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A recent study of several hundred female physicians showed that their tendency to develop coronary disease was inversely proportional to their dietary intake of two vitamins, folate and B6. The researchers concluded that folate and B6 inhibit the development of heart disease in women. | 200512_4-LR2_9_9 | [
"The foods that contain significant amounts of the vitamins folate and B6 also contain significant amounts of nonvitamin nutrients that inhibit heart disease.",
"It is very unlikely that a chemical compound would inhibit coronary disease in women but not in men.",
"Physicians are more likely than nonphysicians to know a great deal about the link between diet and health.",
"The physicians in the study had not been screened in advance to ensure that none had preexisting heart conditions.",
"The vitamins folate and B6 are present only in very small amounts in most foods."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following would, if true, most weaken the researchers' conclusion? |
The proposed coal-burning electric plant should be approved, since no good arguments have been offered against it. After all, all the arguments against it have been presented by competing electricity producers. | 200512_4-LR2_10_10 | [
"The competing electricity producers would stand to lose large amounts of revenue from the building of the coal-burning electric plant.",
"If a person's arguments against a proposal are defective, then that person has a vested interest in seeing that the proposal is not implemented.",
"Approval of the coal-burning electric plant would please coal suppliers more than disapproval would please suppliers of fuel to the competing electricity producers.",
"If good arguments are presented for a proposal, then that proposal should be approved.",
"Arguments made by those who have a vested interest in the outcome of a proposal are not good arguments."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the reasoning above depends? |
Psychiatrist: While the first appearance of a phobia is usually preceded by a traumatizing event, not everyone who is traumatized by an event develops a phobia. Furthermore, many people with phobias have never been traumatized. These two considerations show that traumatizing events do not contribute to the occurrence of phobias. | 200512_4-LR2_11_11 | [
"treats the cause of the occurrence of a type of phenomenon as an effect of phenomena of that type",
"presumes, without providing justification, that some psychological events have no causes that can be established by scientific investigation",
"builds the conclusion drawn into the support cited for that conclusion",
"takes for granted that a type of phenomenon contributes to the occurrence of another type of phenomenon only if phenomena of these two types are invariably associated",
"derives a causal connection from mere association when there is no independent evidence of causal connection"
]
| 3 | The reasoning in the psychiatrist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Some species are called "indicator species" because the loss of a population of such a species serves as an early warning of problems arising from pollution. Environmentalists tracking the effects of pollution have increasingly paid heed to indicator species; yet environmentalists would be misguided if they attributed the loss of a population to pollution in all cases. Though declines in population often do signal environmental degradation, they are just as often a result of the natural evolution of an ecosystem. We must remember that, in nature, change is the status quo. | 200512_4-LR2_12_12 | [
"Environmentalists sometimes overreact to the loss of a specific population.",
"The loss of a specific population should not always be interpreted as a sign of environmental degradation.",
"Environmentalists' use of indicator species in tracking the effects of pollution is often problematic.",
"The loss of a specific population is often the result of natural changes in an ecosystem and in such cases should not be resisted.",
"The loss of a specific population as a result of pollution is simply part of nature's status quo."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the argument's conclusion? |
Columnist: Tagowa's testimony in the Pemberton trial was not heard outside the courtroom, so we cannot be sure what she said. Afterward, however, she publicly affirmed her belief in Pemberton's guilt. Hence, since the jury found Pemberton not guilty, we can conclude that not all of the jury members believed Tagowa's testimony. | 200512_4-LR2_13_13 | [
"It overlooks that a witness may think that a defendant is guilty even though that witness's testimony in no way implicates the defendant.",
"It confuses facts about what certain people believe with facts about what ought to be the case.",
"It presumes, without providing warrant, that juries find defendants guilty only if those defendants committed the crimes with which they are charged.",
"It presumes, without providing warrant, that a jury's finding a defendant not guilty is evidence of dishonesty on the part of someone who testified against the defendant.",
"It fails to consider that jury members sometimes disagree with each other about the significance of a particular person's testimony."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following describes a flaw in the columnist's reasoning? |
A new tax law aimed at encouraging the reforestation of cleared land in order to increase the amount of forested land in a particular region offers lumber companies tax incentives for each unit of cleared land they reforest. One lumber company has accordingly reduced its tax liability by purchasing a large tract of cleared land in the region and reforesting it. The company paid for the purchase by clearing a larger tract of land in the region, a tract that it had planned to hold in long-term reserve. | 200512_4-LR2_14_14 | [
"It is a failure in encouraging the reforestation of cleared land in the region.",
"It will have no immediate effect on the amount of forested land in the region.",
"It will ultimately cause lumber companies to plant trees on approximately as much land as they harvest in the region.",
"It can provide a motivation for companies to act in a manner contrary to the purpose of the law while taking advantage of the tax incentives.",
"It will provide lumber companies with a tax incentive that will ultimately be responsible for a massive decrease in the number of mature forests in the region."
]
| 3 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must be true about the new tax law? |
Trustee: The recent exhibit at the art museum was extensively covered by the local media, and this coverage seems to have contributed to the record-breaking attendance it drew. If the attendance at the exhibit had been low, the museum would have gone bankrupt and closed permanently, so the museum could not have remained open had it not been for the coverage from the local media. | 200512_4-LR2_15_15 | [
"confuses a necessary condition for the museum's remaining open with a sufficient condition for the museum's remaining open",
"takes for granted that no previous exhibit at the museum had received such extensive media coverage",
"takes for granted that most people who read articles about the exhibit also attended the exhibit",
"fails to address the possibility that the exhibit would have drawn enough visitors to prevent bankruptcy even without media coverage",
"presupposes the very conclusion that it is trying to prove"
]
| 3 | The reasoning in the trustee's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Economist: A tax is effective if it raises revenue and burdens all and only those persons targeted by the tax. A tax is ineffective, however, if it does not raise revenue and it costs a significant amount of money to enforce. | 200512_4-LR2_16_16 | [
"The tax on cigarettes burdens most, but not all, of the people targeted by it. Thus, if it raises revenue, the tax is effective.",
"The tax on alcohol raises a modest amount of revenue, but it costs a significant amount of money to enforce. Thus, the tax is ineffective.",
"The tax on gasoline costs a significant amount of money to enforce. Thus, if it does not raise revenue, the tax is ineffective.",
"The tax on coal burdens all of the people targeted by it, and this tax does not burden anyone who is not targeted by it. Thus, the tax is effective.",
"The tax on steel does not cost a significant amount of money to enforce, but it does not raise revenue either. Thus, the tax is ineffective."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following inferences is most strongly supported by the principles stated by the economist? |
A large amount of rainfall in April and May typically leads to an increase in the mosquito population and thus to an increased threat of encephalitis. People cannot change the weather. Thus people cannot decrease the threat of encephalitis. | 200512_4-LR2_17_17 | [
"takes for granted that because one event precedes another the former must be the cause of the latter",
"presumes, without providing justification, that a certain outcome would be desirable",
"ignores the possibility that a certain type of outcome is dependent on more than one factor",
"takes for granted that a threat that is aggravated by certain factors could not occur in the absence of those factors",
"draws a conclusion about what is possible from a premise about what is actually the case"
]
| 2 | The reasoning in the argument above is flawed in that the argument |
Leadership depends as much on making one's followers aware of their own importance as it does on conveying a vivid image of a collective goal. Only if they are convinced both that their efforts are necessary for the accomplishment of this goal, and that these efforts, if expended, will actually achieve it, will people follow a leader. | 200512_4-LR2_18_18 | [
"Some leaders who convince their followers of the necessity of their efforts in achieving a goal fail, nevertheless, to lead them to the attainment of that goal.",
"One who succeeds in conveying to one's followers the relationship between their efforts and the attainment of a collective goal succeeds in leading these people to this goal.",
"Only if one is a leader must one convince people of the necessity of their efforts for the attainment of a collective goal.",
"Sometimes people succeed in achieving a collective goal without ever having been convinced that by trying to do so they would succeed.",
"Sometimes people who remain unsure of whether their efforts are needed for the attainment of a collective goal nevertheless follow a leader."
]
| 4 | If all of the statements above are true, then which one of the following CANNOT be true? |
Fifty chronic insomniacs participated in a one-month study conducted at an institute for sleep disorders. Half were given a dose of a new drug and the other half were given a placebo every night before going to bed at the institute. Approximately 80 percent of the participants in each group reported significant relief from insomnia during the first two weeks of the study. But in each group, approximately 90 percent of those who had reported relief claimed that their insomnia had returned during the third week of the study. | 200512_4-LR2_19_19 | [
"Because it is easy to build up a tolerance to the new drug, most people will no longer experience its effects after taking it every night for two weeks.",
"The psychological comfort afforded by the belief that one has taken a sleep-promoting drug is enough to prevent most episodes of insomnia.",
"The new drug is very similar in chemical composition to another drug, large doses of which have turned out to be less effective than expected.",
"Most insomniacs sleep better in a new environment, and the new drug has no effect on an insomniac's ability to sleep.",
"Some insomniacs cannot reliably determine how much sleep they have had or how well they have slept."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain all the data from the study? |
Advertisement: The Country Classic is the only kind of car in its class that offers an antilock braking system that includes TrackAid. An antilock braking system keeps your wheels from locking up during hard braking, and TrackAid keeps your rear wheels from spinning on slippery surfaces. So if you are a safety-conscious person in the market for a car in this class, the Country Classic is the only car for you. | 200512_4-LR2_20_20 | [
"All of the cars that are in the same class as the Country Classic offer some kind of antilock braking system.",
"Most kinds of cars that are in the same class as the Country Classic are manufactured by the same company that manufactures the Country Classic.",
"Without an antilock braking system, the wheels of the Country Classic and other cars in its class are more likely to lock up during hard braking than they are to spin on slippery surfaces.",
"Other cars in the same class as the Country Classic offer an antilock braking system that uses a method other than TrackAid to prevent rear wheels from spinning on slippery surfaces.",
"The Country Classic is more expensive than any other car in its class."
]
| 3 | The advertisement is misleading if which one of the following is true? |
Sociologist: Traditional norms in our society prevent sincerity by requiring one to ignore unpleasant realities and tell small lies. But a community whose members do not trust one another cannot succeed. So, if a community is to succeed, its members must be willing to face unpleasant realities and speak about them honestly. | 200512_4-LR2_21_21 | [
"Sincerity is required if community members are to trust each other.",
"The more sincere and open community members are, the more likely that community is to succeed.",
"A community sometimes can succeed even if its members subscribe to traditional norms.",
"Unless a community's members are willing to face unpleasant realities, they cannot be sincere.",
"A community's failure is often caused by its members' unwillingness to face unpleasant realities and to discuss them honestly."
]
| 0 | The sociologist's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
If there is an election, you can either vote or not. If you vote, you have the satisfaction of knowing you influenced the results of the election; if you do not vote, you have no right to complain about the results. So, following an election, either you will have the satisfaction of knowing you influenced its results or you will have no right to complain. | 200512_4-LR2_22_22 | [
"When you rent a car, you can either take out insurance or not. If you take out insurance you are covered, but if you are uninsured, you are personally liable for any costs incurred from an accident. So in case of an accident, you will be better off if you are insured.",
"If you go for a walk, when you are finished either you will feel relaxed or you will not. If you feel relaxed, then your muscles will likely not be sore the next day, though your muscles will more likely become conditioned faster if they do feel sore. Therefore, either your muscles will feel sore, or they will become better conditioned.",
"If you attend school, you will find the courses stimulating or you will not. If your teachers are motivated, you will find the courses stimulating. If your teachers are not motivated, you will not. So either your teachers are motivated, or their courses are not stimulating.",
"If you use a computer, its messages are either easily readable or not. If the messages are easily readable, they are merely password protected. If they are not easily readable, they are electronically encrypted. So any message on the computer you use is either password protected or electronically encrypted.",
"When manufacturers use a natural resource, they are either efficient or inefficient. If they are inefficient, the resource will be depleted quickly. If they are efficient, the resource will last much longer. So either manufacturers are efficient or they should be fined."
]
| 3 | The reasoning in which one of the following most closely resembles that in the argument above? |
Company president: Our consultants report that, in general, the most efficient managers have excellent time management skills. Thus, to improve productivity I recommend that we make available to our middle-level managers a seminar to train them in techniques of time management. | 200512_4-LR2_23_23 | [
"The consultants use the same criteria to evaluate managers' efficiency as they do to evaluate their time management skills.",
"Successful time management is more dependent on motivation than on good technique.",
"Most managers at other companies who have attended time management seminars are still unproductive.",
"Most managers who are already efficient do not need to improve their productivity.",
"Most managers who are efficient have never attended a time management seminar."
]
| 3 | Each of the following, if true, would weaken the support for the company president's recommendation EXCEPT: |
Many Seychelles warblers of breeding age forgo breeding, remaining instead with their parents and helping to raise their own siblings. This behavior, called cooperative breeding, results from the scarcity of nesting territory for the birds on the tiny island that, until recently, was home to the world's population of Seychelles warblers. Yet when healthy warblers were transplanted to a much larger neighboring island as part of an experiment, most of those warblers maintained a pattern of cooperative breeding. | 200512_4-LR2_24_24 | [
"Many of the Seychelles warblers that were transplanted to the neighboring island had not yet reached breeding age.",
"The climate of the island to which Seychelles warblers were transplanted was the same as that of the warblers' native island.",
"Most of the terrain on the neighboring island was not of the type in which Seychelles warblers generally build their nests.",
"Cooperative breeding in species other than the Seychelles warbler often results when the environment cannot sustain a rise in the population.",
"The Seychelles warblers had fewer competitors for nesting territory on the island to which they were transplanted than on their native island."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the result of the experiment? |
Therapist: In a recent study, researchers measured how quickly 60 different psychological problems waned as a large, diverse sample of people underwent weekly behavioral therapy sessions. About 75 percent of the 60 problems consistently cleared up within 50 weeks of therapy. This shows that 50 weekly behavioral therapy sessions are all that most people need. | 200512_4-LR2_25_25 | [
"takes for granted that there are no psychological problems that usually take significantly longer to clear up than the 60 psychological problems studied",
"fails to address the possibility that any given one of the 60 psychological problems studied might afflict most people",
"takes for granted that no one suffers from more than one of the 60 psychological problems studied",
"fails to address the possibility that some forms of therapy have never been proven to be effective as treatments for psychological problems",
"takes for granted that the sample of people studied did not have significantly more psychological problems, on average, than the population as a whole"
]
| 1 | The therapist's argument is logically most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Researcher: It is commonly believed that species belonging to the same biological order, such as rodents, descended from a single common ancestor. However, I compared the genetic pattern in 3 rodent species—guinea pigs, rats, and mice—as well as in 13 nonrodent mammals, and found that while rats and mice are genetically quite similar, the genetic differences between guinea pigs and mice are as great as those between mice and some nonrodent species. Thus, despite their similar physical form, guinea pigs stem from a separate ancestor. | 200512_4-LR2_26_26 | [
"The researcher examined the genetic material of only 3 of over 2,000 species of rodents.",
"Some pairs of species not having a common ancestor are genetically more similar to each other than are some pairs that do have a common ancestor.",
"The researcher selected nonrodent species that have the specific cell structures she wanted to analyze genetically, though many nonrodent mammals lack these cell structures.",
"For some genuine biological orders, the most recent common ancestor dates from later epochs than does the most recent common ancestor of other biological orders.",
"Peculiarities of body structure, such as distinctive teeth and olfactory structures, are shared by all rodents, including guinea pigs."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the researcher's reasoning? |
Ilana: Carver's stories are somber and pessimistic, which is a sure sign of inferior writing. I have never read a single story of his that ends happily. Gustav: Carver was one of the finest writers of the past 30 years. Granted, his stories are characterized by somberness and pessimism, but they are also wryly humorous, compassionate, and beautifully structured. | 200606_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"Carver's stories are truly compassionate",
"Carver's stories are pessimistic in their vision",
"stories that are characterized by somberness and pessimism can appropriately be called humorous",
"stories that are well written can be somber and pessimistic",
"there are some characteristics of a story that are decisive in determining its aesthetic value"
]
| 3 | On the basis of their statements, Ilana and Gustav are committed to disagreeing over whether |
Statistical studies show that last year there was the greatest drop in the violent crime rate over the course of a year since such statistics were first gathered. But they also reveal that at the same time public anxiety about violent crime substantially increased. | 200606_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"Longer prison sentences were the primary cause of the decrease in the violent crime rate over the course of last year.",
"As in the past, last year's increase in public anxiety about violent crime has been consistently underreported in the news media.",
"Most people can realistically assess the likelihood that they will become victims of violent crime.",
"People who feel the most anxiety about violent crime usually live in areas with relatively high violent crime rates.",
"The proportion of violent crimes covered in the news media nearly doubled over the course of last year."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy described above? |
Most employees spend their time completing unimportant tasks for which they have been given firm schedules and deadlines. Efficient employees know how to ignore such demands and instead spend their time on projects that will yield big rewards for their employers if successful, even when such projects carry the risk of significant loss if unsuccessful. | 200606_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"spending the entire afternoon working on a report that a supervisor has ordered completed by the following day",
"instead of working on a report that a supervisor has ordered completed by the following day, spending the entire afternoon completing routine correspondence that could be delayed",
"deciding to take an urgent call from a major customer instead of being punctual at a monthly sales meeting",
"meeting daily with other staff members to discuss workloads and schedules",
"spending time each morning scheduling tasks according to the most immediate deadlines"
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an example of efficiency as described above? |
Child psychologist: Some studies in which children have been observed before and after playing video games with violent content have shown that young children tend to behave more aggressively immediately after playing the games. This suggests that the violence in such video games leads young children to believe that aggressive behavior is acceptable. | 200606_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"Young children tend to be more accepting of aggressive behavior in others immediately after playing video games with violent content.",
"Many young children who have never played video games with violent content believe that aggressive behavior is acceptable.",
"Other studies have shown no increase in aggressive behavior in young children who have just played nonviolent video games.",
"Older children are less likely before playing video games with violent content than they are afterwards to believe that aggressive behavior is acceptable.",
"Young children tend to behave more aggressively immediately after being told that aggressive behavior is acceptable than they did beforehand."
]
| 1 | Each of the following, if true, strengthens the child psychologist's argument EXCEPT: |
Letter to the editor: Middle-class families in wealthy nations are often criticized for the ecological damage resulting from their lifestyles. This criticism should not be taken too seriously, however, since its source is often a movie star or celebrity whose own lifestyle would, if widely adopted, destroy the environment and deplete our resources in a short time. | 200606_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"criticizes a characteristic of the people giving an argument rather than criticizing the argument itself",
"takes failure to act consistently with a belief as an indication of the sincerity with which that belief is held",
"presumes that a viewpoint must be unreasonable to accept simply because some of the grounds advanced to support it do not adequately do so",
"fails to recognize that evidence advanced in support of a conclusion actually undermines that conclusion",
"generalizes about the behavior of all people on the basis of the behavior of a few"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the letter to the editor is vulnerable to criticism in that it |
The cattle egret is a bird that lives around herds of cattle. The only available explanation of the fact that the cattle egret follows cattle herds is that the egrets consume the insects stirred up from the grasses as the cattle herds graze. | 200606_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"Birds other than cattle egrets have been observed consuming insects stirred up by the movement of cattle.",
"Cattle egrets are known to follow other slow-moving animals, such as rhinoceroses and buffalo.",
"The presence of cattle dissuades many would-be predators of the cattle egret.",
"Cattle egrets are not generally known to live outside the range of large, slow-moving animals.",
"Forests are generally inhospitable to cattle egrets because of a lack of insects of the kind egrets can consume."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, would most seriously undermine the claim that the explanation given above is the only available one? |
Any fruit that is infected is also rotten. No fruit that was inspected is infected. Therefore, any fruit that was inspected is safe to eat. | 200606_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"It is not safe to eat any fruit that is rotten.",
"It is safe to eat any fruit that is not rotten.",
"It would have been safe to eat infected fruit if it had been inspected.",
"It is not safe to eat any fruit that is infected.",
"It is safe to eat any fruit that is uninfected."
]
| 4 | The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
1990 editorial: Local pay phone calls have cost a quarter apiece ever since the 1970s, when a soft drink from a vending machine cost about the same. The price of a soft drink has more than doubled since, so phone companies should be allowed to raise the price of pay phone calls too. | 200606_2-LR1_8_8 | [
"A pay phone typically cost less than a soft-drink machine in the 1970s.",
"Due to inflation, the prices of most goods more than doubled between the 1970s and 1990.",
"Government regulation of phone call prices did not become more stringent between the 1970s and 1990.",
"Between the 1970s and 1990 the cost of ingredients for soft drinks increased at a greater rate than the cost of telephone equipment.",
"Technological advances made telephone equipment more sophisticated between the 1970s and 1990."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the editorial's argument? |
Members of large-animal species must consume enormous amounts of food to survive. When climatic conditions in their environment deteriorate, such animals are often unable to find enough food. This fact helps make large-animal species more vulnerable to extinction than small-animal species, which can maintain greater populations on smaller amounts of food. | 200606_2-LR1_9_9 | [
"The maximum population size that an animal species could maintain on any given amount of food is the main factor determining whether that species will become extinct.",
"The vulnerability of an animal species to extinction depends at least in part on how much food individuals of that species must consume to survive.",
"When conditions deteriorate in a given environment, no small-animal species will become extinct unless some large-animal species also becomes extinct.",
"Within any given species, the prospects for survival of any particular individual depend primarily on the amount of food that individual requires.",
"Whenever climatic conditions in a given environment are bad enough to threaten large-animal species with extinction, small-animal species are able to find enough food to survive."
]
| 1 | The statements above, if true, most support which one of the following? |
Megan: People pursue wealth beyond what their basic needs require only if they see it as a way of achieving high status or prestige. Channen: Not everybody thinks that way. After all, money is the universal medium of exchange. So, if you have enough of it, you can exchange it for whatever other material goods you may need or want even if you are indifferent to what others think of you. | 200606_2-LR1_10_10 | [
"people ever pursue wealth beyond what is required for their basic needs",
"it is irrational to try to achieve high status or prestige in the eyes of one's society",
"the pursuit of monetary wealth is irrational only when it has no further purpose",
"it is rational to maximize one's ability to purchase whatever one wants only when the motive for doing so is something other than the desire for prestige",
"the motive for pursuing wealth beyond what one's basic needs require is ever anything other than the desire for prestige or high status"
]
| 4 | Megan and Channen disagree over whether |
Cholesterol, which is a known factor in coronary heart disease and stroke, needs a carrier, known as a lipoprotein, to transport it through the bloodstream. Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) increase the risk of coronary heart disease and stroke, but we can tentatively conclude that high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) help prevent coronary heart disease and stroke. First, aerobic exercise increases one's level of HDLs. Second, HDL levels are higher in women than in men. And both aerobic exercise and being female are positively correlated with lower risk of coronary heart disease and stroke. | 200606_2-LR1_11_11 | [
"HDLs, unlike LDLs, help the body excrete cholesterol.",
"Persons who are overweight tend to have a higher risk of early death due to coronary heart disease and stroke, and tend to have low levels of HDLs.",
"HDLs are less easily removed from the bloodstream than are LDLs.",
"A high level of HDLs mitigates the increased health risks associated with LDLs.",
"Men whose level of HDLs is equal to the average level for women have been found to have a lower risk of coronary heart disease and stroke than that of most men."
]
| 2 | Each of the following, if true, strengthens the argument EXCEPT: |
It is primarily by raising interest rates that central bankers curb inflation, but an increase in interest rates takes up to two years to affect inflation. Accordingly, central bankers usually try to raise interest rates before inflation becomes excessive, at which time inflation is not yet readily apparent either. But unless inflation is readily apparent, interest rate hikes generally will be perceived as needlessly restraining a growing economy. Thus, central bankers' success in temporarily restraining inflation may make it harder for them to ward off future inflation without incurring the public's wrath. | 200606_2-LR1_12_12 | [
"It is presented as a complete explanation of the fact that central bankers' success in temporarily restraining inflation may make it harder for them to ward off future inflation without incurring the public's wrath.",
"It is a description of a phenomenon for which the claim that an increase in interest rates takes up to two years to affect inflation is offered as an explanation.",
"It is a premise offered in support of the conclusion that central bankers' success in temporarily restraining inflation may make it harder for them to ward off future inflation without incurring the public's wrath.",
"It is a conclusion for which the statement that an increase in interest rates takes up to two years to affect inflation is offered as support.",
"It is a premise offered in support of the conclusion that unless inflation is readily apparent, interest rate hikes generally will be perceived as needlessly restraining a growing economy."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the claim that it is primarily by raising interest rates that central bankers curb inflation? |
A survey of clerical workers' attitudes toward their work identified a group of secretaries with very positive attitudes. They responded "Strongly agree" to such statements as "I enjoy word processing" and "I like learning new secretarial skills." These secretaries had been rated by their supervisors as excellent workers—far better than secretaries whose attitudes were identified as less positive. Clearly these secretaries' positive attitudes toward their work produced excellent job performance. | 200606_2-LR1_13_13 | [
"It attempts to prove a generalization about job performance by using the single example of clerical workers.",
"It restates the claim that the secretaries' positive attitudes produced their excellent job performance instead of offering evidence for it.",
"It does not consider the possibility that secretaries with very positive attitudes toward their work might also have had very positive attitudes toward other activities.",
"It uses the term \"positive attitudes\" to mean two different things.",
"It identifies the secretaries' positive attitudes as the cause of their excellent job performance although their attitudes might be an effect of their performance."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following identifies a reasoning error in the argument? |
Scientist: A controversy in paleontology centers on the question of whether prehistoric human ancestors began to develop sophisticated tools before or after they came to stand upright. I argue that they stood upright first, simply because advanced toolmaking requires free use of the hands, and standing upright makes this possible. | 200606_2-LR1_14_14 | [
"Many animals that do not stand upright have learned to make basic tools.",
"Advanced hunting weapons have been discovered among the artifacts belonging to prehistoric human ancestors who did not stand upright.",
"Many prehistoric human ancestors who stood upright had no sophisticated tools.",
"Those prehistoric human ancestors who first came to stand upright had no more dexterity with their hands than did those who did not stand upright.",
"Many of the earliest sophisticated tools did not require their users to be able to stand upright."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most weakens the scientist's argument? |
The greater the number of people who regularly use a product, the greater the number whose health is potentially at risk due to that product. More people regularly use household maintenance products such as cleaning agents and lawn chemicals than regularly use prescription medicines. Therefore, it is even more important for such household products to be carefully tested to ensure their safety than it is for prescription medicines to be so tested. | 200606_2-LR1_15_15 | [
"Whether or not it is important for a given product to be carefully tested depends mainly on the number of people who regularly use that product.",
"It is very important for any product that is regularly used by a large number of people to be carefully tested to ensure its safety.",
"The more people whose health might be at risk from the regular use of a particular product, the more important it is for that product to be carefully tested to ensure its safety.",
"If one type of medicine must be taken in more frequent doses than another type of medicine, it is more important for the former to be carefully tested than for the latter.",
"It is generally more important for a medicine than it is for a nonmedical product to be carefully tested to ensure its safety unless more people's health would be at risk from the nonmedical product than from the medicine."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify drawing the conclusion in the argument above? |
Most successful entrepreneurs work at least 18 hours a day, and no one who works at least 18 hours a day has time for leisure activities. But all happy entrepreneurs have time for leisure activities. | 200606_2-LR1_16_16 | [
"Anyone who has no time for leisure activities works at least 18 hours a day.",
"Some entrepreneurs who work at least 18 hours a day are successful.",
"Some happy entrepreneurs are successful.",
"Some entrepreneurs who work at least 18 hours a day are happy.",
"Some successful entrepreneurs work less than 18 hours a day."
]
| 3 | If the statements above are true, each of the following could be true EXCEPT: |
Human beings can exhibit complex, goal-oriented behavior without conscious awareness of what they are doing. Thus, merely establishing that nonhuman animals are intelligent will not establish that they have consciousness. | 200606_2-LR1_17_17 | [
"Complex, goal-oriented behavior requires intelligence.",
"The possession of consciousness does not imply the possession of intelligence.",
"All forms of conscious behavior involve the exercise of intelligence.",
"The possession of intelligence entails the possession of consciousness.",
"Some intelligent human behavior is neither complex nor goal-oriented."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
New Age philosopher: Nature evolves organically and nonlinearly. Furthermore, it can best be understood as a whole; its parts are so interconnected that none could exist without support from many others. Therefore, attaining the best possible understanding of nature requires an organic, holistic, nonlinear way of reasoning rather than the traditional linear reasoning of science, which proceeds through experiments on deliberately isolated parts of nature. | 200606_2-LR1_18_18 | [
"takes for granted that if a statement must be true for the argument's conclusion to be true, then that statement's truth is sufficient for the truth of the conclusion",
"overlooks the possibility that the overall structure of a phenomenon is not always identical to the overall structure of the reasoning that people do about that phenomenon",
"fails to distinguish adequately between the characteristics of a phenomenon as a whole and those of the deliberately isolated parts of that phenomenon",
"takes for granted that what is interconnected cannot, through abstraction, be thought of as separate",
"takes for granted that a phenomenon that can best be understood as having certain properties can best be understood only through reasoning that shares those properties"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the New Age philosopher's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Vanwilligan: Some have argued that professional athletes receive unfairly high salaries. But in an unrestricted free market, such as the market these athletes compete in, salaries are determined by what someone else is willing to pay for their services. These athletes make enormous profits for their teams' owners, and that is why owners are willing to pay them extraordinary salaries. Thus the salaries they receive are fair. | 200606_2-LR1_19_19 | [
"The fairest economic system for a society is one in which the values of most goods and services are determined by the unrestricted free market.",
"If professional athletes were paid less for their services, then the teams for which they play would not make as much money.",
"The high level of competition in the marketplace forces the teams' owners to pay professional athletes high salaries.",
"Any salary that a team owner is willing to pay for the services of a professional athlete is a fair salary.",
"If a professional athlete's salary is fair, then that salary is determined by what an individual is willing to pay for the athlete's services in an unrestricted free market."
]
| 3 | Vanwilligan's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Environmentalist: Discarding old appliances can be dangerous: refrigerators contain chlorofluorocarbons; electronic circuit boards and cathode-ray tubes often contain heavy metals like lead; and old fluorescent bulbs contain mercury, another heavy metal. When landfills are operated properly, such materials pose no threat. However, when landfills are not operated properly, lead and mercury from them contaminate groundwater, for example. On the other hand, when trash is incinerated, heavy metals poison the ash and escape into the air. | 200606_2-LR1_20_20 | [
"Old fluorescent bulbs should be recycled.",
"Appliances containing heavy metals should not be incinerated.",
"Chlorofluorocarbons are harmful to the atmosphere.",
"Newer appliances are more dangerous to the environment than older ones.",
"Appliances should be kept out of landfills."
]
| 1 | The environmentalist's statements, if true, most strongly support which one of the following inferences? |
Since the sweetness of sugared beverages makes athletes more likely to drink them, they can be helpful in avoiding dehydration. Furthermore, small amounts of sugar enhance the body's absorption of water and delay muscle fatigue by maintaining the body's glucose level. Still, one must use sugared beverages cautiously, for large amounts draw water from the blood to the stomach, thereby exacerbating the dehydration process. | 200606_2-LR1_21_21 | [
"Glucose is not the only type of sugar whose absence or scarcity in one's diet causes muscle fatigue.",
"Problems caused by dehydration are invariably exacerbated if substances that delay muscle fatigue are consumed.",
"Dehydrated athletes find beverages containing large amounts of sugar to be too sweet.",
"Some situations that exacerbate the problems caused by muscle fatigue do not exacerbate those caused by dehydration.",
"The rate at which the body absorbs water depends primarily on the amount of water already present in the blood."
]
| 1 | If the statements above are true, then each of the following could also be true EXCEPT: |
A mathematical theorem proved by one mathematician should not be accepted until each step in its proof has been independently verified. Computer-assisted proofs generally proceed by conducting a vast number of calculations—surveying all the possible types of instances in which the theorem could apply and proving that the theorem holds for each type. In most computer-assisted proofs there are astronomically many types of instances to survey, and no human being could review every step in the proof. Hence, computer-assisted proofs involving astronomically many types of instances should not be accepted. | 200606_2-LR1_22_22 | [
"The use of the computer to assist in the proof of mathematical theorems has greatly simplified the mathematician's task.",
"Most attempts to construct proofs of mathematical theorems do not result in demonstrations that the theorems are true.",
"Computers cannot be used to assist in generating proofs of mathematical theorems that involve only a very limited number of steps.",
"Any mathematical proof that does not rely on the computer cannot proceed by surveying all possible types of instances to which the candidate theorem might apply.",
"The use of an independent computer program does not satisfy the requirement for independent verification of each step in a proof that is extended enough to be otherwise unverifiable."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument relies? |
Commentator: Human behavior cannot be fully understood without inquiring into nonphysical aspects of persons. As evidence of this, I submit the following: suppose that we had a complete scientific account of the physical aspects of some particular human action—every neurological, physiological, and environmental event involved. Even with all that we would obviously still not truly comprehend the action or know why it occurred. | 200606_2-LR1_23_23 | [
"No support is offered for its conclusion other than an analogy that relates only superficially to the issue at hand.",
"The purported evidence that it cites in support of its conclusion presumes that the conclusion is true.",
"It concludes that a proposition must be true merely on the grounds that it has not been proven false.",
"It fails to indicate whether the speaker is aware of any evidence that could undermine the conclusion.",
"It presumes, without providing justification, that science can provide a complete account of any physical phenomenon."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the argument's reasoning? |
Judicial punishment's power to deter people from committing crimes is a function of the severity of the penalty and the likelihood of one's actually receiving the penalty. Occasionally, juries decide that a crime's penalty is too severe and so refuse to convict a person they are convinced has committed that crime. Thus, increasing the penalty may decrease the deterrent power of judicial punishment. | 200606_2-LR1_24_24 | [
"Success in attaining one's first academic job depends on the quality of one's dissertation and the amount of time spent working on it in graduate school. But sometimes, so much time is spent on a dissertation that it becomes too lengthy to be coherent and its quality suffers. So spending more time working on a dissertation can lead to less success in attaining a first academic job.",
"People who drive cars having many safety features are likely to drive more aggressively than do people who drive cars having few safety features. Thus, the people who drive the safest cars are likely to be the most dangerous drivers on the road.",
"A new surgical technique is developed to treat a dangerous condition. This technique enables people to live longer than does an older form of surgery. But the new surgery's mortality rate is also slightly higher. Thus, if more people choose to undergo the new surgery, more people may die from the dangerous condition than previously.",
"To be attractive to tourists, it is best for a city to have both wide appeal and sufficient hotel space. Though a sufficient number of hotel rooms alone cannot attract tourists, it is much harder for city governments to affect the appeal of their city than for them to affect its amount of hotel space. Thus, governments of cities that want to increase their attractiveness to tourists should put their energies into increasing their hotel space.",
"Many young, talented artists, because they are unknown, decide to charge low prices for their work. As their reputations grow, the prices they can charge for their work increase. Thus, raising the price of an artist's work can improve that artist's reputation."
]
| 0 | The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following arguments is most similar to the pattern of reasoning in the argument above? |
Cecile's association requires public disclosure of an officer's investments in two cases only: when an officer is authorized to disburse association funds, and when an officer sits on the board of a petrochemical company. Cecile, an officer who is not authorized to disburse funds, sits on the board of just one company, a small timber business. Therefore, there is no reason for Cecile to publicly disclose her investments at this time. | 200606_2-LR1_25_25 | [
"Cecile will not be appointed to a position in the association that authorizes her to disburse funds.",
"Cecile's office and her position on the timber business's board create no conflicts of interest.",
"The association's requirements provide the only reasons there might be for Cecile to disclose her investments.",
"The timber business on whose board Cecile sits is owned by a petrochemical company.",
"Cecile owns no investments in the petrochemical industry."
]
| 2 | The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
The obesity invariably associated with some high-fat diets is caused by an absence in these diets of certain nutrients that are necessary for an active metabolism, not by excessive caloric intake. Hence, people on these high-fat diets do not consume too many calories. | 200606_2-LR1_26_26 | [
"Electrical storms are strongly correlated with precipitous drops in barometric pressure. So, electrical storms are caused by such drops in pressure, rather than by air turbulence.",
"The impression that most viewers of sports programming are beer drinkers is due not to mere stereotyping but to the vast number of beer commercials broadcast during televised sports. Hence, most beer drinkers are avid fans of sports programs.",
"The disorientation observed in airline pilots after transoceanic flights is caused not by sleep deprivation but by disruption in their exposure to daylight. Hence, transoceanic pilots do not suffer from sleep deprivation.",
"Stock market crashes are due, not to panic in the face of predicted economic downturns, but to mere rumormongering without any basis in fact. Hence, economic downturns cannot be accurately predicted.",
"The preponderance of mathematics graduates among professional computer programmers is due not to the intelligence of mathematicians but to the appropriateness of mathematical training for computer programming. Hence, most computer programmers have mathematical training."
]
| 2 | The questionable pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following? |
Editorial: Clearly, during the past two years, the unemployment situation in our city has been improving. Studies show that the number of unemployed people who are actively looking for jobs has steadily decreased during that period. | 200606_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"presumes, without providing justification, that the government is at least partly responsible for the improvement in the employment situation",
"relies on data from a period that is too short to justify an inference about a general trend",
"fails to take into account the possibility that many unemployed workers who still desire jobs may have stopped looking for jobs",
"fails to take into account that the sorts of governmental efforts that reduce unemployment may not be effective in creating more high-paying jobs",
"ignores other economic indicators, which may not have improved during the past two years"
]
| 2 | The editorial's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Eating garlic reduces the levels of cholesterol and triglycerides in the blood and so helps reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Evidence that eating garlic reduces these levels is that a group of patients taking a garlic tablet each day for four months showed a 12 percent reduction in cholesterol and a 17 percent reduction in triglycerides; over the same period, a group of similar patients taking a medically inert tablet showed only a 2 percent reduction in triglycerides and a 3 percent reduction in cholesterol. | 200606_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"whether the garlic tablets are readily available to the public",
"what the diets of the two groups were during the period",
"what effect taking the garlic tablets each day for a period of less than four months had on the levels of cholesterol and triglycerides",
"whether large amounts of garlic are well tolerated by all patients",
"whether the manufacturer of the garlic tablets cites the study in its advertising"
]
| 1 | It would be most important to determine which one of the following in evaluating the argument? |
Educator: If there is a crisis in education today, it is one of maintaining quality. People love to reduce serious learning to degrees and certificates. But one also can obtain these credentials by plodding through courses without ever learning much of value. When that happens, the credentials one receives are almost meaningless. | 200606_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"Increasingly, institutions are granting meaningless degrees and certificates.",
"It has become easier for students to complete their coursework without learning anything of importance.",
"Educational institutions should cease to grant degrees and certificates.",
"Degrees and certificates do not guarantee that a person has acquired much worthwhile knowledge.",
"A person benefits from an education only to the extent that he or she invests effort in it."
]
| 3 | If the educator's statements are true, then which one of the following must be true? |
Essayist: Politicians deserve protection from a prying press. No one wants his or her private life spread across the pages of the newspapers. Furthermore, the press's continual focus on politicians' private lives dissuades talented people from pursuing a career in politics and turns reporters into character cops who walk their beats looking for minute and inconsequential personality flaws in public servants. It is time to put a halt to this trivial journalism. | 200606_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"The press is unusually inaccurate when it reports on people's private lives.",
"Reporting on politicians' private lives distracts voters from more important issues in a campaign.",
"Much writing on politicians' private lives consists of rumors circulated by opposing candidates.",
"In recent elections, the best local politicians have refused to run for national office because of the intrusiveness of press coverage.",
"Politicians' personality flaws often ultimately affect their performance on the job."
]
| 4 | Each of the following, if true, strengthens the essayist's argument EXCEPT: |
Most veterinarians, and especially those at university veterinary research centers, have a devoted interest in the biological sciences. But most veterinarians choose their profession primarily because they love animals. Among persons who are seriously interested in biological science but lack any special love for animals, one does not find any prominent veterinarians. | 200606_4-LR2_5_5 | [
"Some veterinarians have a greater love for biological science than for individual animals.",
"Most veterinarians love animals and have an interest in biological science.",
"Prominent veterinarians at some veterinary research centers are intensely devoted to the biological sciences but do not feel any pronounced affection for animals.",
"Few veterinarians at university research centers chose their profession primarily because they love animals.",
"Most veterinarians who are not prominent regard an understanding of the biological sciences as the most important quality for success in their profession."
]
| 2 | If all of the statements above are true, which one of the following CANNOT be true? |
The simultaneous and apparently independent development in several ancient cultures of a myth of creatures who were half human and half horse parallels the increased use of horses in these cultures. But despite the nobility and gentleness traditionally ascribed to the horse, the mythical half-horse, half-humans were frequently portrayed as violent and savage. Many human cultures use myth to express unconscious thoughts, so these mythical creatures obviously reflect people's unconscious fear of the horse. | 200606_4-LR2_6_6 | [
"fails to show that the mythical creature mentioned represents the horse in people's minds",
"fails to consider that people might have good reason to fear horses",
"confuses the expression of unconscious thoughts with the suppression of them",
"fails to demonstrate that the myth was not borrowed from one of the cultures by the others",
"fails to explain why people use myth for the expression of unconscious thoughts"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument |
Editorialist: There would seem to be little hazard for consumers associated with chemicals used in treated lumber because the lumber is used outside where fumes cannot accumulate. However, immediate steps should be taken to determine the safety of these chemicals since consumers could ingest them. If the lumber is used for children's playground equipment, youngsters could put their mouths on the wood, and if it is used to contain soil in a vegetable garden, the chemicals could leach into the soil. | 200606_4-LR2_7_7 | [
"The chemicals used in treated lumber are apparently not dangerous to the consumer.",
"Treated lumber is as dangerous when used outdoors as it is when used indoors.",
"The effects on humans from the chemicals in treated lumber should be studied.",
"Parents should not allow children to put their mouths on playground equipment.",
"Treated lumber is more dangerous than was once believed."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the editorialist's argument? |
One good clue as to which geographical regions an ancient relic was moved through in the past involves the analysis of pollen that clings to the surface of the relic. A relic is linked to a geographical area by the identification of pollen from plants that are known to have been unique to that area. | 200606_4-LR2_8_8 | [
"Pollens are often transported from one region to another by wind or human movement.",
"There are several less complicated methods of determining the history of the movement of an object than the analysis and identification of pollen.",
"Many types of pollen were common to several geographical regions in the ancient world.",
"Data are scarce as to the geographical distribution of the pollens of many ancient plants.",
"Pollen analysis is a painstaking process that is also expensive to conduct."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, casts the most doubt on the reliability of the method described above? |
Executive: In order to add to our profits, I was planning to promote and distribute herbal tinctures. However, some members of my advisory staff questioned the medical efficacy of such products. So I have consulted a variety of reliable medical publications, and these likewise claim that herbal tinctures are ineffective. Therefore, I must conclude that marketing such products would not produce the result I intended. | 200606_4-LR2_9_9 | [
"To be reliable, a medical publication that evaluates consumer products must include at least some independent evidence.",
"If a majority of reliable sources conclude that a particular substance is medically ineffective, then that substance almost certainly is medically ineffective.",
"Consulting reliable publications is not, by itself, a reliable basis for determining whether or not the promotion of a new line of products will be profitable.",
"It would not be profitable to promote and distribute a new line of products if these products have adverse medical effects.",
"The promotion and distribution of a new line of products will not prove profitable if a number of reliable authorities declare them to be ineffective."
]
| 4 | The executive's reasoning most closely conforms to which one of the following generalizations? |
To be great, an artwork must express a deep emotion, such as sorrow or love. But an artwork cannot express an emotion that the artwork's creator is incapable of experiencing. | 200606_4-LR2_10_10 | [
"A computer can create an artwork that expresses sorrow or love only if it has actually experienced such an emotion.",
"The greatest art is produced by those who have experienced the deepest emotions.",
"An artwork that expresses a deep emotion of its creator is a great artwork.",
"As long as computers are constructed so as to be incapable of experiencing emotions they will not create great artworks.",
"Only artworks that succeed in expressing deep emotions are the products of great artists."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the statements above? |
Consumer activist: When antilock brakes were first introduced, it was claimed that they would significantly reduce the incidence of multiple-car collisions, thereby saving lives. Indeed, antilock brakes have reduced the incidence of multiple-car collisions. I maintain, however, that to save lives, automobile manufacturers ought to stop equipping cars with them. | 200606_4-LR2_11_11 | [
"Drivers and passengers in automobiles with antilock brakes feel less vulnerable, and are thus less likely to wear seat belts.",
"Under some circumstances, automobiles with traditional brakes stop just as quickly as do automobiles with antilock brakes.",
"For inexperienced drivers, antilock brakes are easier to use correctly than are traditional brakes.",
"Antilock brakes are considerably more expensive to manufacture than are traditional brakes.",
"Antilock brakes are no more effective in preventing multiple-car accidents than in preventing other kinds of traffic accidents."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent conflict in the consumer activist's statements? |
Politician: The huge amounts of money earned by oil companies elicit the suspicion that the regulations designed to prevent collusion need to be tightened. But just the opposite is true. If the regulations designed to prevent collusion are not excessively burdensome, then oil companies will make profits sufficient to motivate the very risky investments associated with exploration that must be made if society is to have adequate oil supplies. But recent data show that the oil industry's profits are not the highest among all industries. Clearly, the regulatory burden on oil companies has become excessive. | 200606_4-LR2_12_12 | [
"fails to justify its presumption that profits sufficient to motivate very risky investments must be the highest among all industries",
"attacks the character of the oil companies rather than the substance of their conduct",
"fails to justify its presumption that two events that are correlated must also be causally related",
"treats the absence of evidence that the oil industry has the highest profits among all industries as proof that the oil industry does not have the highest profits among all industries",
"illicitly draws a general conclusion from a specific example that there is reason to think is atypical"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the politician's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
It is due to a misunderstanding that most modern sculpture is monochromatic. When ancient sculptures were exhumed years ago, they were discovered to be uncolored. No one at the time had reason to believe, as we now do, that the sculptures had originally been colorfully painted, but that centuries of exposure to moisture washed away the paint. | 200606_4-LR2_13_13 | [
"The natural beauty of the materials out of which modern sculptures are made plays a part in their effect.",
"Modern sculpture has been influenced by beliefs about ancient sculpture.",
"Ancient sculptures were more susceptible to moisture damage than are modern sculptures.",
"Some ancient paintings known to early archaeologists depicted sculptures.",
"As modern sculptors come to believe that ancient sculpture was painted, they will begin to create polychromatic works."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
In older commercial airplanes, the design of the control panel allows any changes in flight controls made by one member of the flight crew to be immediately viewed by the other crew members. In recently manufactured aircraft, however, a crew member's flight control changes are harder to observe, thereby eliminating a routine means for performing valuable cross-checks. As a result, the flight crews operating recently manufactured airplanes must inform each other verbally about flight control changes much more frequently. | 200606_4-LR2_14_14 | [
"How frequently an airplane's flight crew members will inform each other verbally about flight control changes depends in large part on how long it takes to perform those changes.",
"In recently manufactured aircraft, the most valuable means available for performing cross-checks involves frequent verbal exchanges of information among the flight crew members.",
"In older commercial airplanes, in contrast to recently manufactured airplanes, flight crew members have no need to exchange information verbally about flight control changes.",
"The flight crew members operating a recently manufactured airplane cannot observe the flight control changes made by other crew members by viewing the control panel.",
"How often flight crew members must share information verbally about flight control changes depends in part on what other means for performing cross-checks are available to the crew."
]
| 4 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
According to the proposed Factory Safety Act, a company may operate an automobile factory only if that factory is registered as a class B factory. In addressing whether a factory may postpone its safety inspections, this Act also stipulates that no factory can be class B without punctual inspections. Thus, under the Factory Safety Act, a factory that manufactures automobiles would not be able to postpone its safety inspections. | 200606_4-LR2_15_15 | [
"pointing out how two provisions of the proposed Factory Safety Act jointly entail the unacceptability of a certain state of affairs",
"considering two possible interpretations of a proposed legal regulation and eliminating the less plausible one",
"showing that the terms of the proposed Factory Safety Act are incompatible with existing legislation",
"showing that two different provisions of the proposed Factory Safety Act conflict and thus cannot apply to a particular situation",
"pointing out that if a provision applies in a specific situation, it must apply in any analogous situation"
]
| 0 | The argument proceeds by |
There is a difference between beauty and truth. After all, if there were no difference, then the most realistic pieces of art would be the best as well, since the most realistic pieces are the most truthful. But many of the most realistic artworks are not among the best. | 200606_4-LR2_16_16 | [
"The most beautiful artworks are the best artworks.",
"If an artwork contains nonrealistic elements, then it is not at all truthful.",
"None of the best artworks are realistic.",
"Only the best artworks are beautiful.",
"An artwork's beauty is inherently subjective and depends on who is viewing it."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
From the fact that people who studied music as children frequently are quite proficient at mathematics, it cannot be concluded that the skills required for mathematics are acquired by studying music: it is equally likely that proficiency in mathematics and studying music are both the result of growing up in a family that encourages its children to excel at all intellectual and artistic endeavors. | 200606_4-LR2_17_17 | [
"Although children who fail to pay attention tend to perform poorly in school, it should not necessarily be thought that their poor performance is caused by their failure to pay attention, for it is always possible that their failure to pay attention is due to undiagnosed hearing problems that can also lead to poor performance in school.",
"People who attend a university in a foreign country are usually among the top students from their native country. It would therefore be wrong to conclude from the fact that many foreign students perform better academically than others in this country that secondary schools in other countries are superior to those in this country; it may be that evaluation standards are different.",
"People whose diet includes relatively large quantities of certain fruits and vegetables have a slightly lower than average incidence of heart disease. But it would be premature to conclude that consuming these fruits and vegetables prevents heart disease, for this correlation may be merely coincidental.",
"Those who apply to medical school are required to study biology and chemistry. It would be a mistake, however, to conclude that those who have mastered chemistry and biology will succeed as physicians, for the practical application of knowledge is different from its acquisition.",
"Those who engage in vigorous exercise tend to be very healthy. But it would be silly to conclude that vigorous exercise is healthful simply because people who are healthy exercise vigorously, since it is possible that exercise that is less vigorous also has beneficial results."
]
| 0 | The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following arguments is most parallel to that in the argument above? |
A physician has a duty to see to the health and best medical interests of the patient. On the other hand, the patient has a right to be fully informed about any negative findings concerning the patient's health. When this duty conflicts with this right, the right should prevail since it is a basic right. Anything else carries the risk of treating the patient as a mere object, not as a person. | 200606_4-LR2_18_18 | [
"All persons have a right to accept or reject any medical procedures proposed by a physician.",
"Some actions are right independently of the consequences that might ensue.",
"Because only persons have rights, objects do not have rights.",
"A person's basic rights should never be violated.",
"In medicine, the patient's basic right to information is stronger than most other rights."
]
| 3 | The conclusion drawn above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Forester: The great majority of the forests remaining in the world are only sickly fragments of the fully functioning ecosystems they once were. These fragmented forest ecosystems have typically lost their ability to sustain themselves in the long term, yet they include the last refuges for some of the world's most endangered species. To maintain its full complement of plant and animal species, a fragmented forest requires regular interventions by resource managers. | 200606_4-LR2_19_19 | [
"Most of the world's forests will lose at least some of their plant or animal species if no one intervenes.",
"Unless resource managers regularly intervene in most of the world's remaining forests, many of the world's most endangered species will not survive.",
"A fragmented forest ecosystem cannot sustain itself in the long term if it loses any of its plant or animal species.",
"A complete, fully functioning forest ecosystem can always maintain its full complement of plant and animal species even without interventions by resource managers.",
"At present, resource managers intervene regularly in only some of the world's fragmented forest ecosystems."
]
| 0 | The forester's statements, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
Magazine article: Sugar consumption may exacerbate attention deficit disorder (ADD) in children. A recent study found that children produce large amounts of adrenaline within hours after consuming large amounts of sugar. This increase in adrenaline is especially noticeable if the source of sugar is candy, in which case the sugar's effects are not ameliorated by the ingestion of other foodstuffs. | 200606_4-LR2_20_20 | [
"The adrenaline level of children who do not have ADD is not increased by excessive sugar consumption.",
"Overproduction of adrenaline causes ADD in children.",
"The most effective way to treat ADD in children is to restrict their intake of sugars.",
"Increased adrenaline production can make ADD more severe in children.",
"Sugar consumed with food substances other than candy does not substantially increase the level of adrenaline in the bloodstream of children with ADD."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument in the magazine article depends? |
Ethicist: People who avoid alcoholic beverages simply because they regard them as a luxury beyond their financial means should not be praised for their abstinence. Similarly, those who avoid alcohol simply because they lack the desire to partake should not be praised, unless this disinclination has somehow resulted from an arduous process of disciplining oneself to refrain from acting indiscriminately on one's desires. | 200606_4-LR2_21_21 | [
"Whether behavior should be regarded as praiseworthy is a function of both its consequences and the social context in which the agent acts.",
"A person should be blamed for an action only if that action was not motivated by a desire to be virtuous or if the person did not have to overcome any obstacles in order to perform that action.",
"A person is praiseworthy for a particular behavior only if, in order to adopt that behavior, the person at some point had to overcome a desire to do something that she or he felt able to afford to do.",
"The extent to which the process of acquiring self-discipline is arduous for a person is affected by that person's set of desires and aversions.",
"The apportionment of praise and blame should be commensurate with the arduousness or ease of the lives of those who receive praise or blame."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the ethicist's claims? |
Economist: Some people argue that when large countries split into several small countries, the world economy is harmed by increased barriers to free trade in the form of an increased number of national tariffs. But small countries do not think of themselves as economically self-sufficient. Therefore, such division of large countries does not increase barriers to free trade. | 200606_4-LR2_22_22 | [
"A country has the right to split into smaller countries even if some of the economic consequences of division would harm the world economy.",
"Increasing the number of countries in the world would strengthen rather than weaken the world economy.",
"All countries that impose national tariffs or other barriers to free trade think of themselves as economically self-sufficient.",
"There is strong evidence that national tariffs and other barriers to free trade harm the world economy.",
"Large countries tend to be more economically self-sufficient than small countries."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the economist's conclusion to be properly drawn? |
Counselor: Constantly comparing oneself to those one sees as more able or more successful almost invariably leads to self-disparagement. Conversely, constantly comparing oneself to those one sees as less able or less successful almost invariably leads to being dismissive of others. So, those who for the most part refrain from comparing themselves to others will most likely be, on the whole, self-accepting and accepting of others. | 200606_4-LR2_23_23 | [
"overlooks the possibility that one can compare oneself both to those one perceives to be more able and more successful than oneself and to those one perceives to be less able and less successful than oneself",
"overlooks the possibility that constantly comparing oneself to others may have beneficial effects that those who refrain from making such comparisons are deprived of",
"takes for granted that if one is both dismissive of others and self-disparaging, one will not be self-accepting and accepting of others",
"overlooks the possibility that self-disparagement and being dismissive of others can result from something other than comparing oneself to others",
"takes for granted that whenever one compares oneself to others one sees them as more successful and more able than oneself or less successful and less able than oneself"
]
| 3 | The counselor's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism because it |
Most of the employees of the Compujack Corporation are computer programmers. Since most computer programmers receive excellent salaries from their employers, at least one Compujack employee must receive an excellent salary from Compujack. | 200606_4-LR2_24_24 | [
"Most gardeners are people with a great deal of patience. Since most of Molly's classmates are gardeners, at least one of Molly's classmates must be a person with a great deal of patience.",
"Most of Molly's classmates are gardeners. Since most gardeners are people with a great deal of patience, some of Molly's classmates could be people with a great deal of patience.",
"Most gardeners are people with a great deal of patience. Since most of Molly's classmates are gardeners, at least one of Molly's classmates who is a gardener must be a person with a great deal of patience.",
"Most gardeners are people with a great deal of patience. Since most of Molly's classmates who garden are women, at least one female classmate of Molly's must be a person with a great deal of patience.",
"Most of Molly's classmates are gardeners with a great deal of patience. Since most of Molly's classmates are women, at least one female classmate of Molly's must be a gardener with a great deal of patience."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following arguments exhibits a flawed pattern of reasoning most similar to the flawed pattern of reasoning exhibited by the argument above? |
A study conducted over a 6-month period analyzed daily attendance and average length of visit at the local art museum. The results showed that when the museum was not featuring a special exhibition, attendance tended to be lower but patrons spent an average of 45 minutes longer in the museum than when it was featuring a special exhibition. | 200606_4-LR2_25_25 | [
"Visitors to the museum during special exhibitions tend to have narrower artistic interests, and do not view as many different exhibits during their visit.",
"A plan to extend normal museum hours during special exhibitions was considered but not enacted during the period studied.",
"Many people who go to special exhibitions go simply for the prestige of having been there.",
"Admission tickets to the special exhibitions at the museum are issued for a specific 1-hour period on a specific day.",
"Many people who go to special exhibitions are on organized tours and do not have the opportunity to browse."
]
| 1 | Each of the following, if true, could help to explain the differing average lengths of visits to the museum EXCEPT: |
Extract from lease: The tenant should record all preexisting damage on the preexisting damage list, because the tenant need not pay for preexisting damage recorded there. The tenant must pay for damage that was not recorded on the preexisting damage list, except for any damage caused by a circumstance beyond the tenant's control. | 200609_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"a hole in the wall that was not recorded on the preexisting damage list and that was the result of an event within the tenant's control",
"a crack in a window caused by a factor beyond the tenant's control and not recorded on the preexisting damage list",
"a tear in the linoleum that was not preexisting but that was caused by one of the tenant's children",
"a missing light fixture that was present when the tenant moved in but was later removed by the tenant",
"paint splatters on the carpet that should have been recorded on the preexisting damage list but were not"
]
| 1 | In which one of the following instances does the extract from the lease most strongly support the view that the tenant is not required to pay for the damage? |
Randy: After Mega Cable Television Company refused to carry the competing Azco News Service alongside its own news channels, the mayor used her influence to get Azco time on a community channel, demonstrating her concern for keeping a diversity of news programming in the city. Marion: The mayor's action is fully explained by cruder motives: she's rewarding Azco's owner, a political supporter of hers. | 200609_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"The owner of Azco supported the mayor simply because he liked her political agenda, and not for any expected reward.",
"The mayor also used her influence to get time on a community channel for another news service, whose owner supported the mayor's opponent in the last election.",
"Azco's news coverage of the mayor has never been judged to be biased by an impartial, independent organization.",
"The many people whose jobs depend on Azco's continued presence on a community channel are a potential source of political support for the mayor.",
"The number of people who watch Mega Cable Television Company's programming has decreased during the mayor's term."
]
| 1 | Of the following, which one, if true, is the logically strongest counter Randy can make to Marion's objection? |
On the first day of trout season a team of biologists went with local trout anglers to the Macawber River. Each angler who caught at least 2 trout chose exactly 2 of these trout for the biologists to weigh. A total of 90 fish were weighed. The measurements show that at the beginning of this season the average trout in the Macawber River weighed approximately 1.6 kilograms. | 200609_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"makes a generalization from a sample that is unlikely to be representative",
"relies on evidence that is anecdotal rather than scientific",
"ignores the variations in weight that are likely to occur over the whole season",
"fails to take into account measurements from the same time in previous seasons",
"does not consider whether any fish other than trout were caught"
]
| 0 | The reasoning above is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
A strong correlation exists between what people value and the way they act. For example, those who value wealth tend to choose higher-paying jobs in undesirable locations over lower-paying jobs in desirable locations. Thus, knowing what people value can help one predict their actions. | 200609_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"Knowing how people behave allows one to infer what they value.",
"People's claims concerning what they value are symptomatic of their actions.",
"No two people who value different things act the same way in identical circumstances.",
"People who value wealth tend to allow their desire for it to outweigh other concerns.",
"What people value can be a reliable indicator of how they will act."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of the argument? |
An analysis of the number and severity of health problems among the population of a certain community showed that elderly people who were born in the community and resided there all their lives had significantly worse health than elderly people who had moved there within the past five years. | 200609_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"People who have the means to relocate tend to be in better-than-average health.",
"Although most people who have moved into the community are young, most people who have lived in the community all their lives are elderly.",
"The quality of health care available to the community is lower than that for the rest of the country.",
"Changes in one's environment tend to have a beneficial effect on one's health.",
"People in good health are more likely to move to new communities than are people in poor health."
]
| 1 | Each of the following, if true, contributes to an explanation of the difference in health between these two groups EXCEPT: |
Classical Roman architecture is beautiful, primarily because of its use of rounded arches and its symmetry. Postmodern architecture is dramatic, primarily because of its creative use both of materials and of the surrounding environment. An architectural style that combines elements of both classical Roman and postmodern architecture would therefore be both beautiful and dramatic. | 200609_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"presumes, without providing justification, that for an architectural style to have certain qualities, its components must have those qualities",
"fails to justify its presumption that because postmodern architecture is dramatic, that is its most salient feature",
"neglects to consider that an architectural style combining elements of two other architectural styles may lack certain qualities of one or both of those styles",
"neglects to specify how the drama of an architectural style contributes to its beauty",
"ignores the possibility that there are other architectural styles whose defining qualities include both drama and beauty"
]
| 2 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that it |
After being subjected to clinical tests like those used to evaluate the effectiveness of prescription drugs, a popular nonprescription herbal remedy was found to be as effective in treating painful joints as is a certain prescription drug that has been used successfully to treat this condition. The manufacturer of the herbal remedy cited the test results as proof that chemical agents are unnecessary for the successful treatment of painful joints. | 200609_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"People are likely to switch from using prescription drugs to using herbal remedies if the herbal remedies are found to be as effective as the prescription drugs.",
"The herbal remedy contains no chemical agents that are effective in treating painful joints.",
"None of the people who participated in the test of the prescription drug had ever tried using an herbal remedy to treat painful joints.",
"The researchers who analyzed the results of the clinical testing of the herbal remedy had also analyzed the results of the clinical testing of the prescription drug.",
"The prescription drug treats the discomfort associated with painful joints without eliminating the cause of that condition."
]
| 1 | The test results would provide the proof that the manufacturer claims they do if which one of the following is assumed? |
When companies' profits would otherwise be reduced by an increase in the minimum wage (a wage rate set by the government as the lowest that companies are allowed to pay), the companies often reduce the number of workers they employ. Yet a recent increase in the minimum wage did not result in job cutbacks in the fast-food industry, where most workers are paid the minimum wage. | 200609_2-LR1_8_8 | [
"After the recent increase in the minimum wage, decreased job turnover in the fast-food industry allowed employers of fast-food workers to save enough on recruiting costs to cover the cost of the wage increase.",
"If, in any industry, an increase in the minimum wage leads to the elimination of many jobs that pay the minimum wage, then higher-paying supervisory positions will also be eliminated in that industry.",
"With respect to its response to increases in the minimum wage, the fast-food industry does not differ significantly from other industries that employ many workers at the minimum wage.",
"A few employees in the fast-food industry were already earning more than the new, higher minimum wage before the new minimum wage was established.",
"Sales of fast food to workers who are paid the minimum wage did not increase following the recent change in the minimum wage."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain why the increase in the minimum wage did not affect the number of jobs in the fast-food industry? |
One should always capitalize the main words and the first and last words of a title. But one should never capitalize articles, or prepositions and conjunctions with fewer than five letters, when they occur in the middle of a title. | 200609_2-LR1_9_9 | [
"If a word that is a preposition or conjunction should be capitalized, then it is the first or last word of the title.",
"If a word in the middle of a title should be capitalized, then that word is neither an article nor a conjunction shorter than five letters.",
"All prepositions and conjunctions with fewer than five letters should be uncapitalized in titles.",
"If a word is neither a main word nor a first or last word of a title, then it should not be capitalized.",
"Prepositions and conjunctions with five or more letters should be capitalized in any text."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the statements above? |
Letter to the editor: Recently, the city council passed an ordinance that prohibits loitering at the local shopping mall. The council's declared goal was to eliminate overcrowding and alleviate pedestrian congestion, thereby improving the mall's business and restoring its family-oriented image. But despite these claims, reducing overcrowding and congestion cannot be the actual goals of this measure, because even when fully implemented, the ordinance would not accomplish them. | 200609_2-LR1_10_10 | [
"The argument ignores the possibility that an action may achieve its secondary goals even if it does not achieve its primary goals.",
"The argument takes for granted that something cannot be the goal of an action performed unless the action will in fact achieve that goal.",
"The argument dismisses a claim because of its source rather than because of its content.",
"The argument takes for granted that an action that does not accomplish its stated goals will not have any beneficial effects.",
"The argument treats a condition that is necessary for achieving an action's stated goals as if this condition were sufficient for achieving these goals."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the argument's reasoning? |
Cynthia: Corporations amply fund research that generates marketable new technologies. But the fundamental goal of science is to achieve a comprehensive knowledge of the workings of the universe. The government should help fund those basic scientific research projects that seek to further our theoretical knowledge of nature. Luis: The basic goal of government support of scientific research is to generate technological advances that will benefit society as a whole. So only research that is expected to yield practical applications in fields such as agriculture and medicine ought to be funded. | 200609_2-LR1_11_11 | [
"The government should help fund pure theoretical research because such research might have unforeseen practical applications in fields such as agriculture and medicine.",
"A proposed study of the effects of chemical fertilizers on crops, for the purpose of developing more-resistant and higher-yielding breeds, should not receive government funding.",
"Although some research projects in theoretical science yield practical benefits, most do not, and so no research projects in theoretical science should be funded by the government.",
"Research for the sole purpose of developing new technologies ought to be financed exclusively by corporations.",
"Knowledge gained through basic scientific research need not be expected to lead to new and useful technologies in order for the research to merit government funding."
]
| 4 | Cynthia's and Luis's statements provide the most support for the contention that they would disagree with each other about the truth of which one of the following statements? |
One can never tell whether another person is acting from an ulterior motive; therefore, it is impossible to tell whether someone's action is moral, and so one should evaluate the consequences of an action rather than its morality. | 200609_2-LR1_12_12 | [
"The intention of an action is indispensable for an evaluation of its morality.",
"The assigning of praise and blame is what is most important in the assessment of the value of human actions.",
"One can sometimes know one's own motives for a particular action.",
"There can be good actions that are not performed by a good person.",
"One cannot know whether someone acted morally in a particular situation unless one knows what consequences that person's actions had."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning above? |
Fossil-fuel producers say that it would be prohibitively expensive to reduce levels of carbon dioxide emitted by the use of fossil fuels enough to halt global warming. This claim is probably false. Several years ago, the chemical industry said that finding an economical alternative to the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) destroying the ozone layer would be impossible. Yet once the industry was forced, by international agreements, to find substitutes for CFCs, it managed to phase them out completely well before the mandated deadline, in many cases at a profit. | 200609_2-LR1_13_13 | [
"In the time since the chemical industry phased out CFCs, the destruction of the ozone layer by CFCs has virtually halted, but the levels of carbon dioxide emitted by the use of fossil fuels have continued to increase.",
"In some countries, the amount of carbon dioxide emitted by the use of fossil fuels has already been reduced without prohibitive expense, but at some cost in convenience to the users of such fuels.",
"The use of CFCs never contributed as greatly to the destruction of the ozone layer as the carbon dioxide emitted by the use of fossil fuels currently contributes to global warming.",
"There are ways of reducing carbon dioxide emissions that could halt global warming without hurting profits of fossil-fuel producers significantly more than phasing out CFCs hurt those of the chemical industry.",
"If international agreements forced fossil-fuel producers to find ways to reduce carbon dioxide emissions enough to halt global warming, the fossil-fuel producers could find substitutes for fossil fuels."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
If legislators are to enact laws that benefit constituents, they must be sure to consider what the consequences of enacting a proposed law will actually be. Contemporary legislatures fail to enact laws that benefit constituents. Concerned primarily with advancing their own political careers, legislators present legislation in polemical terms; this arouses in their colleagues either repugnance or enthusiasm for the legislation. | 200609_2-LR1_14_14 | [
"Legislation will not benefit constituents unless legislators become less concerned with their own careers.",
"Legislatures that enact laws that benefit constituents are successful legislatures.",
"The passage of laws cannot benefit constituents unless constituents generally adhere to those laws.",
"Legislators considering a proposed law for which they have repugnance or enthusiasm do not consider the consequences that it will actually have.",
"The inability of legislators to consider the actual consequences of enacting a proposed law is due to their strong feelings about that law."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Anderson maintains that travel writing has diminished in quality over the last few decades. Although travel writing has changed in this time, Anderson is too harsh on contemporary travel writers. Today, when the general public is better traveled than in the past, travel writers face a challenge far greater than that of their predecessors: they must not only show their readers a place but also make them see it anew. That the genre has not only survived but also flourished shows the talent of today's practitioners. | 200609_2-LR1_15_15 | [
"It is claimed to be a result of good travel writing.",
"It is cited as evidence that contemporary travel writing is intended for a wider readership.",
"It is part of a purported explanation of why readers are disappointed with today's travel writers.",
"It is cited as a reason that travel writing flourishes more today than it has in the past.",
"It is cited as a condition that has transformed the task of the travel writer."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the statement that the general public is better traveled today than in the past? |
Among multiparty democracies, those with the fewest parties will have the most-productive legislatures. The fewer the number of parties in a democracy, the more issues each must take a stand on. A political party that must take stands on a wide variety of issues has to prioritize those issues; this promotes a tendency to compromise. | 200609_2-LR1_16_16 | [
"The more political parties a nation has, the more likely it is that there will be disagreements within parties.",
"The fewer the number of a nation's political parties, the more important it is that those parties can compromise with each other.",
"The tendency to compromise makes the legislative process more productive.",
"The legislatures of nondemocracies are less productive than are those of democracies.",
"Legislators in a multiparty democracy never all agree on important issues."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
Warm air tends to be humid, and as humidity of air increases, the amount of rainfall also increases. So, the fact that rainfall totals for most continents have been increasing over the past five years is strong evidence that the air temperature is increasing as well. | 200609_2-LR1_17_17 | [
"Food that is fresh tends to be nutritious, and the more nutritious one's diet the healthier one is. People today are generally healthier than people were a century ago. So it is likely that people today eat food that is fresher than the food people ate a century ago.",
"Your refusal to make public your personal finances indicates some sort of financial impropriety on your part, for people who do not reveal their personal finances generally are hiding some sort of financial impropriety.",
"People tend not to want to travel on mass transit when they are carrying bags and packages, and the more bags and packages one carries, the more awkward travel on mass transit becomes. Therefore, people who carry bags and packages tend to use automobiles rather than mass transit.",
"Statistics show that people are generally living longer and healthier lives than ever before. However, more people are overweight and fewer people exercise than ever before. Therefore, being lean and physically fit is essential neither to long life nor to good health.",
"People tend to watch only those television programs that they enjoy and appreciate. Since there are more television viewers today than there were ten years ago, it must be the case that viewers today are satisfied with at least some of the programs shown on television."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following has a flawed pattern of reasoning most similar to the flawed pattern of reasoning in the argument above? |
Asked by researchers to sort objects by shape, most toddlers in a large study had no trouble doing so. When subsequently told to sort by color, the toddlers seemed to have difficulty following the new rule and almost invariably persisted with their first approach. The researchers suggest such failures to adapt to new rules often result from insufficient development of the prefrontal cortex in toddlers. The cortex is essential for functions like adapting to new rules, yet is slow to mature, continuing to develop right into adolescence. | 200609_2-LR1_18_18 | [
"Toddlers unable to sort objects by color tend to have a less developed prefrontal cortex than other children of the same age.",
"Only adolescents and adults can solve problems that require adapting to new rules.",
"Certain kinds of behavior on the part of toddlers may not be willfully disobedient.",
"The maturing of the prefrontal cortex is more important than upbringing in causing the development of adaptive behavior.",
"Skill at adapting to new situations is roughly proportional to the level of development of the prefrontal cortex."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is most supported by the information above? |
Dietitian: It is true that nutrients are most effective when provided by natural foods rather than artificial supplements. While it is also true that fat in one's diet is generally unhealthy, eating raw carrots (which are rich in beta carotene) by themselves is nonetheless not an effective means of obtaining vitamin A, since the body cannot transform beta carotene into vitamin A unless it is consumed with at least some fat. | 200609_2-LR1_19_19 | [
"It is mentioned as a reason for adopting a dietary practice that the dietitian provides a reason for not carrying to the extreme.",
"It is mentioned as the reason that is least often cited by those who recommend a dietary practice the dietitian disfavors.",
"It is mentioned as a generally accepted hypothesis that the dietitian attempts to undermine completely.",
"It is attacked as inadequate evidence for the claim that nutrients are most effective when provided by natural foods rather than artificial supplements.",
"It is cited as a bad reason for adopting a dietary habit that the dietitian recommends."
]
| 0 | The statement that fat in one's diet is generally unhealthy plays which one of the following roles in the dietitian's argument? |
Industrial engineer: Some people have suggested that the problem of global warming should be addressed by pumping some of the carbon dioxide produced by the burning of fossil fuels into the deep ocean. Many environmentalists worry that this strategy would simply exchange one form of pollution for an equally destructive form. This worry is unfounded, however; much of the carbon dioxide now released into the atmosphere eventually ends up in the ocean anyway, where it does not cause environmental disturbances as destructive as global warming. | 200609_2-LR1_20_20 | [
"Global warming from the emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere could be reduced by pumping some of that carbon dioxide into the deep ocean.",
"Environmentalists worry that the strategy of pumping carbon dioxide into the deep ocean to reduce global warming would simply exchange one form of pollution for another, equally destructive one.",
"Worrying that pumping carbon dioxide into the deep ocean to reduce global warming would simply exchange one form of pollution for another, equally destructive, form is unfounded.",
"Much of the carbon dioxide now released into the atmosphere ends up in the ocean where it does not cause environmental disturbances as destructive as global warming.",
"To reduce global warming, the strategy of pumping into the deep ocean at least some of the carbon dioxide now released into the atmosphere should be considered."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of the industrial engineer's argument as a whole? |
Several people came down with an illness caused by a type of bacteria in seafood. Health officials traced the history of each person who became ill to the same restaurant and date. Careful testing showed that most people who ate seafood at the restaurant on that date had not come in contact with the bacteria in question. Despite this finding, health officials remained confident that contaminated seafood from this restaurant caused the cases of illness. | 200609_2-LR1_21_21 | [
"Most people are immune to the effects of the bacteria in question.",
"Those made ill by the bacteria had all been served by a waiter who subsequently became ill.",
"All and only those who ate contaminated seafood at the restaurant on that date were allergic to the monosodium glutamate in a sauce that they used.",
"The restaurant in question had recently been given a warning about violations of health regulations.",
"All and only those who ate a particular seafood dish at the restaurant contracted the illness."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy indicated above? |
Economist: Real wages in this country will increase significantly only if productivity increases notably. Thus, it is unlikely that real wages will increase significantly in the near future, since this country's businesses are currently investing very little in new technology and this pattern is likely to continue for at least several more years. | 200609_2-LR1_22_22 | [
"Neither real wages nor productivity have increased in the last several years.",
"Real wages will increase notably if a significant number of workers acquire the skills necessary to use new technology.",
"Sooner or later real wages will increase significantly.",
"Productivity will not increase if businesses do not make a substantial investment in new technology.",
"The new technology in which businesses are currently investing is not contributing to an increase in productivity."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if assumed about the economist's country, allows the economist's conclusion to be properly drawn? |
In scientific journals, authors and reviewers have praised companies in which they have substantial investments. These scientists, with their potential conflict of interest, call into question the integrity of scientific inquiry, so there should be full public disclosure of scientific authors' commercial holdings. | 200609_2-LR1_23_23 | [
"Managers within any corporation should not make investments in the companies for which they work.",
"Claims about the effectiveness of pharmaceuticals should be based on scientific studies.",
"People with access to otherwise private information regarding the value of stocks should not be allowed to sell or purchase those stocks.",
"Magazine publishers should not be allowed to invest in the companies that advertise in their magazines.",
"Financial advisers should inform their clients about any incentives the advisers receive for promoting investments in particular companies."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following conforms most closely to the principle illustrated by the argument above? |
Columnist: The amount of acidic pollutants released into the air has decreased throughout the world over the last several decades. We can expect, then, an overall decrease in the negative environmental effects of acid rain, which is caused by these acidic pollutants. | 200609_2-LR1_24_24 | [
"Some ecosystems have developed sophisticated mechanisms that reduce the negative effects of increased levels of acids in the environment.",
"The amount of acid-neutralizing buffers released into the air has decreased in recent years.",
"The current decrease in acidic pollutants is expected to end soon, as more countries turn to coal for the generation of electricity.",
"The effects of acid rain are cumulative and largely independent of current acid rain levels.",
"The soils of many ecosystems exposed to acid rain have been exhausted of minerals that help protect them from acid rain's harmful effects."
]
| 0 | Each of the following, if true, would weaken the columnist's argument EXCEPT: |
Columnist: It is sometimes claimed that the only factors relevant to determining moral guilt or innocence are the intentions of the person performing an action. However, external circumstances often play a crucial role in our moral judgment of an action. For example, a cook at a restaurant who absentmindedly put an ingredient in the stew that is not usually in the stew would ordinarily be regarded as forgetful, not immoral. If, however, someone eating at the restaurant happens to be severely allergic to that ingredient, eats the stew, and dies, many people would judge the cook to be guilty of serious moral negligence. | 200609_2-LR1_25_25 | [
"It is sometimes fair to judge the morality of others' actions even without considering all of the circumstances under which those actions were performed.",
"We sometimes judge unfairly the morality of other people's actions.",
"We should judge all negligent people to be equally morally blameworthy, regardless of the outcomes of their actions.",
"People are sometimes held morally blameworthy as a result of circumstances some of which were outside their intentional control.",
"The intentions of the person performing an action are rarely a decisive factor in making moral judgments about that action."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following propositions is best illustrated by the columnist's statements? |
Students in a first-year undergraduate course were divided into two groups. All the students in both groups were given newspaper articles identical in every respect, except for the headline, which was different for each group. When the students were later asked questions about the contents of the article, the answers given by the two groups were markedly different, though within each group the answers were similar. | 200609_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"Readers base their impressions of what is in a newspaper on headlines alone.",
"Newspaper headlines hamper a reader's ability to comprehend the corresponding articles.",
"Careless reading is more common among first-year undergraduates than among more senior students.",
"Newspaper headlines tend to be highly misleading.",
"Newspaper headlines influence a reader's interpretation of the corresponding articles."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
All works of art are beautiful and have something to teach us. Thus, since the natural world as a whole is both beautiful and instructive, it is a work of art. | 200609_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"uses the inherently vague term \"beautiful\" without providing an explicit definition of that term",
"attempts to establish an evaluative conclusion solely on the basis of claims about factual matters",
"concludes, simply because an object possesses two qualities that are each common to all works of art, that the object is a work of art",
"presumes, without providing justification, that only objects that are beautiful are instructive",
"fails to consider the possibility that there are many things that are both beautiful and instructive but are not part of the natural world"
]
| 2 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument |
When Copernicus changed the way we think about the solar system, he did so not by discovering new information, but by looking differently at information already available. Edward Jenner's discovery of a smallpox vaccine occurred when he shifted his focus to disease prevention from the then more common emphasis on cure. History is replete with breakthroughs of this sort. | 200609_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"Many valuable intellectual accomplishments occur by chance.",
"Shifting from earlier modes of thought can result in important advances.",
"The ability to look at information from a different point of view is rare.",
"Understanding is advanced less often by better organization of available information than it is by the accumulation of new information.",
"Dramatic intellectual breakthroughs are more easily accomplished in fields in which the amount of information available is relatively small."
]
| 1 | The examples provided above illustrate which one of the following? |
Politician: Suppose censorship is wrong in itself, as modern liberals tend to believe. Then an actor's refusing a part in a film because the film glamorizes a point of view abhorrent to the actor would be morally wrong. But this conclusion is absurd. It follows that censorship is not, after all, wrong in itself. | 200609_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"presumes, without providing justification, that actors would subscribe to any tenet of modern liberalism",
"uses the term \"liberal\" in order to discredit opponents' point of view",
"takes for granted that there is a moral obligation to practice one's profession",
"draws a conclusion that is inconsistent with a premise it accepts",
"presumes, without providing justification, that declining a film role constitutes censorship in the relevant sense"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the politician's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that this argument |
Motor oil serves to lubricate engines and thus retard engine wear. A study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of various brands of motor oil by using them in taxicabs over a 6,000-mile test period. All the oils did equally well in retarding wear on pistons and cylinders, the relevant parts of the engine. Hence, cheaper brands of oil are the best buys. | 200609_4-LR2_5_5 | [
"Cheaper brands of motor oil are often used by knowledgeable automobile mechanics for their own cars.",
"Tests other than of the ability to reduce engine wear also can reliably gauge the quality of motor oil.",
"The lubricating properties of all motor oils deteriorate over time, and the rate of deterioration is accelerated by heat.",
"The engines of some individual cars that have had their oil changed every 3,000 miles, using only a certain brand of oil, have lasted an extraordinarily long time.",
"Ability to retard engine wear is not the only property of motor oil important to the running of an engine."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? |
Elena: The best form of government is one that fosters the belief among its citizens that they have a say in how the government is run. Thus, democracy is the best form of government. Marsha: But there are many forms of government under which citizens can be manipulated into believing they have a say when they don't. | 200609_4-LR2_6_6 | [
"concur with Elena's claim that democracy is the best form of government",
"support Marsha's unstated conclusion that the best form of government is one that appears to be democratic but really is not",
"suggest that the premise Elena uses to support her conclusion could be used to support a conflicting conclusion",
"support Marsha's unstated conclusion that most people seek only the appearance of democracy rather than democracy itself",
"reject Elena's conclusion that the best form of government is democracy"
]
| 2 | Marsha's claim that it is possible for governments to manipulate people into thinking that they have a say when they do not is used to |
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