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Dosimeter	Dosimeter	A radiation dosimeter is a device that measures dose uptake of external ionizing radiation. It is worn by the person being monitored when used as a personal dosimeter, and is a record of the radiation dose received. Modern electronic personal dosimeters can give a continuous readout of cumulative dose and current dose rate, and can warn the wearer with an audible alarm when a specified dose rate or a cumulative dose is exceeded. Other dosimeters, such as thermoluminescent or film types, require processing after use to reveal the cumulative dose received, and cannot give a current indication of dose while being worn.
Dosimeter	Personal dosimeters	The personal ionising radiation dosimeter is of fundamental importance in the disciplines of radiation dosimetry and radiation health physics and is primarily used to estimate the radiation dose deposited in an individual wearing the device.
Dosimeter	Personal dosimeters	Ionising radiation damage to the human body is cumulative, and is related to the total dose received, for which the SI unit is the sievert. Radiographers, nuclear power plant workers, doctors using radiotherapy, HAZMAT workers, and other people in situations that involve handling radionuclides are often required to wear dosimeters so a record of occupational exposure can be made. Such devices are known as "legal dosimeters" if they have been approved for use in recording personnel dose for regulatory purposes.
Dosimeter	Personal dosimeters	Dosimeters are typically worn on the outside of clothing, a "whole body" dosimeter is worn on the chest or torso to represent dose to the whole body. This location monitors exposure of most vital organs and represents the bulk of body mass. Additional dosimeters can be worn to assess dose to extremities or in radiation fields that vary considerably depending on orientation of the body to the source.
Dosimeter	Personal dosimeters	Modern types The electronic personal dosimeter, the most commonly used type, is an electronic device that has a number of sophisticated functions, such as continual monitoring which allows alarm warnings at preset levels and live readout of dose accumulated. These are especially useful in high dose areas where residence time of the wearer is limited due to dose constraints. The dosimeter can be reset, usually after taking a reading for record purposes, and thereby re-used multiple times.
Dosimeter	Personal dosimeters	MOSFET dosimeter Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor dosimeters are now used as clinical dosimeters for radiotherapy radiation beams. The main advantages of MOSFET devices are: 1. The MOSFET dosimeter is direct reading with a very thin active area (less than 2μm). 2. The physical size of the MOSFET when packaged is less than 4 mm. 3. The post radiation signal is permanently stored and is dose rate independent.
Dosimeter	Personal dosimeters	Gate oxide of MOSFET which is conventionally silicon dioxide is an active sensing material in MOSFET dosimeters. Radiation creates defects (acts like electron-hole pairs) in oxide, which in turn affects the threshold voltage of the MOSFET. This change in threshold voltage is proportional to radiation dose. Alternate high-k gate dielectrics like hafnium dioxide and aluminum oxides are also proposed as a radiation dosimeters.
Dosimeter	Personal dosimeters	Thermoluminescent dosimeter A thermoluminescent dosimeter measures ionizing radiation exposure by measuring the intensity of light emitted from a Dy or B doped crystal in the detector when heated. The intensity of light emitted is dependent upon the radiation exposure. These were once sold surplus and one format once used by submariners and nuclear workers resembled a dark green wristwatch containing the active components and a highly sensitive IR wire ended diode mounted to the doped LiF2 glass chip that when the assembly is precisely heated (hence thermoluminescent) emits the stored radiation as narrow band infrared light until it is depleted The main advantage is that the chip records dosage passively until exposed to light or heat so even a used sample kept in darkness can provide valuable scientific data.
Dosimeter	Personal dosimeters	Legacy type Film badge dosimeter Film badge dosimeters are for one-time use only. The level of radiation absorption is indicated by a change to the film emulsion, which is shown when the film is developed. They are now mostly superseded by electronic personal dosimeters and thermoluminescent dosimeters.
Dosimeter	Personal dosimeters	Quartz fiber dosimeter These use the property of a quartz fiber to measure the static electricity held on the fiber. Before use by the wearer a dosimeter is charged to a high voltage, causing the fiber to deflect due to electrostatic repulsion. As the gas in the dosimeter chamber becomes ionized by radiation the charge leaks away, causing the fiber to straighten and thereby indicate the amount of dose received against a graduated scale, which is viewed by a small in-built microscope.
Dosimeter	Personal dosimeters	They are only used for short durations, such as a day or a shift, as they can suffer from charge leakage, which gives a false high reading. However they are immune to EMP so were used during the Cold War as a failsafe method of determining radiation exposure. They are now largely superseded by electronic personal dosimeters for short term monitoring.
Dosimeter	Personal dosimeters	Geiger tube dosimeter These use a conventional Geiger-Muller tube, typically a ZP1301 or similar energy-compensated tube, requiring between 600 and 700V and pulse detection components. The display on most is a bubble or miniature LCD type with 4 digits and a discrete counter integrated chip such as 74C925/6. LED units usually have a button to turn the display on and off for longer battery life, and an infrared emitter for count verification and calibration.
Dosimeter	Personal dosimeters	The voltage is derived from a separate pinned or wire-ended module that often uses a unijunction transistor driving a small step-up coil and multiplier stage. While expensive, it is reliable over time and especially in high-radiation environments, sharing this trait with tunnel diodes, though the encapsulants, inductors and capacitors have been known to break down internally over time.
Dosimeter	Personal dosimeters	These have the disadvantage that the stored dose in becquerels or microsieverts is volatile and vanishes if the power supply is disconnected, though there can be a low-leakage capacitor to preserve the memory for short periods without a battery. Because of this, most units use long-life batteries and high-quality contacts. Recently-designed units log dose over time to non-volatile memory, such as a 24C256 chip so it may be read out via a serial port.
Dosimeter	Dosimetry dose quantities	The operational quantity for personal dosimetry is the personal dose equivalent, which is defined by the International Commission on Radiological Protection as the dose equivalent in soft tissue at an appropriate depth, below a specified point on the human body. The specified point is usually given by the position where the individual’s dosimeter is worn.
Dosimeter	Dosimetry dose quantities	Instrument and dosimeter response This is an actual reading obtained from such as an ambient dose gamma monitor, or a personal dosimeter. The dosimeter is calibrated in a known radiation field to ensure display of accurate operational quantities and allow a relationship to known health effect. The personal dose equivalent is used to assess dose uptake, and allow regulatory limits to be met. It is the figure usually entered into the records of external dose for occupational radiation workers.
Dosimeter	Dosimetry dose quantities	The dosimeter plays an important role within the international radiation protection system developed by the International Commission on Radiological Protection and the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. This is shown in the accompanying diagram. Dosimeter calibration The "slab" phantom is used to represent the human torso for calibration of whole body dosimeters. This replicates the radiation scattering and absorption effects of the human torso. The International Atomic Energy Agency states "The slab phantom is 300 mm × 300 mm × 150 mm depth to represent the human torso".
Dosimeter	Process irradiation verification	Manufacturing processes that treat products with ionizing radiation, such as food irradiation, use dosimeters to calibrate doses deposited in the matter being irradiated. These usually must have a greater dose range than personal dosimeters, and doses are normally measured in the unit of absorbed dose: the gray (Gy). The dosimeter is located on or adjacent to the items being irradiated during the process as a validation of dose levels received.
Lists of graphics cards	Lists of graphics cards	Lists of graphics cards follow. A graphics card, or graphics processing unit, is a specialized electronic circuit that rapidly manipulates and alters memory to build images in a frame buffer for output to a display. By manufacturer, they include: List of AMD graphics processing units Intel Graphics Technology List of Nvidia graphics processing units
Degenerative lumbosacral stenosis	Degenerative lumbosacral stenosis	Degenerative lumbosacral stenosis (DLSS), also known as cauda equina syndrome, is a pathologic degeneration in the lumbosacral disk in dogs; affecting the articulation, nerve progression, tissue and joint connections of the disk. This degeneration causes compressions in soft tissues and nerve root locations in the ultimate caudal area of the medulla, causing neuropathic pain in the lumbar vertebrae.
Degenerative lumbosacral stenosis	Signs and symptoms	DLSS has been found to affect dogs between the ages of 7 and 8, males ranging twice as higher than females in the research area. Medium to large-sized working breeds with high rates of activity are mostly affected by this disease, the German Shepherd breed being the most common on DLSS diagnosis.Common symptoms in dogs are physical difficulties in normal daily activities, such as: Mild to severe pain when walking (dragged hind limbs).
Degenerative lumbosacral stenosis	Signs and symptoms	Discomfort when ascending or descending stairs. Lumbar disturbances when resting or lying down. Unwillingness to perform exercise.
Degenerative lumbosacral stenosis	Signs and symptoms	Urinal and defecation discomfort.Behavioural problems will also be presented in dogs affected by DLSS, due to the pain they suffer on their lower back. It has been researched that there is a positive correlation regarding a dog's behaviour with the amount of lumbar vertebrae that are affected by this disease, respectively showing that behavioural disturbances are more likely to appear with dogs that have 3+ affected vertebrae. Symptoms such as anxiety, sudden loss of appetite, or mild aggressiveness when performing physical activities can become clear signs of this disease.
Degenerative lumbosacral stenosis	Research	DLSS is associated with behavioural problems depending on how much the disease affects the dog; in other words, the more tissue and bone that is affected by DLSS, the more reluctant the dog will be to perform any kind of physical activity. Its most general overview and research ground for understanding this pathological disease takes place in the military, since dogs who take part in the special forces (German and Dutch Shepherd, Labrador Retriever and Belgian Malinois being the most proper breeds) are widely studied as they progress through their incredibly active life. Those affected by DLSS, generally diagnosed in their retirement period, show a wide range of decreased activity when performing certain demanding tasks that require physical stress, thus, becoming crucial exemplars for lumbar diseases.
Degenerative lumbosacral stenosis	Diagnosis	DLSS is commonly identified through magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or computed tomography (CT) due to their precision in recognising abnormalities in soft tissue and small bone structures.
Degenerative lumbosacral stenosis	Treatment	Medical treatment is necessary to correct this lumbar disease, generally varying from anti-inflammatory drugs (lacking steroids, such as: tramadol and gabapentin) to surgical correction; surgery being the most effective of course. Dorsal Laminectomy is the most common procedure for DLSS treatment, which implies the decompression or des-inflammation of soft tissues and nerve roots.↵Surgical fusion of the lumbosacral vertebrates has also been found to improve the affected vertebrae, since it reduces motion by eliminating certain nerve compressions located in the vertebral canal. Specific facetectomy (fat surgery) can also be performed in order to maintain stability in the affected joint tissue.Alternative conservative or non-surgical treatment is also a convenient option with dogs that have not fully developed Degenerative Lumbosacral Stenosis; ranging from regular walks to underwater exercises that aid the affected lumbar vertebrae decompress and tone the corresponding muscle. Statistically, physiotherapy has a success rate of 79% in all affected patients. If there is no surgical intervention, oral tramadol and alternative gabapentin have shown to decrease the neuropathological pain dogs suffer when affected by the disease.
Idiographic image	Idiographic image	In the field of clinical human sciences, an idiographic image is the representation of a result which has been obtained thanks to a study or research method whose subject-matters are specific cases, i.e. a portrayal which avoids nomothetic generalizations. Diagnostic formulation follows an idiographic criterion, while diagnostic classification follows a nomothetic criterion. In the field of psychiatry, psychology and clinical psychopathology, idiographic criterion is a method (also called historical method) which involves evaluating past experiences and selecting and comparing information about a specific individual or event. An example of idiographic image is a report, diagram or health history showing medical, psychological and pathological features which make the subject under examination unique. Where there is no prior detailed presentation of clinical data, the summary should present sufficient relevant information to support the diagnostic and aetiological components of the formulation. The term diagnostic formulation is preferable to diagnosis, because it emphasises that matters of clinical concern about which the clinician proposes aetiological hypotheses and targets of intervention include much more than just diagnostic category assignment, though this is usually an important component.
Idiographic image	Idiographic image	The expression idiographic image appeared for the first time in 1996 in the SESAMO research method manual.This term was coined to mean that the report of the test provided an anamnestic report containing a family, relational and health history of the subject and providing semiological data regarding both the psychosexual and the social-affective profile. These profiles were useful to the clinician in order to formulate pathogenetic and pathognomonic hypotheses.
Electron capture	Electron capture	Electron capture (K-electron capture, also K-capture, or L-electron capture, L-capture) is a process in which the proton-rich nucleus of an electrically neutral atom absorbs an inner atomic electron, usually from the K or L electron shells. This process thereby changes a nuclear proton to a neutron and simultaneously causes the emission of an electron neutrino. p + e− → n + νe or when written as a nuclear reaction equation, e−10+p11⟶n01+00 νe Since this single emitted neutrino carries the entire decay energy, it has this single characteristic energy. Similarly, the momentum of the neutrino emission causes the daughter atom to recoil with a single characteristic momentum.
Electron capture	Electron capture	The resulting daughter nuclide, if it is in an excited state, then transitions to its ground state. Usually, a gamma ray is emitted during this transition, but nuclear de-excitation may also take place by internal conversion.
Electron capture	Electron capture	Following capture of an inner electron from the atom, an outer electron replaces the electron that was captured and one or more characteristic X-ray photons is emitted in this process. Electron capture sometimes also results in the Auger effect, where an electron is ejected from the atom's electron shell due to interactions between the atom's electrons in the process of seeking a lower energy electron state.
Electron capture	Electron capture	Following electron capture, the atomic number is reduced by one, the neutron number is increased by one, and there is no change in mass number. Simple electron capture by itself results in a neutral atom, since the loss of the electron in the electron shell is balanced by a loss of positive nuclear charge. However, a positive atomic ion may result from further Auger electron emission.
Electron capture	Electron capture	Electron capture is an example of weak interaction, one of the four fundamental forces.
Electron capture	Electron capture	Electron capture is the primary decay mode for isotopes with a relative superabundance of protons in the nucleus, but with insufficient energy difference between the isotope and its prospective daughter (the isobar with one less positive charge) for the nuclide to decay by emitting a positron. Electron capture is always an alternative decay mode for radioactive isotopes that do have sufficient energy to decay by positron emission. Electron capture is sometimes included as a type of beta decay, because the basic nuclear process, mediated by the weak force, is the same. In nuclear physics, beta decay is a type of radioactive decay in which a beta ray (fast energetic electron or positron) and a neutrino are emitted from an atomic nucleus. Electron capture is sometimes called inverse beta decay, though this term usually refers to the interaction of an electron antineutrino with a proton.If the energy difference between the parent atom and the daughter atom is less than 0.511 MeV, positron emission is forbidden as not enough decay energy is available to allow it, and thus electron capture is the sole decay mode. For example, rubidium-83 (37 protons, 46 neutrons) will decay to krypton-83 (36 protons, 47 neutrons) solely by electron capture (the energy difference, or decay energy, is about 0.9 MeV).
Electron capture	History	The theory of electron capture was first discussed by Gian-Carlo Wick in a 1934 paper, and then developed by Hideki Yukawa and others. K-electron capture was first observed by Luis Alvarez, in vanadium, 48V, which he reported in 1937. Alvarez went on to study electron capture in gallium (67Ga) and other nuclides.
Electron capture	Reaction details	The electron that is captured is one of the atom's own electrons, and not a new, incoming electron, as might be suggested by the way the above reactions are written. A few examples of electron capture are: Radioactive isotopes that decay by pure electron capture can be inhibited from radioactive decay if they are fully ionized ("stripped" is sometimes used to describe such ions). It is hypothesized that such elements, if formed by the r-process in exploding supernovae, are ejected fully ionized and so do not undergo radioactive decay as long as they do not encounter electrons in outer space. Anomalies in elemental distributions are thought to be partly a result of this effect on electron capture. Inverse decays can also be induced by full ionisation; for instance, 163Ho decays into 163Dy by electron capture; however, a fully ionised 163Dy decays into a bound state of 163Ho by the process of bound-state β− decay.Chemical bonds can also affect the rate of electron capture to a small degree (in general, less than 1%) depending on the proximity of electrons to the nucleus. For example, in 7Be, a difference of 0.9% has been observed between half-lives in metallic and insulating environments. This relatively large effect is due to the fact that beryllium is a small atom that employs valence electrons that are close to the nucleus, and also in orbitals with no orbital angular momentum. Electrons in s orbitals (regardless of shell or primary quantum number), have a probability antinode at the nucleus, and are thus far more subject to electron capture than p or d electrons, which have a probability node at the nucleus. Around the elements in the middle of the periodic table, isotopes that are lighter than stable isotopes of the same element tend to decay through electron capture, while isotopes heavier than the stable ones decay by electron emission. Electron capture happens most often in the heavier neutron-deficient elements where the mass change is smallest and positron emission is not always possible. When the loss of mass in a nuclear reaction is greater than zero but less than 2mec2 the process cannot occur by positron emission, but occurs spontaneously for electron capture.
Electron capture	Common examples	Some common radionuclides that decay solely by electron capture include: For a full list, see the table of nuclides.
Assumptive mood	Assumptive mood	The assumptive mood (abbreviated ASS) is an epistemic grammatical mood found in some languages, which indicates that the statement is assumed to be true, because it usually is under similar circumstances, although there may not be any specific evidence that it is true in this particular case. An English example (although assumptive mood is not specially marked in English), would be, "That must be my mother. (She always comes at this time.)" Another example in English, using a different modal verb, would be, "He should be a good worker. (He has 15 years of prior experience.)"
Walker–Warburg syndrome	Walker–Warburg syndrome	Walker–Warburg syndrome (WWS), also called Warburg syndrome, Chemke syndrome, HARD syndrome (Hydrocephalus, Agyria and Retinal Dysplasia), Pagon syndrome, cerebroocular dysgenesis (COD) or cerebroocular dysplasia-muscular dystrophy syndrome (COD-MD), is a rare form of autosomal recessive congenital muscular dystrophy. It is associated with brain (lissencephaly, hydrocephalus, cerebellar malformations) and eye abnormalities. This condition has a worldwide distribution. Walker-Warburg syndrome is estimated to affect 1 in 60,500 newborns worldwide.
Walker–Warburg syndrome	Presentation	The clinical manifestations present at birth are generalized hypotonia, muscle weakness, developmental delay with intellectual disability and occasional seizures. The congenital muscular dystrophy is characterized by hypoglycosylation of α-dystroglycan.
Walker–Warburg syndrome	Presentation	Those born with the disease also experience severe ocular and brain defects. Half of all children with WWS are born with encephalocele, which is a gap in the skull that will not seal. The meninges of the brain protrude through this gap due to the neural tube failing to close during development. A malformation of the a baby's cerebellum is often a sign of this disease. Common ocular issues associated with WWS are abnormally small eyes and retinal abnormalities cause by an underdeveloped light-sensitive area in the back of the eye.
Walker–Warburg syndrome	Genetics	Several genes have been implicated in the etiology of Walker–Warburg syndrome, and others are as yet unknown. Several mutations were found in the protein O-Mannosyltransferase POMT1 and POMT2 genes, and one mutation was found in each of the fukutin and fukutin-related protein genes. Another gene that has been linked to this condition is Beta-1,3-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase 2 (B3GALNT2).
Walker–Warburg syndrome	Diagnosis	Laboratory investigations usually show elevated creatine kinase, myopathic/dystrophic muscle pathology and altered α-dystroglycan. Antenatal diagnosis is possible in families with known mutations. Prenatal ultrasound may be helpful for diagnosis in families where the molecular defect is unknown.
Walker–Warburg syndrome	Prognosis	No specific treatment is available. Management is only supportive and preventive. Those who are diagnosed with the disease often die within the first few months of life. Almost all children with the disease die by the age of three.
Walker–Warburg syndrome	Eponym	WWS is named for Arthur Earl Walker and Mette Warburg (1926-2015), a Danish ophthalmologist. Its alternative names include Chemke’s syndrome and Pagon’s syndrome, named after Juan M. Chemke and Roberta A. Pagon.
Minimal subtraction scheme	Minimal subtraction scheme	In quantum field theory, the minimal subtraction scheme, or MS scheme, is a particular renormalization scheme used to absorb the infinities that arise in perturbative calculations beyond leading order, introduced independently by Gerard 't Hooft and Steven Weinberg in 1973. The MS scheme consists of absorbing only the divergent part of the radiative corrections into the counterterms.
Minimal subtraction scheme	Minimal subtraction scheme	In the similar and more widely used modified minimal subtraction, or MS-bar scheme ( MS ¯ ), one absorbs the divergent part plus a universal constant that always arises along with the divergence in Feynman diagram calculations into the counterterms. When using dimensional regularization, i.e. d4p→μ4−dddp , it is implemented by rescaling the renormalization scale: μ2→μ2eγE4π , with γE the Euler–Mascheroni constant.
Cognitive map	Cognitive map	A cognitive map is a type of mental representation which serves an individual to acquire, code, store, recall, and decode information about the relative locations and attributes of phenomena in their everyday or metaphorical spatial environment. The concept was introduced by Edward Tolman in 1948. He tried to explain the behavior of rats that appeared to learn the spatial layout of a maze, and subsequently the concept was applied to other animals, including humans. The term was later generalized by some researchers, especially in the field of operations research, to refer to a kind of semantic network representing an individual's personal knowledge or schemas.
Cognitive map	Overview	Cognitive maps have been studied in various fields, such as psychology, education, archaeology, planning, geography, cartography, architecture, landscape architecture, urban planning, management and history. Because of the broad use and study of cognitive maps, it has become a colloquialism for almost any mental representation or model. As a consequence, these mental models are often referred to, variously, as cognitive maps, mental maps, scripts, schemata, and frame of reference.
Cognitive map	Overview	Cognitive maps are a function of the working brain that humans and animals use for movement in a new environment. They help us in recognizing places, computing directions and distances, and in critical-thinking on shortcuts. They support us in wayfinding in an environment, and act as blueprints for new technology.
Cognitive map	Overview	Cognitive maps serve the construction and accumulation of spatial knowledge, allowing the "mind's eye" to visualize images in order to reduce cognitive load, enhance recall and learning of information. This type of spatial thinking can also be used as a metaphor for non-spatial tasks, where people performing non-spatial tasks involving memory and imaging use spatial knowledge to aid in processing the task. They include information about the spatial relations that objects have among each other in an environment and they help us in orienting and moving in a setting and in space.
Cognitive map	Overview	They are internal representation, they are not a fixed image, instead they are a schema, dynamic and flexible, with a degree of personal level. A spatial map needs to be acquired according to a frame of reference. Because it is independent from the observer's point of view, it is based on an allocentric reference system— with an object-to-object relation. It codes configurational information, using a world-centred coding system.
Cognitive map	Overview	The neural correlates of a cognitive map have been speculated to be the place cell system in the hippocampus and the recently discovered grid cells in the entorhinal cortex.
Cognitive map	History	The idea of a cognitive map was first developed by Edward C. Tolman. Tolman, one of the early cognitive psychologists, introduced this idea when doing an experiment involving rats and mazes. In Tolman's experiment, a rat was placed in a cross shaped maze and allowed to explore it. After this initial exploration, the rat was placed at one arm of the cross and food was placed at the next arm to the immediate right. The rat was conditioned to this layout and learned to turn right at the intersection in order to get to the food. When placed at different arms of the cross maze however, the rat still went in the correct direction to obtain the food because of the initial cognitive map it had created of the maze. Rather than just deciding to turn right at the intersection no matter what, the rat was able to determine the correct way to the food no matter where in the maze it was placed.Unfortunately, further research was slowed due to the behaviorist point of view prevalent in the field of psychology at the time. In later years, O'Keefe and Nadel attributed Tolman's research to the hippocampus, stating that it was the key to the rat's mental representation of its surroundings. This observation furthered research in this area and consequently much of hippocampus activity is explained through cognitive map making.As time went on, the cognitive map was researched in other prospective fields that found it useful, therefore leading to broader and differentiating definitions and applications. A very prominent researcher, Colin Eden, has specifically mentioned his application of cognitive mapping simply as any representation of thinking models.
Cognitive map	Mental map distinction	A cognitive map is a spatial representation of the outside world that is kept within the mind, until an actual manifestation (usually, a drawing) of this perceived knowledge is generated, a mental map. Cognitive mapping is the implicit, mental mapping the explicit part of the same process. In most cases, a cognitive map exists independently of a mental map, an article covering just cognitive maps would remain limited to theoretical considerations.
Cognitive map	Mental map distinction	Mental mapping is typically associated with landmarks, locations, and geography when demonstrated. Creating mental maps depends on the individual and their perceptions whether they are influenced by media, real-life, or other sources. Because of their factual storage mental maps can be useful when giving directions and navigating. As stated previously this distinction is hard to identify when posed with almost identical definitions, nevertheless there is a distinction.In some uses, mental map refers to a practice done by urban theorists by having city dwellers draw a map, from memory, of their city or the place they live. This allows the theorist to get a sense of which parts of the city or dwelling are more substantial or imaginable. This, in turn, lends itself to a decisive idea of how well urban planning has been conducted.
Cognitive map	Acquisition of the cognitive maps	The cognitive map is generated from a number of sources, both from the visual system and elsewhere. Much of the cognitive map is created through self-generated movement cues. Inputs from senses like vision, proprioception, olfaction, and hearing are all used to deduce a person's location within their environment as they move through it. This allows for path integration, the creation of a vector that represents one's position and direction within one's environment, specifically in comparison to an earlier reference point. This resulting vector can be passed along to the hippocampal place cells where it is interpreted to provide more information about the environment and one's location within the context of the cognitive map.Directional cues and positional landmarks are also used to create the cognitive map. Within directional cues, both explicit cues, like markings on a compass, as well as gradients, like shading or magnetic fields, are used as inputs to create the cognitive map. Directional cues can be used both statically, when a person does not move within his environment while interpreting it, and dynamically, when movement through a gradient is used to provide information about the nature of the surrounding environment. Positional landmarks provide information about the environment by comparing the relative position of specific objects, whereas directional cues give information about the shape of the environment itself. These landmarks are processed by the hippocampus together to provide a graph of the environment through relative locations.Alex Siegel and Sheldon White (1975) proposed a model of acquisition of spatial knowledge based on different levels. The first stage of the process is said to be limited to the landmarks available in a new environment. Then, as a second stage, information about the routes that connect landmarks will be encoded, at the beginning in a non-metric representation form and consequently they will be expanded with metric properties, such as distances, durations and angular deviations. In the third and final step, the observer will be able to use a survey representation of the surroundings, using an allocentric point of view.All in all, the acquisition of cognitive maps is a gradual construction. This kind of knowledge is multimodal in nature and it is built up by different pieces of information coming from different sources that are integrated step by step.
Cognitive map	Neurological basis	Cognitive mapping is believed to largely be a function of the hippocampus. The hippocampus is connected to the rest of the brain in such a way that it is ideal for integrating both spatial and nonspatial information. Connections from the postrhinal cortex and the medial entorhinal cortex provide spatial information to the hippocampus. Connections from the perirhinal cortex and lateral entorhinal cortex provide nonspatial information. The integration of this information in the hippocampus makes the hippocampus a practical location for cognitive mapping, which necessarily involves combining information about an object's location and its other features.O'Keefe and Nadel were the first to outline a relationship between the hippocampus and cognitive mapping. Many additional studies have shown additional evidence that supports this conclusion. Specifically, pyramidal cells (place cells, boundary cells, and grid cells) have been implicated as the neuronal basis for cognitive maps within the hippocampal system.
Cognitive map	Neurological basis	Numerous studies by O'Keefe have implicated the involvement of place cells. Individual place cells within the hippocampus correspond to separate locations in the environment with the sum of all cells contributing to a single map of an entire environment. The strength of the connections between the cells represents the distances between them in the actual environment. The same cells can be used for constructing several environments, though individual cells' relationships to each other may differ on a map by map basis. The possible involvement of place cells in cognitive mapping has been seen in a number of mammalian species, including rats and macaque monkeys. Additionally, in a study of rats by Manns and Eichenbaum, pyramidal cells from within the hippocampus were also involved in representing object location and object identity, indicating their involvement in the creation of cognitive maps. However, there has been some dispute as to whether such studies of mammalian species indicate the presence of a cognitive map and not another, simpler method of determining one's environment.While not located in the hippocampus, grid cells from within the medial entorhinal cortex have also been implicated in the process of path integration, actually playing the role of the path integrator while place cells display the output of the information gained through path integration. The results of path integration are then later used by the hippocampus to generate the cognitive map. The cognitive map likely exists on a circuit involving much more than just the hippocampus, even if it is primarily based there. Other than the medial entorhinal cortex, the presubiculum and parietal cortex have also been implicated in the generation of cognitive maps.
Cognitive map	Neurological basis	Parallel map theory There has been some evidence for the idea that the cognitive map is represented in the hippocampus by two separate maps. The first is the bearing map, which represents the environment through self-movement cues and gradient cues. The use of these vector-based cues creates a rough, 2D map of the environment. The second map would be the sketch map that works off of positional cues. The second map integrates specific objects, or landmarks, and their relative locations to create a 2D map of the environment. The cognitive map is thus obtained by the integration of these two separate maps. This leads to an understanding that it is not just one map but three that help us create this mental process. It should be clear that parallel map theory is still growing. The sketch map has foundation in previous neurobiological processes and explanations while the bearing map has very little research to support its evidence.
Cognitive map	Cognitive maps in animals	According to O’Keefe and Nadel (1978), not only humans require spatial abilities. Non-humans animals need them as well to find food, shelters, and others animals whether it is mates or predators. To do so, some animals establish relationships between landmarks, allowing them to make spatial inferences and detect positions.The first experiments on rats in a maze, conducted by Tolman, Ritchie, and Kalish (1946), showed that rats can form mental maps of spatial locations with a good comprehension of them. But these experiments, led again later by other researchers (for example by Eichenbaum, Stewart, & Morris, 1990 and by Singer et al. 2006) have not concluded with such clear results. Some authors tried to bring to light the way rats can take shortcuts. The results have demonstrated that in most cases, rats fail to use a shortcut when reaching for food unless they receive a preexposure to this shortcut route. In that case, rats use that route significantly faster and more often than those who were not preexposed. Moreover, they have difficulties making a spatial inference such as taking a novel shortcut route.In 1987, Chapuis and Varlet led an experiment on dogs to determine if they were able to infer shortcuts. The conclusion confirmed their hypothesis. Indeed, the results demonstrated that the dogs were able to go from starting point to point A with food and then go directly to point B without returning to the starting point. But for Andrew T.D. Bennett (1996) it can simply mean that the dogs have seen some landmarks near point B such as trees or buildings and headed towards them because they associated them with the food. Later, in 1998, Cheng and Spetch did an experiment on gerbils. When looking for the hidden food (goal), gerbils were using the relationship between the goal and one landmark at a time. Instead of deducing that the food was equidistant from two landmarks, gerbils were searching it by its position from two independent landmarks. This means that even though animals use landmarks to locate positions, they do it in a certain way.Another experiment, including pigeons this time, showed that they also use landmarks to locate positions. The task was for the pigeons to find hidden food in an arena. A part of the testing was to make sure that they were not using their smell to locate food. These results show and confirm other evidence of links present in those animals between one or multiple landmark(s) and hidden food (Cheng and Spetch, 1998, 2001 ; Spetch and Mondloch, 1993 ; Spetch et al., 1996, 1997).
Cognitive map	Criticism	In a review, Andrew T.D. Bennett noted two principal definitions for the “cognitive map” term. The first one, according to Tolman, O’Keefe, and Nadel, implies the capacity to create novel short-cutting thanks to vigorous memorization of the landmarks. The second one, according to Gallistel, considers a cognitive map as “any representation of space held by an animal”. This lack of a proper definition is also shared by Thinus-Blanc (1996) who stated that the definition is not clear enough. Therefore, this makes further experiments difficult to conclude.However, Bennett argued that there is no clear evidence for cognitive maps in non-human animals (i.e. cognitive map according to Tolman's definition). This argument is based on analyses of studies where it has been found that simpler explanations can account for experimental results. Bennett highlights three simpler alternatives that cannot be ruled out in tests of cognitive maps in non-human animals "These alternatives are (1) that the apparently novel short-cut is not truly novel; (2) that path integration is being used; and (3) that familiar landmarks are being recognised from a new angle, followed by movement towards them." This point of view is also shared by Grieves and Dudchenko (2013) that showed with their experiment on rats (briefly presented above) that these animals are not capable of making spatial inferences using cognitive maps.
Cognitive map	Heuristics	Heuristics were found to be used in the manipulation and creation of cognitive maps. These internal representations are used by our memory as a guide in our external environment. It was found that when questioned about maps imaging, distancing, etc., people commonly made distortions to images. These distortions took shape in the regularisation of images (i.e., images are represented as more like pure abstract geometric images, though they are irregular in shape).
Cognitive map	Heuristics	There are several ways that humans form and use cognitive maps, with visual intake being an especially key part of mapping: the first is by using landmarks, whereby a person uses a mental image to estimate a relationship, usually distance, between two objects. The second is route-road knowledge, and is generally developed after a person has performed a task and is relaying the information of that task to another person. The third is a survey, whereby a person estimates a distance based on a mental image that, to them, might appear like an actual map. This image is generally created when a person's brain begins making image corrections. These are presented in five ways: Right-angle bias: when a person straightens out an image, like mapping an intersection, and begins to give everything 90-degree angles, when in reality it may not be that way.
Cognitive map	Heuristics	Symmetry heuristic: when people tend to think of shapes, or buildings, as being more symmetrical than they really are. Rotation heuristic: when a person takes a naturally (realistically) distorted image and straightens it out for their mental image. Alignment heuristic: similar to the previous, where people align objects mentally to make them straighter than they really are. Relative-position heuristic: people do not accurately distance landmarks in their mental image based on how well they remember them.Another method of creating cognitive maps is by means of auditory intake based on verbal descriptions. Using the mapping based from a person's visual intake, another person can create a mental image, such as directions to a certain location.
Torpedo defence	Torpedo defence	Torpedo defence includes evasive maneuvers, passive defense like torpedo belts, torpedo nets, torpedo bulges and active defenses, like anti-torpedo torpedoes similar in idea to missile defense systems. Surface Ship Torpedo Defense and Countermeasure Anti-Torpedo systems are highly experimental and the US Navy ended trials on them in 2018.
Stresslinux	Stresslinux	Stresslinux is a light-weight Linux distribution designed to test a computer's hardware by running the components at high load while monitoring their health. It is designed to be booted from CD-ROM or via PXE.
Cipargamin	Cipargamin	Cipargamin (NITD609, KAE609) is an experimental synthetic antimalarial drug belonging to the spiroindolone class. The compound was developed at the Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases in Singapore, through a collaboration with the Genomics Institute of the Novartis Research Foundation (GNF), the Biomedical Primate Research Centre and the Swiss Tropical Institute.
Cipargamin	Cipargamin	Cipargamin is a synthetic antimalarial molecule belonging to the spiroindolone class, awarded MMV Project of the Year 2009. It is structurally related to GNF 493, a compound first identified as a potent inhibitor of Plasmodium falciparum growth in a high throughput phenotypic screen of natural products conducted at the Genomics Institute of the Novartis Research Foundation in San Diego, California in 2006.
Cipargamin	Cipargamin	Cipargamin was discovered by screening the Novartis library of 12,000 natural products and synthetic compounds to find compounds active against Plasmodium falciparum. The first screen turned up 275 compounds and the list was narrowed to 17 potential candidates. The current spiroindolone was optimized to address its metabolic liabilities leading to improved stability and exposure levels in animals. As a result, cipargamin is one of only a handful of molecules capable of completely curing mice infected with Plasmodium berghei (a model of blood-stage malaria). Given its good physicochemical properties, promising pharmacokinetic and efficacy profile, the molecule was recently approved as a preclinical candidate and is now entering GLP toxicology studies with the aim of entering Phase I studies in humans in late 2010. If its safety and tolerability are acceptable, cipargamin would be the first antimalarial not belonging to either the artemisinin or peroxide class to go into a proof-of-concept study in malaria. If cipargamin behaves similarly in people to the way it works in mice, it may be possible to develop it into a drug that could be taken just once - far easier than current standard treatments in which malaria drugs are taken between one and four times a day for up to seven days. Cipargamin also has properties which could enable it to be manufactured in pill form and in large quantities. Further animal studies have been performed and researchers have begun human-stage trials.
Cereal Milk	Cereal Milk	Cereal Milk is a flavor, beverage, and ingredient introduced commercially by Christina Tosi in 2006 while working at Momofuku. Cereal Milk is milk flavored with breakfast cereal. Cereal milk has inspired various food creations, including cereal milk ice cream and cereal milk-flavored beverages.
Cereal Milk	Development	Tosi first created Cereal Milk in 2006 as an ingredient while working for David Chang at Momofoku. There were no desserts on the menu when Tosi came on board, and she created her own recipes inspired by the flavors of childhood favorites, including Cereal Milk panna cotta. The Los Angeles Times described Tosi's take on panna cotta as "[taking] something upscale...and [yanking] it down. Tosi further developed the concept at Momofuku Bakery and Milk Bar, now Milk Bar. In addition to the panna cotta Tosi has developed an ice cream, cookies, a Charlotte, and beverages such as milk, lattes, and milkshakes. The basic ingredient is also used as a mixer for coffees and cocktails.When Tosi opened Milk Bar, one of the first menu items was her Cereal Milk softserve. Tosi has since expanded to packaged custard-style ice cream in Cereal Milk flavors.
Cereal Milk	Preparation and ingredients	The beverage and basic ingredient Cereal Milk is prepared by toasting cornflakes, steeping them at room temperature in milk, draining off the cereal, and adding brown sugar and salt. Other cereals can also be used.
Cereal Milk	Reception	According to the New York Times, "Nothing bears the trademark of the pastry chef Christina Tosi more than her cereal milk flavor," and that she had made it a "household name". Axios called Cereal Milk a "cult favorite". Trade journal Restaurant Business called Tosi's cereal milk "iconic".Saveur's Megan Zhang theorized that the appeal of the cereal milk flavor was rooted in the nostalgia of recalling that breakfast cereal was 'the first thing many of us learned to “cook” and eat ourselves as youngsters'.
Cereal Milk	Influence	In 2017 Ben & Jerry's introduced a line of flavors that Eater called a [blatant ripoff] of Tosi's creation. Burger King produced a Cereal Milk milkshake.
Homogeneous catalysis	Homogeneous catalysis	In chemistry, homogeneous catalysis is catalysis where the catalyst is in same phase as reactants, principally by a soluble catalyst a in solution. In contrast, heterogeneous catalysis describes processes where the catalysts and substrate are in distinct phases, typically solid-gas, respectively. The term is used almost exclusively to describe solutions and implies catalysis by organometallic compounds. Homogeneous catalysis is an established technology that continues to evolve. An illustrative major application is the production of acetic acid. Enzymes are examples of homogeneous catalysts.
Homogeneous catalysis	Examples	Acid catalysis The proton is a pervasive homogeneous catalyst because water is the most common solvent. Water forms protons by the process of self-ionization of water. In an illustrative case, acids accelerate (catalyze) the hydrolysis of esters: CH3CO2CH3 + H2O ⇌ CH3CO2H + CH3OHAt neutral pH, aqueous solutions of most esters do not hydrolyze at practical rates.
Homogeneous catalysis	Examples	Transition metal-catalysis Hydrogenation and related reactions A prominent class of reductive transformations are hydrogenations. In this process, H2 added to unsaturated substrates. A related methodology, transfer hydrogenation, involves by transfer of hydrogen from one substrate (the hydrogen donor) to another (the hydrogen acceptor). Related reactions entail "HX additions" where X = silyl (hydrosilylation) and CN (hydrocyanation). Most large-scale industrial hydrogenations – margarine, ammonia, benzene-to-cyclohexane – are conducted with heterogeneous catalysts. Fine chemical syntheses, however, often rely on homogeneous catalysts.
Homogeneous catalysis	Examples	Carbonylations Hydroformylation, a prominent form of carbonylation, involves the addition of H and "C(O)H" across a double bond. This process is almost exclusively conducted with soluble rhodium- and cobalt-containing complexes.A related carbonylation is the conversion of alcohols to carboxylic acids. MeOH and CO react in the presence of homogeneous catalysts to give acetic acid, as practiced in the Monsanto process and Cativa processes. Related reactions include hydrocarboxylation and hydroesterifications.
Homogeneous catalysis	Examples	Polymerization and metathesis of alkenes A number of polyolefins, e.g. polyethylene and polypropylene, are produced from ethylene and propylene by Ziegler-Natta catalysis. Heterogeneous catalysts dominate, but many soluble catalysts are employed especially for stereospecific polymers. Olefin metathesis is usually catalyzed heterogeneously in industry, but homogeneous variants are valuable in fine chemical synthesis. Oxidations Homogeneous catalysts are also used in a variety of oxidations. In the Wacker process, acetaldehyde is produced from ethene and oxygen. Many non-organometallic complexes are also widely used in catalysis, e.g. for the production of terephthalic acid from xylene. Alkenes are epoxidized and dihydroxylated by metal complexes, as illustrated by the Halcon process and the Sharpless dihydroxylation.
Homogeneous catalysis	Examples	Enzymes (including metalloenzymes) Enzymes are homogeneous catalysts that are essential for life but are also harnessed for industrial processes. A well-studied example is carbonic anhydrase, which catalyzes the release of CO2 into the lungs from the bloodstream. Enzymes possess properties of both homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts. As such, they are usually regarded as a third, separate category of catalyst. Water is a common reagent in enzymatic catalysis. Esters and amides are slow to hydrolyze in neutral water, but the rates are sharply affected by metalloenzymes, which can be viewed as large coordination complexes. Acrylamide is prepared by the enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis of acrylonitrile. US demand for acrylamide was 253,000,000 pounds (115,000,000 kg) as of 2007.
Homogeneous catalysis	Advantages and disadvantages	Advantages Homogeneous catalysts are generally more selective than heterogeneous catalysts. For exothermic processes, homogeneous catalysts dump heat into the solvent. Homogeneous catalysts are easier to characterize precisely, so their reaction mechanisms are amenable to rational manipulation. Disadvantages The separation of homogeneous catalysts from products can be challenging. In some cases involving high activity catalysts, the catalyst is not removed from the product. In other cases, organic products are sufficiently volatile that they can be separated by distillation. Homogeneous catalyst have limited thermal stability compared to heterogeneous catalysts. Many organometallic complexes degrade <100 °C. Some pincer-based catalysts, however, operate near 200 °C.
Insecure direct object reference	Insecure direct object reference	Insecure direct object reference (IDOR) is a type of access control vulnerability in digital security.This can occur when a web application or application programming interface uses an identifier for direct access to an object in an internal database but does not check for access control or authentication. For example, if the request URL sent to a web site directly uses an easily enumerated unique identifier (such as http://foo.com/doc/1234), that can provide an exploit for unintended access to all records.
Insecure direct object reference	Insecure direct object reference	A directory traversal attack is considered a special case of a IDOR.The vulnerability is of such significant concern that for many years it was listed as one of the Open Web Application Security Project’s (OWASP) Top 10 vulnerabilities.
Insecure direct object reference	Examples	In November 2020, the firm Silent Breach identified an IDOR vulnerability with the United States Department of Defense web site and privately reported it via the DOD's Vulnerability Disclosure Program. The bug was fixed by adding a user session mechanism to the account system, which would require authenticating on the site first.It was reported that the Parler social networking service used sequential post IDs, and that this had enabled the scraping of terabytes of data from the service in January 2021. The researcher responsible for the project has said this was inaccurate.
Secundative language	Secundative language	A secundative language is a language in which the recipients of ditransitive verbs (which takes a subject and two objects: a theme and a recipient) are treated like the patients (targets) of monotransitive verbs (verbs that take only one object), and the themes get distinct marking. Secundative languages contrast with indirective languages, where the recipient is treated in a special way.
Secundative language	Secundative language	While English is mostly not a secundative language, there are some examples. The sentence John gave Mary the ball uses this construction, where the ball is the theme and Mary is the recipient.
Secundative language	Secundative language	The alternative wording John presented Mary with the ball is essentially analogous to the structure found in secundative languages; the ball is not the direct object here, but basically a secondary object marked by the preposition with. In German, the prefix be- (which is sometimes likened to an applicative voice) can be used to change the valency of verbs in a similar way: In John schenkte Mary den Ball, the theme Ball is the direct object and the recipient Mary the indirect object (in the dative case); in John beschenkte Mary mit dem Ball, the recipient Mary is now the direct object and the theme Ball is now an oblique argument (an oblique dative) marked by the preposition mit.
Secundative language	Terminology	This language type was called dechticaetiative in an article by Edward L. Blansitt, Jr. (from Greek dekhomai 'take, receive' and an obscure second element, unlikely kaitoi 'and indeed'), but that term did not catch on. They have also been called anti-ergative languages and primary object languages.
Secundative language	Usage	Ditransitive verbs have two arguments other than the subject: a theme that undergoes the action and a recipient that receives the theme (see thematic relation). In a secundative language, the recipient of a ditransitive verb is treated in the same way as the single object of a monotransitive verb, and this syntactic category is called primary object, which is equivalent to the indirect object in English. The theme of a ditransitive verb is treated separately and called secondary object, which is equivalent to the direct object.
Secundative language	Usage	English is not a true secundative language, as neither the theme nor recipient is primary, or either can be primary depending on context.
Secundative language	Usage	A true secundative construction is found in West Greenlandic, the direct object of a monotransitive verb appears in the absolutive case: In a ditransitive sentence, the recipient appears in absolutive case and the theme is marked with the instrumental case: Similarly, in Lahu, both the patient of a monotransitive verb and the recipient of a ditransitive verb are marked with the postposition thàʔ: In secundative languages with passive constructions, passivation promotes the primary object to subject. For example, in Swahili: the recipient Fatuma is promoted to subject and not the theme zawadi 'gift'.
Secundative language	Use in English	Many languages show mixed indirective/secundative behavior. English, which is primarily indirective, arguably contains secundative constructions, traditionally referred to as dative shift. For example, the passive of the sentence John gave Mary the ball.is Mary was given the ball by John.in which the recipient rather than the theme is promoted to subject. This is complicated by the fact that some dialects of English may promote either the recipient (Mary) or the theme (the ball) argument to subject status, and for these dialects ' The ball was given Mary by John.(meaning that the ball was given to Mary) is also well-formed. In addition, the argument structure of verbs like provide is essentially secundative: in The project provides young people with work.the recipient argument is treated like a monotransitive direct object.
PSB-SB-1202	PSB-SB-1202	PSB-SB-1202 is a coumarin derivative which is an agonist at the cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2, with a CB1 Ki of 32nM and a CB2 Ki of 49nM. It is also a weak antagonist at the related receptor GPR55, with an IC50 of 6350nM, but has no significant affinity for GPR18.
Hay's test	Hay's test	Hay's test, also known as Hay's sulphur powder test, is a chemical test used for detecting the presence of bile salts in urine.
Hay's test	Procedure	Sulphur powder is sprinkled into a test tube with three millilitres of urine and if the test is positive, the sulphur powder sinks to the bottom of the test tube. Sulphur powder sinks because bile salts decrease the surface tension of urine.
Phorbol-diester hydrolase	Phorbol-diester hydrolase	The enzyme phorbol-diester hydrolase (EC 3.1.1.51) catalyzes the reaction phorbol 12,13-dibutanoate + H2O ⇌ phorbol 13-butanoate + butanoateThis enzyme belongs to the family of hydrolases, specifically those acting on carboxylic ester bonds. The systematic name is 12,13-diacylphorbate 12-acylhydrolase. Other names in common use include diacylphorbate 12-hydrolase, diacylphorbate 12-hydrolase, phorbol-12,13-diester 12-ester hydrolase, and PDEH.
Interleukin 1 beta	Interleukin 1 beta	Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) also known as leukocytic pyrogen, leukocytic endogenous mediator, mononuclear cell factor, lymphocyte activating factor and other names, is a cytokine protein that in humans is encoded by the IL1B gene. There are two genes for interleukin-1 (IL-1): IL-1 alpha and IL-1 beta (this gene). IL-1β precursor is cleaved by cytosolic caspase 1 (interleukin 1 beta convertase) to form mature IL-1β.
Interleukin 1 beta	Function	The fever-producing property of human leukocytic pyrogen (interleukin 1) was purified by Dinarello in 1977 with a specific activity of 10–20 nanograms/kg. In 1979, Dinarello reported that purified human leukocytic pyrogen was the same molecule that was described by Igal Gery in 1972. He named it lymphocyte-activating factor (LAF) because it was a lymphocyte mitogen. It was not until 1984 that interleukin 1 was discovered to consist of two distinct proteins, now called interleukin-1 alpha and interleukin-1 beta.IL-1β is a member of the interleukin 1 family of cytokines. This cytokine is produced by activated macrophages, monocytes, and a subset of dentritic cells known as slanDC, as a proprotein, which is proteolytically processed to its active form by caspase 1 (CASP1/ICE). This cytokine is an important mediator of the inflammatory response, and is involved in a variety of cellular activities, including cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. The induction of cyclooxygenase-2 (PTGS2/COX2) by this cytokine in the central nervous system (CNS) is found to contribute to inflammatory pain hypersensitivity. This gene and eight other interleukin 1 family genes form a cytokine gene cluster on chromosome 2.IL-1β, in combination with IL-23, induced expression of IL-17, IL-21 and IL-22 by γδ T cells. This induction of expression is in the absence of additional signals. That suggests IL-1β is involved in modulation of autoimmune inflammation Different inflammasome complex — cytosolic molecular complex — have been described. Inflammasomes recognize danger signals and activate proinflammatory process and production of IL-1β and IL-18. NLRP3 (contains three domain: pyrin domain, a nucleotide-binding domain and a leucine-rich repeat) type of inflammasome is activated by various stimuli and there are documented several diseases connected to NLRP3 activation like type 2 diabetes mellitus , Alzheimer's disease, obesity and atherosclerosis.
Interleukin 1 beta	Properties	Before cleavage by caspase 1, pro-IL-1β has a molecular weight of 37 kDa. The molecular weight of the proteolytically processed IL-1β is 17.5 kDa. IL-1β has the following amino acid sequence: APVRSLNCTL RDSQQKSLVM SGPYELKALH LQGQDMEQQV VFSMSFVQGE ESNDKIPVAL GLKEKNLYLS CVLKDDKPTL QLESVDPKNY PKKKMEKRFV FNKIEINNKL EFESAQFPNW YISTSQAENM PVFLGGTKGG QDITDFTMQF VSSThe physiological activity determined from the dose dependent proliferation of murine D10S cells is 2.5 x 108 to 7.1 x 108 units/mg.

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