, and later Harold Huber, played Dr. Fu Manchu.In 2010, Fu Manchu's connections with the University of Edinburgh where he supposedly obtained a doctorate were investigated in a mockumentary by Miles Jupp for BBC Radio 4.Additionally, there were \"pirate\" broadcasts from the continent into Britain, from Radio Luxembourg and Radio Lyons in 1936 through 1937.Frank Cochrane voiced Dr. Fu Manchu.", "The BBC produced a competing radio play, ''The Peculiar Case at the Poppy Club'' written by Rohmer and broadcast in December 1938.In 1939, ''The Shadow of Fu Manchu'' aired in the United States as a thrice-weekly serial dramatizing the first nine novels.=== Comic strips ===Dr.", "Fu Manchu was first brought to newspaper comic strips in a black and white daily comic strip drawn by Leo O'Mealia (1884–1960) that ran from 1931 to 1933.The strips were adaptations of the first two Dr. Fu Manchu novels and part of the third.", "Unlike most other illustrators, O'Mealia drew Dr. Fu Manchu as a clean-shaven man with an abnormally large cranium.", "The strips were copyrighted by \"Sax Rohmer and The Bell Syndicate, Inc.\" Two of the Dr. Fu Manchu comic strip storylines were reprinted in the 1989 book ''Fu Manchu: Two Complete Adventures''.", "In 1940, the Chicago Tribune published an adaptation of ''Drums of Fu Manchu'', at first it was a photo comics, but later it was illustrated by a unicredit artist.Between 1962 and 1973, the French newspaper ''Le Parisien Libéré'' published a comic strip by Juliette Benzoni (script) and Robert Bressy (art).=== Comic books ===I.", "W. Publications' ''Dr.", "Fu Manchu'' (1958), reprinting material from Avon Comics, cover art by Carl Burgos* Dr. Fu Manchu made his first comic book appearance in ''Detective Comics'' #17 and continued, as one feature among many in the anthology series, until #28.These were reprints of the earlier Leo O'Mealia strips.", "In 1943, the serial ''Drums of Fu Manchu'' was adapted by Spanish comic artist José Grau Hernández in 1943.Original Dr. Fu Manchu stories in comics had to wait for Avon's one-shot ''The Mask of Dr. Fu Manchu'' in 1951 by Wally Wood.", "Fleetway published an adaptation of ''The Island of Fu Manchu'' in 1956 through their \"pocket library\" title ''Super Detective Library'' #9.", "* In the 1970s, Dr. Fu Manchu appeared as the father of the superhero Shang-Chi in the Marvel Comics series ''Master of Kung Fu.''", "However, Marvel cancelled the book in 1983 and issues over licensing the character and concepts from the novels (such as his daughter Fah Lo Suee and adversaries Sir Denis Nayland Smith and Dr. Petrie) have hampered Marvel's ability to both collect the series in trade paperback format and reference Dr. Fu Manchu as Shang-Chi's father.", "As such, the character is either never mentioned by name, or by an alias (such as \"Mr. Han\").", "In ''Secret Avengers'' #6–10, writer Ed Brubaker officially sidestepped the entire issue via a storyline where the Shadow Council resurrect a zombified version of Dr. Fu Manchu, only to discover that \"Dr. Fu Manchu\" was only an alias; that Shang-Chi's father was really Zheng Zu, an ancient Chinese sorcerer who discovered the secret to immortality.", "Later, Fah Lo Suee was renamed Zheng Bao Yu.", "* Dr. Fu Manchu appears as an antagonist in Alan Moore's ''The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen''.", "Simply called \"the Doctor\", he is the first to steal the Cavorite that the League is sent to retrieve.", "He is apparently killed in the climactic battle with Professor Moriarty.=== Role-playing games ===Fu Manchu appears in the adventures ''Night Moves'' and ''Night Live'' for the role-playing game ''Marvel Super Heroes''." ], [ "Accusations of racism", "The Coalition of Asians to Nix Charlie Chan members picketing the film ''The Fiendish Plot of Dr. Fu Manchu'' (1980) at the Hollywood Pacific TheatreThe stories of Dr Fu Manchu, both in print and on screen, have sparked accusations of racism and orientalism, from his fiendish design to his nonsensical Chinese name.", "After the release of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's film adaptation of ''The Mask of Fu Manchu'' (1932), which featured the Chinese villain telling his followers that they must \"kill the white man and take his women\", the Chinese Embassy in Washington, DC, issued a formal complaint against the film.Following the release of Republic Pictures' serial adaptation of ''Drums of Fu Manchu'' (1940) the U.S. State Department requested that the studio make no further films about the character, as China was an ally against Japan during the Second World War.", "Likewise, Rohmer's publisher, Doubleday, refused to publish additions to the best-selling series for the duration of the Second World War once the United States entered the conflict.", "BBC Radio and Broadway investors subsequently rejected Rohmer's proposals for an original Fu Manchu radio serial and stage show during the 1940s.The re-release of ''The Mask of Fu Manchu'' in 1972 was met with protests from the Japanese American Citizens League, which stated that \"the movie was offensive and demeaning to Asian Americans\".", "CBS Television decided to cancel a showing of ''The Vengeance of Fu Manchu''.", "Los Angeles TV station KTLA shared similar sentiments, but ultimately decided to run ''The Brides of Fu Manchu'' with the disclaimer: \"This feature is presented as fictional entertainment and is not intended to reflect adversely on any race, creed or national origin.", "\"Rohmer responded to charges that his work demonized Asians in ''Master of Villainy'', a biography co-written by his widow:It was Rohmer's contention that he based Dr Fu Manchu and other \"Yellow Peril\" mysteries on real Chinese criminals he met as a newspaper reporter covering Limehouse.In May 2013, General Motors cancelled an advertisement after complaints that a phrase it contained, \"the land of Fu Manchu\", which was intended to refer to China, was offensive.Characterizing Dr Fu Manchu as an overtly racist creation has been criticized in the book ''Lord of Strange Deaths: The Fiendish World of Sax Rohmer''.", "In a review of the book in ''The Independent'', Dr Fu Manchu is contextualised: \"These magnificently absurd books, glowing with a crazed exoticism, are really far less polar, less black and white, less white and yellow, than they first seem.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Stereotypes of East Asians in the United States* Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States* Sinophobia* Yellow Peril* Charlie Chan* Ming the Merciless* David Bamberg* Ra's al Ghul* Shang-Chi* ''Master of Kung Fu'' (comics)* ''The Deadly Hands of Kung Fu''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Fu Manchu on IMDb* ''The Page of Fu Manchu''* Fu Manchu at seriesbooks.info* * Fu Manchu at Comic Vine* ''The Insidious Dr. Fu Manchu'' by Sax Rohmer* ''The Return of Dr. Fu Manchu'' by Sax Rohmer* A database and cover gallery of Fu Manchu comic book appearances* Theater of the Ears: ''The Shadow of Fu Manchu'' Radio Dramas* The Chronology of Fu Manchu* The Shang Chi Chronology* The Dynasty of Fu Manchu:A Look at the Genealogies of the Heroes and Villains of the Fu Manchu Series* Dr. Fu Manchu International Heroes* Fu Manchu's French comic strips on Cool French Comics* \"Fu Manchu and the Yellow Peril\" by Thomas J. Cogan* Fu Manchu in Edinburgh (BBC Radio 4 programme)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Friesland" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Friesland''' (, ; official ), historically and traditionally known as '''Frisia''', named after the Frisians, is a province of the Netherlands located in the country's northern part.", "It is situated west of Groningen, northwest of Drenthe and Overijssel, north of Flevoland, northeast of North Holland, and south of the Wadden Sea.", "As of January 2020, the province had a population of 649,944 and a total area of .The province is divided into 18 municipalities.", "The capital and seat of the provincial government is the city of Leeuwarden (West Frisian: ''Ljouwert'', Liwwaddes: ''Liwwadde''), a city with 123,107 inhabitants.", "Other large municipalities in Friesland are Sneek (pop.", "33,512), Heerenveen (pop.", "50,257), and Smallingerland (includes town of Drachten, pop.", "55,938).", "Since 2017, Arno Brok is the King's Commissioner in the province.", "A coalition of the Christian Democratic Appeal, the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy, the Labour Party, and the Frisian National Party forms the executive branch.", "The area of the province was once part of the ancient, larger region of Frisia.", "The land is mostly made up of grassland and it has numerous lakes.", "The official languages of Friesland are West Frisian and Dutch.", "It was named after the region of Frisia." ], [ "Toponymy", "In 1996, the Provincial Council of Friesland resolved that the official name of the province should follow the West Frisian spelling rather than the Dutch spelling, resulting in \"Friesland\" being replaced by \"Fryslân\".", "In 2004, the Dutch government confirmed this resolution, putting in place a three-year scheme to oversee the name change and associated cultural programme.The province of Friesland is occasionally referred to as \"Frisia\" by, amongst others, Hanno Brand, head of the history and literature department at the Fryske Akademy since 2009.However, the English-language webpage of the Friesland Provincial Council refers to the province as \"Fryslân\"." ], [ "History", "===Prehistory===Map of the North Sea coast, .", "(erroneously shows late 20th century land masses)The Frisii were among the migrating Germanic tribes that, following the breakup of Celtic Europe in the 4th century BC, settled along the North Sea.", "They came to control the area from roughly present-day Bremen to Bruges, and conquered many of the smaller offshore islands.", "What little is known of the Frisii is provided by a few Roman accounts, most of them military.", "Pliny the Elder said their lands were forest-covered with tall trees growing up to the edge of the lakes.", "They lived by agriculture and raising cattle.In his ''Germania'', Tacitus described all the Germanic peoples of the region as having elected kings with limited powers and influential military leaders who led by example rather than by authority.", "The people lived in spread-out settlements.", "He specifically noted the weakness of Germanic political hierarchies in reference to the Frisii, when he mentioned the names of two kings of the 1st century Frisii and added that they were kings \"as far as the Germans are under kings\".In the 1st century BC, the Frisii halted a Roman advance and thus managed to maintain their independence.", "Some or all of the Frisii may have joined into the Frankish and Saxon peoples in late Roman times, but they would retain a separate identity in Roman eyes until at least 296, when they were forcibly resettled as ''laeti'' (Roman-era serfs) and thereafter disappear from recorded history.", "Their tentative existence in the 4th century is confirmed by archaeological discovery of a type of earthenware unique to 4th-century Frisia, called ''terp Tritzum'', showing that an unknown number of Frisii were resettled in Flanders and Kent, likely as ''laeti'' under the aforementioned Roman coercion.", "The lands of the Frisii were largely abandoned by as a result of the conflicts of the Migration Period, climate deterioration, and the flooding caused by a rise in the sea level.===Early Middle Ages===The Frisian realm in 716 ADThe area lay empty for one or two centuries, when changing environmental and political conditions made the region habitable again.", "At that time, during the Migration Period, \"new\" Frisians (probably descended from a merging of Frisii, Angles, Saxons and Jutes) repopulated the coastal regions.", "These Frisians consisted of tribes with loose bonds, centred on war bands but without great power.", "The earliest Frisian records name four social classes, the (''nobiles'' in Latin documents; ''adel'' in Dutch and German) and (''vrijen'' in Dutch and ''Freien'' in German), who together made up the \"Free Frisians\" who might bring suit at court, and the ''laten'' or ''liten'' with the slaves, who were absorbed into the ''laten'' during the Early Middle Ages, as slavery was not so much formally abolished, as evaporated.", "The ''laten'' were tenants of lands they did not own and might be tied to it in the manner of serfs, but in later times might buy their freedom.Under the rule of King Aldgisl, the Frisians came in conflict with the Frankish mayor of the palace Ebroin, over the old Roman border fortifications.", "Aldgisl could keep the Franks at a distance with his army.", "During the reign of Redbad, however, the tide turned in favour of the Franks; in 690, the Franks were victorious in the Battle of Dorestad.", "In 733, Charles Martel sent an army against the Frisians.", "The Frisian army was pushed back to Eastergoa.", "The next year the Battle of the Boarn took place.", "Charles ferried an army across the Almere with a fleet that enabled him to sail up to De Boarn.", "The Frisians were defeated in the ensuing battle, and their last king Poppo was killed.", "The victors began plundering and burning heathen sanctuaries.", "Charles Martel returned with much loot, and broke the power of the Frisian kings for good.", "The Franks annexed the Frisian lands between the Vlie and the Lauwers.", "They conquered the area east of the Lauwers in 785, when Charlemagne defeated Widukind.", "The Carolingians laid Frisia under the rule of ''grewan'', a title that has been loosely related to count in its early sense of \"governor\" rather than \"feudal overlord\".", "About 100,000 Dutch drowned in a flood in 1228.===Frisian freedom===Pier Gerlofs Donia in 1516 as depicted in a 19th-century painting by Johannes Hinderikus EgenbergerWhen, around 800, the Scandinavian Vikings first attacked Frisia, which was still under Carolingian rule, the Frisians were released from military service on foreign territory in order to be able to defend themselves against the heathen Vikings.", "With their victory in the Battle of Norditi in 884 they were able to drive the Vikings permanently out of East Frisia, although it remained under constant threat.", "Over the centuries, whilst feudal lords reigned in the rest of Europe, no aristocratic structures emerged in Frisia.", "This 'Frisian freedom' was represented abroad by ''redjeven'' who were elected from among the wealthier farmers or from elected representatives of the autonomous rural municipalities.", "Originally the ''redjeven'' were all judges, so-called ''Asega'', who were appointed by the territorial lords.After significant territories were lost to Holland in the Friso-Hollandic Wars, Frisia saw an economic downturn in the mid-14th century.", "Accompanied by a decline in monasteries and other communal institutions, social discord led to the emergence of untitled nobles called ''haadlingen'' (\"headmen\"), wealthy landowners possessing large tracts of land and fortified homes who took over the role of the judiciary as well as offering protection to their local inhabitants.", "Internal struggles between regional leaders resulted in bloody conflicts and the alignment of regions along two opposing parties: the Fetkeapers and Skieringers.", "On 21 March 1498, a small group of Skieringers from Westergo secretly met with Albert III, Duke of Saxony, the Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands, in Medemblik requesting his help.", "Albrecht, who had gained a reputation as a formidable military commander, accepted and soon conquered all Friesland.", "Emperor Maximilian of Habsburg appointed Albrecht hereditary potestate and gubernator of Friesland in 1499.In 1515, an army of haadlingen and peasants, with the help of mercenaries known as the Arumer Zwarte Hoop, started a fight for freedom from oppression by the Habsburg authorities.", "One of the leaders was Pier Gerlofs Donia, whose farm had been burned down and whose kinfolk had been killed by a marauding ''Landsknecht'' regiment.", "Since the regiment had been employed by the Habsburg authorities to suppress the civil war of the Fetkeapers and Skieringers, Donia put the blame on the authorities.", "After this he gathered angry peasants and some petty noblemen from Frisia and Gelderland and formed the ''Arumer Zwarte Hoop''.The rebels received financial support from Charles II, Duke of Guelders, who claimed the Duchy of Guelders in opposition to the House of Habsburg.", "Charles also employed mercenaries under command of his military commander Maarten van Rossum in their support.", "However, when the tides turned against the rebels after the Donia's death in 1520, Charles withdrew his support, without which the rebels could no longer afford to pay their mercenary army.", "The revolt was put to an end in 1523 and Frisia was incorporated into the Habsburg Netherlands, bringing an end to the Frisian freedom.===Modern times===Philip II at his coronationCharles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, became the first lord of the Lordship of Frisia.", "He appointed Georg Schenck van Toutenburg, who had crushed the peasants' revolt, as Stadtholder to rule over the province in his stead.", "When Charles abdicated in 1556, Frisia was inherited by Philip II of Spain along with the rest of the Netherlands.", "In 1566, Frisia joined the Dutch Revolt against Spanish rule.In 1577, George de Lalaing, Count of Rennenberg was appointed Stadtholder of Frisia and other provinces.", "A moderate, trusted by both sides, he tried to reconcile the rebels with the Crown.", "But in 1580, Rennenburg declared for Spain.", "The States of Frisia raised troops and took his strongholds of Leeuwarden, Harlingen and Stavoren.", "Rennenburg was deposed and Frisia became the fifth Lordship to join the rebels' Union of Utrecht.", "From 1580 onward, all stadtholders were members of the House of Orange-Nassau.", "With the Peace of Münster in 1648, Frisia became a full member of the independent Dutch Republic, a federation of provincies.", "In economic and therefore also political importance, Friesland was next in rank to the provinces of Holland and Zeeland.In 1798, three years after the Batavian Revolution, the provincial lordship of Frisia was abolished and its territory was divided between the Eems and Oude IJssel departments.", "This was short-lived, however, as Frisia was revived as a department in 1802.When the Netherlands were annexed by the First French Empire in 1810, the department was in French renamed Frise.", "After Napoleon was defeated in 1813 and a new constitution was introduced in 1814, Friesland became a province of the Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands, then of the unitary Kingdom of the Netherlands a year later." ], [ "Geography", "De Alde Feanen National ParkDe Fryske MarrenWadden SeaView of the northern coast of FrieslandFriesland is situated at in the northwest of the Netherlands, west of the province of Groningen, northwest of Drenthe and Overijssel, north of Flevoland, northeast of the IJsselmeer and North Holland, and south of the North Sea.", "It is the largest province of the Netherlands if one includes areas of water; in terms of land area only, it is the third-largest province.Most of Friesland is on the mainland, but it also includes a number of West Frisian Islands, including Vlieland, Terschelling, Ameland and Schiermonnikoog, which are connected to the mainland by ferry.", "The province's highest point is a dune at above sea level, on the island of Vlieland.There are four national parks of the Netherlands located in Friesland: Schiermonnikoog, De Alde Feanen, Lauwersmeer (partially in Groningen), and Drents-Friese Wold (also partially situated in Drenthe).=== Urban areas ===The ten urban areas in Friesland with the largest population are:Dutch nameFrisian namePopulationLeeuwarden''Ljouwert''92,235Drachten''Drachten''45,080Sneek''Snits''33,960Heerenveen''''30,567Harlingen''Harns''14,660Joure''''13,070Wolvega''Wolvegea''12,830Franeker''Frjentsjer''12,810Dokkum''Dokkum''12,575Lemmer''''10,315=== Municipalities ===Municipalities of Friesland (2019)The province is divided into 18 municipalities, each with local government (municipal council, mayor and aldermen).", "Municipality Population Total area Population density COROPkm2sq mi/km2/sq miAchtkarspelen North FrieslandAmeland North FrieslandDantumadiel North FrieslandDe Fryske Marren South West FrieslandHarlingen North FrieslandHeerenveen South East FrieslandLeeuwarden North FrieslandNoardeast-Fryslân North FrieslandOoststellingwerf South East FrieslandOpsterland South East FrieslandSchiermonnikoog North FrieslandSmallingerland South East FrieslandSúdwest-Fryslân South West FrieslandTerschelling North FrieslandTytsjerksteradiel North FrieslandVlieland North FrieslandWaadhoeke North FrieslandWeststellingwerf South East Friesland===Climate===The province of Friesland has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb)." ], [ "Demography", "In 2020, Friesland had a population of 649,944 and a population density of .The years 1880–1900 show slower population growth due to a farm crisis during which some 20,000 Frisians emigrated to the United States.+ '''Historical population of Friesland''' Year Population 1714 1748 1796 1811 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 Year Population 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1982 1990 1999 2010 2020 440px===Anthropometry===Since the late Middle Ages, Friesland has been renowned for the exceptional height of its inhabitants.", "Even early Renaissance poet Dante Alighieri refers to the height of Frisians in his ''Divine Comedy'' when, in the canticle about Hell, he talks about the magnitude of an infernal demon by stating that \"not even three tall Frieslanders, were they set one upon the other, would have matched his height\"." ], [ "Religion" ], [ "Economy", "Friesian horseFriesland is mainly an agricultural province.", "The black and white Frisian cattle, black and white Stabyhoun and the black Frisian horse originated here.", "Tourism is another important source of income: the principal tourist destinations include the lakes in the southwest of the province and the islands in the Wadden Sea to the north.", "There are 195 windmills in the province of Friesland, out of a total of about 1200 in the entire country.The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 19.8 billion € in 2018, accounting for 2.6% of the Netherlands economic output.", "GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 26,700 € or 89% of the EU27 average in the same year." ], [ "Culture", "=== Languages ===A West Frisian speaker, recorded in the Netherlands.Friesland is one of the twelve provinces of the Netherlands to have its national language that is recognized as such, West Frisian.", "Before the 18th century, varieties of Frisian were also spoken in the provinces of North Holland and Groningen, and together with the Frisian speakers in East Friesland and North Friesland a continuous linguistic area existed between Amsterdam and the present day Danish-German border.The mutual intelligibility in reading between Dutch and Frisian is limited.", "A cloze test in 2005 revealed native Dutch speakers understood 31.9% of a West Frisian newspaper, 66.4% of an Afrikaans newspaper and 97.1% of a Dutch newspaper.", "In 2007, West Frisian is the native language of 54.3% of the inhabitants of the province of Friesland, followed by Dutch with 34.7%, and speakers of other regional languages, most of these restricted to Friesland, with 9.7%, and in the end other foreign languages with 1.4%.", "Frisian speakers are traditionally underrepresented in urban areas, and predominant in the countryside.West Frisian is also spoken in a small adjacent part of the province of Groningen.", "Up to the 18th century Frisian was spoken in the, at that time Prussian and Hanoverian, lordships of East Friesland).", "Since then the East Frisian population switched to East Frisian (''Ostfriesisch''), a Low German dialect.", "Only in some, formerly remoted, East Frisian villages (Saterland) a variety of historically East Frisian (''Seeltersk'') is still in use but by an older generation.", "A collection of dialects named North Frisian, is or was spoken in North Friesland, alongside the North Sea coast and on the islands of Schleswig-Holstein.", "The named Frisian languages are historically related to Old English, which points towards the fact that Angles and Saxons, eventually accompanied by Frisians, came from these areas.In Stellingwerf, in south-east Friesland, a dialect of Low Saxon is spoken, as is in the northeast in Kollumerpomp.", "In the former municipality of het Bildt the Hollandic dialect of Bildts is spoken.", "It contains a lot of Frisian influence.", "In most of the cities of Leeuwarden, Town Frisian is spoken.", "As with Bildts, these variants are Hollandic dialects with Frisian influence.The language policy in Friesland is preservation.", "West Frisian is a mandatory subject in Friesland in primary and secondary schools of the Frisian speaking districts.", "Bilingual (Dutch–Frisian) and trilingual (Dutch–English–Frisian) schools in the province of Friesland use West Frisian as a language of instruction in some lessons, besides Dutch in most other lessons and alongside them English.", "Literacy in Frisian however, is not often a core aim and that makes the number of Frisians speakers able to write in Frisian only 12%.The provincial government takes various initiatives to preserve the West Frisian language.", "All parents in Friesland receive, at their children's birth, information about language and multilingualism (e.g.", "'taaltaske').", "To support the use of Frisian in public and at public events, the province also invests in the development of speech pathology materials and strives to create information technology devices for the West Frisian language.", "The Frisian government subsidizes the ''Afûk'' organization, which offers language courses and actively promotes Frisian in all sectors of society as well as the corporate domain which as a rule is dominated by Dutch and English.", "The province also promotes a wide range of art and entertainment in Frisian.=== Sports ===Finish of the Elfstedentocht in 1956The province is famous for its speed skaters, with mass participation in cross-country ice skating when weather conditions permit.", "When winters are cold enough to allow the freshwater canals to freeze hard, the province holds its traditional Elfstedentocht (Eleven cities tour), a ice skating tour.", "A traditional sport is Frisian handball.", "Another Frisian practice is ''fierljeppen'', a sport with some similarities to pole vaulting.", "A jump consists of an intense sprint to the pole (''polsstok''), jumping and grabbing it, then climbing to the top while trying to control the pole's forward and lateral movements over a body of water and finishing with a graceful landing on a sand bed opposite to the starting point.", "Because of all the diverse skills required in fierljeppen, fierljeppers are considered to be very complete athletes with superbly developed strength and coordination.", "In the warmer months, many Frisians practice ''wadlopen'', the traditional art of wading across designated sections of the Wadden Sea at low tide.Friesland has lots of waterways and lake s there for Sailcontests with a Skutsje or frisian Tjalk is done during the summer on various lakes.There are currently two top level football clubs playing in Friesland: SC Cambuur from Leeuwarden (home stadium Cambuur Stadion) and SC Heerenveen (home stadium Abe Lenstra Stadion)." ], [ "Politics", "Seat of the provincial government in LeeuwardenThe King's Commissioner of Friesland is Arno Brok.", "The Provincial Council of Friesland has 43 seats.", "The Provincial Executive was a coalition of the Christian Democratic Appeal, the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy, the Labour Party and the Frisian National Party (FNP), until 2023 when new provincial elections saw a different composition in the provincial council.PartyVotesSeatsChristian Democratic Appeal49.7048Forum for Democracy40.0556Labour Party39.9766People's Party for Freedom and Democracy28.0734Frisian National Party23.6624GreenLeft22.9353ChristianUnion19.6733Party for Freedom17.2873Socialist Party15.4262Democrats 6612.2842Party for the Animals9.618150PLUS7.5951Total 298.241 43" ], [ "Transport", "Leeuwarden railway station is a national heritage siteThe four motorways in the province are A6, A7 (E22), A31, and A32.The main railway station of Friesland is Leeuwarden, which connects the railways Arnhem–Leeuwarden, Harlingen–Nieuweschans, and Leeuwarden–Stavoren which are all (partially) located in the province.", "Route Railway stations in Friesland Arnhem–Leeuwarden ''Overijssel'' – Wolvega – Heerenveen IJsstadion – Heerenveen – Akkrum – Grou-Jirnsum – Leeuwarden Harlingen–Nieuweschans Harlingen Haven – Harlingen – Franeker – Dronryp – Deinum – Leeuwarden – Leeuwarden Camminghaburen – Hurdegaryp – Feanwâlden – De Westereen – Buitenpost – ''Groningen'' Leeuwarden–Stavoren Leeuwarden – Mantgum – Sneek Noord – Sneek – IJlst – Workum – Hindeloopen – Koudum-Molkwerum – StavorenAmeland Airport near Ballum and Drachten Airfield near Drachten are the two small general aviation airports in the province.", "The Royal Netherlands Air Force uses Vlieland Heliport and the Leeuwarden Air Base." ], [ "See also", "* Frisian Lakes – consists of 24 lakes in central and southwest Friesland" ], [ "Literature", "* Helma Erkelens, '' Taal fen it hert.", "Language of the Heart.", "About Frisian Language and Culture'', Province of Fryslân, Leeuwarden 2004* John Hines & Nelleke IJssennagger (eds.", "), ''Frisians and their North Sea Neighbours: From the Fifth Century to the Viking Age'', Boydell & Brewer, Woodbridge/Rochester 2017* Goffe Jensma, 'Minorities and Kinships.", "The Case of Ethnolinguistic Nationalism in Friesland’, in: P. Broomans et al.", "(eds.", "), ''The Beloved Mothertongue.", "Ethnolinguistic Nationalism in Small Nations: Inventories and Reflections'', Peeters, Louvain-Paris-Dudley 2008, p. 63-78* Horst Haider Munske (ed.", "), ''Handbuch des Friesischen / Handbook of Frisian Studies'', Max Niemeyer, Tübingen 2001* Oebele Vries, 'Frisonica libertas: Frisian Freedom as an Instance of Medieval Liberty', in: ''Journal of Medieval History'' 41 (2015), nr.", "2, p. 229-248" ], [ "Media", "''Friesch Dagblad'' and ''Leeuwarder Courant'' are daily newspapers mainly written in Dutch.", "Omrop Fryslân is the public broadcaster with radio and TV programs mainly in Frisian." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===****" ], [ "External links", "* Province of Fryslân, official government website* Provincial Tourist Board* Frisian Film Archive*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Feminist science fiction" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Feminist science fiction''' is a subgenre of science fiction (abbreviated \"SF\") focused on such feminist themes as: gender inequality, sexuality, race, economics, reproduction, and environment.", "Feminist SF is political because of its tendency to critique the dominant culture.", "Some of the most notable feminist science fiction works have illustrated these themes using utopias to explore a society in which gender differences or gender power imbalances do not exist, or dystopias to explore worlds in which gender inequalities are intensified, thus asserting a need for feminist work to continue." ], [ "History", "Mary Shelley's ''Frankenstein'' (1818)Feminist science fiction (SF) distinguishes between ''female'' SF authors and ''feminist'' SF authors.", "Both female and feminist SF authors are historically significant to the feminist SF subgenre, as female writers have increased women's visibility and perspectives in SF literary traditions, while the feminist writers have foregrounded political themes and tropes in their works.", "Because distinctions between female and feminist can be blurry, whether a work is considered feminist can be debatable, but there are generally agreed-upon canonical texts, which help define the subgenre.===Early modern England===As early as the English Restoration, female authors were using themes of SF and imagined futures to explore women's issues, roles, and place in society.", "This can be seen as early as 1666 in Margaret Cavendish's ''The Blazing World'', in which she describes a utopian kingdom ruled by an empress.", "This foundational work has garnered attention from some feminist critics, such as Dale Spender, who considered this a forerunner of the science fiction genre, more generally.", "Another early female writer of science fiction was Mary Shelley.", "Her novel ''Frankenstein'' (1818) dealt with the asexual creation of new life, and has been considered by some a reimagining of the Adam and Eve story.===First-wave feminism (suffrage)===Women writers involved in the utopian literature movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries could be considered the first feminist SF authors.", "Their texts, emerging during the first-wave feminist movement, often addressed issues of sexism through imagining different worlds that challenged gender expectations.", "In 1881, ''Mizora: A Prophecy'' described a women-only world with technological innovations such as parthenogenesis, videophones, and artificial meat.It was closely followed by other feminist utopian works, such as Elizabeth Burgoyne Corbett's ''New Amazonia: A Foretaste of the Future'' (1889).", "In 1892, poet and abolitionist Frances Harper published ''Iola Leroy'', one of the first novels by an African American woman.", "Set during the antebellum South, it follows the life of a mixed race woman with mostly white ancestry and records the hopes of many African Americans for social equality—of race and gender—during Reconstruction.", "''Unveiling a Parallel'' (1893) features a male protagonist who takes an \"aeroplane\" to Mars, visiting two different \"Marsian\" societies; in both, there is equality between men and women.", "In one, Paleveria, women have adopted the negative characteristics of men; in Caskia, the other, gender equality \"has made both sexes kind, loving, and generous.\"", "Two American Populists, A.O.", "Grigsby and Mary P. Lowe, published ''NEQUA or The Problem of the Ages'' (1900), which explores issues of gender norms and posited structural inequality.", "This recently rediscovered novel displays familiar feminist SF conventions: a heroine narrator who masquerades as a man, the exploration of sexist mores, and the description of a future hollow earth society (like ''Mizora'') where women are equal.", "''The Sultana's Dream'' (1905), by Bengali Muslim feminist Rokeya Sakhawat Hussain, engages with the limited role of women in colonial India.", "Through depicting a gender-reversed purdah in an alternate technologically futuristic world, Hussain's book has been described as illustrating the potential for cultural insights through role reversals early on in the subgenre's formation.", "In the utopian novel ''Beatrice the Sixteenth'' (1909), transgender writer Irene Clyde creates a world where gender is no longer recognized and the story itself is told without the use of gendered nouns.", "Along these same lines, Charlotte Perkins Gilman explores and critiques the expectations of women and men by creating a single-sex world in ''Herland'' (1915), possibly the most well-known of the early feminist SF and utopian novels.Among the francophones, published in 1909 ''Vega la magicienne'', depicting L'Oiselle, a winged superheroine and the first of the francophone superhero series.===Between the wars===During the 1920s and 1930s, many popular pulp science fiction magazines exaggerated views of masculinity and featured portrayals of women that were perceived as sexist.", "These views would be subtly satirized by Stella Gibbons in ''Cold Comfort Farm'' (1932) and much later by Margaret Atwood in ''The Blind Assassin'' (2000).", "As early as 1920, however, women writers of this time, such as Clare Winger Harris (\"The Runaway World,\" 1926) and Gertrude Barrows Bennett (''Claimed'', 1920), published science fiction stories written from female perspectives and occasionally dealt with gender and sexuality based topics.John Wyndham, writing under his early pen-name of John Beynon Harris, was a rare pulp writer to include female leads in stories such as The Venus Adventure (Wonder Stories, 1932), in which a mixed crew travel to Venus.", "The story opens in a future in which women are no longer enslaved by pregnancy and childbirth thanks to artificial incubators, which are opposed by a religious minority.", "Women have used this freedom to enter professions including chemistry.", "Wyndham's outlook was so rare that in a serialisation of his novel Stowaway to Mars, one magazine editor \"corrected\" the name of the central character Joan to John.", "Wyndham then had to write them a new final instalment to replace the conclusion in which Joan fell in love and became pregnant.", "===Post World War II===The Post-WWII and Cold War eras were a pivotal and often overlooked period in feminist SF history.", "During this time, female authors utilized the SF genre to assess critically the rapidly changing social, cultural, and technological landscape.", "Women SF authors during the post-WWII and Cold War time periods directly engage in the exploration of the impacts of science and technology on women and their families, which was a focal point in the public consciousness during the 1950s and 1960s.", "These female SF authors, often published in SF magazines such as ''The Avalonian'', ''Astounding'', ''The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction'', and ''Galaxy'', which were open to new stories and authors that pushed the boundaries of form and content.At the beginning of the Cold War, economic restructuring, technological advancements, new domestic technologies (washing machines, electric appliances), increased economic mobility of an emerging middle class, and an emphasis on consumptive practices, carved out a new technological domestic sphere where women were circumscribed to a new job description – the professional housewife.", "Published feminist SF stories were told from the perspectives of women (characters and authors) who often identified within traditional roles of housewives or homemakers, a subversive act in many ways given the traditionally male-centered nature of the SF genre and society during that time.In ''Galactic Suburbia'', author Lisa Yaszek recovers many women SF authors of the post-WWII era such as Judith Merril, author of \"That Only a Mother\" (1948), \"Daughters of Earth\" (1952), \"Project Nursemaid\" (1955), \"The Lady Was a Tramp\" (1957); Alice Eleanor Jones \"Life, Incorporated\" (1955), \"The Happy Clown\" (1955), \"Recruiting Officer\" (1955); and Shirley Jackson \"One Ordinary Day, with Peanuts\" (1955) and \"The Omen\" (1958).", "These authors often blurred the boundaries of feminist SF fiction and feminist speculative fiction, but their work laid substantive foundations for second-wave feminist SF authors to directly engage with the feminist project.", "\"Simply put, women turned to SF in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s because it provided them with growing audiences for fiction that was both socially engaged and aesthetically innovative.", "\"===Second-wave feminism===By the 1960s, science fiction was combining sensationalism with political and technological critiques of society.", "With the advent of second-wave feminism, women's roles were questioned in this \"subversive, mind expanding genre\".", "Three notable texts of this period are Ursula K. Le Guin's ''The Left Hand of Darkness'' (1969), Marge Piercy's ''Woman on the Edge of Time'' (1976) and Joanna Russ's ''The Female Man'' (1970).", "Each highlights what the authors believe to be the socially constructed aspects of gender roles by creating worlds with genderless societies.", "Two of these authors were pioneers in feminist criticism of science fiction during the 1960s and 1970s through essays collected in ''The Language of the Night'' (Le Guin, 1979) and ''How To Suppress Women's Writing'' (Russ, 1983).", "Also of note, Madeleine L'Engle's ''A Wrinkle in Time'' (1962), written for children and teens, features a 13-year-old girl protagonist, Meg Murry, whose mother, Mrs. Murry, is a scientist with degrees in biology and bacteriology.", "L'Engle's novel is decidedly science fiction, feminist, and deeply Christian, and the first of her series, ''The Time Quintet''.", "Meg's adventures to other planets, galaxies, and dimensions are aided in ''Wrinkle'' by three ancient beings, Mrs What, Mrs Which, and Mrs Who who \"tesser\" to travel vast distances.", "''A Wrinkle in Time'' was awarded the Newbery Medal in 1963 and has never been out of print.", "Men also contributed literature to feminist science fiction.", "Prominently, Samuel R. Delany's short story, \"Time Considered as a Helix of Semi-Precious Stones\" (1968), which won the Hugo Award for Best Short Story in 1970, follows the life of a gay man that includes themes involving sadomasochism, gender, significance of language, and when high and low society encounter one another, while his novel ''Babel-17'' has an autistic woman of colour as its primary hero and protagonist.", "Octavia Butler's ''Kindred'' (1979) tells the story of an African American woman living in the United States in 1979 who uncontrollably time travels to the antebellum South.", "The novel poses complicated questions about the nature of sexuality, gender, and race when the present faces the past.", "''The Demon Breed'' is a 1968 science fiction novel by James H. Schmitz in which the female main character, Nyles Etland, armed only with intelligence and intimate knowledge of her home environment, allies and science, intimidated an alien species who had intended to invade.", "Schmitz, who still commands a cult audience half a century after his death, dealt almost exclusively in competent and intelligent female main characters in dozens of novels and short stories.===1980s onwards===Feminist science fiction continues on into the 1980s with Margaret Atwood's novel ''The Handmaid's Tale'' (1985), a dystopic tale of a theocratic society in which women have been systematically stripped of all liberty.", "The book was motivated by fear of potential retrogressive effects on women's rights.", "Sheri S. Tepper is perhaps best known for her series The True Game, which explore the ''Lands of the True Game'', a portion of a planet explored by humanity somewhere in the future.", "In November 2015, she received the World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement for this series.", "Tepper has written under several pseudonyms, including A. J. Orde, E. E. Horlak, and B. J. Oliphant.", "Carol Emshwiller is another feminist SF author whose best known works are ''Carmen Dog'' (1988), ''The Mount'' (2002), and ''Mister Boots'' (2005).", "Emshwiller had also been writing SF for ''The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction'' since 1974.She won the World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement in 2005 for her novel ''The Mount'' (2002).", "This novel explores the prey/predator mentality through an alien race.", "Another author of the 1980s, Pamela Sargent has written the \"Seed Series\", which included ''Earthseed'', ''Farseed'', and ''Seed Seeker'' (1983–2010), the \"Venus Series\" about the terraforming of Venus, which includes ''Venus of Dreams'', ''Venus of Shadows'', and ''Child of Venus'' (1986–2001), and ''The Shore of Women'' (1986).", "Sargent is also the 2012 winner of the Pilgrim Award for lifetime contributions to SF/F studies.", "Lois McMaster Bujold has won both the Hugo Award and the Nebula Award for her novella ''The Mountains of Mourning'', which is part of her series the \"Vorkosigan Saga\" (1986–2012).", "This saga includes points of view from a number of minority characters, and is also highly concerned with medical ethics, identity, and sexual reproduction.More recent science fiction authors illuminate what they contend are injustices that are still prevalent.", "At the time of the LA Riots, Japanese-American writer Cynthia Kadohata's work ''In the Heart of the Valley of Love'' (1992) was published.", "Her story, set in the year 2052, examines tensions between two groups as defined as the \"haves\" and the \"have-nots\" and is written as seen through the eyes of a nineteen-year-old girl who is of Asian and African descent.", "Nalo Hopkinson's ''Falling in Love With Hominids'' (2015) is a collection of her short stories whose subjects range from an historical fantasy involving colonialism in the Caribbean, to age manipulation, to ethnic diversity in the land of Faerie, among others.In the early 1990s, a new award opportunity for feminist SF authors was created.", "The James Tiptree, Jr. Award is an annual literary prize for works of science fiction or fantasy that expand or explore one's understanding of gender (Alice Sheldon was a female writer who published science fiction under the Tiptree pen name).", "Science fiction authors Pat Murphy and Karen Joy Fowler initiated this subsequent discussion at WisCon in February 1991.The authors' publishing in feminist SF after 1991 were now eligible for an award named after one of the genre's beloved authors.", "Karen Joy Fowler herself is considered a feminist SF writer for her short stories, such as \"What I Didn't See\", for which she received the Nebula Award in 2004.This story is an homage to Sheldon, and describes a gorilla hunting expedition in Africa.", "Pat Murphy won a number of awards for her feminist SF novels as well, including her second novel ''The Falling Woman'' (1986), a tale of personal conflict and visionary experiences set during an archaeological field study for which she won the Nebula Award in 1988.She won another Nebula Award in the same year for her story \"Rachel in Love\".", "Her short story collection, ''Points of Departure'' (1990) won the Philip K. Dick Award, and her 1990 novella \"Bones\" won the 1991 World Fantasy Award.Other winners of the James Tiptree, Jr. Award include \"The Sparrow\" by Mary Doria Russell (1996), \"Black Wine\" by Candas Jane Dorsey (1997), ''Redwood and Wildfire'' by Andrea Hairston (2011), \"The Carhullan Army\" by Sarah Hall (2007), ''Ammonite'' by Nicola Griffith (1993), and \"The Conqueror's Child\" by Suzy McKee Charnas (1999).", "All of these authors have had an important impact on the SF world by adding a feminist perspective to the traditionally male genre.Eileen Gunn's science fiction short story \"Coming to Terms\" received the Nebula Award (2004) in the United States and the Sense of Gender Award (2007) in Japan, and has been nominated twice each for the Hugo Award, Philip K. Dick Award and World Fantasy Award, and short-listed for the James Tiptree, Jr. Award.", "Her most popular anthology of short stories is ''Questionable Practices'', which includes stories \"Up the Fire Road\" and \"Chop Wood, Carry Water\".", "She also edited \"The WisCon Chronicles 2: Provocative Essays on Feminism, Race, Revolution, and the Future\" with L. Timmel Duchamp.", "Duchamp has been known in the feminist SF community for her first novel ''Alanya to Alanya'' (2005), the first of a series of five titled \"The Marq'ssan Cycle\".", "''Alanya to Alanya'' is set on a near-future earth controlled by a male-dominated ruling class patterned loosely after the corporate world of today.", "Duchamp has also published a number of short stories, and is an editor for Aqueduct Press.", "Lisa Goldstein is another well respected feminist sf author.", "The novelette ''Dark Rooms'' (2007) is one of her better known works, and another one of her novels, ''The Uncertain Places'', won the Mythopoeic Award for Best Adult Novel in 2012." ], [ "Recurrent themes", "Works of feminist science fiction are often similar in the goals they work towards as well as the subjects and plotlines they focus on in order to achieve those goals.", "Feminist science fiction is science fiction that carries across feminist ideals and the promotion of societal values such as gender equality, and the elimination of patriarchal oppression.", "Feminist science fiction works often present tropes that are recurrent across science fiction with an emphasis on gender relations and gender roles.", "Many elements of science fiction, such as cyborgs and implants, as well as utopias and dystopias, are given context in a gendered environment, providing a real contrast with present-day gender relations while remaining a work of science fiction.===Utopian and dystopian societies===Representations of utopian and dystopian societies in feminist science fiction place an increased emphasis on gender roles while countering the anti-utopian philosophies of the 20th century.", "Male philosophers such as John Rawls, Isaiah Berlin, and Michael Oakeshott often criticize the idea of utopia, theorizing that it would be impossible to establish a utopia without violence and hegemony.", "Many male authored works of science fiction as well as threads of philosophical utopian thought dismiss utopias as something unattainable, whereas in feminist science fiction, utopian society is often presented as something both achievable and desirable.Anti-utopian philosophies and feminist science fiction come to odds in the possibility of achieving utopia.", "In \"Rehabilitating Utopia: Feminist Science Fiction and Finding the Ideal\", an article published in Contemporary Justice Review, philosophers against the dream of utopia argue that \"First is the expectation that utopia justifies violence, second is the expectation that utopia collapses individual desires into one communal norm, and third is the expectation that utopia mandates a robotic focus on problem-solving.\"", "In feminist science fiction, utopias are often realized through a communal want for an ideal society.", "One such novel is summarized in the aforementioned article, Charlotte Perkins Gilman's novel ''Herland'', in which \"Gilman perfectly captures the utopian impulse that all problems are solvable.", "She establishes a society where every consideration about a question aims for the rational answer.\"", "Gilman's utopia is presented as something attainable and achievable without conflict, neither enabling violence nor extinguishing individualism.In the Parable series by feminist science fiction novelist Octavia Butler, anti-utopian philosophies are criticized via a dystopian setting.", "In the first novel, ''Parable of the Sower'', following the destruction of her home and family, Lauren Olamina, one of many who live in a dystopian, ungoverned society, seeks to form her own utopian religion entitled 'Earthseed'.", "Olamina's utopian creation does not justify the use of violence as a means, no matter how expedient, to justify the end, achieving utopia, no matter how desirable.", "Yet we witness that she cannot avoid violence, as it results from little more than promulgating ideas different from those held by the majority of those living within the current social structure, however disorganized and ungoverned that social structure may be.", "Butler posits that utopian society can never be achieved as an entity entirely separate from the outside world, one of the more commonly held beliefs about conditions necessary to achieve utopia.", "Olamina's, and Butler's, utopia is envisioned as a community with a shared vision that is not forced on all within it.One common trend in feminist science fiction utopias is the existence of utopian worlds as single-gendered – most commonly female, an early example being Emília Freitas’s 1899 novel ''A Rainha do Ignoto''.", "In literary works female utopias are portrayed as free of conflict, and intentionally free of men.", "The single gendered utopias of female science fiction are free of the conflicts that feminism aims to eliminate, such as patriarchal oppression and the gender inequality inherent in patriarchal society.", "In a statement about these single gendered utopias, Joanna Russ, author of ''The Female Man'' , theorized that male-only societies were not written because in patriarchal society, male oppression is not as pressing an issue as is female oppression.Utopia as an ideal to strive for is not a concept wholly limited to feminist science fiction, however many non-feminist science fiction works often dismiss utopia as an unachievable goal, and as such, believe that pursuits for utopia should be considered dangerous and barren.", "Anti-utopian theory focuses on the 'how' in the transition from present society to a utopian future.", "In feminist science fiction, the achievement of a utopian future depends on the ability to recognize the need for improvement and the perseverance to overcome the obstacles present in creating a utopian society.===Representation of women===Perhaps the most obvious attraction of science fiction to women writers – feminist or not – is the possibilities it offers for the creation of a female hero.", "The demands of realism in the contemporary or historical novel set limits which do not bind the universes available to science fiction.", "Although the history of science fiction reveals few heroic, realistic, or even original images of women, the genre had a potential recognized by the women writers drawn to it in the 1960s and 1970s.", "Before this time, the appeal for women writers was not that great.", "The impact of feminism on the science fiction field can be observed not only in science fiction texts themselves, but also on the development of feminist approaches to science fiction criticism and history, as well as conversations and debates in the science fiction community.", "One of the main debates is about the representation of women in science fiction.In her article \"Redefining Women's Power through Feminist Science Fiction\", Maria DeRose suggests that, \"One of the great early socialists said that the status of women in a society is a pretty reliable index of the degree of civilization of that society.", "If this is true, then the very low status of women in science fiction should make us ponder about whether science fiction is civilized at all\".", "The women's movement has made most of us conscious of the fact that Science Fiction has totally ignored women.", "This \"lack of appreciation\" is the main reason that women are rebelling and actively fighting to be noticed in the field anyway.Virginia Wolf relates to this aspect of feminist science fiction in the article \"Feminist Criticism and Science Fiction for Children\".", "As she discusses the scarcity of women in the field, she states, \"During the first period, that of the nineteenth century, apparently only two women wrote Science Fiction, Mary Shelley and Rhoda Broughton,\" and continues, \"In the early twentieth century, a few women were successful Science Fiction writers\".", "But, \"The times changed.", "Repression gave way to questioning and outright rebellion, and in the Science Fiction of the 1960s stylistic innovations and new concerns emerged 'Many of their stories, instead of dealing with the traditional hardware of science fiction, concentrated on the effects that different societies or perceptions would have on individual characters'\".", "Andre Norton, a semi-well known analyst of Science fiction argues along these lines as well.", "As Norton explored one or more novels she came across, she realized that the creation of characters and how they are shown is a clear connection to the real world situation.", "From here, she goes in depth of characters in these feminist novels and relates them to the real world.", "She concludes here article along these lines.", "She wanted to get the idea out that feminists have a way to get their voice out there.", "Now, all their works are famous/ popular enough for their ideas to be let out.", "Virginia Wolf can attest to this fact.", "She introduced the idea that women were not represented well in the field till the early 1900s and added to the fact by stating, \"Women are not represented well in Science Fiction\".Individual characters, as we come to know, have their own perception and observation of their surroundings.", "Characters in novels such as ''The Girl Who Was Plugged In'' by James Tiptree and Margaret Atwood's ''The Handmaid's Tale'' are fully aware of the situation at hand and their role in society.", "This idea is a continuation of the argument presented by Andre Norton.", "Wolf argues the same point in her analysis of Le Guin's writing, who has many contributions to the works of feminist Science Fiction.", "Wolf argues, \"What matters to Le Guin is not what people look like or how they behave but whether or not they have choice and whether or not they receive respect for who they are and what they do rather than on the basis of sex.", "Feminism is for her not a matter of how many women (or characters in Science Fiction) are housewives but a part of our hope for survival, which she believes lies in the search for balance and integration\".", "This stirs up many questions about equality (a debate which has been going on for many years) but nobody seems to have an answer.", "In this continual search for equality, many characters find themselves asking the same question: \"Is Gender Necessary\" (which is, coincidentally, one of Le Guin's novels and also another problem arising from gender biases).", "Robin Roberts, an American literary historian, addresses the link of these characters and what that means for our society today.", "Roberts believes that men and women would like to be equal, but are not equal.", "They should be fighting the same battle when in fact they are fighting each other.", "She also debates that gender equality has been a problem in every reach of feminism, not just in feminist science fiction.", "Wolf also tackles this problem, \"As she explains in \"Is Gender Necessary?", "\", ''The Left Hand of Darkness'' convinced her that if men and women were completely and genuinely equal in their social roles, equal legally and economically, equal in freedom, in responsibility, and in self-esteem, ... our central problem would not be the one it is now: the problem of exploitation—exploitation of the woman, of the weak, of the earth' (p. 159)\".", "Science fiction criticism has come a long way from its defensive desire to create a canon.", "All of these authors demonstrate that science fiction criticism tackles the same questions as other literary criticism: race, gender, and the politics of Feminism itself.", "Wolf believes that evaluating primarily American texts, written over the past one hundred and twenty years, these critics locate science fiction's merits in its speculative possibilities.", "At the same time, however, all note that the texts they analyze reflect the issues and concerns of the historical period in which the literature was written.", "DeRose introduces her article with, in effect, the same argument.", "She says, \"the power of women in Science Fiction has greatly depreciated in the past few years\".=== Gender identity ===Feminist science fiction offers authors the opportunity to imagine worlds and futures in which women are not bound by the standards, rules, and roles that exist in reality.", "Rather, the genre creates a space in which the gender binary might be troubled and different sexualities may be explored.As Anna Gilarek explains, issues of gender have been a part of feminist discourse throughout the feminist movement, and the work of authors such as Joanna Russ and Marge Piercy explore and expose gender based oppression.", "Gilarek outlines two approaches to social critique via Feminist SF: the use of fantastical elements such as \"invented worlds, planets, moons, and lands\", used to call attention to the ills of society by exaggerating them, or a more straightforward approach, \"relying on realist techniques to convey the message about the deficiencies of our world and its social organization, in particular the continued inequality of women\".", "There are many examples of redefined gender roles and gender identity found in Feminist SF, ranging from the inversion of gendered oppression to the amplification of gender stereotypes and tropes.", "In the short story \"The Matter of Seggri\", by Ursula Le Guin, traditional gender roles are completely swapped.", "Men are relegated to roles of athletes and prostitutes while women control the means of production and have exclusive access to education.", "In Margaret Atwood's ''The Handmaid's Tale'', gendered oppression is exaggerated in a dystopian society in which women's rights are stripped away and fertile women are relegated to the roles of handmaids who will bear children to further the human race.", "New books continue the dystopian theme of women living in a society which conforms to the wishes of men, at the expense of women's rights and well-being, such as in Louise O'Neill's young adult novel ''Only Ever Yours''.", "In this work, females are no longer born naturally but are genetically designed before birth to conform to the physical desires of men, then placed in a school in which they are taught not to think (they are never taught to read), and to focus on appearance until they are rated by beauty on a scale at age sixteen, with the top ten becoming the brides of elite men, the middle ten forced into concubinage, and the bottom ten forced to continue their lives as instructors at the school in very humiliating circumstances.", "At age forty, the women are euthanized.", "In the post-apocalyptic novel, ''Gather the Daughters'', by Jennie Melamed, females living in an island society are sexually exploited from the time they are girls, are forced to marry at adolescence, and after they become grandmothers must commit suicide.Over the decades, SF and feminist SF authors have taken different approaches to criticizing gender and gendered society.", "Helen Merrick outlines the transition from what Joanna Russ describes as the \"Battle of the Sexes\" tradition to a more egalitarian or androgynous approach.", "Also known as the \"Dominant Woman\" stories, the \"Battle of the Sexes\" stories often present matriarchal societies in which women have overcome their patriarchal oppressors and have achieved dominance.", "These stories are representative of an anxiety that perceives women's power as a threat to masculinity and the heterosexual norm.", "As Merrick explains, \"And whilst they may at least hint at the vision of a more equal gendered social order, this possibility is undermined by figuring female desire for greater equality in terms of a (stereotypical) masculine drive for power and domination.\"", "Examples of these types of stories, written in the 1920s and 30s through the 50s, include Francis Steven's \"Friend Island\" and Margaret Rupert's \"Via the Hewitt Ray\"; in 1978, Marion Zimmer Bradley released ''The Ruins of Isis'', a novel about a futuristic matriarchy on a human colony planet where the men are extremely oppressed.In the 1960s and 1970s, feminist SF authors shifted from the \"Battle of the Sexes\" writing more egalitarian stories and stories that sought to make the feminine more visible.", "Ursula Le Guin's ''The Left Hand of Darkness'' portrayed an androgynous society in which a world without gender could be imagined.", "In James Tiptree Jr.'s short story \"Houston, Houston, Do You Read?", "\", women are able to be seen in their full humanity due to the absence of men in a post-apocalyptic society.", "Joanna Russ's works, including \"When it Changed\" and ''The Female Man'' are other examples of exploring femininity and a \"deconstruction of the acceptable, liberal 'whole' woman towards a multiple, shifting postmodernist sense of female 'selfhood'\"." ], [ "Comic books and graphic novels", "Feminist science fiction is evidenced in the globally popular mediums of comic books, manga, and graphic novels.", "One of the first appearances of a strong female character was that of the superhero Wonder Woman, co-created by husband and wife team William Moulton Marston and Elizabeth Holloway Marston.", "In December 1941, Wonder Woman came to life on the pages of ''All Star Comics'', and in the intervening years has been reincarnated in from animated TV series to live-action films, with significant cultural impact.", "By the early 1960s, Marvel Comics already contained some strong female characters, although they often suffered from stereotypical female weakness such as fainting after intense exertion.", "By the 1970s and 1980s, true female heroes started to emerge on the pages of comics.", "This was helped by the emergence of self-identified feminist writers including Ann Nocenti, Linda Fite, and Barbara Kesel.", "As female visibility in comics increased, the \"fainting heroine\" type began to fade into the past.", "However, some female comic book writers, such as Gail Simone, believe that female characters are still relegated to plot devices (see ''Women in Refrigerators'').Feminism in science fiction shōjo manga has been a theme in the works of Moto Hagio among others, for whom the writings of Ursula K. Le Guin have been a major influence." ], [ "Film and television", "Feminism has driven the creation of a considerable body of action-oriented science fiction with female protagonists: Wonder Woman (originally created in 1941) and ''The Bionic Woman'' during the time of the organized women's movement in the 1970s; ''Terminator 2: Judgment Day'' and the ''Alien tetralogy'' in the 1980s; and ''Xena, Warrior Princess'', comic book character ''Red Sonja'', and ''Buffy the Vampire Slayer''.", "2001 science fiction TV series ''Dark Angel'' featured a powerful female protagonist, with gender roles between her and the main male character generally reversed.However, feminists have also created science fiction that directly engages with feminism beyond the creation of female action heroes.", "Television and film have offered opportunities for expressing new ideas about social structures and the ways feminists influence science.", "Feminist science fiction provides a means to challenge the norms of society and suggest new standards for how societies view gender.", "The genre also deals with male/female categories, showing how female roles can differ from feminine roles.", "Hence feminism influences the film industry by creating new ways of exploring and looking at masculinity/femininity and male/female roles.", "A contemporary example of feminist science fiction television can be found in ''Orphan Black'', which deals with issues of reproductive justice, science, gender, and sexuality." ], [ "Fandom", "By the 1970s, the science fiction community was confronting questions of feminism and sexism within science fiction culture itself.", "Multiple Hugo-winning fan writer and professor of literature Susan Wood and others organized the \"feminist panel\" at the 1976 World Science Fiction Convention against considerable resistance.", "Reactions to the appearance of feminists among fannish ranks led indirectly to the creation of ''A Women's APA'' and WisCon.Feminist science fiction is sometimes taught at the university level to explore the role of social constructs in understanding gender." ], [ "Publications", "In the 1970s, the first feminist science fiction publications were created.", "The most well-known are fanzines ''The Witch and the Chameleon'' (1974–1976) and ''Janus'' (1975–1980), which later became ''Aurora SF'' (Aurora Speculative Feminism) (1981–1987).", "Windhaven, ''A Journal of Feminist Science Fiction'' was published from 1977 to 1979 by Jessica Amanda Salmonson in Seattle.", "Special issues of magazines linked to science fiction meetings were also published at that moment, like the Khatru symposium's fanzine ''Women in Science Fiction'' in 1975." ], [ "Critical works", "=== ''Femspec'' ===''Femspec'' is a feminist academic journal specializing in works that challenge gender through speculative genres, including science fiction, fantasy, magical realism, mythic explorations in poetry and post-modern fiction, and horror.", "There is a conscious multicultural focus of the journal, both in content and in the diverse makeup of its editorial group.", "The first issue came out in 1999 under the editorial direction of founder Batya Weinbaum, who is still the Editor-in-Chief.", "''Femspec'' is still publishing and has brought over 1000 authors, critics and artists into print.", "Having lost their academic home in May 2003, they increasingly cross genres and print write-ups of all books and media received, as well as of events that feature creative works that imaginatively challenge gender such as intentional communities, performance events, and film festivals." ], [ "See also", "* Feminist literature* List of feminist comic books* Single-gender worlds* Women in speculative fiction" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * Preview.", "* Preview." ], [ "External links", "* Feminist Science Fiction* Feminist science fiction themed issue of the speculative magazine ''The Future Fire''* Pre-1950 Utopias and Science Fiction by Women, An Annotated Reading List of Online Editions" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fellatio" ], [ "Introduction", "An illustration of a woman performing fellatio on a man'''Fellatio''' (also known as '''fellation''', and in slang as '''blowjob''', '''BJ''', '''giving head''', or '''sucking off''') is an oral sex act involving a person stimulating the penis of another by using the mouth.", "Oral stimulation of the scrotum may also be termed ''fellatio'', or colloquially as ''teabagging.", "''It may be performed by a sexual partner as foreplay before other sexual activities, such as vaginal or anal intercourse, or as an erotic and physically intimate act of its own.", "Fellatio creates a risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections (STIs), but the risk is significantly lower than that of vaginal or anal sex, especially for HIV transmission.Most countries do not have laws banning the practice of fellatio, though some cultures may consider it taboo.", "People may also refrain from engaging in fellatio due to personal preference, negative feelings, or sexual inhibitions.", "Commonly, people do not view oral sex as affecting the virginity of either partner, though opinions on the matter vary." ], [ "Etymology", "The English noun ''fellatio'' comes from the Latin '''', the past participle of the verb '''', meaning \"to suck\".", "In ''fellatio'', the ''-us'' is replaced by the ''-io'' while the declension stem ends in ''-ion-'', which gives the suffix the form ''-ion'' (cf.", "French ''fellation'').", "The ''-io''(''n'') ending is used in English to create nouns from Latin adjectives and it can indicate a state or action wherein the Latin verb is being, or has been, performed.Further English words have been created based on the same Latin root.", "A person who performs fellatio upon another (i.e.", "who ''fellates'',) may be termed a ''fellator.''", "Latin's gender based declension means this word may be restricted to describing a male.", "The equivalent term for a female is ''fellatrix''." ], [ "Practice", "===General===Illustration by Édouard-Henri Avril (1849–1928) depicting fellatioThe essential aspect of fellatio is oral stimulation of the penis (including the shaft and glans) through sucking with the mouth, use of the tongue for licking, using the lips, or some combination.", "One method is the sex partner taking the penis into the mouth and moving smoothly up and down to a rhythm while being careful to avoid contact with the teeth.", "Fellatio also includes oral stimulation of the scrotum, whether licking, sucking or taking the entire scrotum into the mouth.", "During the act, orgasm may be achieved and semen may be ejaculated into the partner's mouth.", "When the penis is thrust into someone's mouth, it is called ''irrumatio'', though the term is rarely used.Performing fellatio can trigger the gag reflex.", "It is physically possible for men with sufficient flexibility, penis size, or both, to perform fellatio on themselves as a form of masturbation, in an act called autofellatio.", "However, few men possess the flexibility and penis length to safely perform the necessary frontbend.===Deposition of semen===During fellatio, a partner may ingest semen from the penis.", "As late as 1976, some doctors were advising women in the eighth and ninth months of pregnancy not to swallow semen lest it induce premature labor, but it was later determined to be safe.The receiver of fellatio typically becomes sexually aroused.", "Once the prerequisite level of sexual stimulation has been achieved and ejaculation becomes imminent, the semen may be discharged onto his partner.", "The male may position his penis prior to ejaculation so that semen will be deposited onto his partner's face (known as a \"facial\"), or other body part such as their neck, chest or breast.===Deep-throating===An illustration of a woman deep-throating a manDeep-throating is a sexual act in which a person takes a partner's entire erect penis into the mouth and throat.", "The technique and term became popularized by the 1972 pornographic film ''Deep Throat''.", "Generally, the person receiving fellatio is in control.", "For deep-throating, the penis must be long enough so that it can reach the back of the giver's throat.Deep-throating can be difficult, due to the natural gag reflex triggered when the soft palate is touched.", "People have different sensitivities to this reflex, and with practice, some learn to suppress it.", "Deep-throating leads to an entirely different kind of oral stimulation in comparison to regular fellatio: the tongue's movement is restricted during deep-throating and sucking becomes impossible; the glans can be intensely stimulated by the tightness of the pharynx.===Other aspects===An illustration of two men performing fellatio on each other in the 69 positionThe male receiving fellatio receives direct sexual stimulation, while his partner may derive satisfaction from giving him pleasure.", "Giving and receiving fellatio may happen simultaneously in sex positions like 69 and daisy chain.Fellatio is sometimes practiced when vaginal or anal penetration would create a physical difficulty for a sex partner.", "For example, it may be practiced during pregnancy instead of vaginal intercourse by couples wishing to engage in intimate sexual activity while avoiding the difficulty of vaginal intercourse during later stages of pregnancy.Other reasons why a woman may not wish to have vaginal intercourse include apprehension of losing her virginity or of becoming pregnant, or because she may be menstruating." ], [ "Health aspects", "===Sexually transmitted infections===Chlamydia, human papillomavirus (HPV), gonorrhea, herpes, hepatitis (multiple strains), and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) can be transmitted through oral sex.", "Any sexual exchange of bodily fluids with a person infected with HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, poses a risk of infection.", "Risk of STI infection, however, is generally considered significantly lower for oral sex than for vaginal or anal sex, with HIV transmission considered the lowest risk with regard to oral sex.There is an increased risk of STI transmission if the receiving partner has wounds on their genitals, or if the giving partner has wounds or open sores on or in their mouth, or bleeding gums.", "Brushing the teeth, flossing, or undergoing dental work soon before or after giving fellatio can also increase the risk of transmission, because all of these activities can cause small scratches in the lining of the mouth.", "These wounds, even when they are microscopic, increase the chances of contracting STIs that can be transmitted orally under these conditions.", "Such contact can also lead to more mundane infections from common bacteria and viruses found in, around and secreted from the genital regions.", "Because of the aforementioned factors, medical sources advise the use of condoms or other effective barrier methods when performing or receiving fellatio with a partner whose STI status is unknown.===HPV and oral cancer link===Links have been reported between oral sex and oral cancer with HPV-infected people.A 2007 study suggested a correlation between oral sex and throat cancer.", "It is believed that this is due to the transmission of HPV, a virus that has been implicated in the majority of cervical cancers and which has been detected in throat cancer tissue in numerous studies.", "The study concludes that people who had one to five oral sex partners in their lifetime had approximately a doubled risk of throat cancer compared with those who never engaged in this activity and those with more than five oral sex partners had a 250 percent increased risk.===Pregnancy and semen exposure===Fellatio cannot result in pregnancy, as there is no way for ingested sperm to reach the uterus and fallopian tubes to fertilize an egg cell.", "At any rate, acids in the stomach and digestive enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract break down and kill spermatozoa.Clinical research has tentatively linked fellatio with immune modulation, indicating it may reduce the chance of complications during pregnancy.", "The potentially fatal complication pre-eclampsia was observed to occur less in women who regularly engaged in fellatio, with those who also ingested their partner's semen being at the least risk.", "The results were consistent with the fact that semen contains TGF-β1, the exchange of which between partners has a causal reduction in risk of pre-eclampsia caused by an immunological reaction.", "However, fellatio is not the only viable mechanism for the transmission of TGF-β1." ], [ "Cultural views", "===Virginity===Oral sex is commonly used as a means of preserving virginity, especially among heterosexual pairings; this is sometimes termed ''technical virginity'' (which additionally includes anal sex, manual sex and other non-penetrative sex acts, but excludes penile-vaginal sex).", "The concept of \"technical virginity\" or sexual abstinence through oral sex is particularly popular among teenagers in the United States, including with regard to teenage girls who not only fellate their boyfriends to preserve their virginities, but also to create and maintain intimacy or to avoid pregnancy.", "Other reasons given for the practice among teenage girls are peer-group pressure and as their introduction to sexual activity.", "Additionally, gay males may regard fellatio as a way of maintaining their virginities, with penile-anal penetration defined as resulting in virginity loss, while other gay males may define fellatio as their main form of sexual activity.===Legality===Fellatio is legal in most countries.", "Laws of some jurisdictions regard fellatio as penetrative sex for the purposes of sexual offenses with regard to the act, but most countries do not have laws which ban the practice, in contrast to anal sex or extramarital sex.", "In Islamic literature, the only forms of sexual activity that are consistently explicitly prohibited within marriage are anal sex and sexual activity during menstruation.", "However, the exact attitude towards oral sex is a subject of disagreements between modern scholars of Islam.", "Authorities considering it \"objectionable\" do so because of the penis' supposedly impure fluids coming in contact with the mouth.", "Others emphasize that there is no decisive evidence to forbid oral sex.In Malaysia, fellatio is illegal, but the law is seldom enforced.", "Under Malaysia's Section 377A of the Penal Code, the introduction of the penis into the anus or mouth of another person is considered a \"carnal intercourse against the order of nature\" and is punishable with imprisonment of 20 years maximum and whipping.===Tradition===Depiction of fellatio on Attic red-figure kylix, c. 510 BCGalienus called fellatio ''lesbiari'' since women of the island of Lesbos were supposed to have introduced the practice of using one's lips to give sexual pleasure.Oral sex depicted in the ''Kama Sutra''The Ancient Indian ''Kama Sutra'', dating from the first century AD, describes oral sex, discussing fellatio in great detail (the ''Kama Sutra'' has a chapter on (or ), \"mouth congress\") and only briefly mentioning cunnilingus.", "However, according to the ''Kama Sutra'', fellatio is above all a characteristic of eunuchs (or, according to other translations, of effeminate homosexuals or trans women similar to the modern Hijra of India), who use their mouths as a substitute for female genitalia.Vātsyāyana, the author of the ''Kama Sutra'', states that it is also practiced by \"unchaste women\", but mentions that there are widespread traditional concerns about this being a degrading or unclean practice, with known practitioners being evaded as love partners in large parts of the country.", "The author appears to somewhat agree with these attitudes, claiming that \"a wise man\" should not engage in that form of intercourse while acknowledging that it can be appropriate in some unspecified cases.The Moche culture of ancient Peru worshipped daily life including sexual acts.", "They depicted fellatio in their ceramics.In some cultures, such as Cambodia, Chinese in Southeast Asia, northern Manchu tribes along Amur River, Sambians in Papua New Guinea, Thailand, Telugus of India, Hawaii and other Pacific Islanders, briefly taking the penis of a male infant or toddler into one's mouth was considered a nonsexual form of affection or even a form of ritual, greeting, respect, parenting love, or lifesaving.", "According to some sources, it was an ancient Chinese custom for grandmothers, mothers, and elder sisters to calm their baby boys with fellatio.", "It has also been reported that some modern Chinese mothers have performed fellatio to their moribund sons as affection and means for lifesaving, because they culturally believe that when the penis is completely retracted into the abdomen, the boy or man will die." ], [ "Other animals", "Female bats perform fellatio to increase copulation time.", "This species is the only non-primate known to exhibit this behaviour.Flying foxes (a type of bat) have been observed engaging in oral sex.", "Indian flying fox males will lick a female's vulva both before and after copulation, with the length of pre-copulation cunnilingus positively correlated with length of copulation.", "The fruit bat ''Cynopterus sphinx'', has been observed to engage in fellatio during mating.", "Pairs spend more time copulating if the female licks the male than if she does not.", "Male Livingstone's fruit bats have been observed engaging in homosexual fellatio, although it is unknown if this is an example of sexual behavior or social grooming.", "Bonin flying foxes also engage in homosexual fellatio, but the behavior has been observed independently of social grooming." ], [ "See also", "* Bukkake* Cum shot* Cunnilingus – oral stimulation of the vulva* Facial (sexual act)* Fellatio in Halacha* Gokkun* Handjob* Pearl necklace (sexuality)* Steak and Blowjob Day" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fatwa" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''fatwā''' ( ; ; plural '''''fatāwā''''' ) is a legal ruling on a point of Islamic law (''sharia'') given by a qualified ''Faqih'' (Islamic jurist) in response to a question posed by a private individual, judge or government.", "A jurist issuing fatwas is called a ''mufti'', and the act of issuing fatwas is called '''''iftāʾ'''''.", "Fatwas have played an important role throughout Islamic history, taking on new forms in the modern era.Resembling ''jus respondendi'' in Roman law and rabbinic ''responsa'', privately issued fatwas historically served to inform Muslim populations about Islam, advise courts on difficult points of Islamic law, and elaborate substantive law.", "In later times, public and political fatwas were issued to take a stand on doctrinal controversies, legitimize government policies or articulate grievances of the population.", "During the era of European colonialism, fatwas played a part in mobilizing resistance to foreign domination.Muftis acted as independent scholars in the classical legal system.", "Over the centuries, Sunni muftis were gradually incorporated into state bureaucracies, while Shia jurists in Iran progressively asserted an autonomous authority starting from the early modern era.In the modern era, fatwas have reflected changing economic, social and political circumstances, and addressed concerns arising in varied Muslim communities.", "The spread of codified state laws and Western-style legal education in the modern Muslim world has displaced muftis from their traditional role of clarifying and elaborating the laws applied in courts.", "Instead, modern fatwas have increasingly served to advise the general public on other aspects of sharia, particularly questions regarding religious rituals and everyday life.", "Modern public fatwas have addressed and sometimes sparked controversies in the Muslim world, and some fatwas in recent decades have gained worldwide notoriety.", "The legal methodology of modern ''ifta'' often diverges from pre-modern practice, particularly so in the West.", "Emergence of modern media and universal education has transformed the traditional institution of ''ifta'' in various ways.", "While the proliferation of contemporary fatwas attests to the importance of Islamic authenticity to many Muslims, little research has been done to determine how much these fatwas affect the beliefs or behavior of the Muslim public." ], [ "Terminology", "The word ''fatwa'' comes from the Arabic root ''f-t-w'', whose meanings include 'youth, newness, clarification, explanation'.", "A number of terms related to ''fatwa'' derive from the same root.", "A jurist issuing fatwas is called a ''mufti''.", "The person who asks for a fatwa is known as ''mustafti''.", "The act of issuing fatwas is called ''iftāʾ''.", "The term ''futyā'' refers to soliciting and issuing fatwas.In older English language works the spelling '''''fetva''''', from Turkish, is used, relating to the Ottoman Empire." ], [ "Origins", "The origins of the ''fatwa'' can be traced back to the Quran.", "On a number of occasions, the Quranic text instructs the Islamic prophet Muhammad how to respond to questions from his followers regarding religious and social practices.", "Several of these verses begin with the phrase \"When they ask you concerning ..., say ...\" In two cases (4:127, 4:176) this is expressed with verbal forms of the root ''f-t-y'', which signify asking for or giving an authoritative answer.", "In the hadith literature, this three-way relationship between God, Muhammad, and believers, is typically replaced by a two-way consultation, in which Muhammad replies directly to queries from his Companions (''sahaba'').According to Islamic doctrine, with Muhammad's death in 632, God ceased to communicate with mankind through revelation and prophets.", "At that point, the rapidly expanding Muslim community turned to Muhammad's Companions, as the most authoritative voices among them, for religious guidance, and some of them are reported to have issued pronouncements on a wide range of subjects.", "The generation of Companions was in turn replaced in that role by the generation of Successors (''tabi'un'').", "The concept of fatwa thus developed in Islamic communities under a question-and-answer format for communicating religious knowledge, and took on its definitive form with development of the classical theory of Islamic law." ], [ "In pre-modern Islam", "===Process of ''iftāʾ''===Turkish mufti (1687 engraving)The legal theory of the fatwa was formulated in the classical texts of ''usul al-fiqh'' (principles of jurisprudence), while more practical guidelines for muftis were found in manuals called ''adab al-mufti'' or ''adab al-fatwa'' (etiquette of the mufti/fatwa).Fatwas are issued in response to a query.", "They can range from a simple yes/no answer to a book-length treatise.", "A short fatwa may state a well-known point of law in response to a question from a lay person, while a \"major\" fatwa may give a judgment on an unprecedented case, detailing the legal reasoning behind the decision.", "Queries to muftis were supposed to address real and not hypothetical situations and be formulated in general terms, leaving out names of places and people.", "Since a mufti was not supposed to inquire into the situation beyond the information included in the query, queries regarding contentious matters were often carefully constructed to elicit the desired response.", "A mufti's understanding of the query commonly depended on their familiarity with local customs and colloquialisms.", "In theory, if the query was unclear or not sufficiently detailed for a ruling, the mufti was supposed to state these caveats in their response.Fatwas were solicited by men and women from all social classes.", "A mufti could be an obscure scholar, who occasionally replied to queries from people in his neighborhood, or, at the other extreme, a famous jurist or a powerful state official.", "The level of technical detail supplied in a fatwa, such as citations of sources or specification of legal methodologies employed, depended on the technical level of the petitioner.", "In theory, a petitioner was supposed to verify the mufti's scholarly reputation, but mufti manuals (''adab al-mufti'') recognized that it would be difficult for a lay person to do so, and advised the petitioner to trust their sense of the mufti's piety and ideally follow the advice of a single scholar known for exemplary morals.", "The mufti was often a well-known figure in his neighborhood.", "Some petitioners could choose among several local muftis, while others had to or chose to travel to receive a fatwa.", "Judges commonly sent letters to solicit fatwas from prominent jurists in another town or even country.", "Sunni legal theory generally permits the petioner to obtain a fatwa from multiple jurists on the same query, provided that it addresses a real and not hypothetical situation.", "Some petitioners sought out a second fatwa because they were unsatisfied with the first, and the two sides in a legal dispute generally each sought to obtain a fatwa that would support their position.", "Muftis often consulted another mufti on difficult cases, though this practice was not foreseen by legal theory, which saw ''futya'' as a transaction between one qualified jurist and one \"unqualified\" petitioner.In theory, a mufti was expected to issue fatwas free of charge.", "In practice, muftis commonly received support from the public treasury, public endowments or private donations.", "Taking of bribes was forbidden.", "Until the 11th or 12th century, the vast majority of jurists held other jobs to support themselves.", "These were generally lower- and middle-class professions such as tanning, manuscript copying or small trade.In theory, fatwas could be delivered orally or in writing, but it is not clear how common oral fatwas were, aside from those issued by an Ottoman office established specifically for the purpose of issuing oral fatwas.", "Many routine, written fatwas were delivered directly to the petitioner on the piece of paper containing the query, leaving no documentary trace.", "However, large collections of ordinary fatwas are preserved in Ottoman and Indian archives.", "Mufti manuals contained a number of regulations about the standard format of a fatwa, such as avoiding blank space that could be used for a spurious addition and concluding the fatwa with an expression like ''allahu a'lam'' (God knows best).", "Nonetheless, fatwas took on a variety of forms depending on the local legal culture.The 14th century jurist Taqi al-Din Ibn Taymiyya was known for his methodology of issuing ''fatwas'' through direct research of the ''Qur'an'' and ''Hadith'', rather than being restrained by the mechanism of the ''madhhabs'' (legal schools).", "Explaining Ibn Taymiyya's approach to issue ''fatwas'', his student Al-Dhahabi writes: \"He was well informed of the legal views of the Prophet’s companions and their followers, and he rarely talked about a subject without quoting the four schools of the imams.", "Yet, he contradicted the four schools in well-known matters about which he wrote and for which provided arguments from the Koran and the Sunna.", "He has compiled a work entitled ''Politics According to Divine Law for Establishing Order for Sovereign and Subjects'' and a book called ''Removing the Reproach from the Learned Imams''.... For some years now he has not issued ''fatwas'' (legal opinions) according to a specific school, rather he bases these on the proof he has ascertained himself.", "He supported the pure Sunna and the way of Salafiyah\".===Role of fatwas===The classical institution of fatwa is similar to ''jus respondendi'' in Roman law and the ''responsa'' in Jewish law.Fatwas have played three important roles in the classical legal system:* managing information about Islam by providing legal advice to Muslim populations as well as counseling them in matters of ritual and ethics;* advising courts of law on finer points of Islamic law, in response to queries from judges;* elaborating substantive Islamic law, particularly though a genre of legal literature developed by author-jurists who collected fatwas of prominent muftis and integrated them into books.Before the rise of modern education, the study of law was a centerpiece of advanced education in the Islamic world.", "A relatively small class of legal scholars controlled the interpretation of sharia on a wide range of questions essential to the society, ranging from ritual to finance.", "It was considered a requirement for qualified jurists to communicate their knowledge through teaching or issuing fatwas.", "The ideal mufti was conceived as an individual of scholarly accomplishments and exemplary morals, and muftis were generally approached with the respect and deference corresponding to these expectations.Page from a compilation of fatwas from Safavid Persia, late 17th centuryJudges generally sought an opinion from a mufti with higher scholarly authority than themselves for difficult cases or potentially controversial verdicts.", "Fatwas were routinely upheld in courts, and if a fatwa was disregarded, it was usually because another fatwa supporting a different position was judged to be more convincing.", "If a party in a dispute was not able to obtain a fatwa supporting their position, they would be unlikely to pursue their case in court, opting for informal mediation instead, or abandoning their claim altogether.", "Sometimes muftis could be petitioned for a fatwa relating to a court judgment that has already been passed, acting as an informal appeals process, but the extent of this practice and its mechanism varied across history.", "While in most of the Islamic world judges were not required to consult muftis by any political authority, in Muslim Spain this practice was mandatory, so that a judicial decision was considered invalid without prior approval by a legal specialist.Author-jurists collected fatwas by muftis of high scholarly reputation and abstracted them into concise formulations of legal norms that could be used by judges, giving a summary of jurisprudence for a particular ''madhhab'' (legal school).", "Author-jurists sought out fatwas that reflected the social conditions of their time and place, often opting for later legal opinions which were at variance with the doctrine of early authorities.", "Research by Wael Hallaq and Baber Johansen has shown that fatwa compilations could, and sometimes did, have a significant impact on the development of Islamic law.During the early centuries of Islam, the roles of mufti, author-jurist and judge were not mutually exclusive.", "A jurist could lead a teaching circle, conduct a fatwa session, and adjudicate court cases in a single day, devoting his night hours to writing a legal treatise.", "Those who were able to act in all four capacities were regarded as the most accomplished jurists.From the standpoint of morality and religious obligation, the term ''fatwa'' has been contrasted with ''taqwa'' (piety, fear of God), particularly in Sufi literature.", "Fatwas may allow a choice between lenient and strict interpretation of ''sharia'' on a certain matter, or they may employ legalistic stratagems (''hiyal'') to circumvent a stricter interpretation, while such strategies may not be acceptable from the standpoint of ''taqwa''.===Qualifications of a mufti===The basic prerequisite for issuing fatwas under the classical legal theory was religious knowledge and piety.", "According to the ''adab al-mufti'' manuals, a mufti must be an adult, Muslim, trusted and reliable, of good character and sound mind, an alert and rigorous thinker, trained as a jurist, and not a sinner.", "On a practical level, the stature of muftis derived from their reputation for scholarly expertise and upright character.According to legal theory, it was up to each mufti to decide when he was ready to practice.", "In practice, an aspiring jurist would normally study for several years with one or several recognized scholars, following a curriculum that included Arabic grammar, hadith, law and other religious sciences.", "The teacher would decide when the student was ready to issue fatwas by giving him a certificate (''ijaza'').During the first centuries of Islam, it was assumed that a mufti was a ''mujtahid'', i.e., a jurist who is capable of deriving legal rulings directly from the scriptural sources through independent reasoning (''ijtihad''), evaluating the reliability of hadith and applying or even developing the appropriate legal methodologies.", "Starting from around 1200 CE, legal theorists began to accept that muftis of their time may not possess the knowledge and legal skill to perform this activity.", "In addition, it was felt that the major question of jurisprudence had already been addressed by master jurists of earlier times, so that later muftis only had to follow the legal opinions established within their legal school (''taqlid'').", "At that point, the notions of ''mufti'' and ''mujtahid'' became distinguished, and legal theorists classified jurists into three or more levels of competence.Among Twelver Shia, the Akhbari school of jurisprudence, which was predominant for a time during the early modern era, hold a different view on ''ifta'' from the currently predominant Usuli school.", "According to the Usulis, fatwas can be based on valid conjecture (''zann'') arrived through ''ijtihad'', and every Muslim who is not qualified to be a ''mujtahid'' should become a follower (''muqallid'') of a ''mujtahid''.", "In contrast, Akhbaris hold that all Shia Muslims must be ''muqallids'' of the Twelve Imams, and that fatwas should reflect only knowledge that is certain (''qatʿ'') and based on the traditions of the Imams.Unlike the post of ''qadi'', which is reserved for men in the classical sharia system, fatwas could be issued by qualified women as well as men.", "In practice, the vast majority of jurists who completed the lengthy curriculum in linguistic and religious sciences required to obtain the qualification to issue fatwas were men.", "Slaves and persons who were blind or mute were likewise theoretically barred from the post of a judge, but not that of mufti.===Fatwa vs. court judgment===The mufti and the judge play different roles in the classical sharia system, with corresponding differences between a fatwa and a ''qada'' (court decision):* A fatwa is nonbinding (unless issued by a government judge in an Islamic state), while a court decision is binding and enforceable.", "* A fatwa may deal with rituals, ethical questions, religious doctrines and sometimes even philosophical issues, while court cases dealt with legal matters in the narrow sense.", "* The authority of a court judgment applies only to the specific court case, while a fatwa applies to all cases that fit the premises of the query.", "* A fatwa is made on the basis of information provided in the request, while a judge actively investigates the facts of the case.", "* A judge evaluates rival claims of two parties in a dispute in order to reach a verdict, while a fatwa is made on the basis of information provided by a single petitioner.", "* Fatwas by prominent jurists were collected in books as sources of precedent, while court decisions were recorded in court registers, but not otherwise disseminated.", "* While both muftis and judges were interpreters of sharia, judicial interpretation centered on evaluating evidence such as testimony and oath, while a mufti investigated textual sources of law (scripture and legal literature).", "* In the classical legal system, judges were civil servants appointed by the ruler, while muftis were private scholars and not appointed officials.===Institutions===Before the 11th century CE, anyone who possessed scholarly recognition as an Islamic jurist could issue fatwas.", "Starting around that time, however, the public office of mufti began to appear alongside the private issuing of fatwas.", "In Khurasan, the rulers appointed a head of the local ulama, called ''shaykh al-Islam'', who also functioned as the chief mufti.", "The Mamluks appointed four muftis, one for each of the four Sunni madhhabs, to appellate courts in provincial capitals.", "The Ottomans organized muftis into a hierarchical bureaucracy with a chief mufti of the empire called ''shaykh al-islam'' at the top.", "The Ottoman ''shaykh al-Islam'' (Turk.", "''şeyhülislam''), was among the most powerful state officials.", "Scribes reviewed queries directed to Ottoman muftis and rewrote them to facilitate issuing of fatwas.", "In Mughal India and Safavid Iran the chief mufti had the title of ''sadr''.Ulugh Beg Madrasa, Samarkand (est.", "1422)For the first few centuries of Islam, muftis were educated in informal study circles, but beginning in the 11th and 12th centuries, the ruling elites began to establish institutions of higher religious learning known as madrasas in an effort to secure support and cooperation of the ''ulema'' (religious scholars).", "Madrasas, which were primarily devoted to the study of law, soon multiplied throughout the Islamic world, helping to spread Islamic learning beyond urban centers and to unite diverse Islamic communities in a shared cultural project.In some states, such as Muslim Spain, muftis were assigned to courts in advisory roles.", "In Muslim Spain jurists also sat on a ''shura'' (council) advising the ruler.", "Muftis were additionally appointed to other public functions, such as market inspectors.==== In Shia Islam ====While the office of the mufti was gradually subsumed into the state bureaucracy in much of the Sunni Muslim world, Shia religious establishment followed a different path in Iran starting from the early modern era.", "During Safavid rule, independent Islamic jurists (''mujtahids'') claimed the authority to represent the hidden imam.", "Under the Usuli doctrine that prevailed among Twelver Shias in the 18th century and under the Qajar dynasty, the ''mujtahids'' further claimed to act collectively as deputies of the imam.", "According to this doctrine, every Muslim is supposed to choose and follow a high-ranking living ''mujtahid'' bearing the title of ''marja' al-taqlid'', whose fatwas are considered binding, unlike fatwas in Sunni Islam.", "Thus, in contrast to Sunni muftis, Shia ''mujtahids'' gradually achieved increasing independence from the state.===Public and political fatwas===While most fatwas were delivered to an individual or a judge, some fatwas that were public or political in nature played an important role in religious legitimation, doctrinal disputes, political criticism, or political mobilization.", "As muftis were progressively incorporated into government bureaucracies in the course of Islamic history, they were often expected to support government policies.", "Ottoman sultans regularly sought fatwas from the chief mufti for administrative and military initiatives, including fatwas sanctioning jihad against Mamluk Egypt and Safavid Iran.", "Fatwas by the Ottoman chief mufti were also solicited by the rulers to lend religious legitimacy to new social and economic practices, such as financial and penal laws enacted outside of sharia, printing of nonreligious books (1727) and vaccination (1845).At other times muftis wielded their influence independently of the ruler, and several sultans in Morocco and the Ottoman Empire were dethroned as a result of fatwas issued by influential jurists.", "This happened, for example, to the Ottoman sultan Murad V on the grounds of his insanity.", "Public fatwas were also used to dispute doctrinal matters, and in some case to proclaim that certain groups or individuals who professed to be Muslim were to be excluded from the Islamic community (a practice known as ''takfir'').", "In both political and scholarly sphere, doctrinal controversies between different states, denominations or centers of learning were accompanied by dueling fatwas.", "Muftis also acted to counteract the influence of judges and secular functionaries.", "By articulating grievances and legal rights of the population, public fatwas often prompted an otherwise unresponsive court system to provide redress." ], [ "In the modern era", "===Anti-colonial fatwas===Tobacco protest fatwa issued by Mirza ShiraziEarly in the era of Western colonialism, several fatwas were issued drawing on the classical legal distinction between lands under Islamic rule (''dar al-Islam'') and lands of war (''dar al-harb'') or unbelief (''dar al-kufr'').", "These fatwas classified countries under European domination as lands of war or unbelief and invoked the legal theory obliging Muslims to wage war against the rulers of these lands or emigrate.", "A number of such fatwas were issued during the 19th century, including in 1803 by Shah Abdul Aziz in India and in 1804 by Usman dan Fodio in West Africa.", "The unrealistic nature of these fatwas was soon recognized and in 1870 the ''ulama'' of northern India issued fatwas stating that Indian Muslims were not obliged to rebel or emigrate.", "A similar doctrinal controversy occurred in French-ruled Algeria.", "The fatwas solicited by the Algerian anti-colonial leader Abd al-Qadir differed in their technical detail, while the French authorities obtained fatwas from local muftis, stating that Muslims living under the rule of unbelievers were not obligated to fight or emigrate as long as they were granted religious freedom by the authorities.On many other occasions, fatwas served as an effective tool for influencing the political process.", "For example, in 1904 a fatwa by Moroccan ulema achieved the dismissal of European experts hired by the Moroccan government, while in 1907 another Moroccan fatwa succeeded in deposing the sultan on accusation that he failed to mount a defense against French aggression.", "The 1891 tobacco protest fatwa by the Iranian ''mujtahid'' Mirza Shirazi, which prohibited smoking as long as the British tobacco monopoly was in effect, also achieved its goals.===Modern institutions===Under European colonial rule, the institution of ''dar al-ifta'' was established in a number of madrasas (law colleges) as a centralized place for issuing of fatwas, and these organizations to a considerable extent replaced independent muftis as religious guides for the general population.", "Following independence, most Muslim states established national organizations devoted to issuing fatwas.", "One example is the Egyptian Dar al-Ifta, founded in 1895, which has served to articulate a national vision of Islam through fatwas issued in response to government and private queries.", "National governments in Muslim-majority countries also instituted councils of senior religious scholars to advise the government on religious matters and issue fatwas.", "These councils generally form part of the ministry for religious affairs, rather than the justice department, which may have a more assertive attitude toward the executive branch.While chief muftis of earlier times oversaw a hierarchy of muftis and judges applying traditional jurisprudence, most modern states have adopted European-influenced legal codes and no longer employ traditional judicial procedures or traditionally trained judges.", "State muftis generally promote a vision of Islam that is compatible with state law of their country.Although some early theorists argued that muftis should not respond to questions on certain subjects, such as theology, muftis have in practice handled queries relating to a wide range of subjects.", "This trend continued in modern times, and contemporary state-appointed muftis and institutions for ''ifta'' respond to government and private queries on varied issues, including political conflicts, Islamic finance, and medical ethics, contributing to shaping a national Islamic identity.There exists no international Islamic authority to settle differences in interpretation of Islamic law.", "An International Islamic Fiqh Academy was created by the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, but its legal opinions are not binding.===Legal methodology===Modern fatwas have been marked by an increased reliance on the process of ''ijtihad'', i.e.", "deriving legal rulings based on an independent analysis rather than conformity with the opinions of earlier legal authorities (''taqlid'').", "While in the past muftis were associated with a particular school of law (''madhhab''), in the 20th century many muftis began to assert their independence from traditional schools of jurisprudence.The most notorious result of disregarding classical jurisprudence are the fatwas of militant extremists who have interpreted the Quran and hadith as supporting suicide bombings, indiscriminate killing of bystanders, and declaration of self-professed Muslims as unbelievers (''takfir'').New forms of ijtihad have also given rise to fatwas that support such notions as gender equality and banking interest, which are at variance with classical jurisprudence.", "This is commonly accomplished by application of various traditional legal doctrines such as the ''maqasid'' (objectives) of sharia, ''maslaha'' (public interest) and ''darura'' (necessity), in place of adhering to the letter of scriptural sources.", "The main argument for this approach is that Islamic law is meant to serve the interest of Muslims and make their lives easier (''taysīr'').", "This form of ijtihad is particularly prominent in ''fiqh al-aqallīyāt'' (minority jurisprudence), a recently developed branch of Islamic jurisprudence that aims to address the needs of Muslims living in countries with a non-Muslim majority.", "Its opponents object that sharia is supposed to determine the interests of Muslims, and not the other way around.===Political fatwas and controversies===Fatwa supporting the Ottoman proclamation of jihad in 1914, read by the Custodian Of The Fatwa (''Fetva Emini'')On November 14, 1914 the Ottoman sultan proclaimed a jihad to mark the official entry of the Ottoman Empire into World War I.", "The proclamation was supported by a fatwa issued by the Shaykh al-Islam.", "Contrary to the German hopes that the proclamation would trigger Muslim revolts in British and French colonies, it was either rejected or quietly ignored by their Muslim authorities.", "It also quickly gave rise to a heated academic debate in Europe.", "The controversy was sparked by an 1915 article by the prominent Dutch orientalist C. Snouck Hurgronje, titled ''Heilige Oorlog Holy War Made in Germany''.", "In it Hurgronje denounced his German colleagues, who he felt instigated the jihad proclamation in an irresponsible appeal to an antiquated concept that threatened the project of modernizing the Muslim world.", "The article was widely circulated in an English translation and its accuracy continues to be debated by historians, who acknowledge both the German influence and the internal political calculations of the Ottoman government underlying the proclamation.Several boycott fatwas were issued in modern times, such as the one issued by Iraqi ulema in 1933, calling on Muslims to boycott Zionist products.", "In 2004 Yusuf al-Qaradawi issued a fatwa calling for boycott of Israeli and American products, arguing that buying these goods would strengthen the \"enemy\" fighting against Muslims in the struggle over Palestine.Some muftis in the modern era, like the mufti of the Lebanese republic in the mid-20th century and the Grand Mufti of the Sultanate of Oman, were important political leaders.", "In Iran, Ayatollah Khomeini used proclamations and fatwas to introduce and legitimize a number of institutions, including the Council of the Islamic Revolution and the Iranian Parliament.Khomeini's most publicized fatwa was the proclamation condemning Salman Rushdie to death for his novel ''The Satanic Verses''.", "Khomeini himself did not call this proclamation a fatwa, and some scholars have argued that it did not qualify as one, since in Islamic legal theory only a court can decide whether an accused is guilty.", "However, after the proclamation was presented as a fatwa in Western press, this characterization was widely accepted by both its critics and its supporters, and the Rushdie Affair is credited with bringing the institution of fatwa to world attention.", "Together with later militant fatwas, it has contributed to the popular misconception of the fatwa as a religious death warrant.Many militant and reform movements in modern times have disseminated fatwas issued by individuals who do not possess the qualifications traditionally required of a mufti.", "A famous example is the fatwa issued in 1998 by Osama bin Laden and four of his associates, proclaiming \"jihad against Jews and Crusaders\" and calling for killing of American civilians.", "In addition to denouncing its content, many Islamic jurists stressed that bin Laden was not qualified to either issue a fatwa or declare a jihad.The Amman Message was a statement, signed in 2005 in Jordan by nearly 200 prominent Islamic jurists, which served as a \"counter-fatwa\" against a widespread use of ''takfir'' (excommunication) by jihadist groups to justify jihad against rulers of Muslim-majority countries.", "The Amman Message recognized eight legitimate schools of Islamic law and prohibited declarations of apostasy against them.", "The statement also asserted that fatwas can be issued only by properly trained muftis, thereby seeking to delegitimize fatwas issued by militants who lack the requisite qualifications.Erroneous and sometimes bizarre fatwas issued by unqualified or eccentric individuals in recent times have sometimes given rise to complaints about a \"chaos\" in the modern practice of ''ifta''.===Fatwas in the West===In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001, attacks, a group of Middle Eastern Islamic scholars issued a fatwa permitting Muslims serving in the U.S. army to participate in military action against Muslim countries, in response to a query from a U.S. Army Muslim chaplain.", "This fatwa illustrated two increasingly widespread practices.", "First, it drew directly on the Quran and hadith without referencing the body of jurisprudence from any of the traditional schools of Islamic law.", "Secondly, questions from Western Muslims directed to muftis in Muslim-majority countries have become increasingly common, as about one-third of Muslims now live in Muslim-minority countries.Institutions devoted specifically to issuing fatwas to Western Muslims have been established in the West, including the Fiqh Council of North America (FCNA, founded in 1986) and the European Council for Fatwa and Research (ECFR, founded in 1997).", "These organizations aim to provide fatwas that address the concerns of Muslim minorities, helping them to comply with sharia, while stressing compatibility of Islam with diverse modern contexts.", "The FCNA was founded with the goal of developing legal methodologies for adopting Islamic law to life in the West.", "The ECRF draws on all major schools of Sunni law as well as other traditional legal principles, such as concern for the public good, local custom, and the prevention of harm, to derive fatwas suitable for life in Europe.", "For example, a 2001 ECRF ruling allowed a woman who had converted to Islam to remain married without requiring her husband's conversion, based in part on the existence of European laws and customs under which women are guaranteed the freedom of religion.", "Rulings of this kind have been welcomed by some, but also criticized by others as being overly eclectic in legal methodology and having potential to negatively impact the interpretation of sharia in Muslim-majority countries.The needs of Western Muslims have given rise to a new branch of Islamic jurisprudence which has been termed the jurisprudence of (Muslim) minorities (''fiqh al-aqallīyāt'').", "The term is believed to have been coined in a 1994 fatwa by Taha Jabir Alalwani, then the chairman of FCNA, which encouraged Muslim citizens to participate in American politics.", "This branch of jurisprudence has since been developed primarily, but not exclusively for Muslim minorities in the West.===Role of modern media===Advances in communication technology and the rise of the internet have changed the reception and role of fatwas in modern society.", "In the pre-modern era, most fatwas issued in response to private queries were read only by the petitioner.", "Early in the 20th century, the reformist Islamic scholar Rashid Rida responded to thousands of queries from around the Muslim world on a variety of social and political topics in the regular ''fatwa'' section of his Cairo-based journal ''Al-Manar''.", "In the late 20th century, when the Grand Mufti of Egypt Sayyid Tantawy issued a fatwa allowing interest banking, the ruling was vigorously debated in the Egyptian press by both religious scholars and lay intellectuals.In the internet age, a large number of websites has appeared offering fatwas to readers around the world.", "For example, IslamOnline publishes an archive of \"live fatwa\" sessions, whose number approached a thousand by 2007, along with biographies of the muftis.", "Together with satellite television programs, radio shows and fatwa hotlines offering call-in fatwas, these sites have contributed to the rise of new forms of contemporary ''ifta''.", "Unlike the concise or technical pre-modern fatwas, fatwas delivered through modern mass media often seek to be more expansive and accessible to the wide public.Modern media have also facilitated cooperative forms to ''ifta''.", "Networks of muftis are commonly engaged by fatwa websites, so that queries are distributed among the muftis in the network, who still act as individual jurisconsults.", "In other cases, Islamic jurists of different nationalities, schools of law, and sometimes even denominations (Sunni and Shia), coordinate to issue a joint fatwa, which is expected to command greater authority with the public than individual fatwas.", "The collective fatwa (sometimes called ''ijtihād jamāʿī'', \"collective legal interpretation\") is a new historical development, and it is found in such settings as boards of Islamic financial institutions and international fatwa councils.===Social role of fatwas===As the role of fatwas on strictly legal issues has declined in modern times, there has been a relative increase in the proportion of fatwas dealing with rituals and further expansion in purely religious areas like Quranic exegesis, creed, and Sufism.", "Modern fatwas also deal with a wide variety of other topics, including insurance, sex-change operations, moon exploration, beer drinking, abortion in the case of fatal foetal abnormalities, or males and females sharing workplaces.", "Public \"fatwa wars\" have reflected political controversies in the Muslim world, from anti-colonial struggles to the Gulf War of the 1990s, when muftis in some countries issued fatwas supporting collaboration with the US-led coalition, while muftis from other countries endorsed the Iraqi call for jihad against the US and its collaborators.", "In the private sphere, some muftis have begun to resemble social workers, giving advice on various personal issues encountered in everyday life.The social profile of the fatwa petitioner has also undergone considerable changes.", "Owing to the rise of universal education, those who solicit fatwas have become increasingly educated, which has transformed the traditional mufti–mustafti relationship based on restricted literacy.", "The questioner is now also increasingly likely to be female, and in the modern world Muslim women tend to address muftis directly rather than conveying their query through a male relative as in the past.", "Since women now represent a significant proportion of students studying Islamic law and qualifying as muftiyas, their prominence in its interpretation is likely to rise.", "A fatwa hotline in the United Arab Emirates provides access to either male or female muftis, allowing women to request fatwas from female Islamic legal scholars.The vast amount of fatwas produced in the modern world attests to the importance of Islamic authenticity to many Muslims.", "However, there is little research available to indicate to what extent Muslims acknowledge the authority of various fatwas and heed their rulings in real life.", "Rather than reflecting the actual conduct or opinions of Muslims, these fatwas may instead represent a collection of opinions on what Muslims \"ought to think\"." ], [ "See also", "* List of fatwas* Schools of Islamic jurisprudence" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* ''Fatwa'' – multi-part article from ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World'', via Oxford Islamic Studies" ] ]
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[ [ "Relax (song)" ], [ "Introduction", "\"'''Relax'''\" is the debut single by English synth-pop band Frankie Goes to Hollywood, released in the United Kingdom by ZTT Records in 1983.The hit version, produced by Trevor Horn and featuring the band along with other musicians, entered the UK top 75 singles chart in November 1983 but did not crack the top 40 until early January 1984.Three weeks later it reached number one, on the chart dated 28 January 1984, replacing Paul McCartney's \"Pipes of Peace\".", "One of the decade's most controversial and most commercially successful records, \"Relax\" eventually sold a reported two million copies in the UK alone, easily ranking among the ten biggest-selling singles in the UK.", "It remained in the UK top 40 for 37 consecutive weeks, 35 of which overlapped with a radio airplay ban by the BBC (owing to lyrics perceived as overtly sexual).", "In June 1984, bolstered by the instant massive success of the band's follow-up single \"Two Tribes\", the single re-entered the top ten for a further nine weeks, including two spent at No.", "2 (behind \"Two Tribes\").", "At that time, Frankie Goes to Hollywood were the only act apart from the Beatles and John Lennon to concurrently occupy the top two positions on the chart.", "Several 12-inch single versions (and the \"Frankie Say Relax\" T-shirt craze) further fed the \"Relax\" phenomenon.", "The single re-entered the UK top 75 in February 1985 and, more successfully, in October 1993, when it spent three weeks in the top ten.In the United States, \"Relax\" was also comparatively slow in reaching its chart peak.", "Released in March 1984, albeit with a different mix and nearly a minute shorter in length, the single stalled at No.", "67 on ''Billboard'''s Hot 100 in May during a seven-week run, but it ranked number one for the year on the Los Angeles \"alternative rock\" station KROQ, as voted for by listeners.", "In January 1985, a release of \"Relax\" that was far more similar to the UK hit version entered the Hot 100 at No.", "70, and in March it reached No.", "10 during its 16-week run.", "In January 1989, the single was certified gold by the RIAA.In February 1985, the record was awarded Best British Single of 1984 at the Brit Awards, and Frankie Goes to Hollywood won Best British Newcomer.", "A version of the song features on Frankie Goes to Hollywood's debut album ''Welcome to the Pleasuredome'', released in October 1984." ], [ "Background and recording", "Singer Holly Johnson said the lyrics came to him as he was walking down Princess Avenue in Liverpool: \"I mean they were just, you know, words that floated into my head one day when I was walking down Princess Avenue with no bus fare, trying to get to rehearsals – I mean there was no great sort of calculated, 'Oh I'll sing these words and this record'll be banned'.", "\"ZTT Records signed Frankie Goes to Hollywood after producer-turned-ZTT cofounder Trevor Horn saw the band play on the television show ''The Tube'', on which the group played an early version of \"Relax\".", "Horn described the original version of \"Relax\" as \"More a jingle than a song\", but he preferred to work with songs that were not professionally finished because he could then \"fix them up\" in his own style.", "Once the band was signed, ZTT co-founder Paul Morley mapped out the marketing campaign fashioned as a \"strategic assault on pop\".", "Morley opted to tackle the biggest possible themes in the band's singles (\"sex, war, religion\"), of which \"Relax\" would be the first, and emphasized the shock impact of Frankie members Holly Johnson's and Paul Rutherford's open homosexuality in the packaging and music videos.Horn dominated the recording of \"Relax\" in his effort for perfectionism.", "Initial sessions were held at the Manor Studio.", "The band were overawed and intimidated by Horn's reputation, and thus were too nervous to make suggestions.", "Johnson said in his autobiography, \"Whatever he said we went along with\".", "When attempts to record with the full band proved unsatisfactory, Horn hired former Ian Dury backing band the Blockheads for the sessions, with Norman Watt-Roy providing the original bass line.", "Those sessions were later deemed to be not modern-sounding enough.", "Horn then constructed a more electronic-based version of the song with keyboards by session musician Andy Richards and with rhythm programming assistance from J. J. Jeczalik of Art of Noise.", "Horn developed this version of the recording in his west London studio while the band remained in their hometown of Liverpool.", "Horn had made three versions of \"Relax\" prior to Richards and guitarist Stephen Lipson joining his ZTT Production 'Theam' in late 1983.Horn left the studio late one night asking for Lipson to erase the multitrack (of version 3) due to lack of progress, but came back into the studio some time later to hear Richards playing a variety of modal chords based around the key of E minor with Lipson playing guitar along to the unerased multitrack.Ultimately lead vocalist Johnson was the only band member to perform on the record.", "The only contribution by the other members was a sample crafted from the sound of the rest of the band jumping into a swimming pool.", "Johnson later said that \"Trevor didn't like the band's standard of playing as he couldn't sync it to his machinery\".", "Horn later recalled of the song's intro, \"Hit singles are not just good songs.", "They need to be moments.", "Holly had been blowing his saxophone on the studio roof in Notting Hill at 2am, and a bunch of guys appeared on the street, calling up to him.", "He came down to do the vocal, and I suggested he play it at the start of Relax.\"", "In a 2021 interview, Horn said that \"the band we signed weren't quite the band who had appeared on the original demo, though we didn't know that at the time\".", "The demo had featured Jed O'Toole, brother of bassist Mark O'Toole, on guitar, who subsequently left to pursue a 9-to-5 career.", "He was replaced by Brian Nash, who was a guitar novice at the time the single was recorded, though Horn acknowledged that he developed into a good guitarist by the time ''Welcome to the Pleasuredome'' was completed.", "Horn completed the recording having spent £70,000 in studio time." ], [ "Release, controversy and ban by the BBC", "Morley intentionally courted scandal with the promotion of \"Relax\".", "ZTT initiated the ad campaign for \"Relax\" with two quarter-page ads in the British music press.", "The first ad featured images of Rutherford in a sailor cap and a leather vest, and Johnson with a shaved head and rubber gloves.", "The images were accompanied by the phrase \"ALL THE NICE BOYS LOVE SEA MEN\", a pun on the music hall song \"Ship Ahoy!", "(All the Nice Girls Love a Sailor)\".", "It declared \"Frankie Goes to Hollywood are coming ... making Duran Duran lick the shit off their shoes ... Nineteen inches that must be taken always.\"", "The second ad promised \"theories of bliss, a history of Liverpool from 1963 to 1983, a guide to Amsterdam bars\".When the single was first released in November 1983, the initial progress of \"Relax\" on the UK top 75 was sluggish.", "First charting at No.", "67, it had progressed only to No.", "35 by its seventh week on the chart, even having fallen back slightly during that time.", "But then on Thursday 5 January 1984, Frankie Goes to Hollywood were shown performing \"Relax\" on the BBC flagship television chart show, ''Top of the Pops''.", "The following week it soared to No.", "6.On 11 January 1984, Radio 1 disc jockey Mike Read expressed on air his distaste for both the record's suggestive sleeve (designed by Anne Yvonne Gilbert) and its lyric, which centred on the oft-repeated \"Relax, don't do it/When you want to sock it to it/Relax, don't do it/ When you want to come.\"", "He announced his refusal to play the record, not knowing the BBC had just decided the song was not to be played on the BBC anyway.", "Holly Johnson contends that the lyric was misheard: rather than \"When you want to sock it to it\", the line is \"When you want to suck, chew it\".In support of their disc jockey, BBC Radio banned the single from its shows a reported two days later (although certain prominent night-time BBC shows – including those of Kid Jensen and John Peel – continued to play the record, as they saw fit, during 1984).", "The now-banned \"Relax\" rose to No.", "2 on the charts by 17 January, and hit the number-one spot on 24 January.", "By this time, the BBC Radio ban had extended to ''Top of the Pops'' as well, which simply displayed a still picture of the group during its climactic number one announcement, before airing a performance by a non-number one artist.This went on for the five weeks that \"Relax\" was at number one.", "It then began a slow decline on the charts, falling back as far as No.", "31 in May 1984 before returning to No.", "2 in July whilst Frankie's follow-up single \"Two Tribes\" held the UK number-one spot.", "In the end, \"Relax\" remained on the top 75 for 48 consecutive weeks and returned in February 1985 for four more, giving a total of 52.The ban became an embarrassment for the BBC, especially given that UK commercial radio and television stations were still playing the song.", "Later in 1984 the ban was lifted and \"Relax\" featured on both the Christmas Day edition of ''Top of the Pops'' and Radio 1's rundown of the best-selling singles of the year.Throughout the \"Relax\" controversy, the band continued to publicly deny that the song's lyrics were sexual.", "Nevertheless, by 1984, it was clear that the public were aware of the sexual nature of the lyrics, but the scandal had fuelled sales anyway.", "In 1985, with the release of the ''Welcome to the Pleasuredome'' album (which included \"Relax\"), the band dropped any public pretence about the lyrics: The track was reissued in September 1993, the first of a string of Frankie Goes to Hollywood singles to be reissued that year.", "It debuted at a high No.", "6 on the UK Singles Chart and peaked at No.", "5 the following week.", "It spent seven weeks on the top 75 this time, thus extending its combined total to 59, making it at the time the third longest runner of all time; it has since been surpassed by 44 other songs and sits in joint 47th place." ], [ "Critical reception", "American magazine ''Cash Box'' said that the song is \"a very danceable cut\", in which \"heavy bass and bass drum provide the backdrop for Frankie's pleading lyric and Frank Sinatraesque soaring vocal.\"", "Alan Jones from ''Music Week'' gave the 1993 remix four out of five, writing, \"ZTT recently got its catalogue back from Island, and is about to embark on a high profile re-issue/remix campaign, of which this is the first fruit.", "\"Relax\" is updated by Ollie J in a stomping house mix, while Jam & Spoon's pumped-up Hi-NRG version is hardcore tempo.", "With the original mixes added to the package, this is going to be big all over again.", "But will One FM play it?\"", "Richard Harris from ''NME'' commented, \"'Relax' sounds as divine as ever; a perfect soundtrack for pubescents to discover the delightful realities of having hormones.\"" ], [ "Personnel", "Credits sourced from ''Sound on Sound'''''Frankie Goes to Hollywood'''*Holly Johnson – lead vocals*Paul Rutherford – backing vocals'''Other musicians'''*Trevor Horn – LinnDrum and Fairlight CMI programming; producer*J.J. Jeczalik – Fairlight CMI programming*Stephen Lipson – electric guitars, Roland GR-300 guitar synthesizer*Andy Richards – Roland Jupiter-8 synthesizer, Roland MC-4 Microcomposer sequencer" ], [ "Original 1983–1984 mixes", "Relax \"The Last Seven Inches\"Although the 7-inch version of the single remained unchanged throughout its initial release (a mix generally known as \"Relax (Move)\"), promotional 7-inch records featuring a substantially different mix of \"Relax\" (entitled either \"The Last Seven Inches\" or \"Warp Mix\" because it is a compilation of other versions) were the subject of a limited 1984 release.Three principal 12-inch remixes of \"Relax\" were eventually created by producer Trevor Horn:One of the reasons we did all the remixes was that the initial 12-inch version of 'Relax' contained something called 'The Sex Mix', which was 16 minutes long and didn't even contain a song.", "It was really Holly Johnson just jamming, as well as a bunch of samples of the group jumping in the swimming pool and me sort of making disgusting noises by dropping stuff into buckets of water!", "We got so many complaints about it — particularly from gay clubs, who found it offensive — that we cut it in half and reduced it down to eight minutes, by taking out some of the slightly more offensive parts this became \"Sex Mix (Edition 2)\".", "Then we got another load of complaints, because the single version wasn't on the 12-inch — I didn't see the point in this at the time, but I was eventually put straight about it.Horn attested that visits to New York's Paradise Garage club led to the creation of the final \"Relax (New York Mix)\", which ultimately replaced the original \"Sex Mix\" releases:It was only when I went to this club and heard the sort of things they were playing that I really understood about 12-inch remixes.", "Although I myself had already had a couple of big 12-inch hits, I'd never heard them being played on a big sound system, and so I then went back and mixed 'Relax' again and that was the version which sold a couple of million over here in the UK.Relax picture 12\" discThe original 12-inch version of \"Relax\", labelled \"Sex Mix\", ran for over 16 minutes, and is broadly as described by Horn above.", "The subsequent \"Edition 2\" was an 8-minute-plus edit of the \"Sex Mix\", and can only be distinguished by having ''12ISZTAS1'' etched on the vinyl.", "The final 12-inch mix, containing no elements from the foregoing versions, was designated the \"New York Mix\", and ran for approximately 7:20.This was the most commonly available 12-inch version of \"Relax\" during its worldwide 1984 chart success.The UK cassette single featured \"Greatest Bits\", a unique amalgam of excerpts from the \"Sex Mix\", \"New York Mix\", \"Move\" and an instrumental version of \"Move\".Since virtually all of the UK \"Relax\" 12-inch singles were labelled \"Sex Mix\", a method of differentiating between versions by reference to the record's matrix numbers necessarily became ''de rigueur'' for collectors of Frankie Goes to Hollywood releases (and ultimately collectors of ZTT records in general).", "\"Relax (Come Fighting)\" was the version of the song included on the ''Welcome to the Pleasuredome'' album.", "This is ostensibly a variant of the 7-inch single \"Move\" mix, but is different from that version.", "For example, the 7\" mix fades in on a foghorn type sound while the album mix fades in on sustained synth chords.", "Also, the backing vocals of the 7\" mix are panned to the left, whereas they are mixed in the centre on the album version.", "Additionally, the 7\" mix features a prominent reverberated kick drum sound during the introduction that also appears in other parts of the song, which is completely absent from the album mix.", "The album mix also has a certain post-production sheen (greater stereo separation of parts, more strategic uses of reverb, etc.)", "that is absent from the original 1983 7-inch single mix.", "The \"Classic 1993 Version\" is a version of the original 7\" mix that uses \"Bonus, Again\" as the instrumental track, although modification with elements from \"Come Fighting\" thrown in (e.g.", "both the intro and outro come directly from it) and much of it made to sound more clear.The original airing of Relax on ''The Tube'', before the band were signed to ZTT, featured another verse that was edited from all the released versions, \"In heaven everything is fine, you've got yours and I've got mine\", presumably removed as it was taken directly from the David Lynch film ''Eraserhead''.According to a fan enquiry by a member of the Alternate forum (a forum dedicated to ZTT) to Holly Johnson over accusation that \"Edition 2\" was created by a DJ, \"Edition 2\" was edited by Trevor Horn at the Sarm East studio with J. J. Jeczalik engineering and Johnson watching." ], [ "B-sides", "The 7-inch featured \"One September Monday\", an interview between ZTT's Paul Morley, Holly Johnson and Paul Rutherford.", "During the interview, Holly revealed that the group's name derived from a page of the ''New Yorker'' magazine, headlined \"Frankie Goes Hollywood\" and featuring Frank Sinatra \"getting mobbed by teenyboppers\".On all of the original 12-inch releases, the B-side featured a cover of \"Ferry 'Cross the Mersey\", followed by a brief dialogue involving Rutherford attempting to sign on, and an a cappella version of the title track's chorus, segueing into an instrumental version of \"Relax\", known as \"Bonus, Again\" (which resembles \"Come Fighting\" more than the 7\" mix).The UK cassette single included \"Ferry 'Cross the Mersey\" and interview sections not included on \"One September Monday\"." ], [ "Videos", "The first official music video for \"Relax\", directed by Bernard Rose and set in an S&M themed gay nightclub, featuring the bandmembers accosted by buff leathermen, a glamorous drag queen, and an obese admirer dressed up as a Roman emperor, played by actor John Dair, was allegedly banned by MTV and the BBC, prompting the recording of a second video, directed by Godley and Creme in early 1984, featuring the group performing with the help of laser beams.", "However, after the second video was made the song was banned completely by the BBC, meaning that neither video was ever broadcast on any BBC music programmes.A live performance video of the song was directed by David Mallet, making the rounds at MTV.", "The live version was released as the B-side of the US 12\" version of \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" and titled \"Relax International.", "\"Another MTV video of the studio version includes footage from the Brian De Palma film ''Body Double''.", "''Body Double'', a popular 1984 erotic thriller film, contains a film within a film sequence in which Frankie Goes to Hollywood performs ''Relax'' on the set of a porn film." ], [ "''Zoolander'' versions", "\"Relax\" is a major plot point in the film ''Zoolander'' (2001), where the titular character is conditioned to assassinate a target when they hear the song.", "Limp Bizkit also recorded their own version for the film, though Powerman 5000's cover was used instead, in both the film and on the soundtrack.", "\"Relax\" was also used for the trailer of ''Zoolander 2'' (2016)." ], [ "Track listings", "* All discographical information pertains to original UK releases only unless noted* \"Relax\" written by Peter Gill/Johnson/Mark O'Toole* \"One September Monday\" credited to Gill/Johnson/Morley/Brian Nash/O'Toole/Rutherford* \"Ferry 'Cross the Mersey\" written by Gerry Marsden; '''7\": ZTT / ZTAS 1 (United Kingdom)'''# \"Relax\" – 3:53# \"One September Monday\" – 4:47* Also released as a 7\" picture disc (P ZTAS 1).", "; '''12\": ZTT / 12 ZTAS 1 (United Kingdom)'''# \"Relax\" (Sex Mix) – 16:24# \"Ferry 'Cross the Mersey\" – 4:03# \"Relax\" (Bonus, Again) – 4:31 * Later reissued in 1984 in a generic sleeve, with the text \"Original Mix\" on the label.", "* Mastered at 33⅓ RPM, despite claiming to run at 45 RPM on the label.", "The 1984 reissue runs at 45 RPM.", "; '''12\": ZTT / 12 ZTAS 1 (United Kingdom)'''# \"Relax\" (Sex Mix, Edition 2) – 8:20# \"Ferry 'Cross the Mersey\" – 4:03# \"Relax\" (Bonus, Again) – 4:31* \"Edition 2\" is an edit of \"Sex Mix\".", "Commonly nicknamed the \"New York Mix\".", "; '''12\": ZTT / 12 ZTAS 1 (United Kingdom)'''# \"Relax\" (New York Mix) – 7:23# \"Ferry 'Cross the Mersey\" – 4:03# \"Relax\" (Bonus, Again) – 4:31* \"Relax\" (New York Mix) is also known as \"Relax\" (U.S.", "Mix)* Also released as a 12\" picture disc (12 PZTAS 1).", "; '''12\": Island / 0-96975 (United States)'''# \"Relax\" (New York Mix) – 7:23# \"Relax\" (Come Fighting) – 3:53# \"Relax\" (Bonus, Again) – 4:31* \"New York Mix\" labelled as \"Long version\".", "* The mixes on the B-side are not stated on the label.", "* Also released on MC in Canada (Island / ISC-69750).", "; '''12\": ZTT / 062-2000686 (Greece)'''# \"Relax\" (Greek Disco Mix) – 6:15# \"Ferry 'Cross the Mersey\" – 4:03# \"Relax\" (Bonus, Again) – 4:31* \"Disco Mix\" (a.k.a.", "\"The Greek Disco Mix\") is a combination of \"Relax (7\" Mix)\" and \"Sex Mix (Edition 2)\".", "* \"Disco Mix\" (a.k.a.", "\"The Greek Disco Mix\") is labelled as \"Relax\" (Sex Mix) on the original 12\", which is incorrect.", "; '''MC: ZTT / CTIS 102'''* \"From Soft to Hard – From Dry to Moist\"# \"Relax\" (Greatest Bits) – 16:49## \"The Party Trick\" (acting dumb) – 0:36## \"The Special Act\" (adapted from the sex mix) – 7:46## \"The US Mix\" (come dancing) – 4:38## \"The Single\" (the act) – 3:55# \"Later On\" (from One September Monday) – 1:36# \"Ferry Across the Mersey (...and Here I'll Stay)\" – 4:06* The mixes on this cassette single reissued on vinyl for Record Store Day 2022 as side A of 'Altered Reels' – the cassette single of \"Two Tribes\" was reissued on side B." ], [ "Re-issues", "The title track has periodically been reissued as a single in a number of remix forms.===1993 re-issues===; '''CD: ZTT / FGTH1CD'''# \"Relax\" (Classic 1993 Version) – 3:55# \"Relax\" (MCMXCIII) – 3:42# \"Relax\" (Ollie J. Remix) – 6:38# \"Relax\" (Jam & Spoon Trip-O-Matic Fairy Tale Remix) – 7:52# \"Relax\" (Jam & Spoon HI N-R-G Remix) – 7:55# \"Relax\" (New York Mix – The Original 12\") – 7:22; '''2x12\": ZTT / SAM 1231'''# \"Relax\" (Ollie J. Remix) – 6:38# \"Relax\" (Trip-Ship Edit) – 6:12# \"Relax\" (Ollie J's Seven Inches) – 3:30# \"Relax\" (Jam & Spoon HI N-R-G Remix) – 7:55# \"Relax\" (Jam & Spoon Trip-O-Matic Fairy Tale Remix) – 7:52# \"Relax\" (MCMXCIII) – 3:42* UK 12\" promo===2001 re-issues===; '''CD: Repertoire Records / REP 8027 (Germany)'''# \"Relax\" (Classic 1993 Version) – 3:56# \"One September Monday\" – 4:50# \"Ferry 'Cross the Mersey\" – 4:06 # \"Relax MCMXCIII\" – 3:43# \"Relax\" (original video) – 4:07; '''CD: Star 69 / STARCD 520 (US)'''# \"Relax\" (Peter Rauhofer's Doomsday Radio Mix) – 3:45# \"Relax\" (Peter Rauhofer's Doomsday Club Mix) – 9:47# \"Relax\" (Saeed & Palash Addictive Journey) – 11:16# \"Relax\" (Coldcut Remix) – 4:59# \"Relax\" (Peter Rauhofer's Doomsday Dub) – 6:27# \"Relax\" (Original New York 12\" Mix) – 7:31# \"Relax\" (Original Radio Mix) – 3:54===2009 re-issues===; '''CD: Universal Music TV/All Around The World (UK)'''# \"Relax\" (Chicane Radio Edit) – 3:55# \"Relax\" (Chicane Remix) – 10:05# \"Relax\" (Den Broeder, Cox, Cantrelle Radio Edit) – 3:46# \"Relax\" (Den Broeder, Cox, Cantrelle Club Mix) – 7:39# \"Relax\" (Den Broeder, Cox, Cantrelle Dub Mix) – 6:39# \"Relax\" (LMC Remix) – 6:18# \"Relax\" (Lockout's Radio Edit) – 3:31# \"Relax\" (Lockout's London Mix) – 6:16# \"Relax\" (Spencer & Hill Radio Edit) – 3:21# \"Relax\" (Spencer & Hill Remix) – 5:40# \"Relax\" (Scott Storch Mix) – 3:45* Promotional release.", "* Tracks 3–5 are credited as “Jody Den Broeder Remix”.", "; '''12\": Universal Music TV/All Around The World / 12GLOBE1167 (UK)'''# \"Relax\" (Chicane Remix) – 10:05# \"Relax\" (Lockout's Radio Edit) – 3:30# \"Relax\" (New York Mix) – 7:24# \"Relax\" (Den Broeder, Cox, Cantrelle Radio Edit) – 3:42* Limited to 900 copies.", "* \"New York Mix\" mislabelled as \"US Mix\", arguably one of the few ZTT releases to do so.", "; '''Digital Download: Universal Music TV/All Around The World (UK)'''# \"Relax\" (Original 7\") – 3:55# \"Relax\" (Chicane Radio Edit) – 3:11# \"Relax\" (Den Broeder, Cox, Cantrelle Radio Edit) – 3:42# \"Relax\" (Lockout's Radio Edit) – 3:30# \"Relax\" (Spencer & Hill Radio Edit) – 3:21===2014 re-issues===; '''12\": ZTT/Salvo / SALVOTWS01 (UK)'''# \"Relax\" (Sex Mix Edit) mislabeled as \"Sex Mix Edition 3\" – 8:10# \"Ferry 'Cross the Mersey\" – 4:03# \"Relax\" (Bonus, Again) – 4:31* \"Sex Mix Edit\" was mixed by Luis Jardim with Bob Painter as engineer on 13 December 1984, having taken the multitracks with him (according to the booklet of The Art of The 12\" Volume 2).", "It was first released on the 2009 Japanese \"Return to the Pleasuredome\" box set by accident, due to confusion with \"Sex Mix Edition 2\".", "* \"Bonus, Again\" mislabelled \"The Instrumental\", as if it was an unreleased mix.", "; '''Digital Download: ZTT (UK)'''# \"Relax\" (7\" Mix) – 3:56# \"Relax\" (Sex Mix) – 16:25# \"Relax\" (New York Mix) – 7:26# \"Relax' (Greatest Bits) – 16:50# \"Relax\" (Sex Mix Edition 2) – 8:25# \"Relax\" (Sex Mix Edit) mislabeled as \"Sex Mix Edition 3\" – 8:10# \"Relax\" (Greek Disco Mix) – 6:16# \"Relax\" (The Last Seven Inches!)", "– 3:32# \"One September Monday\" – 4:49# \"Ferry Cross The Mersey\" – 4:08# \"Relax\" (Bonus, Again) – 4:35" ], [ "Charts", "=== Weekly charts ===+Weekly chart performance for \"Relax\"Chart (1983–1985)PeakpositionAustralia (Kent Music Report)5Denmark (Tracklisten)5Europe (Eurochart Hot 100 Singles)1Finland (The Official Finnish Charts)1France (SNEP)1Greece (IFPI Greece)1Hong Kong (Hong Kong Singles Chart)9Iceland (Tónlist)2Ireland (IRMA)3Israel (IBA)1Italy (''Musica e dischi'')1Poland (ZPAV)18Portugal (Portugal Singles Chart)18Spain (AFYVE) 1Thailand (Thailand Singles Chart)1UK Singles (OCC)1+Weekly chart performance for 1993 reissueChart (1993–1994)PeakpositionFinland (Suomen virallinen lista)1Ireland (IRMA)6Japan (Oricon)40Netherlands (Dutch Top 40)8New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)15Norway (VG-lista)7Sweden (Sverigetopplistan)15+Weekly chart performance for \"Relax '93\"Chart (1993–1994)PeakpositionEurope (European Dance Radio)7Germany (Media Control Charts)13UK Singles (OCC)5UK Dance (''Music Week'')1UK Club Chart (''Music Week'') 16===Year-end charts===+1984 year-end chart performance for \"Relax\"Chart (1984)PositionAustralia (Kent Music Report)16Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40)20Belgium (Ultratop)22France (SNEP) 12Netherlands (Dutch Top 40)63Netherlands (Single Top 100)33New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)16Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)6UK Singles (OCC)3West Germany (Official German Charts)3+1985 year-end chart performance for \"Relax\"Chart (1985)PositionUnited States (Joel Whitburn's ''Pop Annual'')102+1993 year-end chart performance for \"Relax\"Chart (1993)PositionNetherlands (Dutch Top 40)91+1993 year-end chart performance for \"Relax '93\"Chart (1993)PositionBelgium (Ultratop)98Germany (Official German Charts)92UK Singles (OCC)76" ], [ "Sales and certifications" ], [ "See also", "*List of songs banned by the BBC" ], [ "Bibliography", "*" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Two Tribes" ], [ "Introduction", "\"'''Two Tribes'''\" is an anti-war song by British band Frankie Goes to Hollywood, released in the UK by ZTT Records on 4 June 1984.The song was later included on the album ''Welcome to the Pleasuredome''.", "Presenting a nihilistic, gleeful lyric expressing enthusiasm for nuclear war, it juxtaposes a relentless pounding bass line and guitar riff inspired by American funk and R&B pop with influences of Russian classical music, in an opulent arrangement produced by Trevor Horn.The single was a phenomenal success in the UK, helped by a wide range of remixes and supported by an advertising campaign depicting the band as members of the Red Army.", "It entered the UK Singles Chart at number one on 10 June 1984, where it stayed for nine consecutive weeks, during which time the group's previous single \"Relax\" climbed back up the charts to number two.", "It was the longest-running number-one single in the UK of the 1980s.", "It has sold 1.58 million copies in the UK as of November 2012, being in the Top 30 best-selling singles in the UK as of 2022.Songwriters Johnson, Gill and O'Toole received the 1984 Ivor Novello award for Best Song Musically and Lyrically.", "In 2015 the song was voted by the British public as the nation's 14th-favourite 1980s number one in a poll for ITV." ], [ "Music", "A version of \"Two Tribes\" was originally recorded for a BBC John Peel session in October 1982.The session version makes clear that the basic structure of the song, including its signature bass-line, percussion arrangement and idiosyncratic introductory and middle eight sections, were already intact prior to any involvement from ZTT or eventual producer Trevor Horn.Johnson also noted: \"There's two elements in the music – an American funk line and a Russian line.", "It's the most obvious demonstration of two tribes that we have today.\"", "To accentuate the musical tension, Horn arranged the 'Russian' segments as a dramatic string arrangement.", "The driving funk/rock rhythm section was played on synthesisers." ], [ "Title and lyrics", "The single was released at a time when the Cold War had intensified and fears about global nuclear warfare were at a peak.", "Although Johnson would attest in a 1984 radio interview that the \"two tribes\" of the song potentially represented any pair of warring adversaries (giving the examples of \"cowboys and Indians or Captain Kirk and Klingons\"), the line \"On the air America/I modelled shirts by Van Heusen\" is a clear reference to then US President Ronald Reagan.", "Reagan had advertised for Phillips Van Heusen in 1953 (briefly reviving the association in the early 1980s).", "The title of his first film had been ''Love Is on the Air''.The lyric \"working for the black gas\" is, according to Johnson, \"About oil surpassing gold.", "How you might as well be paid in petrol.\"", "And the line \"Are we living in a land where sex and horror are the new gods?\"", "was inspired by the 1959 British film ''Cover Girl Killer''.", "Johnson explained, \"The TV was on in the background while I was doing me ironing and suddenly this character came out with that statement.\"", "(The actual dialogue, which occurs at about 48 minutes 24 seconds into the film, is \"Surely sex and horror are the new gods in this polluted world of so-called entertainment?", "\")The track featured snippets of narration from actor Patrick Allen, recreating his narration from the British ''Protect and Survive'' public information films about how to survive a nuclear war.", "(The original ''Protect and Survive'' soundtracks were sampled for the 7-inch mixes.", ")The 12-inch A- and B-sides featured voice parts by British actor Chris Barrie imitating Ronald Reagan.", "Barrie also voiced the Reagan puppet on ''Spitting Image''.", "Barrie's parts as 'Reagan' included praise for the band, as well as parts of Adolf Hitler's speech to a court after the Beer Hall Putsch: \"You may pronounce us guilty a thousand times over, but the Goddess of the Eternal Court of History will smile and tear to tatters the brief of the State Prosecutor and the sentence of this court, for She acquits us.\"", "Barrie also voiced the last sentence of \"History Will Absolve Me\" (Spanish: \"La historia me absolverá\") which is the concluding sentence and subsequent title of a four-hour speech made by Fidel Castro on 16 October 1953.Castro made the speech in his own defense in court against the charges brought against him after leading an attack on the Moncada Barracks on 26 July 1953.Barrie would return for the band's next single, \"The Power of Love\", imitating Mike Read in a parody of the DJ's ban on their previous single, \"Relax\".The song's title derives from the line \"two mighty warrior tribes went to war\" from the film ''Mad Max 2'' (the line is also spoken by Holly Johnson at the beginning of the session version)." ], [ "Critical reception", "American magazine ''Cash Box'' called it \"a more scintillating anti-war track than \"The War Song\", saying it is \"both an effective dance cut and a piece of modern art.\"", "Richard Harris from ''NME'' wrote, \"'Two Tribes' is a fine example of why over-production is a musical virtue, not least when it ceases to be a pop song and tries to disco-ise Tchaikovsky.\"" ], [ "Promotion", "ZTT aggressively marketed the single in terms of its topical political angle, promoting it with images of the group wearing American military garb in combat, as well as Soviet-style army uniforms set against an American urban backdrop.The original cover art featured a Soviet mural of Vladimir Lenin in St Petersburg, and images of Reagan and then-UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher.", "The sleeve notes, attributed to ZTT's Paul Morley, dispassionately reported details of the relative nuclear arsenals of each superpower." ], [ "Personnel", "Credits sourced from Sound On Sound'''Frankie Goes To Hollywood'''*Holly Johnson - lead vocals*Paul Rutherford - backing vocals'''Other Musicians'''*Trevor Horn - LinnDrum and Fairlight CMI programming; producer*J.J. Jeczalik - Fairlight CMI programming*Stephen Lipson - electric guitars, Synclavier programming*Andy Richards - Roland Jupiter-8 synthesizer, Roland MC-4 Microcomposer sequencer, Hammond organ" ], [ "Original 1984 mixes", "The song appeared in the form of six mixes, including \"Annihilation\", \"Carnage\", \"Hibakusha\", \"Cowboys and Indians\", \"We Don't Want to Die\" and \"For the Victims of Ravishment\".The first 12-inch mix (\"Annihilation\") started with an air-raid siren, and included advice from Allen about how to tag and dispose of family members should they die in the fallout shelter (taken from the public information film ''Casualties'').", "This version appeared on CD editions of the album.", "\"Annihilation\" was the basis for the \"Hibakusha\" mix, which was originally released in a limited edition, Japanese-only version of the 1985 album ''Bang!''.", "Hibakusha is the Japanese word for survivors of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.", "\"For the Victims of Ravishment\" appeared on the LP and cassette editions of the album ''Welcome to the Pleasuredome''.", "It is the shortest version, at 3:27 minutes.", "This mix derived from the \"Carnage\" mix, which prominently featured strings as well as vocal samples from Allen and the group's B-side interview.Since 1984, \"Two Tribes\" has been re-issued several times, generally involving third-party remixes bearing little relation to the original releases in terms of either structure or character." ], [ "B-sides", "The 7-inch featured \"One February Friday\", an interview between Morley and the group's three musicians, Mark O'Toole, Brian Nash and Peter Gill, over an otherwise untitled instrumental track.", "A similar track had been included on the B-side of \"Relax\", with the title \"One September Monday\".The principal B-side to the original 12-inch single was a cover version of \"War\", which became the subject of an extended remix (subtitled \"Hidden\") on the single's third UK 12-inch release, where it was promoted as a double A-side with \"Carnage\".The UK cassette single featured a cut-together combination of \"Surrender\", \"Carnage\" and \"Annihilation\", plus Reagan snippets and interview sections not included on any other release." ], [ "Videos", "The Godley & Creme-directed video depicted a wrestling match between then-US President Ronald Reagan and Konstantin Chernenko, then Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, in front of group members and an assembly of representatives from the world's nations.", "The match eventually degenerates into global destruction.", "Certain violent moments (\"Reagan\" is seen, for example, biting \"Chernenko's\" ear) were edited from the version shown on MTV.A longer version of the video (based on the \"Hibakusha\" mix) included an introductory, heavily edited monologue by Richard Nixon taken from an ad from his 1960 US Presidential campaign (\"No ... firm diplomacy ... No ... peace for America and the world\"), plus similar contributions from other world leaders, including Lord Beaverbrook, Yasser Arafat and John F. Kennedy.", "The complete soundtrack to the extended video was eventually released as \"Two Tribes (Video Destructo)\" on the German version of the ''Twelve Inches'' compilation.", "A third version of the video, included on the band's ''From An Wasteland to an Artificial Paradise'' VHS, retains the introduction, but omits most of the inserted clips in the main wrestling sequence." ], [ "Charts", "===Weekly charts===+Weekly chart performance for \"Two Tribes\"Chart (1984–85)PeakpositionAustralia (Kent Music Report)4Denmark (IFPI)6Europe (European Hot 100 Singles)2Finland (Suomen virallinen lista)2France (SNEP)22Greece (IFPI)1Iceland (RÚV)8Israel (IBA)2Italy (''Musica e dischi'')15South Africa (Springbok Radio)8Spain (AFYVE)8US ''Cash Box'' Top 10037Zimbabwe (ZIMA)15Chart (1994)PeakpositionUK Club Chart (''Music Week'') 30===Year-end charts===+1984 year-end chart performance for \"Two Tribes\"Chart (1984)PositionAustralia (Kent Music Report)20Belgium (Ultratop Flanders)2Netherlands (Dutch Top 40)6Netherlands (Single Top 100)14New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)12Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)22UK Singles (Gallup) 4US Dance Club Songs (''Billboard'') 34West Germany (Official German Charts)10" ], [ "Certifications" ], [ "Track listing", "All discographical information pertains to the original UK single release only.", "* \"Two Tribes\" written by Gill/Johnson/O'Toole* \"War\" written by Strong/Whitfield* \"One February Friday\" credited to Gill/Johnson/Morley/Nash/O'Toole/Paul Rutherford; 7\": ZTT / ZTAS 3 United Kingdom:# \"Two Tribes\" – 3:57# \"One February Friday\" – 4:55The A-side mix is commonly referred as \"Cowboys and Indians\" to avoid confusion with other mixes, as ZTT commonly gives the sides on singles separate names.", "Thus, \"One February Friday\" is sometimes subtitled as either \"Doctors and Nurses\" (as per the regular 7\") or \"Only Bullets Can Stop Them Now\" (as per the picture disc B-side label).", "; 7\" (picture disc): ZTT / P ZTAS 3 United Kingdom:# \"Two Tribes\" – 4:10# \"One February Friday\" – 4:55The A-side is an alternative mix to the regular 7\" (subtitled \"We Don't Want To Die\" on the B-side label).", "A common theory within many fans is that \"We Don't Want To Die\" is essentially \"Surrender\" with vocals.Also issued as a regular 7\" in Canada.", "; 12\": ZTT / 12 ZTAS 3 United Kingdom:# \"Two Tribes\" (Annihilation) – 9:08# \"War\" (Hide Yourself) – 4:12# \"One February Friday\" (12\" edit) - –1:46# \"Two Tribes\" (Surrender) – 3:46# \"The Last Voice\" (unlisted) – 1:14; 12\": Island Records / X-14065 Australia:# \"Two Tribes\" (Extended Version) – 9:10# \"War\" (Hide Yourself) – 4:12# \"Two Tribes\" – 4:11# \"One February Friday\" 4:57\"Extended Version\" is the same as \"Annihilation\".", "\"Two Tribes\" on the B-side is the 7\" picture disc mix.", "; 12\": ZTT / 12 XZTAS 3 United Kingdom:# \"Two Tribes\" (Carnage) – 7:54# \"War\" (Hide Yourself) – 4:12# \"One February Friday\" (12\" edit) – 1:46# \"Two Tribes\" (Surrender) – 3:46# \"The Last Voice\" (unlisted) – 1:14; 12\": ZTT / WARTZ 3 United Kingdom:# \"War\" (Hidden) – 8:33# \"Two Tribes\" (Carnage) 7:54# \"One February Friday\" (12\" edit) – 1:46; 12\": ZTT / X ZIP 1 United Kingdom:# \"Two Tribes\" (Hibakusha) – 6:38# \"War\" (Hide Yourself) – 4:12# \"One February Friday\" (12\" edit) – 1:46# \"Two Tribes\" (Surrender) – 3:46# \"The Last Voice\" Edited (unlisted) – 0:35; 12\": ZTT / XZTAS 3DJ United Kingdom:# Two Tribes (Carnage) – 7:56# Relax (New York Mix) – 7:23\"New York Mix\" was mislabeled as \"U.S mix\".", "; MC: ZTT / CTIS 103 United Kingdom:# \"On The Subject of Frankie Goes to Hollywood\" – 0:23# \"One February Friday (part 1)\" – 0:38# \"Two Tribes\" (Keep The Peace) – 15:17# \"One February Friday (part 2)\" – 1:08# \"War\" (Somewhere Between Hiding And Hidden) - 4:12# \"One February Friday (part 3) – 0:21# \"War Is Peace\" – 0:05\"Keep The Peace\" is a combination of Surrender, Carnage and Annihilation.The mixes on this cassette single reissued on vinyl for Record Store Day 2022 as Side B of 'Altered Reels' - The cassette single of \"Relax\" was reissued on Side A.; 2014 Digital Download #1: Two Tribes:# \"Two Tribes\" (Annihilation 7\") – 3:56# \"Two Tribes\" (Carnage 7\") – 4:12# \"Two Tribes\" (Annihilation) – 9:09# \"Two Tribes\" (Carnage) – 7:54# \"Two Tribes\" (Hibakusha) – 6:37# \"Two Tribes\" (Hibakush-ah!)", "– 6:59# \"One February Friday\" – 4:57# \"The Last Voice\" – 1:14\"Hibakush-ah!\"", "is an early version of \"Hibakusha\".", "; 2014 Digital Download #2: War (Hidden):# \"War!\"", "(Hidden) - 8:33# \"War!\"", "(Hide yourself!)", "– 4:14# \"One February Friday\" (12\" Edit) – 1:45# \"Two Tribes\" (Surrender) – 3:44# \"War!\"", "(..And Hide) – 6:13# \"War!\"", "(Coming out of Hiding) – 3:17" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "The Power of Love" ], [ "Introduction", "'''The Power of Love''' or '''Power of Love''' may refer to:" ], [ "Film and television", "*''The Power of Love'' (film), an early 3D film demonstrated in 1922*\"The Power of Love\", an episode of ''The O.C.''", "(2005)*\"The Power of Love\", an episode of ''Degrassi: The Next Generation'' (2004)" ], [ "Music", "===Albums===*''The Power of Love'' (Fish Leong album), 2003*''The Power of Love'' (Sam Bailey album), 2014*''Power of Love'' (Hour Glass album), 1967*''Power of Love'' (Luther Vandross album), 1991*''Harry and the Potters and the Power of Love'', 2006*''Power of Love'', by Arlo Guthrie, 1981*''The Power of Love'' (Captain Sensible album), 1983===Songs===*\"(You Got) The Power of Love\", by The Everly Brothers (1966)*\"The Power of Love\" (Charley Pride song) (1984)*\"The Power of Love\" (Jennifer Rush song) (1984), and notably covered by Air Supply (1985), Laura Branigan (1987), and Celine Dion (1993)*\"The Power of Love\" (Frankie Goes to Hollywood song) (1984)*\"The Power of Love\" (Huey Lewis and the News song) (1985)*\"Power of Love\" (Deee-Lite song) (1990)*\"Power of Love\", by Judy and Mary (1993)*\"The Power of Love\", a composition by Percy Grainger*\"Power of Love/Love Power\", by Luther Vandross*\"The Power of Love\", by 10cc from ''Ten Out of 10''*\"The Power of Love\", by Corona*\"The Power of Love\", by Ray Conniff*\"Power of Love\" (Joe Simon song) (1972)*\"Power of Love\", by Mahavishnu Orchestra, the opening track from their album ''Apocalypse''*\"Power of Love\", by Gary Wright, from the album ''The Dream Weaver''*\"The Power of Love\", from ''Sailor Moon & The Scouts - Lunarock'' soundtrack" ], [ "See also", "*Love Power (disambiguation)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Welcome to the Pleasuredome (song)" ], [ "Introduction", "\"'''Welcome to the Pleasuredome'''\" is the title track to the 1984 debut album by English pop band Frankie Goes to Hollywood.", "The lyrics of the song were inspired by the poem ''Kubla Khan'' by Samuel Taylor Coleridge.In March 1985, the album track was abridged and remixed for release as the group's fourth UK single.While criticised at the time of release and afterward for being a song that glorifies debauchery, the lyrics (and video), just as Coleridge's poem, were about the ''dangers'' of mindless indulgence.", "This song, along with \"Relax\", made Frankie Goes to Hollywood even more controversial than they already were.", "''Billboard'' compared it to \"Relax\", saying that \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" had \"less hook, less controversy, more drama.\"" ], [ "Original 1985 single", "Despite the group's record label (ZTT) pre-emptively promoting the single as \"their fourth number one\", an achievement that would have set a new UK record for consecutive number one singles by a debuting artist, \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart, being kept off the top spot by the Phil Collins/Philip Bailey duet \"Easy Lover\".", "The single spent a total of eleven weeks on the UK chart.It was the first release by the group not to reach number one and, despite representing a creditable success in its own right, it symbolically confirmed the end of the chart invincibility that the group had enjoyed during 1984.Frankie Goes to Hollywood would not release another record for seventeen months, and they would fail to emulate their past chart success upon their return.The spoken-word introductions to both 12-inch mixes are adapted from Walter Kaufmann's 1967 translation of Friedrich Nietzsche's ''The Birth of Tragedy''.", "The recitation on the first 12-inch (\"Real Altered\") is by Gary Taylor, whilst that on the second 12-inch (\"Fruitness\") and the cassette is by actor Geoffrey Palmer.", "It is unknown whether Palmer's concluding \"Welcome to the Pleasured''r''ome\" was a genuine mistake or a deliberately scripted one.This is the only single from the group that was not released on a CD single at that time.", "\"Relax\", \"Two Tribes\", \"The Power of Love\" and \"Rage Hard+\" all saw a CD-maxi release in Germany at the end of the '80s.", "\"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" was not given such a release.", "However, the 7-inch vinyl single was released in two different mixes, and it was purely random as to which one you ended up with, as both mixes were in identical sleeve designs and carried the same catalogue number.", "Not only that, but the subtitle used to identify different mixes was identical on both record labels, with only the matrix number on the run out groove giving the game away.", "The first 7-inch (matrix 7 A 1 U) carried the normal 7-inch single mix, which was guitar driven.", "However, the \"secret\" alternative mix (matrix 7 A 7 U or 7 A 8 U) was quite different, and featured on the apple-shaped picture disc.", "The subtitle for that disc was 'alternative reel' but on the 7-inch single the subtitle remained unchanged as 'altered real'." ], [ "B-sides", "All releases featured an edited version of \"Get It On\", originally recorded for a BBC Radio 1 session in 1983 (a full-length version was included on the cassette release), plus a faded or full length version of \"Happy Hi!", "\", a non-album track.Both \"Relax (International)\" and \"Born to Run\" are live recordings (with some minor overdubs), based on an actual live appearance on ''The Tube's'' \"Europe A-Go-Go\" in Newcastle during early January 1985." ], [ "Music video", "The music video for \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" was directed by Bernard Rose.", "It features the group stealing a car whilst Holly is flying in a helicopter chasing them, going to a carnival and encountering all manner of deceptively \"pleasureable\" activities.", "The audio soundtrack of the video was included as part of the cassette single.Three edits were made, the regular 4:55 version with the regular 7-inch mix, a 5:45 version matching what was included on the cassette single and a 7:52 version with a longer, different intro." ], [ "Promotional releases", "In 1984, a few months prior to the album's release, an early instrumental version of the album track was issued as a promotional 12-inch single, entitled \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome (Pleasure Fix)\", along with a similar early instrumental of \"The Only Star in Heaven\" (subtitled \"Star Fix\").", "These tracks were subsequently given wider release as part of the B-side to the second 12-inch of \"The Power of Love\" single.", "\"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" was also used on several promotional records in the USA during 1985, featuring the following tracks in various combinations:*The second UK 7-inch mix of the track (\"Alternative Reel\"), labelled \"Trevor Horn Re-mix Edit\".", "*An edited version of the album track created by the Sacramento radio station KZAP, and known as \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome (KZAP Edit)\" (6:22)*A version of the second UK 7-inch mix (\"Alternative Reel\") with a new introduction added, and known as \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome (Urban Mix)\" (8:08).", "This is on the Bang!", "Japanese album and CD, alongside the digital \"Fruitness\" single.", "*A slightly edited (spoken introduction removed) version of \"Relax (International)\" (4:26)" ], [ "Track listings", "* All discographical information pertains to the original UK single release only.", "* All songs written by Peter Gill/Holly Johnson/Brian Nash/Mark O'Toole, unless otherwise noted.PZTAS 7 picture disc.", "'''7-inch: ZTT / ZTAS 7 (UK)'''# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Altered Real) – 4:20# \"Get It On\" (Marc Bolan) – 3:28# \"Happy Hi!\"", "fade (Gill/Johnson/O'Toole) – 3:47*Matrix numbers on A-side: 1U/2U*\"Get It On\" has the third verse edited out, going from the second chorus to the fourth verse.", "*The \"Altered Real\" mix is also known as \"Alternative to Reality\".", "'''7-inch: ZTT / ZTAS 7 (UK)'''# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Alternative Reel) a.k.a.", "Escape Act Video Mix or A Remade World – 5:05# \"Get It On\" – 3:28# \"Happy Hi!\"", "– 4:04*Matrix numbers on A-side: 7U/8U*Also issued in Ireland and Canada.", "'''7-inch: ZTT / PZTAS 7 (UK)'''# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Alternative Reel) – 5:05# \"Get It On\" – 2:32# \"Happy Hi!\"", "– 4:04*Apple-shaped picture disc single*\"Get It On\" has the third and fourth verses edited out, going from the second verse to the fourth chorus.", "'''7-inch: Island / 7-99653 (US)'''# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Trevor Horn Remix) – 4:20# \"Relax\" (International Live) – 4:26*A-side is actually the \"Altered Real\" mix.", "'''7-inch: Island / 107 199 EP (Germany)'''# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Altered Real) - 4:22# \"Get It On\" – 2:32# \"Happy Hi!\"", "– 4:04*\"Get It On\" has the third and fourth verses edited out, going from the second verse to the fourth chorus.", "Also issued in Australia without \"Get It On\".", "'''12-inch: ZTT / 12 ZTAS 7 (UK)'''# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Real Altered) – 9:42# \"Get It On\" – 3:28# \"Happy Hi!\"", "– 4:04# \"Relax\" (International) (Gill/Johnson/O'Toole) – 4:51*\"Get It On\" is the same as the UK 7-inch edit.", "*\"Relax\" (International) was re-released in 2012 on the ''Sexmix'' compilation in a very slightly edited (first words of spoken introduction removed) version.", "*\"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Real Altered) also known as \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome (How to Remake the World)\".", "'''12-inch: ZTT / 12 XZTAS 7 (UK)'''12 XZTAS 7 cover art.", "; A: 'Fruitness'# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Fruitness) – 12:15; B: 'Fruitness and light'# \"Get It On\" – 2:32# \"Happy Hi!\"", "– 4:04# \"Born to Run\" (\"live\") – 4:49*\"Fruitness\" (usually portrayed without the 1:25 outro) is commonly referred as \"The Alternative\" by fans.", "*\"Born to Run\" was recorded live in Newcastle in January 1985 during the \"Europe A-Go-Go\" tour.", "On other releases this version is labelled as \"Born to Run (Live on the Tube)\"'''12-inch: Island / 0-96889 (US)'''# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Trevor Horn Remix) – 9:47# \"Get It On\" – 2:32# \"Happy Hi!\"", "– 4:02# \"Relax\" (International/Live) – 4:51*A-side is actually the \"Real Altered\" mix.", "Also issued in Germany, and in Australia without \"Get It On\".", "'''Cassette: ZTT / CTIS 107 (UK)'''# \"Happy Hi!\"", "(All in the Body) – 1:18# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (The Soundtrack from Bernard Rose's Video)\" – 5:37# \"Get It On\" – 4:06# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Real Altered) – 9:23# \"Happy Hi!\"", "(All in the Mind) – 1:05*\"Real Altered\" plays at a slightly faster speed here.", "A 11:40 version of the regular \"Real Altered\" appears on the digital release and the ''Sexmix'' compilation.", "*The complete cassette was slightly edited and re-released in 2012 on ''Sexmix''.", "By mistake, the re-release was originally pressed in mono and was corrected via a mail-in replacement campaign." ], [ "Charts", "===Weekly charts===Chart (1985)PeakpositionAustralia (Kent Music Report)46France (IFOP)65Iceland (RÚV)5Chart (1993)PeakpositionUK Singles (OCC)18UK Dance (''Music Week'')3UK Club Chart (''Music Week'') 20Chart (2000)PeakpositionUK Singles (OCC)45===Year-end charts===Chart (1985)PositionUK Singles (OCC)48" ], [ "Reissues", "The track has periodically been reissued as a single, including during 1993 and 2000.Although these releases have some admirers, and have usefully made available various original mixes on CD for the first time, the accompanying A-side remixes by contemporary DJs have tended on the whole to bear little or no comparison to the spirit of the originals.Reissues in the group's name have also tended to shun any overt reference to the identity of the original artists, and the reissue artwork has notably featured no images of the group.", "It has been suggested that this situation may relate to Johnson's successful but acrimonious court case against ZTT in 1989, which freed him (and effectively the other group members) from their contract with the label.===1993 reissues===* '''CD: ZTT / FGTH2CD United Kingdom'''# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Original 7-inch) – 4:22# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Brothers in Rhythm Rollercoaster Mix) – 14:36# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Elevatorman's Non-stop Top Floor Club Mix) – 6:06# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Pleasurefix Original 12-inch Mix) – 9:41(Track 4 is mislabelled.", "It's the \"Real Altered\" version from 12 ZTAS 7.", ")* '''12-inch: ZTT / FGTH2T United Kingdom'''# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Brothers in Rhythm Rollercoaster Mix) – 14:36# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Elevatorman's Non-stop Top Floor Club Mix) – 6:06# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Elevatorman's Deep Down Bass-Ment Dub) – 6:02===2000 reissues===* '''CD: ZTT / ZTT 166CD United Kingdom'''# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Sleazesister Album Mix Edit) – 3:35# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Nalin & Kane Remix Edit) – 8:00# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Sleazesister Anthem Mix) – 7:32* '''CD: Avex / AVTCDS-296 Japan'''# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Nalin & Kane Full Length Mix) – 11:23# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Sander's Coming Home Mix) – 10:18# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Paralyzer Remix) – 5:17# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Nalin & Kane Dub) – 11:22# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Sleazesister Edit) – 3:53# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Sleazesister Full Length Club) – 7:32# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Pleasurefix Mix) – 9:40* '''12-inch: ZTT / ZTT 166 T United Kingdom'''# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Nalin & Kane Remix) – 11:23# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Sander's Coming Home Remix) – 10:18===2014 reissues===* '''Digital download (regular)'''# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Altered Real) – 4:23# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Real Altered) – 9:40# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Alternative Reel) ''reel'' misspelt as ''real'' – 5:08# \"Get It On\" (short version) – 2:36# \"Happy Hi!\"", "– 4:06# \"Relax\" (International) – 4:43* '''Digital download (Fruitness)'''# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Fruitness) – 12:15# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Urban) – 8:05# \"Welcome to the Pleasuredome\" (Pleasurefix) – 9:44# \"The Only Star in Heaven\" (Starfix) – 3:54# \"Get It On\" (short version) – 2:36# \"Happy Hi!\"", "– 4:06# \"Born to Run\" (International) – 4:54" ], [ "Other versions", "The instrumental \"Into Battle Mix\" appears on the soundtrack to the film ''Toys'', specifically utilised whenever the Tommy Tanks appeared." ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Rage Hard" ], [ "Introduction", "\"'''Rage Hard'''\" is the fifth single by English pop band Frankie Goes to Hollywood.", "It was released on 25 August 1986 as the first single from their second album ''Liverpool''.", "The song was a radical departure for the band, going for an edgier rock approach with thumping drums, guitar solos and scaled back synths.", "The lyrics and title take inspiration from the poem ''Do Not Go Gently Into That Good Night'' by Dylan Thomas: it reflects heavily on death and not giving up even in the darkest moments.The song was a commercial success, reaching number 4 in the UK Charts single and number 1 in Germany.", "It was also a massive success in other countries." ], [ "Background", "Having topped the charts around the world with ''Welcome to the Pleasuredome'' and its accompanying singles, Frankie Goes to Hollywood took off to Amsterdam to record the follow-up album, ''Liverpool''.", "Taking on a rockier edge, \"Rage Hard\" was the first single culled from the album.Of note, \"Rage Hard\" was a testament to the changing musical landscape in Britain at the time.", "It was not only the first Frankie single to be featured on CD single, it was also the first single to not feature a cassette release - new rules limited the number of items that could count towards the official charts, following the earlier ZTT excesses.", "\"Rage Hard\" eventually hit Number 4 in the UK singles charts and Number 1 in Germany (for two weeks), #5 in Switzerland, #7 in the Netherlands, #12 in Austria, #19 in Sweden and #32 in France." ], [ "B-sides", "The B-sides to \"Rage Hard\" were, for the most part, straight forward cover songs.", "Firstly there was a cover of David Bowie's 1972 glam-rock classic \"Suffragette City\", slightly renamed to \"SuffRAGEtte City\" to fit in with the \"Rage Hard\" promotion.", "The second cover song was \"Roadhouse Blues\" by The Doors which featured on the second 12\".", "A shorter version features on the CD single.The original B-side is an odd composition entitled \"(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind\".", "It was released in two versions, a 4-minute mix and a 6-minute mix and featured Holly Johnson and Brian Nash imitating Count von Count (\"Ha ha ha/I am the Count\") from the children's TV show ''Sesame Street''.", "This was complemented by sampled burps and belches over a backing track." ], [ "Track listing", "All discographical information pertains to UK releases only.===7\": ZTT / ZTAS 22 United Kingdom ===\"rage rage\"# \"Rage Hard\" (7\" mix) – 5:05# \"(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind\" – 4:03*The standard release features all five coloured fists on the cover.", "*20,000 copies in a pop-up gatefold sleeve (with the \"Rage Hard\" fists being the pop-up), featuring the orange fist (ZTD22).===7\": ZTT / ZTAX 22 United Kingdom ===# \"Rage Hard\" (stamped) – 4:55# \"(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind\" – 4:03*\"Stamped\" is an edit of the \"Broad\" mix from the second 12\" (sleeve featuring the blue fist).", "*Released to celebrate the song entering #6 on the UK charts on 6 September 1986.All \"Rage Hard\" releases===12\": ZTT / 12 ZTAS 22 United Kingdom ===\"Slam Bam\"# \"Rage Hard\" (The Young Person's Guide to the 12\" mix) – 12:08# \"The B-side\" + \"SuffRAGEtte City\" (David Bowie) – 3:31# \"(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind\" – 6:15# \"'always note the sequencer...'\" – 0:22*An edit (10:05) of track 1 is also known as \"Young Person's Guide into the 12-inch\".", "*This 12\" was also released with a 12\"x24\" poster (12 ZTAQ 22), limited to 20,000 copies.", "*Also released on German CD (Island / 658 434).===12\": ZTT / 12 ZTAX 22 United Kingdom ===# \"Rage Hard\" (broad mix) – 8:36# \"Roadhouse Blues\" – 4:03# \"(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind\" – 6:15# \"'always note the sequencer...'\" – 0:22*Sleeve featuring the yellow fist.", "*This release also came in a limited edition cardboard box which was designed to contain the complete set of \"Rage Hard\" UK releases.", "The front of the box lists the relevant catalogue numbers of the intended contents, minus the \"Stamped\" mix 7\" single which is not listed.", "The box, called \"The Total\" had a sticker which made it clear that only 12 ZTAX 22 was included.", "It is still not established whether any box sets with their intended contents were ever officially released or indeed sold by record stores, but it's highly likely that some stores sold a complete set on request, if not officially.", "*The \"Broad\" mix is also known as \"Rage Hard ⊕⊕\".", "*Track 2 is labelled as \"Broadhouse Blues\" on the sleeve.", "*Track 3 is labelled as \"(Don't '''Loose''' What's Left) Of Your Little Mind\" on the front sleeve.===CD: ZTT / CD ZCID 22 United Kingdom ===# \"Rage Hard (⊕⊕⊕✪)\" – 17:12# \"SuffRAGEtte City\" – 3:31# \"\"Don't lose what's left..\"\" + \"Roadhouse Blues\" (compacted) – 3:54*Sleeve featuring the purple fist.", "*\"⊕⊕⊕✪\" is a combined edit of \"Stamped\", \"The Young Person's Guide to the 12\"\" and \"Broad\".Tracks 1 and 3.1 were re-released on the ''Sexmix'' compilation in 2012.===12\" promo: Island / DMD 987 United States ===# \"Rage Hard\" (Freddie Bastone vocal remix) – 7:00# \"Rage Hard\" (Freddie Bastone remix edit) – 4:03# \"Rage Hard\" (Freddie Bastone remix dub) – 5:30===Digital download: ZTT===# \"Rage Hard\" (7\" mix) – 5:09# \"Rage Hard\" (stamped) – 5:00# \"Rage Hard\" (7\" mix, instrumental) labelled as \"Voiceless\" – 5:07# \"Rage Hard\" (The Young Person's Guide to the 12\" mix) labelled as \"⊕\" – 12:07# \"Rage Hard\" (broad mix) labelled as \"⊕⊕\" – 8:42# \"Suffragette City\" – 3:35# \"(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind\" – 6:15# \"Roadhouse Blues\" – 4:07# \"'always note the sequencer...'\" labelled as \"Rage Hard\" (⊕⊕ Coda) – 0:24*Later versions replace \"Voiceless\" with the \"Montreux\" mix (5:34).", "*Track 1 is actually the album version with the spoken intro." ], [ "1993 version", "In 1993, a version of the song appeared as a B-side of \"The Power of Love\" reissue (FGTH 3), entitled the \"original DJ mix\".", "This version is the original 7\" mix from 1986, but with the first chorus removed.", "Instead, the first verse and second verse are jointed together.", "This release can also be found on a large centre hole 7\" disc with the label details stamped into the naked vinyl, as opposed to a paper or printed label." ], [ "Charts", "===Weekly charts===Chart (1986)PeakpositionAustralia (Kent Music Report)45Finland (Suomen virallinen lista)2France (IFOP)21Italy (''Musica e dischi'')3Spain (AFYVE)23US Hot Dance Music/Maxi-Singles Sales (''Billboard'')42===Year-end charts===Chart (1986)PositionNetherlands (Dutch Top 40)65Netherlands (Single Top 100)29Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)23UK Singles (OCC)77West Germany (GfK Entertainment)15" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Liverpool (album)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Liverpool''''' is the second and final studio album by British band Frankie Goes to Hollywood, released in October 1986.Produced by Stephen Lipson and mixed by Trevor Horn, the album showcases a heavy rock sound in contrast to the synth dance tone found in its predecessor, ''Welcome to the Pleasuredome''.", "The recording sessions would be marred by the radical change in musical direction creating tension within the band.The album received mixed reviews from critics and was a commercial disappointment compared to its predecessor, but it charted at number 5 in the United Kingdom and was a modest success in other countries.", "It would be supported by the lead single “Rage Hard”, a UK number 5 and number 1 in Germany.", "Liverpool would be the band's final album as lead singer Holly Johnson would leave the band followed by a flurry of lawsuits from ZTT." ], [ "Recording", "Johnson was distant from the band during the sessions and was unhappy about the album's focus on rock over dance.", "Jill Sinclair, Horn's wife and one of the ZTT founders, later alleged that Johnson had been uncooperative and absent for most of the sessions.", "According to Nash, Johnson's was preoccupied with the serious illness of Wolfgang Kuhle, then Johnson's boyfriend, but he did not tell the band.", "Johnson's distancing and disinterest came to the point that the band members concluded he was \"finished and were in the market for a new singer\".", "They invited Duran Duran singer Simon Le Bon but he declined, Pete Wylie was also approached, but Johnson eventually remained with the band and completed ''Liverpool''.", "The session studio recordings were made in Ibiza, Holland and London." ], [ "Production", "The album's production was handled by Trevor Horn's engineer Stephen Lipson, who urged the band to play their own instruments on this album (Horn having replaced many of the band's performances and arrangements with his session musicians or his own performances on ''Welcome to the Pleasuredome'').", "According to Nash, the band was given contradicting information, with Horn considered as a producer or executive producer.", "In the end Horn took over mixing it on which \"spent a whopping £500,000 (making £840,000 in all) tidying it up\".", "The band was so much in debt that they had to sell at least a million copies to start earning \"a penny\"." ], [ "Music", "''Liverpool'' features a heavier rock sound than its predecessor.", "Frankie Goes to Hollywood have not released any more studio albums since ''Liverpool''.", "The cover photo was different depending on what format was purchased (LP, cassette, or compact disc)." ], [ "Release", "The album was a commercial disappointment compared to the band's previous effort, though it charted generally high at No.", "5 in the United Kingdom and Germany, No.", "7 on the Austrian and Swiss music charts and No.", "8 in Norway.", "It produced the top 5 single \"Rage Hard\" (No.", "1 in Germany), top 20 single \"Warriors of the Wasteland\" and top 30 single \"Watching the Wildlife\".", "By March 1988, the album had sold around 800,000 copies.", "On 20 June 2011 was released a 2xCD reissue including session recordings, mixes and covers of David Bowie, the Doors and Rolling Stones." ], [ "Critical reception", "In the 80s and 90s album received poor critical reception.", "''The Rolling Stone Album Guide'' wrote: \"Like most of the era's one-hit wonders, the group did make a second album, though God only knows why anyone would want to hear it.", "\"Alex S. Garcia writing 2.5/5 review for AllMusic considered that \"on many accounts, ''Liverpool'' can be considered as an improvement over its predecessor\", that being shorter duration and almost the same quality of all songs, and \"the production is impeccable ... worth a listen if you like the band or have an interest for 80s music—of which this is not such a bad sample\".Paul Lester in BBC review of 2011 reissue noted how \"many of the original tracks are straight hard rock/metal, with the lavish sonics and orchestral pomp typical of the ZTT label dropped on top\", and that the reissue is \"a superb repackage of what remains one of the great anticlimaxes in pop\".Steve Howe, who played on the album, said in a 2023 interview, \"I just was hoping so much that ''Liverpool'' ... would ... make a meaningful dent in the ... success of the band because it was just great.\"" ], [ "Track listing" ], [ "Personnel", ";Frankie Goes to Hollywood*Holly Johnson – lead vocals*Paul Rutherford – backing vocals*Brian Nash – guitar*Mark O'Toole – bass guitar*Peter Gill – drums'''Additional personnel'''*Trevor Horn – executive producer*Betsy Cook – backing vocals *Barry Diament – mastering*Stephen Lipson – guitar, keyboards, producer*Steve Howe, Trevor Rabin – guitar*Heff Moraes – assistant engineer*Richard Niles – string arrangements, brass arrangement*Andy Richards, Peter-John Vettese – keyboards*Anton Corbijn – photography" ], [ "Charts", "===Weekly charts===+ Weekly chart performance for ''Liverpool'' Chart (1986) Peakposition Australian Albums (Kent Music Report) 72 European Albums (''Music & Media'') 4 Finnish Albums (Suomen virallinen lista) 21 Icelandic Albums (Tónlist) 1===Year-end charts===+ 1986 year-end chart performance for ''Liverpool'' Chart (1986) Position Dutch Albums (Album Top 100) 92 European Albums (''Music & Media'') 92+ 1987 year-end chart performance for ''Liverpool'' Chart (1987) Position European Albums (''Music & Media'') 97 German Albums (Offizielle Top 100) 52" ], [ "Certifications" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Faroese language" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Faroese''' ( ; ) is a North Germanic language spoken as a first language by about 69,000 Faroe Islanders, of which 21,000 reside mainly in Denmark and elsewhere.It is one of six languages descended from Old West Norse spoken in the Middle Ages, the others being Norwegian, Icelandic, and the extinct Norn and Greenlandic Norse.", "Faroese and Icelandic, its closest extant relative, are not easily mutually intelligible in speech, but the written languages resemble each other quite closely, largely owing to Faroese's etymological orthography." ], [ "History", "The Sheep letter () is the oldest surviving document of the Faroe Islands.", "Written in 1298 in Old Norse, it contains some words and expressions believed to be especially Faroese.The Fámjin stone, a Faroese runestone Around 900 AD, the language spoken in the Faroes was Old Norse, which Norse settlers had brought with them during the time of the settlement of Faroe Islands () that began in 825.However, many of the settlers were not from Scandinavia, but descendants of Norse settlers in the Irish Sea region.", "In addition, women from Norse Ireland, Orkney, or Shetland often married native Scandinavian men before settling in the Faroe Islands and Iceland.", "As a result, the Irish language has had some influence on both Faroese and Icelandic.", "There is speculation about Irish language place names in the Faroes: for example, the names of Mykines, Stóra Dímun, Lítla Dímun and Argir have been hypothesized to contain Celtic roots.", "Other examples of early-introduced words of Celtic origin are: / (buttermilk), cf.", "Middle Irish ; (tail-piece of an animal), cf.", "Middle Irish ; (head, headhair), cf.", "Middle Irish ; (hand, paw), cf.", "Middle Irish ; (bull), cf.", "Middle Irish ; and (pasture in the outfield), cf.", "Middle Irish .Between the 9th and the 15th centuries, a distinct Faroese language evolved, although it was probably still mutually intelligible with Old West Norse, and remained similar to the Norn language of Orkney and Shetland during Norn's earlier phase.Faroese ceased to be a written language after the union of Norway with Denmark in 1380, with Danish replacing Faroese as the language of administration and education.", "The islanders continued to use the language in ballads, folktales, and everyday life.", "This maintained a rich spoken tradition, but for 300 years the language was not used in written form.In 1823, the Danish Bible Society published a diglot of the Gospel of Matthew, with Faroese on the left and Danish on the right.Venceslaus Ulricus Hammershaimb and the Icelandic grammarian and politician Jón Sigurðsson published a written standard for Modern Faroese in 1854, which still exists.", "They set a standard for the orthography of the language, based on its Old Norse roots and similar to that of Icelandic.", "The main purpose of this was for the spelling to represent the diverse dialects of Faroese in equal measure.", "Additionally, it had the advantages of being etymologically clear and keeping the kinship with the Icelandic written language.", "The actual pronunciation, however, often differs considerably from the written rendering.", "The letter ''ð'', for example, has no specific phoneme attached to it.Jakob Jakobsen devised a rival system of orthography, based on his wish for a phonetic spelling, but this system was never taken up by the speakers.In 1908, Scripture Gift Mission published the Gospel of John in Faroese.In 1937, Faroese replaced Danish as the official school language, in 1938, as the church language, and in 1948, as the national language by the Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands.", "Today, Danish is considered a foreign language, , and it is taught in school from the first grade.In 2017, the tourist board Visit Faroe Islands launched a website entitled Faroe Islands Translate.", "Text can be entered in thirteen languages, including English, Chinese, Russian, Japanese, French, Spanish, and Portuguese.", "Instead of an instant machine translation being given, the text goes to a volunteer who will provide a live video translation, or else a recorded one later.", "The aim of this project was to get Faroese featured on Google Translate." ], [ "Old Faroese", "Old Faroese (, ca.", "mid-14th to mid-16th centuries) is a form of Old Norse spoken in medieval times in the Faroe Islands.", "The most crucial aspects of the development of Faroese are diphthongisation and palatalisation.There is not enough data available to establish an accurate chronology of Faroese, but a rough one may be developed through comparison to the chronologies of Old Icelandic and Old Norwegian.", "In the 12th/13th centuries, ''á'' and ''ǫ́'' merged as ; later on at the beginning of the 14th century, delabialization took place: ''y'', ''øy'', ''au'' > ; ''í'' and ''ý'' merged in addition to ''i'' and ''y'', but in the case of ''í'' and ''ý'', it appears that labialisation took place instead as is documented by later development to .", "Further, the language underwent a palatalisation of ''k'', ''g'' and ''sk'' before Old Norse ''e'', ''i'', ''y'', ''ø'', ''au'' > > > .", "Before the palatalisation ''é'' and ''ǽ'' merged as and approximately in the same period epenthetic ''u'' is inserted into word-final and clusters.", "A massive quantity shift also operated in Middle Faroese.", "In the case of ''skerping'', it took place after delabialization but before loss of post-vocalic ''ð'' and ''g'' .", "The shift of ''hv'' to , the deletion of in (remaining) word-initial –sonorant clusters (''hr'', ''hl'', ''hn'' > ''r'', ''l'', ''n''), and the dissolution of ''þ'' (''þ'' > ''t''; ''þ'' > ''h'' in demonstrative pronouns and adverbs) appeared before the end of the 13th century.", "Another undated change is the merger of ''ǫ'', ''ø'' and ''ǿ'' into ; pre-nasal ''ǫ'', ''ǫ́'' > ''o'', ''ó''.", "''enk'', ''eng'' probably became , in the 14th century; the development of ''a'' to before ''ng'', ''nk'' appeared after the palatalisation of ''k'', ''g'', and ''sk'' had been completed, such a change is quite a recent development, as well as change ''Cve'' > ''Cvø''.+ Development of vowels from Old Norse to Modern Faroese 9th century(Old Norse) up to 14th century(Early Faroese) 14th–16th centuries(Old Faroese) 17th century(Late Old Faroese) 20th century(New Faroese)       North South North South North South       long short long short long short long short   i and y i, y e and æ e ø ø ǫ ø u u o o a a Long vowel -> Diphthong í and ý í, ý é and ǽ æ ǿ ø ú ú ó ó á and ǫ́ á True diphthongs au ey øy oy ei ei" ], [ "Alphabet", "The Faroese alphabet consists of 29 letters derived from the Latin script: '''Majuscule forms''' (also called '''uppercase''' or '''capital letters''')AÁBDÐEFGHIÍJKLMNOÓPRSTUÚVYÝÆØ '''Minuscule forms''' (also called '''lowercase''' or '''small letters''')aábdðefghiíjklmnoóprstuúvyýæø" ], [ "Phonology", "+Faroese vowels Front Central Back unrounded rounded short long short long short long short long Close Mid Open As with most other Germanic languages, Faroese has a large number of vowels, with 26 in total.", "Vowel distribution is similar to other North Germanic languages in that short vowels appear in closed syllables (those ending in consonant clusters or long consonants) and long vowels appearing in open syllables.Faroese vowel alternationsMonophthongsLong vowelShort vowel ''linur'' 'soft' ''lint'' 'soft (N.)' ''frekur'' 'greedy' ''frekt'' 'greedy (N.)' ''mytisk'' 'mythological' ''mystisk'' 'mysterious' ''høgur'' 'high (M.)' ''høgt'' 'high (N.)' ''gulur'' 'yellow' ''gult'' 'yellow (N.)' ''tola'' 'to endure' ''toldi'' 'endured' ''Kanada'' 'Canada' ''land'' 'land'DiphthongsLong vowelShort vowel ''hvítur'' 'white (M.)' ''hvítt'' 'white (N.)' ''deyður'' 'dead (M.)' ''deytt'' 'dead (N.)' ''feitur'' 'fat (M.)' ''feitt'' 'fat (N.)' ''gloyma'' 'to forget' ''gloymdi'' 'forgot' ''spakur'' 'calm (M.)' ''spakt'' 'calm (N.)' ''vátur'' 'wet (M.)' ''vátt'' 'wet (N.)' ''fúlur'' 'foul (M.)' ''fúlt'' 'foul (N.)' ''tómur'' 'empty (M.)' ''tómt'' 'empty (N.)'Faroese shares with Icelandic and Danish the feature of maintaining a contrast between stops based exclusively on aspiration, not voicing.", "Geminated stops may be pre-aspirated in intervocalic and word-final position.", "Intervocalically the aspirated consonants become pre-aspirated unless followed by a closed vowel.", "In clusters, the preaspiration merges with a preceding nasal or apical approximant, rendering them voiceless.+Faroese consonantsLabialAlveolarRetroflexPalatalVelarGlottal Nasal () () Stop () Fricative () Approximant () ()There are several phonological processes involved in Faroese, including:*Nasals generally assume the place of articulation and laryngeal settings of following consonants.", "*Velar stops palatalize to postalveolar affricates before and * becomes before voiceless consonants* becomes after and before * becomes retroflex before consonants in consonant clusters, yielding the allophones while itself becomes , example: is realized as .", "*Pre-occlusion of original to and to .", "*Pre-aspiration of original voiceless stops after non-high long vowels and diphthongs or when a voiceless stop is followed by .", "All long voiceless stops are pre-aspirated when doubled or in clusters ." ], [ "Grammar", "Faroese grammar is related and very similar to that of modern Icelandic and Old Norse.", "Faroese is an inflected language with three grammatical genders and four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and genitive.+Faroese Words and Phrases in comparison to other Germanic languages Faroese Icelandic Norwegian (nynorsk) Norwegian (bokmål) Danish Swedish German Dutch Frisian English Vælkomin Velkomin Velkomen Velkommen Velkommen Välkommen Willkommen Welkom Wolkom Welcome Farvæl Far vel; Farðu heill Farvel, Far vel Farvel Farvel Farväl Lebwohl Vaarwel Farwol Farewell Hvussu eitur tú?", "Hvað heitir þú?", "Kva (kvat) heiter du?", "Hva heter du?", "Hvad hedder du?", "Vad heter du?", "Wie heißt du?", "Hoe heet je?", "Wat is dyn namme?", "What is your name?", "Hvussu gongur?", "Hvernig gengur?", "Korleis gjeng / går det?", "Hvordan går det?", "Hvordan går det?", "Hur går det?", "Wie geht's?", "Hoe gaat het?", "Hoe giet it?", "How is it going?", "(How goes it?)", "Hvussu gamal (m) / gomul (f) ert tú?", "Hversu gamall (m) / gömul (f) ert þú?", "Kor gamal er du?", "Hvor gammel er du?", "Hvor gammel er du?", "Hur gammal är du?", "Wie alt bist du?", "Hoe oud ben je?", "Hoe âld bisto?", "How old are you?", "Reyður / reyð / reytt Rauður / rauð / rautt Raud(t) Rød(t) Rød(t) Rött / Röd Rot Rood / Rode Read Red Bláur / blá / blátt Blár / blá / blátt Blå(tt) Blå(tt) Blå(t) Blå(tt) Blau Blauw(e) Blau(e) Blue Hvítur / hvít / hvítt Hvítur / hvít / hvítt Kvit(t) Hvit(t) Hvid(t) Vit(t) Weiß Wit(te) Wyt White" ], [ "See also", "*Faroese language conflict*Goidelic languages*Gøtudanskt accent*Old Norwegian" ], [ "Further reading", "===To learn Faroese as a language===*Adams, Jonathan & Hjalmar P. Petersen.", "''Faroese: A Language Course for beginners'' Grammar & Textbook.", "Tórshavn, 2009: Stiðin (704 p.) *W. B. Lockwood: ''An Introduction to Modern Faroese.''", "Tórshavn, 1977.", "(no ISBN, 244 pages, 4th printing 2002)*Michael Barnes: ''Faroese Language Studies'' Studia Nordica 5, Supplementum 30.Tórshavn, 2002.", "(239 pages) *Höskuldur Thráinsson (Þráinsson), Hjalmar P. Petersen, Jógvan í Lon Jacobsen, Zakaris Svabo Hansen: ''Faroese.", "An Overview and Reference Grammar''.", "Tórshavn, 2004.", "(500 pages) *Richard Kölbl: ''Färöisch Wort für Wort''.", "Bielefeld 2004 (in German)* Faroeseonline.com===Dictionaries===*Johan Hendrik W. Poulsen: ''Føroysk orðabók''.", "Tórshavn, 1998.", "(1483 pages) (in Faroese)*Annfinnur í Skála / Jonhard Mikkelsen: ''Føroyskt / enskt – enskt / føroyskt'', Vestmanna: Sprotin 2008.", "(Faroese–English / English–Faroese dictionary, 2 volumes)*Annfinnur í Skála: ''Donsk-føroysk orðabók''.", "Tórshavn 1998.", "(1369 pages) (Danish–Faroese dictionary)*M.A.", "Jacobsen, Chr.", "Matras: ''Føroysk–donsk orðabók.''", "Tórshavn, 1961.", "(no ISBN, 521 pages, Faroese–Danish dictionary)*Hjalmar Petersen, Marius Staksberg: ''Donsk–Føroysk orðabók''.", "Tórshavn, 1995.", "(879 p.) (Danish–Faroese dictionary)*Eigil Lehmann: ''Føroysk–norsk orðabók''.", "Tórshavn, 1987 (no ISBN, 388 p.) (Faroese–Norwegian dictionary)*Jón Hilmar Magnússon: ''Íslensk-færeysk orðabók''.", "Reykjavík, 2005.", "(877 p.) (Icelandic–Faroese dictionary)*Gianfranco Contri: ''Dizionario faroese-italiano = Føroysk-italsk orðabók''.", "Tórshavn, 2004.", "(627 p.) (Faroese–Italian dictionary)===Faroese literature and research===*V.U.", "Hammershaimb: ''Færøsk Anthologi.''", "Copenhagen 1891 (no ISBN, 2 volumes, 4th printing, Tórshavn 1991) (editorial comments in Danish)*Tórður Jóansson: ''English loanwords in Faroese''.", "Tórshavn, 1997.", "(243 pages) *Petersen, Hjalmar P.", "2009.", "''Gender Assignment in Modern Faroese.", "Hamborg.", "Kovac''*Petersen, Hjalmar P.", "2010.", "''The Dynamics of Faroese-Danish Language Contact.", "Heidelberg.", "Winter''*Faroese/German anthology \"From Djurhuus to Poulsen – Faroese Poetry during 100 Years\", academic advice: Turið Sigurðardóttir, linear translation: Inga Meincke (2007), ed.", "by Paul Alfred Kleinert===Other===*" ], [ "References", "===Footnotes======Citations===" ], [ "External links", "* Faroese-English dictionary* Faroese online syntactic analyser and morphological analyser/generator* FMN.fo – Faroese Language Committee (Official site with further links)* Useful Faroese Words & Phrases for Travelers * How to count in Faroese* Faroe Island Translate" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Elementary particle" ], [ "Introduction", "In particle physics, an '''elementary particle''' or '''fundamental particle''' is a subatomic particle that is not composed of other particles.", "The Standard Model presently recognizes seventeen distinct particles—twelve fermions and five bosons.", "As a consequence of flavor and color combinations and antimatter, the fermions and bosons are known to have 48 and 13 variations, respectively.", "Among the 61 elementary particles embraced by the Standard Model number: electrons and other leptons, quarks, and the fundamental bosons.", "Subatomic particles such as protons or neutrons, which contain two or more elementary particles, are known as composite particles.Ordinary matter is composed of atoms, themselves once thought to be indivisible elementary particles.", "The name ''atom'' comes from the Ancient Greek word ''ἄτομος'' (atomos) which means ''indivisible'' or ''uncuttable''.", "Despite the theories about atoms that had existed for thousands of years the factual existence of atoms remained controversial until 1905.In that year, Albert Einstein published his paper on Brownian motion, putting to rest theories that had regarded molecules as mathematical illusions and asserting that matter was ultimately composed of various concentrations of energy.", "Subatomic constituents of the atom were first identified toward the end of the 19th century, beginning with the electron, followed by the proton in 1919, the photon in the 1920s, and the neutron in 1932.By that time the advent of quantum mechanics had radically altered the definition of a \"particle\" by putting forward an understanding in which they carried out a simultaneous existence as matter waves.Many theoretical elaborations upon, and beyond, the Standard Model have been made since its codification in the 1970s.", "These include notions of supersymmetry, which double the number of elementary particles by hypothesizing that each known particle associates with a \"shadow\" partner far more massive.", "However, like an additional elementary boson mediating gravitation, such superpartners remain undiscovered as of ." ], [ "Overview", "All elementary particles are either bosons or fermions.", "These classes are distinguished by their quantum statistics: fermions obey Fermi–Dirac statistics and bosons obey Bose–Einstein statistics.", "Their spin is differentiated via the spin–statistics theorem: it is half-integer for fermions, and integer for bosons.In the Standard Model, elementary particles are represented for predictive utility as point particles.", "Though extremely successful, the Standard Model is limited by its omission of gravitation and has some parameters arbitrarily added but unexplained." ], [ "Cosmic abundance of elementary particles", "According to the current models of Big Bang nucleosynthesis, the primordial composition of visible matter of the universe should be about 75% hydrogen and 25% helium-4 (in mass).", "Neutrons are made up of one up and two down quarks, while protons are made of two up and one down quark.", "Since the other common elementary particles (such as electrons, neutrinos, or weak bosons) are so light or so rare when compared to atomic nuclei, we can neglect their mass contribution to the observable universe's total mass.", "Therefore, one can conclude that most of the visible mass of the universe consists of protons and neutrons, which, like all baryons, in turn consist of up quarks and down quarks.Some estimates imply that there are roughly baryons (almost entirely protons and neutrons) in the observable universe.The number of protons in the observable universe is called the Eddington number.In terms of number of particles, some estimates imply that nearly all the matter, excluding dark matter, occurs in neutrinos, which constitute the majority of the roughly elementary particles of matter that exist in the visible universe.", "Other estimates imply that roughly elementary particles exist in the visible universe (not including dark matter), mostly photons and other massless force carriers." ], [ "Standard Model", "The Standard Model of particle physics contains 12 flavors of elementary fermions, plus their corresponding antiparticles, as well as elementary bosons that mediate the forces and the Higgs boson, which was reported on July 4, 2012, as having been likely detected by the two main experiments at the Large Hadron Collider (ATLAS and CMS).", "The Standard Model is widely considered to be a provisional theory rather than a truly fundamental one, however, since it is not known if it is compatible with Einstein's general relativity.", "There may be hypothetical elementary particles not described by the Standard Model, such as the graviton, the particle that would carry the gravitational force, and sparticles, supersymmetric partners of the ordinary particles.=== Fundamental fermions ===The 12 fundamental fermions are divided into 3 generations of 4 particles each.", "Half of the fermions are leptons, three of which have an electric charge of −1, called the electron (), the muon (), and the tau (); the other three leptons are neutrinos (, , ), which are the only elementary fermions with neither electric nor color charge.", "The remaining six particles are quarks (discussed below).====Generations====+ Particle generations Leptons ''First generation'' ''Second generation'' ''Third generation''''Name'' ''Symbol'' ''Name'' ''Symbol'' ''Name'' ''Symbol'' electron muon tau electron neutrino muon neutrino tau neutrino Quarks ''First generation'' ''Second generation'' ''Third generation'' up quark charm quark c top quark down quark strange quark bottom quark ====Mass====The following table lists current measured masses and mass estimates for all the fermions, using the same scale of measure: millions of electron-volts relative to square of light speed (MeV/c2).", "For example, the most accurately known quark mass is of the top quark () at or , estimated using the on-shell scheme.+Current values for elementary fermion masses Particle symbol Particle name Mass value Quark mass estimation scheme (point) Neutrino(any type) = ) Down quark MSbar scheme (''μ'' = ) Strange quark MSbar scheme (''μ'' = ) Muon(Mu lepton) Charm quark MSbar scheme (''μ'' = ''m''c) Tauon (tau lepton) Bottom quark MSbar scheme (''μ'' = ''m''b) Top quark On-shell schemeEstimates of the values of quark masses depend on the version of quantum chromodynamics used to describe quark interactions.", "Quarks are always confined in an envelope of gluons that confer vastly greater mass to the mesons and baryons where quarks occur, so values for quark masses cannot be measured directly.", "Since their masses are so small compared to the effective mass of the surrounding gluons, slight differences in the calculation make large differences in the masses.==== Antiparticles ====There are also 12 fundamental fermionic antiparticles that correspond to these 12 particles.", "For example, the antielectron (positron) '''' is the electron's antiparticle and has an electric charge of +1.+ Particle generations Antileptons ''First generation'' ''Second generation'' ''Third generation''''Name'' ''Symbol'' ''Name'' ''Symbol'' ''Name'' ''Symbol'' positron antimuon antitau electron antineutrino muon antineutrino tau antineutrino Antiquarks ''First generation'' ''Second generation'' ''Third generation'' up antiquark charm antiquark top antiquark down antiquark strange antiquark bottom antiquark ==== Quarks ====Isolated quarks and antiquarks have never been detected, a fact explained by confinement.", "Every quark carries one of three color charges of the strong interaction; antiquarks similarly carry anticolor.", "Color-charged particles interact via gluon exchange in the same way that charged particles interact via photon exchange.", "Gluons are themselves color-charged, however, resulting in an amplification of the strong force as color-charged particles are separated.", "Unlike the electromagnetic force, which diminishes as charged particles separate, color-charged particles feel increasing force.Nonetheless, color-charged particles may combine to form color neutral composite particles called hadrons.", "A quark may pair up with an antiquark: the quark has a color and the antiquark has the corresponding anticolor.", "The color and anticolor cancel out, forming a color neutral meson.", "Alternatively, three quarks can exist together, one quark being \"red\", another \"blue\", another \"green\".", "These three colored quarks together form a color-neutral baryon.", "Symmetrically, three antiquarks with the colors \"antired\", \"antiblue\" and \"antigreen\" can form a color-neutral antibaryon.Quarks also carry fractional electric charges, but, since they are confined within hadrons whose charges are all integral, fractional charges have never been isolated.", "Note that quarks have electric charges of either + or −, whereas antiquarks have corresponding electric charges of either − or +.Evidence for the existence of quarks comes from deep inelastic scattering: firing electrons at nuclei to determine the distribution of charge within nucleons (which are baryons).", "If the charge is uniform, the electric field around the proton should be uniform and the electron should scatter elastically.", "Low-energy electrons do scatter in this way, but, above a particular energy, the protons deflect some electrons through large angles.", "The recoiling electron has much less energy and a jet of particles is emitted.", "This inelastic scattering suggests that the charge in the proton is not uniform but split among smaller charged particles: quarks.=== Fundamental bosons ===In the Standard Model, vector (spin-1) bosons (gluons, photons, and the W and Z bosons) mediate forces, whereas the Higgs boson (spin-0) is responsible for the intrinsic mass of particles.", "Bosons differ from fermions in the fact that multiple bosons can occupy the same quantum state (Pauli exclusion principle).", "Also, bosons can be either elementary, like photons, or a combination, like mesons.", "The spin of bosons are integers instead of half integers.==== Gluons ====Gluons mediate the strong interaction, which join quarks and thereby form hadrons, which are either baryons (three quarks) or mesons (one quark and one antiquark).", "Protons and neutrons are baryons, joined by gluons to form the atomic nucleus.", "Like quarks, gluons exhibit color and anticolor – unrelated to the concept of visual color and rather the particles' strong interactions – sometimes in combinations, altogether eight variations of gluons.==== Electroweak bosons ====There are three weak gauge bosons: W+, W−, and Z0; these mediate the weak interaction.", "The W bosons are known for their mediation in nuclear decay: The W− converts a neutron into a proton then decays into an electron and electron-antineutrino pair.The Z0 does not convert particle flavor or charges, but rather changes momentum; it is the only mechanism for elastically scattering neutrinos.", "The weak gauge bosons were discovered due to momentum change in electrons from neutrino-Z exchange.", "The massless photon mediates the electromagnetic interaction.", "These four gauge bosons form the electroweak interaction among elementary particles.==== Higgs boson ====Although the weak and electromagnetic forces appear quite different to us at everyday energies, the two forces are theorized to unify as a single electroweak force at high energies.", "This prediction was clearly confirmed by measurements of cross-sections for high-energy electron-proton scattering at the HERA collider at DESY.", "The differences at low energies is a consequence of the high masses of the W and Z bosons, which in turn are a consequence of the Higgs mechanism.", "Through the process of spontaneous symmetry breaking, the Higgs selects a special direction in electroweak space that causes three electroweak particles to become very heavy (the weak bosons) and one to remain with an undefined rest mass as it is always in motion (the photon).", "On 4 July 2012, after many years of experimentally searching for evidence of its existence, the Higgs boson was announced to have been observed at CERN's Large Hadron Collider.", "Peter Higgs who first posited the existence of the Higgs boson was present at the announcement.", "The Higgs boson is believed to have a mass of approximately 125 GeV.", "The statistical significance of this discovery was reported as 5 sigma, which implies a certainty of roughly 99.99994%.", "In particle physics, this is the level of significance required to officially label experimental observations as a discovery.", "Research into the properties of the newly discovered particle continues.==== Graviton ====The graviton is a hypothetical elementary spin-2 particle proposed to mediate gravitation.", "While it remains undiscovered due to the difficulty inherent in its detection, it is sometimes included in tables of elementary particles.", "The conventional graviton is massless, although some models containing massive Kaluza–Klein gravitons exist." ], [ "Beyond the Standard Model", "Although experimental evidence overwhelmingly confirms the predictions derived from the Standard Model, some of its parameters were added arbitrarily, not determined by a particular explanation, which remain mysterious, for instance the hierarchy problem.", "Theories beyond the Standard Model attempt to resolve these shortcomings.=== Grand unification ===One extension of the Standard Model attempts to combine the electroweak interaction with the strong interaction into a single 'grand unified theory' (GUT).", "Such a force would be spontaneously broken into the three forces by a Higgs-like mechanism.", "This breakdown is theorized to occur at high energies, making it difficult to observe unification in a laboratory.", "The most dramatic prediction of grand unification is the existence of X and Y bosons, which cause proton decay.", "The non-observation of proton decay at the Super-Kamiokande neutrino observatory rules out the simplest GUTs, however, including SU(5) and SO(10).=== Supersymmetry ===Supersymmetry extends the Standard Model by adding another class of symmetries to the Lagrangian.", "These symmetries exchange fermionic particles with bosonic ones.", "Such a symmetry predicts the existence of supersymmetric particles, abbreviated as ''sparticles'', which include the sleptons, squarks, neutralinos, and charginos.", "Each particle in the Standard Model would have a superpartner whose spin differs by from the ordinary particle.", "Due to the breaking of supersymmetry, the sparticles are much heavier than their ordinary counterparts; they are so heavy that existing particle colliders would not be powerful enough to produce them.", "Some physicists believe that sparticles will be detected by the Large Hadron Collider at CERN.=== String theory ===String theory is a model of physics whereby all \"particles\" that make up matter are composed of strings (measuring at the Planck length) that exist in an 11-dimensional (according to M-theory, the leading version) or 12-dimensional (according to F-theory) universe.", "These strings vibrate at different frequencies that determine mass, electric charge, color charge, and spin.", "A \"string\" can be open (a line) or closed in a loop (a one-dimensional sphere, that is, a circle).", "As a string moves through space it sweeps out something called a ''world sheet''.", "String theory predicts 1- to 10-branes (a 1-brane being a string and a 10-brane being a 10-dimensional object) that prevent tears in the \"fabric\" of space using the uncertainty principle (e.g., the electron orbiting a hydrogen atom has the probability, albeit small, that it could be anywhere else in the universe at any given moment).String theory proposes that our universe is merely a 4-brane, inside which exist the 3 space dimensions and the 1 time dimension that we observe.", "The remaining 7 theoretical dimensions either are very tiny and curled up (and too small to be macroscopically accessible) or simply do not/cannot exist in our universe (because they exist in a grander scheme called the \"multiverse\" outside our known universe).Some predictions of the string theory include existence of extremely massive counterparts of ordinary particles due to vibrational excitations of the fundamental string and existence of a massless spin-2 particle behaving like the graviton.=== Technicolor ===Technicolor theories try to modify the Standard Model in a minimal way by introducing a new QCD-like interaction.", "This means one adds a new theory of so-called Techniquarks, interacting via so called Technigluons.", "The main idea is that the Higgs boson is not an elementary particle but a bound state of these objects.=== Preon theory ===According to preon theory there are one or more orders of particles more fundamental than those (or most of those) found in the Standard Model.", "The most fundamental of these are normally called preons, which is derived from \"pre-quarks\".", "In essence, preon theory tries to do for the Standard Model what the Standard Model did for the particle zoo that came before it.", "Most models assume that almost everything in the Standard Model can be explained in terms of three to six more fundamental particles and the rules that govern their interactions.", "Interest in preons has waned since the simplest models were experimentally ruled out in the 1980s.=== Acceleron theory ===Accelerons are the hypothetical subatomic particles that integrally link the newfound mass of the neutrino to the dark energy conjectured to be accelerating the expansion of the universe.In this theory, neutrinos are influenced by a new force resulting from their interactions with accelerons, leading to dark energy.", "Dark energy results as the universe tries to pull neutrinos apart.", "Accelerons are thought to interact with matter more infrequently than they do with neutrinos." ], [ "See also", "* Asymptotic freedom* List of particles* Physical ontology* Quantum field theory* Quantum gravity* Quantum triviality* UV fixed point" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "=== General readers ===*Feynman, R.P.", "& Weinberg, S. (1987) ''Elementary Particles and the Laws of Physics: The 1986 Dirac Memorial Lectures''.", "Cambridge Univ.", "Press.", "*Ford, Kenneth W. (2005) ''The Quantum World''.", "Harvard Univ.", "Press.", "**John Gribbin (2000) ''Q is for Quantum – An Encyclopedia of Particle Physics''.", "Simon & Schuster.", ".", "*Oerter, Robert (2006) ''The Theory of Almost Everything: The Standard Model, the Unsung Triumph of Modern Physics''.", "Plume.", "*Schumm, Bruce A.", "(2004) ''Deep Down Things: The Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics''.", "Johns Hopkins University Press.", ".", "***=== Textbooks ===* Bettini, Alessandro (2008) ''Introduction to Elementary Particle Physics''.", "Cambridge Univ.", "Press.", "*Coughlan, G. D., J. E. Dodd, and B. M. Gripaios (2006) ''The Ideas of Particle Physics: An Introduction for Scientists'', 3rd ed.", "Cambridge Univ.", "Press.", "An undergraduate text for those not majoring in physics.", "* Griffiths, David J.", "(1987) ''Introduction to Elementary Particles''.", "John Wiley & Sons.", ".", "**Perkins, Donald H. (2000) ''Introduction to High Energy Physics'', 4th ed.", "Cambridge Univ.", "Press." ], [ "External links", "The most important address about the current experimental and theoretical knowledge about elementary particle physics is the Particle Data Group, where different international institutions collect all experimental data and give short reviews over the contemporary theoretical understanding.", "* other pages are:* particleadventure.org, a well-made introduction also for non physicists* CERNCourier: Season of Higgs and melodrama * Interactions.org, particle physics news* Symmetry Magazine, a joint Fermilab/SLAC publication* Elementary Particles made thinkable, an interactive visualisation allowing physical properties to be compared" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Miami Marlins" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Miami Marlins''' are an American professional baseball team based in Miami.", "The Marlins compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the National League (NL) East division.", "The club's home ballpark is LoanDepot Park.The franchise began play as an expansion team in the 1993 season as the '''Florida Marlins'''.", "The Marlins originally played home games at Joe Robbie Stadium, which they shared with the Miami Dolphins of the National Football League (NFL).", "In 2012, the team moved to LoanDepot Park (then known as Marlins Park), their first exclusive home and the first to be designed as a baseball park.", "As part of an agreement with park owner Miami-Dade County to use the stadium, the franchise also changed their name to the Miami Marlins prior to the 2012 season.With a record of (), the Marlins have the lowest winning percentage and fewest postseason appearances (four) among active MLB franchises.", "Despite this, the Marlins won the World Series during their first two playoff runs in 1997 and 2003.All four of their playoff appearances came as wild card teams, making them one of two MLB franchises (along with the Colorado Rockies) to have never won a division title, as well as the only franchise to have never appeared in back-to-back postseasons.", "The Marlins were also the first team to win the World Series as a wild card.", "Also noteworthy is the fact the Marlins have no retired numbers, with the exception of Jackie Robinson's universally retired #42 (although #5 was originally retired for inaugural Marlins President Carl Barger, who collapsed and died at the 1992 winter meetings.", "The Marlins retired the number 5 in honor of Barger's favorite player, Joe DiMaggio, but the team would issue the number into circulation for the first time when they moved into their new stadium in 2012 and instead honored Barger with a plaque at their new park)." ], [ "Franchise history", "Hall of Famer, Satchel Paige pitched for Miami Marlins (AAA) from 1956 to 1958Wayne Huizenga, CEO of Blockbuster Entertainment Corporation, was awarded an expansion franchise in the National League (NL) for a $95 million expansion fee and the team began operations in 1993 as the '''Florida Marlins'''.", "MLB had announced a few months earlier that it intended to add two new teams to the National League.", "It was a foregone conclusion that one of them would be placed in Florida; the only question was whether Huizenga would beat out competing groups from Orlando and Tampa Bay.", "Orlando fielded a very spirited campaign bolstered by its family-oriented tourism industry.", "Tampa Bay already had a baseball park—the Florida Suncoast Dome in St. Petersburg, completed in 1990.However, on June 10, , the National League awarded a Miami-based franchise to Huizenga.", "The franchise adopted the nickname \"Marlins\" from previous minor league teams, the Miami Marlins of the Triple-A 's International League from 1956 to 1960, and the Miami Marlins (1962–70) and Miami Marlins (1982–88) teams that played in the Florida State League.The Marlins' first manager was Rene Lachemann, a former catcher who had previously managed the Seattle Mariners and Milwaukee Brewers, and who at the time of his hiring was a third base coach for the Oakland Athletics.", "The team drafted its initial lineup of players in the 1992 MLB Expansion Draft.", "The Marlins defeated the Houston Astros 12–8 in their inaugural spring training game.", "Jeff Conine hit Florida's first homer before a crowd of 6,696 at the Cocoa Expo Sports Complex.", "The Marlins won their first game on April 5, , against the Dodgers.", "Charlie Hough was the starting pitcher for that game.", "Jeff Conine went 4-for-4 as well, making him an immediate crowd favorite.", "By the end of his tenure with Florida, he had earned the nickname \"Mr.", "Marlin.\"", "Gary Sheffield and Bryan Harvey represented the Marlins as the club's first All-Star Game selections, and Sheffield homered in the Marlins' first All-Star Game at-bat.", "The team finished the year five games ahead of the last-place New York Mets and with an attendance of 3,064,847.In that season, the Marlins traded young set-up reliever Trevor Hoffman and two minor-league prospects to the San Diego Padres for third baseman Gary Sheffield.", "While Sheffield helped Florida immediately and became an all-star, Hoffman eventually emerged as the best closer in the National League.", "After the 1993 season, Donald A. Smiley was named the second president in club history.", "The Marlins finished last (51–64) in their division in the strike-shortened season of and fourth (67–76) in .", "Lachemann was replaced as manager midway through the by director of player development John Boles.=== 1997: First World Series title ===Following an 80–82 record in 1996, former Pittsburgh Pirates manager Jim Leyland was hired to lead the club heading into 1997.In 1997, the Marlins finished nine games back of the Division Champion Atlanta Braves, but earned the wild card berth.", "Veteran additions such as LF Moisés Alou, 3B Bobby Bonilla, and trade-deadline additions Darren Daulton and Jim Eisenreich added experience and clutch hits.", "Talented young stars Luis Castillo (2B) and Édgar Rentería (SS) comprised one of the best double play combos in the NL.", "The Marlins swept the San Francisco Giants 3–0 in the National League Division Series, and then went on to beat the Atlanta Braves 4–2 in the National League Championship Series, overcoming the loss of Alex Fernandez to a torn rotator cuff, and Kevin Brown to a virus.", "Brown's place was taken in Game 5 by rookie pitcher Liván Hernández, who struck out 15 Braves and outdueled multiple Cy Young Award winner Greg Maddux to a 2–1 victory.", "The underdog Marlins went on to face the Cleveland Indians in the 1997 World Series, and won in seven games.", "In Game 7, Craig Counsell's sacrifice fly in the bottom of the ninth tied the game at 2, then, with the bases loaded and two outs in the bottom of the 11th, Édgar Rentería's soft liner glanced off the glove of Cleveland pitcher Charles Nagy and into center field to score Counsell and give the Marlins the win.=== 2003: Second World Series victory ===Shaking hands with manager Jack McKeon, President George W. Bush hosts a visit by the 2003 World Series Champions, the Florida Marlins, to the White House Friday, Jan. 23, 2004.On May 9, the Marlins called up high-kicking southpaw Dontrelle Willis from the Double-A Carolina Mudcats and helped carry the injury-plagued Marlins with an 11–2 record in his first 17 starts.", "Miguel Cabrera (also from the Mudcats) filled in well, hitting a walk-off home run in his first major league game, against the Tampa Bay Devil Rays at Pro Player Stadium.", "Both Willis and Cabrera would later prove to be essential parts of the Marlin's playoff success.", "Jeff Conine – an original Marlin and member of the 1997 World Series team – returned from Baltimore, Hall of Fame catcher Iván Rodríguez signed with the Marlins as a free agent and closer Ugueth Urbina arrived from the Texas Rangers.", "These acquisitions helped to keep the team in contention, and although they finished ten games behind the Braves, the Marlins captured the NL wild card.On October 15, the Marlins defeated the Chicago Cubs four games to three in the 2003 National League Championship Series, coming back from a 3–1 deficit.", "Game 6 saw the Marlins play a role in one of baseball's most infamous moments, the Steve Bartman incident.", "With one out in the eighth inning and the Cubs three runs ahead, Marlins second baseman Luis Castillo hit a pop foul a row into the stands along the third baseline.", "Cubs fan Steve Bartman reached for the ball, preventing Cubs left fielder Moisés Alou from making the out and setting off an eight-run Marlins rally.", "The incident with Bartman and a come-from-behind win in Wrigley Field in Game 7 helped the Marlins capture their second NL pennant, keeping the \"Curse of the Billy Goat\" alive and well.In the 2003 World Series, the Marlins defeated the heavily favored New York Yankees in six games, winning the sixth game in Yankee Stadium.", "Shortstop Álex González helped the Marlins in Game 4 of the series with a walk-off home run in extra innings.", "Josh Beckett was named the Most Valuable Player for the series after twirling a five-hit complete-game shutout in Game 6.Skipper Jack McKeon became the oldest manager ever to win a World Series title.Miami Marlins' primary logo (2012–2018)=== 2012–present ===In 2012, the team moved from the football-oriented Sun Life Stadium (located in Miami Gardens) to Marlins Park in downtown Miami.", "As a condition of the move, the team was renamed the '''Miami Marlins''', and adopted a new logo and colors.", "On November 16, 2017, Giancarlo Stanton won the National League MVP, becoming the first Marlin to win the award.During the 2020 shortened season, the Marlins finished with a 31–29 overall record and 2nd place in the NL East.", "In the Wild Card Series they swept the Chicago Cubs in 2 games.", "Miami loss in three games to the Atlanta Braves in the NLDS.On November 13, 2020, the Marlins became the first club in any American major-level sports league to hire a woman to an executive position when Kim Ng was announced as the team's general manager.", "In addition, she will also be MLB's first Asian American general manager.", "On February 28, 2022, it was announced Derek Jeter stepped down as CEO of the Marlins.", "On September 30, 2023, with the Marlins 7–3 win in Pittsburgh, the Marlins clinched their fourth postseason berth, making Kim Ng the first woman GM in MLB history to lead a playoff team." ], [ "Uniform history", "===1993–2002===The Florida Marlins debuted wearing three different uniforms.", "The primary and alternate home uniforms shared the same design: \"Marlins\" (with an underline after the letter \"S\") in teal with black trim and letters were rendered in black with teal trim, along with teal pinstripes.", "The alternate home uniforms were sleeveless, and teal undershirts were added to the ensemble.", "The road uniforms featured \"Florida\" (with the marlin wrapped around the letter \"F\") in teal with black trim and letters were rendered in black with teal trim.", "The primary logo patch was placed on the left sleeve.", "The Marlins wore three different cap designs, all featuring the \"F\" insignia in front of a leaping marlin.", "The all-teal home cap and the black-brimmed teal road cap were initially the primary headwear the team used, with the all-black cap as the alternate.By the late 1990s, teal was gradually de-emphasized and the Marlins wore black caps and undershirts for the remainder of the uniform's run.===2003–2011===The Marlins introduced new uniforms before its second World Series-winning season.", "On the home uniforms, teal was relegated to accent color status with black now the primary lettering and pinstripe color.", "Silver accents were also added to the letters.", "A sleeved alternate pinstriped home uniform replaced the original sleeveless version, sharing the same design as the primary home uniform except with the \"F\" logo on the left chest.", "The \"F\" logo also took its place on the left sleeve in place of the primary logo.", "Road uniforms again featured \"Florida\" but now shared the same script look and color scheme as the home uniform (with an underline after the letter \"A\").", "White accents were added to the letters.", "In addition, the Marlins began wearing a black alternate uniform, featuring the same \"Marlins\" script but in silver with teal, black and white accents.", "Both alternate uniforms lacked the front chest numbers.In 2010, the Marlins changed its road uniform design, replacing \"Florida\" with \"Marlins\".", "The sleeve logo patches were also removed.===2012–2018===Rebranding into the Miami Marlins, the team introduced a new color scheme, with orange, black and blue.", "The \"M\" insignia is white with orange, yellow and sky blue accents, along with a stylized abstract marlin on top.", "This logo served as a cap logo as well as a patch on the left sleeve.", "The primary home, road and black alternate uniforms all feature \"Miami\" in front, with the first \"M\" shaped similarly to the cap and sleeve logos.", "The home and road uniform feature black letters with silver trim, along with orange drop shadows on the numbers, while the alternate black uniform feature white letters with silver trim and orange numbers with silver trim and black drop shadows.", "The orange alternate uniform featured the team name in white with sky blue accents; however the abstract marlin was located atop the letter \"I\".", "Letters were black with silver trim, while sky blue drop shadows were featured on the numbers.", "The Marlins primarily wore all-black caps, though for a brief period they wore alternate all-orange caps.===2019–present===The Marlins released updated logos and color schemes, replacing orange and silver with bright Caliente red, Miami blue and slate grey.", "Home and road uniforms contain 'Miami\" and letters in black with red drop shadows and blue accents, while the black alternate uniform contain \"Marlins\" and letters in black with red drop shadows and blue accents.", "The cap logo, used on the all-black cap, is a stylized \"M\" with a more realistic marlin on top.", "The marlin logo also appears on the left sleeve.In 2021, the Marlins unveiled a City Connect uniform.", "The primarily red uniform with Miami blue trim paid homage to the Cuban Sugar Kings.In 2024, the Marlins updated their black alternate uniform, changing the letters to white in order to improve visibility.", "They also introduced a new Miami blue alternate uniform, featuring the black \"Marlins\" lettering with white trim and red drop shadows.", "This was originally their Spring Training uniform, albeit with the \"M\" logo on the left chest." ], [ "World Series championships", "The Marlins won the World Series in 1997 and 2003, but both titles were followed by controversial periods where the team sold off all the high-priced players and rebuilt.", "Between 2003 and 2019, the team's two World Series runs also marked their sole postseason appearances.", "Their three playoff qualifications and seven winning seasons are the fewest among MLB franchises.Despite never winning a division title, the Florida Marlins is the only team to make the playoffs and win a World Series in its first two winning seasons.SeasonManagerOpponentSeries ScoreRecord 1997 Jim Leyland Cleveland Indians 4–3 92–70 2003 Jack McKeon New York Yankees 4–2 91–71'''Total World Series championships:''''''2'''" ], [ "Roster", "===All-time roster===" ], [ "Opening Day starting pitchers" ], [ "Opening Day lineups", "Year123456789'''2023'''Luis Arráez 2BJean Segura 3BGarrett Cooper 1BJazz Chisholm Jr. CFJorge Soler DH Avisaíl García RFBryan De La Cruz LFJacob Stallings CJoey Wendle SS'''2022'''Jorge Soler LFGarrett Cooper 1BJesús Sánchez CFJesús Aguilar DHAvisaíl García RFJoey Wendle 3BMiguel Rojas SSJacob Stallings CJazz Chisholm Jr. 2B'''2021'''Corey Dickerson LFStarling Marte CFJesús Aguilar 1BAdam Duvall RFBrian Anderson 3BJazz Chisholm Jr. 2BJorge Alfaro CMiguel Rojas SSSandy Alcántara P'''2020'''Jonathan Villar CFJesús Aguilar 1BCorey Dickerson LFHarold Ramírez RFBrian Anderson 3BGarrett Cooper DHIsan Díaz 2BFrancisco Cervelli CMiguel Rojas SS'''2019'''Lewis Brinson CFBrian Anderson 3BStarlin Castro 2BGarrett Cooper RFMartín Prado 1BJorge Alfaro CMiguel Rojas SSRosell Herrera LFJosé Ureña PYear123456789'''2018'''Lewis Brinson CFDerek Dietrich LFStarlin Castro 2BJustin Bour 1BBrian Anderson 3BGarrett Cooper RFMiguel Rojas SSChad Wallach CJosé Ureña P'''2017'''Dee Gordon 2BJ.", "T. Realmuto CChristian Yelich CFGiancarlo Stanton RFJustin Bour 1BMarcell Ozuna LFDerek Dietrich 3BAdeiny Hechavarria SSEdinson Vólquez P'''2016'''Dee Gordon 2BMarcell Ozuna CFChristian Yelich LFGiancarlo Stanton RFMartín Prado 3BJustin Bour 1BJ.", "T. Realmuto CAdeiny Hechavarria SSWei-Yin Chen P'''2015'''Dee Gordon 2BChristian Yelich LFGiancarlo Stanton RFMichael Morse 1BMartín Prado 3BMarcell Ozuna CFJarrod Saltalamacchia CAdeiny Hechavarria SSHenderson Álvarez P'''2014'''Christian Yelich LFJeff Baker 2BGiancarlo Stanton RFCasey McGehee 3BGarrett Jones 1BJarrod Saltalamacchia CMarcell Ozuna CFAdeiny Hechavarria SSJosé Fernández P'''2013'''Juan Pierre LFChris Coghlan CFGiancarlo Stanton RFPlácido Polanco 3BRob Brantly CDonovan Solano 2BCasey Kotchman 1BAdeiny Hechavarria SSRicky Nolasco P'''2012'''Jose Reyes SSEmilio Bonifacio CFHanley Ramírez 3BGiancarlo Stanton RFLogan Morrison LFGaby Sánchez 1BOmar Infante 2BJohn Buck CJosh Johnson PYear123456789'''2011'''Chris Coghlan CFOmar Infante 2BHanley Ramírez SSGiancarlo Stanton RFGaby Sánchez 1BLogan Morrison LFJohn Buck CDonnie Murphy 3BJosh Johnson P'''2010'''Chris Coghlan LFCameron Maybin CFHanley Ramírez SSJorge Cantú 3BDan Uggla 2BRonny Paulino CCody Ross RFGaby Sánchez 1BJosh Johnson P'''2009'''Emilio Bonifacio 3BJohn Baker CHanley Ramírez SSJorge Cantú 1BDan Uggla 2BJeremy Hermida LFCody Ross RFCameron Maybin CFRicky Nolasco P'''2008'''Hanley Ramírez SSDan Uggla 2BMike Jacobs 1BJosh Willingham LFJorge Cantú 3BCody Ross CFLuis Gonzalez RFMatt Treanor CMark Hendrickson P'''2007'''Hanley Ramírez SSDan Uggla 2BMiguel Cabrera 3BMike Jacobs 1BJosh Willingham LFJoe Borchard RFMiguel Olivo CAlejandro De Aza CFDontrelle Willis P'''2006'''Hanley Ramírez SSJeremy Hermida RFMiguel Cabrera 3BMike Jacobs 1BJosh Willingham LFDan Uggla 2BMiguel Olivo CEric Reed CFDontrelle Willis P'''2005'''Juan Pierre CFLuis Castillo 2BMiguel Cabrera LFCarlos Delgado 1BMike Lowell 3BPaul Lo Duca CJuan Encarnación RFÁlex González SSJosh Beckett P'''2004'''Juan Pierre CFLuis Castillo 2BMiguel Cabrera RFMike Lowell 3BJeff Conine LFHee-Seop Choi 1BRamón Castro CAlex González SSJosh Beckett P'''2003'''Luis Castillo 2BJuan Pierre CFIván Rodríguez CDerrek Lee 1BMike Lowell 3BJuan Encarnación RFTodd Hollandsworth LFAlex González SSJosh Beckett P'''2002'''Luis Castillo 2BPreston Wilson CFCliff Floyd LFKevin Millar RFMike Lowell 3BDerrek Lee 1BAlex González SSMike Redmond CRyan Dempster P'''2001'''Luis Castillo 2BEric Owens RFCliff Floyd LFPreston Wilson CFMike Lowell 3BCharles Johnson CDerrek Lee 1BAlex González SSRyan Dempster P'''2000'''Luis Castillo 2BAlex González SSCliff Floyd LFPreston Wilson CFMike Lowell 3BKevin Millar 1BBrant Brown RFMike Redmond CAlex Fernandez P'''1999'''Luis Castillo 2BAlex González SSMark Kotsay CFDerrek Lee 1BTodd Dunwoody CFPreston Wilson LFKevin Orie 3BMike Redmond CAlex Fernandez P'''1998'''Cliff Floyd LFÉdgar Rentería SSRyan Jackson 1BGary Sheffield RFMark Kotsay CFCharles Johnson CCraig Counsell 2BJosh Booty 3BLiván Hernández P'''1997'''Luis Castillo 2BÉdgar Rentería SSGary Sheffield RFBobby Bonilla 3BMoisés Alou LFDevon White CFJeff Conine 1BCharles Johnson CKevin Brown P'''1996'''Quilvio Veras 2BDevon White CFGary Sheffield RFJeff Conine LFTerry Pendleton 3BGreg Colbrunn 1BCharles Johnson CKurt Abbott SSKevin Brown P'''1995'''Quilvio Veras 2BAlex Arias SSGary Sheffield RFJeff Conine LFTerry Pendleton 3BGreg Colbrunn 1BCharles Johnson CChuck Carr CFJohn Burkett P'''1994'''Chuck Carr CFJerry Browne 3BGary Sheffield RFOrestes Destrade 1BJeff Conine LFBret Barberie 2BBenito Santiago CKurt Abbott SSCharlie Hough P'''1993'''Scott Pose CFBret Barberie 2BJunior Felix RFOrestes Destrade 1BDave Magadan 3BBenito Santiago CJeff Conine LFWalt Weiss SSCharlie Hough P" ], [ "Achievements", "===Awards===* '''No-Hitters:''' Marlins pitchers have pitched six no-hitters in team regular-season history, five coming against teams in the NL West and one against a team from the American League (AL).PitcherDateTeamResultSite Al Leiter May 11, 1996 Rockies 11–0 Pro Player Stadium Kevin Brown June 10, 1997 Giants 9–0 Candlestick Park A. J. Burnett May 12, 2001 Padres 3–0 Qualcomm Stadium Aníbal Sánchez September 6, 2006 Diamondbacks 2–0 Dolphin Stadium Henderson Álvarez September 29, 2013 Tigers 1–0 Marlins Park Edinson Vólquez June 3, 2017 Diamondbacks 3–0 Marlins Park* '''Hitting for the cycle:''' One Marlins player has hit for the cycle.PlayerDateOpponentSite Luis Arráez April 11, 2023 Phillies Citizens Bank Park===Retired numbers===From 1993 until 2011, the Marlins had retired the number 5 in honor of Carl Barger, the first president of the Florida Marlins, who had died prior to the team's inaugural season.", "Barger's favorite player was Joe DiMaggio, thus the selection of number 5.With the move to LoanDepot Park, the team opted to honor Barger with a plaque instead, and opened number 5 to circulation.", "Logan Morrison, a Kansas City native and fan of Royals Hall-of-Famer George Brett (who wore that number with the Royals), became the first Marlins player to wear the number.", "As of 2023, the Marlins are the only franchise with no retired numbers for former players, and while seven former players are in the Hall of Fame, none wear a Marlins cap on their plaque or have the Marlins listed as their primary team.After José Fernández's death as a result of a boating accident on September 25, 2016, the Miami Marlins built a memorial at LoanDepot Park in his honor, which displays his number 16.Fernández's number has yet to be officially retired, but remains inactive.===Baseball Hall of Famers======Ford C. Frick Award recipients======Florida Sports Hall of Fame===Gary Sheffield'''Marlins in the Florida Sports Hall of Fame'''No.NamePositionTenureNotes — Wayne Huizenga Owner 1993–1998 10 Gary Sheffield OF/3B 1993–1998 Born in Tampa 18, 19 Jeff Conine 1B/LF 1993–19972003–2005 Known as \"Mr. Marlin\" for his significant history with the club 30, 32 Tim Raines LF 2002 Elected mainly on his performance with Montreal Expos, Born in Sanford 8 Andre Dawson OF 1995-1996 Elected mainly on his performance with Montreal Expos, Born in Miami 22, 25 Al Leiter P 1996–1997, 2005" ], [ "Minor league affiliations", "The Miami Marlins farm system consists of seven minor league affiliates.ClassTeamLeagueLocationBallparkAffiliated Triple-A Jacksonville Jumbo Shrimp International League Jacksonville, Florida 121 Financial Ballpark 2009 Double-A Pensacola Blue Wahoos Southern League Pensacola, Florida Admiral Fetterman Field 2021 High-A Beloit Sky Carp Midwest League Beloit, Wisconsin ABC Supply Stadium 2021 Single-A Jupiter Hammerheads Florida State League Jupiter, Florida Roger Dean Chevrolet Stadium 2002 Rookie FCL Marlins Florida Complex League Jupiter, Florida Roger Dean Chevrolet Stadium 1992 DSL MarlinsDominican Summer LeagueBoca Chica, Santo DomingoAcademia de Prospecto Complex 1993 DSL Miami 2022" ], [ "Radio and television", "The Marlins' flagship radio station from their inception in 1993 through 2007 was WQAM 560 AM.", "Although the Marlins had plans to leave WQAM after 2006, they remained with WQAM for the 2007 season.", "On October 11, 2007, the Marlins announced an agreement with WAXY 790 AM to broadcast all games for the 2008 season.", "Longtime Montreal Expo and current Marlins play-by-play radio announcer Dave Van Horne won the Hall of Fame's Ford C. Frick Award for excellence in baseball broadcasting in 2010.He shares the play-by-play duties with Glenn Geffner.Games are also broadcast in Spanish on Radio Mambi 710 AM.", "Felo Ramírez called play-by-play on that station from 1993 to 2017 along with Luis Quintana, won the Ford C. Frick Award from the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 2001.Marlins games are televised by Bally Sports Florida.", "Paul Severino serves as the play-by-play announcer with Tommy Hutton, J.P. Arencibia, Gaby Sánchez and Jeff Nelson.", "Jessica Blaylock host's ''Marlins Live'' and is the Marlins on site reporter." ], [ "Culture", "Marlins Mermaids on June 19, 2009In 1989, ''Back to the Future Part II'' had a reference to the Chicago Cubs defeating a baseball team from Miami in the 2015 World Series, ending the longest championship drought in all four of the major North American professional sports leagues.", "In actuality, the Cubs would end up getting swept in four games by the New York Mets in the NLCS, the Marlins failed to make the postseason, and the 2015 World Series was between the Kansas City Royals and the New York Mets, with the Royals winning in five games.", "Also, both the Cubs and Marlins are part of the National League, rendering a World Series matchup between the two teams impossible.The Marlins were the first team in Major League Baseball to have a dance/cheer team.", "Debuting in 2003, the ''\"Marlins Mermaids\"'' influenced other MLB teams to develop their own cheer/dance squads; this was inspired in part by similar squads from the NFL and NBA.", "In 2008, the Florida Marlins debuted ''\"The Marlins Manatees''\", Major League Baseball's first all-male dance/energy squad, to star alongside the Mermaids.", "As of 2012, the Marlins have abandoned the \"Mermaids\" and \"Manatees\" for in-game entertainment instead using an \"energy squad\", a co-ed group of dancers.", "In 2019, the Marlins brought back the Mermaids for the first time since 2012.The Marlins have had many official anthems over the years, performed by such artists as Pitbull, DJ Khaled, Poo Bear and Creed frontman Scott Stapp.", "Stapp penned their 2010 anthem Marlins Will Soar.On July 16, 2022, the Marlins became the second NL team to form a cheering section for fans when it opened \"Sandy's Beach\" at Section 22 of LoanDepot Park for supporters of team starter Sandy Alcantara.", "Fans assigned to this section, located near the 3rd base line, wear beach related clothing in an nod to the city's famous beaches whenever Sandy pitchers on select game days." ], [ "Finishes", "===Best finishes in franchise history===The following are the five best seasons in Marlins history:MLBseasonTeamseasonRegular seasonPost-seasonAwardsFinishWinsLossesWin%GB1997'''1997'''2nd92709Wild card winner, World Series Champions,Liván Hernández (World Series MVP)2003'''2003'''2nd917110Wild card winner, World Series ChampionsJack McKeon (MOY)Dontrelle Willis (ROY)Mike Lowell (Silver Slugger)Josh Beckett (World Series MVP)200920092nd87756 Hanley Ramírez (Silver Slugger/NL Batting Title)Chris Coghlan (NL Rookie of The Year)200820083rd8477 Hanley Ramírez (Silver Slugger)2020'''2020'''2nd31294 2nd in the Division, 2020 NLDS Don Mattingly (NL Manager of the Year)===Worst finishes in franchise history===The following are the five worst seasons in Marlins' history:MLBseasonTeamseasonRegular seasonNotesFinishWinsLossesWin%GB'''Awards and Honors'''199819985th5410852Worst Record in MLB History for defending WS Champion20192019 5th57105.35240Second season under Jeter- Sherman group ownership201320135th6210034First season under manager Mike Redmond199919995th649839199319936th649833Inaugural (first) season" ], [ "Home attendance", "Other than their first few years as a franchise in the 1990s, the Marlins have consistently ranked as one of lowest attendance teams in the league, coming in last place (30th) several of the past 20 years.", "Even when LoanDepot Park was completed for the 2012 season, attendance was only average for the first year, dropping down to second to last by 2013.The Marlins' former home at what was then Dolphin Stadium was primarily a football stadium (1993–2011)First pitch at LoanDepot Park, home of the Miami Marlins, which held its first Major League game on April 4, 2012, between the Marlins and the St. Louis Cardinals.", "'''Home Attendance at Hard Rock Stadium''''''Year''''''Total Attendance''''''Game Average''''''League Rank''' 1993 3,064,847 37,838 7th 1994 1,937,467 33,695 9th 1995 1,700,466 23,950 13th 1996 1,746,767 21,565 18th 1997 2,364,387 29,190 11th 1998 1,730,384 21,363 22nd 1999 1,369,421 16,906 28th 2000 1,218,326 15,041 15th 2001 1,261,226 15,765 29th 2002 813,118 10,038 29th 2003 1,303,215 16,089 28th 2004 1,723,105 21,539 26th 2005 1,852,608 22,871 28th 2006 1,164,134 14,372 30th 2007 1,370,511 16,919 30th 2008 1,335,076 16,482 30th 2009 1,464,109 18,075 29th 2010 1,524,894 18,826 28th 2011 1,520,562 19,007 29thHome Attendance at LoanDepot Park'''Year''''''Total Attendance''''''Game Average''''''League Rank''' 2012 2,219,444 27,401 18th 2013 1,586,322 19,584 29th 2014 1,732,283 21,386 27th 2015 1,752,235 21,632 28th 2016 1,712,417 21,405 27th 2017 1,583,014 20,295 28th 2018 811,104 10,014 30th" ], [ "Finance", "===Opening Day salaries===Opening Day payrolls for 25-man roster (since 1993):Opening Day Salary'''Year''''''Salary''''''Major League Rank''' 1993 $18,196,545 25th (of 28) 1994 $20,275,500 25th 1995 $23,670,000 25th 1996 $30,079,500 15th 1997 $47,753,000 7th 1998 $41,864,667 20th (of 30) 1999 $32,360,000 28th 2000 $19,900,000 29th 2001 $35,762,500 26th 2002 $41,979,917 25th 2003 $45,050,000 25th 2004 $42,143,042 25th 2005 $60,408,834 19th 2006 $14,998,500 30th 2007 $30,507,000 29th 2008 $21,811,500 30th 2009 $36,834,000 30th 2010 $47,429,719 26th 2011 $57,695,000 24th 2012 $118,078,000 7th 2013 $39,621,900 29th 2014 $46,440,400 29th 2015 $67,479,000 30th 2016 $84,637,500 26th 2017 $115,406,101 20th 2018 $99,510,143 23rd 2019 $71,903,319 29th 2020 $41,560,815 27th 2021 $56,931,750 28th===Annual financial records===The annual financial records of the Marlins according to ''Forbes'' since 2001.", "'''Annual Snapshot of Miami Marlins finance''''''Year''''''Franchise Value (millions)''''''Revenue (millions)''''''Operating Income (millions)''''''Player Expenses (millions)''''''Wins-to-player cost ratio''' 2001 $128 $67 $7 $34 161 2002 $137 $81 $1 $46 137 2003 $136 $76 $ −14 $53 134 2004 $172 $101 $ −12 $66 162 2005 $206 $103 $3 $58 131 2006 $226 $119 $ −12 $91 91 2007 $244 $122 $43 $31 255 2008 $256 $128 $36 $44 182 2009 $277 $139 $44 $45 227 2010 $317 $144 $46 $48 219 2011 $360 $143 $20.2 $58 167" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Baseball-Reference.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Frontline (Australian TV series)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Frontline''''' is an Australian comedy television series which satirised Australian television current affairs programmes and reporting.", "It ran for three series of 13 half-hour episodes and was broadcast on ABC1 in 1994, 1995 and 1997." ], [ "Production", "The series was written, directed and produced by Jane Kennedy, Santo Cilauro, Rob Sitch and Tom Gleisner.", "They created and performed in the television shows ''The D-Generation'' and ''The Late Show'' before creating ''Frontline'' (as well as ''Funky Squad'' between series 1 and 2 of ''Frontline'').", "After ''Frontline'' they moved into feature films, making several popular Australian movies including ''The Castle'' and ''The Dish'', and hosted ''The Panel'' for several years, before moving on to ''Thank God You're Here'' and later ''Have You Been Paying Attention?", "''.The series was partly inspired by a ''60 Minutes'' special \"Has the media gone too far?\".", "It bears some similarity to the UK series ''Drop the Dead Donkey''." ], [ "Setting", "===A commercial network===The series follows the fortunes of a fictional current affairs show, ''Frontline''.", "In the show, ''Frontline'' competes directly with Nine's ''A Current Affair'' and Seven's ''Real Life'', which changed its name to ''Today Tonight'' from 1995 onwards.The ''Frontline'' office showcases and satirises the machinations of the ruthless producers, the self-obsessed airhead host, and the ambitious, cynical reporters, all of whom resort to any sort of underhanded trick to get ratings and maintain their status—including the use of hidden cameras, foot-in-the-door, bullying interview techniques, and chequebook journalism.", "They ingratiate themselves with the all-powerful network bosses, while the real work is in fact done by their long-suffering production staff.The station itself also runs other television shows referenced by ''Frontline'' staff, such as 6 o'clock news program, a 3-hour news review show ''Sunday Forum'', a sketch show ''The Komedy Bunch'', a game show ''Jackpot'', a teen soap opera ''Sunshine Cove'' which later changed to ''Rainbow Island'', also lesser mentioned shows such as the football show ''Ball-to-Ball'', ''Late-Night OZ'', ''Cartoon Crazies'', ''The Morning Show'', ''Face the Press'' and ''Vacation''.===As a commentary===The characters and situations were often thinly-disguised parodies of recent real events and real people, giving the show's comedy a black edge.", "In particular, the Season 1 episode \"The Siege\" was a replay of a controversial real life incident which had occurred just a few months earlier, told as though ''Frontline'' itself had covered the story.The dim-witted, egotistical host Mike Moore was a parody of current television hosts and journalists.", "Sitch has claimed that none of the characters were directly based on a single person, and indeed the character of Moore was a combination of well-known characteristics of a number of high-profile television figures, including ''A Current Affair'' host Ray Martin, Martin's predecessor Mike Willesee, and ''Real Life'' host Stan Grant.The ABC's media review show ''Media Watch'' was featured prominently.", "Much of the real life journalistic misconduct reported on ''Media Watch'' later appeared on ''Frontline'' in fictionalised form.", "One example of this was when ''Media Watch'' reported that Dave \"Sluggo\" Richardson had made a highly misleading report on Christopher Skase for ''Today Tonight''.", "Richardson was suspended from duty for a month, and in the \"One Rule for One\" episode of ''Frontline'', fictional reporter Martin di Stasio is suspended for a month for doing exactly the same thing.Multiple episodes of ''Frontline'' featured ''Media Watch'' segments criticising the show." ], [ "Episodes" ], [ "Characters", "===Reporters===* '''Mike Moore''' (Rob Sitch) is the anchor of ''Frontline''.", "He is self-centred and dim-witted, but his intentions are generally noble.", "Mike is very protective of what he calls his \"journalistic integrity\" and resents any insinuation that he is a lightweight.", "He believes that he is on the cutting edge of journalism, but is oblivious to most of ''Frontline''s content, as the executive producers go to some length to keep him out of production meetings, and a running gag within the show sees Mike ignore most of the stories that ''Frontline'' airs despite his position as host.", "Mike is desperate for any sort of publicity he can get, but his public appearances are a constant source of amusement for the rest of the ''Frontline'' team, as they typically end in disaster.", "While usually harmless, Mike is not above using underhanded tactics to get his way—in \"A Hole in the Heart\" (series 3), he steals a story from Marty because viewers are responding positively to it, while in \"Addicted to Fame\", he demands that Geoffrey's television show be cancelled because he is jealous of the attention his friend is getting.", "In the first two series Mike's position is constantly under threat from senior reporter Brooke Vandenberg, who has a better press profile, but by the last series he has been cemented as one of the network's most valuable stars and considerably more effort is made to pander to his whims.", "While Mike is usually portrayed as simply dumb (for example, in \"A Man of His Convictions\" in series 2 he writes a letter to media commentator Stuart Littlemore full of basic spelling and grammatical errors) he occasionally surprises his colleagues with his sneakiness: in \"Give 'em Enough Rope\" (series 2) he traps the network owner into admitting to contravening the Broadcasting Act in a live interview, after first getting the owner to publicly commit to allowing him to ask difficult questions without threat to his job.", "Many gags centre around how easily he is manipulated by his executive producer, the most typical case being when Mike refuses to present a story and then is convinced to run it by an appeal to his supposed fearlessness or journalistic integrity.", "* '''Brooke Vandenberg''' (Jane Kennedy) is a reporter on ''Frontline''.", "She is ambitious, amoral and publicity hungry.", "While there are constant rumours that she has affairs with male celebrities in order to build her profile, in some cases she simply creates the rumours herself; in \"The Desert Angel\" (series 1) she confesses to Pat Cash that she started a rumour about having an affair with him.", "Like most of the employees of ''Frontline'', she has no ethical problems with any action the show takes to get a good story.", "She is, however, portrayed as being very hypocritical; in \"The Invisible Man\" (series 1), she has no issues with violating peoples' privacy when she runs a story using a hidden camera to catch shoplifters in a store change room, but is outraged when a rival network violates her own privacy in the same way when broadcasting a similar story.", "Brooke is also very vain, and tends to edit her stories to give herself as much screen time as she can manage.", "When a new segment producer edits footage of Brooke out of a story in \"I Disease\" (series 3), she becomes upset to the point where she demands that the producer be fired for it.", "In \"A Hole in the Heart\", Brooke discovers she is pregnant to a former boyfriend and is bribed into having an abortion by a new hosting offer.", "* '''Martin \"Marty\" Di Stasio''' (Tiriel Mora) is a senior reporter on ''Frontline''.", "He is Mike's major antagonist on the team, often baiting him about sensitive topics, such as the supposedly anti-Semitic golf club of which Mike is a member (\"A Hole in the Heart\"), or whenever Mike's public appearances end in disaster.", "He is the most experienced journalist on the team: a few references are made to him winning a Walkley Award.", "Like Brooke, he is uncritical of the show's journalistic tactics (although in the episode \"Judge and Jury\", he has reservations about their persecution of a priest accused of rape, mainly because he is a lapsed Catholic); in fact he is usually the confidante of the executive producers, and the one they can trust to do what is needed to get a good story, or to persuade Mike to present a story.", "His position on ''Frontline'' is more tenuous than that of Mike or Brooke: in \"Dick on the Line\" (series 3) he tells Mike and Brooke that at his age he signs his yearly contract immediately and does not mess about negotiating.===Producers===* '''Emma Ward''' (Alison Whyte) is the Line Producer on ''Frontline''.", "She questions the show's practices most frequently and acts as the viewers' conscience.", "In \"Heroes and Villains\" (series 2), she is the only member of the team to have read the supposedly racist book the show is attacking and objects to their incendiary treatment of its author.", "Early in series 2 and 3, the executive producers of the time approach Marty and ask him to explain Emma.", "Marty explains that while she has moral qualms like Mike does, she is more difficult to handle because she is intelligent.", "Despite often objecting, Emma is usually party to ethically questionable practices and occasionally finds them amusing.", "In \"A Hole in the Heart (part 2)\", to placate a director from charity organisation Rotary, she allows the executive producer to yell at her and pretend to fire her over one of the show's decisions, when in reality she is receiving a large pay rise in return for her part of the act.", "* '''Kate Preston''' (Trudy Hellier) is the segment producer.", "While Kate is friendly with Emma, who has a more senior position, Kate has fewer ethical qualms about stories than Emma, and tends to be in the middle of conflicts between Emma and the executive producer.", "* '''Brian \"Thommo\" Thompson''' (Bruno Lawrence) is the executive producer during series 1.He is fired by the network in the first episode of series 2, although he is never shown on screen in that episode; the real reason for this is that Lawrence died of lung cancer between the filming of series 1 and series 2, forcing the writers to create a new executive producer character, Sam (see below).", "* '''Sam Murphy''' (Kevin J. Wilson) is the executive producer during series 2, hired immediately after Brian is fired.", "Thommo's and Sam's characters are similar; a hard-nosed EP who would not hesitate to air questionable stories to attract ratings.", "* '''Graham \"Prowsey\" Prowse''' (Steve Bisley) is the executive producer during series 3, hired after the producer who took ''Frontline'' to the top retires.", "Prowsey is much more aggressive and unpleasant than his two predecessors.", "He has a bad temper, is unpleasant to the staff and is unashamedly sexist: groping the female staff, dismissing bulimia as a \"chick thing\" and writing off Brooke's bad moods as PMS.", "He is, however, like his predecessors, capable of being charming when needed to deceive Mike, placate Emma or feed Brooke's ego.===Supporting staff===* '''Domenica Baroni''' (Anita Cerdic) is the office receptionist, and the only person in the office who truly admires Mike.", "Her increasingly bizarre hairstyles become a running gag, culminating in \"Give 'em Enough Rope\", when she is completely bald and festooned with ribbons.", "Her reactions to the show usually reflect the target audience's responses.", "She is a reluctant and sometimes traitorous party to the office's determination to keep Mike away from production meetings.", "She is always very supportive of Mike and there are often hints that she actually has a crush on him.", "Domenica occasionally contributes to stories run by the show, such as when she receives a tipoff from a relative in \"Divide the Community, Multiply the Ratings\" or when she is the only female staff member willing to go undercover in a nightclub in \"My Generation\".", "* '''Shelley Cohen''' (Linda Ross) is the executive producer's secretary.", "She has worked for the network for many years and is usually unfazed by the mishaps in the office.", "* '''Stuart \"Stu\" O'Hallaran''' (Pip Mushin) is the office's main cameraman and shoots most of Brooke's and Marty's stories.", "He, Marty and Jase are all friends and frequently make fun of Mike.", "* '''Jason \"Jase\" Cotter''' (Torquil Neilson) is the sound recordist who works with Stu.", "Jase is not actually heard speaking until series 3 despite appearing in most episodes in series 1 and 2.He is fired in the episode \"I Get the Big Names\" for audio taping Brooke Vandanberg while she urinates on the toilet and then leaking it to the media.", "* '''Hugh Tabbagh''' (Marcus Eyre) is the editor of videos, who is almost always seen editing in the audio-visual room whilst sitting, smoking cigarettes, coughing wildly and inhaling an asthma puffer.", "* '''Trev''' (Stephen Curry) appears as Jase's replacement as the sound recordist towards the end of the third series.=== Network employees ===* '''Geoffrey Salter''' (Santo Cilauro) is the network's weatherman and Mike's closest friend at work.", "Geoff usually appears in private conversations in his office with Mike, and is often the catalyst for Mike to question the reassurance he has been given by a producer that the story of the moment is being ethically pursued.", "Despite his being Mike's closest friend, Mike frequently ignores Geoff's issues, and their conversations often serve to reinforce Mike's beliefs.", "Geoff is unpopular with the rest of the ''Frontline'' staff to the point where he is banned from the ''Frontline'' set, but they are all supportive when he unexpectedly achieves popularity with his own one-hour programme in \"Addicted to Fame\" (series 3), though he is unaware that Mike demanded the plans for the expansion of the show be cancelled because he was jealous of the attention Geoff was getting.", "He is the focus of a running gag where he will laugh hysterically along with Mike at any anecdote Mike tells him, before admitting that he does not understand it.", "* '''Ian Farmer''' (Gerard Kennedy) is the Station Manager, the boss of the local studios.", "He appears only in series one.", "He and Brian Thompson are good friends, and frequently play golf together.", "* '''Bob Caville''' (Peter Stratford) is the network's managing director, and definitively pulls the office into line.", "* '''Jan Whelan''' (Genevieve Mooy) is the network's head of publicity in series 1 and 2.Jan refers to everyone as \"poppet\" and \"darling\" and has extravagantly camp mannerisms, but is in fact practical and efficient.", "* '''Trish''' (Lynda Gibson) is the network's head of publicity in series 3.Gibson also appears in \"Workin' Class Man\" from series 2 as the wife/mother of three of a working-class family who is visited by Brooke for a story regarding the difficulties of making ends meet.", "* '''Elliot Rhodes''' (Boris Conley) is a comedian and musician, performing short musical sketches about current events at the end of Friday night episodes of ''Frontline''.", "Mike detests his act but is required to laugh uproariously and compliment it on air every week.", "In two episodes, he was fired at Mike's request.=== Special guests ===''Frontline'' frequently featured celebrity cameos, unusually including major Australian politicians appearing as themselves, often but not always as interviewees.", "The most memorable appearance is that of Pauline Hanson in \"The Shadow We Cast\" (series 3), in which she turns her famous \"please explain?\"", "phrase on Mike.", "Noel Pearson appears as an interviewee later in the same episode.", "Other appearances include: John Hewson in \"The Soufflé Rises\" (series 1); Pat Cash in \"The Desert Angel\"; Cheryl Kernot in \"We Ain't Got Dames\" (series 1); Ben Elton, Bert Newton, Rosemary Margan, Amanda Keller and Anne Fulwood in \"This Night of Nights\" (series 1); Glenn Ridge in \"Add Sex and Stir\" and \"Office Mole\" (series 2); Glenn Robbins and Molly Meldrum in \"Add Sex and Stir\"; George Negus in \"Add Sex and Stir\" and \"Dick on the Line\" (series 3); and Ian Baker-Finch in \"A Hole in the Heart\".", "Harry Shearer appeared in the series 2 episode \"Changing the Face of Current Affairs\", where he played the character of Larry Hadges.", "Merv Hughes also starred in the series 2 episode \"Workin' Class Man\".Other guest stars appeared in mock-ups of their own shows: Mike Moore appeared on fictitious episodes of ''Burke's Backyard'' with Don Burke, Rex Hunt's fishing show, and ''The AFL Footy Show'' with Sam Newman.", "Stuart Littlemore, who at the time was hosting the media commentary show ''Media Watch'', appeared in several fictitious episodes as a critic of ''Frontline''." ], [ "Production strategies", "''Frontline'' broke new ground for Australian situation comedy, by adopting some innovative production strategies.", "Its rapid production schedule was inspired by UK series ''Drop the Dead Donkey'', where each episode was written and taped in a single week and scripts were closely based on the real news stories of the preceding seven days.The ''Frontline'' scripts were likewise written and the series filmed with a short period, often within a single week.", "It was a fully collaborative effort, with Cilauro, Kennedy, Gleisner and Sitch all sharing writing and directing duties, and the cast all contributing ideas during all stages of production.", "So sometimes when the show appeared on then-current events, it was a coincidence, as episodes were delayed by several months.", "In other cases there was direct commentary on real events, albeit not extremely recent ones.To create a heightened illusion of grainy documentary realism, footage was shot under fluorescent lights in an actual office building set, and taped on hand-held Hi-8 camcorders usually operated by Gleisner and Cilauro.", "The footage was then transferred onto film and finally transferred back to videotape (see: Kinescope).", "Footage that was portrayed as being part of the ''Frontline'' broadcast (i.e., studio or field reports) was shot at broadcast quality, to increase the \"realism\" of the satire and complement the behind-the-scenes footage." ], [ "Other airings", "In 1997, Channel Seven bought the rights to the series; however, they only aired a handful of episodes.", "The show was perceived by management as \"too close to the bone\" for a network significantly focused upon its prime-time current affairs ratings battle with rival stations.", "The Comedy Channel has shown the series as late as 2005.It was shown again on ABC TV in 2018 and in 2020–21.In America, ''Frontline'' was shown as either ''Behind the Frontline'' on cable or as ''Breaking News'' on PBS (which already has a news series titled ''Frontline'').In the UK, series 1 and 2 were shown by the Paramount Comedy Channel.", "Series 3, however, was never screened.In Canada, it was aired as ''Behind the Frontline'' on Showcase in 1997." ], [ "Impact", "The series was extremely popular through its run, winning a Logie Award for Most Outstanding Achievement in Comedy in 1995, and a Logie for Alison Whyte as most outstanding actress in 1997.A ''Sydney Morning Herald'' industry poll rated it No.", "2 in the 25 all-time greatest Australian TV shows.Six episodes from series one were a core text in the Year 12 English Advanced syllabus for the Higher School Certificate in New South Wales (2000–2008) for Module C: Representation and Text: Elective 1: Telling the Truth.", "The episodes are \"Playing the Ego Card\", \"Add Sex and Stir\", \"The Siege\", \"Smaller Fish to Fry\", \"We Ain't Got Dames\", and \"This Night of Nights\".", "The show has also been used as a text response for both Years 11 and 12 in the English units of the Victorian Certificate of Education.", "Episodes of ''Frontline'' have been analysed for the Media topic in the Year 10 English syllabus in New South Wales since at least 2001 and in Western Australia since at least 2009." ], [ "MentalAs campaign", "In October 2014, Sitch reprised the role of Mike Moore and ''Frontline'' during a short sketch on the ''Friday Night Crack Up'' as part of the ABC's \"MentalAs\" campaign to raise money and awareness for mental health issues." ], [ "See also", "* ''Absolute Power''* ''The Hollowmen''* ''K Street''* ''The Newsroom''* ''The Thick of It''* Working Dog Productions" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * Interview with Rob Sitch on the tenth anniversary of ''Frontline''* Frontline DVDs at the ABC shop online* Frontline at the National Film and Sound Archive" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Frédéric Bastiat" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Claude-Frédéric Bastiat''' (; ; 30 June 1801 – 24 December 1850) was a French economist, writer and a prominent member of the French Liberal School.A member of the French National Assembly, Bastiat developed the economic concept of opportunity cost and introduced the parable of the broken window.", "He was described as \"the most brilliant economic journalist who ever lived\" by economic theorist Joseph Schumpeter.As an advocate of classical economics and the economics of Adam Smith, his views favored a free market and influenced the Austrian School.", "He is best known for his book ''The Law'', where he argued that law must protect rights such as private property, not \"plunder\" others' property." ], [ "Biography", "Drawing of BastiatBastiat was born on 29 June 1801 in Bayonne, Aquitaine, a port town in the south of France on the Bay of Biscay.", "His father, Pierre Bastiat, was a prominent businessman in the town.", "His mother died in 1808 when Frédéric was seven years old.", "His father moved inland to the town of Mugron, with Frédéric following soon afterward.", "The Bastiat estate in Mugron had been acquired during the French Revolution and had previously belonged to the Marquis of Poyanne.", "Pierre Bastiat died in 1810, leaving Frédéric an orphan.", "He was fostered by his paternal grandfather and his unmarried aunt Justine Bastiat.", "He attended a school in Bayonne, but his aunt thought poorly of it and so enrolled him in the school Saint-Sever.", "At age 17, he left school at Sorèze to work for his uncle in his family's export business.", "It was the same firm where his father had been a partner.Bastiat began to develop an intellectual interest as he no longer wished to work with his uncle and desired to go to Paris for formal studies.", "This hope was not realized as his grandfather was in poor health and wished to go to the Mugron estate.", "Bastiat accompanied him and cared for him.", "The next year when Bastiat was 24, his grandfather died, leaving him the family estate, thereby providing him with the means to further his theoretical inquiries.", "Bastiat developed intellectual interests in several areas including philosophy, history, politics, religion, travel, poetry, political economy and biography.", "After the middle-class Revolution of 1830, Bastiat became politically active and was elected justice of the peace of Mugron in 1831 and to the Council General (county-level assembly) of Landes in 1832.Bastiat was elected to the national legislative assembly after the French Revolution of 1848.His public career as an economist began only in 1844, when his first article was published in the ''Journal des économistes'' during October of that year and it was ended by his untimely death in 1850.Bastiat contracted tuberculosis, probably during his tours throughout France to promote his ideas and that illness eventually prevented him from making further speeches (particularly at the legislative assembly to which he was elected in 1848 and 1849) and ended his life.", "In ''The Law'', he wrote: \"Until the day of my death, I shall proclaim this principle with all the force of my lungs (which alas!", "is all too inadequate)\".This last line is understood by translators to be a reference to the effects of his tuberculosis.", "During the autumn of 1850, he was sent to Italy by his doctors, and he first traveled to Pisa, then to Rome.", "On 24 December 1850, Bastiat called those with him to approach his bed and murmured twice the words \"the truth\" before he died at the age of 49." ], [ "Works", "Bust of Bastiat in MugronBastiat was the author of many works on economics and political economy, generally characterized by their clear organization, forceful argumentation and acerbic wit.", "Economist Murray Rothbard wrote that \"Bastiat was indeed a lucid and superb writer, whose brilliant and witty essays and fables to this day are remarkable and devastating demolitions of protectionism and of all forms of government subsidy and control.", "He was a truly scintillating advocate of an unrestricted free market\".", "However, Bastiat himself declared that subsidy should be available, albeit limited under extraordinary circumstances, saying the following: \"Under extraordinary circumstances, for urgent cases, the State should set aside some resources to assist certain unfortunate people, to help them adjust to changing conditions\".Among his better-known works is ''Economic Sophisms'', a series of essays (originally published in the ''Journal des économistes'') which contain a defence of free trade.", "Bastiat wrote the work while living in England to advise the shapers of the French Republic on perils to avoid.", "''Economic Sophisms'' was translated and adapted for an American readership in 1867 by the economist and historian of money Alexander del Mar, writing under the pseudonym Emile Walter.=== ''Economic Sophisms'' and the candlemakers' petition ===Contained within ''Economic Sophisms'' is the satirical parable known as the candlemakers' petition in which candlemakers and tallow producers lobby the Chamber of Deputies of the French July Monarchy (1830–1848) to block out the Sun to prevent its unfair competition with their products.", "Also included in the ''Sophisms'' is a facetious petition to the king asking for a law forbidding the usage of everyone's right hand, based on a presumption by some of his contemporaries that more difficulty means more work and more work means more wealth.=== ''The Law'' (1850) ===Bastiat's most famous work is ''The Law'', originally published as a pamphlet in 1850.It defines a just system of laws and then demonstrates how such law facilitates a free society.", "In ''The Law'', Bastiat wrote that everyone has a right to protect \"his person, his liberty, and his property\".", "The state should be only a \"substitution of a common force for individual forces\" to defend this right.", "According to Bastiat, justice (meaning defense of one's life, liberty and property) has precise limits, but if government power extends further into philanthropic endeavors, then government becomes so limitless that it can grow endlessly.", "The resulting statism is \"based on this triple hypothesis: the total inertness of mankind, the omnipotence of the law, and the infallibility of the legislator\".", "The public then becomes socially engineered by the legislator and must bend to the legislators' will \"like the clay to the potter\", saying: Socialism, like the ancient ideas from which it springs, confuses the distinction between government and society.", "As a result of this, every time we object to a thing being done by government, the socialists conclude that we object to its being done at all.", "We disapprove of state education.", "Then the socialists say that we are opposed to any education.", "We object to a state religion.", "Then the socialists say that we want no religion at all.", "We object to a state-enforced equality.", "Then they say that we are against equality.", "And so on, and so on.", "It is as if the socialists were to accuse us of not wanting persons to eat because we do not want the state to raise grain.I do not dispute their right to invent social combinations, to advertise them, to advocate them, and to try them upon themselves, at their own expense and risk.", "But I do dispute their right to impose these plans upon us by law – by force – and to compel us to pay for them with our taxes.Bastiat posits that the law becomes perverted when it punishes one's right to self-defense (of his life, liberty and property) in favor of another's right to legalized plunder which he defines as \"if the law takes from some persons what belongs to them and gives it to other persons to whom it does not belong.", "See if the law benefits one citizen at the expense of another by doing what the citizen himself cannot do without committing a crime\" in which he includes the tax support of \"protective tariffs, subsidies, guaranteed profits, guaranteed jobs, relief and welfare schemes, public education, progressive taxation, free credit, and public works\".", "According to Bastiat, legal plunder can be committed in \"an infinite number of ways.", "Thus, we have an infinite number of plans for organizing it: tariffs, protection, benefits, subsidies, encouragements, progressive taxation, public schools, guaranteed jobs, guaranteed profits, minimum wages, a right to relief, a right to the tools of labor, free credit, and so on, and so on.", "All these plans as a whole — with their common aim of legal plunder — constitute socialism\".", "Bastiat also made the following humorous point: \"If the natural tendencies of mankind are so bad that it is not safe to permit people to be free, how is it that the tendencies of these organizers are always good?", "Do not the legislators and their appointed agents also belong to the human race?", "Or do they believe that they themselves are made of a finer clay than the rest of mankind?", "\"=== \"What is Seen and What is Not Seen\" ===In his 1850 essay \"Ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas\" (\"What is seen and what is not seen\"), Bastiat introduced through the parable of the broken window the concept of opportunity cost in all but name.", "This term was not coined until over sixty years after his death by Friedrich von Wieser in 1914.=== Debate with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon ===Bastiat also famously engaged in a debate between 1849 and 1850 with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon about the legitimacy of interest.", "As Robert Leroux argued, Bastiat had the conviction that Proudhon's anti-interest doctrine \"was the complete antithesis of any serious approach\".", "Proudhon famously lost his temper and resorted to ad hominem attacks: \"Your intelligence is asleep, or rather it has never been awake.", "You are a man for whom logic does not exist.", "You do not hear anything, you do not understand anything.", "You are without philosophy, without science, without humanity.", "Your ability to reason, like your ability to pay attention and make comparisons is zero.", "Scientifically, Mr. Bastiat, you are a dead man.\"" ], [ "Views", "Bastiat asserted that the sole purpose of government is to protect the right of an individual to life, liberty and property and that it is dangerous and morally wrong for government to interfere with an individual's other personal matters.", "From this, Bastiat concluded that the law cannot defend life, liberty and property if it promotes legal or legalized plunder which he defined as using government force and laws to take something from one individual and give it to others (as opposed to a transfer of property via mutually agreed contracts without using fraud or violent threats against the other party, which Bastiat considered a legitimate transfer of property).In ''The Law'', Bastiat explains that if the privileged classes or socialists use the government for legalized plunder, this will encourage the other socioeconomic class to also use legal plunder and that the correct response to the socialists is to cease all legal plunder.", "Bastiat also explains why his opinion is that the law cannot defend life, liberty and property if it promotes socialist policies.", "When used to obtain legalized plunder for any group, he says that the law is perverted against the only things (life, liberty and property) it is supposed to defend.Bastiat was a strong supporter of free trade who was inspired by and routinely corresponded with Richard Cobden and the English Anti-Corn Law League and worked with free-trade associations in France.Because of his emphasis on the mutual gains to be had from free exchange, on subjective value, and on the importance of deductive reasoning (as opposed to mathematical models) in deriving economic conclusions, Bastiat has been described by Mark Thornton, Thomas DiLorenzo and other economists as a forerunner of the Austrian School, with Thornton positing that through taking this position on the motivations of human action he demonstrates a pronounced \"Austrian flavor.\"" ], [ "Bastiat's tomb", "Bastiat's tomb in San Luigi dei Francesi, a Catholic church in RomeBastiat died in Rome and is buried at San Luigi dei Francesi in the center of that city." ], [ "Books", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "See also", "* Age of Enlightenment* Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune* Bastiat Prize* ''Harmonies of Political Economy''* Hippolyte Castille* List of liberal theorists* Physiocrats" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bastiat's Legacy in Economics by Jorg Guido Hulsmann* Frédéric Bastiat's Views on the Nature of Money by Mark Thornton* Frédéric Bastiat: Two Hundred Years On by Joseph R. Stromberg* Foville, A. de.", "\"Bastiat\" (1900).", "In ''Nouveau dictionnaire de l’économie politique''.", "Deuxième édition.", "Tome premier.", "''A–H''.", "Publié sous la direction de M. Léon Say et de M. Joseph Chailley, 170–172.Paris: Guillaumin et Cie .", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Bastiat.org publishes and indexes information about Bastiat* Cercle Frédéric Bastiat publishes and indexes information about Bastiat* The Bastiat Society* \"Frédéric Bastiat: Libertarian Challenger or Political Bargainer?\"", "article by economist Brian Baugus on the development of Bastiat's thinking* '' The Bastiat Collection Volume 1'', '' The Bastiat Collection Volume 2'' – A collection of Bastiat works published by the Ludwig von Mises Institute* Audio version of Russell's translation of ''The Law''* ''The Law'' – Frederic Bastiat (PDF English)* * Bastiat’s ''Essays on Political Economy'' (including ''The Law''), in its entirety (free PDF download)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Falsifiability" ], [ "Introduction", "\"All swans are white\" is falsifiable, and would be falsifiable even if there were no black swan to actually falsify it, as it is clear what would be needed to disprove that statement.", "'''Falsifiability''' is a deductive standard of evaluation of scientific theories and hypotheses, introduced by the philosopher of science Karl Popper in his book ''The Logic of Scientific Discovery'' (1934).", "A theory or hypothesis is '''falsifiable''' (or '''refutable''') if it can be ''logically'' contradicted by an empirical test.Popper proposed falsifiability as the cornerstone solution to both the problem of induction and the problem of demarcation.", "He insisted that, as a logical criterion, his falsifiability is distinct from the related concept \"capacity to be proven wrong\" discussed in Lakatos's falsificationism.", "Even being a logical criterion, its purpose is to make the theory predictive and testable, and thus useful in practice.Popper contrasted falsifiability to the intuitively similar concept of verifiability that was then current in logical positivism.", "He argues that the only way to verify a claim such as \"All swans are white\" would be if one could theoretically observe all swans, which is not possible.", "Instead, falsifiability searches for the anomalous instance, such that observing a single black swan is theoretically reasonable and sufficient to logically falsify the claim.", "On the other hand, the Duhem–Quine thesis says that definitive experimental falsifications are impossible and that no scientific hypothesis is by itself capable of making predictions, because an empirical test of the hypothesis requires one or more background assumptions.", "According to Popper there is a clean asymmetry on the logical side and falsifiability does not have the Duhem problem because it is a logical criterion.", "Experimental research has the Duhem problem and other problems, such as induction, but, according to Popper, statistical tests, which are only possible when a theory is falsifiable, can still be useful within a critical discussion.", "Philosophers such as Deborah Mayo consider that Popper \"comes up short\" in his description of the scientific role of statistical and data models.", "As a key notion in the separation of science from non-science and pseudoscience, falsifiability has featured prominently in many scientific controversies and applications, even being used as legal precedent." ], [ "The problem of induction and demarcation", "One of the questions in the scientific method is: how does one move from observations to scientific laws?", "This is the problem of induction.", "Suppose we want to put the hypothesis that all swans are white to the test.", "We come across a white swan.", "We cannot validly argue (or ''induce'') from \"here is a white swan\" to \"all swans are white\"; doing so would require a logical fallacy such as, for example, affirming the consequent.Popper's idea to solve this problem is that while it is impossible to verify that every swan is white, finding a single black swan shows that ''not'' every swan is white.", "We might tentatively accept the proposal that every swan is white, while looking out for examples of non-white swans that would show our conjecture to be false.", "Falsification uses the valid inference ''modus tollens'': if from a law we logically deduce , but what is observed is , we infer that the law is false.", "For example, given the statement \"all swans are white\", we can deduce \"the specific swan here is white\", but if what is observed is \"the specific swan here is not white\" (say black), then \"all swans are white\" is false.", "More accurately, the statement that can be deduced is broken into an initial condition and a prediction as in in which \"the thing here is a swan\" and \"the thing here is a white swan\".", "If what is observed is C being true while P is false (formally, ), we can infer that the law is false.", "For Popper, induction is actually never needed in science.", "Instead, in Popper's view, laws are conjectured in a non-logical manner on the basis of expectations and predispositions.", "This has led David Miller, a student and collaborator of Popper, to write \"the mission is to classify truths, not to certify them\".", "In contrast, the logical empiricism movement, which included such philosophers as Moritz Schlick, Rudolf Carnap, Otto Neurath, and A.J.", "Ayer wanted to formalize the idea that, for a law to be scientific, it must be possible to argue on the basis of observations either in favor of its truth or its falsity.", "There was no consensus among these philosophers about how to achieve that, but the thought expressed by Mach's dictum that \"where neither confirmation nor refutation is possible, science is not concerned\" was accepted as a basic precept of critical reflection about science.Popper said that a demarcation criterion was possible, but we have to use the ''logical possibility'' of falsifications, which is falsifiability.", "He cited his encounter with psychoanalysis in the 1910s.", "It did not matter what observation was presented, psychoanalysis could explain it.", "Unfortunately, the reason it could explain everything is that it did not exclude anything also.", "For Popper, this was a failure, because it meant that it could not make any prediction.", "From a logical standpoint, if one finds an observation that does not contradict a law, it does not mean that the law is true.", "A verification has no value in itself.", "But, if the law makes risky predictions and these are corroborated, Popper says, there is a reason to prefer this law over another law that makes less risky predictions or no predictions at all.", "In the definition of falsifiability, contradictions with observations are not used to support eventual falsifications, but for ''logical'' \"falsifications\" that show that the law makes risky predictions, which is completely different.On the basic philosophical side of this issue, Popper said that some philosophers of the Vienna Circle had mixed two different problems, that of meaning and that of demarcation, and had proposed in verificationism a single solution to both: a statement that could not be verified was considered meaningless.", "In opposition to this view, Popper said that there are meaningful theories that are not scientific, and that, accordingly, a criterion of meaningfulness does not coincide with a criterion of demarcation.===From Hume's problem to non problematic induction===The problem of induction is often called Hume's problem.", "David Hume studied how human beings obtain new knowledge that goes beyond known laws and observations, including how we can discover new laws.", "He understood that deductive logic could not explain this learning process and argued in favour of a mental or psychological process of learning that would not require deductive logic.", "He even argued that this learning process cannot be justified by any general rules, deductive or not.", "Popper accepted Hume's argument and therefore viewed progress in science as the result of quasi-induction, which does the same as induction, but has no inference rules to justify it.", "Philip N. Johnson-Laird, professor of psychology, also accepted Hume's conclusion that induction has no justification.", "For him induction does not require justification and therefore can exist in the same manner as Popper's quasi-induction does.When Johnson-Laird says that no justification is needed, he does not refer to a general method of justification that, to avoid a circular reasoning, would not itself require any justification.", "On the contrary, in agreement with Hume, he refers to the fact that there is no general method of justification for induction and that's ok, because the induction steps do not require justification.", "Instead, these steps use patterns of induction that may or may not be applicable depending on the background knowledge.", "Johnson-Laird wrote: \"Philosophers have worried about which properties of objects warrant inductive inferences.", "The answer rests on knowledge: we don't infer that all the passengers on a plane are male because the first ten off the plane are men.", "We know that this observation doesn't rule out the possibility of a woman passenger.\"", "The reasoning pattern that was not applied here is enumerative induction.Popper was interested in the overall learning process in science, to quasi-induction, which he also called the \"path of science\".", "However, Popper did not show much interest in these reasoning patterns, which he globally referred to as psychologism.", "He did not deny the possibility of some kind of psychological explanation for the learning process, especially when psychology is seen as an extension of biology, but he felt that these biological explanations were not within the scope of epistemology.", "Popper proposed an evolutionary mechanism to explain the success of science, which is much in line with Johnson-Laird's view that \"induction is just something that animals, including human beings, do to make life possible\", but Popper did not consider it a part of his epistemology.", "He wrote that his interest was mainly in the ''logic'' of science and that epistemology should be concerned with logical aspects only.", "Instead of asking why science succeeds he considered the pragmatic problem of induction.", "This problem is not how to justify a theory or what is the global mechanism for the success of science but only what methodology do we use to pick one theory among theories that are already conjectured.", "His methodological answer to the latter question is that we pick the theory that is the most tested with the available technology: \"the one, which in the light of our ''critical discussion'', appears to be the best so far\".", "By his own account, because only a negative approach was supported by logic, Popper adopted a negative methodology.", "The purpose of his methodology is to prevent \"the policy of immunizing our theories against refutation\".", "It also supports some \"dogmatic attitude\" in defending theories against criticism, because this allows the process to be more complete.", "This negative view of science was much criticized and not only by Johnson-Laird.In practice, some steps based on observations can be justified under assumptions, which can be very natural.", "For example, Bayesian inductive logic is justified by theorems that make explicit assumptions.", "These theorems are obtained with deductive logic, not inductive logic.", "They are sometimes presented as steps of induction, because they refer to laws of probability, even though they do not go beyond deductive logic.", "This is yet a third notion of induction, which overlap with deductive logic in the following sense that it is supported by it.", "These deductive steps are not really inductive, but the overall process that includes the creation of assumptions is inductive in the usual sense.", "In a fallibilism perspective, a perspective that is widely accepted by philosophers, including Popper, every learning step only creates or reinforces an assumption—that is all what science does." ], [ "Basic statements and the definition of falsifiability", "Popper distinguished between the logic of science and its applied ''methodology''.", "For example, Newton's law of gravitation is falsifiable—it is falsified by \"The brick fell upwards when released\".", "An explanation for this imaginary state of affairs such as some hidden force other than gravity acting on the brick would make it more intuitive, but is not needed for falsifiability, because it is a logical criterion.", "The empirical requirement on the potential falsifier, also called the ''material requirement'', is only that it is observable inter-subjectively with existing technologies.", "The logical part consists of theories, statements and their purely logical relationship together with this material requirement, which is needed for a connection with the methodological part.The methodological part consists, in Popper's view, of informal rules, which are used to guess theories, accept observation statements as factual, etc.", "These include statistical tests: Popper is aware that observation statements are accepted with the help of statistical methods and that these involve methodological decisions.", "When this distinction is applied to the term \"falsifiability\", it corresponds to a distinction between two completely different meanings of the term.", "The same is true for the term \"falsifiable\".", "Popper said that he only uses \"falsifiability\" or \"falsifiable\" in reference to the logical side and that, when he refers to the methodological side, he speaks instead of \"falsification\" and its problems.Popper said that methodological problems require proposing methodological rules.", "For example, one such rule is that, if one refuses to go along with falsifications, then one has retired oneself from the game of science.", "The logical side does not have such methodological problems, in particular with regard to the falsifiability of a theory, because basic statements are not required to be possible.", "Methodological rules are only needed in the context of actual falsifications.So observations have two purposes in Popper's view.", "On the methodological side, observations can be used to show that a law is false, which Popper calls falsification.", "On the logical side, observations, which are purely logical constructions, do not show a law to be false, but contradict a law to show its falsifiability.", "Unlike falsifications and ''free from the problems of falsification'', these contradictions establish the value of the law, which may eventually be corroborated.", "He wrote that an entire literature exists because this distinction was not observed.===Basic statements===In Popper's view of science, statements of observation can be analyzed within a logical structure independently of any factual observations.", "The set of all purely logical observations that are considered constitutes the empirical basis.", "Popper calls them the ''basic statements'' or ''test statements''.", "They are the statements that can be used to show the falsifiability of a theory.", "Popper says that basic statements do not have to be possible in practice.", "It is sufficient that they are accepted by convention as belonging to the empirical language, a language that allows intersubjective verifiability: \"they must be testable by intersubjective observation (the material requirement)\".", "See the examples in section .In more than twelve pages of ''The Logic of Scientific Discovery'', Popper discusses informally which statements among those that are considered in the logical structure are basic statements.", "A logical structure uses universal classes to define laws.", "For example, in the law \"all swans are white\" the concept of swans is a universal class.", "It corresponds to a set of properties that every swan must have.", "It is not restricted to the swans that exist, existed or will exist.", "Informally, a basic statement is simply a statement that concerns only a finite number of specific instances in universal classes.", "In particular, an existential statement such as \"there exists a black swan\" is not a basic statement, because it is not specific about the instance.", "On the other hand, \"this swan here is black\" is a basic statement.", "Popper says that it is a singular existential statement or simply a singular statement.", "So, basic statements are singular (existential) statements.===The definition of falsifiability===Thornton says that basic statements are statements that correspond to particular \"observation-reports\".", "He then gives Popper's definition of falsifiability:As in the case of actual falsifiers, decisions must be taken by scientists to accept a logical structure and its associated empirical basis, but these are usually part of a background knowledge that scientists have in common and, often, no discussion is even necessary.", "The first decision described by Lakatos is implicit in this agreement, but the other decisions are not needed.", "This agreement, if one can speak of agreement when there is not even a discussion, exists only in principle.", "This is where the distinction between the logical and methodological sides of science becomes important.", "When an actual falsifier is proposed, the technology used is considered in detail and, as described in section , an actual agreement is needed.", "This may require using a deeper empirical basis, hidden within the current empirical basis, to make sure that the properties or values used in the falsifier were obtained correctly ( gives some examples).Popper says that despite the fact that the empirical basis can be shaky, more comparable to a swamp than to solid ground, the definition that is given above is simply the formalization of a natural requirement on scientific theories, without which the whole logical process of science would not be possible.===Initial condition and prediction in falsifiers of laws===In his analysis of the scientific nature of universal laws, Popper arrived at the conclusion that laws must \"allow us to deduce, roughly speaking, more ''empirical'' singular statements than we can deduce from the initial conditions alone.\"", "A singular statement that has one part only cannot contradict a universal law.", "A falsifier of a law has always two parts: the initial condition and the singular statement that contradicts the prediction.However, there is no need to require that falsifiers have two parts in the definition itself.", "This removes the requirement that a falsifiable statement must make prediction.", "In this way, the definition is more general and allows the basic statements themselves to be falsifiable.", "Criteria that require that ''a law'' must be predictive, just as is required by falsifiability (when applied to laws), Popper wrote, \"have been put forward as criteria of the meaningfulness of sentences (rather than as criteria of demarcation applicable to theoretical systems) again and again after the publication of my book, even by critics who pooh-poohed my criterion of falsifiability.", "\"===Falsifiability in model theory===Scientists such as the Nobel laureate Herbert A. Simon have studied the semantic aspects of the logical side of falsifiability.", "These studies were done in the perspective that a logic is a relation between formal sentences in languages and a collection of mathematical structures.", "The relation, usually denoted , says the formal sentence is true when interpreted in the structure —it provides the semantic of the languages.", "According to Rynasiewicz, in this semantic perspective, falsifiability as defined by Popper means that in some observation structure (in the collection) there exists a set of observations which refutes the theory.", "An even stronger notion of falsifiability was considered, which requires, not only that there exists one structure with a contradicting set of observations, but also that all structures in the collection that cannot be expanded to a structure that satisfies contain such a contradicting set of observations." ], [ "Examples of demarcation and applications", "===Newton's theory===In response to Lakatos who suggested that Newton's theory was as hard to show falsifiable as Freud's psychoanalytic theory, Popper gave the example of an apple that moves from the ground up to a branch and then starts to dance from one branch to another.", "It is clearly impossible, yet a basic statement that is a valid potential falsifier for Newton's theory, because the position of the apple at different times can be measured.===Einstein's equivalence principle===Another example of a basic statement is \"The inert mass of this object is ten times larger than its gravitational mass.\"", "This is a basic statement because the inert mass and the gravitational mass can both be measured separately, even though it never happens that they are different.", "It is, as described by Popper, a valid falsifier for Einstein's equivalence principle.===Evolution=======Industrial melanism====A black-bodied and white-bodied peppered mothIn a discussion of the theory of evolution, Popper mentioned industrial melanism as an example of a falsifiable law.", "A corresponding basic statement that acts as a potential falsifier is \"In this industrial area, the relative fitness of the white-bodied peppered moth is high.\"", "Here \"fitness\" means \"reproductive success over the next generation\".", "It is a basic statement, because it is possible to separately determine the kind of environment, industrial vs natural, and the relative fitness of the white-bodied form (relative to the black-bodied form) in an area, even though it never happens that the white-bodied form has a high relative fitness in an industrial area.====Precambrian rabbit====A famous example of a basic statement from J.", "B. S. Haldane is \"These are fossil rabbits in the Precambrian era.\"", "This is a basic statement because it is possible to find a fossil rabbit and to determine that the date of a fossil is in the Precambrian era, even though it never happens that the date of a rabbit fossil is in the Precambrian era.", "Despite opinions to the contrary, sometimes wrongly attributed to Popper, this shows the scientific character of paleontology or the history of the evolution of life on Earth, because it contradicts the hypothesis in paleontology that all mammals existed in a much more recent era.", "Richard Dawkins adds that any other modern animal, such as a hippo, would suffice.===Simple examples of unfalsifiable statements===A simple example of a non-basic statement is \"This angel does not have large wings.\"", "It is not a basic statement, because though the absence of large wings can be observed, no technology (independent of the presence of wings) exists to identify angels.", "Even if it is accepted that angels exist, the sentence \"All angels have large wings\" is not falsifiable.Another example from Popper of a non-basic statement is \"This human action is altruistic.\"", "It is not a basic statement, because no accepted technology allows us to determine whether or not an action is motivated by self-interest.", "Because no basic statement falsifies it, the statement that \"All human actions are egotistic, motivated by self-interest\" is thus not falsifiable.===Omphalos hypothesis===Some adherents of young-Earth creationism make an argument (called the Omphalos hypothesis after the Greek word for navel) that the world was created with the appearance of age; e.g., the sudden appearance of a mature chicken capable of laying eggs.", "This ad hoc hypothesis introduced into young-Earth creationism is unfalsifiable because it says that the time of creation (of a species) measured by the accepted technology is illusory and no accepted technology is proposed to measure the claimed \"actual\" time of creation.", "Moreover, if the ad hoc hypothesis says that the world was created as we observe it today without stating further laws, by definition it cannot be contradicted by observations and thus is not falsifiable.", "This is discussed by Dienes in the case of a variation on the Omphalos hypothesis, which, in addition, specifies that God made the creation in this way to test our faith.===Useful metaphysical statements=== discussed statements such as \"All men are mortal.\"", "This is not falsifiable, because it does not matter how old a man is, maybe he will die next year.", "Maxwell said that this statement is nevertheless useful, because it is often corroborated.", "He coined the term \"corroboration without demarcation\".", "Popper's view is that it is indeed useful, because Popper considers that metaphysical statements can be useful, but also because it is indirectly corroborated by the corroboration of the falsifiable law \"All men die before the age of 150.\"", "For Popper, if no such falsifiable law exists, then the metaphysical law is less useful, because it is not indirectly corroborated.", "This kind of non-falsifiable statements in science was noticed by Carnap as early as 1937.Clyde Cowan conducting the neutrino experiment ()Maxwell also used the example \"All solids have a melting point.\"", "This is not falsifiable, because maybe the melting point will be reached at a higher temperature.", "The law is falsifiable and more useful if we specify an upper bound on melting points or a way to calculate this upper bound.Another example from Maxwell is \"All beta decays are accompanied with a neutrino emission from the same nucleus.\"", "This is also not falsifiable, because maybe the neutrino can be detected in a different manner.", "The law is falsifiable and much more useful from a scientific point of view, if the method to detect the neutrino is specified.", "Maxwell said that most scientific laws are metaphysical statements of this kind, which, Popper said, need to be made more precise before they can be indirectly corroborated.", "In other words, specific technologies must be provided to make the statements inter-subjectively-verifiable, i.e., so that scientists know what the falsification or its failure actually means.In his critique of the falsifiability criterion, Maxwell considered the requirement for decisions in the falsification of, both, the emission of neutrinos (see ) and the existence of the melting point.", "For example, he pointed out that had no neutrino been detected, it could have been because some conservation law is false.", "Popper did not argue against the problems of falsification per se.", "He always acknowledged these problems.", "Popper's response was at the logical level.", "For example, he pointed out that, if a specific way is given to trap the neutrino, then, at the level of the language, the statement is falsifiable, because \"no neutrino was detected after using this specific way\" formally contradicts it (and it is inter-subjectively-verifiable—people can repeat the experiment).===Natural selection===In the 5th and 6th editions of ''On the Origin of Species'', following a suggestion of Alfred Russel Wallace, Darwin used \"Survival of the fittest\", an expression first coined by Herbert Spencer, as a synonym for \"Natural Selection\".", "Popper and others said that, if one uses the most widely accepted definition of \"fitness\" in modern biology (see subsection ), namely reproductive success itself, the expression \"survival of the fittest\" is a tautology.Darwinist Ronald Fisher worked out mathematical theorems to help answer questions regarding natural selection.", "But, for Popper and others, there is no (falsifiable) law of Natural Selection in this, because these tools only apply to some rare traits.", "Instead, for Popper, the work of Fisher and others on Natural Selection is part of an important and successful metaphysical research program.===Mathematics===Popper said that not all unfalsifiable statements are useless in science.", "Mathematical statements are good examples.", "Like all formal sciences, mathematics is not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the empirical world, but rather, mathematics is occupied with the theoretical, abstract study of such topics as quantity, structure, space and change.", "Methods of the mathematical sciences are, however, applied in constructing and testing scientific models dealing with observable reality.", "Albert Einstein wrote, \"One reason why mathematics enjoys special esteem, above all other sciences, is that its laws are absolutely certain and indisputable, while those of other sciences are to some extent debatable and in constant danger of being overthrown by newly discovered facts.", "\"===Historicism===Popper made a clear distinction between the original theory of Marx and what came to be known as Marxism later on.", "For Popper, the original theory of Marx contained genuine scientific laws.", "Though they could not make preordained predictions, these laws constrained how changes can occur in society.", "One of them was that changes in society cannot \"be achieved by the use of legal or political means\".", "In Popper's view, this was both testable and subsequently falsified.", "\"Yet instead of accepting the refutations\", Popper wrote, \"the followers of Marx re-interpreted both the theory and the evidence in order to make them agree.", "...", "They thus gave a 'conventionalist twist' to the theory; and by this stratagem they destroyed its much advertised claim to scientific status.\"", "Popper's attacks were not directed toward Marxism, or Marx's theories, which were falsifiable, but toward Marxists who he considered to have ignored the falsifications which had happened.", "Popper more fundamentally criticized 'historicism' in the sense of any preordained prediction of history, given what he saw as our right, ability and responsibility to control our own destiny.===Use in courts of law===Falsifiability has been used in the ''McLean v. Arkansas'' case (in 1982), the ''Daubert'' case (in 1993) and other cases.", "A survey of 303 federal judges conducted in 1998 found that \"Problems with the nonfalsifiable nature of an expert's underlying theory and difficulties with an unknown or too-large error rate were cited in less than 2% of cases.", "\"====''McLean v. Arkansas'' case====In the ruling of the ''McLean v. Arkansas'' case, Judge William Overton used falsifiability as one of the criteria to determine that \"creation science\" was not scientific and should not be taught in Arkansas public schools as such (it can be taught as religion).", "In his testimony, philosopher Michael Ruse defined the characteristics which constitute science as (see , and ):* It is guided by natural law;* It has to be explanatory by reference to natural law;* It is testable against the empirical world;* Its conclusions are tentative, i.e., are not necessarily the final word; and* It is falsifiable.In his conclusion related to this criterion Judge Overton stated that ====Daubert standard====In several cases of the United States Supreme Court, the court described scientific methodology using the five Daubert factors, which include falsifiability.", "The Daubert result cited Popper and other philosophers of science: David H. Kaye said that references to the Daubert majority opinion confused falsifiability and falsification and that \"inquiring into the existence of meaningful attempts at falsification is an appropriate and crucial consideration in admissibility determinations.\"" ], [ "Connections between statistical theories and falsifiability", "Considering the specific detection procedure that was used in the neutrino experiment, without mentioning its probabilistic aspect, Popper wrote \"it provided a test of the much more significant ''falsifiable'' theory that such emitted neutrinos could be trapped in a certain way\".", "In this manner, in his discussion of the neutrino experiment, Popper did not raise at all the probabilistic aspect of the experiment.", "Together with Maxwell, who raised the problems of falsification in the experiment, he was aware that some convention must be adopted to fix what it means to detect or not a neutrino in this probabilistic context.", "This is the third kind of decisions mentioned by Lakatos.", "For Popper and most philosophers, observations are theory impregnated.", "In this example, the theory that impregnates observations (and justifies that we conventionally accept the potential falsifier \"no neutrino was detected\") is statistical.", "In statistical language, the potential falsifier that can be statistically accepted (not rejected to say it more correctly) is typically the null hypothesis, as understood even in popular accounts on falsifiability.Different ways are used by statisticians to draw conclusions about hypotheses on the basis of available evidence.", "Fisher, Neyman and Pearson proposed approaches that require no prior probabilities on the hypotheses that are being studied.", "In contrast, Bayesian inference emphasizes the importance of prior probabilities.", "But, as far as falsification as a yes/no procedure in Popper's methodology is concerned, any approach that provides a way to accept or not a potential falsifier can be used, including approaches that use Bayes' theorem and estimations of prior probabilities that are made using critical discussions and reasonable assumptions taken from the background knowledge.", "There is no general rule that considers as falsified an hypothesis with small Bayesian revised probability, because as pointed out by Mayo and argued before by Popper, the individual outcomes described in detail will easily have very small probabilities under available evidence without being genuine anomalies.", "Nevertheless, Mayo adds, \"they can indirectly falsify hypotheses by adding a methodological falsification rule\".", "In general, Bayesian statistic can play a role in critical rationalism in the context of inductive logic, which is said to be inductive because implications are generalized to conditional probabilities.", "According to Popper and other philosophers such as Colin Howson, Hume's argument precludes inductive logic, but only when the logic makes no use \"of additional assumptions: in particular, about what is to be assigned positive prior probability\".", "Inductive logic itself is not precluded, especially not when it is a deductively valid application of Bayes' theorem that is used to evaluate the probabilities of the hypotheses using the observed data and what is assumed about the priors.", "Gelman and Shalizi mentioned that Bayes' statisticians do not have to disagree with the non-inductivists.Because statisticians often associate statistical inference with induction, Popper's philosophy is often said to have a hidden form of induction.", "For example, Mayo wrote \"The falsifying hypotheses ... necessitate an evidence-transcending (inductive) statistical inference.", "This is hugely problematic for Popper\".", "Yet, also according to Mayo, Popper as a non-inductivist acknowledged the useful role of statistical inference in the falsification problems: she mentioned that Popper wrote her (in the context of falsification based on evidence) \"I regret not studying statistics\" and that her thought was then \"not as much as I do\"." ], [ "Lakatos's falsificationism{{anchor|Falsificationism|Dogmatic falsificationism|Naive falsificationism|Sophisticated falsificationism}}", "Imre Lakatos divided the problems of falsification in two categories.", "The first category corresponds to decisions that must be agreed upon by scientists before they can falsify a theory.", "The other category emerges when one tries to use falsifications and corroborations to explain progress in science.", "Lakatos described four kind of falsificationisms in view of how they address these problems.", "'''Dogmatic falsificationism''' ignores both types of problems.", "'''Methodological falsificationism''' addresses the first type of problems by accepting that decisions must be taken by scientists.", "'''Naive methodological falsificationism''' or '''naive falsificationism''' does not do anything to address the second type of problems.", "Lakatos used dogmatic and naive falsificationism to explain how Popper's philosophy changed over time and viewed '''sophisticated falsificationism''' as his own improvement on Popper's philosophy, but also said that Popper some times appears as a sophisticated falsificationist.", "Popper responded that Lakatos misrepresented his intellectual history with these terminological distinctions.", "===Dogmatic falsificationism===A dogmatic falsificationist ignores that every observation is theory-impregnated.", "Being theory-impregnated means that it goes beyond direct experience.", "For example, the statement \"Here is a glass of water\" goes beyond experience, because the concepts of glass and water \"denote physical bodies which exhibit a certain law-like behaviour\" (Popper).", "This leads to the critique that it is unclear which theory is falsified.", "Is it the one that is being studied or the one behind the observation?", "This is sometimes called the 'Duhem–Quine problem'.", "An example is Galileo's refutation of the theory that celestial bodies are faultless crystal balls.", "Many considered that it was the optical theory of the telescope that was false, not the theory of celestial bodies.", "Another example is the theory that neutrinos are emitted in beta decays.", "Had they not been observed in the Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment, many would have considered that the strength of the beta-inverse reaction used to detect the neutrinos was not sufficiently high.", "At the time, wrote, the possibility that this strength was sufficiently high was a \"pious hope\".A dogmatic falsificationist ignores the role of auxiliary hypotheses.", "The assumptions or auxiliary hypotheses of a particular test are all the hypotheses that are assumed to be accurate in order for the test to work as planned.", "The predicted observation that is contradicted depends on the theory and these auxiliary hypotheses.", "Again, this leads to the critique that it cannot be told if it is the theory or one of the required auxiliary hypotheses that is false.", "Lakatos gives the example of the path of a planet.", "If the path contradicts Newton's law, we will not know if it is Newton's law that is false or the assumption that no other body influenced the path.", "Lakatos says that Popper's solution to these criticisms requires that one relaxes the assumption that an observation can show a theory to be false: '''Methodological falsificationism''' replaces the contradicting observation in a falsification with a \"contradicting observation\" accepted by convention among scientists, a convention that implies four kinds of decisions that have these respective goals: the selection of all ''basic statements'' (statements that correspond to logically possible observations), selection of the ''accepted basic statements'' among the basic statements, making statistical laws falsifiable and applying the refutation to the specific theory (instead of an auxiliary hypothesis).", "The experimental falsifiers and falsifications thus depend on decisions made by scientists in view of the currently accepted technology and its associated theory.===Naive falsificationism===According to Lakatos, naive falsificationism is the claim that methodological falsifications can by themselves explain how scientific knowledge progresses.", "Very often a theory is still useful and used even after it is found in contradiction with some observations.", "Also, when scientists deal with two or more competing theories which are both corroborated, considering only falsifications, it is not clear why one theory is chosen above the other, even when one is corroborated more often than the other.", "In fact, a stronger version of the Quine-Duhem thesis says that it is not always possible to rationally pick one theory over the other using falsifications.", "Considering only falsifications, it is not clear why often a corroborating experiment is seen as a sign of progress.", "Popper's critical rationalism uses both falsifications and corroborations to explain progress in science.", "How corroborations and falsifications can explain progress in science was a subject of disagreement between many philosophers, especially between Lakatos and Popper.Popper distinguished between the creative and informal process from which theories and accepted basic statements emerge and the logical and formal process where theories are falsified or corroborated.", "The main issue is whether the decision to select a theory among competing theories in the light of falsifications and corroborations could be justified using some kind of formal logic.", "It is a delicate question, because this logic would be inductive: it justifies a universal law in view of instances.", "Also, falsifications, because they are based on methodological decisions, are useless in a strict justification perspective.", "The answer of Lakatos and many others to that question is that it should.", "In contradistinction, for Popper, the creative and informal part is guided by methodological rules, which naturally say to favour theories that are corroborated over those that are falsified, but this methodology can hardly be made rigorous.Popper's way to analyze progress in science was through the concept of verisimilitude, a way to define how close a theory is to the truth, which he did not consider very significant, except (as an attempt) to describe a concept already clear in practice.", "Later, it was shown that the specific definition proposed by Popper cannot distinguish between two theories that are false, which is the case for all theories in the history of science.", "Today, there is still on going research on the general concept of verisimilitude.===From the problem of induction to falsificationism===Hume explained induction with a theory of the mind that was in part inspired by Newton's theory of gravitation.", "Popper rejected Hume's explanation of induction and proposed his own mechanism: science progresses by trial and error within an evolutionary epistemology.", "Hume believed that his psychological induction process follows laws of nature, but, for him, this does not imply the existence of a method of justification based on logical rules.", "In fact, he argued that any induction mechanism, including the mechanism described by his theory, could not be justified logically.", "Similarly, Popper adopted an evolutionary epistemology, which implies that some laws explain progress in science, but yet insists that the process of trial and error is hardly rigorous and that there is always an element of irrationality in the creative process of science.", "The absence of a method of justification is a built-in aspect of Popper's trial and error explanation.As rational as they can be, these explanations that refer to laws, but cannot be turned into methods of justification (and thus do not contradict Hume's argument or its premises), were not sufficient for some philosophers.", "In particular, Russell once expressed the view that if Hume's problem cannot be solved, “there is no intellectual difference between sanity and insanity” and actually proposed a method of justification.", "He rejected Hume's premise that there is a need to justify any principle that is itself used to justify induction.", "It might seem that this premise is hard to reject, but to avoid circular reasoning we do reject it in the case of deductive logic.", "It makes sense to also reject this premise in the case of principles to justify induction.", "Lakatos's proposal of sophisticated falsificationism was very natural in that context.Therefore, Lakatos urged Popper to find an inductive principle behind the trial and error learning process and sophisticated falsificationism was his own approach to address this challenge.", "Kuhn, Feyerabend, Musgrave and others mentioned and Lakatos himself acknowledged that, as a method of justification, this attempt failed, because there was no normative methodology to justify—Lakatos's methodology was anarchy in disguise.===Falsificationism in Popper's philosophy===Popper's philosophy is sometimes said to fail to recognize the Quine-Duhem thesis, which would make it a form of dogmatic falsificationism.", "For example, Watkins wrote \"apparently forgetting that he had once said 'Duhem is right ...', Popper set out to devise potential falsifiers just for Newton's fundamental assumptions\".", "But, Popper's philosophy is not always qualified of falsificationism in the pejorative manner associated with dogmatic or naive falsificationism.", "The problems of falsification are acknowledged by the falsificationists.", "For example, Chalmers points out that falsificationists freely admit that observation is theory impregnated.", "Thornton, referring to Popper's methodology, says that the predictions inferred from conjectures are not directly compared with the facts simply because all observation-statements are theory-laden.", "For the critical rationalists, the problems of falsification are not an issue, because they do not try to make experimental falsifications logical or to logically justify them, nor to use them to logically explain progress in science.", "Instead, their faith rests on critical discussions around these experimental falsifications.", "Lakatos made a distinction between a \"falsification\" (with quotation marks) in Popper's philosophy and a falsification (without quotation marks) that can be used in a systematic methodology where rejections are justified.", "He knew that Popper's philosophy is not and has never been about this kind of justification, but he felt that it should have been.", "Sometimes, Popper and other falsificationists say that when a theory is falsified it is rejected, which appears as dogmatic falsificationism, but the general context is always critical rationalism in which all decisions are open to critical discussions and can be revised." ], [ "Controversies", "===Methodless creativity versus inductive methodology===As described in section , Lakatos and Popper agreed that universal laws cannot be logically deduced (except from laws that say even more).", "But unlike Popper, Lakatos felt that if the explanation for new laws cannot be deductive, it must be inductive.", "He urged Popper explicitly to adopt some inductive principle and sets himself the task to find an inductive methodology.", "However, the methodology that he found did not offer any exact inductive rules.", "In a response to Kuhn, Feyerabend and Musgrave, Lakatos acknowledged that the methodology depends on the good judgment of the scientists.", "Feyerabend wrote in \"Against Method\" that Lakatos's methodology of scientific research programmes is epistemological anarchism in disguise and Musgrave made a similar comment.", "In more recent work, Feyerabend says that Lakatos uses rules, but whether or not to follow any of these rules is left to the judgment of the scientists.", "This is also discussed elsewhere.Popper also offered a methodology with rules, but these rules are also not-inductive rules, because they are not by themselves used to accept laws or establish their validity.", "They do that through the creativity or \"good judgment\" of the scientists only.", "For Popper, the required non deductive component of science never had to be an inductive methodology.", "He always viewed this component as a creative process beyond the explanatory reach of any rational methodology, but yet used to decide which theories should be studied and applied, find good problems and guess useful conjectures.", "Quoting Einstein to support his view, Popper said that this renders obsolete the need for an inductive methodology or logical path to the laws.", "For Popper, no inductive methodology was ever proposed to satisfactorily explain science.===Ahistorical versus historiographical===Section says that both Lakatos's and Popper's methodology are not inductive.", "Yet Lakatos's methodology extended importantly Popper's methodology: it added a historiographical component to it.", "This allowed Lakatos to find corroborations for his methodology in the history of science.", "The basic units in his methodology, which can be abandoned or pursued, are research programmes.", "Research programmes can be degenerative or progressive and only degenerative research programmes must be abandoned at some point.", "For Lakatos, this is mostly corroborated by facts in history.In contradistinction, Popper did not propose his methodology as a tool to reconstruct the history of science.", "Yet, some times, he did refer to history to corroborate his methodology.", "For example, he remarked that theories that were considered great successes were also the most likely to be falsified.", "Zahar's view was that, with regard to corroborations found in the history of science, there was only a difference of emphasis between Popper and Lakatos.As an anecdotal example, in one of his articles Lakatos challenged Popper to show that his theory was falsifiable: he asked \"Under what conditions would you give up your demarcation criterion?\".", "Popper replied \"I shall give up my theory if Professor Lakatos succeeds in showing that Newton's theory is no more falsifiable by 'observable states of affairs' than is Freud's.", "\"===Normal science versus revolutionary science===Thomas Kuhn analyzed what he calls periods of normal science as well as revolutions from one period of normal science to another, whereas Popper's view is that only revolutions are relevant.", "For Popper, the role of science, mathematics and metaphysics, actually the role of any knowledge, is to solve puzzles.", "In the same line of thought, Kuhn observes that in periods of normal science the scientific theories, which represent some paradigm, are used to routinely solve puzzles and the validity of the paradigm is hardly in question.", "It is only when important new puzzles emerge that cannot be solved by accepted theories that a revolution might occur.", "This can be seen as a viewpoint on the distinction made by Popper between the informal and formal process in science (see section ).", "In the big picture presented by Kuhn, the routinely solved puzzles are corroborations.", "Falsifications or otherwise unexplained observations are unsolved puzzles.", "All of these are used in the informal process that generates a new kind of theory.", "Kuhn says that Popper emphasizes formal or logical falsifications and fails to explain how the social and informal process works.===Unfalsifiability versus falsity of astrology===Popper often uses astrology as an example of a pseudoscience.", "He says that it is not falsifiable because both the theory itself and its predictions are too imprecise.", "Kuhn, as an historian of science, remarked that many predictions made by astrologers in the past were quite precise and they were very often falsified.", "He also said that astrologers themselves acknowledged these falsifications.===Epistemological anarchism vs the scientific method===Paul Feyerabend rejected any prescriptive methodology at all.", "He rejected Lakatos's argument for ''ad hoc'' hypothesis, arguing that science would not have progressed without making use of any and all available methods to support new theories.", "He rejected any reliance on a scientific method, along with any special authority for science that might derive from such a method.", "He said that if one is keen to have a universally valid methodological rule, epistemological anarchism or ''anything goes'' would be the only candidate.", "For Feyerabend, any special status that science might have, derives from the social and physical value of the results of science rather than its method.===Sokal and Bricmont===In their book ''Fashionable Nonsense'' (from 1997, published in the UK as ''Intellectual Impostures'') the physicists Alan Sokal and Jean Bricmont criticised falsifiability.", "They include this critique in the \"Intermezzo\" chapter, where they expose their own views on truth in contrast to the extreme epistemological relativism of postmodernism.", "Even though Popper is clearly not a relativist, Sokal and Bricmont discuss falsifiability because they see postmodernist epistemological relativism as a reaction to Popper's description of falsifiability, and more generally, to his theory of science." ], [ "See also", "* * * * - claim that a ciphertext decrypts to a particular plaintext can be falsified by possible decryption to another potential plaintext* * * * ** ** * * * * * * * ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Abbreviated references" ], [ "References", "* * * \t* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * excerpt: Science as Falsification* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Freikorps" ], [ "Introduction", "Armed paramilitaries in Berlin in 1919'''''' (, \"Free Corps\" or \"Volunteer Corps\") were irregular German and other European military volunteer units, or paramilitary, that existed from the 18th to the early 20th centuries.", "They effectively fought as mercenaries or private military companies, regardless of their own nationality.", "In German-speaking countries, the first so-called (\"free regiments\", ''Freie Regimenter'') were formed in the 18th century from native volunteers, enemy renegades, and deserters.", "These, sometimes exotically equipped, units served as infantry and cavalry (or, more rarely, as artillery); sometimes in just company strength and sometimes in formations of up to several thousand strong.", "There were also various mixed formations or legions.", "The Prussian included infantry, jäger, dragoons and hussars.", "The French ''Volontaires de Saxe'' combined uhlans and dragoons.In the aftermath of World War I and during the German Revolution of 1918–19, consisting largely of World War I veterans were raised as paramilitary militias.", "They were ostensibly mustered to fight on behalf of the government against the German communists attempting to overthrow the Weimar Republic.", "However, many also largely despised the Republic and were involved in assassinations of its supporters, later aiding the Nazis in their rise to power." ], [ "Origins", "Serbian, Wurmser, Odonel and Mahony Free Corps in 1798The first were recruited by Frederick the Great during the Seven Years' War.", "On 15 July 1759, Frederick ordered the creation of a squadron of volunteer hussars to be attached to the 1st Hussar Regiment (von Kleist's Own).", "He entrusted the creation and command of this new unit to Colonel Friedrich Wilhelm von Kleist.", "This first squadron (80 men) was raised in Dresden and consisted mainly of Hungarian deserters.", "This squadron was placed under the command of Lieutenant Johann Michael von Kovacs.", "At the end of 1759, the first four squadrons of dragoons (also called horse grenadiers) of the were organised.", "They initially consisted of Prussian volunteers from Berlin, Magdeburg, Mecklenburg and Leipzig, but later recruited deserters.", "The were regarded as unreliable by regular armies, so they were used mainly as sentries and for minor duties.These early appeared during the War of the Austrian Succession and especially the Seven Years' War, when France, Prussia, and the Habsburg monarchy embarked on an escalation of petty warfare while conserving their regular regiments.", "Even during the last Kabinettskrieg, the War of the Bavarian Succession, formations were formed in 1778.Germans, Hungarians, Poles, Lithuanians, and South Slavs, as well as Turks, Tatars and Cossacks, were believed by all warring parties to be inherently good fighters.", "The nationality of many soldiers can no longer be ascertained as the ethnic origin was often described imprecisely in the regimental lists.", "Slavs (Croats, Serbs) were often referred to as \"Hungarians\" or just \"Croats\", and Muslim recruits (Albanians, Bosnians, Tatars) as \"Turks\".For Prussia, the Pandurs, who were made up of Croats and Serbs, were a clear model for the organization of such \"free\" troops.", "Frederick the Great created 14 \"free infantry\" () units, mainly between 1756 and 1758, which were intended to be attractive to those soldiers who wanted military \"adventure\", but did not want to have to do military drill.", "A distinction should be made between the formed up to 1759 for the final years of the war, which operated independently and disrupted the enemy with surprise attacks, and the free infantry which consisted of various military branches (such as infantry, hussars, dragoons, ''jäger'') and were used in combination.", "They were often used to ward off Maria Theresa's Pandurs.", "In the era of linear tactics, light troops had been seen necessary for outpost, reinforcement and reconnaissance duties.", "During the war, eight such volunteer corps were set up:* Trümbach's (Voluntaires de Prusse) (FI)* Kleist's (FII)* Glasenapp's Free Dragoons (F III)* Schony's (F IV)* Gschray's (F V)* Bauer's Free Hussars (F VI)* Légion Britannique (FV – of the Electorate of Hanover)* Volontaires Auxiliaires (F VI).Because, with some exceptions, they were seen as undisciplined and less battleworthy, they were used for less onerous guard and garrison duties.", "In the so-called \"petty wars\", the interdicted enemy supply lines with guerrilla warfare.", "In the case of capture, their members were at risk of being executed as irregular fighters.", "In Prussia the , which Frederick the Great had despised as \"vermin\", were disbanded.", "Their soldiers were given no entitlement to pensions or invalidity payments.In France, many corps continued to exist until 1776.They were attached to regular dragoon regiments as ''jäger'' squadrons.", "During the Napoleonic Wars, Austria recruited various of Slavic origin.", "The Slavonic Wurmser fought in Alsace.", "The combat effectiveness of the six Viennese (37,000 infantrymen and cavalrymen), however, was low.", "An exception were the border regiments of Croats and Serbs who served permanently on the Austro-Ottoman border." ], [ "Napoleonic era", " Painting of three famous Free Corps members in 1815: Heinrich Hartmann, Theodor Körner, and Friedrich FriesenDuring Napoleon's 1812 invasion of Russia, the hussar Denis Davydov, a warrior-poet, formed volunteer partisan detachments functioning as ''Freikorps'' during the French retreat from Moscow.", "These irregular units operated in conjunction with Field Marshal Mikhail Kutuzov's regular Russian Imperial Army and Ataman Matvei Platov's Cossack detachments, harassing the French supply lines and inflicting defeats on the retreating Grande Armée in the battles of Krasnoi and the Berezina.", "in the modern sense emerged in Germany during the course of the Napoleonic Wars.", "They fought not so much for money but for patriotic reasons, seeking to shake off the French Confederation of the Rhine.", "After the French under Emperor Napoleon had either conquered the German states or forced them to collaborate, remnants of the defeated armies continued to fight on in this fashion.", "Famous formations included the King's German Legion, who had fought for Britain in French-occupied Spain and mainly were recruited from Hanoverians, the Lützow Free Corps and the Black Brunswickers.The attracted many nationally disposed citizens and students.", "commanders such as Ferdinand von Schill, Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow or Frederick William, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, known as the \"Black Duke\", led their own attacks on Napoleonic occupation forces in Germany.", "Those led by Schill were decimated in the Battle of Stralsund (1809); many were killed in battle or executed at Napoleon's command in the aftermath.", "The were very popular during the period of the German War of Liberation (1813–15), during which von Lützow, a survivor of Schill's , formed his Lützow Free Corps.", "The anti-Napoleonic often operated behind French lines as a kind of commando or guerrilla force.Throughout the 19th century, these anti-Napoleonic were greatly praised and glorified by German nationalists, and a heroic myth built up around their exploits.", "This myth was invoked, in considerably different circumstances, in the aftermath of Germany's defeat in World War I." ], [ "Freikorps poetry", "The anti-Napoleonic guerrilla movements in Germany, Russia and Spain in the early 1810s also produced their own style of poetry, ''hussar poetry'' or ''Freikorps poetry'', written by soldier-poets.", "In Germany, Theodor Körner, Max von Schenkendorff and Ernst Moritz Arndt were the most famous soldier-poets from the Freikorps.", "Their lyrics were for the most part patriotic, republican, anti-monarchical and anti-French.", "In Russia, the leader of the guerrilla army, Davydov, invented the genre of hussar poetry, characterised by hedonism and bravado.", "He used events from his own life to illustrate such poetry.", "Later, when Mikhail Lermontov was a ''junker'' (cadet) in the Russian Imperial Army, he also wrote such poetry." ], [ "1815–71", "Even in the aftermath of the Napoleonic era, were set up with varying degrees of success.During the March 1848 riots, student were set up in Munich.In First Schleswig War of 1848 the of ''von der Tann'', ''Zastrow'' and others distinguished themselves.In 1864 in Mexico, the French formed the so-called ''Contreguerrillas'' under former Prussian hussar officer, Milson.", "In Italy, Giuseppe Garibaldi formed his famous ''Freischars'', notably the \"Thousand of Marsala\", which landed in Sicily in 1860.Even before the Franco-Prussian War of 1870/71, were developed in France that were known as franc-tireurs." ], [ "Post–World War I", "Minister of the Reichswehr, Gustav Noske, visits the Freikorps Hülsen in Berlin in January 1919.Provisional Freikorps armored vehicle in Berlin during the Kapp Putsch of March 1920After World War I, the meaning of the word Freikorps changed compared to its past iterations.", "After 1918, the term referred to various—yet, still, loosely affiliated—paramilitary organizations that sprang up across Germany following the country's defeat in World War I.", "Of the numerous Weimar paramilitary groups active during that time, the Freikorps were, and remain, the most notable.", "While exact numbers are difficult to determine, historians agree that some 500,000 men were formal Freikorps members with another 1.5 million men participating informally.Amongst the social, political, and economic upheavals that marked the early years of the Weimar Republic, the tenuous German government under Friedrich Ebert, leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (, SPD), utilized the Freikorps to quell socialist and communist uprisings.", "Minister of Defence and SPD member Gustav Noske also relied on the Freikorps to suppress the Marxist Spartacist uprising, culminating in the summary executions of revolutionary communist leaders Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg on 15 January 1919.=== Freikorps involvement in Germany and Eastern Europe ======= Bavarian Soviet Republic ====The Bavarian Soviet Republic was a short-lived and unrecognized socialist-communist state from 12 April 1919 - 3 May 1919 in Bavaria during the German Revolution of 1918–19.Following a series of political revolts and takeovers from German socialists and then Russian-backed Bolsheviks, Noske responded from Berlin by sending various Freikorps brigades to Bavaria in late April totalling some 30,000 men.", "The brigades included Hermann Ehrhardt's second Marine Brigade Freikorps, the Gorlitz Freikorps under Lieutenant Colonel Faupel, and two Swabian divisions from Württemberg under General Haas and Major Hirl as well as the largest Freikorps in Bavaria commanded by Colonel Franz Ritter von Epp.While they were met with little Communist resistance, the Freikorps nonetheless acted with particular brutality and violence under Noske's blessing and at the behest of Major Schulz, adjutant of the Lützow Freikorps, who reminded his men that it \"was a lot better to kill a few innocent people than to let one guilty person escape\" and that there was no place in his ranks for those whose conscience bothered them.", "On 5 May 1919, Lieutenant Georg Pölzing, one of Schulz's officers, travelled to the town of Perlach outside of Munich.", "There, Pölzing chose a dozen alleged communist workers—none of whom were actually communists, but members of the Social Democratic Party—and shot them on the spot.", "The following day, a Freikorps patrol led by Captain Alt-Sutterheim interrupted the meeting of a local Catholic club, the St Joseph Society, and chose twenty of the thirty members present to be shot, beaten, and bayoneted to death.", "A memorial on Pfanzeltplatz in Munich commemorates the incident.", "Historian Nigel Jones notes that as a result of the Freikorps' violence, Munich's undertakers were overwhelmed, resulting in bodies lying in the streets and decaying until mass graves were completed.==== Eastern Europe ====The Freikorps also fought against communists and Bolsheviks in Eastern Europe, most notably East Prussia, Latvia, Silesia, and Poland.", "The Freikorps demonstrated fervent anti-Slavic racism and viewed Slavs and Bolsheviks as \"sub-human\" hordes of \"ravening wolves\".", "To justify their campaign in the East, the Freikorps launched a campaign of propaganda that falsely positioned themselves as protectors of Germany's territorial hegemony over Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia as a result of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and as defenders against Slavic and Bolshevik hordes that \"raped women and butchered children\" in their wake.", "Historian Nigel Jones highlights the Freikorps's \"usual excesses\" of violence and murder in Latvia which were all the more unrestrained since they were fighting in a foreign land versus their own country.", "Hundreds were murdered in the Freikorps' Eastern campaigns, such as the massacre of 500 Latvian civilians suspected of harbouring Bolshevik sympathies or the capture of Riga which saw the Freikorps slaughter some 3,000 people.", "Summary executions via firing squads were most common, but several Freikorps members recorded the brutal and deadly beatings of suspected communists and particularly communist women.=== Freikorps identity and ideals ===Freikorps ranks were composed primarily of former World War I soldiers who, upon demobilization, were unable to reintegrate into civilian society having been brutalized by the violence of the war physically and mentally.", "Combined with the government's poor support of veterans, who were dismissed as being hysterical when suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder, many German veterans found comfort and a sense of belonging in the Freikorps.", "Jason Crouthamel notes how the Freikorps' military structure was a familiar continuation of the frontlines, emulating the ''Kampfgemeinschaft'' (battle community) and ''Kameradschaft'' (camaraderie), thus preserving \"the heroic spirit of comradeship in the trenches\".", "Others, angry at Germany's sudden, seemingly inexplicable defeat, joined the Freikorps in an effort to fight against communism and socialism in Germany or to exact some form of revenge on those they considered responsible.", "To a lesser extent, German youth who were not old enough to have served in World War I enlisted in the Freikorps in hopes of proving themselves as patriots and as men.Regardless of reasons for joining, modern German historians agree that men of the Freikorps consistently embodied post-Enlightenment masculine ideals that are characterized by \"physical, emotional, and moral 'hardness'\".", "Described as \"children of the trenches, spawned by war\" and its process of brutalization, historians argue that Freikorps men idealized a militarized masculinity of aggression, physical domination, the absence of emotion (hardness).", "They were to be as \"swift as greyhounds, tough as leather, and hard as Krupp steel\" so as to defend what remained of German conservatism in times of social chaos, confusion, and revolution that came to define the immediate interwar era.", "Although World War I ended in Germany's surrender, many men in the Freikorps nonetheless viewed themselves as soldiers still engaged in active warfare with enemies of the traditional German Empire such as communists and Bolsheviks, Jews, socialists, and pacifists.", "Prominent Freikorps member Ernst von Salomon described his troops as \"full of wild demand for revenge and action and adventure…a band of fighter…full of lust, exultant in anger.\"", "In 1977, German sociologist Klaus Theweleit published ''Male Fantasies,'' in which he argues that men in the Freikorps radicalized Western and German norms of male self-control into a perpetual war against feminine-coded desires for domesticity, tenderness, and compassion amongst men.", "Historians Nigel Jones and Thomas Kühne note that the Freikorps' displays of violence, terror, and male aggression and solidarity established the beginnings of the fascist New Man that the Nazis built upon.=== Demobilization ===The extent of the Freikorps' involvement and actions in Eastern Europe, where they demonstrated full autonomy and rejected orders from the Reichswehr and German government, left a negative impression with the state.", "By this time, the Freikorps had served Ebert's purpose of suppressing revolts and communist uprisings.", "After the failed Kapp-Lütwitz Putsch in March 1920 that the Freikorps participated in, the Freikorps' autonomy and strength steadily declined as Hans von Seeckt, commander of the Reichswehr, removed all Freikorps members from the army and restricted the movements' access to future funding and equipment from the government.", "Von Seeckt was successful, and by 1921 only a small yet devoted core remained, effectively drawing an end to the Freikorps until their resurgence as far-right thugs and street brawlers for the Nazis beginning in 1923.=== Affiliation with the Nazi Party ===The rise of the Nazi Party led to a resurgence of Freikorps activity, as many members or ex-members were drawn to the party's marrying of military and political life and extreme nationalism by joining the ''Sturmabteilung'' (SA) and ''Schutzstaffel'' (SS).", "Unlike in the German Revolution of 1918–19 or their involvement in Eastern Europe, the Freikorps now had almost no military value and were instead utilized by the Nazis as thugs to engage in street brawls with communists and to break up anarchist, communist and socialist meetings alongside the SA to gain a political edge.", "Moreover, the Nazis elevated the Freikorps as a symbol of pure German nationalism, anti-communism, and militarized masculinity to co-opt the lingering social and political support of the movement.", "Eventually, Adolf Hitler came to view the Freikorps as a nuisance and possible threat to his consolidation of power.", "During the Night of the Long Knives in 1934, an internal purge of Hitler's enemies within the Nazi Party, numerous Freikorps members and leaders were targeted for killing or arrest, including Freikorps commander Hermann Ehrhardt and SA leader Ernst Röhm.", "In Hitler's Reichstag speech following the purge, Hitler denounced the Freikorps as lawless \"moral degenerates…aimed at the destruction of all existing institutions\" and as \"pathological enemies of the state…and enemies of all authority,\" despite his previous public adoration of the movement.=== Nazi legacy ===Numerous future members and leader of the Nazi Party served in the Freikorps.", "Martin Bormann, eventual head of the Nazi party Chancellery and Private Secretary to Hitler joined the Gerhard Roßbach's Freikorps in Mecklenburg as a Section leader and quartermaster.", "Reich Farmers' Leader and Minister of Food and Agriculture Richard Walther Darré was part of the Berlin Freikorps.", "Reinhard Heydrich, future chief of the Reich Security Main Office (including the Gestapo, Kripo, and SD) and initiator of the Final Solution, was in the Georg Ludwig Rudolf Maercker's Freikorps as a teenager.", "Leader of the SS Heinrich Himmler enlisted in the Freikorps and carried a flag in the 1923 Beerhall Putsch.", "Rudolf Höss joined the East Prussian Volunteer Freikorps in 1919 and eventually became commander of the Auschwitz extermination camp.", "Ernst Röhm, eventual leader of the SA, supported various Bavarian Freikorps groups, funnelling them arms and cash.", "Although many high-ranking National Socialists were former Freikorps fighters, recent research shows that former Freikorps fighters were no more likely to be involved in National Socialist organisations than the average male population in Germany.", "A recruitment poster for the Freikorps Hülsen=== Freikorps groups and divisions ===* '''Iron Division''' (Eiserne Division, related to Eiserne Brigade and Baltische Landeswehr)** Fought in the Baltic.", "** Defeated by the Estonian Army and Latvian Army in the Battle of Cēsis** Trapped in Thorensberg by the Latvian Army.", "Rescued by the Rossbach Freikorps.", "* '''Volunteer Division of Horse Guards''' (Garde-Kavallerie-Schützendivision)** Killed Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, 15 January 1919** Led by Captain Waldemar Pabst** Disbanded on order of Defence Minister Gustav Noske, 7 July 1919, after Pabst threatened to kill him* '''Freikorps Caspari'''** Fought against the Bremen Soviet Republic** Fought under the command of Walter Caspari* '''Freikorps Lichtschlag'''** Fought against the Red Ruhr Army** Fought under the command of Oskar von Watter* ''''''** Under the command of Franz Ritter von Epp** Members include: Ernst Röhm, Rudolf Hess, Eduard Dietl, Hans Frank, Gregor Strasser and Otto Strasser.", "* ''''''** Occupied Munich following the revolution of April 1919.", "** Commanded by Major Schulz* '''Marinebrigade Ehrhardt''' (The Second Naval Brigade)** Participated in the Kapp Putsch of 1920** Disbanded members eventually formed the Organisation Consul, which performed hundreds of political assassinations* '''Marinebrigade Loewenfeld''' (The Third Naval Brigade)** Participated in the Kapp Putsch of 1920* '''''' (Maercker's Volunteer Rifles, or )** Founded by Ludwig Maercker** Members include: Reinhard Heydrich, Eggert Reeder, Ernst von Salomon, Alfred Toepfer and Walter Warlimont* '''Freikorps Oberland'''** Kurt Benson* '''''' (Rossbach)** Founded by Gerhard Roßbach** Rescued the Iron Division after an extremely long march across Eastern Europe.", "** Members include: Kurt Daluege and Rudolph Hoess* ''''''** Formed by Czech German nationalists with Nazi sympathies which operated from 1938 to 1939** Part of Hitler's successful effort to absorb Czechoslovakia into the Third Reich" ], [ "World War II", "Sudetendeutsches Freikorps membersDuring World War II, there existed certain armed groups loyal to Germany that went under the name \"Freikorps\".", "These include:* Sudetendeutsches Freikorps, a German nationalist paramilitary that fought against Czechoslovakia for annexation of the Sudetenland into Germany.", "* Free Corps Denmark, a Danish volunteer collaborationist group in the Waffen-SS that was founded by the National Socialist Workers' Party of Denmark, and participated in the invasion of the Soviet Union.", "* British Free Corps, a British collaborationist Waffen-SS unit made up of British and Dominion prisoners of war." ], [ "Use in other countries", "===France===In France, a similar group (but unrelated to the Freikorps) were the \"Corps Franc\".", "Starting in October 1939, the French Army raised a number of Corps Franc units with the mission of carrying out ambush, raid, and harassing operations forward of the Maginot Line during the period known as the Phoney War (Drôle de Guerre).", "They were tasked with attacking German troops guarding the Siegfried Line.", "Future Vichy collaborationist, Anti-Bolshevik and SS Major Joseph Darnand was one of the more famous participants in these commando actions.In May 1940, the experience of the Phoney War-era Corps Franc was an influence in creating the Groupes Francs Motorisé de Cavalerie (GFC) who played a storied role in the delaying operations and last stands of the Battle of France, notably in the defenses of the Seine and the Loire.", "Between April – September 1944, the Corps Franc de la Montagne Noire unit operated as part of the French Resistance.==== Corps Francs d'Afrique ====On 25 November 1942, in the immediate aftermath of the Allied Invasion of Vichy French North Africa the '''Corps Francs d'Afrique (CFA)''' (African Corps Franc) was raised in French Morocco within the Free French Forces by General Giraud.", "Giraud drew the members of the all-volunteer unit from residents of Northern Africa of diverse religious backgrounds (Christian, Jew, and Muslim) and gave them the title of ''Vélite'', a name inspired by the elite light infantry of Napoleon's Imperial Guard, who were named after the Roman Velites.", "Much of the Corps was drawn from Henri d'Astier de la Vigerie and José Aboulker's Géo Gras French Resistance Group which had been responsible for the Algiers Insurrection where the Resistance seized control of Algiers on the night of 8 November 1942 in coordination with the Allied landings happening that same night.", "In taking over Algiers, they managed to capture both Admiral Darlan and General Juin, which led to the Darlan Deal wherein Vichy French forces came over to the Allied side.", "Darlan was later assassinated by Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle, an early member of the Corps Francs d'Afrique.", "They functioned as the Free French equivalent to the British Commandos.", "The Corps also included many Spanish and International old combatants of the Spanish Republican Army, which had sought refuge in Northern Africa in 1939.The Corps Francs d'Afrique, under command of Joseph de Goislard de Monsabert, went on to fight Rommel's Afrikakorps in Tunisia with the U.S. 5th Army.", "They fought alongside the British 139th Brigade at Kassarine and Sidi Nasr, where they famously conducted a heroic bayonet charge, facing two to one odds, against the Italian 34th Battalion of the 10th Bersaglieri near the mountain of Kef Zilia on the road to Bizerte, taking 380 prisoners, killing the Italian battalion commander, and capturing the plans for Operation Ausladung.", "They participated in the capture of Bizerte in May 1943.For its actions, the Corps Franc d'Afrique was awarded the Croix de Guerre.The CFA formally was dissolved on 9 July 1943, with its members and equipment forming the corps of the newly created African Commando Group (GCA) on 13 July 1943 in Dupleix, Algeria, today seen as a forebear to the postwar Parachutist Shock Battalions and the modern day 13th RDP.", "The GCA went on to fight at Pianosa, Elba, Salerno, Provence, Belfort, Giromagny, Alsace, Cernay, Guebwiller, Buhl, and the Invasion of Germany." ], [ "See also", "*Freikorps Awards*Landsknecht*List of defunct Paramilitary Organizations* List of Free Corps* List of Freikorps members* List of paramilitary organizations* Organisation Consul* Freikorps Sauerland* Battle of Annaberg* Free Corps Denmark* Viking League related Freikorps activities* Free company, medieval units with some similarities* Heimwehr" ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Bibliography'''* * * * * ** * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Francisco I. Madero" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Francisco Ignacio Madero González''' (; 30 October 1873 – 22 February 1913) was a Mexican businessman, revolutionary, writer and statesman, who served as the 37th president of Mexico from 1911 until he was deposed in a coup d'état in February 1913 and assassinated.", "He came to prominence as an advocate for democracy and as an opponent of President and de facto dictator Porfirio Díaz.", "After Díaz claimed to have won the fraudulent election of 1910 despite promising a return to democracy, Madero started the Mexican Revolution to oust Díaz.", "Madero supposedly initiated the Mexican Revolution with guidance from spirits (Madero identified as a medium who communicated with ghosts, including historical figures like Benito Juarez and even his deceased younger brother.)", "The Mexican revolution would continue until 1920, well after Madero and Díaz's deaths, with hundreds of thousands dead.A member of one of Mexico's wealthiest families, Madero studied business at the École des Hautes Études Commerciales de Paris.", "An advocate for social justice and democracy, his 1908 book ''The Presidential Succession in 1910'' called Mexican voters to prevent the reelection of Porfirio Díaz, whose regime had become increasingly authoritarian.", "Bankrolling the opposition Anti-Reelectionist Party, Madero's candidacy garnered widespread support in the country.", "He challenged Díaz in the 1910 election, which resulted in his arrest.", "After Díaz declared himself winner for an eighth term in a rigged election, Madero escaped from jail, fled to the United States, and called for the overthrow of his regime in the Plan of San Luis Potosí, sparking the Mexican Revolution.Madero's armed support was concentrated in northern Mexico and was aided by access to arms and finances in the United States.", "In Chihuahua, Madero recruited wealthy landowner Abraham González to his movement, appointing him provisional governor of the state.", "González then enlisted Pancho Villa and Pascual Orozco as revolutionary leaders.", "Madero crossed from Texas into Mexico and took command of a band of revolutionaries, but was defeated in the Battle of Casas Grandes by the Federal Army, which led him to abandon military command roles.", "Concerned the Battle of Ciudad Juárez would cause casualties in the American city of El Paso and prompt foreign intervention, Madero ordered Villa and Orozco to retreat, but they disobeyed and captured Juárez.", "Díaz resigned on 25 May 1911 after the signing of the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez and went into exile.", "Madero retained the Federal Army and dismissed the revolutionary fighters who had forced Díaz's resignation.Madero was enormously popular among many sectors, but he did not immediately assume the presidency.", "An interim president was installed and elections were scheduled.", "Madero was elected in a landslide and sworn into office on 6 November 1911.The Madero administration soon encountered opposition, both from conservatives and from more radical revolutionaries.", "Hesitation to implement large-scale land reform efforts upset many of his followers, who viewed it as a promised demand from conflict participation.", "Workers also became disillusioned by his moderate policies.", "Former supporter Emiliano Zapata declared himself in rebellion against Madero in the 1911 Plan of Ayala; and in the north, Pascual Orozco led an insurrection against him.", "Foreign investors became concerned that Madero was unable to maintain political stability, while foreign governments were concerned that a destabilized Mexico would threaten international order.In February 1913, a coup d'état backed by the United States and led by conservative Generals Félix Díaz (a nephew of Porfirio Díaz), Bernardo Reyes, and general Victoriano Huerta was staged in Mexico City, with the latter taking the presidency.", "Madero was captured and assassinated along with vice-president José María Pino Suárez in a series of events now called the Ten Tragic Days, where his brother Gustavo was tortured and killed.", "After his assassination, Madero became a unifying force among revolutionary factions against the Huerta regime.", "In the north, Venustiano Carranza, then Governor of Coahuila, led the nascent Constitutionalist Army; meanwhile Zapata continued his rebellion against the Federal Government under the Plan of Ayala.", "Once Huerta was ousted in July 1914, the revolutionary coalitions met in the Convention of Aguascalientes, where disagreements persisted, and Mexico entered a new stage of civil war." ], [ "Early years (1873–1903)", "===Family background===Hacienda del Rosario in Parras, birthplace of President Madero and Thomas EdisonMadero was born in 1873 into a large and extremely wealthy family in northeastern Mexico at the hacienda of El Rosario, in Parras de la Fuente, Coahuila.", "His grandfather Evaristo Madero Elizondo had built an enormous and diversified fortune as a young man and briefly served as Governor of Coahuila, from 1880 to 1884, during the four-year interregnum of Porfirio Díaz's rule (1880–1884), when Díaz's right-hand man General Manuel González served as president, doing a poor job in Díaz's opinion.", "Díaz returned to presidency in 1884 and did not relinquish the office until 1911, when Francisco Madero's revolutionary movement forced him to resign.", "Díaz had permanently sidelined Evaristo Madero from further political office.", "He was of Portuguese-Jewish descentEvaristo was the founder of a commercial transport business, taking advantage of economic opportunity and transported cotton from the Confederate states to Mexican ports during the U.S. Civil War (1861–65).Evaristo married twice, with the first marriage before he made his fortune to sixteen-year-old María Rafaela Hernádez Lombaraña (1847–1870), the daughter of an influential landowner, together producing seven children.", "She was the half-sister of the powerful miner and banker Antonio V. Hernández Benavides, close friend of José Yves Limantour, Secretary of Finance.", "Alongside his brother-in-law, and other of his new political family's relations, Evaristo founded the ''Compañía Industrial de Parras'', initially involved in commercial vineyards, cotton, and textiles, and later also in mining, cotton mills, ranching, banking, coal, guayule rubber, and foundries in the later part of the nineteenth century.", "After Rafaela Hernández's death at age 38, Evaristo then married Manuela Farías y Benavides (1870–1893), with the marriage producing eleven children.", "She was member of one of northern Mexico's most influential families, daughter of Juan Francisco Farías, founder of the Rio Grande Republic.", "The surviving children of both of Evaristo's marriages also married into prominent families and expanded the Madero family power and wealth.Ernesto Madero Farías, Secretary of Finance, Leonor Olivares Tapia (Mrs. Ernesto Madero), and niece Leonor Madero Olivares.For many years despite their exclusion from political office, the family prospered during Porfirio Díaz's regime, and by 1910 the family was one of the richest in Mexico, worth 30 million pesos ($15 million U.S. dollars of the day, and almost $500 million U.S. dollars in today's money).", "Much of this wealth arose from the diversification of Madero lands during the 1890s into the production of ''guayule'' rubber plants.Unusually for a Mexican landowner, many of whom stayed close to home, the patriarch Evaristo traveled to Europe, as did Francisco's father.", "Francisco's father was interested in the increasingly popular philosophical movement of spiritism, founded by Allan Kardec, and subscribed to the ''La Revue Spirite'' and the Société Parisienne d'Études Spirites, whilst completing his studies at the École Commercial in Antwerp (Belgium).", "Back in Mexico, he hired Thomas Edison, to electrify his hacienda and neighboring town of Parras.", "Young Francisco was sent to Paris to study business, alongside his brother Gustavo, and became a devotee of spiritism himself.", "He wrote extensively about spiritism in his diaries.", "\"He was searching for ethical connections between Spiritualism and the Christian Gospels.", "'I have no doubts that the moral transormation I have experienced is due to my becoming a medium.", "'\"Francisco I. Madero was the first-born son of Evaristo's first-born son of his first marriage, Francisco Ignacio Madero Hernández and Mercedes González Treviño, and was Evaristo's first-born grandson.", "Young Francisco was the first of his father's eleven children.", "This wealthy and prolific extended family could provide vast resources to young Francisco when he challenged Porfirio Díaz for the presidency in 1910.He was a sickly child, and was small in stature as an adult.", "It is widely believed that Madero's middle initial, I, stood for Indalecio, but according to his birth certificate it stood for Ignacio.", "On the birth certificate, Ignacio was written with the archaic spelling of ''Ygnacio''.After winning election to the presidency in 1911, Francisco confirmed his uncle Ernesto Madero Farías, from his grandfather's second marriage, as his Minister of Finance (post which he had since the previous presidency), which was used to accuse him of nepotism.", "Francisco was close to his brother Gustavo A. Madero as a trusted advisor when president.", "His brother Gustavo was murdered during the coup that overthrew Francisco to the presidency.", "His brothers Emilio, Julio, and Raúl fought in the Mexican Revolution.Although Francisco I. Madero's marriage to Sara Pérez was childless and there are no direct descendants of his line of the Maderos, the descendants of Evaristo Madero make up some of Mexico's most influential families to this day.", "Thus, young Francisco was a member of an extended and powerful northern Mexican clan with a focus on commercial rather than political interests.===Education===École des Hautes Études Commerciales de Paris, where Madero and his brother studied business.Francisco and his younger brother Gustavo A. Madero attended the Jesuit college of San Juan in Saltillo, and wanted to then become a Jesuit.", "He and his brother Gustavo briefly attended another religious school, in the U.S. His English was poor, so he learned little in his short time there, and also abandoned any notion of a religious vocation.Between 1886 and 1892, Madero was educated in France and then the United States, attending the Lycée Hoche de Versailles, HEC Paris and UC Berkeley.", "At the Lycée Hoche in Versailles, France, he completed the classe préparatoire aux grandes écoles program.", "Soon after, he was admitted to study business at the prestigious École des Hautes Études Commerciales de Paris (HEC).", "His father's subscription to the magazine ''Revue Spirite'' awakened in the young Madero an interest in Spiritism, an offshoot of Spiritualism.", "During his time in Paris, Madero made a pilgrimage to the tomb of Allan Kardec, the founder of Spiritism, and became a passionate advocate of the belief, soon coming to believe he was a medium.", "Following business school, Madero studied at the University of California, Berkeley, to pursue courses in agricultural techniques and to improve his English.", "During his time there, he was influenced by the theosophist ideas of Annie Besant, which were prominent at nearby Stanford University.===Return to Mexico===Francisco I. Madero with his wife, Sara Pérez Romero.In 1893, the 20-year-old Madero returned to Mexico and assumed management of one of the Madero family's hacienda at San Pedro, Coahuila.", "Well traveled and well educated, he was now in robust health.", "Proving an enlightened and progressive member of the Madero commercial complex, Francisco installed new irrigation, introduced American-made cotton and cotton machinery, and built a soap factory and also an ice factory.", "He embarked on a lifelong commitment to philanthropy.", "His employees were well paid and received regular medical exams; he built schools, hospitals, and community kitchens; and he paid to support orphans and award scholarships.", "He also taught himself homeopathy and offered medical treatments to his employees.", "Francisco became increasingly engaged with Spiritism and in 1901 was convinced that the spirit of his brother Raúl, who had died at age 4, was communicating with him, urging him to do charity work and practice self-discipline and self-abnegation.", "Madero became a vegetarian and stopped drinking alcohol and smoking.Already well-connected to a wealthy family and now well-educated in business, he had built a personal fortune of over 500,000 pesos by 1899.He invested in mines with other members of his family, which came to compete with interests of the Guggenheim family in Mexico.", "The family was organized on patriarchal principles, so that even though young Francisco was wealthy in his own right, his father and especially his grandfather Evaristo viewed him as someone who should be under the authority of his elders.", "As the eldest sibling, Francisco exercised authority over his younger brothers and sisters.", "In January 1903, he married Sara Pérez Romero, first in a civil ceremony, and then a Catholic nuptial mass celebrated by the archbishop." ], [ "Political career", "===Introduction to politics (1903–1908)===On 2 April 1903, Bernardo Reyes, governor of Nuevo León, violently crushed a political demonstration, an example of the increasingly authoritarian policies of president Porfirio Díaz.", "Madero was deeply moved and, believing himself to be receiving advice from the spirit of his late brother Raúl, he decided to act.", "The spirit of Raúl told him, \"Aspire to do good for your fellow citizens...working for a lofty ideal that will raise the moral level of society, that will succeed in liberating it from oppression, slavery, and fanaticism.\"", "Madero founded the Benito Juárez Democratic Club and ran for municipal office in 1904, though he lost the election narrowly.", "In addition to his political activities, Madero continued his interest in Spiritualism, publishing a number of articles under the pseudonym of Arjuna (a prince from the ''Mahabharata'').In 1905, Madero became increasingly involved in opposition to the Díaz government, which had excluded his family from political power.", "He organized political clubs and founded a political newspaper (''El Demócrata'') and a satirical periodical (''El Mosco'', \"The Fly\").", "Madero's preferred candidate, Frumencio Fuentes, was defeated by that of Porfirio Díaz in Coahuila's 1905 gubernatorial elections.", "Díaz considered jailing Madero, but Bernardo Reyes suggested that Francisco's father be asked to control his increasingly political son.===Leader of the Anti-Re-election Movement (1908–1909)===Photo of Porfirio Díaz (1830–1915) that accompanied the Creelman interview in ''Pearson's Magazine'' (1908).|left\"Manifestación antireeleccionista\" by José Guadalupe Posada.In an interview with journalist James Creelman published on 17 February 1908 issue of ''Pearson's Magazine'', President Díaz said that Mexico was ready for a democracy and that the 1910 presidential election would be a free election.Madero spent the bulk of 1908 writing a book, which he believed was at the direction of spirits, now including that of Benito Juárez himself.", "This book, published in January 1909, was titled ''La sucesión presidencial en 1910'' (''The Presidential Succession of 1910'').", "The book quickly became a bestseller in Mexico.", "The book proclaimed that the concentration of absolute power in the hands of one man – Porfirio Díaz – for so long had made Mexico sick.", "Madero pointed out the irony that in 1871, Porfirio Díaz's political slogan had been \"No Re-election\".", "Madero acknowledged that Porfirio Díaz had brought peace and a measure of economic growth to Mexico.", "However, Madero argued that this was counterbalanced by the dramatic loss of freedom, including the brutal treatment of the Yaqui people, the repression of workers in Cananea, excessive concessions to the United States, and an unhealthy centralization of politics around the person of the president.", "Madero called for a return of the Liberal 1857 Constitution.", "To achieve this, Madero proposed organizing a Democratic Party under the slogan ''Sufragio efectivo, no reelección'' (\"Effective Suffrage.", "No Re-election\").", "Porfirio Díaz could either run in a free election or retire.Madero's book was well received, and widely read.", "Many people began to call Madero ''the Apostle of Democracy''.", "Madero sold off much of his property – often at a considerable loss – to finance anti-re-election activities throughout Mexico.", "He founded the Anti-Re-election Center in Mexico City in May 1909, and soon thereafter lent his backing to the periodical ''El Antirreeleccionista'', which was run by the young lawyer/philosopher José Vasconcelos and another intellectual, Luis Cabrera Lobato.", "In Puebla, Aquiles Serdán, from a politically engaged family, contacted Madero and as a result, formed an Anti-Re-electionist Club to organize for the 1910 elections, particularly among the working classes.", "Madero traveled throughout Mexico giving anti-reelectionist speeches, and everywhere he went he was greeted by crowds of thousands.", "His candidacy cost him financially, since he sold much of his property at a loss to back his campaign.Francisco I Madero and leaders.In spite of the attacks by Madero and his earlier statements to the contrary, Díaz ran for re-election.", "In a show of U.S. support, Díaz and William Howard Taft planned a summit in El Paso, Texas, and Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, for 16 October 1909, a historic first meeting between a Mexican and a U.S. president and also the first time a U.S. president would cross the border into Mexico.", "At the meeting, Diaz told John Hays Hammond, \"Since I am responsible for bringing several billion dollars in foreign investments into my country, I think I should continue in my position until a competent successor is found.\"", "Francisco I. Madero campaigns from the back of a railway car in 1910.The summit was a great success for Díaz, but it could have been a major tragedy.", "On the day of the summit, Frederick Russell Burnham, the celebrated scout, and Private C.R.", "Moore, a Texas Ranger, discovered a man holding a concealed palm pistol along the procession route and they disarmed the assassin within only a few feet of Díaz and Taft.The Porfirian regime reacted to Madero by placing pressure on the Madero family's banking interests, and at one point even issued a warrant for Madero's arrest on the grounds of \"unlawful transaction in rubber\".", "Madero was not arrested, though, apparently due in part to the intervention of Díaz's finance minister, José Yves Limantour, a friend of the Madero family.", "In April 1910, the Anti-Re-electionist Party met and selected Madero as their nominee for President of Mexico.During the convention, a meeting between Madero and Díaz was arranged by the governor of Veracruz, Teodoro Dehesa, and took place in Díaz's residence on 16 April 1910.Only the candidate and the president were present for the meeting, so the only account of it is Madero's own in correspondence.", "A political solution and compromise might have been possible, with Madero withdrawing his candidacy.", "It became clear to Madero that Díaz was a decrepit old man, out of touch politically, and unaware of the extent of formal political opposition.", "The meeting was important for strengthening Madero's resolve that political compromise was not possible and he is quoted as saying \"Porfirio is not an imposing chief.", "Nevertheless, it will be necessary to start a revolution to overthrow him.", "But who will crush it afterwards?\"", "Madero was worried that Porfirio Díaz would not willingly relinquish office, warned his supporters of the possibility of electoral fraud and proclaimed that \"Force shall be met by force!", "\"===Campaign, arrest, escape 1910===Madero's prison in San Luis Potosí, currently an art museumMadero campaigned across the country on a message of reform and met with numerous supporters.", "Resentful of the \"peaceful invasion\" from the United States \"which came to control 90 percent of Mexico's mineral resources, its national railroad, its oil industry and, increasingly, its land,\" Mexico's poor and middle-class overwhelmingly showed their support for Madero.", "Fearful of a dramatic change in direction, on 6 June 1910, the Porfirian regime arrested Madero in Monterrey and sent him to a prison in San Luis Potosí.", "Approximately 5,000 other members of the Anti-Re-electionist movement were also jailed.", "Francisco Vázquez Gómez took over the nomination, but during Madero's time in jail, a fraudulent election was held on 21 June 1910 that gave Díaz an unbelievably large margin of victory.Madero's father used his influence with the state governor and posted bond to give Madero the right to move about the city on horseback during the day.", "On 4 October 1910, Madero galloped away from his guards and took refuge with sympathizers in a nearby village.", "Three days later he was smuggled across the U.S. border, hidden in a baggage car by sympathetic railway workers.", "He took up residence in San Antonio, Texas, where he plotted his next moves.", "He wrote the Plan of San Luis Potosí in San Antonio, but back dated and situated in to last place he had been in Mexico.===Plan of San Luis Potosí and rebellion===leftMadero set up shop in San Antonio, Texas, and quickly issued his Plan of San Luis Potosí, which had been written during his time in prison, partly with the help of Ramón López Velarde.", "The plan proclaimed the elections of 1910 null and void, and called for an armed revolution to begin at 6 pm on 20 November 1910, against the \"illegitimate presidency/dictatorship of Díaz\".", "At that point, Madero declared himself provisional President of Mexico, and called for a general refusal to acknowledge the central government, restitution of land to villages and Indian communities, and freedom for political prisoners.", "Madero's policies painted him as a leader of each of the different sectors of Mexican society at the time.", "He was a member of the upper class; the middle class saw that he sought to gain entry into political processes; the lower class saw that he promised fairer politics and a much more substantial, equitable economic system.Pancho Villa and Raúl MaderoThe family drew on its financial resources to make regime change possible, with Madero's brother Gustavo A. Madero hiring the law firm of Washington lawyer Sherburne Hopkins, the \"world's best rigger of Latin American revolutions\" to foment support in the U.S. A strategy to discredit Díaz with U.S. business and the U.S. government did meet some success, with Standard Oil engaging in talks with Gustavo Madero, but more importantly, the U.S. government \"bent neutrality laws for the revolutionaries.\"", "The U.S. Senate held hearings in 1913 as to whether the U.S. had any role in fomenting revolution in Mexico, Hopkins gave testimony that \"he did not believe that it cost the Maderos themselves more than $400,000 gold\", with the aggregate cost being $1,500,000US.El Paso, Texas became a major staging point for Madero's insurrection against Díaz.", "It is directly across the Rio Grande from Ciudad Juárez and where two railway Mexican lines, the Mexican National Railroad and the Mexican Northwest Railroad, connected with the U.S. Southern Pacific Railroad.", "El Paso was the site of a historic meeting between Mexican President Porfirio Díaz and U.S. President William Howard Taft in 1909.The population of the twin border cities increased dramatically in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries with legal commerce and considerable smuggling, \"a time-honored occupation along the border.\"", "As the political tensions in Mexico increased, smuggling of guns and ammunition to insurrectionists was big business.", "Madero remained in San Antonio, Texas, but his main man in Chihuahua, Abraham González had recruited gifted, natural military leaders, Pancho Villa and Pascual Orozco, to Madero's cause.", "Chihuahua became the hub of insurrectionist activity.", "Villa and Orozco had increasing success against the Federal Army, which drew more recruits to Madero's cause, since it seems to have a real chance at success.", ", a follower of Ricardo Flores Magón, who forbade members of the Magonista movement to have anything to do with the Madero movement, but the pragmatist Villareal joined Madero.On 20 November 1910, Madero arrived at the border and planned to meet up with 400 men raised by his uncle Catarino Benavides Hernández to launch an attack on Ciudad Porfirio Díaz (modern-day Piedras Negras, Coahuila).", "However, his uncle arrived late and brought only ten men.", "Madero decided to postpone the revolution.", "Instead, he and his brother Raúl (who had been given the same name as his late brother) traveled incognito to New Orleans, Louisiana.On 14 February 1911, Madero crossed the border into Chihuahua state from Texas, and on 6 March 1911 led 130 men in an attack on Casas Grandes, Chihuahua.", "Although holding democratic ideals that attracted many to his movement, Madero learned he was not a military leader.", "\"Madero didn't know the first thing about warfare,\" initially capturing the town from the Federal Army, but he did not realize he needed to scout whether Federal reinforcements were on the way.", "There were heavy casualties among the insurrectionists, a number of whom were foreigners, including many from the U.S. and some from Germany.", "Two survivors of the Casas Grandes debacle were Giuseppe Garibaldi II, grandson of the famous Italian revolutionary, and General Benjamin Johannis Voljoen, an Afrikaner veteran of the Boer War.", "Madero was slightly wounded in his right arm in the fighting, shown bandaged in a photograph.", "Madero was saved by his personal bodyguard and Revolutionary general Máximo Castillo.", "He remained head of the movement in the north to oust Díaz.", "Madero movement successfully imported arms from the United States, procured by agents in the United States.", "Some were shipped directly from New York, disguised so that they would not be intercepted by the U.S. government.", "There were two businesses in El Paso that sold arms and ammunition to the rebels.", "The U.S. government of President William Howard Taft hired agents to surveil insurrectionists, fairly openly operated in El Paso.", "But the U.S. government efforts to halt the flow of arms to the Mexican revolutionaries failed.By April the Revolution had spread to eighteen states, including Morelos where the leader was Emiliano Zapata.", "On 1 April 1911, Porfirio Díaz claimed that he had heard the voice of the people of Mexico, replaced his cabinet, and agreed to restitution of the lands of the dispossessed.", "Madero did not believe this statement and instead demanded the resignation of President Díaz and Vice-president Ramón Corral.", "Madero then attended a meeting with the other revolutionary leaders – they agreed to a fourteen-point plan which called for pay for revolutionary soldiers; the release of political prisoners; and the right of the revolutionaries to name several members of cabinet.", "Madero was moderate, however.", "He believed that the revolutionaries should proceed cautiously so as to minimize bloodshed and should strike a deal with Díaz if possible.In early May, Madero wanted to extend a ceasefire, but his fellow revolutionaries Pascual Orozco and Pancho Villa disagreed and went ahead without orders on 8 May to attack Ciudad Juárez.", "It surrendered after two days of bloody fighting.", "The revolutionaries won this battle decisively, making it clear that Díaz could no longer retain power.On 21 May 1911, the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez was signed.", "Under the terms of the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez, Díaz and Corral agreed to resign by the end of May 1911, with Díaz's Minister of Foreign Affairs, Francisco León de la Barra, becoming interim president solely for the purpose of calling general elections.", "Madero did not want to come to power by force of arms, but by a democratic election.This first phase of the Mexican Revolution thus ended with Díaz leaving for exile in Europe at the end of May 1911.He was escorted to the port of Veracruz by General Victoriano Huerta.", "On 7 June 1911, Madero entered Mexico City in triumph where he was greeted with huge crowds shouting \"''¡Viva Madero!", "''\"Madero was arriving not as the conquering hero, but as a presidential candidate who now embarked on campaigning for the fall presidential election.", "He left in place all but the top political figures of the Díaz regime as well as the Federal Army, which had just been defeated by revolutionary forces.", "The Governor of Coahuila, Venustiano Carranza, and Luis Cabrera had strongly advised Madero not to sign the treaty, since it gave away the power the revolutionary forces had won.", "For Madero, that was not the only consideration.", "Madero saw that revolutionaries like Orozco were not going to docilely obey his orders not to attack and the situation could get even more out of hand when Díaz resigned.", "Madero recognized the legitimacy of the Federal Army and called on revolutionary forces to disband.", "\"Having removed Díaz, it appeared that Madero was trying to contain the Revolutionary tiger before it had time to enjoy its liberty.", "\"===Interim presidency of De la Barra (May–November 1911)===Francisco León de la Barra (1863–1939), whose interim presidency in 1911 gave Madero's enemies time to organize.Francisco I. Madero campaigning in Cuernavaca, June 1911 and meeting Emiliano Zapata.", "Zapata rebelled in 1911, because of President Madero's slowness to implement land reform.|alt=|261x261pxAlthough Madero and his supporters had forced Porfirio Díaz from power, he did not assume the presidency in June 1911.Instead, following the terms of the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez, he was a candidate for president and had no formal role in the interim presidency of Francisco León de la Barra, a diplomat and lawyer.", "Left in place was the Congress of Mexico, which was full of candidates whom Díaz had handpicked for the 1910 election.", "By doing this, Madero was true to his ideological commitment to constitutional democracy, but with members of the Díaz regime still in power, he was caused difficulties in the short and long term.", "The German ambassador to Mexico, Paul von Hintze, who associated with the Interim President, said of him that \"De la Barra wants to accommodate himself with dignity to the inevitable advance of the ex-revolutionary influence, while accelerating the widespread collapse of the Madero party....\" Madero sought to be a moderate democrat and follow the course outlined in treaty bringing about exile of Díaz, but by calling for the disarming and demobilization of his revolutionary base, he undermined his support.", "The Mexican Federal Army, just defeated by the revolutionaries, was to continue as the armed force of the Mexican state.", "Madero argued that the revolutionaries should henceforth proceed solely by peaceful means.", "In the south, revolutionary leader Emiliano Zapata was skeptical about disbanding his troops, especially since the Federal Army from the Díaz era remained essentially intact.", "However, Madero traveled south to meet with Zapata at Cuernavaca and Cuautla, Morelos.", "Madero assured Zapata that the land redistribution promised in the Plan of San Luis Potosí would be carried out when Madero became president.With Madero now campaigning for the presidency, which he was expected to win, several landowners from Zapata's state of Morelos took advantage of his not being head of state and appealed to President De la Barra and the Congress to restore their lands which had been seized by Zapatista revolutionaries.", "They spread exaggerated stories of atrocities committed by Zapata's irregulars, calling Zapata the \"Attila of the South\".", "De la Barra and the Congress, therefore, decided to send regular troops under Victoriano Huerta to suppress Zapata's revolutionaries.", "Madero once again traveled south to urge Zapata to disband his supporters peacefully, but Zapata refused on the grounds that Huerta's troops were advancing on Yautepec.", "Zapata's suspicions proved accurate as Huerta's Federal soldiers moved violently into Yautepec.", "Madero wrote to De la Barra, saying that Huerta's actions were unjustified and recommending that Zapata's demands be met.", "However, when he left the south, he had achieved nothing.", "Nevertheless, he promised the Zapatistas that once he became president, things would change.", "Most Zapatistas had grown suspicious of Madero, however." ], [ "Madero presidency (November 1911 – February 1913)", "Francisco I. Madero, President of Mexico.300x300pxMadero became president in November 1911, and, intending to reconcile the nation, appointed a cabinet that included many of Porfirio Díaz's supporters, as well as Madero's uncle Ernesto Madero, as Minister of Finance.", "A curious fact is that almost immediately after taking office in November, Madero became the first head of state in the world to fly in an airplane, which the Mexican press was later to mock.", "Madero was unable to achieve the reconciliation he desired since conservative Porfirians had organized themselves during the interim presidency and now mounted a sustained and effective opposition to Madero's reform program.", "Conservatives in the Senate refused to pass the reforms he advocated.", "At the same time, several of Madero's allies denounced him for being overly conciliatory with the Porfirians and with not moving aggressively forward with reforms.After years of censorship, Mexican newspapers took advantage of their newly found freedom of the press to harshly criticize Madero's performance as president.", "Gustavo A. Madero, the president's brother, remarked that \"the newspapers bite the hand that took off their muzzle.\"", "President Madero refused the recommendation of some of his advisors that he bring back censorship.", "The press was particularly critical of Madero's handling of rebellions that broke out against his rule shortly after he became president.Madero and his vice president Pino Suárez (to his right, one step below) at the funeral of 300x300pxDespite internal and external opposition, the Madero administration had a number of important accomplishments, including freedom of the press.", "He freed political prisoners and abolished the death penalty.", "He did away with the practice of the Díaz government, which appointed local political bosses (''jefes políticos''), and instead set up a system of independent municipal authorities.", "State elections were free and fair.", "He was concerned about the improvement of education, establishing new schools and workshops.", "An important step was the creation of a federal department of labor, limited the workday to 10 hours, and set in place regulations on women's and children's labor.", "Unions were granted the right to freely organize.", "The ''Casa del Obrero Mundial'' (\"House of the World Worker\"), an organization with anarcho-syndicalist was founded during his presidency.Madero alienated a number of his political supporters when he created a new political party, the Constitutionalist Progressive party, which replaced the Anti-Reelectionist Party.", "He ousted leftist Emilio Vázquez Gómez from his cabinet, brother of Francisco Vázquez Gómez, whom Madero had replaced as his vice presidential candidate with Pino Suárez.Madero made gestures of reform to those who had helped bring him to power, but his aim was a democratic transition to power, fulfilled by his election.", "His supporters were offered mild gestures of reform, creating a Department of Labor and a National Agrarian Commission, but organized labor and peasants seeking land did not have their fundamental situations changed.===Rebellions===Emiliano Zapata in 1914Madero retained the Mexican Federal Army and ordered the demobilization of revolutionary forces.", "For revolutionaries who considered themselves the reason that Díaz resigned, this was a hard course to follow.", "Since Madero did not implement immediate, radical reforms that many of those had supported him had expected, he lost control of those areas in Morelos and Chihuahua.", "A series of internal rebellions challenged Madero's presidency before the February 1913 coup that deposed him.====Zapatista rebellion====In Morelos, Emiliano Zapata proclaimed the Plan of Ayala on 25 November 1911, which excoriated Madero's slowness on land reform and declared the signatories in rebellion.", "Zapata's plan recognized Pascual Orozco as fellow revolutionary, although Orozco was for the moment loyal to Madero, until 1912.Madero sent the Federal Army to suppress the rebellion, but failed to do so.", "For Madero's opponents this was evidence of his ineffectiveness as a leader.General Bernardo Reyes (1850–1913).====Reyes rebellion====In December 1911, General Bernardo Reyes, whom Porfirio Díaz had sent to Europe on a diplomatic mission because Díaz worried that Reyes was going to challenge him for the presidency, launched a rebellion in Nuevo León, where he had previously served as governor.", "He called for \"the people\" to rise against Madero.", "\"His rebellion was a total failure\", lasting only eleven days before Reyes surrendered to the Federal Army at Linares, Nuevo León.", "When the rebellion broke out, Madero made a calculated decision to entrust Pascual Orozco to put it down.", "In the fight against Dįaz, Orozco had led revolutionary forces in the north capturing Ciudad Juárez, against Madero's orders.", "Madero had not treated him well after he was elected, but entrusted him over General Victoriano Huerta.", "Huerta had previously been a supporter of Reyes, and Madero was concerned that Huerta would join with Reyes rather than suppress the rebellion.", "In one historian's assessment, \" would have ensued and seriously threatedPresident Madero played his political cards perfectly this occasion.", "Had he dispatched a large force to the north under the command of either Huerta of General Blanquet, it is quite possible that a major military defection, seriously threatening the government.\"", "Reyes was sent to the Santiago Tlatelolco military prison in Mexico City.", "Madero allowed Reyes privileges while in prison, which allowed him to organize subsequent conspiracies from jail.====Vázquez Gómez rebellion====Nearly simultaneous with Reyes's rebellion, Emilio Vázquez Gómez, rose in rebellion.", "Emilio was the brother of Francisco Vázquez Gómez whom Madero replaced as the vice presidential candidate Pino Suárez when he successfully ran for president.", "Emilio gathered supporters in Chihuahua, with a number of small rebellions against the Madero's regime breaking out in December 1911.Although Madero sent the Federal Army, he then sent Orozco to put down the rebellion.", "Rebels had captured and looted Ciudad Juáréz.", "Orozco arrived with a contingent of troops.", "Still popular in Chihuahua, Orozco persuaded rebels to lay down their arms against Madero.", "Madero was delighted that Orozco had been so successful in dealing with two rebellions.====Orozco rebellion====Madero and Pascual OrozcoVictoriano Huerta (1850–1916), who suppressed Orozco's rebellion against Madero's governmentThe two small, northern rebellions that Orozco suppressed showed his again his military skills, but with the Vázquez Gómez rebellion, he realized his continued popularity.", "In his recent dealings with Madero, the president had shown him respect, which was much lacking after Orozco disobeyed Madero's orders not to take Ciudad Juárez in May 1911 when Madero was attempting non-military means to persuade Dįaz to resign.", "Orozco was personally resentful of how President Madero had treated him once he was in office.", "He launched a rebellion in Chihuahua in March 1912 with the financial backing of Luis Terrazas, a former Governor of Chihuahua who was the largest landowner in Mexico.", "Northern oligarchs had opposed ousting of Díaz and Madero's presidency and saw in Orozco a potential ally, a rival to oust Madero.", "They began flattering him that he was the man to bring order to Mexico.", "Madero's advisors had repeatedly warned Madero that Orozco was untrustworthy, but Madero had just seen the demonstration of Orozco's loyalty in preserving his presidency.", "Orozco's \"revolution came as a complete shock to Madero.", "\"At his request, Madero dispatched troops under General José González Salas, the Secretary of War, to put down the rebellion.", "González Salas was not a seasoned campaign general, but he did not want Huerta to be dispatched.", "Unlike the two small, unsuccessful rebellions that attracted few followers, Orozco not only had an army to 8,000 men, he had backing from landowning interests, and a detailed battle plan to sweep through Chihuahua and capture Mexico City.", "Although González Salas commanded forces of 2,000 troops, he was an ineffective leader.", "In the first major encounter, Orozco triumphed, crushing the Federal Army.", "González Salas committed suicide after the military humiliation.Félix DíazGeneral Victoriano Huerta assumed control of the federalist forces.", "Huerta was more successful, defeating Orozco's troops in three major battles and forcing Orozco to flee to the United States in September 1912.Relations between Huerta and Madero grew strained during the course of this campaign when Pancho Villa, the commander of the ''División del Norte'', refused orders from General Huerta.", "Huerta ordered Villa's execution, but Madero commuted the sentence and Villa was sent to the same Santiago Tlatelolco prison as Reyes from which he escaped on Christmas Day 1912.Angry at Madero's commutation of Villa's sentence, Huerta, after a long night of drinking, mused about reaching an agreement with Orozco and together deposing Madero as president.", "When Mexico's Minister of War learned of General Huerta's comments, he stripped Huerta of his command, but Madero intervened and restored Huerta to command.====Félix Díaz rebellion====October 1912, Félix Díaz (nephew of Porfirio Díaz) launched a rebellion in Veracruz, hoping to capitalize on his famous name and with support from the U.S.", "But even with U.S. support, Díaz's rebellion collapsed after no Mexican generals or the general populace supported it.", "Díaz was arrested and imprisoned.", "Although Díaz was sentenced to death for his rebellion, the Supreme Court of Mexico, whose judges were appointed by former President Díaz, declared that Félix Díaz would be imprisoned, but not executed.", "Madero did not interfere with the decision; Díaz was transferred to the same prison where Reyes was incarcerated, where the two plotted further conspiracies.", "\"Madero displayed a fatal softness toward the leaders of these coup attempts.===U.S.", "and the Madero government===Henry Lane Wilson, ambassador of the United States in MexicoInitially, the U.S. was cautiously optimistic about Madero leading the new government.", "He had kept the Federal Army and the federal bureaucracy, and dismissed the revolutionary forces that brought him to power.", "Although his Plan of San Luis Potosí signaled his openness to land reform, he failed to move on it, which did not have an impact on the U.S. or its business interests.", "Madero displayed no overt anti-Americanism, but his resistance to U.S. pressure on a variety of issues were taken as that by the U.S. government and business interests.", "He did not follow through on promises made in his name, perhaps by his brother Gustavo A. Madero, to turn Mexico's oil industry over to the Standard Oil Company.", "He refused to satisfy U.S. demands for compensation for life and property outside of a bilateral commission.", "He planned to institute universal male military service, which would have strengthened Mexico's position against foreign powers.", "Furthermore, Madero's lifting of restrictions on labor organizing had resulted in strikes, which had an impact on U.S. companies in Mexico.", "Likewise, Madero was not deviating from President Díaz's firmness against demands that infringed on Mexican sovereignty and domestic policy, but the U.S. pressed the issues.", "Paul von HintzeThe United States' position towards the Madero regime grew increasingly hostile.", "The U.S.", "Ambassador, Henry Lane Wilson conducted a campaign of anti-Madero propaganda and disinformation, aimed at alarming the American residents, a campaign against Madero in U.S. newspapers.", "The U.S. government and business interests, too, increasingly backed rebellions against Madero.===Germany and the Madero government===Germany had business interests in Mexico, in banking and in exports from Germany, but it was reluctant to challenge the U.S. as the premier foreign arbiter in Mexico.", "In the period before the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, it followed the lead of the U.S. of initially being optimistic about Madero's moderation against revolutionary tendencies.", "But when U.S. turned against Madero, the U.S. ambassador and the German ambassador Paul von Hintze were in close contact.", "Hintze's reports on the situation in Mexico during the Madero presidency were a rich source of information about the regime.", "Although the U.S. attempted to draw Germany as well as Great Britain into intervention in Mexico, both held back.", "They also sought to prevent the U.S. from intervening itself.", "Hintze had a low opinion of Félix Díaz, and saw the head of the Mexican Federal Army, Victoriano Huerta, as an appropriate candidate as a military dictator.", "That view dictated his actions as a plan for a coup was hatched in early 1913." ], [ "Successful coup against Madero", "President Madero riding the streets near the Palace, acclaimed by his supporters, a few days before his tragic end.The National Palace, the target of the rebel artillery fire from the nearby arsenal.", "There were dead bodies in the zócalo and the capital's streets.", "Photographer, Manuel Ramos.|leftIn early 1913, General Félix Díaz (Porfirio Díaz's nephew) and General Bernardo Reyes plotted the overthrow of Madero.", "Now known in Mexican history as the Ten Tragic Days, from 9 to 19 February events in the capital led to the overthrow and murder of Madero and his vice president.", "Rebel forces bombarded the National Palace and downtown Mexico City from the military arsenal (''ciudadela'').", "Madero's loyalists initially held their ground, but Madero's commander, General Victoriano Huerta secretly switched sides to support the rebels.", "Madero's decision to appoint Huerta as commander of forces in Mexico City was one \"for which he would pay for with his life.\"", "Madero and his vice president were arrested.", "Under pressure Madero resigned the presidency, with the expectation that he would go into exile, as had President Díaz in May 1911.Madero's brother and advisor Gustavo A. Madero was kidnapped off the street, tortured, and killed.", "Following Huerta's coup d'état on 18 February 1913, Madero was forced to resign.", "After a 45-minute term of office, Pedro Lascuráin was replaced by Huerta, who took over the presidency later that day.300x300pxFollowing his forced resignation, Madero and his Vice-president José María Pino Suárez were kept under guard in the National Palace.", "On the evening of 22 February, they were told that they were to be transferred to the main city penitentiary, where they would be safer.", "At 11:15 pm, reporters waiting outside the National Palace saw two cars containing Madero and Suárez emerge from the main gate under a heavy escort commanded by Major Francisco Cárdenas, an officer of the rurales.", "The journalists on foot were outdistanced by the motor vehicles, which were driven towards the penitentiary.", "The correspondent for the ''New York World'' was approaching the prison when he heard a volley of shots.", "Behind the building, he found the two cars with the bodies of Madero and Suárez nearby, surrounded by soldiers and gendarmes.", "Major Cárdenas subsequently told reporters that the cars and their escort had been fired on by a group, as they neared the penitentiary.", "The two prisoners had leapt from the vehicles and ran towards their presumed rescuers.", "They had however been killed in the cross-fire.", "This account was treated with general disbelief, although the American ambassador Henry Lane Wilson, a strong supporter of Huerta, reported to Washington that, \"I am disposed to accept the (Huerta) government's version of the affair and consider it a closed incident\".President Madero, dead at 39, was buried quietly in the French cemetery of Mexico City.", "A series of contemporary photographs taken by Manuel Ramos show Maderos's coffin being carried from the penitentiary and placed on a special funeral tram car for transportation to the cemetery.", "Only his close family were permitted to attend, leaving for Cuba immediately after.", "Following Huerta's overthrow, Francisco Cárdenas fled to Guatemala where he committed suicide in 1920 after the new Mexican government had requested his extradition to stand trial for the murder of Madero." ], [ "Aftermath of coup", "leftThere was shock at Madero's murder, but there were many, including Mexican elites and foreign entrepreneurs and governments, who saw the coup and the emergence of General Huerta as the desired strongman to return order to Mexico.", "Among elites in Mexico, Madero's death was a cause of rejoicing, seeing the time since Díaz's resignation as one of political instability and economic uncertainty.", "Ordinary Mexicans in the capital, however, were dismayed by the coup, since many considered Madero a friend, but their feelings did not translate into concrete action against the Huerta regime.", "In northern Mexico, Madero's overthrow and martyrdom united forces against Huerta's usurpation of power.", "Governor of Coahuila, Venustiano Carranza refused to support the new regime although most state governors had.", "He brought together a coalition of revolutionaries under the banner of the Mexican Constitution, so that the Constitutionalist Army fought for the principles of constitutional democracy that Madero embraced.", "In southern Mexico, Zapata had been in rebellion against the Madero government for its slow action on land reform and continued in rebellion against the Huerta regime.", "However, Zapata repudiated his former high opinion of fellow revolutionary Pascual Orozco, who had also rebelled against Madero, when Orozco allied with Huerta.", "Madero's anti-reelectionist movement had mobilized revolutionary action that led to the resignation of Díaz.", "Madero's overthrow and murder during the Ten Tragic Days was a prelude to further years of civil war.María Arias Bernal, who defended Madero's tomb from vandalism during the counter-revolutionary Victoriano Huerta regime (1913–14).For Mexicans hopeful of positive change with the Madero presidency, his performance in office was not inspiring, but as a martyr to the revolution ousted and murdered by reactionary forces with the aid of the United States ambassador, he became a powerful unifying force.", "The Governor of Coahuila, Madero's home state, became the leader of the northern revolutionaries opposing the Huerta.", "Venustiano Carranza had been put in office by Madero.", "Carranza named the broad-based, anti-Huerta northern coalition the Constitutionalist Army, invoking the Mexican Constitution of 1857 and rule of law that they hoped to restore.", "In 1915, a Constitutionalist supporter created a chart outlining the political leaders of the time, calling Madero \"The Great Democrat, elected president by the unanimous will of the people.\"", "But by 1917, when the Constitutionalists had emerged as the winning faction of the revolution, Carranza began reshaping the historical narrative of the revolution that excluded Madero entirely.", "For Carranza, the revolution had three periods, with the start date being the armed struggle against Huerta, led by himself.", "After three years as constitutional president, Carranza himself was ousted and killed in a 1920 coup by Sonoran revolutionary generals, Álvaro Obregón, Plutarco Elías Calles, and Adolfo de la Huerta.", "Madero's status as a hero of the revolution was restored by the Sonoran dynasty, which deliberately constructed a narrative of historical memory that endures.", "20 November, the day that Madero set in the Plan of San Luis Potosí for the rebellion against Porfirio Díaz, became a national day of celebration.Statue of Madero in front of the Palacio de Bellas Artes in Mexico City." ], [ "Historical memory and popular culture", "''Corrido'' sheet music celebrating the entry of Francisco Madero into Mexico City in 1911.leftMadero was known as \"The Apostle of Democracy,\" but \"Madero the martyr meant more to the soul of Mexico.", "\"Despite Madero's importance as a historical figure, there are relatively few memorials or monuments to him.", "It was not until the Monument to the Revolution was completed in 1938 that Madero had a public resting place.", "He had been interred in the French cemetery in Mexico City after his death.", "His tomb had been an informal pilgrimage site on the anniversary of his murder (22 February) and the proclamation of his Plan of San Luis Potosí (20 November), which launched the Mexican Revolution.", "Initially, the monument to the Revolution held the remains of Madero, Carranza, and Villa and was planned as a collective commemoration of the Revolution, not individual revolutionaries.", "Although it was completed on 20 November 1938, there was no inaugural ceremony.The date of Madero's Plan of San Luis Potosí, 20 November, was a fixed official holiday in Mexico, Revolution Day, but a 2005 change in the law makes the third Monday in November the day of commemoration.", "During the presidency of Venustiano Carranza, he ignored 20 November and commemorated 26 March, the anniversary of his Plan de Guadalupe.Modern street sign and plaque with the former name of the section, ''Calle de Plateros''.The Mexico City Metro has a stop named for Madero's vice president, Metro Pino Suárez, but not one to Madero.", "General Alvaro Obregón laid a foundation stone on the 10th anniversary of Madero's death of a planned Madero statue in the zócalo, but the statue was never built.", "A statue was erected in 1956 at a downtown intersection in Mexico City and has been moved to the presidential residence, Los Pinos, not easily viewable by the public.", "An exception is Avenida Madero in Mexico City.", "One contemporaneous honor by General Pancho Villa remains in Mexico City.", "On the morning of 8 December 1914, he declared that the street leading from the Zócalo in Mexico City towards the Paseo de la Reforma would be named for Madero.", "Still officially called Francisco I. Madero Avenue, but commonly known simply as Madero street, it is one of the most popular and historically significant streets in the city.", "It was pedestrianised in 2009.Mexican artist José Guadalupe Posada created an etching for a broadside, produced on the occasion of Madero's election in 1910, titled \"Calavera de Madero\" portraying Madero as a calavera.Madero appears in the films ''Viva Villa!''", "(1934), ''Villa Rides'' (1968) and ''Viva Zapata!''", "(1952).In the novel ''The Friends of Pancho Villa'' (1996) by James Carlos Blake, Madero is a major character.Along with Hermila Galindo and Carmen Serdán, Madero appears on the obverse of the 1000 Mexican peso banknote issued from 2020." ], [ "See also", "* List of heads of state of Mexico * Emilio Madero, brother* Ernesto Madero, uncle* Gustavo A. Madero, brother* Manifiesto a la Nación (Francisco I. Madero)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Cumberland, Charles C. ''Mexican Revolution: Genesis under Madero''.", "Austin: University of Texas Press 1952.", "* Katz, Friedrich.", "''The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States, and the Mexican Revolution''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1981.", "* Knight, Alan.", "''The Mexican Revolution'', 2 volumes.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1986.", "* Krauze, Enrique, ''Mexico: Biography of Power''.", "New York: HarperCollins 1997.", "* Ross, Stanley R. ''Francisco I. Madero, Apostle of Democracy''.", "New York: Columbia University Press 1955." ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]
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[ [ "Fruitarianism" ], [ "Introduction", "Varied fruits'''Fruitarianism''' () is a diet that consists primarily of consuming fruits and possibly nuts and seeds, but without any animal products.", "Fruitarian diets are subject to criticism and health concerns.Fruitarianism may be adopted for different reasons, including ethical, religious, environmental, cultural, economic, and presumed health benefits.", "A fruitarian diet may increase the risk of nutritional deficiencies, such as reduced intake of vitamin B12, calcium, iron, zinc, omega-3 or protein." ], [ "Varieties", "Some fruitarians will eat only what falls (or would fall) naturally from a plant; that is, plant foods that can be harvested without killing or harming the plant.", "These foods consist primarily of culinary fruits, nuts, and seeds.", "Some do not eat grains, believing it is unnatural to do so, and some fruitarians feel that it is improper for humans to eat seeds as they contain future plants, or nuts and seeds, or any food besides juicy fruit.", "Others believe they should eat only plants that spread seeds when the plant is eaten.", "Others eat seeds and some cooked foods.", "Some fruitarians use the botanical definitions of fruits and consume pulses, such as beans, peas, or other legumes.", "Other fruitarians' diets include raw fruits, dried fruits, nuts, honey and olive oil, nuts, beans or chocolate.A related diet is nutarianism, for individuals who only eat nuts." ], [ "Ideology and diet", "Some fruitarians, like Jains, wish to avoid killing anything, including plants, and refer to ahimsa fruitarianism.", "For some fruitarians, the motivation comes from a fixation on a utopian past, their hope being to return to a past that pre-dates an agrarian society to when humans were simply gatherers.", "Another common motivation is the desire to eliminate perceived toxicity from within the body.", "For others, the appeal of a fruitarian diet comes from the challenge that the restrictive nature of this diet provides." ], [ "Nutrition", "Tropical fruitsAccording to nutritionists, adults must be careful not to follow a fruit-only diet for too long.", "A fruitarian diet is wholly unsuitable for children (including teens), nursing mothers and their babies.", "Death can result from malnutrition.===Nutritional effects===Fruitarianism is more restrictive than veganism or raw veganism, as a subset of both.", "Maintaining this diet over a long period can result in dangerous deficiencies, a risk that many fruitarians try to ward off through nutritional testing and vitamin injections.", "The Health Promotion Program at Columbia University reports that a fruitarian diet can cause deficiencies in calcium, protein, iron, zinc, vitamin D, most B vitamins (especially B12), and essential fatty acids.Although fruit provides a source of carbohydrates, they have very little protein, and because protein cannot be stored in the body as fat and carbohydrates can, fruitarians need to be careful that they consume enough protein each day.", "When the body does not take in enough protein, it misses out on amino acids, which are essential to making body proteins which support the growth and maintenance of body tissues.", "Consuming high levels of fruit also poses a risk to those who are diabetic or pre-diabetic, due to the negative effect that the large amounts of sugar in fruits has on blood sugar levels.", "These high levels of sugar mean that fruitarians are at a higher risk for tooth decay.", "Another concern that fruitarianism presents is that because fruit is easily digested, the body burns through meals quickly, and is hungry again soon after eating.", "A side effect of the digestibility is that the body will defecate more frequently.Additionally, the Health Promotion Program at Columbia reports that food restrictions in general may lead to hunger, cravings, food obsessions, social disruptions, and social isolation.", "The severe dietary restrictions inherent in a fruitarian regime also carries the serious risk of triggering orthorexia nervosa.Harriet Hall has written that a fruitarian diet \"leads to nutritional deficiencies, especially in children.", "Fruitarians can develop protein energy malnutrition, anemia, and low levels of iron, calcium, essential fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals.", "\"====Vitamin B12====Vitamin B12, a bacterial product, cannot be obtained from fruits.", "According to the U.S. National Institutes of Health, \"natural food sources of vitamin B12 are limited to foods that come from animals.\"", "Like raw vegans who do not consume B12-fortified foods (for example, certain plant milks and some breakfast cereals), fruitarians may need to include a B12 supplement in their diet or risk vitamin B12 deficiency.===Growth and development concerns===In children, growth and development may be at risk.", "Some nutritionists state that children should not follow a fruitarian diet.", "Nutritional problems include severe protein–energy malnutrition, anemia and deficiencies including protein, iron, calcium, essential fatty acids, raw fibre and a wide range of vitamins and minerals." ], [ "Notable adherents", "Some notable advocates of fruitarianism, or of diets which may be considered fruitarian, or of lifestyles including such a diet, are:*Otto Abramowski, Australian naturopath who lectured on the fruitarian diet.", "* Idi Amin, the Ugandan military dictator who became a fruitarian while exiled in Saudi Arabia.", "* Sidney H. Beard*Arnold Ehret*August Engelhardt*Raymond W. Bernard*Hereward Carrington* Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, better known as Indian political and spiritual leader Mahatma Gandhi, sustained a fruitarian diet for five years.", "He apparently discontinued the diet and went back to vegetarianism due to pleurisy, a pre-existing condition, after pressure from Dr. Jivraj Mehta.", "* Ben Klassen*Author Morris Krok, who earlier in his life lived \"only on fruits\", allegedly advised against a diet of \"only fruit\", although it was subsequently reported that Krok's diet consisted of \"just fruit\", with dietary practices of fruitarians as varied as definitions of the term \"fruitarianism\".", "*Actor Ashton Kutcher was hospitalized and said that his \"pancreas levels were completely out of whack\" after following a fruitarian diet in preparation for his role playing Apple Inc. CEO and onetime fruitarian Steve Jobs, in the film ''Jobs.", "''*Apple cofounder Steve Jobs began fruitarianism as a college freshman, and practiced it later in life.", "*The ''Order of the Golden Age'' published the journal ''Herald of the Golden Age'' (1896–1918), which promoted a \"fruitarian system of living\".", "*Gustav SchlickeysenOtto Abramowski 1908.png|Otto AbramowskiMr.", "Sidney H. Beard.png|Sidney H. BeardHereward Carrington 1916.jpg|Hereward CarringtonArnold Ehret.jpg|Arnold EhretAugust Engelhardt 1911.jpg|August Engelhardt" ], [ "In popular culture", "The minor character Keziah in the 1999 film ''Notting Hill'' (played by Emma Bernard) tells William \"Will\" Thacker (Hugh Grant) that she is a fruitarian.", "She says she believes that \"fruits and vegetables have feeling,\" meaning she opposes cooking them, only eating things that have \"actually fallen off a tree or bush\" and that are dead already, leading to what some describe as a negative depiction.Both fruitarians and nutarians are mentioned in ''Ulysses'' by James Joyce.", "Dick Gregory also promoted the former in his book, ''Cooking with Mother Nature''." ], [ "See also", "* Frugivore* Jain vegetarianism* List of culinary fruits* List of diets" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Afghanistan" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''foreign relations of Afghanistan''' are in a transitional phase since the 2021 fall of Kabul to the Taliban and the collapse of the internationally-recognized Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.", "No country has recognised the new regime, the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.", "Although some countries have engaged in informal diplomatic contact with the Islamic Emirate, formal relations remain limited to representatives of the Islamic Republic." ], [ "History", "Before the Soviet invasion, Afghanistan pursued a policy of neutrality and non-alignment in its foreign relations, being one of the few independent nations to stay neutral in both World War I and World War II.", "In international forums, Afghanistan generally followed the voting patterns of Asian and African non-aligned countries.", "During the 1950s and 1960s, Afghanistan was able to use the Soviet and American need for allies during the Cold War as a way to receive economic assistance from both countries.", "However, given that unlike the Soviet Union, the United States refused to give extensive military aid to the country, the government of Daoud Khan developed warmer ties with the USSR while officially remaining non-aligned.", "Following the coup of April 1978, the government under Nur Muhammad Taraki developed significantly closer ties with the Soviet Union and its communist satellites.After the December 1979 Soviet invasion, Afghanistan's foreign policy mirrored that of the Soviet Union.", "Afghan foreign policymakers attempted, with little success, to increase their regime's low standing in the non-communist world.", "With the signing of the Geneva Accords, President Najibullah unsuccessfully sought to end the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan's isolation within the Islamic world and in the Non-Aligned Movement.Most Western countries, including the United States, maintained small diplomatic missions in the capital city of Kabul during the Soviet occupation.", "Many countries subsequently closed their missions due to instability and heavy fighting in Kabul after the Soviet withdrawal in 1989.Many countries initially welcomed the introduction of the Taliban regime, who they saw as a stabilising, law-enforcing alternative to the warlords who had ruled the country since the fall of Najibullah's government in 1992.The Taliban soon alienated itself as knowledge of the harsh Sharia law being enforced in Taliban-controlled territories spread around the world.", "The brutality towards women who attempted to work, learn, or leave the house without a male escort caused outside aid to the war-torn country to be limited.=== Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ===Following the October 2001 American invasion and the Bonn Agreement the new government under the leadership of Hamid Karzai started to re-establish diplomatic relationships with many countries who had held close diplomatic relations before the communist coup d'état and the subsequent civil war.The Afghan government was focused on securing continued assistance for rebuilding the economy, infrastructure, and military of the country.", "It has continued to maintain close ties with North America, the European Union, South Korea, Japan, Australia, India, Pakistan, China, Russia and the Greater Middle East (most specifically Turkey), as well as African nations.", "It also sought to establish relations with more South American or Latin American nations.Before the fall of Kabul in 2021, the foreign relations of Afghanistan were handled by the nation's Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which was headed by Mohammad Hanif Atmar.", "He answered to, and received guidance from, the President of Afghanistan.=== Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan ===Foreign Minister Amir Khan MuttaqiThe Taliban gradually gained control of the country in the summer of 2021 and proclaimed the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan on August 15, 2021.The takeover culminated with the fall of Kabul.", "The Taliban has had some limited contact with foreign governments and will need to develop further relations with the international community as its new de facto government goes forward.On 20 September 2021, the new government designated Mohammad Suhail Shaheen as a replacement for Ghulam M Isaczai, Permanent Representative of Afghanistan to the United Nations who continues to represent the country at the UN.", "The UNGA's nine-member credentials committee will decide on this but no date has been set.Since the Taliban took over the Afghan government, countries including China, Russia, and the United States have contacted Taliban representatives, but have expressed doubts about its commitment to counterterrorism.", "Border clashes between the Taliban forces with Pakistan, Iran and Turkmenistan have also caused friction with Afghanistan's neighbours.In September 2023, China became the first country to formally name a new ambassador to the country since the takeover, even though China still doesn't formally recognize the Taliban." ], [ "Diplomatic relations prior to 2021", "List of countries which Afghanistan maintains diplomatic relations with prior to the Taliban takeover:425x425px#CountryDate1234567891011121314151617181920212223242526272829303132333435363738394041424344454647484950515253545556575859606162636465666768697071727374757677787980818283848586—87888990919293949596979899Before 2006100101102103104105106107108109110111—112113114115Unknown116Unknown117Unknown118Unknown119Unknown120Unknown—Unknown121Unknown122Unknown123Unknown124Unknown" ], [ "Bilateral relations prior to 2021", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotes5 September 1996Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 September 1996.", "*Afghanistan is accredited to Armenia from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.", "* Armenia is accredited to Afghanistan from its embassy in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan.16 November 1994The two countries established diplomatic relations on 16 November 1994.", "*Afghanistan has an embassy in Baku.", "* Azerbaijan to build its embassy in Kabul in the near future.1 June 1972Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 June 1972.See Afghanistan–Bangladesh relations*Afghanistan has an embassy in Dhaka.5 December 1984Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 December 1984.20 April 2010Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 April 2010.14 February 2007Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 February 2007.20 January 1955Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 January 1955.See Afghanistan–China relations* Afghanistan has an embassy in Beijing.", "* China has an embassy in Kabul.10 May 1928Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 May 1928.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Kabul.12 July 1994Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 July 1994.10 December 1947See Afghanistan–India relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 10 December 1947.India had traditionally enjoyed friendly relations with Afghanistan.", "Despite that, India supported the Soviet invasion and occupation of Afghanistan.", "Relations deteriorated after the Taliban took power in 1996.India unofficially supported the Northern Alliance minority groups against the Pakistani-backed Taliban.", "During the course of the hijack of Indian Airlines Flight 814 in 1999, the Taliban requested recognition by India in exchange for help in negotiations.", "The request was not acted upon by the Indian government.", "After the fall of the Taliban in late 2001, India strengthened ties with the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan by establishing consulates in most major Afghan cities.India had participated in multiple socio-economic reconstruction efforts, including power, roads, agricultural and educational projects.", "Some of these include building dozens of dams and reservoirs, a number of hospitals or clinics, schools and government institutions.", "The long road from Bandar-Abbas in southern Iran to highway 1 in southern Afghanistan was carried out by state-owned Border Roads Organisation (BRO), the mission statement of which states that the BRO is India's \"most reputed, multifaceted, transnational, modern construction organization committed to meeting the strategic needs of the armed forces.\"", "The killing of a BRO employee by the neo-Taliban in 2005 prompted the Indian authorities to dispatch approximately 200 Indo-Tibetan Border Police commandos to in 2006 to provide security for Indians working in various construction projects in Afghanistan.Political contacts between India and Afghanistan had increased in 2011, especially after the death of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan.", "During Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's May 2011 visit to Kabul, it was announced that India's total aid to Afghanistan reached $2 billion after a package of $500 million was added.", "There was also military ties between Afghanistan and India, which is expected to increase after the October 2011 strategic pact that was signed by President Karzai and Manmohan Singh.", "India's the largest regional provider of humanitarian and reconstruction aid to Afghanistan.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in New Delhi and a consulate-general in Mumbai.", "* India had an embassy in Kabul and consulates-general in Herat, Jalalabad, Kandahar and Mazar-e-Sharif.20 May 1950See Afghanistan–Indonesia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 20 May 1950 when Minister of Indonesia to Afghanistan Major-General R. H. Abdul Kadir presented his credentials.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Kabul.2 May 1920See Afghanistan–Iran relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 2 May 1920 when has been accredited first Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Afghanistan to Persia Sardar Abdol Aziz Khan.Afghanistan's relations with Iran have fluctuated over the last decades, with periodic disputes over the water rights of the Helmand River as one of the main issues of contention.", "Following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and the Iranian Revolution, relations deteriorated.", "Iran supported the cause of the Afghan resistance and provided limited assistance to the ethnic Hazara rebel leaders who pledged loyalty to the Iranian Revolution.", "After the emergence of the Taliban, Iran stepped up assistance to the Northern Alliance minority ethnic groups.", "Iran did not have any form of relations with the Taliban.", "In 1998, when the Taliban captured the northern Afghan city of Mazar-e-Sharif, several Iranian diplomats were executed on espionage charges.Since 2002, the new Afghan government has engaged in cordial relations with both Iran and the United States, even as relations between Iran and the United States have grown strained due to American objections to Iran's nuclear program.", "While Iran is helping to develop the Afghan Shia communities, the NATO officials have been accusing Iran of secretly arming and training the Taliban insurgents.", "Iran is accused of playing a double game in Afghanistan, a helper to the Afghan Shias and a destabilizer for the larger Sunni Afghans.", "In 2010, several high-level Iranian officials openly voiced for a failed Afghanistan.Ties between Afghanistan and Iran became strained in recent years due to Iran's toughened immigration policy, hastening the repatriation of many Afghan asylum seekers.", "Although Iran has hosted large numbers of Afghan refugees since the early 1980s, it is seeking to repatriate the remaining ones back to Afghanistan as soon as possible.", "A number of Afghans were executed by hanging in the streets of Iran, which sparked angry demonstrations in Afghanistan.", "There have reports about Iran's Revolutionary Guards training Afghans inside Iran to carry out terrorist attacks in Afghanistan.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Tehran and consulates-general in Mashad and Zahedan.", "* Iran has an embassy in Kabul and consulates-general in Herat, Kandahar and Mazar-i-Sharif.20 December 1932Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 December 1932.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Baghdad.", "* Iraq has an embassy in Kabul.See Afghanistan–Israel relationsNo formal relations between Afghanistan and Israel exist, as Afghanistan does not recognize Israel.", "However, leaders of both nations have met on numerous occasions.26 July 1931See Afghanistan–Japan relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 26 July 1931.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan has an embassy in Kabul.5 February 1948Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 February 1948 when Minister of Jordan to Afghanistan Mohammed Pasha El Shureiki presented his credentials.12 February 1992See Afghanistan–Kazakhstan relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 12 February 1992.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Nur-Sultan and a consulate-general in Almaty.", "* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Kabul.4 March 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 March 1964.12 November 1999Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 November 1999.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Bishkek.", "* Kyrgyzstan has an embassy in Kabul.11 March 1983Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 March 1983.August 1948Both countries established diplomatic relations in August 1948 when has been accredited Minister of Afghanistan to Lebanon (Resident in Bagdad) Mr. Ghulam Yahya Tarzi.1 August 1971Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 August 1971.24 January 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 January 1970.", "* Afghanistan has a resident embassy in Kuala Lumpur* Malaysia is represented in Afghanistan by its embassy (high commission) in New Delhi17 March 2006Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 March 2006.1 February 1962See Afghanistan–Mongolia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 February 196210 March 1973Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 March 19737 January 1985Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 January 1985.8 November 1956Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 November 1956.3 October 1990Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 October 1990.1 July 1961See Afghanistan–Nepal relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 July 1961.26 December 1973Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 December 1973.25 March 2005Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 March 2005.29 February 1948See Afghanistan–Pakistan relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 29 February 1948.Afghanistan began diplomatic ties with Pakistan in 1947, when Pakistan became an independent state after the Partition of India.", "Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, FATA and Balochistan have long complicated Afghanistan's relations with Pakistan.", "Controversies involving these areas date back to the establishment of the Durand Line border in 1893 which divided the Pashtun and Baloch tribes.", "Although shown on most maps as the western international border of Pakistan, it is unrecognized by Afghanistan.", "From September 1961 to June 1963, diplomatic relations, trade, transit, and consular services were suspended by Pakistan.The April 1978 Marxist revolution further strained relations between the two states.", "Pakistan took the lead diplomatically in the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference in opposing the Soviet invasion.", "It feared that after Afghanistan the Soviets would then enter Pakistani territory, especially the Balochistan region next to the oil-riched Persian Gulf.", "The United States was more fearing that Soviet reach to the Persian Gulf would threaten or suspend Arab oil supply so it began Operation Cyclone to provide billions of dollars to Pakistan for the training of Mujahideen against the Soviet-backed Democratic Republic of Afghanistan.", "The United States and Saudi Arabia provided as much as $40 billion to Pakistan.", "Supported and funded by the UNHCR, about 3 million Afghan refugees were allowed to stay in Pakistan, most of them in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.Pakistan developed closer ties with the Taliban government in 1996, which it believed would offer strategic depth in any future conflict with India, and extended recognition in 1997.Following Operation Enduring Freedom in late 2001, when the Taliban government was toppled, Pakistan recognized the new Karzai administration and offered around $250 million in aid for reconstruction of the war-torn country.", "This includes the rebuilding and expansion of the major roads linking Afghanistan with Pakistan, the construction of Jinnah Hospital in Kabul and the ''Allama Iqbal Faculty of Arts'' building at Kabul University.Much of Afghanistan has long relied on Pakistani links for trade and travel to the outside world, and Pakistan views Afghanistan as its primary route for trade with Central Asia.", "In late 2010, the long-awaited Afghanistan Pakistan Transit Trade Act (APTTA) was finally signed by the two states.", "It took effect in June 2011, which is intended to improve economic ties.", ", Afghan-Pakistani political ties continue to decline from bad to worse.", "This is mainly due to the recent Afghanistan–Pakistan border skirmishes, escalating Taliban insurgency which is alleged to be supported and guided by Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) spy network, and the growing influence of its rival India in Afghanistan.The Taliban appointed Mohammad Shokaib as first secretary or chargé d'affaires of Afghanistan's embassy in Pakistan.", "Since Pakistan does not formally recognize the Taliban government, Shokaib will not hold the formal title of ambassador.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Islamabad and consulates-general in Karachi, Peshawar and Quetta.", "* Pakistan has an embassy in Kabul and consulates-general in Herat, Jalalabad, Kandahar and Mazar-i-Sharif.17 September 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 September 1968.", "* Afghanistan is accredited to the Philippines from its embassy in Tokyo, Japan.", "* The Philippines is accredited to Afghanistan from its embassy in Islamabad, Pakistan.16 January 1973Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 January 1973.5 May 1932See Afghanistan–Saudi Arabia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 5 May 1932.Saudi Arabia has exerted a strong influence on Afghanistan, and was one of the major provider of funds to the ''mujahideen'' fighters against the Soviets.", "Saudi Arabia was also the second of only three countries to recognize the Taliban government, extending official recognition on 26 May 1997, one day after Pakistan and shortly before the United Arab Emirates.", "After the removal of Taliban, Saudi Arabia is one of the major helpers in the Afghan reconstruction.", "For example, the main highway project is funded mainly by the US and Saudi Arabia.", "The largest mosque in Afghanistan was also financed by Saudi Arabia.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Riyadh and a consulate-general in Jeddah.", "* Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Kabul.24 February 2017Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 February 2017.22 June 2006Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 June 2006.", "* Afghanistan is accredited to Singapore from its embassy in Tokyo, Japan.", "*Singapore does not have an accreditation to Afghanistan.19 September 1994Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 September 1994.", "* Afghanistan does not have an accreditation to South Africa.", "* South Africa is accredited to Afghanistan from its embassy in Islamabad, Pakistan.31 December 1973See Afghanistan–South Korea relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 31 December 1973.High-level Exchanges From Afghanistan to the South Korea 2010 Mar Farahi (Deputy Foreign Minister) 2012 Nov Ludin (Deputy Foreign Minister) 2013 Feb Khalili (2nd Vice President) 2013 Jul Najafi (Minister of Transport) 2013 Aug Raheen (Minister of Culture) 2013 Oct Sangin (Minister of Telecommunication).", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Seoul.", "* South Korea has an embassy in Kabul.1 November 1958Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 November 1958.18 May 1957Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 May 1957.18 November 1951Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 November 1951 when has been accredited Charge d'Affaires ad interim of Afghanistan to Syria (Resident in Bagdad) Mr. Mir Amanullah Rahimi.15 July 1992See Afghanistan–Tajikistan relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 15 July 1992.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Dushanbe and a consulate-general in Kharogh.", "* Tajikistan has an embassy in Kabul.23 April 1953Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 April 1953.1 March 1921See Afghanistan–Turkey relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 March 1921*Afghanistan has an embassy in Ankara and a Consulates General in Istanbul.", "*Turkey has an embassy in Kabul and Consulates General in Kandahar and Mazar-e Sharif.", "*Both countries are members of Asia Cooperation Dialogue, Economic Cooperation Organization, OIC and WTO.", "*Trade volume between the two countries was US$180 million in 2019 (Afghan exports/imports: 156/24 million USD).", "*Yunus Emre Institute has a local headquarters in Kabul.Afghanistan was the second country to recognize the Republic of Turkey on 1 March 1923, after the Soviet Union, establishing diplomatic contacts whilst the Turkish War of Independence was still being waged.", "Talks held in Moscow on 1 March 1921 resulted in the Turkey-Afghanistan Alliance Agreement and a period of intense cooperation.In 1937, shortly before the outbreak of World War II, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq and Turkey signed the Treaty of Saadabad.Since the 1920s Turkey enjoyed its prestige in Afghanistan.", "Both countries established education and cultural exchange programs.", "Inside Afghanistan Turkish schools were established.", "Furthermore, Turkish army officers assisted or even commanded the training of Afghan military members.", "The foreign relations of Afghanistan have changed so much politically, socially and economically.", "Today the relations between the two countries go beyond giving military education.", "In this respect it is noteworthy that this article handles the developments in the relationship between Afghanistan and Turkey in historical context.Afghan and Turkish relations spans several centuries, as many Turkic and Afghan peoples ruled vast areas of Central Asia and the Middle East particularly the Ghaznavids, Khalji, Timurid, Lodhi, Mughal, Afsharid, and Durrani empires.", "Throughout its long history, many Ottoman officials were in close contact with Afghan leaders even up until the early 20th century when the Ottoman administrator Ahmad Jamal Pasha went to Afghanistan where he worked on modernizing the Afghan Armed Forces.Turkey has participated in the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) since its inception with the deployment of 290- non-combatant support personnel in 2001 and has assumed command of ISAF II (June 2002 – February 2003) and ISAF VII (February–August 2005).According to Turkish Parliamentary Deputy Burhan Kayatürk; Turkey, which has the goodwill of the Afghani people, \"can help win the hearts and minds of the Afghani people\", who, \"like the Turkish soldiers\", and, \"steer them away from militancy by strengthening the infrastructure in education, health and industry\".Turkish troops have not participated as combat forces but rather as logistical support and training Afghan personnel.", "Over 12,000 Afghan soldiers and police have been trained.Turkish construction firms have subsequently also become active in the country.", "Turkey is responsible for maintaining security around Kabul, providing training for the Afghan National Army and Afghan National Police and have undertaken a number of reconstruction projects in the fields of education, health and agriculture in the province of Vardak.Turkey's support of the Bonn Agreement and the Afghan Constitution Commission resulted in an official visit to Turkey by Afghan President Hamid Karzai on 4 April 2002 and made a reciprocal visit to Afghanistan by Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan a short time later.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Ankara and a consulate-general in Istanbul.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Kabul and a consulate-general in Mazar-i-Sharif.21 February 1992See Afghanistan–Turkmenistan relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 21 February 1992.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Ashgabat and a consulate-general in Mary.", "* Turkmenistan has an embassy in Kabul and consulates in Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif.6 April 1973See Afghanistan–United Arab Emirates relations* Afghanistan has an embassy in Abu Dhabi and a consulate-general in Dubai.", "* United Arab Emirates has an embassy in Kabul.13 October 1992See Afghanistan–Uzbekistan relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 13 October 1992.After the independence of Uzbekistan in 1991, the coming upheavals in Afghanistan and in Tajikistan caused security issues and regional anxiety.", "Uzbekistan continued this policy for a long time, but in 2016 started boosting relations with Afghanistan in terms of trade, socio-cultural and educational exchanges.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Tashkent and a consulate-general in both Bukhara and Termez.", "* Uzbekistan has an embassy in Kabul and a consulate in Mazar-i-Sharif.16 September 1974See Afghanistan–Vietnam relations* Afghanistan is accredited to Vietnam from its embassy in Beijing, China.", "* Vietnam is accredited to Afghanistan from its embassy in Islamabad, Pakistan.11 March 1971Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 March 1971* Afghanistan is accredited to Yemen from its embassy in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.", "* Yemen does not have an accreditation to Afghanistan31 March 1987* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 March 1987.", "* Afghanistan currently does not have an accreditation to Zimbabwe.=== Americas === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes24 October 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 October 1959.", "* Afghanistan is accredited to Argentina from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.", "* Argentina is accredited to Afghanistan from its embassy in Islamabad, Pakistan.1952Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1952.", "*Afghanistan is accredited to Brazil from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.", "* Brazil is accredited to Afghanistan from its embassy in Islamabad, Pakistan.17 July 1968See Afghanistan–Canada relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 17 July 1968.Canadian Ambassador William Crosbie makes remarks during the opening of the refurbished Turquoise Mountain Foundation in Kabul on 9 May 2011.The September 11, 2001, attacks in the U.S. prompted Canada to re-evaluate its policies toward Afghanistan.", "The Minister of National Defence Art Eggleton advised Governor General Adrienne Clarkson to authorize more than 100 Canadian Forces members serving on military exchange programs in the United States and other countries to participate in U.S. operations in Afghanistan.", "Although not participating in the opening days of the invasion, Prime Minister Jean Chrétien announced on 7 October that Canada would contribute forces to the international force being formed to conduct a campaign against terrorism.", "General Ray Henault, the Chief of the Defence Staff, issued preliminary orders to several Canadian Forces units, as Operation Apollo was established.", "The Canadian commitment was originally planned to last to October 2003.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Ottawa and consulates-general in Toronto and Vancouver.", "* Canada had an embassy in Kabul.", "It was closed in 2021 after the Fall of Kabul.", "*11 September 1962Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 September 1962*Afghanistan is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Washington D.C., United States.", "* Chile does not have an accreditation to Afghanistan.3 August 1990Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 August 1990.", "* Afghanistan is accredited to Colombia from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.", "* Colombia is accredited to Afghanistan from its embassy in New Delhi, India.23 September 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 September 1975.22 April 2021Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 April 2021.3 December 2011Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 December 2011.23 August 1990Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 August 1990.11 March 1983Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 March 1983.27 June 1961See Afghanistan–Mexico relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 27 June 1961.", "* Afghanistan is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.", "* Mexico is accredited to Afghanistan from its embassy in Tehran, Iran.3 May 2002Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 May 2002.27 September 2012Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 September 2012.4 May 1935See Afghanistan–United States relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 4 May 1935.Official diplomatic relations between Afghanistan and the United States began in the 1920s, although contact between the two nations was made in the late 1830s with the visit of Josiah Harlan.", "Residing in Tehran, William Harrison Hornibrook served as a non-resident U.S.", "Envoy (Minister Plenipotentiary) to Afghanistan from 1935 to 1936.The United States established its first official Kabul Legation in 1942, which was elevated to the Kabul Embassy in 1948.Louis Goethe Dreyfus, who previously served as Minister Plenipotentiary, became the U.S.", "Ambassador to Afghanistan from 1949 to 1951.The first official Afghanistan Ambassador to the United States was Habibullah Khan Tarzi who served from 1948 to 1953.Since the 1950s the U.S. extended an economic assistance program focused on the development of Afghanistan's physical infrastructure which included roads, dams, and power plants.", "Later, U.S. aid shifted from infrastructure projects to technical assistance programs to help develop the skills needed to build a modern economy.", "Dwight D. Eisenhower visited Kabul in December 1959, becoming the first U.S. president to travel to Afghanistan.", "The Peace Corps was active in Afghanistan between 1962 and 1979.During the early 1960s King of Afghanistan, Zahir Shah, visited the United States and met with John F. Kennedy.Embassy of Afghanistan in Washington, D.C.After the April 1978 coup, relations deteriorated.", "In February 1979, U.S.", "Ambassador Adolph \"Spike\" Dubs was murdered in Kabul after security forces burst in on his kidnappers.", "The U.S. then reduced bilateral assistance and terminated a small military training program.", "All remaining assistance agreements were ended after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.Following the Soviet invasion, the United States supported diplomatic efforts to achieve a Soviet withdrawal.", "In addition, generous U.S. contributions to the refugee program in Pakistan played a major part in efforts to assist Afghans in need.", "U.S. efforts also included helping Afghans living inside Afghanistan.", "This cross-border humanitarian assistance program aimed at increasing Afghan self-sufficiency and helping Afghans resist Soviet attempts to drive civilians out of the rebel-dominated countryside.", "During the period of Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, the U.S. provided about $3 billion in military and economic assistance to the Afghan Mujahideens.Following the September 11 attacks, the United States launched an attack on the Taliban government as part of Operation Enduring Freedom.", "Following the overthrow of the Taliban, the U.S. supported the new Karzai administration and stationed 100,000 of U.S. troops in the country.", "Their aim was to help the new government of President Hamid Karzai establish authority across Afghanistan and hunt down insurgents that are launching attacks.The United States was the leading nation in the rebuilding or reconstruction of Afghanistan.", "It provided multi-billion US dollars in weapons and aid, as well as infrastructure development.", "In 2005, the United States and Afghanistan signed a strategic partnership agreement committing both nations to a long-term relationship.", "U.S. President George W. Bush and First Lady Laura Bush made a surprise visit to Afghanistan on 1 March 2006.Hamid Karzai was hailed as an example of a great leader by most U.S. politicians, universities and media outlets every time he visited the United States.", "Although, the U.S. military was to remain in Afghanistan until the end of 2014, U.S. officials offered to remain longer if the Afghan people wanted them.A US State Department report criticized the handling of the 2021 Afghanistan evacuation, highlighting the serious consequences of troop withdrawals by Presidents Biden and Trump on the security of the former US-backed government.", "The report raised concerns over the lack of coordination and failure to expand crisis-management efforts during the Taliban's advance on Kabul, without directly naming Secretary of State Antony Blinken.The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan collapsed and the Taliban rebuilt the Islamic emirate after the U.S. and the Taliban signed the Doha agreement and fully withdraw from Afghanistan in 2021.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and a consulates-general in Los Angeles and New York City.", "Temporarily closed from 2022.", "* United States has an embassy in Kabul, personnel located in Doha.4 October 1990Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 October 1990.10 December 1990Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 December 1990.===Europe=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes16 August 2006Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 August 2006.29 March 2006Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 March 2006.", "*Afghanistan has an embassy in Vienna.", "* Austria is accredited to Afghanistan from its embassy in Islamabad, Pakistan.15 June 1999Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 June 1999.26 February 1923Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 February 1923.20 September 2005Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 September 2005.12 June 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 June 1961.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Sofia.", "* Bulgaria has an embassy in Kabul.3 January 1996Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 January 1996.13 October 1937Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 October 1937.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Prague.", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Kabul.26 January 1966See Afghanistan–Denmark relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 26 January 1966.Denmark had 760 soldiers in Afghanistan in 2010, operating without caveat and concentrated in Helmand province.", "Relations between the two countries are friendly.", "Around 9,578 Afghan immigrants reside in Denmark.Diplomatic relations were established in 1947.On 24 May 1967, an air service agreement was signed in Kabul.", "On 2 March 1979, an agreement on a Danish loan to Afghanistan was signed.Since 2001, the Danish Defence was involved in the War in Afghanistan as part of the ISAF.", "The Danish Defence with the British Armed Forces have been involved in clashes with the Taliban in the Helmand Province.", "Denmark had two of their F-16s in the Manas Air Base, Kyrgyzstan to support their forces in Afghanistan.Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees is an organization, working in Afghanistan.", "The organization was created to support the Afghans, who had fled to Pakistan and Iran.", "Danish assistance to Afghanistan amounts $80 million each year.", "Since the fall of the Taleban in 2001, Denmark has supported Afghanistan with education and democratisation.", "In 2005, the Folketing approved 670 million DKK, to the rebuilding of Afghanistan.On 28 January 2006, the Afghan president Hamid Karzai visited Anders Fogh Rasmussen in Marienborg, the summer residence of the Danish Prime Minister.", "In September 2009, Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen visited Camp Bastion.On 23 June 2010, Danish Prime Minister Lars Løkke Rasmussen visited Afghanistan, where he met Hamid Karzai.", "On 10 January 2011, Afghan Foreign Minister Zalmai Rassoul visited Denmark, to discuss bilateral relations.", "* Afghanistan is accredited to Denmark from its embassy in Oslo, Norway.", "* Denmark has an embassy in Kabul.1 July 2005Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 July 2005.11 May 1956Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 May 1956.", "* Afghanistan recognized the Independence of Finland on 17 July 1928.", "* Afghanistan is accredited to Finland through its embassy in Oslo, Norway.", "* Finland has an embassy in Kabul.28 April 1922See Afghanistan–France relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on * Afghanistan has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Kabul.", "16 October 1922See Afghanistan-Germany relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 16 October 1922 when has been accredited first Envoy of Afghanistan to Germany Ghulam Siddiq Khan.After the Second World War, diplomatic relations were established with the Federal Republic of Germany on 22 December 1954.Afghan President Hamid Karzai in Germany, with Franz Josef Jung to his right and James L. Jones to his left.The German-Afghan relationship is long and has been mostly cordial.", "In 1935 under prime minister Muhammad Hashim, Afghanistan established a close relationship with Germany, a distinct change of relations in comparison to its usual position between the Russian and British spheres of influence.", "Under this relationship, Afghanistan received German foreign aid and technical assistance, and also developed closer ties with Germany's allies, Italy, Spain and Japan.Many Afghan academics studied in Germany, many more sought refuge in Germany during the years of civil war.", "There has been significant cultural exchange over the years.", "Several of the best secondary schools in Kabul are founded and supported by the German government.", "The number of Afghans in Germany is about 90,000 but many others have been deported from there in the last decade.", "Germany has been one of the most significant donors of foreign aid and partners in the rebuilding of Afghanistan.", "The Bonn agreement deals with the post Taliban governance of Afghanistan.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Bonn and Munich.", "* Germany has an embassy in Kabul.27 September 1962See Afghanistan–Greece relations* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 September 1962.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece is accredited to Afghanistan from its embassy in Islamabad, Pakistan.18 May 1956Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 May 1956.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Kabul.17 March 2004Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 March 2004.", "* Afghanistan is accredited to Iceland from its embassy in Oslo, Norway.", "* Iceland is accredited to Afghanistan from its embassy in Oslo, Norway.19 September 2002Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 September 2002.3 June 1921See Afghanistan–Italy relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 3 June 1921.Italian-Afghan relations have generally been positive, and Italy has served as a place of exile for two former Afghan kings, Amanullah Khan (deposed 1929) and Mohammed Zahir Shah (deposed 1973).", "Italy was among the first nations to recognise Afghanistan's sovereignty, along with Germany, Turkey, France, and Iran, following the 1919 recognition by the Soviet Union.Italy began to take on increased involvement (although on a relatively small scale) in 1935, as Afghanistan established closer relations with Germany, a key Italian ally.", "Afghanistan maintained these ties throughout much of World War II, though it came under strong pressure from Moscow and London to expel the German and Italian diplomatic corps.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Rome.", "* Italy has an embassy in Kabul.17 June 2013Afghanistan was the first country who officially recognised the independence of the Republic of Kosovo on 18 February 2008.Afghanistan and Kosovo established diplomatic relations on 17 June 2013.18 December 2005Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 December 2005.26 October 2018Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 October 2018.31 March 2005Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 March 2005.13 January 2005Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 January 2005.8 February 2008Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 February 2008.1 December 1994Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 December 1994.13 October 2010Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 October 2010.21 September 2010Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 September 2010.2 August 1956Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 August 1956 when first Envoy of Afgnanistan Dr. Sardir Najib-Ullah Khan presented his credentials to Queen of the Netherlands.17 July 1996Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 July 1996.31 December 1962See Afghanistan–Norway relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 31 December 1962.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Oslo.", "* Norway has an embassy in Kabul.3 November 1927See Afghanistan–Poland relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 3 November 1927.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Warsaw.", "* Poland is accredited to Afghanistan from its embassy in New Delhi, India.14 April 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 April 1976.5 June 1958Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 June 1958.", "* Afghanistan is accredited to Romania from its embassy in Warsaw, Poland.", "* Romania is accredited to Afghanistan from its embassy in Islamabad, Pakistan.27 May 1919See Afghanistan–Russia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 27 May 1919.Hamid Karzai sitting with Russia's President Dmitry MedvedevAfghanistan and Russia have shared a highly varied relationship from the mid-19th century to the modern day.", "For decades, Russia and Britain struggled for influence in Afghanistan, strategically positioned between their two empires, in what became known as \"The Great Game\".", "Following the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, the new Soviet Union established more cordial relations with Afghanistan, and in 1919 became the first country to recognise Afghan sovereignty.Relations between the two nations became complicated following the 1978 communist coup known as the Saur Revolution.", "The new communist Democratic Republic of Afghanistan was highly dependent on the Soviet Union, and the Soviet support for the widely disliked communist regime, and the ensuing Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, led to a great hatred for the Soviets in much of the Afghan population.", "The Soviets occupied Afghanistan in the face of a bitter ten-year insurgency before withdrawing in 1989.Even following the withdrawal of Soviet forces, the Soviet Union provided massive support to the embattled DRA government, reaching a value of $3 billion a year in 1990.However, this relationship dissolved in 1991 along with the dissolution of the Soviet Union itself.", "On 13 September 1991, the Soviet government, now dominated by Boris Yeltsin, agreed with the United States on a mutual cut off of military aid to both sides in the Afghan civil war beginning on 1 January 1992.The post-coup Soviet government then attempted to develop political relations with the Afghan resistance.", "In mid-November it invited a delegation of the resistance's Afghanistan Interim Government (AIG) to Moscow where the Soviets agreed that a transitional government should prepare Afghanistan for national elections.", "The Soviets did not insist that Najibullah or his colleagues participate in the transitional process.", "Having been cut adrift both materially and politically, Najibullah's faction torn government began to fall apart, and the city of Kabul fell to the Mujahideen factions in April 1992.In 2009, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev announced that he wanted to be more involved in Afghanistan, supporting development of infrastructure and the army.", "This came as relations between Afghan President Karzai and American President Obama reached a low.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Moscow.", "* Russia has an embassy in Kabul and a consulate-general in Mazar-i-Sharif.30 December 1954Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 December 1954.", "* Afghanistan does not have an accreditation to Serbia.", "* Serbia is accredited to Afghanistan from its embassy in New Delhi, India.20 September 2004Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 September 2004.9 May 1950See Afghanistan–Spain relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 9 May 1950.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Madrid.", "* Spain has an embassy in Kabul.22 November 1940Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 November 1940.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Stockholm.", "* Sweden has an embassy in Kabul.17 April 1995Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 April 1995.22 November 1921See Afghanistan–United Kingdom relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 22 November 1921.British interest involves the protection of India, especially from Russia—a contest called The Great Game in the late 19th century.", "A series of Anglo-Afghan wars between 1839 and 1919 have historically shaped the backdrop for relations between Afghanistan and the United Kingdom.", "After nearly a century of Anglo-Indian influence in Afghanistan, the state was declared independent in 1919.The United Kingdom did not contribute nor actively oppose the communist led Saur Revolution, it opposed the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and had no involvement in the series of civil wars that followed the Soviet withdrawal in 1989.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in London.", "* United Kingdom has an embassy in Kabul.===Oceania=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes16 December 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 December 1968.", "* Afghanistan has an embassy in Canberra.", "* In May 2021, Australia closed its embassy in Kabul.", "* ''See also:'' List of Afghan Ambassadors to Australia4 June 2010Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 June 2010.18 September 2003Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 September 2003* Afghanistan is accredited to New Zealand from its embassy in Canberra, Australia.", "* New Zealand is accredited to Afghanistan from its embassy in Tehran, Iran.", "* ''See also:'' List of Afghan Ambassadors to New Zealand" ], [ "United Nations", "During the Soviet occupation in the 1980s, the United Nations was highly critical of the Soviet Union's interference in the internal affairs of Afghanistan and was instrumental in obtaining a negotiated Soviet withdrawal under the terms of the Geneva Accords.In the aftermath of the Accords and subsequent Soviet withdrawal, the United Nations has assisted in the repatriation of refugees and has provided humanitarian aid such as health care, educational programs, and food and has supported mine-clearing operations.", "The UNDP and associated agencies have undertaken a limited number of development projects.", "However, the UN reduced its role in Afghanistan in 1992 in the wake of fierce factional strife in and around Kabul.", "The UN Secretary General has designated a personal representative to head the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Assistance to Afghanistan (UNOCHA) and the Special Mission to Afghanistan (UNSMA), both based in Islamabad, Pakistan.", "Throughout the late 1990s, 2000, and 2001, the UN unsuccessfully strived to promote a peaceful settlement between the Afghan factions as well as provide humanitarian aid, this despite increasing Taliban restrictions upon UN personnel and agencies." ], [ "See also", "* List of diplomatic missions in Afghanistan* List of diplomatic missions of Afghanistan* Visa requirements for Afghan citizens" ], [ "References", "* *" ], [ "Further reading", "*Adamec, Ludwig W. ''Afghanistan, 1900–1923: a diplomatic history'' (U of California Press, 1967).", "*Adamec, Ludwig W. ''Afghanistan's foreign affairs to the mid-twentieth century: relations with the USSR, Germany, and Britain'' (University of Arizona Press, 1974).", "*Kakar, M. Hassan.", "''Political & Diplomatic History of Afghanistan, 1863–1901'' (2006), 259pp." ], [ "External links", "* Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Afghanistan (official website)* Embassy of Afghanistan – Washington, DC* Embassy of the United States in Kabul* Embassy of Afghanistan – Ottawa, Canada* Embassies and consulates in Afghanistan and Afghani missions abroad" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Felony" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''felony''' is traditionally considered a crime of high seriousness, whereas a misdemeanor is regarded as less serious.", "The term \"felony\" originated from English common law (from the French medieval word \"''félonie''\") to describe an offense that resulted in the confiscation of a convicted person's land and goods, to which additional punishments including capital punishment could be added; other crimes were called misdemeanors.", "Following conviction of a felony in a court of law, a person may be described as a '''felon''' or a '''convicted felon'''.In many common law jurisdictions (such as England and Wales, the Republic of Ireland, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand), crimes are no longer classified as felonies or misdemeanors.", "Instead, serious crimes are classified as indictable offenses, and less serious crimes as summary offenses.In some civil law jurisdictions, such as Italy and Spain, the term ''delict'' is used to describe serious offenses, a category similar to common law felony.", "In other nations, such as Germany, France, Belgium, and Switzerland, more serious offenses are described as 'crimes', while 'misdemeanors' or 'delicts' (or ''délits'') are less serious.", "In still others (such as Brazil and Portugal), 'crimes' and 'delicts' are synonymous (more serious) and are opposed to contraventions (less serious).In the United States, where the felony/misdemeanor distinction is still widely applied, the federal government defines a felony as a crime punishable by death or imprisonment in excess of one year.", "If punishable by exactly one year or less, it is classified as a misdemeanor.", "The classification is based upon a crime's potential sentence, so a crime remains classified as a felony even if a defendant convicted of a felony receives a sentence of one year or less.", "Some individual states classify crimes by other factors, such as seriousness or context." ], [ "United States", "''Felony Sentences in State Courts'', a study by the United States Department of JusticeIn the United States, a felony is a crime that is punishable by death or more than one year in prison.", "===History===Historically under common law, felonies were crimes punishable by either death or forfeiture of property.", "All felonies remain a serious crime, but concerns of proportionality (i.e., that the punishment fits the crime) have in modern times prompted legislatures to require or permit the imposition of less serious punishments, ranging from lesser terms of imprisonment to the substitution of a jail sentence or even the suspension of all incarceration contingent upon a defendant's successful completion of probation.", "Standards for measurement of an offense's seriousness include attempts to quantitatively estimate and compare the effects of a crime upon its specific victims or society generally.The reform of harsh felony laws that had originated in Great Britain was deemed \"one of the first fruits of liberty\" after the United States became independent.=== Classification by subject matter ===Felonies may include but are not limited to the following:* Aggravated assault or battery* Animal cruelty* Arson* Blackmail* Burglary* Child pornography* Copyright infringement* Cybercrime* Driving under the influence (certain DUI cases involving bodily injury and/or death.", "In some jurisdictions property damage over a certain amount elevates a DUI charge to a felony as well)* Forgery* Fraud* Grand larceny or grand theft, ''i.e.", "'', larceny or theft above a certain statutorily established value or quantity of goods* Identity theft* Illegal drug trade, manufacture, sale, distribution, or possession with intent to distribute certain types or quantities of illegal drugs.", "In some jurisdictions, the possession of certain types of illegal drugs for personal use.", "* Kidnapping* Manslaughter (unintentional killing of another)* Murder* Obstruction of justice* Perjury* Police impersonation, with the intention of deception* Rape/sexual assault* Resisting arrest ''i.e.", "'', high-speed chase* Robbery/Extortion* Tax evasion* Threatening an official (police officer, judge)* Treason* Vandalism on federal property.Some offenses, though similar in nature, may be felonies or misdemeanors depending on the circumstances.", "For example, the illegal manufacture, distribution or possession of controlled substances may be a felony, although possession of small amounts may be only a misdemeanor.", "Possession of a deadly weapon may be generally legal, but carrying the same weapon into a restricted area such as a school may be viewed as a serious offense, regardless of whether there is intent to use the weapon.", "Additionally, driving under the influence in some US states may be a misdemeanor if a first offense, but a felony on subsequent offenses.=== Classification by seriousness ===In much of the United States, all or most felonies are placed into one of various classes according to their seriousness and their potential punishment upon conviction.", "The number of classifications and the corresponding crimes vary by state and are determined by the legislature.", "Usually, the legislature also determines the maximum punishment allowable for each felony class; doing so avoids the necessity of defining specific sentences for every possible crime.", "For example:* Virginia classifies most felonies by number, ranging from Class 6 (least severe: 1 to 5 years in prison or up to 12 months in jail) through Class 2 (20 years to life, ''e.g.", "'', first-degree murder and aggravated malicious wounding) up to Class 1 (life imprisonment).", "Some felonies remain outside the classification system.", "* New York State classifies felonies by letter, with some classes divided into sub-classes by a Roman numeral; classes range from Class E (encompassing the least severe felonies) through Classes D, C, B, and A–II up to Class A–I (encompassing the most severe).", "* Massachusetts classifies a felony as an offense that carries any prison time.", "* Ohio classifies felonies by degree ranging from first, second, third, fourth, to fifth degree.", "First-degree felonies are the most serious category, while fifth-degree felonies are the least serious.", "This is broadly the approach taken by the Model Penal Code, although the Code identifies only three degrees of felony.Some felonies are classified as forcible or violent, typically because they contain some element of force or a threat of force against a person and are subject to additional penalties.", "Burglary is also classified as a forcible felony in some jurisdictions including Illinois and Florida.", ":\"The common law divided participants in a felony into four basic categories: (1) first-degree principals, those who committed the crime in question; (2) second-degree principals, aiders and abettors present at the scene of the crime; (3) accessories before the fact, aiders and abettors who helped the principal before the basic criminal event took place; and (4) accessories after the fact, persons who helped the principal after the basic criminal event took place.", "In the course of the 20th century, however, American jurisdictions eliminated the distinction among the first three categories.\"", "''Gonzales v. Duenas-Alvarez'', (citations omitted).===Consequences===In many parts of the United States, a felon can experience long-term legal consequences persisting after the end of their imprisonment.", "The status and designation as a \"felon\" is considered permanent and is not extinguished upon sentence completion even if parole, probation or early release was given.", "The status can be cleared only by a successful appeal or executive clemency.", "However, felons may qualify for restoration of some rights after a certain period of time has passed.The consequences felons experience in most states include:* Disenfranchisement (expressly permitted by the Fourteenth Amendment, as noted by the Supreme Court in ''Richardson v. Ramirez'')* Exclusion from obtaining certain licenses, such as a visa, or professional licenses required to legally operate (making some vocations off-limits to felons)* Ineligibility to hold office in a Labor Union (a provision of the Landrum–Griffin Act of 1959)* Exclusion from purchase and possession of firearms, ammunition, and body armor* Ineligibility to serve on a jury* Ineligibility for government assistance or welfare* Removal (deportation) (if not a citizen)Additionally, many job applications and rental applications ask about felony history (with the exception of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts) and answering dishonestly on them can be grounds for rejecting the application, or termination if the lie is discovered after hire.", "Convicted felons may not be eligible for certain professional licenses or bonds, or may raise the cost of an employer's insurance.", "It is broadly legal to discriminate against felons in hiring decisions as well as the decision to rent housing to a person, so felons can face barriers to finding both jobs and housing.", "Many landlords will not rent to felons, although a blanket ban on renting to felons may violate federal housing law.", "A common term of parole is to avoid associating with other felons.", "In some neighborhoods with high rates of felony conviction, this creates a situation where many felons live with a constant threat of being arrested for violating parole.", "Banks may refuse to issue loans to felons, and a felony conviction may prevent employment in banking or finance.In some states, restoration of those rights depends on repayment of various fees associated with the felon's arrest, processing, and prison stay, such as restitution to victims, or outstanding fines.=== Restoration of rights ===The primary means of restoring civil rights that are lost as a result of a felony conviction are executive clemency and expungement.For state law convictions, expungement is determined by the law of the state.", "Many states do not allow expungement, regardless of the offense, though felons can seek pardons and clemency, potentially including restoration of rights.Federal law does not have any provisions for persons convicted of federal felonies in a federal United States district court to apply to have their record expunged.", "At present the only relief that an individual convicted of a felony in federal court may receive is a presidential pardon, which does not expunge the conviction, but rather grants relief from the civil disabilities that stem from it." ], [ "Other jurisdictions", "=== Cameroon ===In the law of Cameroon, a felony is a crime for which the maximum sentence is more than 10 years, or death.", "Felonies are distinguished from misdemeanors (maximum sentence from 10 days to 10 years) and offenses (not exceeding 10 days).", "While lesser crimes are tried before a magistrate's court, felonies must be tried before a high court (''tribunal de grande instance'').The drafters of the bilingual Cameroonian penal code of 1967 based their work on French law and Nigerian law.", "In the case of felonies, they chose to set the threshold for felonies much higher than under either French law (five years) or Nigerian law (three years).", "This had the effect of greatly reducing the number of felonies under Cameroonian law.", "It also reduced the number of crimes that were subject to trial by jury in the courts of East Cameroon at that time.===England and Wales=======History====Sir William Blackstone wrote in the 18th century that felony \"comprises every species of crime, which occasioned at common law the forfeiture of lands or goods\".", "The word ''felony'' was feudal in origin, denoting the value of a man's entire property: \"the consideration for which a man gives up his fief\".", "Blackstone refutes the misconception that felony simply means an offense punishable by death, by demonstrating that not every felony is capital, and not every capital offense is a felony.", "However he concedes that \"the idea of felony is indeed so generally connected with that of capital punishment, that we find it hard to separate them; and to this usage the interpretations of the law do now conform.", "\"The death penalty for felony could be avoided by pleading benefit of clergy, which gradually evolved to exempt everybody (whether clergy or not) from that punishment for a first offense, except for high treason and offenses expressly excluded by statute.", "During the 19th century criminal law reform incrementally reduced the number of capital offenses to five (see Capital punishment in the United Kingdom), and forfeiture for felony was abolished by the Forfeiture Act 1870.Consequently, the distinction between felony and misdemeanor became increasingly arbitrary.", "The surviving differences consisted of different rules of evidence and procedure, and the Law Commission recommended that felonies be abolished altogether.", "This was done by the Criminal Law Act 1967, which set the criminal practice for all crimes as that of misdemeanor and introduced a new system of classifying crimes as either \"arrestable\" and \"non-arrestable\" offenses (according to which a general power of arrest was available for crimes punishable by five years' imprisonment or more).Arrestable offenses were abolished in 2006, and today crimes are classified as indictable or summary offenses, the only distinction being the mode of trial (by jury in the Crown Court or summarily in a magistrates' court, respectively).====Procedure====The Trials for Felony Act 1836 (6 & 7 Will.", "4 c. 114) allowed persons indicted for felonies to be represented by counsel or attorney.====Terminology====A person being prosecuted for this was called a prisoner, though increasingly \"accused\" or \"defendant\" was preferred.=== Germany ===A felony (, a word also translated in less technical contexts as simply \"crime\") is defined in the (Criminal Code, StGB) as an unlawful act () that is punishable with a minimum of one year's imprisonment.", "A misdemeanor (''Vergehen'') is any other crime punishable by imprisonment with a minimum of less than one year or by fine.However, in some cases a severe version of a misdemeanor may be punished with imprisonment of more than one year, yet the crime itself remains considered a misdemeanor.", "The same applies for a milder version of a felony that is punished with imprisonment less than a year.An attempt to commit a felony is itself a crime, whereas an attempt to commit a misdemeanor is a crime only if specifically prescribed as such by law.===Ireland===In the law of the Republic of Ireland the distinction between felony and misdemeanor was abolished by section 3 of the Criminal Law Act, 1997, such that the law previously applied to misdemeanors was extended to all offenses.", "Minister Joan Burton, introducing the bill in the Seanad, said \"The distinction has been eroded over many years and in today's conditions has no real relevance.", "Today, for example, serious offenses such as fraudulent conversion and obtaining property by false pretenses are classified as misdemeanors whereas a relatively trivial offense such as stealing a bar of chocolate is a felony.\"", "The 1997 Act, modeled on the English Criminal Law Act 1967, introduced the category of \"arrestable offense\" for those with penalties of five years' imprisonment or greater.The 1937 Constitution declares that the parliamentary privilege, which protects Oireachtas members from arrest traveling to or from the legislature, does not apply to \"treason, felony, and breach of the peace\".", "The 1996 Constitutional Review Group recommended replacing \"felony\" with \"serious criminal offence\"." ], [ "See also", "* Backberend and Handhabend* Compounding a felony* Criminal law* Employment discrimination against persons with criminal records in the United States* Federal crime in the United States* Felony murder rule* Indictable offense (Canadian equivalent of felony)* One strike, you're out* Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO)* Summary offense* Three-strikes law" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ferdinand of Habsburg" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ferdinand of Habsburg''' or '''Ferdinand Habsburg''' may refer to:* Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor (1503–1564)* Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor (1578–1637)* Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor (1608–1657)* Ferdinand I of Austria (1793–1875)* Ferdinand Habsburg (racing driver) (born 1997)" ], [ "See also", "*Ferdinand Habsburg (racing driver)*Ferdinand of Austria (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "First aid" ], [ "Introduction", "thumbA US Navy corpsman gives first aid to an injured Iraqi citizen.", "'''First aid''' is the first and immediate assistance given to any person with either a minor or serious illness or injury, with care provided to preserve life, prevent the condition from worsening, or to promote recovery until medical services arrive.", "First aid is generally performed by someone with basic medical training.", "Mental health first aid is an extension of the concept of first aid to cover mental health, while psychological first aid is used as early treatment of people who are at risk for developing PTSD.", "Conflict first aid, focused on preservation and recovery of an individual's social or relationship well-being, is being piloted in Canada.There are many situations that may require first aid, and many countries have legislation, regulation, or guidance, which specifies a minimum level of first aid provision in certain circumstances.", "This can include specific training or equipment to be available in the workplace (such as an automated external defibrillator), the provision of specialist first aid cover at public gatherings, or mandatory first aid training within schools.", "Generally, five steps are associated with first aid:# Assess the surrounding areas.# Move to a safe surrounding (if not already; for example, road accidents are unsafe to be dealt with on roads).# Call for help: both professional medical help and people nearby who might help in first aid such as the compressions of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).# Perform suitable first aid depending on the injury suffered by the casualty.# Evaluate the casualty for any fatal signs of danger, or possibility of performing the first aid again." ], [ "Early history and warfare", "Skills of what is now known as first aid have been recorded throughout history, especially in relation to warfare, where the care of both traumatic and medical cases is required in particularly large numbers.", "The bandaging of battle wounds is shown on Classical Greek pottery from , whilst the parable of the Good Samaritan includes references to binding or dressing wounds.", "There are numerous references to first aid performed within the Roman army, with a system of first aid supported by surgeons, field ambulances, and hospitals.", "Roman legions had the specific role of capsarii, who were responsible for first aid such as bandaging, and are the forerunners of the modern combat medic.Further examples occur through history, still mostly related to battle, with examples such as the Knights Hospitaller in the 11th century AD, providing care to pilgrims and knights in the Holy Land.===Formalization of life saving treatments===During the late 18th century, drowning as a cause of death was a major concern amongst the population.", "In 1767, a society for the preservation of life from accidents in water was started in Amsterdam, and in 1773, physician William Hawes began publicizing the power of artificial respiration as means of resuscitation of those who appeared drowned.", "This led to the formation, in 1774, of the Society for the Recovery of Persons Apparently Drowned, later the Royal Humane Society, who did much to promote resuscitation.Napoleon's surgeon, Baron Dominique-Jean Larrey, is credited with creating an ambulance corps, the ''ambulance volantes'', which included medical assistants, tasked to administer first aid in battle.In 1859, Swiss businessman Jean-Henri Dunant witnessed the aftermath of the Battle of Solferino, and his work led to the formation of the Red Cross, with a key stated aim of \"aid to sick and wounded soldiers in the field\".", "The Red Cross and Red Crescent are still the largest provider of first aid worldwide.thumbIn 1870, Prussian military surgeon Friedrich von Esmarch introduced formalized first aid to the military, and first coined the term \"erste hilfe\" (translating to 'first aid'), including training for soldiers in the Franco-Prussian War on care for wounded comrades using pre-learnt bandaging and splinting skills, and making use of the Esmarch bandage which he designed.", "The bandage was issued as standard to the Prussian combatants, and also included aide-memoire pictures showing common uses.In 1872, the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem in England changed its focus from hospice care, and set out to start a system of practical medical help, starting with making a grant towards the establishment of the UK's first ambulance service.", "This was followed by creating its own wheeled transport litter in 1875 (the St John Ambulance), and in 1877 established the St John Ambulance Association (the forerunner of modern-day St John Ambulance) \"to train men and women for the benefit of the sick and wounded\".Also in the UK, Surgeon-Major Peter Shepherd had seen the advantages of von Esmarch's new teaching of first aid, and introduced an equivalent programme for the British Army, and so being the first user of \"first aid for the injured\" in English, disseminating information through a series of lectures.", "Following this, in 1878, Shepherd and Colonel Francis Duncan took advantage of the newly charitable focus of St John, and established the concept of teaching first aid skills to civilians.", "The first classes were conducted in the hall of the Presbyterian school in Woolwich (near Woolwich barracks where Shepherd was based) using a comprehensive first aid curriculum.First aid training began to spread through the British Empire through organisations such as St John, often starting, as in the UK, with high risk activities such as ports and railways." ], [ "Aims", "The primary goal of first aid is to prevent death or serious injury from worsening.", "The key aims of first aid can be summarized with the acronym of 'the three Ps':* '''Preserve life:''' The overriding aim of all medical care which includes first aid, is to save lives and minimize the threat of death.", "First aid done correctly should help reduce the patient's level of pain and calm them down during the evaluation and treatment process.", "* '''Prevent further harm:''' Prevention of further harm includes addressing both external factors, such as moving a patient away from any cause of harm, and applying first aid techniques to prevent worsening of the condition, such as applying pressure to stop a bleed from becoming dangerous.", "* '''Promote recovery:''' First aid also involves trying to start the recovery process from the illness or injury, and in some cases might involve completing a treatment, such as in the case of applying a plaster to a small wound.It is important to note that first aid is not medical treatment and cannot be compared with what a trained medical professional provides.", "First aid involves making common sense decisions in the best interest of an injured person." ], [ "Setting the priorities", "Protocols such as ATLS, BATLS, SAFE-POINT are based on the principle of defining the priorities and the procedure where the correct execution of the individual steps achieves the required objective of saving human life.", "Basic points of these protocols include the mnemonic '''ABCDE''' or '''cABCDE''':* '''catastrophic bleeding''' (massive external bleeding, added in some protocols)*'''Airway''' (clearing airways)*'''Breathing''' (ensuring respiration)* '''Circulation''' (ensuring effective cardiac output)* '''Disability''' (neurological condition), and/or '''Defibrillation''' (cardio-respiratory failure, which can be also included as 'Breathing' or 'Circulation')* '''Exposure''' (overall examination, environment)A major benefit of these protocols is that they require minimum resources, time and skills with a great degree of success in saving lives under conditions unfavourable for applying first aid.=== ABCDE method ===Source:*'''Airway''' (clearing airways): If the patient responds in a normal voice, then the airway is patent.", "Airway obstruction can be partial or complete.", "Signs of a partially obstructed airway include a changed voice, noisy breathing (e.g., stridor), and an increased breathing effort.", "With a completely obstructed airway, there is no respiration despite great effort (i.e., paradox respiration, or \"see-saw\" sign).", "A reduced level of consciousness is a common cause of airway obstruction, partial or complete.", "A common sign of partial airway obstruction in the unconscious state is snoring.", "Untreated airway obstruction can rapidly lead to cardiac arrest.", "All health care professionals, regardless of the setting, can assess the airway as described and use a head-tilt and chin-lift maneuver to open the airway.", "With the proper equipment, suction of the airways to remove obstructions, for example, blood or vomit, is recommended.", "If possible, foreign bodies causing airway obstruction should be removed.", "In the event of a complete airway obstruction, treatment should be given according to current guidelines.", "In brief, first aid for conscious patients of choking uses anti-choking procedures (usually five back blows, alternating with five abdominal thrusts, or alternating with five chest thrusts in the case of the pregnant and the very obese victims, until the obstruction is relieved).", "If the victim becomes unconscious, it is required, according to guidelines, to call for help to emergency medical services and to any useful people that is near and to start cardiopulmonary resuscitation for unconscious victims of choking (attempting to extract the object, with extreme care, from time to time).", "In modern times, some commercial anti-choking devices have been invented to simplify the solution of choking.", "Importantly, high-flow oxygen should be provided to all critically ill persons as soon as possible.", "* '''Breathing''' (ensuring respiration): In all settings, it is possible to determine the respiratory rate, inspect movements of the thoracic wall for symmetry and use of auxiliary respiratory muscles, and percuss the chest for unilateral dullness or resonance.", "Cyanosis, distended neck veins, and lateralization of the trachea can be identified.", "If a stethoscope is available, lung auscultation should be performed and, if possible, a pulse oximeter should be applied.", "Tension pneumothorax must be relieved immediately by inserting a cannula where the second intercostal space crosses the midclavicular line (needle thoracocentesis).", "Bronchospasm should be treated with inhalations.", "If breathing is insufficient, assisted ventilation must be performed by giving rescue breaths with or without a barrier device.", "Trained personnel should use a bag mask if available.", "* '''Circulation''' (internal bleeding): The capillary refill time and pulse rate can be assessed in any setting.", "Inspection of the skin gives clues to circulatory problems.", "Color changes, sweating, and a decreased level of consciousness are signs of decreased perfusion.", "If a stethoscope is available, heart auscultation should be performed.", "Electrocardiography monitoring and blood pressure measurements should also be performed as soon as possible.", "Hypotension is an important adverse clinical sign.", "The effects of hypovolemia can be alleviated by placing the patient in the supine position and elevating the patient's legs.", "An intravenous access should be obtained as soon as possible and saline should be infused.", "* '''Disability''' (neurological condition): The level of consciousness can be rapidly assessed using the AVPU method, where the patient is graded as alert (A), voice responsive (V), pain responsive (P), or unresponsive (U).", "Alternatively, the Glasgow Coma Score can be used.16 Limb movements should be inspected to evaluate potential signs of lateralization.", "The best immediate treatment for patients with a primary cerebral condition is stabilization of the airway, breathing, and circulation.", "In particular, when the patient is only pain responsive or unresponsive, airway patency must be ensured, by placing the patient in the recovery position, and summoning personnel qualified to secure the airway.", "Ultimately, intubation may be required.", "Pupillary light reflexes should be evaluated and blood glucose measured.", "A decreased level of consciousness due to low blood glucose can be corrected quickly with oral or infused glucose.", "* '''Exposure''' (overall examination, environment): Signs of trauma, bleeding, skin reactions (rashes), needle marks, etc., must be observed.", "Bearing the dignity of the patient in mind, clothing should be removed to allow a thorough physical examination to be performed.", "Body temperature can be estimated by feeling the skin or using a thermometer when available." ], [ "Key skills", "In case of tongue fallen backwards, blocking the airway, it is necessary to hyperextend the head and pull up the chin, so that the tongue lifts and clears the airway.Certain skills are considered essential to the provision of first aid and are taught ubiquitously.", "Particularly the \"ABC\"s of first aid, which focus on critical life-saving intervention, must be rendered before treatment of less serious injuries.", "ABC stands for ''Airway'', ''Breathing'', and ''Circulation''.", "The same mnemonic is used by emergency health professionals.", "Attention must first be brought to the airway to ensure it is clear.", "An obstruction (choking) is a life-threatening emergency.", "If an object blocks the airway, it requires anti-choking procedures.", "Following any evaluation of the airway, a first aid attendant would determine adequacy of breathing and provide rescue breathing if necessary.Assessment of circulation is now not usually carried out for patients who are not breathing, with first aiders now trained to go straight to chest compressions (and thus providing artificial circulation) but pulse checks may be done on less serious patients.Some organizations add a fourth step of \"D\" for ''Deadly bleeding'' or ''Defibrillation'', while others consider this as part of the ''Circulation'' step simply referred as Disability.", "Variations on techniques to evaluate and maintain the ABCs depend on the skill level of the first aider.", "Once the ABCs are secured, first aiders can begin additional treatments or examination, as required if they possess the proper training (such as measuring pupil dilation).", "Some organizations teach the same order of priority using the \"3Bs\": ''Breathing'', ''Bleeding'', and ''Bones'' (or \"4Bs\": ''Breathing'', ''Bleeding'', ''Burns'', and ''Bones'').", "While the ABCs and 3Bs are taught to be performed sequentially, certain conditions may require the consideration of two steps simultaneously.", "This includes the provision of both artificial respiration and chest compressions to someone who is not breathing and has no pulse, and the consideration of cervical spine injuries when ensuring an open airway.Skills applicable to the wider context are reflected in the mnemonic '''AMEGA''', which refers to the tasks of \"assess\", \"make safe\", \"emergency aid\", \"get help\" and \"aftermath\".", "The aftermath tasks include recording and reporting, continued care of patients and the welfare of responders and the replacement of used first aid kit elements.=== Preserving life ===The patient must have an open airway—that is, an unobstructed passage that allows air to travel from the open mouth or uncongested nose, down through the pharynx and into the lungs.", "Conscious people maintain their own airway automatically, but those who are unconscious (with a GCS of less than 8) may be unable to do so, as the part of the brain that manages spontaneous breathing may not be functioning.Whether conscious or not, the patient may be placed in the recovery position, laying on their side.", "In addition to relaxing the patient, this can have the effect of clearing the tongue from the pharynx.", "It also avoids a common cause of death in unconscious patients, which is choking on regurgitated stomach contents.The airway can also become blocked by a foreign object.", "To dislodge the object and solve the choking case, the first aider may use anti-choking methods (such as 'back slaps' and 'abdominal thrusts').Once the airway has been opened, the first aider would reassess the patient's breathing.", "If there is no breathing, or the patient is not breathing normally (e.g., agonal breathing), the first aider would initiate CPR, which attempts to restart the patient's breathing by forcing air into the lungs.", "They may also manually massage the heart to promote blood flow around the body.If the choking person is an infant, the first aider may use anti-choking methods for babies.", "During that procedure, series of five strong blows are delivered on the infant's upper back after placing the infant's face in the aider's forearm.", "If the infant is able to cough or cry, no breathing assistance should be given.", "Chest thrusts can also be applied with two fingers on the lower half of the middle of the chest.", "Coughing and crying indicate the airway is open and the foreign object will likely to come out from the force the coughing or crying produces.A first responder should know how to use an Automatic External Defibrillator (AED) in the case of a person having a sudden cardiac arrest.", "The survival rate of those who have a cardiac arrest outside of the hospital is low.", "Permanent brain damage sets in after five minutes of no oxygen delivery, so rapid action on the part of the rescuer is necessary.", "An AED is a device that can examine a heartbeat and produce electric shocks to restart the heart.A first aider should be prepared to quickly deal with less severe problems such as cuts, grazes or bone fracture.", "They may be able to completely resolve a situation if they have the proper training and equipment.", "For situations that are more severe, complex or dangerous, a first aider might need to do the best they can with the equipment they have, and wait for an ambulance to arrive at the scene." ], [ "Training Principles", "First aid scenario training in progressBasic principles, such as knowing the use of adhesive bandage or applying direct pressure on a bleed, are often acquired passively through life experiences.", "However, to provide effective, life-saving first aid interventions requires instruction and practical training.", "This is especially true where it relates to potentially fatal illnesses and injuries, such as those that require CPR; these procedures may be invasive, and carry a risk of further injury to the patient and the provider.", "As with any training, it is more useful if it occurs ''before'' an actual emergency.", "And, in many countries, calling emergency medical services allows listening basic first aid instructions over the phone while the ambulance is on the way.Training is generally provided by attending a course, typically leading to certification.", "Due to regular changes in procedures and protocols, based on updated clinical knowledge, and to maintain skill, attendance at regular refresher courses or re-certification is often necessary.", "First aid training is often available through community organizations such as the Red Cross and St. John Ambulance, or through commercial providers, who will train people for a fee.", "This commercial training is most common for training of employees to perform first aid in their workplace.", "Many community organizations also provide a commercial service, which complements their community programmes.1.Junior level certificate Basic Life Support2.Senior level certificate3.Special certificate===Types of first aid which require training===A first aid boxThere are several types of first aid (and first aider) that require specific additional training.", "These are usually undertaken to fulfill the demands of the work or activity undertaken.", "* '''Aquatic/Marine first aid''' is usually practiced by professionals such as lifeguards, professional mariners or in diver rescue, and covers the specific problems which may be faced after water-based rescue or delayed MedEvac.", "* '''Battlefield first aid''' takes into account the specific needs of treating wounded combatants and non-combatants during armed conflict.", "* Conflict First Aid focuses on support for stability and recovery of personal, social, group or system well-being and to address circumstantial safety needs.", "Shown here is an example of a way for people to practice CPR in a safe and reliable manner.", "* '''Hyperbaric first aid''' may be practiced by underwater diving professionals, who need to treat conditions such as decompression sickness.", "*'''Oxygen first aid''' is the providing of oxygen to casualties with conditions resulting in hypoxia.", "It is also a standard first aid procedure for underwater diving incidents where gas bubble formation in the tissues is possible.", "*'''Wilderness first aid''' is the provision of first aid under conditions where the arrival of emergency responders or the evacuation of an injured person may be delayed due to constraints of terrain, weather, and available persons or equipment.", "It may be necessary to care for an injured person for several hours or days.", "*'''Mental health first aid''' is taught independently of physical first aid.", "How to support someone experiencing a mental health problem or in a crisis situation.", "Also how to identify the first signs of someone developing mental ill health and guide people towards appropriate help." ], [ "First aid services", "First aider of the British Red Cross accompanies parade of morris dancers at the Knutsford Royal May Day, Knutsford, Cheshire, England, 2012|thumbSome people undertake specific training in order to provide first aid at public or private events, during filming, or other places where people gather.", "They may be designated as a ''first aider'', or use some other title.", "This role may be undertaken on a voluntary basis, with organisations such as the Red Cross society and St. John Ambulance, or as paid employment with a medical contractor.People performing a first aid role, whether in a professional or voluntary capacity, are often expected to have a high level of first aid training and are often uniformed." ], [ "Symbols", "Although commonly associated with first aid, the symbol of a red cross is an official protective symbol of the Red Cross.", "According to the Geneva Conventions and other international laws, the use of this and similar symbols is reserved for official agencies of the '''International Red Cross and Red Crescent''', and as a protective emblem for medical personnel and facilities in combat situations.", "Use by any other person or organization is illegal, and may lead to prosecution.The internationally accepted symbol for first aid is the white cross on a green background shown below.Some organizations may make use of the Star of Life, although this is usually reserved for use by ambulance services, or may use symbols such as the Maltese Cross, like the Order of Malta Ambulance Corps and St John Ambulance.", "Other symbols may also be used.File:ISO 7010 E003 - First aid sign.svg|ISO First Aid SymbolFile:ISO 7010 E003 - Crescent Symbol.svg|ISO First Aid Symbol (Crescent variant)File:Flag of the Red Cross.svg|Emblem of the Red CrossFile:Flag of the Red Crescent.svg|Emblem of the Red CrescentFile:Flag of the Red Crystal.svg|Emblem of the Red CrystalFile:Maltese-Cross-Heraldry.svg|Maltese or Amalfi CrossFile:Star of life2.svg|Star of LifeFile:CivilDefence.svg|Civil defense" ], [ "Physical conditions that often require first aid", "* Altitude sickness, which can begin in susceptible people at altitudes as low as 5,000 feet, can cause potentially fatal swelling of the brain or lungs.", "* Anaphylaxis, a life-threatening condition in which the airway can become constricted and the patient may go into shock.", "The reaction can be caused by a systemic allergic reaction to allergens such as insect bites or peanuts.", "Anaphylaxis is initially treated with injection of epinephrine.", "* Battlefield first aid—This protocol refers to treating shrapnel, gunshot wounds, burns and bone fractures as seen either in the traditional battlefield setting or in an area subject to damage by large-scale weaponry, such as a bomb blast.", "* Bone fracture, a break in a bone initially treated by stabilizing the fracture with a splint.", "* Burns, which can result in damage to tissues and loss of body fluids through the burn site.", "* Cardiac Arrest, which will lead to death unless CPR preferably combined with an AED is started within minutes.", "Even calling to the emergency services, there is often no time to wait for them to arrive as 92 percent of people suffering a sudden cardiac arrest die before reaching hospital according to the American Heart Association.", "* Choking, blockage of the airway which can quickly result in death due to lack of oxygen if the patient's trachea is not cleared.", "If an object blocks the airway, it can be removed by the anti-choking techniques.", "* Childbirth.", "* Cramps in muscles due to lactic acid build up caused either by inadequate oxygenation of muscle or lack of water or salt.", "* Diving disorders, drowning or asphyxiation.", "* Dysmenorrhea and testicular torsion.", "* Heart attack, or inadequate blood flow to the blood vessels supplying the heart muscle.", "* Heat stroke, also known as sunstroke or hyperthermia, which tends to occur during heavy exercise in high humidity, or with inadequate water, though it may occur spontaneously in some chronically ill persons.", "Sunstroke, especially when the patient has been unconscious, often causes major damage to body systems such as brain, kidney, liver, gastric tract.", "Unconsciousness for more than two hours usually leads to permanent disability.", "Emergency treatment involves rapid cooling of the patient.", "* Hair tourniquet a condition where a hair or other thread becomes tied around a toe or finger tightly enough to cut off blood flow.", "* Heat syncope, another stage in the same process as heat stroke, occurs under similar conditions as heat stroke and is not distinguished from the latter by some authorities.", "* Heavy bleeding, treated by applying pressure (manually and later with a pressure bandage) to the wound site and elevating the limb if possible.", "* Hyperglycemia (diabetic coma) and Hypoglycemia (insulin shock).", "* Hypothermia, or Exposure, occurs when a person's core body temperature falls below 33.7 °C (92.6 °F).", "First aid for a mildly hypothermic patient includes rewarming, which can be achieved by wrapping the affected person in a blanket, and providing warm drinks, such as soup, and high energy food, such as chocolate.", "However, rewarming a severely hypothermic person could result in a fatal arrhythmia, an irregular heart rhythm.", "* Insect and animal bites and stings.", "* Joint dislocation.", "* Poisoning, which can occur by injection, inhalation, absorption, or ingestion.", "* Seizures, or a malfunction in the electrical activity in the brain.", "Three types of seizures include a grand mal (which usually features convulsions as well as temporary respiratory abnormalities, change in skin complexion, etc.)", "and petit mal (which usually features twitching, rapid blinking, or fidgeting as well as altered consciousness and temporary respiratory abnormalities).", "* Muscle strains and Sprains, a temporary dislocation of a joint that immediately reduces automatically but may result in ligament damage.", "* Stroke, a temporary loss of blood supply to the brain.", "*Shock and electric shock - electrical injury* Toothache, which can result in severe pain and loss of the tooth but is rarely life-threatening, unless over time the infection spreads into the bone of the jaw and starts osteomyelitis.", "* Wounds and bleeding, including lacerations, incisions and abrasions,*Gastrointestinal bleeding, avulsions and Sucking chest wounds, treated with an occlusive dressing to let air out but not in.Many accidents can happen in homes, offices, schools and laboratories which require immediate attention before the patient is attended by the doctor." ], [ "First aid kits", "A first aid kit consists of a strong, durable bag or transparent plastic box.", "They are commonly identified with a white cross on a green background.", "A first aid kit does not have to be bought ready-made.", "The advantage of ready-made first aid kits are that they have well organized compartments and familiar layouts.===Contents===There is no universal agreement upon the list for the contents of a first aid kit.", "The UK Health and Safety Executive stress that the contents of workplace first aid kits will vary according to the nature of the work activities.", "As an example of possible contents of a kit, British Standard BS 8599 ''First Aid Kits for the Workplace'' lists the following items:*Information leaflet*Medium sterile dressings*Large sterile dressings*Bandages*Triangular dressings*Safety pins*Adhesive dressings*Sterile wet wipes*Microporous tape*Nitrile gloves*Face shield*Foil blanket*Burn dressings*Clothing shears*Conforming bandages*Finger dressing*Antiseptic cream*Scissors*Tweezers*Cotton" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* First Aid Guide at the Mayo Clinic* First aid from the British Red Cross – including first aid tips and first aid training information* First aid from St John Ambulance – first aid information and advice" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Feudalism" ], [ "Introduction", "Investiture of a knight (miniature from the statutes of the Order of the Knot, founded in 1352 by Louis I of Naples)Orava Castle in Slovakia.", "A medieval castle is a traditional symbol of a feudal society.", "'''Feudalism''', also known as the '''feudal system''', was a combination of legal, economic, military, cultural, and political customs that flourished in medieval Europe between the 9th and 15th centuries.", "Broadly defined, it was a way of structuring society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour.", "The classic definition, by François Louis Ganshof (1944), describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations of the warrior nobility and revolved around the key concepts of lords, vassals, and fiefs.", "A broader definition, as described by Marc Bloch (1939), includes not only the obligations of the warrior nobility but the obligations of all three estates of the realm: the nobility, the clergy, and the peasantry, all of whom were bound by a system of manorialism; this is sometimes referred to as a \"feudal society\".", "Although it is derived from the Latin word ''feodum'' or ''feudum'' (fief), which was used during the Medieval period, the term ''feudalism'' and the system it describes were not conceived of as a formal political system by the people who lived during the Middle Ages.", "Since the publication of Elizabeth A. R. Brown's \"The Tyranny of a Construct\" (1974) and Susan Reynolds's ''Fiefs and Vassals'' (1994), there has been ongoing inconclusive discussion among medieval historians as to whether feudalism is a useful construct for understanding medieval society." ], [ "Definition", "There is no commonly accepted modern definition of feudalism, at least among scholars.", "The adjective ''feudal'' was in use by at least 1405, and the noun ''feudalism'' was in use by the end of the 18th century, paralleling the French .According to a classic definition by François Louis Ganshof (1944), feudalism describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations of the warrior nobility that revolved around the key concepts of lords, vassals and fiefs, though Ganshof himself noted that his treatment was only related to the \"narrow, technical, legal sense of the word.", "\"A broader definition, as described in Marc Bloch's ''Feudal Society'' (1939), includes not only the obligations of the warrior nobility but the obligations of all three estates of the realm: the nobility, the clergy, and those who lived off their labour, most directly the peasantry, which was bound by a system of manorialism.", "This order is often referred to as a ''feudal society'', echoing Bloch's usage.Outside its European context, the concept of feudalism is often used by analogy, most often in discussions of feudal Japan under the ''shoguns'', and sometimes in discussions of the Zagwe dynasty in medieval Ethiopia, which had some feudal characteristics (sometimes called \"semifeudal\").", "Some have taken the feudalism analogy further, seeing feudalism (or traces of it) in places as diverse as Spring and Autumn period China, ancient Egypt, the Parthian Empire, India until the Mughal dynasty and the Antebellum South and Jim Crow laws in the American South.The term ''feudalism'' has also been applied—often pejoratively—to non-Western societies where institutions and attitudes similar to those in medieval Europe are perceived to prevail.", "Some historians and political theorists believe that the term ''feudalism'' has been deprived of specific meaning by the many ways it has been used, leading them to reject it as a useful concept for understanding society.The applicability of the term feudalism has also been questioned in the context of some Central and Eastern European countries, such as Poland and Lithuania, with scholars observing that the medieval political and economic structure of those countries bears some, but not all, resemblances to the Western European societies commonly described as feudal." ], [ "Etymology", "Herr Reinmar von Zweter, a 13th-century Minnesinger, was depicted with his noble arms in Codex Manesse.The word ''feudal'' comes from the medieval Latin ''feudālis'', the adjectival form of ''feudum'' 'fee, feud', first attested in a charter of Charles the Fat in 884, which is related to Old French ''fé, fié,'' Provençal ''feo, feu, fieu,'' and Italian ''fio''.", "The ultimate origin of ''feudālis'' is unclear.", "It may come from a Germanic word, perhaps ''fehu'' or ''*fehôd'', but these words are not attested in this meaning in Germanic sources, or even in the Latin of the Frankish laws.One theory about the origin of ''fehu'' was proposed by Johan Hendrik Caspar Kern in 1870, being supported by, amongst others, William Stubbs and Marc Bloch.", "Kern derived the word from a putative Frankish term ''*fehu-ôd'', in which ''*fehu'' means \"cattle\" and ''-ôd'' means \"goods\", implying \"a movable object of value\".", "Bloch explains that by the beginning of the 10th century it was common to value land in monetary terms but to pay for it with objects of equivalent value, such as arms, clothing, horses or food.", "This was known as ''feos'', a term that took on the general meaning of paying for something in lieu of money.", "This meaning was then applied to land itself, in which land was used to pay for fealty, such as to a vassal.", "Thus the old word ''feos'' meaning movable property would have changed to ''feus'', meaning the exact opposite: landed property.Archibald Ross Lewis proposes that the origin of 'fief' is not ''feudum'' (or ''feodum''), but rather ''foderum'', the earliest attested use being in ''Vita Hludovici'' (840) by Astronomus.", "In that text is a passage about Louis the Pious that says , which can be translated as \"Louis forbade that military provender (which they popularly call \"fodder\") be furnished.", "\"Initially in medieval Latin European documents, a land grant in exchange for service was called a (Latin).", "Later, the term , or , began to replace in the documents.", "The first attested instance of this is from 984, although more primitive forms were seen up to one-hundred years earlier.", "The origin of the and why it replaced has not been well established, but there are multiple theories, described below.The term \"féodal\" was first used in 17th-century French legal treatises (1614) and translated into English legal treatises as an adjective, such as \"feodal government\".In the 18th century, Adam Smith, seeking to describe economic systems, effectively coined the forms \"feudal government\" and \"feudal system\" in his book ''The Wealth of Nations'' (1776).", "The phrase \"feudal system\" appeared in 1736, in ''Baronia Anglica'', published nine years after the death of its author Thomas Madox, in 1727.In 1771, in his book ''The History of Manchester'', John Whitaker first introduced the word \"feudalism\" and the notion of the feudal pyramid.Another theory by Alauddin Samarrai suggests an Arabic origin, from ''fuyū'' (the plural of ''fay'', which literally means \"the returned\", and was used especially for 'land that has been conquered from enemies that did not fight').", "Samarrai's theory is that early forms of 'fief' include ''feo'', ''feu'', ''feuz'', ''feuum'' and others, the plurality of forms strongly suggesting origins from a loanword.", "The first use of these terms is in Languedoc, one of the least Germanic areas of Europe and bordering Al-Andalus (Muslim Spain).", "Further, the earliest use of ''feuum'' (as a replacement for ''beneficium'') can be dated to 899, the same year a Muslim base at Fraxinetum (La Garde-Freinet) in Provence was established.", "It is possible, Samarrai says, that French scribes, writing in Latin, attempted to transliterate the Arabic word ''fuyū'' (the plural of ''fay''), which was used by the Muslim invaders and occupiers at the time, resulting in a plurality of forms – ''feo, feu, feuz, feuum'' and others—from which eventually ''feudum'' derived.", "Samarrai, however, also advises to handle this theory with care, as Medieval and Early Modern Muslim scribes often used etymologically \"fanciful roots\" to support outlandish claims that something was of Arabian or Muslim origin." ], [ "History", "Feudalism, in its various forms, usually emerged as a result of the decentralization of an empire: such as in the Carolingian Empire in the 9th century AD, which lacked the bureaucratic infrastructure necessary to support cavalry without allocating land to these mounted troops.", "Mounted soldiers began to secure a system of hereditary rule over their allocated land and their power over the territory came to encompass the social, political, judicial, and economic spheres.These acquired powers significantly diminished unitary power in these empires.", "However, once the infrastructure to maintain unitary power was re-established—as with the European monarchies—feudalism began to yield to this new power structure and eventually disappeared.=== Classic feudalism ===The classic François Louis Ganshof version of feudalism describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations of the warrior nobility based on the key concepts of lords, vassals, and fiefs.", "In broad terms a lord was a noble who held land, a vassal was a person granted possession of the land by the lord, and the land was known as a fief.", "In exchange for the use of the fief and protection by the lord, the vassal provided some sort of service to the lord.", "There were many varieties of feudal land tenure, consisting of military and non-military service.", "The obligations and corresponding rights between lord and vassal concerning the fief form the basis of the feudal relationship.=== Vassalage ===Homage of Clermont-en-BeauvaisisBefore a lord could grant land (a fief) to someone, he had to make that person a vassal.", "This was done at a formal and symbolic ceremony called a commendation ceremony, which was composed of the two-part act of homage and oath of fealty.", "During homage, the lord and vassal entered into a contract in which the vassal promised to fight for the lord at his command, whilst the lord agreed to protect the vassal from external forces.", "''Fealty'' comes from the Latin ''fidelitas'' and denotes the fidelity owed by a vassal to his feudal lord.", "\"Fealty\" also refers to an oath that more explicitly reinforces the commitments of the vassal made during homage.", "Such an oath follows homage.Once the commendation ceremony was complete, the lord and vassal were in a feudal relationship with agreed obligations to one another.", "The vassal's principal obligation to the lord was to provide aid or military service.", "Using whatever equipment the vassal could obtain by virtue of the revenues from the fief, the vassal had to answer calls to military service by the lord.", "This security of military help was the primary reason the lord entered into the feudal relationship.", "In addition, the vassal could have other obligations to his lord, such as attendance at his court, whether manorial, baronial, both termed court baron, or at the king's court.France in the late 15th century: a mosaic of feudal territoriesIt could also involve the vassal providing \"counsel\", so that if the lord faced a major decision he would summon all his vassals and hold a council.", "At the level of the manor this might be a fairly mundane matter of agricultural policy, but also included sentencing by the lord for criminal offences, including capital punishment in some cases.", "Concerning the king's feudal court, such deliberation could include the question of declaring war.", "These are examples of feudalism; depending on the period of time and location in Europe, feudal customs and practices varied.=== The feudal revolution in France ===In its origin, the feudal grant of land had been seen in terms of a personal bond between lord and vassal, but with time and the transformation of fiefs into hereditary holdings, the nature of the system came to be seen as a form of \"politics of land\" (an expression used by the historian Marc Bloch).", "The 11th century in France saw what has been called by historians a \"feudal revolution\" or \"mutation\" and a \"fragmentation of powers\" (Bloch) that was unlike the development of feudalism in England or Italy or in Germany in the same period or later: Counties and duchies began to break down into smaller holdings as castellans and lesser ''seigneurs'' took control of local lands, and (as comital families had done before them) lesser lords usurped/privatized a wide range of prerogatives and rights of the state, including travel dues, market dues, fees for using woodlands, obligations, use the lord's mill and, most importantly, the highly profitable rights of justice, etc.", "(what Georges Duby called collectively the \"''seigneurie banale''\").", "Power in this period became more personal.This \"fragmentation of powers\" was not, however, systematic throughout France, and in certain counties (such as Flanders, Normandy, Anjou, Toulouse), counts were able to maintain control of their lands into the 12th century or later.", "Thus, in some regions (like Normandy and Flanders), the vassal/feudal system was an effective tool for ducal and comital control, linking vassals to their lords; but in other regions, the system led to significant confusion, all the more so as vassals could and frequently did pledge themselves to two or more lords.", "In response to this, the idea of a \"liege lord\" was developed (where the obligations to one lord are regarded as superior) in the 12th century.===End of European feudalism (1500–1850s)===Around this time, rich, \"middle-class\" commoners chafed at the authority and powers held by feudal lords, overlords, and nobles, and preferred the idea of autocratic rule where a king and one royal court held almost all the power.", "Feudal nobles regardless of ethnicity generally thought of themselves as arbiters of a politically free system, so this often puzzled them before the fall of most feudal laws.Most of the military aspects of feudalism effectively ended by about 1500.This was partly since the military shifted from armies consisting of the nobility to professional fighters thus reducing the nobility's claim on power, but also because the Black Death reduced the nobility's hold over the lower classes.", "Vestiges of the feudal system hung on in France until the French Revolution of the 1790s.", "Even when the original feudal relationships had disappeared, there were many institutional remnants of feudalism left in place.", "Historian Georges Lefebvre explains how at an early stage of the French Revolution, on just one night of August 4, 1789, France abolished the long-lasting remnants of the feudal order.", "It announced, \"The National Assembly abolishes the feudal system entirely.\"", "Lefebvre explains:Originally the peasants were supposed to pay for the release of seigneurial dues; these dues affected more than a quarter of the farmland in France and provided most of the income of the large landowners.", "The majority refused to pay and in 1793 the obligation was cancelled.", "Thus the peasants got their land free, and also no longer paid the tithe to the church.In the Kingdom of France, following the French Revolution, feudalism was abolished with a decree of August 11, 1789 by the Constituent Assembly, a provision that was later extended to various parts of Italian kingdom following the invasion by French troops.", "In the Kingdom of Naples, Joachim Murat abolished feudalism with the law of August 2, 1806, then implemented with a law of September 1, 1806 and a royal decree of December 3, 1808.In the Kingdom of Sicily the abolishing law was issued by the Sicilian Parliament on August 10, 1812.In Piedmont feudalism ceased by virtue of the edicts of March 7, and July 19, 1797 issued by Charles Emmanuel IV, although in the Kingdom of Sardinia, specifically on the island of Sardinia, feudalism was abolished only with an edict of August 5, 1848.In the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, feudalism was abolished with the law of December 5, 1861 n.º 342 were all feudal bonds abolished.", "The system lingered on in parts of Central and Eastern Europe as late as the 1850s.", "Slavery in Romania was abolished in 1856.Russia finally abolished serfdom in 1861.More recently in Scotland, on November 28, 2004, the Abolition of Feudal Tenure etc.", "(Scotland) Act 2000 entered into full force putting an end to what was left of the Scottish feudal system.", "The last feudal regime, that of the island of Sark, was abolished in December 2008, when the first democratic elections were held for the election of a local parliament and the appointment of a government.", "The \"revolution\" is a consequence of the juridical intervention of the European Parliament, which declared the local constitutional system as contrary to human rights, and, following a series of legal battles, imposed parliamentary democracy." ], [ "Feudal society", "Depiction of socage on the royal demesne in feudal England, The phrase \"feudal society\" as defined by Marc Bloch offers a wider definition than Ganshof's and includes within the feudal structure not only the warrior aristocracy bound by vassalage, but also the peasantry bound by manorialism, and the estates of the Church.", "Thus the feudal order embraces society from top to bottom, though the \"powerful and well-differentiated social group of the urban classes\" came to occupy a distinct position to some extent outside the classic feudal hierarchy." ], [ "Historiography", "The idea of ''feudalism'' was unknown and the system it describes was not conceived of as a formal political system by the people living in the medieval period.", "This section describes the history of the idea of feudalism, how the concept originated among scholars and thinkers, how it changed over time, and modern debates about its use.=== Evolution of the concept ===The concept of a feudal state or period, in the sense of either a regime or a period dominated by lords who possess financial or social power and prestige, became widely held in the middle of the 18th century, as a result of works such as Montesquieu's (1748; published in English as ''The Spirit of Law''), and Henri de Boulainvilliers's (1737; published in English as ''An Historical Account of the Ancient Parliaments of France or States-General of the Kingdom'', 1739).", "In the 18th century, writers of the Enlightenment wrote about feudalism to denigrate the antiquated system of the , or French monarchy.", "This was the Age of Enlightenment, when writers valued reason and the Middle Ages were viewed as the \"Dark Ages\".", "Enlightenment authors generally mocked and ridiculed anything from the \"Dark Ages\" including feudalism, projecting its negative characteristics on the current French monarchy as a means of political gain.", "For them \"feudalism\" meant seigneurial privileges and prerogatives.", "When the French Constituent Assembly abolished the \"feudal regime\" in August 1789, this is what was meant.Adam Smith used the term \"feudal system\" to describe a social and economic system defined by inherited social ranks, each of which possessed inherent social and economic privileges and obligations.", "In such a system, wealth derived from agriculture, which was arranged not according to market forces but on the basis of customary labour services owed by serfs to landowning nobles.=== Karl Marx ===Karl Marx also uses the term in the 19th century in his analysis of society's economic and political development, describing feudalism (or more usually feudal society or the feudal mode of production) as the order coming before capitalism.", "For Marx, what defined feudalism was the power of the ruling class (the aristocracy) in their control of arable land, leading to a class society based upon the exploitation of the peasants who farm these lands, typically under serfdom and principally by means of labour, produce and money rents.", "He deemed feudalism a 'democracy of unfreedom', juxtaposing the oppression of feudal subjects with a holistic integration of political and economic life of the sort lacking under industrial capitalism.He also took it as a paradigm for understanding the power-relationships between capitalists and wage-labourers in his own time: \"in pre-capitalist systems it was obvious that most people did not control their own destiny—under feudalism, for instance, serfs had to work for their lords.", "Capitalism seems different because people are in theory free to work for themselves or for others as they choose.", "Yet most workers have as little control over their lives as feudal serfs.\"", "Some later Marxist theorists (e.g.", "Eric Wolf) have applied this label to include non-European societies, grouping feudalism together with imperial China and the Inca Empire, in the pre-Columbian era, as 'tributary' societies .=== Later studies ===In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, J. Horace Round and Frederic William Maitland, both historians of medieval Britain, arrived at different conclusions about the character of Anglo-Saxon English society before the Norman Conquest in 1066.Round argued that the Normans had brought feudalism with them to England, while Maitland contended that its fundamentals were already in place in Britain before 1066.The debate continues today, but a consensus viewpoint is that England before the Conquest had commendation (which embodied some of the personal elements in feudalism) while William the Conqueror introduced a modified and stricter northern French feudalism to England incorporating (1086) oaths of loyalty to the king by all who held by feudal tenure, even the vassals of his principal vassals (holding by feudal tenure meant that vassals must provide the quota of knights required by the king or a money payment in substitution).In the 20th century, two outstanding historians offered still more widely differing perspectives.", "The French historian Marc Bloch, arguably the most influential 20th-century medieval historian, approached feudalism not so much from a legal and military point of view but from a sociological one, presenting in ''Feudal Society'' (1939; English 1961) a feudal order not limited solely to the nobility.", "It is his radical notion that peasants were part of the feudal relationship that sets Bloch apart from his peers: while the vassal performed military service in exchange for the fief, the peasant performed physical labour in return for protection – both are a form of feudal relationship.", "According to Bloch, other elements of society can be seen in feudal terms; all the aspects of life were centred on \"lordship\", and so we can speak usefully of a feudal church structure, a feudal courtly (and anti-courtly) literature, and a feudal economy.In contradistinction to Bloch, the Belgian historian François Louis Ganshof defined feudalism from a narrow legal and military perspective, arguing that feudal relationships existed only within the medieval nobility itself.", "Ganshof articulated this concept in ''Qu'est-ce que la féodalité?''", "(\"What is feudalism?", "\", 1944; translated in English as ''Feudalism'').", "His classic definition of feudalism is widely accepted today among medieval scholars, though questioned both by those who view the concept in wider terms and by those who find insufficient uniformity in noble exchanges to support such a model.Although Georges Duby was never formally a student in the circle of scholars around Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre, that came to be known as the Annales school, Duby was an exponent of the tradition.", "In a published version of his 1952 doctoral thesis entitled (''Society in the 11th and 12th centuries in the Mâconnais region''), and working from the extensive documentary sources surviving from the Burgundian monastery of Cluny, as well as the dioceses of Mâcon and Dijon, Duby excavated the complex social and economic relationships among the individuals and institutions of the Mâconnais region and charted a profound shift in the social structures of medieval society around the year 1000.He argued that in early 11th century, governing institutions—particularly comital courts established under the Carolingian monarchy—that had represented public justice and order in Burgundy during the 9th and 10th centuries receded and gave way to a new feudal order wherein independent aristocratic knights wielded power over peasant communities through strong-arm tactics and threats of violence.In 1939, the Austrian historian subordinated the feudal state as secondary to his concept of a ''Personenverbandsstaat'' (personal interdependency state), understanding it in contrast to the territorial state.", "This form of statehood, identified with the Holy Roman Empire, is described as the most complete form of medieval rule, completing conventional feudal structure of lordship and vassalage with the personal association between the nobility.", "But the applicability of this concept to cases outside of the Holy Roman Empire has been questioned, as by Susan Reynolds.", "The concept has also been questioned and superseded in German historiography because of its bias and reductionism towards legitimating the .=== Challenges to the feudal model ===In 1974, the American historian Elizabeth A. R. Brown rejected the label ''feudalism'' as an anachronism that imparts a false sense of uniformity to the concept.", "Having noted the current use of many, often contradictory, definitions of ''feudalism'', she argued that the word is only a construct with no basis in medieval reality, an invention of modern historians read back \"tyrannically\" into the historical record.", "Supporters of Brown have suggested that the term should be expunged from history textbooks and lectures on medieval history entirely.", "In ''Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted'' (1994), Susan Reynolds expanded upon Brown's original thesis.", "Although some contemporaries questioned Reynolds's methodology, other historians have supported it and her argument.", "Reynolds argues:The term ''feudal'' has also been applied to non-Western societies, in which institutions and attitudes similar to those of medieval Europe are perceived to have prevailed (see Examples of feudalism).", "Japan has been extensively studied in this regard.", "Karl Friday notes that in the 21st century historians of Japan rarely invoke feudalism; instead of looking at similarities, specialists attempting comparative analysis concentrate on fundamental differences.", "Ultimately, critics say, the many ways the term ''feudalism'' has been used have deprived it of specific meaning, leading some historians and political theorists to reject it as a useful concept for understanding society.Historian Richard Abels notes that \"Western civilization and world civilization textbooks now shy away from the term 'feudalism'.\"" ], [ "See also", "=== General ===* Barons in Scotland* Bastard feudalism* Cestui que* English feudal barony* Feudal baron* Feudal duties* List of feudal wars 12th–14th century* Investiture* Lehnsmann* Majorat* Neo-feudalism* ''Nulle terre sans seigneur''* Protofeudalism* Quia Emptores* Statutes of Mortmain* Suzerainty* Vassal state* Ziamet=== Non-European ===* Fengjian (Chinese)* Feudalism in Pakistan* Hacienda* Indian feudalism* Mandala (political model)*Sakdina, a Thai feudal system* Samanta, an Indian feudal system* Small castes* Zemene Mesafint" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bloch, Marc, ''Feudal Society.''", "Tr.", "L.A. Manyon.", "Two volumes.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961..* * Guerreau, Alain, ''L'avenir d'un passé incertain.''", "Paris: Le Seuil, 2001 (complete history of the meaning of the term).", "* Poly, Jean-Pierre and Bournazel, Eric, ''The Feudal Transformation, 900–1200.", "'', Tr.", "Caroline Higgitt.", "New York and London: Holmes and Meier, 1991.", "* Reynolds, Susan, ''Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted.''", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994..===Historiographical works===* * * * * === End of feudalism ===* * * ; compares Europe and Japan.", "* * ==== France ====* Herbert, Sydney.", "''The Fall of Feudalism in France'' (1921) full text online free.", "* Mackrell, John Quentin Colborne.", "''The Attack on Feudalism in Eighteenth-century France'' (Routledge, 2013).", "* Markoff, John.", "''Abolition of Feudalism: Peasants, Lords, and Legislators in the French Revolution'' (Penn State Press, 2010).", "* === Global Health ===* Keshri VR, Bhaumik S (2022) .", "The feudal structure of global health and its implications for decolonisation .", "BMJ Global Health Available online https://gh.bmj.com/content/7/9/e010603" ], [ "External links", "* \"Feudalism\", by Elizabeth A. R. Brown.", "''Encyclopædia Britannica Online''.", "* \"Feudalism?\"", ", by Paul Halsall.", "Internet Medieval Sourcebook.", "* \"Feudalism: the history of an idea\", by Fredric Cheyette (Amherst), excerpted from ''New Dictionary of the History of Ideas'' (2004)* ''Medieval Feudalism'', by Carl Stephenson.", "Cornell University Press, 1942.Classic introduction to Feudalism.", "* , by Robert Harbison, 1996, Western Kentucky University." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fox" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Foxes''' are small to medium-sized, omnivorous mammals belonging to several genera of the family Canidae.", "They have a flattened skull, upright, triangular ears, a pointed, slightly upturned snout, and a long bushy tail (\"brush\").Twelve species belong to the monophyletic \"true fox\" group of genus ''Vulpes''.", "Approximately another 25 current or extinct species are always or sometimes called foxes; these foxes are either part of the paraphyletic group of the South American foxes, or of the outlying group, which consists of the bat-eared fox, gray fox, and island fox.Foxes live on every continent except Antarctica.", "The most common and widespread species of fox is the red fox (''Vulpes vulpes'') with about 47 recognized subspecies.", "The global distribution of foxes, together with their widespread reputation for cunning, has contributed to their prominence in popular culture and folklore in many societies around the world.", "The hunting of foxes with packs of hounds, long an established pursuit in Europe, especially in the British Isles, was exported by European settlers to various parts of the New World." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''fox'' comes from Old English, which derived from Proto-Germanic *''fuhsaz''.", "This in turn derives from Proto-Indo-European *''puḱ-'', meaning 'thick-haired; tail'.", "Male foxes are known as dogs, tods or reynards, females as vixens, and young as cubs, pups, or kits, though the last name is not to be confused with a distinct species called kit foxes.", "Vixen is one of very few words in modern English that retain the Middle English southern dialect \"v\" pronunciation instead of \"f\" (i.e.", "northern English \"fox\" versus southern English \"vox\").", "A group of foxes is referred to as a skulk, leash, or earth." ], [ "Phylogenetic relationships", "Comparative illustration of skulls of a true fox (left) and gray fox (right), with differing temporal ridges and subangular lobes indicatedWithin the Canidae, the results of DNA analysis shows several phylogenetic divisions:* The fox-like canids, which include the kit fox (''Vulpes velox''), red fox (''Vulpes vulpes''), Cape fox (''Vulpes chama''), Arctic fox (''Vulpes lagopus''), and fennec fox (''Vulpes zerda'').", "* The wolf-like canids, (genus ''Canis'', ''Cuon'' and ''Lycaon'') including the dog ''(Canis lupus familiaris)'', gray wolf (''Canis lupus''), red wolf (''Canis rufus''), eastern wolf (''Canis lycaon''), coyote (''Canis latrans''), golden jackal (''Canis aureus''), Ethiopian wolf (''Canis simensis''), black-backed jackal (''Canis mesomelas''), side-striped jackal (''Canis adustus''), dhole (''Cuon alpinus''), and African wild dog (''Lycaon pictus'').", "* The South American canids, including the bush dog (''Speothos venaticus''), hoary fox (''Lycalopex uetulus''), crab-eating fox (''Cerdocyon thous'') and maned wolf (''Chrysocyon brachyurus'').", "* Various monotypic taxa, including the bat-eared fox (''Otocyon megalotis''), gray fox (''Urocyon cinereoargenteus''), and raccoon dog (''Nyctereutes procyonoides'')." ], [ "Biology", "Fox skeleton===General morphology===Foxes are generally smaller than some other members of the family Canidae such as wolves and jackals, while they may be larger than some within the family, such as raccoon dogs.", "In the largest species, the red fox, males weigh on average between , while the smallest species, the fennec fox, weighs just .Fox features typically include a triangular face, pointed ears, an elongated rostrum, and a bushy tail.", "They are digitigrade (meaning they walk on their toes).", "Unlike most members of the family Canidae, foxes have partially retractable claws.", "Fox vibrissae, or whiskers, are black.", "The whiskers on the muzzle, known as mystacial vibrissae, average long, while the whiskers everywhere else on the head average to be shorter in length.", "Whiskers (carpal vibrissae) are also on the forelimbs and average long, pointing downward and backward.", "Other physical characteristics vary according to habitat and adaptive significance.===Pelage===Fox species differ in fur color, length, and density.", "Coat colors range from pearly white to black-and-white to black flecked with white or grey on the underside.", "Fennec foxes (and other species of fox adapted to life in the desert, such as kit foxes), for example, have large ears and short fur to aid in keeping the body cool.", "Arctic foxes, on the other hand, have tiny ears and short limbs as well as thick, insulating fur, which aid in keeping the body warm.", "Red foxes, by contrast, have a typical auburn pelt, the tail normally ending with a white marking.A fox's coat color and texture may vary due to the change in seasons; fox pelts are richer and denser in the colder months and lighter in the warmer months.", "To get rid of the dense winter coat, foxes moult once a year around April; the process begins from the feet, up the legs, and then along the back.", "Coat color may also change as the individual ages.===Dentition===A fox's dentition, like all other canids, is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 3/2 = 42.", "(Bat-eared foxes have six extra molars, totalling in 48 teeth.)", "Foxes have pronounced carnassial pairs, which is characteristic of a carnivore.", "These pairs consist of the upper premolar and the lower first molar, and work together to shear tough material like flesh.", "Foxes' canines are pronounced, also characteristic of a carnivore, and are excellent in gripping prey.===Behaviour===Arctic fox curled up in snowIn the wild, the typical lifespan of a fox is one to three years, although individuals may live up to ten years.", "Unlike many canids, foxes are not always pack animals.", "Typically, they live in small family groups, but some (such as Arctic foxes) are known to be solitary.Foxes are omnivores.", "Their diet is made up primarily of invertebrates such as insects and small vertebrates such as reptiles and birds.", "They may also eat eggs and vegetation.", "Many species are generalist predators, but some (such as the crab-eating fox) have more specialized diets.", "Most species of fox consume around of food every day.", "Foxes cache excess food, burying it for later consumption, usually under leaves, snow, or soil.", "While hunting, foxes tend to use a particular pouncing technique, such that they crouch down to camouflage themselves in the terrain and then use their hind legs to leap up with great force and land on top of their chosen prey.", "Using their pronounced canine teeth, they can then grip the prey's neck and shake it until it is dead or can be readily disemboweled.The gray fox is one of only two canine species known to regularly climb trees; the other is the raccoon dog.===Sexual characteristics===Mating white-footed foxesThe male fox's scrotum is held up close to the body with the testes inside even after they descend.", "Like other canines, the male fox has a baculum, or penile bone.", "The testes of red foxes are smaller than those of Arctic foxes.", "Sperm formation in red foxes begins in August–September, with the testicles attaining their greatest weight in December–February.Vixens are in heat for one to six days, making their reproductive cycle twelve months long.", "As with other canines, the ova are shed during estrus without the need for the stimulation of copulating.", "Once the egg is fertilized, the vixen enters a period of gestation that can last from 52 to 53 days.", "Foxes tend to have an average litter size of four to five with an 80 percent success rate in becoming pregnant.", "Litter sizes can vary greatly according to species and environmentthe Arctic fox, for example, can have up to eleven kits.The vixen usually has six or eight mammae.", "Each teat has 8 to 20 lactiferous ducts, which connect the mammary gland to the nipple, allowing for milk to be carried to the nipple.===Vocalization===The fox's vocal repertoire is vast, and includes:;Whine: Made shortly after birth.", "Occurs at a high rate when kits are hungry and when their body temperatures are low.", "Whining stimulates the mother to care for her young; it also has been known to stimulate the male fox into caring for his mate and kits.", ";Yelp: Made about 19 days later.", "The kits' whining turns into infantile barks, yelps, which occur heavily during play.", ";Explosive call: At the age of about one month, the kits can emit an explosive call which is intended to be threatening to intruders or other cubs; a high-pitched howl.", ";Combative call: In adults, the explosive call becomes an open-mouthed combative call during any conflict; a sharper bark.", ";Growl: An adult fox's indication to their kits to feed or head to the adult's location.", ";Bark: Adult foxes warn against intruders and in defense by barking.In the case of domesticated foxes, the whining seems to remain in adult individuals as a sign of excitement and submission in the presence of their owners." ], [ "Classification", "Canids commonly known as foxes include the following genera and species: Genus Species Picture ''Canis'' Ethiopian wolf, sometimes called the Simien fox or Simien jackal Ethiopian wolf, native to the Ethiopian highlands ''Cerdocyon'' Crab-eating fox Crab-eating fox, a South American species † ''Dusicyon'' Extinct genus, including the Falkland Islands wolf, sometimes known as the Falklands Islands fox Falkland Islands wolf Illustration by John Gerrard Keulemans (1842–1912) ''Lycalopex'' *Culpeo or Andean fox*Darwin's fox*South American gray fox*Pampas fox*Sechuran fox*Hoary fox A pampas fox in Departamento de Flores, Uruguay ''Otocyon'' Bat-eared fox Bat-eared fox in Kenya ''Urocyon'' * Gray fox* Island fox* Cozumel fox (undescribed) Gray fox (''Urocyon cinereoargenteus''), in Midtown, Palo Alto, California ''Vulpes'' *Arctic fox*Bengal fox*Blanford's fox*Cape fox*Corsac fox*Fennec fox*Kit fox*Pale fox*Rüppell's fox*Red fox*Swift fox*Tibetan sand fox The fennec fox is the smallest species of foxRed fox" ], [ "Conservation", "The island fox is a near-threatened species.Several fox species are endangered in their native environments.", "Pressures placed on foxes include habitat loss and being hunted for pelts, other trade, or control.", "Due in part to their opportunistic hunting style and industriousness, foxes are commonly resented as nuisance animals.", "Contrastingly, foxes, while often considered pests themselves, have been successfully employed to control pests on fruit farms while leaving the fruit intact.===''Urocyon littoralis''===The island fox, though considered a near-threatened species throughout the world, is becoming increasingly endangered in its endemic environment of the California Channel Islands.", "A population on an island is smaller than those on the mainland because of limited resources like space, food and shelter.", "Island populations are therefore highly susceptible to external threats ranging from introduced predatory species and humans to extreme weather.On the California Channel Islands, it was found that the population of the island fox was so low due to an outbreak of canine distemper virus from 1999 to 2000 as well as predation by non-native golden eagles.", "Since 1993, the eagles have caused the population to decline by as much as 95%.", "Because of the low number of foxes, the population went through an Allee effect (an effect in which, at low enough densities, an individual's fitness decreases).", "Conservationists had to take healthy breeding pairs out of the wild population to breed them in captivity until they had enough foxes to release back into the wild.", "Nonnative grazers were also removed so that native plants would be able to grow back to their natural height, thereby providing adequate cover and protection for the foxes against golden eagles.===''Pseudalopex fulvipes''===Darwin's fox was considered critically endangered because of their small known population of 250 mature individuals as well as their restricted distribution.", "However, the IUCN have since downgraded the conservation status from crictically endangered in their 2004 and 2008 assessments to endangered in the 2016 assessment, following findings of a wider distribution than previously reported.", "On the Chilean mainland, the population is limited to Nahuelbuta National Park and the surrounding Valdivian rainforest.", "Similarly on Chiloé Island, their population is limited to the forests that extend from the southernmost to the northwesternmost part of the island.", "Though the Nahuelbuta National Park is protected, 90% of the species live on Chiloé Island.A major issue the species faces is their dwindling, limited habitat due to the cutting and burning of the unprotected forests.", "Because of deforestation, the Darwin's fox habitat is shrinking, allowing for their competitor's (chilla fox) preferred habitat of open space, to increase; the Darwin's fox, subsequently, is being outcompeted.", "Another problem they face is their inability to fight off diseases transmitted by the increasing number of pet dogs.", "To conserve these animals, researchers suggest the need for the forests that link the Nahuelbuta National Park to the coast of Chile and in turn Chiloé Island and its forests, to be protected.", "They also suggest that other forests around Chile be examined to determine whether Darwin's foxes have previously existed there or can live there in the future, should the need to reintroduce the species to those areas arise.", "And finally, the researchers advise for the creation of a captive breeding program, in Chile, because of the limited number of mature individuals in the wild." ], [ "Relationships with humans", "A red fox on the porch of a houseDead foxes in CarbunupFoxes are often considered pests or nuisance creatures for their opportunistic attacks on poultry and other small livestock.", "Fox attacks on humans are not common.Many foxes adapt well to human environments, with several species classified as \"resident urban carnivores\" for their ability to sustain populations entirely within urban boundaries.", "Foxes in urban areas can live longer and can have smaller litter sizes than foxes in non-urban areas.", "Urban foxes are ubiquitous in Europe, where they show altered behaviors compared to non-urban foxes, including increased population density, smaller territory, and pack foraging.", "Foxes have been introduced in numerous locations, with varying effects on indigenous flora and fauna.In some countries, foxes are major predators of rabbits and hens.", "Population oscillations of these two species were the first nonlinear oscillation studied and led to the derivation of the Lotka–Volterra equation.===Hunting===Fox hunting originated in the United Kingdom in the 16th century.", "Hunting with dogs is now banned in the United Kingdom, though hunting without dogs is still permitted.", "Red foxes were introduced into Australia in the early 19th century for sport, and have since become widespread through much of the country.", "They have caused population decline among many native species and prey on livestock, especially new lambs.", "Fox hunting is practiced as recreation in several other countries including Canada, France, Ireland, Italy, Russia, United States and Australia.===Domestication===A tame fox in Talysarn, WalesThere are many records of domesticated red foxes and others, but rarely of sustained domestication.", "A recent and notable exception is the Russian silver fox, which resulted in visible and behavioral changes, and is a case study of an animal population modeling according to human domestication needs.", "The current group of domesticated silver foxes are the result of nearly fifty years of experiments in the Soviet Union and Russia to domesticate the silver morph of the red fox.", "This selective breeding resulted in physical and behavioral traits appearing that are frequently seen in domestic cats, dogs, and other animals, such as pigmentation changes, floppy ears, and curly tails.", "Notably, the new foxes became more tame, allowing themselves to be petted, whimpering to get attention and sniffing and licking their caretakers.===Urban settings===Foxes are among the comparatively few mammals which have been able to adapt themselves to a certain degree to living in urban (mostly suburban) human environments.", "Their omnivorous diet allows them to survive on discarded food waste, and their skittish and often nocturnal nature means that they are often able to avoid detection, despite their larger size.Urban foxes have been identified as threats to cats and small dogs, and for this reason there is often pressure to exclude them from these environments.The San Joaquin kit fox is a highly endangered species that has, ironically, become adapted to urban living in the San Joaquin Valley and Salinas Valley of southern California.", "Its diet includes mice, ground squirrels, rabbits, hares, bird eggs, and insects, and it has claimed habitats in open areas, golf courses, drainage basins, and school grounds.Though rare, bites by foxes have been reported; in 2018, a woman in Clapham, London was bitten on the arm by a fox after she had left the door to her flat open.===In popular culture===Plate in the shape of two peaches depicting two foxes, Tang dynastyThe fox appears in many cultures, usually in folklore.", "There are slight variations in their depictions.", "In Western and Persian folklore, foxes are symbols of cunning and trickery—a reputation derived especially from their reputed ability to evade hunters.", "This is usually represented as a character possessing these traits.", "These traits are used on a wide variety of characters, either making them a nuisance to the story, a misunderstood hero, or a devious villain.In Asian folklore, foxes are depicted as familiar spirits possessing magic powers.", "Similar to in Western folklore, foxes are portrayed as mischievous, usually tricking other people, with the ability to disguise as an attractive female human.", "Others depict them as mystical, sacred creatures who can bring wonder and/or ruin.", "Nine-tailed foxes appear in Chinese folklore, literature, and mythology, in which, depending on the tale, they can be a good or a bad omen.", "The motif was eventually introduced from Chinese to Japanese and Korean cultures.The constellation Vulpecula represents a fox." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC Wales Nature: Fox videos* The fox website*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Foundationalism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Foundationalism''' concerns philosophical theories of knowledge resting upon non-inferential justified belief, or some secure foundation of certainty such as a conclusion inferred from a basis of sound premises.", "The main rival of the '''foundationalist theory of justification''' is the coherence theory of justification, whereby a body of knowledge, not requiring a secure foundation, can be established by the interlocking strength of its components, like a puzzle solved without prior certainty that each small region was solved correctly.Identifying the alternatives as either circular reasoning or infinite regress, and thus exhibiting the regress problem, Aristotle made foundationalism his own clear choice, positing basic beliefs underpinning others.", "Descartes, the most famed foundationalist, discovered a foundation in the fact of his own existence and in the \"clear and distinct\" ideas of reason, whereas Locke found a foundation in experience.", "Differing foundations may reflect differing epistemological emphases—empiricists emphasizing ''experience'', rationalists emphasizing ''reason''—but may blend both.In the 1930s, debate over foundationalism revived.", "Whereas Moritz Schlick viewed scientific knowledge like a pyramid where a special class of statements does not require verification through other beliefs and serves as a foundation, Otto Neurath argued that scientific knowledge lacks an ultimate foundation and acts like a raft.", "In the 1950s, foundationalism fell into decline – largely due to the influence of Willard Van Orman Quine, whose ontological relativity found any belief networked to one's beliefs on all of reality, while auxiliary beliefs somewhere in the vast network are readily modified to protect desired beliefs.Classically, foundationalism had posited infallibility of basic beliefs and deductive reasoning between beliefs—a strong foundationalism.", "Around 1975, weak foundationalism emerged.", "Thus recent foundationalists have variously allowed fallible basic beliefs, and inductive reasoning between them, either by enumerative induction or by inference to the best explanation.", "And whereas internalists require cognitive access to justificatory means, externalists find justification without such access." ], [ "History", "Foundationalism was initiated by French early modern philosopher René Descartes.", "In his ''Meditations'', Descartes challenged the contemporary principles of philosophy by arguing that everything he knew he learnt from or through his senses.", "He used various arguments to challenge the reliability of the senses, citing previous errors and the possibilities that he was dreaming or being deceived by an Evil Demon which rendered all of his beliefs about the external world false.", "Descartes attempted to establish the secure foundations for knowledge to avoid scepticism.", "He contrasted the information provided by senses, which is unclear and uncertain, with the truths of geometry, which are clear and distinct.", "Geometrical truths are also certain and indubitable; Descartes thus attempted to find truths which were clear and distinct because they would be indubitably true and a suitable foundation for knowledge.", "His method was to question all of his beliefs until he reached something clear and distinct that was indubitably true.", "The result was his ''cogito ergo sum'' – 'I think therefore I am', or the belief that he was thinking – as his indubitable belief suitable as a foundation for knowledge.", "This resolved Descartes' problem of the Evil Demon.", "Even if his beliefs about the external world were false, his beliefs about what he was experiencing were still indubitably true, even if those perceptions do not relate to anything in the world.Several other philosophers of the early modern period, including John Locke, G. W. Leibniz, George Berkeley, David Hume, and Thomas Reid, accepted foundationalism as well.", "Baruch Spinoza was interpreted as metaphysical foundationalist by G. W. F. Hegel, a proponent of coherentism.", "Immanuel Kant's foundationalism rests on his theory of categories.In late modern philosophy, foundationalism was defended by J. G. Fichte in his book ''Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschaftslehre'' (1794/1795), Wilhelm Windelband in his book ''Über die Gewißheit der Erkenntniss.''", "(1873), and Gottlob Frege in his book ''Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik'' (1884).In contemporary philosophy, foundationalism has been defended by Edmund Husserl, Bertrand Russell and John McDowell." ], [ "Definition", "Foundationalism is an attempt to respond to the regress problem of justification in epistemology.", "According to this argument, every proposition requires justification to support it, but any justification also needs to be justified itself.", "If this goes on ''ad infinitum'', it is not clear how anything in the chain could be justified.", "Foundationalism holds that there are 'basic beliefs' which serve as foundations to anchor the rest of our beliefs.", "Strong versions of the theory assert that an indirectly justified belief is completely justified by basic beliefs; more moderate theories hold that indirectly justified beliefs require basic beliefs to be justified, but can be further justified by other factors.Since ancient Greece, Western philosophy has pursued a solid foundation as the ultimate and eternal reference system for all knowledge.", "This foundation serves not only as a starting point but also as the fundamental basis for understanding the truth of existence.", "Thinking is the process of proving the validity of knowledge, not proving the rationality of the foundation from which knowledge is shaped.", "This means, with ultimate cause, the foundation is true, absolute, entire and impossible to prove.", "Neopragmatist philosopher Richard Rorty, a proponent of anti-foundationalism, said that the fundamentalism confirmed the existence of the ''privileged representation'' which constitutes the foundation, from which dominates epistemology.", "The earliest foundationalism is Plato's theory of Forms, which shows the general concept as a model for the release of existence, which is only the faint copy of the Forms of eternity, that means, understanding the expression of objects leads to acquiring all knowledge, then acquiring knowledge accompanies achieving the truth.", "Achieving the truth means understanding the foundation.", "This idea still has some appeal in for example international relations studies.===Classical foundationalism===Foundationalism holds basic beliefs exist, which are justified without reference to other beliefs, and that nonbasic beliefs must ultimately be justified by basic beliefs.", "Classical foundationalism maintains that basic beliefs must be infallible if they are to justify nonbasic beliefs, and that only deductive reasoning can be used to transfer justification from one belief to another.", "Laurence BonJour has argued that the classical formulation of foundationalism requires basic beliefs to be infallible, incorrigible, indubitable, and certain if they are to be adequately justified.", "Mental states and immediate experience are often taken as good candidates for basic beliefs because it is argued that beliefs about these do not need further support to be justified.===Modest foundationalism===As an alternative to the classic view, modest foundationalism does not require that basic perceptual beliefs are infallible, but holds that it is reasonable to assume that perceptual beliefs are justified unless evidence to the contrary exists.", "This is still foundationalism because it maintains that all non-basic beliefs must be ultimately justified by basic beliefs, but it does not require that basic beliefs are infallible and allows inductive reasoning as an acceptable form of inference.", "For example, a belief that 'I see red' could be defeated with psychological evidence showing my mind to be confused or inattentive.", "Modest foundationalism can also be used to avoid the problem of inference.", "Even if perceptual beliefs are infallible, it is not clear that they can infallibly ground empirical knowledge (even if my belief that the table looks red to me is infallible, the inference to the belief that the table actually is red might not be infallible).", "Modest foundationalism does not require this link between perception and reality to be so strong; our perception of a table being yellow is adequate justification to believe that this is the case, even if it is not infallible.Reformed epistemology is a form of modest foundationalism which takes religious beliefs as basic because they are non-inferentially justified: their justification arises from religious experience, rather than prior beliefs.", "This takes a modest approach to foundationalism – religious beliefs are not taken to be infallible, but are assumed to be ''prima facie'' justified unless evidence arises to the contrary.===Internalism and externalism===Foundationalism can take internalist and externalist forms.", "Internalism requires that a believer's justification for a belief must be accessible to them for it to be justified.", "Foundationalist internalists have held that basic beliefs are justified by mental events or states, such as experiences, that do not constitute beliefs.", "Alternatively, basic beliefs may be justified by some special property of the belief itself, such as its being self-evident or infallible.", "Externalism maintains that it is unnecessary for the means of justification of a belief to be accessible to the believer.Reliabilism is an externalist foundationalist theory, initially proposed by Alvin Goldman, which argues that a belief is justified if it is reliably produced, meaning that it will be probably true.", "Goldman distinguished between two kinds of justification for beliefs: belief-dependent and belief-independent.", "A belief-dependent process uses prior beliefs to produce new beliefs; a belief-independent process does not, using other stimuli instead.", "Beliefs produced this way are justified because the processes that cause them are reliable; this might be because we have evolved to reach good conclusions when presented with sense-data, meaning the conclusions we draw from our senses are usually true." ], [ "Criticisms", "Critics of foundationalism often argue that for a belief to be justified it must be supported by other beliefs; in Donald Davidson's phrase, \"only a belief can be a reason for another belief\".", "For instance, Wilfrid Sellars argued that non-doxastic mental states cannot be reasons, and so noninferential warrant cannot be derived from them.", "Similarly, critics of externalist foundationalism argue that only mental states or properties the believer is aware of could make a belief justified.According to skepticism, there are no beliefs that are so obviously certain that they require support from no other beliefs.", "Even if one does not accept this very strong claim, foundationalists have a problem with giving an uncontroversial or principled account of which beliefs are self-evident or indubitable.Postmodernists and post-structuralists such as Richard Rorty and Jacques Derrida have attacked foundationalism on the grounds that the truth of a statement or discourse is only verifiable in accordance with other statements and discourses.", "Rorty in particular elaborates further on this, claiming that the individual, the community, the human body as a whole have a 'means by which they know the world' (this entails language, culture, semiotic systems, mathematics, science etc.).", "In order to verify particular means, or particular statements belonging to certain means (e.g., the propositions of the natural sciences), a person would have to 'step outside' the means and critique them neutrally, in order to provide a foundation for adopting them.", "However, this is impossible.", "The only way in which one can know the world is through the means by which they know the world; a method cannot justify itself.", "This argument can be seen as directly related to Wittgenstein's theory of language, drawing a parallel between postmodernism and late logical positivism that is united in critique of foundationalism." ], [ "See also", "* Constructivist epistemology* Ethical intuitionism* Evidentialism* Foundherentism* Panrationalism* Pragmatism" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "********" ], [ "External links", "****" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Felidae" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Felidae''' () is the family of mammals in the order Carnivora colloquially referred to as '''cats'''.", "A member of this family is also called a '''felid''' ().", "The term \"cat\" refers both to felids in general and specifically to the domestic cat (''Felis catus'').The 41 extant Felidae species exhibit the most diversity in fur patterns of all terrestrial carnivores.", "Cats have retractile claws, slender muscular bodies and strong flexible forelimbs.", "Their teeth and facial muscles allow for a powerful bite.", "They are all obligate carnivores, and most are solitary predators ambushing or stalking their prey.", "Wild cats occur in Africa, Europe, Asia and the Americas.", "Some wild cat species are adapted to forest and savanna habitats, some to arid environments, and a few also to wetlands and mountainous terrain.", "Their activity patterns range from nocturnal and crepuscular to diurnal, depending on their preferred prey species.Reginald Innes Pocock divided the extant Felidae into three subfamilies: the Pantherinae, the Felinae and the Acinonychinae, differing from each other by the ossification of the hyoid apparatus and by the cutaneous sheaths which protect their claws.This concept has been revised following developments in molecular biology and techniques for the analysis of morphological data.", "Today, the living Felidae are divided into two subfamilies: the Pantherinae and Felinae, with the Acinonychinae subsumed into the latter.", "Pantherinae includes five ''Panthera'' and two ''Neofelis'' species, while Felinae includes the other 34 species in ten genera.The first cats emerged during the Oligocene about , with the appearance of ''Proailurus'' and ''Pseudaelurus''.", "The latter species complex was ancestral to two main lines of felids: the cats in the extant subfamilies and a group of extinct \"saber-tooth\" felids of the subfamily Machairodontinae, which range from the type genus ''Machairodus'' of the late Miocene to ''Smilodon'' of the Pleistocene.", "The \"false saber-toothed cats\", the Barbourofelidae and Nimravidae, are not true cats but are closely related.", "Together with the Felidae, Viverridae, hyenas and mongooses, they constitute the Feliformia." ], [ "Characteristics", "Domestic cat purringDomestic cat meowingroaringExtended claws on a house catgrooming each otherAll members of the cat family have the following characteristics in common:* They are digitigrade and have five toes on their forefeet and four on their hind feet.", "Their curved claws are protractile and attached to the terminal bones of the toe with ligaments and tendons.", "The claws are guarded by cutaneous sheaths, except in the ''Acinonyx''.", "* The plantar pads of both fore and hind feet form compact three-lobed cushions.", "* They actively protract the claws by contracting muscles in the toe, and they passively retract them.", "The dewclaws are expanded but do not protract.", "* They have lithe and flexible bodies with muscular limbs.", "* Their skulls are foreshortened with a rounded profile and large orbits.", "* They have 30 teeth with a dental formula of .", "The upper third premolar and lower molar are adapted as carnassial teeth, suited to tearing and cutting flesh.", "The canine teeth are large, reaching exceptional size in the extinct saber-toothed species.", "The lower carnassial is smaller than the upper carnassial and has a crown with two compressed blade-like pointed cusps.", "* Their tongues are covered with horn-like papillae, which rasp meat from prey and aid in grooming.", "* Their noses project slightly beyond the lower jaw.", "* Their eyes are relatively large, situated to provide binocular vision.", "Their night vision is especially good due to the presence of a ''tapetum lucidum'', which reflects light inside the eyeball, and gives felid eyes their distinctive shine.", "As a result, the eyes of felids are about six times more light-sensitive than those of humans, and many species are at least partially nocturnal.", "The retina of felids also contains a relatively high proportion of rod cells, adapted for distinguishing moving objects in conditions of dim light, which are complemented by the presence of cone cells for sensing colour during the day.", "* They have well-developed and highly sensitive whiskers above the eyes, on the cheeks, and the muzzle, but not below the chin.", "Whiskers help to navigate in the dark and to capture and hold prey.", "* Their external ears are large and especially sensitive to high-frequency sounds in the smaller cat species.", "This sensitivity allows them to locate small rodent prey.", "* The penis is subconical, facing backwards when not erect.", "The baculum is small or vestigial, and shorter than in the Canidae.", "* Felids have a vomeronasal organ in the roof of the mouth, allowing them to \"taste\" the air.", "The use of this organ is associated with the Flehmen response.", "* They cannot detect the sweetness of sugar, as they lack the sweet taste receptor.", "* They share a broadly similar set of vocalizations but with some variation between species.", "In particular, the pitch of calls varies, with larger species producing deeper sounds; overall, the frequency of felid calls ranges between 50 and 10,000 hertz.", "The standard sounds made by all felids include meowing, spitting, hissing, snarling and growling.", "Meowing is the main contact sound, whereas the others signify an aggressive motivation.", "* They can purr during both phases of respiration, though pantherine cats seem to purr only during oestrus and copulation, and as cubs when suckling.", "Purring is generally a low-pitch sound of 16.8–27.5 Hz and is mixed with other vocalization types during the expiratory phase.", "The ability to roar comes from an elongated and specially adapted larynx and hyoid apparatus.", "When air passes through the larynx on the way from the lungs, the cartilage walls of the larynx vibrate, producing sound.", "Only lions, leopards, tigers, and jaguars are truly able to roar, although the loudest mews of snow leopards have a similar, if less structured, sound.The colour, length and density of their fur are very diverse.", "Fur colour covers the gamut from white to black, and fur patterns from distinctive small spots, and stripes to small blotches and rosettes.", "Most cat species are born with spotted fur, except the jaguarundi (''Herpailurus yagouaroundi''), Asian golden cat (''Catopuma temminckii'') and caracal (''Caracal caracal'').", "The spotted fur of lion (''Panthera leo'') and cougar (''Puma concolor'') cubs change to uniform fur during their ontogeny.", "Those living in cold environments have thick fur with long hair, like the snow leopard (''Panthera uncia'') and the Pallas's cat (''Otocolobus manul'').", "Those living in tropical and hot climate zones have short fur.", "Several species exhibit melanism with all-black individuals.In the great majority of cat species, the tail is between a third and a half of the body length, although with some exceptions, like the ''Lynx'' species and margay (''Leopardus wiedii'').", "Cat species vary greatly in body and skull sizes, and weights:* The largest cat species is the tiger (''Panthera tigris''), with a head-to-body length of up to , a weight range of at least , and a skull length ranging from .", "Although the maximum skull length of a lion is slightly greater at , it is generally smaller in head-to-body length than the former.", "* The smallest cat species are the rusty-spotted cat (''Prionailurus rubiginosus'') and the black-footed cat (''Felis nigripes'').", "The former is in length and weighs .", "The latter has a head-to-body length of and a maximum recorded weight of .Most cat species have a haploid number of 18 or 19.Central and South American cats have a haploid number of 18, possibly due to the combination of two smaller chromosomes into a larger one.Most cat species are also induced ovulators, although the margay appears to be a spontaneous ovulator.Felidae have type IIx muscle fibers three times more powerful than the muscle fibers of human athletes." ], [ "Evolution", "Feliform evolutionary timelineThe family Felidae is part of the Feliformia, a suborder that diverged probably about into several families.", "The Felidae and the Asiatic linsangs are considered a sister group, which split about .The earliest cats probably appeared about .", "''Proailurus'' is the oldest known cat that occurred after the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event about ; fossil remains were excavated in France and Mongolia's Hsanda Gol Formation.", "Fossil occurrences indicate that the Felidae arrived in North America around .", "This is about 20million years later than the Ursidae and the Nimravidae, and about 10 million years later than the Canidae.In the Early Miocene about , ''Pseudaelurus'' lived in Africa.", "Its fossil jaws were also excavated in geological formations of Europe's Vallesian, Asia's Middle Miocene and North America's late Hemingfordian to late Barstovian epochs.In the Early or Middle Miocene, the saber-toothed Machairodontinae evolved in Africa and migrated northwards in the Late Miocene.", "With their large upper canines, they were adapted to prey on large-bodied megaherbivores.", "''Miomachairodus'' is the oldest known member of this subfamily.", "''Metailurus'' lived in Africa and Eurasia about .", "Several ''Paramachaerodus'' skeletons were found in Spain.", "''Homotherium'' appeared in Africa, Eurasia and North America around , and ''Megantereon'' about .", "''Smilodon'' lived in North and South America from about .", "This subfamily became extinct in the Late Pleistocene.Results of mitochondrial analysis indicate that the living Felidae species descended from a common ancestor, which originated in Asia in the Late Miocene epoch.", "They migrated to Africa, Europe and the Americas in the course of at least 10 migration waves during the past ~11 million years.", "Low sea levels and interglacial and glacial periods facilitated these migrations.", "''Panthera blytheae'' is the oldest known pantherine cat dated to the late Messinian to early Zanclean ages about .", "A fossil skull was excavated in 2010 in Zanda County on the Tibetan Plateau.", "''Panthera palaeosinensis'' from North China probably dates to the Late Miocene or Early Pliocene.", "The skull of the holotype is similar to that of a lion or leopard.", "''Panthera zdanskyi'' dates to the Gelasian about .", "Several fossil skulls and jawbones were excavated in northwestern China.", "''Panthera gombaszoegensis'' is the earliest known pantherine cat that lived in Europe about .Living felids fall into eight evolutionary lineages or species clades.", "Genotyping of the nuclear DNA of all 41 felid species revealed that hybridization between species occurred in the course of evolution within the majority of the eight lineages.Modelling of felid coat pattern transformations revealed that nearly all patterns evolved from small spots." ], [ "Classification", "Traditionally, five subfamilies had been distinguished within the Felidae based on phenotypical features: the Pantherinae, the Felinae, the Acinonychinae, and the extinct Machairodontinae and Proailurinae.", "Acinonychinae used to only contain the genus Acinonyx but this genus is now within the Felinae subfamily.===Phylogeny===The following cladogram based on Piras et al.", "(2013) depicts the phylogeny of basal living and extinct groups.The phylogenetic relationships of living felids are shown in the following cladogram:" ], [ "See also", "* Cat gap* Felid hybrid* List of felids* List of largest cats" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Folklore" ], [ "Introduction", "''Netherlandish Proverbs'' by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, 1559'''Folklore''' is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, culture or subculture.", "This includes oral traditions such tales, myths, legends, proverbs, poems, jokes, and other oral traditions.", "This also includes material culture, such as traditional building styles common to the group.", "Folklore also encompasses customary lore, taking actions for folk beliefs, and the forms and rituals of celebrations such as Christmas, weddings, folk dances, and initiation rites.", "Each one of these, either singly or in combination, is considered a folklore artifact or traditional cultural expression.", "Just as essential as the form, folklore also encompasses the transmission of these artifacts from one region to another or from one generation to the next.", "Folklore is not something one can typically gain from a formal school curriculum or study in the fine arts.", "Instead, these traditions are passed along informally from one individual to another, either through verbal instruction or demonstration.The academic study of folklore is called folklore studies or folkloristics, and it can be explored at the undergraduate, graduate, and Ph.D. levels." ], [ "Overview", "Indian Folk Worship at Batu Caves, Selangor MalaysiaFolk dancing, Plovdiv BulgariaSerbian Folk Group, Music and Costume.", "A group of performers sharing traditional Serbian folk music on the streets of Belgrade, Serbia.The word ''folklore'', a compound of ''folk'' and ''lore'', was coined in 1846 by the Englishman William Thoms, who contrived the term as a replacement for the contemporary terminology of \"popular antiquities\" or \"popular literature\".", "The second half of the word, ''lore'', comes from Old English lār 'instruction'.", "It is the knowledge and traditions of a particular group, frequently passed along by word of mouth.The concept of ''folk'' has varied over time.", "When Thoms first created this term, ''folk'' applied only to rural, frequently poor and illiterate peasants.", "A more modern definition of ''folk'' is a social group that includes two or more people with common traits who express their shared identity through distinctive traditions.", "\"Folk is a flexible concept which can refer to a nation as in American folklore or to a single family.\"", "This expanded social definition of ''folk'' supports a broader view of the material, i.e., the lore, considered to be ''folklore artifacts''.", "These now include all \"things people make with words (verbal lore), things they make with their hands (material lore), and things they make with their actions (customary lore)\".", "Folklore is no longer considered to be limited to that which is old or obsolete.", "These folk artifacts continue to be passed along informally, as a rule anonymously, and always in multiple variants.", "The folk group is not individualistic; it is community-based and nurtures its lore in community.", "\"As new groups emerge, new folklore is created… surfers, motorcyclists, computer programmers\".", "In direct contrast to high culture, where any single work of a named artist is protected by copyright law, folklore is a function of shared identity within a common social group.Having identified folk artifacts, the professional folklorist strives to understand the ''significance'' of these beliefs, customs, and objects for the group, since these cultural units would not be passed along unless they had some continued relevance within the group.", "That meaning can, however, shift and morph; for example, the Halloween celebration of the 21st century is not the All Hallows' Eve of the Middle Ages and even gives rise to its own set of urban legends independent of the historical celebration; the cleansing rituals of Orthodox Judaism were originally good public health in a land with little water, but now these customs signify for some people identification as an Orthodox Jew.", "By comparison, a common action such as tooth brushing, which is also transmitted within a group, remains a practical hygiene and health issue and does not rise to the level of a group-defining tradition.", "Tradition is initially remembered behavior; once it loses its practical purpose, there is no reason for further transmission unless it has been imbued with meaning beyond the initial practicality of the action.", "This meaning is at the core of folkloristics, the study of folklore.With the increasing theoretical sophistication of the social sciences, it has become evident that folklore is a naturally occurring and necessary component of any social group; it is indeed all around us.", "Folklore does not have to be old or antiquated; it continues to be created and transmitted, and in any group, it is used to differentiate between \"us\" and \"them\"." ], [ "Origin and development of folklore studies", "Folklore began to distinguish itself as an autonomous discipline during the period of romantic nationalism, in Europe.", "A particular figure in this development was Johann Gottfried von Herder, whose writings in the 1770s presented oral traditions as organic processes grounded in locale.", "After the German states were invaded by Napoleonic France, Herder's approach was adopted by many of his fellow Germans, who systematized the recorded folk traditions, and used them in their process of nation building.", "This process was enthusiastically embraced by smaller nations, like Finland, Estonia, and Hungary, which were seeking political independence from their dominant neighbors.Folklore, as a field of study, further developed among 19th century European scholars, who were contrasting tradition with the newly developing modernity.", "Its focus was the oral folklore of the rural peasant populations, which were considered as residue and survivals of the past that continued to exist within the lower strata of society.", "The \"Kinder- und Hausmärchen\" of the Brothers Grimm (first published 1812) is the best known but by no means only collection of verbal folklore of the European peasantry of that time.", "This interest in stories, sayings and songs continued throughout the 19th century and aligned the fledgling discipline of folkloristics with literature and mythology.", "By the turn into the 20th century the number and sophistication of folklore studies and folklorists had grown both in Europe and North America.", "Whereas European folklorists remained focused on the oral folklore of the homogenous peasant populations in their regions, the American folklorists, led by Franz Boas and Ruth Benedict, chose to consider Native American cultures in their research, and included the totality of their customs and beliefs as folklore.", "This distinction aligned American folkloristics with cultural anthropology and ethnology, using the same techniques of data collection in their field research.", "This divided alliance of folkloristics between the humanities in Europe and the social sciences in America offers a wealth of theoretical vantage points and research tools to the field of folkloristics as a whole, even as it continues to be a point of discussion within the field itself.The term ''folkloristics'', along with the alternative name ''folklore studies'', became widely used in the 1950s to distinguish the academic study of traditional culture from the folklore artifacts themselves.", "When the American Folklife Preservation Act (Public Law 94-201) was passed by the U.S. Congress in January 1976, to coincide with the Bicentennial Celebration, folkloristics in the United States came of age.", "\"…Folklife means the traditional expressive culture shared within the various groups in the United States: familial, ethnic, occupational, religious, regional; expressive culture includes a wide range of creative and symbolic forms such as custom, belief, technical skill, language, literature, art, architecture, music, play, dance, drama, ritual, pageantry, handicraft; these expressions are mainly learned orally, by imitation, or in performance, and are generally maintained without benefit of formal instruction or institutional direction.\"", "Added to the extensive array of other legislation designed to protect the natural and cultural heritage of the United States, this law also marks a shift in national awareness.", "It gives voice to a growing understanding that cultural diversity is a national strength and a resource worthy of protection.", "Paradoxically, it is a unifying feature, not something that separates the citizens of a country.", "\"We no longer view cultural difference as a problem to be solved, but as a tremendous opportunity.", "In the diversity of American folklife we find a marketplace teeming with the exchange of traditional forms and cultural ideas, a rich resource for Americans\".", "This diversity is celebrated annually at the Smithsonian Folklife Festival and many other folklife fests around the country.There are numerous other definitions.", "According to William Bascom major article on the topic there are \"four functions to folklore\":* Folklore lets people escape from repressions imposed upon them by society.", "* Folklore validates culture, justifying its rituals and institutions to those who perform and observe them.", "* Folklore is a pedagogic device which reinforces morals and values and builds wit.", "* Folklore is a means of applying social pressure and exercising social control." ], [ "Definition of \"folk\"", "Friends in the farmFolklore theater in Mansoura, EgyptThe folk of the 19th century, the social group identified in the original term \"folklore\", was characterized by being rural, illiterate and poor.", "They were the peasants living in the countryside, in contrast to the urban populace of the cities.", "Only toward the end of the century did the urban proletariat (on the coattails of Marxist theory) become included with the rural poor as folk.", "The common feature in this expanded definition of folk was their identification as the underclass of society.Moving forward into the 20th century, in tandem with new thinking in the social sciences, folklorists also revised and expanded their concept of the folk group.", "By the 1960s it was understood that social groups, i.e.", "folk groups, were all around us; each individual is enmeshed in a multitude of differing identities and their concomitant social groups.", "The first group that each of us is born into is the family, and each family has its own unique family folklore.", "As a child grows into an individual, its identities also increase to include age, language, ethnicity, occupation, etc.", "Each of these cohorts has its own folklore, and as one folklorist points out, this is \"not idle speculation… Decades of fieldwork have demonstrated conclusively that these groups do have their own folklore.\"", "In this modern understanding, folklore is a function of shared identity within any social group.This folklore can include jokes, sayings and expected behavior in multiple variants, always transmitted in an informal manner.", "For the most part it will be learned by observation, imitation, repetition or correction by other group members.", "This informal knowledge is used to confirm and re-inforce the identity of the group.", "It can be used both internally within the group to express their common identity, for example in an initiation ceremony for new members.", "Or it can be used externally to differentiate the group from outsiders, like a folkdance demonstration at a community festival.", "Significant to folklorists here is that there are two opposing but equally valid ways to use this in the study of a group: you can start with an identified group in order to explore its folklore, or you can identify folklore items and use them to identify the social group.Beginning in the 1960s, a further expansion of the concept of folk began to unfold through the study of folklore.", "Individual researchers identified folk groups that had previously been overlooked and ignored.", "One notable example of this is found in an issue of the ''Journal of American Folklore'', published in 1975, which is dedicated exclusively to articles on women's folklore, with approaches that had not come from a man's perspective.", "Other groups that were highlighted as part of this broadened understanding of the folk group were non-traditional families, occupational groups, and families that pursued the production of folk items over multiple generations.Folklorist Richard Dorson explained in 1976 that the study of folklore is \"concerned with the study of traditional culture, or the unofficial culture\" that is the folk culture, \"as opposed to the elite culture, not for the sake of proving a thesis but to learn about the mass of humanity overlooked by the conventional disciplines\"." ], [ "Folklore genres", "United Arab Emirates traditional folk dance, the women flip their hair sideways in brightly coloured traditional dress.Individual folklore artifacts are commonly classified as one of three types: material, verbal or customary lore.", "For the most part self-explanatory, these categories include physical objects ('''material folklore'''), common sayings, expressions, stories and songs ('''verbal folklore'''), and beliefs and ways of doing things ('''customary folklore''').", "There is also a fourth major subgenre defined for children's folklore and games ('''childlore'''), as the collection and interpretation of this fertile topic is particular to school yards and neighborhood streets.", "Each of these genres and their subtypes is intended to organize and categorize the folklore artifacts; they provide common vocabulary and consistent labeling for folklorists to communicate with each other.That said, each artifact is unique; in fact one of the characteristics of all folklore artifacts is their variation within genres and types.", "This is in direct contrast to manufactured goods, where the goal in production is to create identical products and any variations are considered mistakes.", "It is however just this required variation that makes identification and classification of the defining features a challenge.", "And while this classification is essential for the subject area of folkloristics, it remains just labeling, and adds little to an understanding of the traditional development and meaning of the artifacts themselves.Necessary as they are, genre classifications are misleading in their oversimplification of the subject area.", "Folklore artifacts are never self-contained, they do not stand in isolation but are particulars in the self-representation of a community.", "Different genres are frequently combined with each other to mark an event.", "So a birthday celebration might include a song or formulaic way of greeting the birthday child (verbal), presentation of a cake and wrapped presents (material), as well as customs to honor the individual, such as sitting at the head of the table, and blowing out the candles with a wish.", "There might also be special games played at birthday parties which are not generally played at other times.", "Adding to the complexity of the interpretation, the birthday party for a seven-year-old will not be identical to the birthday party for that same child as a six-year-old, even though they follow the same model.", "For each artifact embodies a single variant of a performance in a given time and space.", "The task of the folklorist becomes to identify within this surfeit of variables the constants and the expressed meaning that shimmer through all variations: honoring of the individual within the circle of family and friends, gifting to express their value and worth to the group, and of course, the festival food and drink as signifiers of the event.=== Verbal tradition ===The story of Jahangir and Anarkali is popular folklore in the former territories of the Mughal Empire.The formal definition of verbal lore is words, both written and oral, that are \"spoken, sung, voiced forms of traditional utterance that show repetitive patterns.\"", "Crucial here are the repetitive patterns.", "Verbal lore is not just any conversation, but words and phrases conforming to a traditional configuration recognized by both the speaker and the audience.", "For narrative types by definition have consistent structure, and follow an existing model in their narrative form.", "As just one simple example, in English the phrase \"An elephant walks into a bar…\" instantaneously flags the following text as a joke.", "It might be one you have already heard, but it might be one that the speaker has just thought up within the current context.", "Another example is the child's song Old MacDonald Had a Farm, where each performance is distinctive in the animals named, their order and their sounds.", "Songs such as this are used to express cultural values (farms are important, farmers are old and weather-beaten) and teach children about different domesticated animals.Verbal folklore was the original folklore, the artifacts defined by William Thoms as older, oral cultural traditions of the rural populace.", "In his 1846 published call for help in documenting antiquities, Thoms was echoing scholars from across the European continent to collect artifacts of verbal lore.", "By the beginning of the 20th century these collections had grown to include artifacts from around the world and across several centuries.", "A system to organize and categorize them became necessary.", "Antti Aarne published a first classification system for folktales in 1910.This was later expanded into the Aarne–Thompson classification system by Stith Thompson and remains the standard classification system for European folktales and other types of oral literature.", "As the number of classified oral artifacts grew, similarities were noted in items that had been collected from very different geographic regions, ethnic groups and epochs, giving rise to the Historic–Geographic Method, a methodology that dominated folkloristics in the first half of the 20th century.When William Thoms first published his appeal to document the verbal lore of the rural populations, it was believed these folk artifacts would die out as the population became literate.", "Over the past two centuries this belief has proven to be wrong; folklorists continue to collect verbal lore in both written and spoken form from all social groups.", "Some variants might have been captured in published collections, but much of it is still transmitted orally and indeed continues to be generated in new forms and variants at an alarming rate.Below is listed a small sampling of types and examples of verbal lore.", "* Aloha* Ballads* Blessings* Bluegrass* Chants* Charms* Cinderella* Country music* Cowboy poetry* Creation stories* Curses* English similes* Epic poetry* Fable* Fairy tale* Folk belief* Folk etymologies* Folk metaphors* Folk poetry* Folk music* Folksongs* Folk speech* Folktales of oral tradition* Ghostlore* Greetings* Hog-calling* Insults* Jokes* Keening* Latrinalia* Legends* Limericks* Lullabies* Myth* Oaths* Leave-taking formulas* Fakelore* Place names* Prayers at bedtime* Proverbs* Retorts* Riddle* Roasts* Sagas* Sea shanties* Street vendors* Superstition* Tall tale* Taunts* Toasts* Tongue-twisters* Urban legends* Word games* Yodeling=== Material culture ===Horse and sulky weathervane, Smithsonian American Art MuseumThe genre of material culture includes all artifacts that can be touched, held, lived in, or eaten.", "They are tangible objects with a physical or mental presence, either intended for permanent use or to be used at the next meal.", "Most of these folklore artifacts are single objects that have been created by hand for a specific purpose; however, folk artifacts can also be mass-produced, such as dreidels or Christmas decorations.", "These items continue to be considered folklore because of their long (pre-industrial) history and their customary use.", "All of these material objects \"existed prior to and continue alongside mechanized industry.", "… They are transmitted across the generations and subject to the same forces of conservative tradition and individual variation\" that are found in all folk artifacts.", "Folklorists are interested in the physical form, the method of manufacture or construction, the pattern of use, as well as the procurement of the raw materials.", "The meaning to those who both make and use these objects is important.", "Of primary significance in these studies is the complex balance of continuity over change in both their design and their decoration.Traditional highlanders' pins hand-made by a goldsmith in Podhale, PolandIn Europe, prior to the Industrial Revolution, everything was made by hand.", "While some folklorists of the 19th century wanted to secure the oral traditions of the rural folk before the populace became literate, other folklorists sought to identify hand-crafted objects before their production processes were lost to industrial manufacturing.", "Just as verbal lore continues to be actively created and transmitted in today's culture, so these handicrafts can still be found all around us, with possibly a shift in purpose and meaning.", "There are many reasons for continuing to handmake objects for use, for example these skills may be needed to repair manufactured items, or a unique design might be required which is not (or cannot be) found in the stores.", "Many crafts are considered as simple home maintenance, such as cooking, sewing and carpentry.", "For many people, handicrafts have also become an enjoyable and satisfying hobby.", "Handmade objects are often regarded as prestigious, where extra time and thought is spent in their creation and their uniqueness is valued.", "For the folklorist, these hand-crafted objects embody multifaceted relationships in the lives of the craftspeople and the users, a concept that has been lost with mass-produced items that have no connection to an individual craftsperson.Many traditional crafts, such as ironworking and glass-making, have been elevated to the fine or applied arts and taught in art schools; or they have been repurposed as folk art, characterized as objects whose decorative form supersedes their utilitarian needs.", "Folk art is found in hex signs on Pennsylvania Dutch barns, tin man sculptures made by metalworkers, front yard Christmas displays, decorated school lockers, carved gun stocks, and tattoos.", "\"Words such as naive, self-taught, and individualistic are used to describe these objects, and the exceptional rather than the representative creation is featured.\"", "This is in contrast to the understanding of folklore artifacts that are nurtured and passed along within a community.Many objects of material folklore are challenging to classify, difficult to archive, and unwieldy to store.", "The assigned task of museums is to preserve and make use of these bulky artifacts of material culture.", "To this end, the concept of the living museum has developed, beginning in Scandinavia at the end of the 19th century.", "These open-air museums not only display the artifacts, but also teach visitors how the items were used, with actors reenacting the everyday lives of people from all segments of society, relying heavily on the material artifacts of a pre-industrial society.", "Many locations even duplicate the processing of the objects, thus creating new objects of an earlier historic time period.", "Living museums are now found throughout the world as part of a thriving heritage industry.This list represents just a small sampling of objects and skills that are included in studies of material culture.", "* Autograph books* Bunad* Embroidery* Folk art* Folk costume* Folk medicines* Food recipes and presentation* Foodways* Common handicrafts* Handmade toys* Haystacks* Hex signs* Decorative ironworks* Pottery* Quilting* Stone sculpting* Tipis* Traditional fences* Vernacular architecture* Weather vanes* Woodworking=== Customs ===Customary culture is remembered enactment, i.e.", "re-enactment.", "It is the patterns of expected behavior within a group, the \"traditional and expected way of doing things\" A custom can be a single gesture, such as thumbs down or a handshake.", "It can also be a complex interaction of multiple folk customs and artifacts as seen in a child's birthday party, including verbal lore (Happy Birthday song), material lore (presents and a birthday cake), special games (Musical chairs) and individual customs (making a wish as you blow out the candles).", "Each of these is a folklore artifact in its own right, potentially worthy of investigation and cultural analysis.", "Together they combine to build the custom of a birthday party celebration, a scripted combination of multiple artifacts which have meaning within their social group.Santa Claus giving gifts to children, a common folk practice associated with Christmas in Western nationsHajji Firuz is a fictional character in Iranian folklore who appears in the streets by the beginning of Nowruz, dances through the streets while singing and playing tambourine.Folklorists divide customs into several different categories.", "A custom can be a '''seasonal celebration''', such as Thanksgiving or New Year's.", "It can be a '''life cycle celebration''' for an individual, such as baptism, birthday or wedding.", "A custom can also mark a '''community festival''' or event; examples of this are Carnival in Cologne or Mardi Gras in New Orleans.", "This category also includes the Smithsonian Folklife Festival celebrated each summer on the Mall in Washington, DC.", "A fourth category includes customs related to '''folk beliefs'''.", "Walking under a ladder is just one of many symbols considered unlucky.", "'''Occupational groups''' tend to have a rich history of customs related to their life and work, so the traditions of sailors or lumberjacks.", "The area of ecclesiastical folklore, which includes modes of worship not sanctioned by the established church tends to be so large and complex that it is usually treated as a specialized area of folk customs; it requires considerable expertise in standard church ritual in order to adequately interpret folk customs and beliefs that originated in official church practice.Customary folklore is always a performance, be it a single gesture or a complex of scripted customs, and participating in the custom, either as performer or audience, signifies acknowledgment of that social group.", "Some customary behavior is intended to be performed and understood only within the group itself, so the handkerchief code sometimes used in the gay community or the initiation rituals of the Freemasons.", "Other customs are designed specifically to represent a social group to outsiders, those who do not belong to this group.", "The St. Patrick's Day Parade in New York and in other communities across the continent is a single example of an ethnic group parading their separateness (differential behavior), and encouraging Americans of all stripes to show alliance to this colorful ethnic group.Practitioners of hoodening, a folk custom found in Kent, southeastern England, in 1909These festivals and parades, with a target audience of people who do not belong to the social group, intersect with the interests and mission of public folklorists, who are engaged in the documentation, preservation, and presentation of traditional forms of folklife.", "With a swell in popular interest in folk traditions, these community celebrations are becoming more numerous throughout the western world.", "While ostensibly parading the diversity of their community, economic groups have discovered that these folk parades and festivals are good for business.", "All shades of people are out on the streets, eating, drinking and spending.", "This attracts support not only from the business community, but also from federal and state organizations for these local street parties.", "Paradoxically, in parading diversity within the community, these events have come to authenticate true community, where business interests ally with the varied (folk) social groups to promote the interests of the community as a whole.This is just a small sampling of types and examples of customary lore.", "* Amish* Barn raising* Birthday* Cakewalk* Cat's cradle* Chaharshanbe Suri* Christmas* Crossed fingers* Folk dance* Folk drama* Folk medicine* Giving the finger* Halloween* Hoodening* Gestures* Groundhog Day* Louisiana Creole people* Mime* Native Hawaiians* Ouiji board* Powwows* Practical jokes* Saint John's Eve* Shakers* Symbols* Thanksgiving* Thumbs down* Trick or Treating* Yo-yos=== Childlore and games ===Children's Games'' by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, 1560; there are five boys playing a game of buck buck in the lower right-hand corner of the painting.Childlore is a distinct branch of folklore that deals with activities passed on by children to other children, away from the influence or supervision of an adult.", "Children's folklore contains artifacts from all the standard folklore genres of verbal, material, and customary lore; it is however the '''child-to-child conduit''' that distinguishes these artifacts.", "For childhood is a social group where children teach, learn and share their own traditions, flourishing in a street culture outside the purview of adults.", "This is also ideal where it needs to be collected; as Iona and Peter Opie demonstrated in their pioneering book ''Children's Games in Street and Playground''.", "Here the social group of children is studied on its own terms, not as a derivative of adult social groups.", "It is shown that the culture of children is quite distinctive; it is generally unnoticed by the sophisticated world of adults, and quite as little affected by it.Of particular interest to folklorists here is the mode of transmission of these artifacts; this lore circulates exclusively within an informal pre-literate children's network or folk group.", "It does not include artifacts taught to children by adults.", "However children can take the taught and teach it further to other children, turning it into childlore.", "Or they can take the artifacts and turn them into something else; so Old McDonald's farm is transformed from animal noises to the scatological version of animal poop.", "This childlore is characterized by \"its lack of dependence on literary and fixed form.", "Children…operate among themselves in a world of informal and oral communication, unimpeded by the necessity of maintaining and transmitting information by written means.", "This is as close as folklorists can come to observing the transmission and social function of this folk knowledge before the spread of literacy during the 19th century.As we have seen with the other genres, the original collections of children's lore and games in the 19th century was driven by a fear that the culture of childhood would die out.", "Early folklorists, among them Alice Gomme in Britain and William Wells Newell in the United States, felt a need to capture the unstructured and unsupervised street life and activities of children before it was lost.", "This fear proved to be unfounded.", "In a comparison of any modern school playground during recess and the painting of \"Children's Games\" by Pieter Breugel the Elder we can see that the activity level is similar, and many of the games from the 1560 painting are recognizable and comparable to modern variations still played today.These same artifacts of childlore, in innumerable variations, also continue to serve the same function of learning and practicing skills needed for growth.", "So bouncing and swinging rhythms and rhymes encourage development of balance and coordination in infants and children.", "Verbal rhymes like Peter Piper picked... serve to increase both the oral and aural acuity of children.", "Songs and chants, accessing a different part of the brain, are used to memorize series (Alphabet song).", "They also provide the necessary beat to complex physical rhythms and movements, be it hand-clapping, jump roping, or ball bouncing.", "Furthermore, many physical games are used to develop strength, coordination and endurance of the players.", "For some team games, negotiations about the rules can run on longer than the game itself as social skills are rehearsed.", "Even as we are just now uncovering the neuroscience that undergirds the developmental function of this childlore, the artifacts themselves have been in play for centuries.Below is listed just a small sampling of types and examples of childlore and games.", "* Buck buck* Counting rhymes* Dandling rhymes* Finger and toe rhymes* Counting-out games* Dreidel* Eeny, meeny, miny, moe* Games* Traditional games* London Bridge Is Falling Down* Lullabies* Nursery rhymes* Playground songs* Ball-bouncing rhymes* Rhymes* Riddles* Ring a Ring o Roses* Jump-rope rhymes* Stickball* Street games=== Folk history ===A case has been made for considering folk history as a distinct sub-category of folklore, an idea that has received attention from such folklorists as Richard Dorson.", "This field of study is represented in ''The Folklore Historian'', an annual journal sponsored by the History and Folklore Section of the American Folklore Society and concerned with the connections of folklore with history, as well as the history of folklore studies." ], [ "Folklore performance in context", "Folk-dance-kalash in PakistanSlovene Folklore DancersLacking context, folklore artifacts would be uninspiring objects without any life of their own.", "It is only through performance that the artifacts come alive as an active and meaningful component of a social group; the intergroup communication arises in the performance and this is where transmission of these cultural elements takes place.", "American folklorist Roger D. Abrahams has described it thus: \"Folklore is folklore only when performed.", "As organized entities of performance, items of folklore have a sense of control inherent in them, a power that can be capitalized upon and enhanced through effective performance.\"", "Without transmission, these items are not folklore, they are just individual quirky tales and objects.This understanding in folkloristics only occurred in the second half of the 20th century, when the two terms \"folklore performance\" and \"text and context\" dominated discussions among folklorists.", "These terms are not contradictory or even mutually exclusive.", "As borrowings from other fields of study, one or the other linguistic formulation is more appropriate to any given discussion.", "Performance is frequently tied to verbal and customary lore, whereas context is used in discussions of material lore.", "Both formulations offer different perspectives on the same folkloric understanding, specifically that folklore artifacts need to remain embedded in their cultural environment if we are to gain insight into their meaning for the community.The concept of cultural (folklore) performance is shared with ethnography and anthropology among other social sciences.", "The cultural anthropologist Victor Turner identified four universal characteristics of cultural performance: playfulness, framing, the use of symbolic language, and employing the subjunctive mood.", "In viewing the performance, the audience leaves the daily reality to move into a mode of make-believe, or \"what if?\"", "It is self-evident that this fits well with all types of verbal lore, where reality has no place among the symbols, fantasies, and nonsense of traditional tales, proverbs, and jokes.", "Customs and the lore of children and games also fit easily into the language of a folklore performance.Material culture requires some moulding to turn it into a performance.", "Should we consider the performance of the creation of the artifact, as in a quilting party, or the performance of the recipients who use the quilt to cover their marriage bed?", "Here the language of context works better to describe the quilting of patterns copied from the grandmother, quilting as a social event during the winter months, or the gifting of a quilt to signify the importance of the event.", "Each of these—the traditional pattern chosen, the social event, and the gifting—occur within the broader context of the community.", "Even so, when considering context, the structure and characteristics of performance can be recognized, including an audience, a framing event, and the use of decorative figures and symbols, all of which go beyond the utility of the object.=== Backstory ===Before the Second World War, folk artifacts had been understood and collected as cultural shards of an earlier time.", "They were considered individual vestigial artifacts, with little or no function in the contemporary culture.", "Given this understanding, the goal of the folklorist was to capture and document them before they disappeared.", "They were collected with no supporting data, bound in books, archived and classified more or less successfully.", "The Historic–Geographic Method worked to isolate and track these collected artifacts, mostly verbal lore, across space and time.Following the Second World War, folklorists began to articulate a more holistic approach toward their subject matter.", "In tandem with the growing sophistication in the social sciences, attention was no longer limited to the isolated artifact, but extended to include the artifact embedded in an active cultural environment.", "One early proponent was Alan Dundes with his essay \"Texture, Text and Context\", first published 1964.A public presentation in 1967 by Dan Ben-Amos at the American Folklore Society brought the behavioral approach into open debate among folklorists.", "In 1972 Richard Dorson called out the \"young Turks\" for their movement toward a behavioral approach to folklore.", "This approach \"shifted the conceptualization of folklore as an extractable item or 'text' to an emphasis on folklore as a kind of human behavior and communication.", "Conceptualizing folklore as behavior redefined the job of folklorists...\"Folklore became a verb, an action, something that people do, not just something that they have.", "It is in the performance and the active context that folklore artifacts get transmitted in informal, direct communication, either verbally or in demonstration.", "Performance includes all the different modes and manners in which this transmission occurs.=== Tradition-bearer and audience ===Presentation of traditional Wallachian pipes at the Wallachian Open Air Museum, Rožnov pod Radhoštěm, Czech Republic, 2017Transmission is a communicative process requiring a binary: one individual or group who actively transmits information in some form to another individual or group.", "Each of these is a defined role in the folklore process.", "The tradition-bearer is the individual who actively passes along the knowledge of an artifact; this can be either a mother singing a lullaby to her baby, or an Irish dance troupe performing at a local festival.", "They are named individuals, usually well known in the community as knowledgeable in their traditional lore.", "They are not the anonymous \"folk\", the nameless mass without of history or individuality.The audience of this performance is the other half in the transmission process; they listen, watch, and remember.", "Few of them will become active tradition-bearers; many more will be passive tradition-bearers who maintain a memory of this specific traditional artifact, in both its presentation and its content.There is active communication between the audience and the performer.", "The performer is presenting to the audience; the audience in turn, through its actions and reactions, is actively communicating with the performer.", "The purpose of this performance is not to create something new but to re-create something that already exists; the performance is words and actions which are known, recognized and valued by both the performer and the audience.", "For folklore is first and foremost remembered behavior.", "As members of the same cultural reference group, they identify and value this performance as a piece of shared cultural knowledge.", "''Dancing Hungarians'' by , 1816Some elements of folk culture might be in the center of local culture and an import part of self-identity.", "For instance folk dance is highly popular in Estonia and it has evolved into a sort of a national sport.", "XIX Estonian Dance Celebration in 2015 that was held together with Estonian Song Festival.=== Framing the performance ===To initiate the performance, there must be a frame of some sort to indicate that what is to follow is indeed performance.", "The frame brackets it as outside of normal discourse.", "In customary lore such as life cycle celebrations (ex.", "birthday) or dance performances, the framing occurs as part of the event, frequently marked by location.", "The audience goes to the event location to participate.", "Games are defined primarily by rules, it is with the initiation of the rules that the game is framed.", "The folklorist Barre Toelken describes an evening spent in a Navaho family playing string figure games, with each of the members shifting from performer to audience as they create and display different figures to each other.In verbal lore, the performer will start and end with recognized linguistic formulas.", "An easy example is seen in the common introduction to a joke: \"Have you heard the one...\", \"Joke of the day...\", or \"An elephant walks into a bar\".", "Each of these signals to the listeners that the following is a joke, not to be taken literally.", "The joke is completed with the punch line of the joke.", "Another traditional narrative marker in English is the framing of a fairy tale between the phrases \"Once upon a time\" and \"They all lived happily ever after.\"", "Many languages have similar phrases which are used to frame a traditional tale.", "Each of these linguistic formulas removes the bracketed text from ordinary discourse, and marks it as a recognized form of stylized, formulaic communication for both the performer and the audience.=== In the subjunctive voice ===Framing as a narrative device serves to signal to both the story teller and the audience that the narrative which follows is indeed a fiction (verbal lore), and not to be understood as historical fact or reality.", "It moves the framed narration into the subjunctive mood, and marks a space in which \"fiction, history, story, tradition, art, teaching, all exist within the narrated or performed expressive 'event' outside the normal realms and constraints of reality or time.\"", "This shift from the realis to the irrealis mood is understood by all participants within the reference group.", "It enables these fictional events to contain meaning for the group, and can lead to very real consequences.=== Anderson's law of auto-correction ===The theory of self-correction in folklore transmission was first articulated by the folklorist Walter Anderson in the 1920s; this posits a feedback mechanism which would keep folklore variants closer to the original form.", "This theory addresses the question about how, with multiple performers and multiple audiences, the artifact maintains its identity across time and geography.", "Anderson credited the audience with censoring narrators who deviated too far from the known (traditional) text.Any performance is a two-way communication process.", "The performer addresses the audience with words and actions; the audience in turn actively responds to the performer.", "If this performance deviates too far from audience expectations of the familiar folk artifact, they will respond with negative feedback.", "Wanting to avoid more negative reaction, the performer will adjust his performance to conform to audience expectations.", "\"Social reward by an audience is a major factor in motivating narrators...\" It is this dynamic feedback loop between performer and audience which gives stability to the text of the performance.In reality, this model is not so simplistic; there are multiple redundancies in the active folklore process.", "The performer has heard the tale multiple times, he has heard it from different story tellers in multiple versions.", "In turn, he tells the tale multiple times to the same or a different audience, and they expect to hear the version they know.", "This expanded model of redundancy in a non-linear narrative process makes it difficult to innovate during any single performance; corrective feedback from the audience will be immediate.", "\"At the heart of both autopoetic self-maintenance and the 'virality' of meme transmission... it is enough to assume that some sort of recursive action maintains a degree of integrity of the artifact in certain features ... sufficient to allow us to recognize it as an instance of its type.", "\"=== Context of material lore ===For material folk artifacts, it becomes more fruitful to return to the terminology of Alan Dundes: text and context.", "Here the text designates the physical artifact itself, the single item made by an individual for a specific purpose.", "The context is then unmasked by observation and questions concerning both its production and its usage.", "Why was it made, how was it made, who will use it, how will they use it, where did the raw materials come from, who designed it, etc.", "These questions are limited only by the skill of the interviewer.In his study of southeastern Kentucky chair makers, Michael Owen Jones describes production of a chair within the context of the life of the craftsman.", "For Henry Glassie in his study of Folk Housing in Middle Virginia, the investigation concerns the historical pattern he finds repeated in the dwellings of this region: the house is planted in the landscape just as the landscape completes itself with the house.", "The artisan in his roadside stand or shop in the nearby town wants to make and display products which appeal to customers.", "There is \"a craftsperson's eagerness to produce 'satisfactory items' due to a close personal contact with the customer and expectations to serve the customer again.\"", "Here the role of consumer \"... is the basic force responsible for the continuity and discontinuity of behavior.", "\"In material culture the context becomes the cultural environment in which the object is made (chair), used (house), and sold (wares).", "None of these artisans is \"anonymous\" folk; they are individuals making a living with the tools and skills learned within and valued in the context of their community.=== Toelken's conservative-dynamic continuum ===No two performances are identical.", "The performer attempts to keep the performance within expectations, but this happens despite a multitude of changing variables.", "He has given this performance one time more or less, the audience is different, the social and political environment has changed.", "In the context of material culture, no two hand-crafted items are identical.", "Sometimes these deviations in the performance and the production are unintentional, just part of the process.", "But sometimes these deviations are intentional; the performer or artisan want to play with the boundaries of expectation and add their own creative touch.", "They perform within the tension of conserving the recognized form and adding innovation.The folklorist Barre Toelken identifies this tension as \"a combination of both changing ('dynamic') and static ('conservative') elements that evolve and change through sharing, communication and performance.\"", "Over time, the cultural context shifts and morphs: new leaders, new technologies, new values, new awareness.", "As the context changes, so must the artifact, for without modifications to map existing artifacts into the evolving cultural landscape, they lose their meaning.", "Joking as an active form of verbal lore makes this tension visible as joke cycles come and go to reflect new issues of concern.", "Once an artifact is no longer applicable to the context, transmission becomes a nonstarter; it loses relevancy for a contemporary audience.", "If it is not transmitted, then it is no longer folklore and becomes instead an historic relic.=== In the electronic age ===Folklorists have begun to identify how the advent of electronic communications will modify and change the performance and transmission of folklore artifacts.", "It is clear that the internet is modifying folkloric process, not killing it, as despite the historic association between folklore and anti-modernity, people continue to use traditional expressive forms in new media, including the internet.", "Jokes and joking are as plentiful as ever both in traditional face-to-face interactions and through electronic transmission.", "New communication modes are also transforming traditional stories into many different configurations.", "The fairy tale Snow White is now offered in multiple media forms for both children and adults, including a television show and video game." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * ** ** in .", "** in .", "** ** ** ** * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Folklore Indonesia" ] ]
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[ [ "Fusion cuisine" ], [ "Introduction", "Gobi Manchurian is an Indian–Chinese fusion dish, consisting of fried cauliflower.", "The dish is popular throughout India and Indian restaurants as well as South Asian restaurants around the world.Example of a fusion dish: combination of smoked salmon wrapped in rice paper, with avocado, cucumber and crab sticks'''Fusion cuisine''' is a cuisine that combines elements of different culinary traditions that originate from different countries, regions, or cultures.", "Cuisines of this type are not categorized according to any one particular cuisine style and have played a part in many contemporary restaurant cuisines since the 1970s.The term fusion cuisine, added to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' in 2002, is defined as \"a style of cookery which blends ingredients and methods of preparation from different countries, regions, or ethnic groups; food cooked in this style.\"" ], [ "Categories", "''Pancit palabok'' in Filipino cuisine, combines rice noodles and tofu from China with native smoked fish flakes in a shrimp sauce dyed bright orange with annatto seeds from Mexico and garnished with crushed ''chicharon'' from Spain.", "It is served spritzed with native calamansi.Fusion food is created by combining various cooking techniques from different cultures to produce a new type of cuisine.", "Although it is commonly invented by chefs, fusion cuisine can occur naturally.", "Cuisines which get fused can either come from a particular region (such as East Asian cuisine and European cuisine), sub-region (such as Southwestern American cuisine and New Mexican cuisine or a country (such as Chinese cuisine, Japanese cuisine, Korean cuisine, French cuisine, Italian cuisine).Asian fusion restaurants which combine the various cuisines of different Asian countries have become popular in many parts of the United States, United Kingdom and Australia.", "Often featured are East Asian, Southeast Asian, and South Asian dishes alongside one another and offering dishes that are inspired combinations of such cuisines.", "California cuisine is considered a fusion culture, taking inspiration particularly from Italy, France, Mexico, the idea of the European delicatessen, and East Asia, and then creating traditional dishes from these cultures with non-traditional ingredients – such as California pizza.", "In Australia, due to immigration, fusion cuisine is being reinvented and is becoming increasingly the norm at numerous cafes and restaurants, with Asian-fusion restaurants like Tetsuya's in Sydney ranking highly in The World's 50 Best Restaurants.In the United Kingdom, fish and chips can be seen as an early fusion dish due to its marrying of ingredients stemming from Jewish, French, and Belgian cuisines.", "Filipino cuisine is sometimes characterized as the \"original Asian fusion cuisine\", combining native culinary traditions and ingredients with the very different cuisines of China, Spain, Malaysia, Thailand and Mongolia, among others, due to its unique colonial history.", "Food in Malaysia (also Indonesia) is another example of fusion cuisine which blends Malay, Javanese, Chinese and Indian and light influences from Thai, Portuguese, Dutch, and British cuisines.", "Oceanic cuisine combines the different cuisines of the various island nations." ], [ "Types", "Another form of fusion food can be created by utilizing ingredients and flavors from one culture to create a unique twist on a dish from the different cultures.", "For example, a taco pizza is a type of pizza created using taco ingredients such as cheddar and pepper jack cheese, salsa, refried beans, and other common taco ingredients, fusing both Italian and Mexican cuisines.Similar approaches have been used for fusion sushi, such as rolling maki with different types of rice and ingredients such as curry and basmati rice, cheese and salsa with Spanish rice, or spiced ground lamb and capers rolled with Greek-style rice and grape leaves, which resembles inside-out dolmades.", "Some fusion cuisines have themselves become accepted as a national cuisine, as with Peruvian Nikkei cuisine, which combines Japanese spices and seasonings and Peruvian ingredients like ají with seafood.", "A quintessential Peruvian Nikkei dish is \"maki acevichado\" or \"ceviche roll\", consisting of ceviche with avocado rolled into maki.Saudi Arabia has been investing in resources to preserve their culture.", "In Jeddah, different cultures from Africa and Asia have used the combination of Saudi Arabia's spices to create new fusion foods found throughout the region and the country." ], [ "History", "cosmopolitan court of the Ayutthaya Kingdom, combining Thai red curry, Chinese roast duck, and grapes originally from PersiaTraditional Ethiopian cuisine blended with Texas-style barbeque, including pork, smoked brisket, and Texas toastFusion cuisine has existed for millennia as a form of cross-cultural exchange, though the term was only defined in the late 1900s.", "Mixtures of different cultures' cuisines have been adapted since the 16th century.=== Colonialism ===A lasting legacy of colonialism is fusion food.", "Colonial trade resulted in the exchange of ingredients, such as bánh mì originating from French ingredients used in French Indochina, Jamaican patties combining the turnover with spices and peppers from the British Empire's possessions in Asia and Africa, and ramen originating as \"''shina soba''\" or \"Chinese noodle\" from the Empire of Japan's occupation of China's island territories in the late 1800s and early 1900s.", "Indigenous domestic servants were active participants in creating fusion foods by mixing ingredients and techniques.Alongside the creation of new dishes, colonialism also introduced class dimensions of food as cultural capital that modified consumption patterns.", "Indigenous practices of eating guinea pigs in Peru were banned and considered savage until recent movements to reclaim food practices, resulting in the erasure of much traditional knowledge in indigenous communities.", "These hierarchies are argued to be present in modern fusion food, which has been criticised for being portrayed as European cuisines 'elevating' other cuisines into modernity.", "Colonial debates also extend into discourse about the authenticity of foods such as the origins of Chicken tikka masala, and orientalist critiques of immigrant food being gentrified as ‘ethnic’ food.=== Adaptation to local palates ===In a climate of increasing globalization, where cultures and cuisines frequently cross-borders, cooking and food evolves to cater to the palates of the local communities, a phenomenon known as \"glocalization\", a portmanteau of \"localization\" and \"globalization\".” Fusion cuisine is sometimes created by multinational restaurants, especially fast food chains.", "A primary example of this corporate globalized expansion is in the case of McDonald's regional menus which are adapted to \"reflect different tastes and local traditions for every country in which we have restaurants\".", "In addition to catering to the regional food traditions, McDonald's also takes an additional consideration for religious beliefs and laws, as seen in the absence of beef and pork items on Indian menus.Beyond accounting for the cultural or religious differences in cuisine, some fusion foods have also been created to fit the taste preferences of local communities when ethnic or cultural foods from abroad were introduced.", "A hallmark example of this adaptation is in the popular sushi roll, the California roll, which was created in America in the latter half of the 20th-century.", "A popular myth behind its composition containing crab, vegetables, and rice on the exterior cites the American aversion to foreign ingredients such as raw fish and seaweed.These adjustments to foreign cuisines have both corporate and historical origins.", "In the example of McDonald's, the creation of regional menus can be seen as an economic choice to cater to the local palates and traditions.", "Another example of popularized fusion foods is the Korean stew ''budae-jjigae'''','' which was created by combining American ingredients of Spam, Vienna sausages,and sliced cheese, in a ''kimchi stew'' in the wake of the Korean War during which American tastes and influence were prevalent in Korea.=== Role of immigration ===Immigrants play a significant role in shaping modern fusion cuisine.", "Food can often be a form of cultural expression that fosters a relationship with one's heritage, and fusion can emerge from creating foods from immigrant's adaptation of their own cultural food to the ingredients available in the host country or region.", "Immigrants may adapt the use of their cultural ingredients to local culinary traditions.", "For example, Vietnamese immigrants in the Southern United States used Vietnamese condiments in traditionally Creole cuisine, while adhering to Southern cooking methods.", "Similarly, the establishment of American Chinese cuisine has origins in Chinese-owned small businesses in American ghettos and Chinatowns, with many of these restaurants responsible for the adaptation of Chinese cuisine to American paletes.Immigrants may also adapt their cultural flavors to the availability of ingredients in the host country: Indian-Chinese cuisine shaped by Chinese immigrants to British-ruled India often uses Indian spice and flavor profiles such as garam masala and turmeric.", "As such, immigrant-founded fusion cuisines also play a role in shaping food culture in the host country by introducing new flavors and ingredients.Indian-Chinese cuisine is an example of how gradual migration and exchange across shared international borders contributes to fusion cuisine.", "Similar cases are Sino-Korean food emerging from Chinese diasporas in Korea and shared borders between Korea and Northeastern China, and Mexican-American cuisine influenced by Mexican immigration to the Southwest United States that combines Mexican, Indigenous American, and European flavors.", "The convergence of two or more immigrant groups in a different host country can also lead to the emergence of fusion cuisines.", "Chinese and Latin American immigrants to the United States have collaboratively founded fusion restaurants, serving dishes such as Chinese dumplings filled with traditional slow-roasted pork from the Yucatàn Peninsula.", "In the United States, Asian fusion cuisine can constitute pan-Asian multi-ethnic ingredients such as rice, leading to a newfound form of \"American\" Asian food unfound in Asia.", "One popular example of pan-Asian fusion food found in North America is the rice bowl, often with ingredients commonly used together in Asia such as garlic with chili, stir-fried vegetables with tofu.", "This illustrates the dynamic process between fusion food and its relationship with intercultural solidarity, influenced by both local and other immigrant cultures.=== Modern fusion food ===Japanese cooking techniques were combined with French techniques in 1970s France to create nouvelle cuisine.Wolfgang Puck is attributed as one of the pioneers of fusion cuisine, with some dispute.", "However, his restaurant ''Chinois on Main'' was named after the term attributed to Richard Wing, who in the 1960s combined French and Chinese cooking at the former Imperial Dynasty restaurant in Hanford, California.Chef Norman Van Aken was the first person to use the term \"fusion cooking\" as he delivered a speech at a symposium in Santa Fe in 1988.Soon journalist Regina Schrambling wrote about Van Aken's work and the term spread around the globe.", "Norman Van Aken ended his speech by discussing the history of fusion cuisine, such as the use of coffee in Italian cuisine.", "Van Aken related this to coffee being used in different desserts such as Calabrian ricotta with chocolate mousse." ], [ "See also", "* 2010s in food* American Chinese cuisine* Betawi cuisine* California cuisine* * Eurasian cuisine of Singapore and Malaysia* Indian Chinese cuisine* * Japanese Chinese cuisine* Korean-Mexican fusion* Migrants' food consumption* Modern Australian cuisine* New American cuisine* Nouvelle cuisine* Peranakan cuisine* Sushi burrito* Sushi pizza* Tex-Mex*" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Frame problem" ], [ "Introduction", "In artificial intelligence, with implications for cognitive science, the '''frame problem''' describes an issue with using first-order logic to express facts about a robot in the world.", "Representing the state of a robot with traditional first-order logic requires the use of many axioms that simply imply that things in the environment do not change arbitrarily.", "For example, Hayes describes a \"block world\" with rules about stacking blocks together.", "In a first-order logic system, additional axioms are required to make inferences about the environment (for example, that a block cannot change position unless it is physically moved).", "The frame problem is the problem of finding adequate collections of axioms for a viable description of a robot environment.John McCarthy and Patrick J. Hayes defined this problem in their 1969 article, ''Some Philosophical Problems from the Standpoint of Artificial Intelligence''.", "In this paper, and many that came after, the formal mathematical problem was a starting point for more general discussions of the difficulty of knowledge representation for artificial intelligence.", "Issues such as how to provide rational default assumptions and what humans consider common sense in a virtual environment.In philosophy, the '''frame problem''' became more broadly construed in connection with the problem of limiting the beliefs that have to be updated in response to actions.", "In the logical context, actions are typically specified by what they change, with the implicit assumption that everything else (the frame) remains unchanged." ], [ "Description", "The frame problem occurs even in very simple domains.", "A scenario with a door, which can be open or closed, and a light, which can be on or off, is statically represented by two propositions and .", "If these conditions can change, they are better represented by two predicates and that depend on time; such predicates are called fluents.", "A domain in which the door is closed and the light off at time 0, and the door opened at time 1, can be directly represented in logic by the following formulae::::The first two formulae represent the initial situation; the third formula represents the effect of executing the action of opening the door at time 1.If such an action had preconditions, such as the door being unlocked, it would have been represented by .", "In practice, one would have a predicate for specifying when an action is executed and a rule for specifying the effects of actions.", "The article on the situation calculus gives more details.While the three formulae above are a direct expression in logic of what is known, they do not suffice to correctly draw consequences.", "While the following conditions (representing the expected situation) are consistent with the three formulae above, they are not the only ones.", ":     Indeed, another set of conditions that is consistent with the three formulae above is::     The frame problem is that specifying only which conditions are changed by the actions does not entail that all other conditions are not changed.", "This problem can be solved by adding the so-called “frame axioms”, which explicitly specify that all conditions not affected by actions are not changed while executing that action.", "For example, since the action executed at time 0 is that of opening the door, a frame axiom would state that the status of the light does not change from time 0 to time 1::The frame problem is that one such frame axiom is necessary for every pair of action and condition such that the action does not affect the condition.", "In other words, the problem is that of formalizing a dynamical domain without explicitly specifying the frame axioms.The solution proposed by McCarthy to solve this problem involves assuming that a minimal amount of condition changes have occurred; this solution is formalized using the framework of circumscription.", "The Yale shooting problem, however, shows that this solution is not always correct.", "Alternative solutions were then proposed, involving predicate completion, fluent occlusion, successor state axioms, etc.", "; they are explained below.", "By the end of the 1980s, the frame problem as defined by McCarthy and Hayes was solved.", "Even after that, however, the term “frame problem” was still used, in part to refer to the same problem but under different settings (e.g., concurrent actions), and in part to refer to the general problem of representing and reasoning with dynamical domains." ], [ "Solutions", "The following solutions depict how the frame problem is solved in various formalisms.", "The formalisms themselves are not presented in full: what is presented are simplified versions that are sufficient to explain the full solution.===Fluent occlusion solution===This solution was proposed by Erik Sandewall, who also defined a formal language for the specification of dynamical domains; therefore, such a domain can be first expressed in this language and then automatically translated into logic.", "In this article, only the expression in logic is shown, and only in the simplified language with no action names.The rationale of this solution is to represent not only the value of conditions over time, but also whether they can be affected by the last executed action.", "The latter is represented by another condition, called occlusion.", "A condition is said to be ''occluded'' in a given time point if an action has been just executed that makes the condition true or false as an effect.", "Occlusion can be viewed as “permission to change”: if a condition is occluded, it is relieved from obeying the constraint of inertia.In the simplified example of the door and the light, occlusion can be formalized by two predicates and .", "The rationale is that a condition can change value only if the corresponding occlusion predicate is true at the next time point.", "In turn, the occlusion predicate is true only when an action affecting the condition is executed.", ":::::In general, every action making a condition true or false also makes the corresponding occlusion predicate true.", "In this case, is true, making the antecedent of the fourth formula above false for ; therefore, the constraint that does not hold for .", "Therefore, can change value, which is also what is enforced by the third formula.In order for this condition to work, occlusion predicates have to be true only when they are made true as an effect of an action.", "This can be achieved either by circumscription or by predicate completion.", "It is worth noticing that occlusion does not necessarily imply a change: for example, executing the action of opening the door when it was already open (in the formalization above) makes the predicate true and makes true; however, has not changed value, as it was true already.===Predicate completion solution===This encoding is similar to the fluent occlusion solution, but the additional predicates denote change, not permission to change.", "For example, represents the fact that the predicate will change from time to .", "As a result, a predicate changes if and only if the corresponding change predicate is true.", "An action results in a change if and only if it makes true a condition that was previously false or vice versa.", ":::::The third formula is a different way of saying that opening the door causes the door to be opened.", "Precisely, it states that opening the door changes the state of the door if it had been previously closed.", "The last two conditions state that a condition changes value at time if and only if the corresponding change predicate is true at time .", "To complete the solution, the time points in which the change predicates are true have to be as few as possible, and this can be done by applying predicate completion to the rules specifying the effects of actions.===Successor state axioms solution===The value of a condition after the execution of an action can be determined bythe fact that the condition is true if and only if:# the action makes the condition true; or# the condition was previously true and the action does not make it false.A successor state axiom is a formalization in logic of these two facts.", "Forexample, if and are twoconditions used to denote that the action executed at time wasto open or close the door, respectively, the running example is encoded asfollows.", ": : : : This solution is centered around the value of conditions, rather than theeffects of actions.", "In other words, there is an axiom for every condition,rather than a formula for every action.", "Preconditions to actions (which are notpresent in this example) are formalized by other formulae.", "The successor stateaxioms are used in the variant to the situation calculus proposed byRay Reiter.===Fluent calculus solution===The fluent calculus is a variant of the situation calculus.", "It solves the frame problem by using first-order logicterms, rather than predicates, to represent the states.", "Convertingpredicates into terms in first-order logic is called reification; thefluent calculus can be seen as a logic in which predicates representing thestate of conditions are reified.The difference between a predicate and a term in first-order logic is that a term is a representation of an object (possibly a complex object composed of other objects), while a predicate represents a condition that can be true or false when evaluated over a given set of terms.In the fluent calculus, each possible state is represented by a term obtained by composition of other terms, each one representing the conditions that are true in state.", "For example, the state in which the door is open and the light is on is represented by the term .", "It is important to notice that a term is not true or false by itself, as it is an object and not a condition.", "In other words, the term represent a possible state, and does not by itself mean that this is the current state.", "A separate condition can be stated to specify that this is actually the state at a given time, e.g., means that this is the state at time .The solution to the frame problem given in the fluent calculus is to specify the effects of actions by stating how a term representing the state changes when the action is executed.", "For example, the action of opening the door at time 0 is represented by the formula:: The action of closing the door, which makes a condition false instead of true, is represented in a slightly different way:: This formula works provided that suitable axioms are given about and , e.g., a term containing the same condition twice is not a valid state (for example, is always false for every and ).===Event calculus solution===The event calculus uses terms for representing fluents, like the fluent calculus, but also has one or more axioms constraining the value of fluents, like the successor state axioms.", "There are many variants of the event calculus, but one of the simplest and most useful employs a single axiom to represent the law of inertia::::The axiom states that a fluent holds at a time , if an event happens and initiates at an earlier time , and there is no event that happens and terminates after or at the same time as and before .To apply the event calculus to a particular problem domain, it is necessary to define the and predicates for that domain.", "For example:::::To apply the event calculus to a particular problem in the domain, it is necessary to specify the events that happen in the context of the problem.", "For example:: .", ": .To solve a problem, such as ''which fluents hold at time 5?", "'', it is necessary to pose the problem as a goal, such as::In this case, obtaining the unique solution::The event calculus solves the frame problem, eliminating undesired solutions, by using a non-monotonic logic, such as first-order logic with circumscription or by treating the event calculus as a logic program using negation as failure.===Default logic solution===The frame problem can be thought of as the problem of formalizing the principle that, by default, \"everything is presumed to remain in the state in which it is\" (Leibniz, \"An Introduction to a Secret Encyclopædia\", ''c''.", "1679).", "This default, sometimes called the ''commonsense law of inertia'', was expressed by Raymond Reiter in default logic:: (if is true in situation , and it can be assumed that remains true after executing action , then we can conclude that remains true).Steve Hanks and Drew McDermott argued, on the basis of their Yale shooting example, that this solution to the frame problem is unsatisfactory.", "Hudson Turner showed, however, that it works correctly in the presence of appropriate additional postulates.===Answer set programming solution===The counterpart of the default logic solution in the language of answer set programming is a rule with strong negation::(if is true at time , and it can be assumed that remains true at time , then we can conclude that remains true).=== Separation logic solution ===Separation logic is a formalism for reasoning about computer programs using pre/post specifications of the form .", "Separation logic is an extension of Hoare logic oriented to reasoning about mutable data structures in computer memory and other dynamic resources, and it has a special connective *, pronounced \"and separately\", to support independent reasoning about disjoint memory regions.Separation logic employs a ''tight'' interpretation of pre/post specs, which say that the code can ''only'' access memory locations guaranteed to exist by the precondition.", "This leads to the soundness of the most important inference rule of the logic, the ''frame rule''The frame rule allows descriptions of arbitrary memory outside the footprint (memory accessed) of the code to be added to a specification: this enables the initial specification to concentrate only on the footprint.", "For example, the inferencecaptures that code which sorts a list ''x'' does not unsort a separate list ''y,'' and it does this without mentioning ''y'' at all in the initial spec above the line.Automation of the frame rule has led to significant increases in the scalability of automated reasoning techniques for code, eventually deployed industrially to codebases with tens of millions of lines.There appears to be some similarity between the separation logic solution to the frame problem and that of the fluent calculus mentioned above.===Action description languages===Action description languages elude the frame problem rather than solving it.", "An action description language is a formal language with a syntax that is specific for describing situations and actions.", "For example, that the action makes the door open if not locked is expressed by:: causes if The semantics of an action description language depends on what the language can express (concurrent actions, delayed effects, etc.)", "and is usually based on transition systems.Since domains are expressed in these languages rather than directly in logic, the frame problem only arises when a specification given in an action description logic is to be translated into logic.", "Typically, however, a translation is given from these languages to answer set programming rather than first-order logic." ], [ "See also", "* Binding problem* Common sense* Commonsense reasoning* Defeasible reasoning* Linear logic*Separation logic* Non-monotonic logic* Qualification problem* Ramification problem* Symbol grounding* Yale shooting problem" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * Presented at ''Celebration of John McCarthy's Accomplishments'', Stanford University, March 25, 2012.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Some Philosophical Problems from the Standpoint of Artificial Intelligence; the original article of McCarthy and Hayes that proposed the problem." ] ]
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[ [ "Frans Eemil Sillanpää" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Frans Eemil Sillanpää''' (; 16 September 1888 – 3 June 1964) was a Finnish author.", "In 1939, he became the first Finnish writer to be awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature \"for his deep understanding of his country's peasantry and the exquisite art with which he has portrayed their way of life and their relationship with Nature\"." ], [ "Early life", "Frans Eemil Sillanpää was born into a peasant farming family in Hämeenkyrö.", "Although his parents were poor, they managed to send him to school in Tampere.", "At school Sillanpää was a good student and with aid from his benefactor Henrik Liljeroos he entered the University of Helsinki in 1908 to study medicine.", "His acquaintances at university included the painters Eero Järnefelt and Pekka Halonen, composer Jean Sibelius and author Juhani Aho." ], [ "Career", "In 1913 Sillanpää moved from Helsinki to his old home village and devoted himself to writing.", "In 1914 Sillanpää wrote articles for the newspaper ''Uusi Suometar''.", "In 1916 Sillanpää married Sigrid Maria Salomäki, whom he had met in 1914.By principle, Sillanpää was against all forms of violence and believed in scientific optimism.", "In his work he portrayed rural people as living united with the land.The novel ''Hurskas kurjuus'' (Meek Heritage) (1919) depicted the reasons for Finnish Civil War, and despite its objectivity, was controversial at the time.Sillanpää won international fame for his novel ''Nuorena nukkunut'' (translated to English as ''The Maid Silja'') in 1931.In 1939, Sillanpää was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature \"for his deep understanding of his country's peasantry and the exquisite art with which he has portrayed their way of life and their relationship with Nature.\"", "A few days after he received the prize, talks between Finland and Soviet Union broke down and the Winter War began.Sillanpää traveled to Stockholm to receive the Nobel Prize and donated the golden medal to be melted for funds to aid the war effort.Before the Winter War, Sillanpää wrote the lyrics for ''Sillanpään marssilaulu'' to lift his spirits when his eldest son Esko was partaking in military practices at Karelian Isthmus.In 1939, Sillanpää's wife Sigrid died of pneumonia leaving him with eight children.", "Some time after, Sillanpää married his secretary Anna von Hertzen (1900–1983).In 1941 Sillanpää divorced his wife Anna.", "His alcoholism and other ailments needed hospital treatment.", "In 1943 he returned to public life as a bearded old 'Grandpa Sillanpää'.", "His radio appearances, especially his tradition of speaking on Christmas Eve from 1945 to 1963 attracted listeners.The asteroid 1446 Sillanpää, discovered on January 26, 1938 by Finnish astronomer and physicist Yrjö Väisälä, was named after him." ], [ "Death", "Sillanpää died on 3 June 1964 in Helsinki aged 75." ], [ "Works", "Sillanpää sitting for the sculptor Mauno Oittinen in 1931.", "* ''Elämä ja aurinko'' (1916)* ''Ihmislapsia elämän saatossa'' (1917)* ''Hurskas kurjuus'' (translated as ''Meek Heritage'') (1919)* ''Rakas isänmaani'' (1919)* ''Hiltu ja Ragnar'' (1923)* ''Enkelten suojatit'' (1923)* ''Omistani ja omilleni'' (1924)* ''Maan tasalta'' (1924)* ''Töllinmäki'' (1925)* ''Rippi'' (1928)* ''Kiitos hetkistä, Herra...'' (1930)* ''Nuorena nukkunut'' (translated as ''The Maid Silja'') (1931)* ''Miehen tie'' (1932)* ''Virranpohjalta'' (1933)* (translated as ''People in the Summer Night'') (1934)* ''Viidestoista'' (1936)* ''Elokuu'' (1941)* ''Ihmiselon ihanuus ja kurjuus'' (1945)" ], [ "Films", "Poststamp released in 1980 in honour of Sillanpää.Numerous of his works have been made into films:* ''Nuorena nukkunut'', Teuvo Tulio.", "1937* ''One Man's Faith'', Nyrki Tapiovaara and Hugo Hytönen.", "1940* ''Ihmiset suviyössä'', Valentin Vaala.", "1948* ''Poika eli kesäänsä'', Roland af Hällström.", "1955 (based on novel ''Elämä ja aurinko'')* ''The Harvest Month'', Matti Kassila.", "1956* ''Silja – nuorena nukkunut'', Jack Witikka.", "1956* ''The Glory and Misery of Human Life'', Matti Kassila.", "1988" ], [ "See also", "* Juhani Aho" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* \"The Game Behind Finland's First Nobel prize\", article (in Swedish; based on documents in the Nobel Archive), first published in Svenska Dagbladet, 5 December 2009; later published in the Finnish daily newspaper Helsingin Sanomat.", "* F. E. Sillanpään Seura* * List of Works* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "February 27" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 380 – Edict of Thessalonica: Emperor Theodosius I and his co-emperors Gratian and Valentinian II declare their wish that all Roman citizens convert to Nicene Christianity.", "* 425 – The University of Constantinople is founded by Emperor Theodosius II at the urging of his wife Aelia Eudocia.", "* 907 – Abaoji, chieftain of the Yila tribe, is named khagan of the Khitans.", "*1560 – The Treaty of Berwick is signed by England and the Lords of the Congregation of Scotland, establishing the terms under which English armed forces were to be permitted in Scotland in order to expel occupying French troops.", "*1594 – Henry IV is crowned King of France.===1601–1900===*1617 – Sweden and the Tsardom of Russia sign the Treaty of Stolbovo, ending the Ingrian War and shutting Russia out of the Baltic Sea.", "*1626 – Yuan Chonghuan is appointed Governor of Liaodong, after leading the Chinese into a great victory against the Manchurians under Nurhaci.", "*1776 – American Revolutionary War: The Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge in North Carolina breaks up a Loyalist militia.", "*1782 – American Revolutionary War: The House of Commons of Great Britain votes against further war in America.", "*1801 – Pursuant to the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801, Washington, D.C. is placed under the jurisdiction of the U.S.", "Congress.", "*1809 – Action of 27 February 1809: Captain Bernard Dubourdieu captures HMS ''Proserpine''.", "*1812 – Argentine War of Independence: Manuel Belgrano raises the Flag of Argentina in the city of Rosario for the first time.", "* 1812 – Poet Lord Byron gives his first address as a member of the House of Lords, in defense of Luddite violence against Industrialism in his home county of Nottinghamshire.", "*1844 – The Dominican Republic gains independence from Haiti.", "*1860 – Abraham Lincoln makes a speech at Cooper Union in the city of New York that is largely responsible for his election to the Presidency.", "*1864 – American Civil War: The first Northern prisoners arrive at the Confederate prison at Andersonville, Georgia.", "*1870 – The current flag of Japan is first adopted as the national flag for Japanese merchant ships.", "*1881 – First Boer War: The Battle of Majuba Hill takes place.", "*1898 – King George I of Greece survives an assassination attempt.", "*1900 – Second Boer War: In South Africa, British military leaders receive an unconditional notice of surrender from Boer General Piet Cronjé at the Battle of Paardeberg.", "* 1900 – The British Labour Party is founded.", "* 1900 – Fußball-Club Bayern München is founded.===1901–present===*1902 – Second Boer War: Australian soldiers Harry \"Breaker\" Morant and Peter Handcock are executed in Pretoria after being convicted of war crimes.", "*1916 – Ocean liner ''SS Maloja'' strikes a mine near Dover and sinks with the loss of 155 lives.", "*1921 – The International Working Union of Socialist Parties is founded in Vienna.", "*1922 – A challenge to the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, allowing women the right to vote, is rebuffed by the Supreme Court of the United States in ''Leser v.", "Garnett''.", "*1932 – The Mäntsälä rebellion begins when members of the far-right Lapua Movement start shooting at the social democrats' event in Mäntsälä, Finland.", "*1933 – Reichstag fire: Germany's parliament building in Berlin, the Reichstag, is set on fire; Marinus van der Lubbe, a young Dutch Communist claims responsibility.", "*1939 – United States labor law: The U.S. Supreme Court rules in ''NLRB v. Fansteel Metallurgical Corp.'' that the National Labor Relations Board has no authority to force an employer to rehire workers who engage in sit-down strikes.", "*1940 – Martin Kamen and Sam Ruben discover carbon-14.", "*1942 – World War II: During the Battle of the Java Sea, an Allied strike force is defeated by a Japanese task force in the Java Sea in the Dutch East Indies.", "*1943 – The Smith Mine #3 in Bearcreek, Montana, explodes, killing 74 men.", "* 1943 – The Holocaust: In Berlin, the Gestapo arrest 1,800 Jewish men with German wives, leading to the Rosenstrasse protest.", "*1951 – The Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution, limiting Presidents to two terms, is ratified.", "*1961 – The first congress of the Spanish Trade Union Organisation is inaugurated.", "*1962 – Vietnam War: Two dissident Republic of Vietnam Air Force pilots bomb the Independence Palace in Saigon in a failed attempt to assassinate South Vietnam President Ngô Đình Diệm.", "*1963 – The Dominican Republic receives its first democratically elected president, Juan Bosch, since the end of the dictatorship led by Rafael Trujillo.", "*1964 – The Government of Italy asks for help to keep the Leaning Tower of Pisa from toppling over.", "*1971 – Doctors in the first Dutch abortion clinic (the Mildredhuis in Arnhem) start performing artificially-induced abortions.", "*1973 – The American Indian Movement occupies Wounded Knee in protest of the federal government.", "*1976 – The former Spanish territory of Western Sahara, under the auspices of the Polisario Front declares independence as the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.", "*1988 – Sumgait pogrom: The Armenian community in Sumgait, Azerbaijan is targeted in a violent pogrom.", "*1991 – Gulf War: U.S. President George H. W. Bush announces that \"Kuwait is liberated\".", "*2001 – Loganair Flight 670A crashes while attempting to make a water landing in the Firth of Forth in Scotland.", "*2002 – Ryanair Flight 296 catches fire at London Stansted Airport causing minor injuries.", "* 2002 – Godhra train burning: A Muslim mob torches a train returning from Ayodhya, killing 59 Hindu pilgrims.", "*2004 – A bombing of a SuperFerry by Abu Sayyaf in the Philippines' worst terrorist attack kills more than 100 passengers.", "* 2004 – Shoko Asahara, the leader of the Japanese doomsday cult Aum Shinrikyo, is sentenced to death for masterminding the 1995 Tokyo subway sarin attack.", "*2007 – Chinese stock bubble of 2007: The Shanghai Stock Exchange falls 9%, the largest daily fall in ten years, following speculation about a crackdown on illegal share offerings and trading, and fears about accelerating inflation.", "*2008 – Jemaah Islamiyah terrorist Mas Selamat Kastari escapes from a detention center in Singapore, hiding in Johor, Malaysia until he was recaptured over a year later.", "*2010 – An earthquake measuring 8.8 on the moment magnitude scale strikes central parts of Chile leaving over 500 victims, and thousands injured.", "The quake triggers a tsunami which strikes Hawaii shortly after.", "*2013 – A shooting takes place at a factory in Menznau, Switzerland, in which five people (including the perpetrator) are killed and five others injured.", "*2015 – Russian politician Boris Nemtsov is assassinated in Moscow while out walking with his girlfriend.", "*2019 – Pakistan Air Force JF-17 Thunder downs Indian pilot Abhinandan Varthaman's Mig-21 in an aerial dogfight and captures him after conducting airstrikes in Jammu and Kashmir." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 272 – Constantine the Great, Roman emperor (d. 337)*1343 – Alberto d'Este, Marquis of Ferrara (d. 1393)*1427 – Ruprecht, Archbishop of Cologne (d. 1480)*1500 – João de Castro, Portuguese nobleman and fourth viceroy of Portuguese India (d. 1548)*1535 – Min Phalaung, Burmese monarch (d. 1593)*1567 – William Alabaster, English poet (d. 1640)*1572 – Francis II, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1632)*1575 – John Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (d. 1616)===1601–1900===*1622 – Carel Fabritius, Dutch painter (d. 1654)*1630 – Roche Braziliano, Dutch pirate (d. 1671)*1659 – William Sherard, English botanist (d. 1728)*1667 – Ludwika Karolina Radziwiłł, Prussian-Lithuanian wife of Charles III Philip, Elector Palatine (d. 1695)*1689 – Pietro Gnocchi, Italian composer, director, historian, and geographer (d. 1775)*1703 – Lord Sidney Beauclerk, English politician (d. 1744)*1711 – Constantine Mavrocordatos, Ottoman ruler (d. 1769)*1724 – Frederick Michael, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken (d. 1767)*1732 – Jean de Dieu-Raymond de Cucé de Boisgelin, French cardinal (d. 1804)*1746 – Louis-Jérôme Gohier, French politician, French Minister of Justice (d. 1830)*1748 – Anders Sparrman, Swedish physician and activist (d. 1820)*1767 – Jacques-Charles Dupont de l'Eure, French lawyer and politician, 24th Prime Minister of France (d. 1855)*1779 – Thomas Hazlehurst, English businessman, founded Hazlehurst & Sons (d. 1842)*1789 – Manuel Rodríguez Erdoíza, Chilean lawyer and politician, Chilean Minister of National Defense (d. 1818)*1795 – José Antonio Navarro, American merchant and politician (d. 1871)*1799 – Edward Belcher, British naval officer, hydrographer, and explorer (d. 1877)* 1799 – Frederick Catherwood, British artist, architect and explorer (d. 1854)*1807 – Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, American poet and educator (d. 1882)*1809 – Jean-Charles Cornay, French missionary and saint (d. 1837)*1816 – William Nicholson, English-Australian politician, 3rd Premier of Victoria (d. 1865)*1847 – Ellen Terry, English actress (d. 1928)*1848 – Hubert Parry, English composer and historian (d. 1918)*1859 – Bertha Pappenheim, Austrian-German activist and author (d. 1936)*1863 – Joaquín Sorolla, Spanish painter (d. 1923)* 1863 – George Herbert Mead, American sociologist and philosopher (d. 1930)*1864 – Eemil Nestor Setälä, Finnish linguist and politician, Finnish Minister for Foreign Affairs (d. 1935)*1867 – Irving Fisher, American economist and statistician (d. 1947)* 1867 – Wilhelm Peterson-Berger, Swedish composer and critic (d. 1942)*1869 – Alice Hamilton, American physician and academic (d. 1970)*1872 – Alexandru Vaida-Voevod, Romanian politician, Prime Minister of Romania (d. 1950)*1875 – Vladimir Filatov, Russian-Ukrainian ophthalmologist and surgeon (d. 1956)*1877 – Adela Verne, English pianist and composer (d. 1952)* 1877 – Joseph Grinnell, American zoologist and biologist (d. 1939)*1878 – Alvan T. Fuller, American businessman and politician, 50th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1958)*1880 – Xenophon Kasdaglis, Greek-Egyptian tennis player (d. 1943)*1881 – Sveinn Björnsson, Danish-Icelandic lawyer and politician, 1st President of Iceland (d. 1952)* 1881 – L. E. J. Brouwer, Dutch mathematician, philosopher, and academic (d. 1966)*1886 – Hugo Black, American captain, jurist, and politician (d. 1971)*1887 – Pyotr Nesterov, Russian captain, pilot, and engineer (d. 1914)*1888 – Roberto Assagioli, Italian psychiatrist and psychologist (d. 1974)* 1888 – Lotte Lehmann, German-American soprano and actress (d. 1976)* 1888 – Stephen McKenna, English novelist (d. 1967)*1890 – Mabel Keaton Staupers, American nurse and advocate (d. 1989)*1891 – David Sarnoff, American businessman, founded RCA (d. 1971)*1892 – William Demarest, American actor (d. 1983)*1895 – Miyagiyama Fukumatsu, Japanese sumo wrestler (d. 1943)*1897 – Marian Anderson, American singer (d. 1993)*1899 – Charles Best, American-Canadian physiologist and biochemist, co-discovered insulin (d. 1978)===1901–present===*1901 – Marino Marini, Italian sculptor and academic (d. 1980)* 1901 – Kotama Okada, Japanese religious leader (d. 1974)*1902 – Lúcio Costa, French-Brazilian architect and engineer, designed Gustavo Capanema Palace (d. 1998)* 1902 – Gene Sarazen, American golfer and sportscaster (d. 1999)* 1902 – John Steinbeck, American journalist and author, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1968)*1903 – Reginald Gardiner, English-American actor and singer (d. 1980)* 1903 – Hans Rohrbach, German mathematician (d. 1993)* 1903 – Joseph B. Soloveitchik, Belarusian-American rabbi and philosopher (d. 1993)*1904 – James T. Farrell, American author and poet (d. 1979)* 1904 – André Leducq, French cyclist (d. 1980)* 1904 – Yulii Borisovich Khariton, Russian physicist and academic (d. 1996)*1905 – Franchot Tone, American actor, singer, and producer (d. 1968)*1907 – Mildred Bailey, American singer (d. 1951)* 1907 – Momčilo Đujić, Serbian-American priest and commander (d. 1999)*1910 – Joan Bennett, American actress (d. 1990)* 1910 – Peter De Vries, American journalist and author (d. 1993)* 1910 – Genrikh Kasparyan, Armenian chess player and composer (d. 1995)* 1910 – Kelly Johnson, American engineer, co-founded Skunk Works (d. 1990)*1911 – Oscar Heidenstam, English bodybuilder (d. 1991)*1912 – Kusumagraj, Indian author, poet, and playwright (d. 1999)*1913 – Paul Ricœur, French philosopher and academic (d. 2005)* 1913 – Kazimierz Sabbat, Polish soldier and politician, President of Poland (d. 1989)* 1913 – Irwin Shaw, American author and screenwriter (d. 1984)*1915 – Denis Whitaker, Canadian general, football player, and businessman (d. 2001)*1917 – John Connally, American lieutenant and politician, 61st United States Secretary of Treasury (d. 1993)*1920 – Reg Simpson, English cricketer (d. 2013)*1921 – Theodore Van Kirk, American soldier, pilot, and navigator (d. 2014)*1922 – Hans Rookmaaker, Dutch historian, author, and scholar (d. 1977)*1923 – Dexter Gordon, American saxophonist, composer, and actor (d. 1990)*1925 – Pia Sebastiani, Argentine pianist and composer (d. 2015)* 1925 – Kenneth Koch, American poet, playwright and professor (d. 2002)*1926 – David H. Hubel, Canadian-American neurophysiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2013)*1927 – Aira Samulin, Finnish dancer and entrepreneur (d. 2023)* 1927 – Peter Whittle, English-New Zealand mathematician and theorist (d. 2021) *1928 – René Clemencic, Austrian composer, recorder player, harpsichordist, conductor and clavichord player*1929 – Jack Gibson, Australian rugby league player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2008)* 1929 – Djalma Santos, Brazilian footballer (d. 2013)* 1929 – Patricia Ward Hales, British tennis player (d. 1985)*1930 – Jovan Krkobabić, Serbian politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Serbia (d. 2014)* 1930 – Peter Stone, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2003)* 1930 – Paul von Ragué Schleyer, American chemist and academic (d. 2014)* 1930 – Joanne Woodward, American actress *1932 – Dame Elizabeth Taylor, English-American actress and humanitarian (d. 2011)* 1932 – David Young, Baron Young of Graffham, English businessman and politician, Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills (d. 2022)*1933 – Raymond Berry, American football player and coach* 1933 – Malcolm Wallop, American politician (d. 2011)*1934 – Vincent Fourcade, French interior designer (d. 1992)* 1934 – Ralph Nader, American lawyer, politician, and activist* 1934 – N. Scott Momaday, American poet and writer (d. 2024) *1935 – Mirella Freni, Italian soprano and actress (d. 2020)* 1935 – Uri Shulevitz, American author and illustrator*1936 – Sonia Johnson, American feminist activist and author* 1936 – Ron Barassi, Australian footballer and coach (d. 2023)* 1936 – Roger Mahony, American cardinal*1937 – Barbara Babcock, American actress*1938 – Jake Thackray, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and journalist (d. 2002)*1939 – Don McKinnon, English-New Zealand farmer and politician, 12th Deputy Prime Minister of New Zealand* 1939 – Peter Revson, American race car driver (d. 1974)*1940 – Pierre Duchesne, Canadian lawyer and politician, 28th Lieutenant Governor of Quebec* 1940 – Howard Hesseman, American actor (d. 2022)* 1940 – Bill Hunter, Australian actor (d. 2011)*1941 – Paddy Ashdown, British soldier and politician (d. 2018)*1942 – Jimmy Burns, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1942 – Robert H. Grubbs, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2021)* 1942 – Charlayne Hunter-Gault, American journalist* 1942 – Klaus-Dieter Sieloff, German footballer (d. 2011)*1943 – Mary Frann, American actress (d. 1998)* 1943 – Morten Lauridsen, American composer and conductor* 1943 – Carlos Alberto Parreira, Brazilian footballer and manager*1944 – Ken Grimwood, American author (d. 2003)* 1944 – Graeme Pollock, South African cricketer and coach* 1944 – Sir Roger Scruton, English philosopher and writer (d. 2020)*1947 – Alan Guth, American physicist and cosmologist* 1947 – Gidon Kremer, Latvian violinist and conductor* 1947 – Sonia Manzano Vela, Ecuadorian writer*1950 – Annabel Goldie, Scottish lawyer and politician* 1950 – Julia Neuberger, Baroness Neuberger, English rabbi and politician*1951 – Carl A. Anderson, 13th Supreme Knight of the Knights of Columbus* 1951 – Lee Atwater, American journalist, activist and political strategist (d. 1991)* 1951 – Walter de Silva, Italian car designer* 1951 – Steve Harley, English singer-songwriter and guitarist*1953 – Gavin Esler, Scottish journalist and author* 1953 – Ian Khama, English-Botswanan lieutenant and politician, 4th President of Botswana* 1953 – Stelios Kouloglou, Greek journalist, author, director and politician*1954 – Neal Schon, American rock guitarist and singer-songwriter*1956 – Belus Prajoux, Chilean tennis player* 1956 – Meena Keshwar Kamal, Afghan activist, founded the Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (d. 1987)*1957 – Danny Antonucci, Canadian animator, producer, and screenwriter* 1957 – Kevin Curran, American screenwriter and television producer (d. 2016)* 1957 – Robert de Castella, Australian runner* 1957 – Adrian Smith, English guitarist and songwriter * 1957 – Timothy Spall, English actor *1958 – Naas Botha, South African rugby player and sportscaster* 1958 – Maggie Hassan, American politician, 81st Governor of New Hampshire*1960 – Andrés Gómez, Ecuadorian tennis player* 1960 – Johnny Van Zant, American singer-songwriter*1961 – James Worthy, American basketball player and sportscaster*1962 – Adam Baldwin, American actor*1963 – Nasty Suicide, Finnish musician and pharmacist*1964 – Jeffrey Pasley, American educator and academic*1965 – Noah Emmerich, American actor* 1965 – Pedro Chaves, Portuguese racing driver*1966 – Donal Logue, Canadian actor and director* 1966 – Oliver Reck, German footballer and manager* 1966 – Baltasar Kormákur, Icelandic actor, director, and producer*1967 – Dănuț Lupu, Romanian footballer* 1967 – Jony Ive, English industrial designer, former chief design officer of Apple*1968 – Matt Stairs, Canadian baseball player and sportscaster*1969 – Gareth Llewellyn, Welsh rugby union player* 1969 – Juan E. Gilbert, American computer scientist, inventor, and academic*1970 – Kent Desormeaux, American jockey* 1970 – Patricia Petibon, French soprano and actress*1971 – Sara Blakely, American businesswoman, founded Spanx* 1971 – Derren Brown, English magician and painter* 1971 – David Rikl, Czech-English tennis player* 1971 – Roman Giertych, Polish lawyer and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the Republic of Poland* 1971 – Rozonda Thomas, American singer-songwriter, dancer, and actress*1973 – Peter Andre, English-Australian singer-songwriter and actor*1974 – Carte Goodwin, former United States senator from West Virginia*1975 – Aitor González, Spanish racing driver* 1975 – Prodromos Korkizoglou, Greek decathlete*1976 – Ludovic Capelle, Belgian cyclist* 1976 – Tony Gonzalez, American football player* 1976 – Sergei Semak, Ukrainian-Russian footballer and manager*1978 – James Beattie, English footballer and manager* 1978 – Kakha Kaladze, Georgian footballer and politician* 1978 – Emelie Öhrstig, Swedish skier and cyclist* 1978 – Simone Di Pasquale, Italian ballet dancer*1980 – Chelsea Clinton, American journalist and academic* 1980 – Scott Prince, Australian rugby league player*1981 – Josh Groban, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor * 1981 – Natalie Grandin, English-South African tennis player* 1981 – Élodie Ouédraogo, Belgian sprinter*1982 – Ali Bastian, English actress* 1982 – Pat Richards, Australian rugby league player* 1982 – Bruno Soares, Brazilian tennis player*1983 – Devin Harris, American basketball player* 1983 – Kate Mara, American actress *1984 – Aníbal Sánchez, American baseball player* 1984 – Lotta Schelin, Swedish footballer* 1984 – Akseli Kokkonen, Norwegian ski jumper*1985 – Diniyar Bilyaletdinov, Russian footballer* 1985 – Vladislav Kulik, Ukrainian-Russian footballer* 1985 – Asami Abe, Japanese singer and actress* 1985 – Thiago Neves, Brazilian footballer* 1985 – Brett Stewart, Australian rugby league player*1986 – Yovani Gallardo, Mexican baseball player* 1986 – Jonathan Moreira, Brazilian footballer* 1986 – Sandeep Singh, Indian field hockey player*1987 – Florence Kiplagat, Kenyan runner* 1987 – Valeriy Andriytsev, Ukrainian wrestler*1988 – Iain Ramsay, Australian footballer* 1988 – Dustin Jeffrey, Canadian ice hockey player*1989 – David Button, English footballer* 1989 – Lloyd Rigby, English footballer*1990 – Chandler Jones, American football player*1990 – Adam Morgan, American baseball player* 1990 – Elijah Taylor, New Zealand rugby league player*1991 – Azeem Rafiq, Pakistani cricketer*1992 – Ioannis Potouridis, Greek footballer* 1992 – Jonjo Shelvey, English footballer*1995 – Laura Gulbe, Latvian tennis player*1996 – Chris Godwin, American football player* 1996 – Chittaphon Leechaiyapornkul, Thai singer and dancer*1998 – Todd Cantwell, English footballer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 640 – Pepin of Landen, Frankish lord (b.", "580)* 906 – Conrad the Elder, Frankish nobleman* 956 – Theophylact, Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople (b.", "917)*1167 – Robert of Melun, English theologian and bishop*1416 – Eleanor of Castile, queen consort of Navarre (b. c. 1363)*1425 – Prince Vasily I of Moscow (b.", "1371)*1483 – William VIII of Montferrat (b.", "1420)*1558 – Johann Faber of Heilbronn, controversial Catholic preacher (b.", "1504)* 1558 – Kunigunde of Brandenburg-Kulmbach, German Noblewoman (b.", "1524)===1601–1900===*1659 – Henry Dunster, English-American clergyman and academic (b.", "1609)*1699 – Charles Paulet, 1st Duke of Bolton, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Hampshire (b.", "1625)*1706 – John Evelyn, English gardener and author (b.", "1620)*1712 – Sir William Villiers, 3rd Baronet, English politician (b.", "1645)*1720 – Samuel Parris, English-American minister (b.", "1653)*1735 – John Arbuthnot, Scottish physician and polymath (b.", "1667)*1784 – Count of St. Germain, European adventurer (b.", "1710)*1795 – Tanikaze Kajinosuke, Japanese sumo wrestler (b.", "1750)*1844 – Nicholas Biddle, American banker and politician (b.", "1786)*1887 – Alexander Borodin, Russian composer and chemist (b.", "1833)*1892 – Louis Vuitton, French fashion designer and businessman, founded Louis Vuitton (b.", "1821)===1901–present===*1902 – Harry \"Breaker\" Morant, English-Australian lieutenant (b.", "1864)*1921 – Schofield Haigh, English cricketer and umpire (b.", "1871)*1931 – Chandra Shekhar Azad, Indian revolutionary (b.", "1906)*1936 – Joshua W. Alexander, American judge and politician, 2nd United States Secretary of Commerce (b.", "1852)* 1936 – Ivan Pavlov, Russian physiologist and physician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1849)*1937 – Hosteen Klah, Navajo artist, medicine man, and weaver (b.", "1867) * 1937 – Emily Malbone Morgan, American saint, foundress of the Society of the Companions of the Holy Cross (b.", "1862)*1943 – Kostis Palamas, Greek poet and playwright (b.", "1859)*1956 – Ganesh Vasudev Mavalankar, Indian lawyer and politician, 1st Speaker of the Lok Sabha (b.", "1888)*1964 – Orry-Kelly, Australian-American costume designer (b.", "1897)*1968 – Frankie Lymon, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1942)*1969 – Marius Barbeau, Canadian ethnographer and academic (b.", "1883)*1973 – Bill Everett, American author and illustrator (b.", "1917)*1977 – John Dickson Carr, American author and playwright (b.", "1905)*1980 – George Tobias, American actor (b.", "1901)*1985 – Ray Ellington, English singer and drummer (b.", "1916)* 1985 – Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., American politician and diplomat, 3rd United States Ambassador to the United Nations (b.", "1902)* 1985 – J. Pat O'Malley, English-American actor and singer (b.", "1904)*1986 – Jacques Plante, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b.", "1929)*1987 – Bill Holman, American cartoonist (b.", "1903)* 1987 – Franciszek Blachnicki, Polish priest (b.", "1921)*1989 – Konrad Lorenz, Austrian zoologist, ethologist, and ornithologist, Nobel laureate (b.", "1903)*1992 – S. I. Hayakawa, Canadian-American linguist and politician (b.", "1906)*1993 – Lillian Gish, American actress (b.", "1893)*1998 – George H. Hitchings, American pharmacologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1905)* 1998 – J. T. Walsh, American actor (b.", "1943)*1999 – Horace Tapscott, American pianist and composer (b.", "1934)*2002 – Spike Milligan, Irish soldier, actor, comedian, and author (b.", "1918)*2003 – John Lanchbery, English-Australian composer and conductor (b.", "1923)* 2003 – Fred Rogers, American minister and television host (b.", "1928)*2004 – Yoshihiko Amino, Japanese historian and academic (b.", "1928)* 2004 – Paul Sweezy, American economist and journalist (b.", "1910)*2006 – Otis Chandler, American publisher (b.", "1927)* 2006 – Robert Lee Scott, Jr., American general and author (b.", "1908)* 2006 – Linda Smith, English comedian and author (b.", "1958)*2007 – Bernd Freytag von Loringhoven, German general (b.", "1914)*2008 – William F. Buckley, Jr., American author and journalist, founded the ''National Review'' (b.", "1925)* 2008 – Myron Cope, American journalist and sportscaster (b.", "1929)* 2008 – Ivan Rebroff, German vocalist of Russian descent with four and a half octave range (b.", "1931)*2010 – Nanaji Deshmukh, Indian educator and activist (b.", "1916)*2011 – Frank Buckles, American soldier (b.", "1901)* 2011 – Necmettin Erbakan, Turkish engineer and politician, 32nd Prime Minister of Turkey (b.", "1926)* 2011 – Duke Snider, American baseball player, manager, and sportscaster (b.", "1926)* 2011 – Gary Winick, American director and producer (b.", "1961)*2012 – Ma Jiyuan, Chinese general (b.", "1921)* 2012 – Tina Strobos, Dutch physician and psychiatrist (b.", "1920)* 2012 – Helga Vlahović, Croatian journalist and producer (b.", "1945)*2013 – Van Cliburn, American pianist (b.", "1934)* 2013 – Ramon Dekkers, Dutch mixed martial artist and kick-boxer (b.", "1969)* 2013 – Dale Robertson, American actor (b.", "1923)* 2013 – Adolfo Zaldívar, Chilean lawyer and politician (b.", "1943)*2014 – Aaron Allston, American game designer and author (b.", "1960)* 2014 – Terry Rand, American basketball player (b.", "1934)*2015 – Boris Nemtsov, Russian academic and politician, First Deputy Prime Minister of Russia (b.", "1959)* 2015 – Leonard Nimoy, American actor (b.", "1931)* 2015 – Julio César Strassera, Argentinian lawyer and jurist (b.", "1933)*2016 – Yi Cheol-seung, South Korean lawyer and politician (b.", "1922)* 2016 – James Z. Davis, American lawyer and judge (b.", "1943)*2018 – Steve Folkes, Australian rugby league player and coach (b.", "1959)*2019 – France-Albert René, Seychellois politician, 2nd President of Seychelles (b.", "1935)*2021 – Ng Man-tat, Hong Kong actor (b.", "1952)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Gabriel of Our Lady of Sorrows**George Herbert (Anglicanism)**Honorina**Leander**February 27 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Doctors' Day (Vietnam)*Independence Day (Dominican Republic), celebrates the first independence of Dominican Republic from Haiti in 1844.", "*Majuba Day (some Afrikaners in South Africa)*Marathi Language Day (Maharashtra, India) *World NGO Day" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on February 27" ] ]
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