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https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Thermodynamics/The_Four_Laws_of_Thermodynamics/First_Law_of_Thermodynamics/First_Law_of_Thermodynamics |
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be converted from one form to another, but cannot be created or destroyed. The most important and critical aspect of life revolves around the idea of energy. During the course of a single day, a person finds him or herself using energy in all sorts ... | 3,578 | 390 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/4_f-Block_Elements/The_Lanthanides/Chemistry_of_Gadolinium/Gadolinium(III)_Chloride |
Gadolinium trichloride, GdCl , is a colorless, hygroscopic, water-soluble solid. It is commonly encountered as hexahydrate GdCl 6H O. Gadolinium trichloride can be synthesized by the reaction of solid gadolinium with HCl at 600 °C: 2 Gd + 6 HCl 2 GdCl + 3 H Another way to prepare gadolinium trichlori... | 884 | 391 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_4%3A_Equilibrium_in_Chemical_Reactions/12%3A_Thermodynamic_Processes_and_Thermochemistry/12.E%3A_Thermodynamic_Processes_(Exercises) |
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A sample of \(\ce{O_2}\) gas is under an external pressure of 17 atm and contained in a cylinder with a volume of 50 L. The gas is cooled and the resulting volume is 25 L. Calculate the amount of work done the \(\ce{O_2}\) gas. \[\begin{align*} w &=-P\Delta V \nonumber \\[5pt] &= -P_{\text{ex... | 30,957 | 392 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Reactions/Reactivity/Part_V%3A__Reactivity_in_Organic%2C_Biological_and_Inorganic_Chemistry_3/PC._Photochemistry/PC3._Fluorescence_and_Phosphorescence |
Sometimes, when an excited state species relaxes, giving off a photon, the wavelength of the photon is different from the one that initially led to excitation. When this happens, the photon is invariably red-shifted; its wavelength is longer than the initial one. This situation is called "fluorescence." How can ... | 8,702 | 393 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Physical_Chemistry_(LibreTexts)/21%3A_Entropy_and_the_Third_Law_of_Thermodynamics/21.08%3A_Spectroscopic_Entropies_sometimes_disgree_with_Calorimetric_Entropies |
The entropy of gases can be experimentally measured using calorimetry (\(S^\circ_{\text{exp}}\)) or calculated using spectroscopic methods (\(S^\circ_{\text{calc}}\)). For most molecules, the experiment and calculated values are in a good agreement, however, this is not true for all molecules. The discr... | 842 | 394 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Reactions/Reactivity/Part_V%3A__Reactivity_in_Organic%2C_Biological_and_Inorganic_Chemistry_3/RO._Reduction_and_Oxidation/RO6._Reduction_of_Metal_Ores |
Metal ores are typically salts, such as oxides, carbonates or sulfides. Conversion of these ores into metals requires oxidation/reduction reactions. That's not always the case. Some early forays into metallurgy involved native gold (native meaning the metal is found in its elemental state in nature). Gold is rel... | 5,989 | 396 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/4_f-Block_Elements/The_Actinides/1General_Properties_and_Reactions_of_The_Actinides |
The Actinide series contains elements with atomic numbers 89 to 103 and is in the sixth period and the third group of the periodic table. The series is the row below the Lanthanide series, which is located underneath the main body of the periodic table. and Actinide Series are both referred to as Rare... | 8,548 | 397 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Main_Group_Reactions/Reactions_of_Main_Group_Elements_with_Oxygen/Acid-Base_Character_of_Oxides_and_Hydroxides |
From left to right on the periodic table, go from basic to acidic. - Ionic Bonding: no distribution of electron wave function - Ionic oxides are usually basic (element act as a base when reacting with H2O) Na2O(s) + H2O(l) --> 2NaOH(aq) --> 2Na+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
B. Oxide B. Hydroxide - Semimetal are amp... | 1,369 | 398 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_15%3A_The_Nitrogen_Family/Z007_Chemistry_of_Nitrogen_(Z7) |
Nitrogen is present in almost all proteins and plays important roles in both biochemical applications and industrial applications. Nitrogen forms strong bonds because of its ability to form a triple bond with its self, and other elements. Thus, there is a lot of energy in the compounds of nitrogen. Befo... | 5,066 | 400 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/States_of_Matter/Properties_of_Gases/Gases_(Waterloo)/The_Ideal_Gas_Law |
The volume ( ) occupied by moles of any gas has a pressure ( ) at temperature ( ) in Kelvin. The relationship for these variables, \[P V = n R T\] where is known as the gas constant, is called the or . Properties of the gaseous state predicted by the ideal gas law are within 5% for gases under ordinary co... | 7,803 | 401 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/3_d-Block_Elements/1b_Properties_of_Transition_Metals/Transition_Metals_in_Biology |
In this section, we describe several systems that illustrate the roles transition metals play in biological systems. Our goal is for you to understand why the chemical properties of these elements make them essential for life. We begin with a discussion of the strategies organisms use to extract transit... | 33,095 | 404 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Map%3A_Physical_Chemistry_for_the_Biosciences_(Chang)/11%3A_Quantum_Mechanics_and_Atomic_Structure/11.10%3A_The_Schrodinger_Wave_Equation_for_the_Hydrogen_Atom |
The hydrogen atom, consisting of an electron and a proton, is a two-particle system, and the internal motion of two particles around their center of mass is equivalent to the motion of a single particle with a reduced mass. This reduced particle is located at \(r\), where \(r\) is the vector specifying ... | 24,667 | 405 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Solutions_and_Mixtures/Colligative_Properties/Freezing_Point_Depression |
The freezing points of solutions are all lower than that of the pure solvent and is directly proportional to the of the solute. \[\begin{align*}\Delta{T_f} &= T_f(solvent) - T_f (solution) \\[4pt] &= K_f \times m \end{align*}\] where \(\Delta{T_f}\) is the freezing point depression, \(T_f\) (solution)... | 6,383 | 406 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Coordination_Chemistry/Structure_and_Nomenclature_of_Coordination_Compounds/Isomers/Stereoisomers%3A_Geometric_Isomers_in_cis-platin |
Two compounds that have the same formula and the same connectivity do not always have the same shape. There are two reasons why this may happen. In one case, the molecule may be flexible, so that it can twist into different shapes via rotation around individual sigma bonds. This phenomenon is called conformation... | 2,972 | 407 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/16%3A_Carbonyl_Compounds_I-_Aldehydes_and_Ketones._Addition_Reactions_of_the_Carbonyl_Group/16.09%3A_Protection_of_Carbonyl_Groups |
There are few reactions of aldehydes and ketones that do not in some way affect the carbonyl function. For this reason, it may be necessary to protect the carbonyl function when it is desirable to avoid reaction at this function. For example, you may plan to synthesize 4-cyclohexylidene-2-butanone by way of a Wi... | 923 | 408 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/10%3A_Alkenes_and_Alkynes_I_-_Ionic_and_Radical_Addition_Reactions/10.09%3A_Polymerization_of_Alkenes |
One of the most important technical reactions of alkenes is their conversion to higher-molecular-weight compounds or (Table 10-4). A polymer is defined as a . Thus polymerization of propene gives a long-chain hydrocarbon with recurring units: Most technically important polymerizations of alkenes occur by ch... | 6,465 | 409 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Electronic_Structure_of_Atoms_and_Molecules/Electronic_Configurations/Electronic_Configurations_Intro |
The electron configuration of an atom is the representation of the arrangement of electrons distributed among the orbital shells and subshells. Commonly, the electron configuration is used to describe the orbitals of an atom in its ground state, but it can also be used to represent an atom that has ioni... | 673 | 410 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_15%3A_The_Nitrogen_Family/Z083_Chemistry_of_Bismuth_(Z83) |
Bismuth, the heaviest non-radioactive naturally occurring element, was isolated by Basil Valentine in 1450. It is a hard, brittle metal with an unusually low melting point (271 C). Alloys of bismuth with other low-melting metals such as tin and lead have even lower melting points and are used in electri... | 679 | 412 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_14%3A_The_Carbon_Family/Z032_Chemistry_of_Germanium_(Z32) |
Germanium, categorized as a metalloid in group 14, the Carbon family, has five naturally occurring isotopes. Germanium, abundant in the Earth's crust has been said to improve the immune system of cancer patients. It is also used in transistors, but its most important use is in fiber-optic systems and in... | 3,872 | 413 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/1_s-Block_Elements/Group__1%3A_The_Alkali_Metals/00%3A_Front_Matter/02%3A_InfoPage |
Instructors can adopt existing LibreTexts texts or Remix them to quickly build course-specific resources to meet the needs of their students. Unlike traditional textbooks, LibreTexts’ web based origins allow powerful integration of advanced features and new access texts to improve postsecond... | 1,070 | 415 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Group/Group_01%3A_Hydrogen_and_the_Alkali_Metals/1Group_1%3A_Properties_of_Alkali_Metals |
This page discusses the trends in some atomic and physical properties of the Group 1 elements - lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium and cesium. Sections below cover the trends in atomic radius, first ionization energy, electronegativity, melting and boiling points, and density. The chart below shows th... | 6,381 | 417 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Book%3A_Quantum_States_of_Atoms_and_Molecules_(Zielinksi_et_al)/04%3A_Electronic_Spectroscopy_of_Cyanine_Dyes/4.08%3A_Other_Properties_of_the_Particle-in-a-Box |
Now that we have mathematical expressions for the wavefunctions and energies for the particle-in-a-box, we can answer a number of interesting questions. The answers to these questions use quantum mechanics to predict some important and general properties for electrons, atoms, molecules, gases, liquids, and solid... | 8,568 | 418 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Book3A_Bioinorganic_Chemistry_(Bertini_et_al.)/04%3A_Biological_and_Synthetic_Dioxygen_Carriers/4.08%3A_General_Aspects_of_the_Chemistry_of_Iron |
In the presence of dioxygen, iron(II) species are readily oxidized to iron(III) species. In the presence of water, iron(III) species frequently associate into \(\mu\)-oxodiiron(III) dimers. For iron(II)-porphyrin complexes this process may take only milliseconds at room temperature. The following mechan... | 10,210 | 419 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_3%3A_The_States_of_Matter/10%3A_Solids_Liquids_and_Phase_Transitions/10.2%3A_Intermolecular_Forces_-_Origins_in_Molecular_Structure |
The properties of liquids are intermediate between those of gases and solids, but are more similar to solids. In contrast to molecular forces, such as the covalent bonds that hold atoms together in molecules and polyatomic ions, molecular forces hold molecules together in a liquid or solid. Intermolecular forc... | 22,810 | 421 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Book%3A_Quantum_States_of_Atoms_and_Molecules_(Zielinksi_et_al)/04%3A_Electronic_Spectroscopy_of_Cyanine_Dyes/4.06%3A_Selection_Rules_for_the_Particle-in-a-Box |
This section explores the use of symmetry to determine selection rules. Here we derive an analytical expression for the transition dipole moment integral for the particle-in-a-box model. The result that the magnitude of this integral increases as the length of the box increases explains why the absorption coeffi... | 5,841 | 422 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/1_s-Block_Elements/Group__1%3A_The_Alkali_Metals/Z087_Chemistry_of_Francium_(Z87) |
Francium is the last of the known alkali metals and does not occur to any significant extent in nature. All known isotopes are radioactive and have short half-lives (22 minutes is the longest). The existence of Francium was predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev in the 1870's and he presumed it would have chemic... | 747 | 423 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Thermodynamics/Chemical_Energetics/Free_Energy_and_Equilibrium/Composition_of_an_Equilibrium_Mixture |
Students often wonder why many chemical reactions yield an equilibrium mixture in which a significant amount of the reactants are present, even though the products have a lower standard free energy than the reactants. One might at first think that as long as reactants are present, the free energy could be redu... | 1,292 | 427 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/3_d-Block_Elements/Group_08%3A_Transition_Metals/Chemistry_of_Iron/Iron_in_Humans |
Iron is an essential elements for human. , an iron-storage protein found in animals and plants, contains the largest cluster currently known, an ordered aggregate {(FeOOH) (FeO H PO )} containing up to 4,500 Fe(III) atoms. The cluster occurs within a protein cavity roughly 80 angstroms in diameter. Pr... | 1,312 | 428 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/1_s-Block_Elements/Group__1%3A_The_Alkali_Metals/Z037_Chemistry_of_Rubidium_(Z37) |
Rubidium (Latin: rubidius = red) is similar in physical and chemical characteristics to potassium, but much more reactive. It is the seventeenth most abundant element and was discovered by its red spectral emission in 1861 by Bunsen and Kirchhoff. Its melting point is so low you could melt it in your ha... | 668 | 429 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Map%3A_Inorganic_Chemistry_(Housecroft)/06%3A_Structures_and_Energetics_of_Metallic_and_Ionic_solids/6.04%3A_Polymorphism_in_Metals/6.4A%3A_Polymorphism_-_Phase_Changes_in_the_Solid_State |
When discussing the concept of Stability it is necessary to distinguish between thermodynamic and kinetic stability. Here B is at lower energy than A so that ΔG is negative. The reaction should therefore proceed spontaneously and B is the more thermodynamically stable species.
The reaction as shown t... | 1,519 | 430 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Spectroscopy/Vibrational_Spectroscopy/Raman_Spectroscopy/Resonant_vs._Nonresonant_Raman_Spectroscopy |
Raman spectroscopy is a chemical instrumentation technique that exploits molecular vibrations. It does not require large sample sizes and is non-destructive to samples. It is capable of qualitative analysis of samples and the intensity of spectral bands produced assist in quantitative analysis as well. ... | 9,233 | 431 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Book%3A_ChemPRIME_(Moore_et_al.)/03%3A_Using_Chemical_Equations_in_Calculations/3.11%3A_Solution_Concentrations/3.11.03%3A_Environment-_Determining_Water_Purity_via_Biological_Oxygen_Demand |
Prior to studying this section, you may wish to revise your solution calculations and your molar calculations. Aquatic life is dependent upon gases dissolved in the water that they live in. Gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO ) will be required by aquatic plants for photosynthesis, whereas most aquatic plants and ... | 4,523 | 433 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Book%3A_Quantum_States_of_Atoms_and_Molecules_(Zielinksi_et_al)/04%3A_Electronic_Spectroscopy_of_Cyanine_Dyes/4.09%3A_Properties_of_Quantum_Mechanical_Systems |
Consideration of the quantum mechanical description of the particle-in-a-box exposed two important properties of quantum mechanical systems. We saw that the eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian operator are orthogonal, and we also saw that the position and momentum of the particle could not be determined exactly. W... | 8,562 | 434 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_3%3A_The_States_of_Matter/10%3A_Solids_Liquids_and_Phase_Transitions/10.1%3A_Bulk_Properties_of_Liquids_-_Molecular_Interpretation |
Although you have been introduced to some of the interactions that hold molecules together in a liquid, we have not yet discussed the consequences of those interactions for the bulk properties of liquids. We now turn our attention to four unique properties of liquids that intimately depend on the nature... | 18,112 | 436 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/21%3A_Resonance_and_Molecular_Orbital_Methods/21.11%3A_Pericyclic_Reactions |
There are numerous reactions in organic chemistry that proceed through cyclic transition states. They may be classified generally as reactions. An important and familiar example is the Diels-Alder reaction, in which a conjugated diene cycloadds to an alkene or alkyne: This reaction has been described previousl... | 16,258 | 437 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_4%3A_Equilibrium_in_Chemical_Reactions/17%3A_Electrochemistry/17.7%3A_A_Deeper_Look%3A_Electrolysis_of_Water_and_Aqueous_Solutions |
In this chapter, we have described various galvanic cells in which a spontaneous chemical reaction is used to generate electrical energy. In an electrolytic cell, however, the opposite process, called , occurs: an external voltage is applied to drive a nonspontaneous reaction. In this section, we look ... | 14,641 | 439 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Reactions/Reactivity/Part_V%3A__Reactivity_in_Organic%2C_Biological_and_Inorganic_Chemistry_3/PC._Photochemistry/PC2._Rules_of_Electronic_Excitation |
So far, we have come across one big rule of photon absorbance. In order to be absorbed, a photon's energy has to match an energy difference within the compound that is absorbing it. In the case of visible or ultraviolet light, the energy of a photon is roughly in the region that would be appropriate to promote a... | 4,539 | 440 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/03%3A_Rate_Laws/3.02%3A_Reaction_Mechanisms/3.2.04%3A_Rate_of_Diffusion_through_a_Solution |
in a gas is the random motion of particles involved in the net movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Each particle in a given gas continues to collide with other particles. In regions of the gas where the particle density is the highest, the particl... | 3,450 | 441 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_13%3A_The_Boron_Family/1Group_13%3A_Chemical_Reactivity |
The boron family contains the semi-metal (B) and metals (Al), (Ga), (In), and (Tl). The boron family adopts oxidation states +3 or +1. The +3 oxidation states are favorable except for the heavier elements, such as Tl, which prefer the +1 oxidation state due to its stability; this is known as the .... | 3,923 | 442 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_15%3A_The_Nitrogen_Family/Z015_Chemistry_of_Phosphorous |
Phosphorus (P) is an essential part of life as we know it. Without the phosphates in biological molecules such as ATP, ADP and DNA, we would not be alive. Phosphorus compounds can also be found in the minerals in our bones and teeth. It is a necessary part of our diet. In fact, we consume it in nearly a... | 11,451 | 443 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/02%3A_Reaction_Rates/2.01%3A_Experimental_Determination_of_Kinetics/2.1.06%3A_Stopped_Flow |
The stopped-flow technique allows for the evaluation of solution-based kinetics on a milliseconds timescale with a very small volume of reactants used. Imagine you wanted to compute the initial rate of a reaction, one that, when the reactants combined changed color or fluoresced, however the reaction wa... | 3,564 | 445 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Map%3A_Inorganic_Chemistry_(Housecroft)/06%3A_Structures_and_Energetics_of_Metallic_and_Ionic_solids/6.02%3A_Packing_of_Spheres/6.2B%3A_The_Unit_Cell_of_HPC_and_CCP/1.01%3A_The_Unit_Cell |
The Unit Cell refers to a part of a simple crystal lattice, a repetitive unit of solid, brick-like structures with opposite faces, and equivalent edge points. In 1850, Auguste Bravais proved that crystals could be split into fourteen unit cells. Although there are several types of unit cells found in cu... | 4,461 | 446 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/04%3A_Alkanes/4.06%3A_Practical_Halogenations_and_Problems_of_Selectivity |
Given the knowledge that a particular reaction will proceed at a suitable rate, a host of practical considerations are necessary for satisfactory operation. These considerations include interference by possible side reactions that give products other than those desired, the ease of separation of the desired prod... | 7,065 | 448 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Alkenes/Reactivity_of_Alkenes/Stereoselectivity_in_Addition_Reactions_to_Double_Bonds/Addition_Reactions_involving_other_Cyclic_Onium_Intermediates |
Sulfenyl chloride additions are initiated by the attack of an electrophilic sulfur species on the pi-electrons of the double bond. The resulting cationic intermediate may be stabilized by the non-bonding valence shell electrons on the sulfur in exactly the same way the halogens exerted their influence. Indeed, a... | 2,278 | 449 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Solutions_and_Mixtures/Colligative_Properties/Vapor_Pressure_Lowering |
where \(P^o_{solvent}\) is the vapor pressure of the pure solvent and \(\chi_{solvent}\) is the mole fraction of the solvent. Since this is a two-component system (solvent and solute), then \[\chi_{solvent} + \chi_{solute} = 1\] where \(\chi_{solute}\) is the mole fraction of the solvent or solute. The ... | 2,935 | 450 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/08%3A_Nucleophilic_Substitution_and_Elimination_Reactions/8.01%3A_Prelude_to_Nucleophilic_Substitution_and_Elimination_Reactions |
Substitution reactions involve the replacement of one atom or group \(\left( \ce{X} \right)\) by another \(\left( \ce{Y} \right)\): \[\ce{RX} + \ce{Y} \rightarrow \ce{RY} + \ce{X}\] We already have described one very important type of substitution reaction, the halogenation of alkanes (Section 4-4), in which a h... | 2,212 | 451 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Reactions/Reactivity/Part_V%3A__Reactivity_in_Organic%2C_Biological_and_Inorganic_Chemistry_3/RO._Reduction_and_Oxidation/RO3._Reduction_Potentials |
Iron and copper are two common metals in biology, and they are both involved in electron relays in which electrons are passed from one metal to another to carry out transformations on substrates in cells. But which one passes the electron to which? Or can it go either way? How easily one metal can pass an electr... | 9,453 | 452 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Solutions_and_Mixtures/Colligative_Properties/Boiling_Point_Elevation |
The colligative properties of a solution depend on the relative numbers (concentration) of solute and solvent particles, they do not depend on the nature of the particles. Colligative properties change in proportion to the concentration of the solute particles. We distinguish between four colligative pr... | 1,237 | 453 |
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\(3.6 \times 10^{-19}\;J\)? \[E= hv = \dfrac{hc}{λ} \nonumber \] \[3.6 \times 10^{-19}\; J = \dfrac{(6.626 \times 10^{-34}\; J\;s) ( 3 \times 10^8\; ms^{-1})}{\lambda}\nonumber \] \[λ = 0.55 \times 10^{-7}\; m = 550\; nm\nonumber \] is \(6.5 \times 10^{-14}\; s^{-1}\) ? \[E= hv\nonumber \] \[E=( 6.626 ... | 11,912 | 454 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Quantum_Mechanics/02._Fundamental_Concepts_of_Quantum_Mechanics/Deriving_the_de_Broglie_Wavelength |
The de Broglie wavelength is the wavelength, \(\lambda\), associated with a object and is related to its momentum and mass. In 1923, Louis de Broglie, a French physicist, proposed a hypothesis to explain the theory of the atomic structure. By using a series of substitution de Broglie hypothesizes partic... | 2,418 | 455 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Spectroscopy/Vibrational_Spectroscopy/Vibrational_Modes/Isotope_effects_in_Vibrational_Spectroscopy |
This page provides an overview of how an isotope can affect the frequencies of the vibrational modes of a molecule. Isotopic substitution is a useful technique A diatomic molecule, as seen in Figure \(\Page {1}\), contains two atoms, which can either be composed of the same or different elements. It ... | 6,912 | 456 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Physical_Chemistry_(LibreTexts)/24%3A_Solutions_I_-_Volatile_Solutes/24.09%3A_Gibbs_Energy_of_Mixing_of_Binary_Solutions_in_Terms_of_the_Activity_Coefficient |
In the ideal case, we have seen that the thermodynamic potential for species \(i\) can be written as: \[μ_i^{sln}=μ^o_i + RT \ln \,x_i=μ^o_2 + RT \ln \left(\dfrac{P_i}{P^o}\right) \nonumber \] One approach to non-ideality is to simply the problem and say: \[μ_i^{sln} \equiv μ^o_i + RT \ln\, a_i \nonum... | 7,289 | 457 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/06%3A_Modeling_Reaction_Kinetics/6.04%3A_Transition_State_Theory/6.4.01%3A_Eyring_equation |
The Eyring Equation, developed by Henry Eyring in 1935, is based on transition state theory and is used to describe the relationship between reaction rate and temperature. It is similar to the , which also describes the temperature dependence of reaction rates. However, whereas Arrhenius Equation can b... | 3,790 | 458 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Statistical_Mechanics/Fundamentals_of_Statistical_Mechanics/10._Postulates_of_statistical_mechanics |
Thermodynamics puts constraints on the behavior of macroscopic systems without referencing the underlying microscopic properties. In particular, it does not provide a quantitative connection to the origin of its fundamental quantities \(U\) and \(S\). For \(U\), this is less of a problem because we know... | 16,875 | 463 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_13%3A_The_Boron_Family/Z031_Chemistry_of_Gallium_(Z31) |
Gallium is the chemical element with the atomic number 31 and symbol Ga on the periodic table. It is in the Boron family (group 13) and in period 4. Gallium was discovered in 1875 by Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran. Boisbaudran named his newly discovered element after himself, deriving from the Latin wo... | 3,038 | 464 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/States_of_Matter/Phase_Transitions/Fundamentals_of_Phase_Transitions |
Phase transition is when a substance changes from a solid, liquid, or gas state to a different state. Every element and substance can transition from one phase to another at a specific combination of temperature and pressure. Each substance has three phases it can change into; solid, liquid, or gas . Ev... | 5,226 | 465 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/21%3A_Resonance_and_Molecular_Orbital_Methods/21.11%3A_Pericyclic_Reactions |
There are numerous reactions in organic chemistry that proceed through cyclic transition states. They may be classified generally as reactions. An important and familiar example is the Diels-Alder reaction, in which a conjugated diene cycloadds to an alkene or alkyne: This reaction has been described previousl... | 16,258 | 466 |
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The universe is made up of bits of matter, and the bits of matter have mass and energy. Neither mass nor energy may be created or destroyed, but in some special cases interconversions between mass and energy may occur. The things that happen in nature occur because matter is trying to gather to itself a... | 21,476 | 467 |
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is a rare element found primarily in molten rock and saltwater in very small amounts. It is understood to be non-vital in human biological processes, although it is used in many drug treatments due to its positive effects on the human brain. Because of its reactive properties, humans have utilized lith... | 5,253 | 468 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/02%3A_Structural_Organic_Chemistry/2.02%3A_The_Sizes_and_Shapes_of_Organic_Molecules |
The size and shape of molecules are as much a part of molecular structure as is the order in which the component atoms are bonded. Contrary to the impression you may get from structural formulas, complex molecules are not flat and formless, but have well-defined spatial arrangements that are determined by the le... | 5,692 | 469 |
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Sir William Crookes discovered thallium in 1861, positively identifying it by a bright green line in its spectrum (hence the name, which is from the Greek, thallos, for "green twig"). Although in appearance thallium resembles lead, it does not have the corrosion resistance of lead and so has few commerc... | 968 | 470 |
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Before beginning this section, you should know and understand: Chemical reactions between gaseous materials are quite similar to reactions between solids and liquids, except the Ideal Gas Law (\(PV=nRT\)) can now be included in the calculations. If a chemical reaction is reversible (such as the decay an... | 7,094 | 472 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Reactions/Reactivity/Part_V%3A__Reactivity_in_Organic%2C_Biological_and_Inorganic_Chemistry_3/RO._Reduction_and_Oxidation/RO10._Cyclic_Voltammetry |
Cyclic voltammetry is a commonly used method of measuring the reduction potential of a species in solution. The species may be a coordination complex or a redox-active organic compound, for example. Cyclic voltammetry provides additional data that can be interpreted to make conclusions about the reduction / oxid... | 3,808 | 473 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Thermodynamics/Advanced_Thermodynamics/4._General_Extremum_Principles_and_Thermodynamic_Potentials |
We have seen that min{\(U(S,\bar{X})\)} and min{\(U(S,\hat{X})\)} imply one another. Under certain conditions, these principles are very convenient. For example, \[ dS = \dfrac{1}{T} dU - \dfrac{P}{T} dV + \sum \dfrac{\mu_i}{T} dn_i \Rightarrow max \left\{ \sum \dfrac{\mu_i}{T} dn_i \right\}\] maximizes... | 2,793 | 474 |
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Dissolution of a salt in water is a chemical process that is governed by the same laws of chemical equilibrium that apply to any other reaction. There are, however, a number of special aspects of of these equilibria that set them somewhat apart from the more general ones that are covered in the lesson set devote... | 6,232 | 475 |
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explains why different reactions occur at different rates, and suggests ways to change the rate of a reaction. Collision theory states that for a chemical reaction to occur, the reacting particles must collide with one another. The rate of the reaction depends on the frequency of collisions. The theory... | 6,571 | 476 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Book%3A_ChemPRIME_(Moore_et_al.)/03%3A_Using_Chemical_Equations_in_Calculations/3.03%3A_The_Limiting_Reagent/3.3.07%3A_Geology-_Using_the_Acid_Test_to_Distinguish_the_Minerals_in_Calomine |
is an obsolete name for what is now known to be a mixture of two distinct minerals: zinc carbonate (ZnCO or smithsonite) and zinc silicate (Zn Si O (OH) ·H O, or hemimorphite). the name "Calamine" is now used only for calomine lotion, which is a suspension of ZnO and Fe O . Smithsonite and hemimorphite may be ... | 9,987 | 477 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_13%3A_The_Boron_Family/Z049_Chemistry_of_Indium_(Z49) |
Indium is the 49th element, abbreviated as In. Discovered in 1863, indium rarely is found as an isolated element. Alloys of indium have low melting points and are good semiconductors; it's use in LCD displays has recently increased the demand for Indium. The element indium (named from the Latin indicum,... | 2,685 | 478 |
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Carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the known universe but not nearly as common on the earth, despite the fact that living organisms contain significant amounts of the element. Common carbon compounds in the environment include the gases carbon dioxide (\(CO_2\)) and methane (\(CH_4\)). Inorga... | 2,501 | 480 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Quantum_Mechanics/09._The_Hydrogen_Atom/Atomic_Theory/Electrons_in_Atoms/Wave-Particle_Duality_II |
Quantum mechanics incorporates the idea of wave mechanics that demonstrates the idea of wave-particle duality.This notion suggests that matter can display simultaneously both particle and wave-like properties. This new approach came from Louis de Broglie who built upon Einstein's conception that light p... | 8,142 | 482 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_4%3A_Equilibrium_in_Chemical_Reactions/15%3A_AcidBase_Equilibria/15.9%3A_A_Deeper_Look_-_Exact_Treatment_of_Acid-Base_Equilibria |
A common paradigm in solving for pHs in weak acids and bases is that the equilibria of solutions containing one weak acid or one weak base. In most cases, the amount of \(\ce{H+}\) from the autoionization of water is negligible. For very dilute solutions, the amount of \(\ce{H+}\) ions from the autoioni... | 9,903 | 483 |
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Cohesive and adhesive forces are associated with bulk (or macroscopic) properties, and hence the terms are not applicable to the discussion of . When a liquid comes into contact with a surface (such as the walls of a graduated cylinder or a tabletop), both cohesive and adhesive forces will act on it. T... | 4,668 | 484 |
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Gibbs free energy, denoted \(G\), combines and into a single value. The change in free energy, \(\Delta G\), is equal to the sum of the enthalpy plus the product of the temperature and entropy of the system. \( \Delta G\) can predict the direction of the chemical reaction under two conditions: If \(ΔG... | 9,290 | 485 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Thermodynamics/The_Four_Laws_of_Thermodynamics/First_Law_of_Thermodynamics/Conservation_of_Energy |
The law of Conservation of Energy refers to an isolated system in which there is no net change in energy and where energy is neither created nor destroyed. Although there is no change in energy, energy can change forms, for example from potential to kinetic energy. In other words, potential energy (V) a... | 1,286 | 486 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/3_d-Block_Elements/Group_04%3A_Transition_Metals/1Group_4_Elemental_Properties |
Because the elements of group 4 have a high affinity for oxygen, all three metals occur naturally as oxide ores that contain the metal in the +4 oxidation state resulting from losing all four ns (n − 1)d valence electrons. They are isolated by initial conversion to the tetrachlorides, as shown for Ti: ... | 3,468 | 488 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Map%3A_Physical_Chemistry_for_the_Biosciences_(Chang)/11%3A_Quantum_Mechanics_and_Atomic_Structure/11.04%3A_Bohr's_Theory_of_the_Hydrogen_Emission_Spectrum |
The first person to realize that white light was made up of the colors of the rainbow was Isaac Newton, who in 1666 passed sunlight through a narrow slit, then a prism, to project the colored spectrum on to a wall. This effect had been noticed previously, of course, not least in the sky, but previous at... | 14,000 | 489 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/02%3A_Reaction_Rates/2.08%3A_Second-Order_Reactions/2.8.01%3A_Pseudo-1st-order_reactions |
Under certain conditions, the 2nd order kinetics can be approximated as first-order kinetics. These greatly simplify quantifying the reaction dynamics. A can be challenging to follow mostly because the two reactants involved must be measured simultaneously. There can be additional complications beca... | 5,388 | 490 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Coordination_Chemistry/Structure_and_Nomenclature_of_Coordination_Compounds/Coordination_Numbers_and_Geometry/Molecular_Examples |
The linear [Ag(NH ) ] ion Although [Ag(en)]ClO involves a normally bidentate ligand, in this case the structure is polymeric and the silver ion still retains a CN=2 with the N atoms (from different ligands) at ~180 degrees to each other. [Cu(CN) ] [Cu(PPh ) Br] To help view more easily, the H atoms ar... | 1,417 | 491 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/06%3A_Modeling_Reaction_Kinetics/6.01%3A_Collision_Theory/6.1.03%3A_Collisions_and_Phase |
Reaction rates depend on the energy required (the activation barrier) and the energy available. They also may involve collisions between molecules. If two molecules need to collide in order for a reaction to take place, then factors that influence the ease of collisions will be important. The more energy there i... | 4,830 | 492 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Map%3A_Inorganic_Chemistry_(Housecroft)/06%3A_Structures_and_Energetics_of_Metallic_and_Ionic_solids/6.13%3A_Lattice_Energy_-_Estimates_from_an_Electrostatic_Model/6.13C%3A_Born_Forces |
Born forces are one type of force that acts upon atoms in an ionic lattice. In simplest terms, because ions have some finite size, electron-electron and nucleus-nucleus interactions occur and give rise to repulsion forces and electrostatic potential, both called Born forces. Lattice energy is the energy... | 2,989 | 493 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Alkyl_Halides/Reactivity_of_Alkyl_Halides/Alkyl_Halide_Reactions/Substitution_and_Elimination_Reactions_of_Alkyl_Halides/E1_Elimination_Reactions |
Just as there were two mechanisms for nucleophilic substitution, there are two elimination mechanisms. The E1 mechanism is nearly identical to the S 1 mechanism, differing only in the course of reaction taken by the carbocation intermediate. As shown by the following equations, a carbocation bearing beta-hydroge... | 2,174 | 494 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Alkyl_Halides/Reactivity_of_Alkyl_Halides/Alkyl_Halide_Reactions/Substitution_and_Elimination_Reactions_of_Alkyl_Halides/E2_Elimination_Reactions |
We have not yet considered the factors that influence elimination reactions, such as example in the group presented at the of this section. (CH ) - + CN → (CH ) =CH + + HCN We know that t-butyl bromide is not expected to react by an S 2 mechanism. Furthermore, the ethanol solvent is not sufficiently po... | 5,465 | 495 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Book%3A_Thermodynamics_and_Chemical_Equilibrium_(Ellgen)/10%3A_Some_Mathematical_Consequences_of_the_Fundamental_Equation/10.14%3A_The_Joule-Thomson_Effect |
In practice, the Joule-Thomson experiment is done by allowing gas from a pressure vessel to pass through an insulated tube. The tube contains a throttling valve or a porous plug through which gas flows slowly enough so that the gas upstream from the plug is at a uniform pressure \(P_{\mathrm{1}}\), and the gas d... | 9,265 | 496 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Solutions_and_Mixtures/Solution_Basics/Formation_of_Ionic_Solutions |
Using the rule "like dissolves like" with the formation of ionic solutions, we must assess first assess two things: 1) the strength of the ion-dipole forces of attraction between water and the ionic compound and 2) the strength of the interionic bond of the ionic compound. For an ionic compound to form ... | 1,705 | 497 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Book%3A_ChemPRIME_(Moore_et_al.)/03%3A_Using_Chemical_Equations_in_Calculations/3.11%3A_Solution_Concentrations/3.11.04%3A_Foods-_Low_Glycemic_Index_Foods_and_Blood_Glucose_Concentration |
Recent reports about increased risk for diabetes resulting from diets high in sugars and carbohydrates have led to suggestions for healthier diets, including the low glycemic index diet. The (GI) is a measure of the rate at which foods increase blood glucose . Foods which increase the blood glucose concentra... | 12,629 | 498 |
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Created in the early 17th century, the gas laws have been around to assist scientists in finding volumes, amount, pressures and temperature when coming to matters of gas. The gas laws consist of three primary laws: Charles' Law, Boyle's Law and Avogadro's Law (all of which will later combine into the Ge... | 8,087 | 499 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/States_of_Matter/Properties_of_Liquids/Unusual_Properties_of_Water |
With 70% of our earth being ocean water and 65% of our bodies being water, it is hard to not be aware of how important it is in our lives. There are 3 different forms of water, or H O: (ice), (water), and (steam). Because water seems so ubiquitous, many people are unaware of the unusual and unique... | 5,465 | 500 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Acids_and_Bases/Acids_and_Bases_in_Aqueous_Solutions/The_pH_Scale/Determining_and_Calculating_pH |
The pH of an aqueous solution is the measure of how acidic or basic it is. The pH of an aqueous solution can be determined and calculated by using the concentration of concentration in the solution. The pH of an aqueous solution is based on the pH scale which typically ranges from 0 to 14 in water (al... | 3,966 | 502 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/13%3A_Polyfunctional_Compounds_Alkadienes_and_Approaches_to_Organic_Synthesis/13.10%3A_Protecting_Groups_in_Organic_Synthesis |
One of the major problems in organic synthesis is the suppression of unwanted side reactions. Frequently the desired reaction is accompanied by reaction at other parts of the molecule, especially when more than one functional group is present. Functional groups usually are the most reactive sites in the molecule... | 7,513 | 503 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Book3A_Bioinorganic_Chemistry_(Bertini_et_al.)/04%3A_Biological_and_Synthetic_Dioxygen_Carriers/4.17%3A_Stereochemical_Changes_Upon_Ligation |
Upon binding a second axial ligand, the iron center together with the axial base move toward the plane of the porphyrin, initiating a change in spin state from high-spin to low-spin when the sixth ligand is O or CO or any other strong ligand with an even number of valence electrons. Given these general... | 13,450 | 504 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/06%3A_Modeling_Reaction_Kinetics/6.01%3A_Collision_Theory/6.1.04%3A_Collision_Frequency |
Collisional Frequency is the average rate in which two reactants collide for a given system and is used to express the average number of collisions per unit of time in a defined system. To fully understand how the collisional frequency equation is derived, consider a simple system (a jar full of helium)... | 5,013 | 505 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Principles_of_Modern_Chemistry_(Oxtoby_et_al.)/Unit_4%3A_Equilibrium_in_Chemical_Reactions/13%3A_Spontaneous_Processes_and_Thermodynamic_Equilibrium/13.7%3A_The_Gibbs_Free_Energy |
One of the major goals of chemical thermodynamics is to establish criteria for predicting whether a particular reaction or process will occur spontaneously. We have developed one such criterion, the change in entropy of the universe: if \(ΔS_{univ} > 0\) for a process or a reaction, then the process wil... | 29,142 | 506 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Spectroscopy/Fundamentals_of_Spectroscopy/The_Power_of_the_Fourier_Transform_for_Spectroscopists |
Fourier transform is a mathematical technique that can be used to transform a function from one real variable to another. It is a unique powerful tool for spectroscopists because a variety of spectroscopic studies are dealing with electromagnetic waves covering a wide range of frequency. In Fourier tran... | 16,725 | 507 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Book3A_Bioinorganic_Chemistry_(Bertini_et_al.)/04%3A_Biological_and_Synthetic_Dioxygen_Carriers/4.17%3A_Stereochemical_Changes_Upon_Ligation |
Upon binding a second axial ligand, the iron center together with the axial base move toward the plane of the porphyrin, initiating a change in spin state from high-spin to low-spin when the sixth ligand is O or CO or any other strong ligand with an even number of valence electrons. Given these general... | 13,450 | 508 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Physical_Chemistry_(LibreTexts)/19%3A_The_First_Law_of_Thermodynamics/19.05%3A_An_Adiabatic_Process_is_a_Process_in_which_No_Energy_as_Heat_is_Transferred |
For a monatomic ideal gas we have seen that energy \(\langle E \rangle\) observed as \(U= 3/2 nRT\). This means that energy is only dependent on temperature and if a gas is compressed , then the internal energy does not change: \[ΔU_{isothermal-ideal gas} = 0 \nonumber \] This means that the reversible... | 3,480 | 509 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Physical_Chemistry_(LibreTexts)/21%3A_Entropy_and_the_Third_Law_of_Thermodynamics/21.05%3A_Practical_Absolute_Entropies_Can_Be_Determined_Calorimetrically |
From section , we learned that the entropy at constant pressure changes with temperature by: \[\Delta S=\int_{T_1}^{T_2}{\frac{C_P(T)}{T}dT} \nonumber \] From section , we learned that the entropy of a phase transition is: \[\Delta_{trs} S=\frac{\Delta_{trs}H}{T_{trs}} \nonumber \] Both the heat capac... | 888 | 510 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Reactions/Reactivity/Part_V%3A__Reactivity_in_Organic%2C_Biological_and_Inorganic_Chemistry_3/Pericyclic_Reactions/PR3._The_Diels_Alder_Reaction |
As noted previously, the Diels Alder reaction is a classic example of a pericyclic reaction. Figure PR3.1. The Diels Alder reaction. Unlike the Cope and Claisen rearrangements, this reaction often occur intermolecularly (between two molecules). It always occurs between an alkene on one molecule and a conjugated ... | 4,142 | 511 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_14%3A_The_Carbon_Family/Z050_Chemistry_of_Tin_(Z50) |
Mentioned in the Hebrew scriptures, tin is of ancient origins. Tin is an element in Group 14 (the carbon family) and has mainly metallic properties. Tin has atomic number 50 and an atomic mass of 118.710 atomic mass units. Mentioned in the Hebrew scriptures, tin is of ancient origins. Early metal smiths... | 3,766 | 513 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Electronic_Structure_of_Atoms_and_Molecules/Electronic_Configurations/Pauli_Exclusion_Principle |
The states that, in an atom or molecule, no two electrons can have the four electronic quantum numbers. As an orbital can contain a maximum of only two electrons, the two electrons must have opposing spins. This means if one electron is assigned as a spin up (+1/2) electron, the other electron must be... | 1,156 | 514 |
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_17%3A_The_Halogens/Z085_Chemistry_of_Astatine_(Z85) |
Astatine formerly known as alabamine. . Astatine At 85 (210.0) amu 302.0 °C (575.15 K, 575.6 °F) 337.0 °C (610.15 K, 638.6 °F) 85 125 Halogen Unknown Unknown Unknown 1940 D.R. Corson From the Greek word (unstable) No uses known Man-made -1, +5 Asta... | 1,115 | 515 |
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