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Radiopaedia	Editorial team	The editorial team, develop as well as help users to maintain the high-quality content of the website.The current editorial board (2021) is composed of individuals from a variety of countries and includes:Editor in chief Frank GaillardAcademic director Andrew DixonCommunity director Jeremy JonesEditorial director Henry KnipeManaging editors Daniel J Bell Ian Bickle Andrew Murphy
Radiopaedia	iPhone, iPad and iOS apps	In 2009, the first Radiopaedia iPhone app was released. These teaching files package cases and articles for users to review and have sample questions and answers.
Radiopaedia	iPhone, iPad and iOS apps	Brain Gastrointestinal and hepatobiliary Musculoskeletal Paediatrics Chest Head and NeckThese have been released in two forms: LITE : 10 full cases FULL : 50–80 cases; the initial 50 have been supplemented in some cases.Teaching files for the iPad were released in mid-2010. The first of its kind. These have currently been released for Brain Head and Neck MusculoskeletalIn 2012, Radiopaedia released a new version of its iOS application which is a universal app with in-app purchases for case packs.
Radiopaedia	Copyright	Most of the content is shared under a Creative Commons non-commercial license.
Chloramines	Chloramines	Chloramines refer to derivatives of ammonia and organic amines wherein one or more N-H bonds have been replaced by N-Cl bonds. Two classes of compounds are considered: inorganic chloramines and organic chloramines.
Chloramines	Inorganic chloramines	Inorganic chloramines comprise three compounds: monochloramine (NH2Cl), dichloramine (NHCl2), and nitrogen trichloride (NCl3). Monochloramine is of broad significance as a disinfectant for water.
Chloramines	Organic chloramines	Organic chloramines feature the NCl functional group attached to an organic substituent. Examples include N-chloromorpholine (ClN(CH2CH2)2O), N-chloropiperidine, and N-chloroquinuclidinium chloride.Chloramines are commonly produced by the action of bleach on secondary amines: R2NH + NaOCl → R2NCl + NaOHTert-butyl hypochlorite can be used instead of bleach: R2NH + t-BuOCl → R2NCl + t-BuOH
Chloramines	Swimming pools	Chloramines also refers to any chloramine formed by chlorine reacting with ammonia introduced into swimming pools by human perspiration, saliva, mucus, urine, and other biologic substances, and by insects and other pests. Chloramines are responsible for the "chlorine smell" of pools, as well as skin and eye irritation. These problems are the result of insufficient levels of free available chlorine.
Global cuisine	Global cuisine	A global cuisine is a cuisine that is practiced around the world. A cuisine is a characteristic style of cooking practices and traditions, often associated with a specific region, country or culture. To become a global cuisine, a local, regional or national cuisine must spread around the world, its food served worldwide. There have been significant improvements and advances during the last century in food preservation, storage, shipping and production, and today many countries, cities and regions have access to their traditional cuisines and many other global cuisines.
Global cuisine	Asia	Japan Japanese cuisine has spread throughout the world, and representative dishes such as sushi and ramen, among others are popular. In many cases, Japanese food is adapted and reinvented to fit the preferences of the local populace. For instance, the California roll is a popular dish in the United States that is a modification of the Japanese makizushi, a type of sushi. In South Korea, both the Japanese curry and the ramen have been imported and popularized primarily in the form of instant food. Tonkatsu and tempura, which are derived from Western food, are now considered and marketed as uniquely Japanese, as well as the Japanese curry, which derived from the Indian curry.
Global cuisine	Asia	In many countries including the United States, United Kingdom, Philippines, and Brazil, Japanese restaurants have become popular. Among these countries, Hong Kong, Taiwan, China, Singapore, Thailand and Indonesia are key consumers, according to recent research. The market of Japanese ingredients is also growing, with brands such as Ajinomoto, Kikkoman, Nissin and Kewpie mayonnaise, are establishing production base in other Asian countries, such as China, Thailand and Indonesia.
Global cuisine	Asia	China Chinese cuisine has become widespread throughout many other parts of the world — from Asia to the Americas, Australia, Western Europe and Southern Africa. In recent years, connoisseurs of Chinese cuisine have also sprouted in Eastern Europe and South Asia. American Chinese cuisine and Canadian Chinese food are popular examples of local varieties. Local ingredients would be adopted while maintaining the style and preparation technique.
Global cuisine	Asia	Traditional Chinese cuisines include Anhui, Cantonese, Fujian, Hunan, Jiangsu, Shandong, Sichuan, and Zhejiang, all of which are defined and termed per the respective regions within China where they developed. These regional cuisines are sometimes referred to as the "eight culinary traditions of China." A number of different styles contribute to Chinese cuisine, but perhaps the best known and most influential are the Sichuan, Shandong, Jiangsu and Guangdong cuisines. These styles are distinctive from one another due to factors such as available resources, climate, geography, history, cooking techniques and lifestyle. Many Chinese traditional regional cuisines rely on basic methods of food preservation such as drying, salting, pickling and fermentation.
Global cuisine	Asia	Thailand Thai cuisine is becoming increasingly popular in other parts of the world, including North America, Europe, and other parts of Asia. Thai restaurants are becoming more and more common, serving Thai curry and other traditional dishes.
Global cuisine	Asia	India Indian cuisine has contributed to shaping the history of international relations; the spice trade between India and Europe is often cited by historians as the primary catalyst for Europe's Age of Discovery. Spices were bought from India and traded around Europe and Asia. It has also had the created influence on international cuisines, especially those from Southeast Asia, the British Isles and the Caribbean. The use of Indian spices, herbs and vegetable produce have helped shaped the cuisines of many countries around the world.
Global cuisine	Asia	Indian cuisine consists of the foods and dishes of India (and to some extent neighboring countries), is characterized by the extensive use of various Indian spices and vegetables grown across India, herbs, vegetables and fruits, and is also known for the widespread practice of vegetarianism in Indian society. Indian regional cuisine is primarily categorized at the regional level, but also at provincial levels. Cuisine differences derive from various local cultures, geographical locations (whether a region is close to the sea, desert or the mountains), and economics. Indian cuisine is also seasonal, and utilizes fresh produce.
Global cuisine	Asia	The cuisine of India is very diverse with each state having an entirely different food platter. The development of these cuisines have been shaped by Hindu and Jain beliefs, in particular vegetarianism which is a common dietary trend in Indian society. There has also been Islamic influence from the years of Mughal and Delhi Sultanate rule, as well as Persian interactions on North Indian and Deccani cuisine. Indian cuisine has been and is still evolving, as a result of the nation's cultural interactions with other societies. Historical incidents such as foreign invasions, trade relations and colonialism have also played an important role in introducing certain food types and eating habits to the country. For instance, potato, a staple of North Indian diet was brought to India by the Portuguese, who also introduced chiles and breadfruit among other things. Spices were bought from India and traded in exchange for rubber and opium from Malacca.
Global cuisine	Europe	France Georgia Georgian cuisine includes more than 80 varieties of local cheeses that are often mixed with pastries and local pizza style cheese breads (Khachapuri), is famous for an abundant usage of walnuts in sauces (Satsivi), salads, or other meat dishes (Kharcho), local dumplings like Khinkali, and regional delicacies like Sinori. Georgia is the birthplace of wine and its table culture is deeply connected to the philosophical toast making rituals that are passed down from one generation to the next during Supras. Italy Italy's cuisine is one of the best-known cuisines in the world. As a Mediterranean cuisine, Italian cuisine makes heavy use of products based on wheat, olives, and grapes, with tomatoes being a distinguishing factor, and values using few but high-quality ingredients. Focaccia Pasta Pizza Risotto
Global cuisine	North America	United States American cuisine is a style of food preparation originating from the United States of America. European colonization of the Americas yielded the introduction of a number of ingredients and cooking styles to the latter. The various styles continued expanding well into the 19th and 20th centuries, proportional to the influx of immigrants from many foreign nations; such influx developed a rich diversity in food preparation throughout the country. Native American cuisine includes all food practices of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Modern-day native peoples retain a rich body of traditional foods, some of which have become iconic of present-day Native American social gatherings.
Global cuisine	North America	Mexico Mexican cuisine has become widespread all over the world.
Posterior auricular nerve	Posterior auricular nerve	The posterior auricular nerve is a nerve of the head. It is a branch of the facial nerve (CN VII). It communicates with branches from the vagus nerve, the great auricular nerve, and the lesser occipital nerve. Its auricular branch supplies the posterior auricular muscle, the intrinsic muscles of the auricle, and gives sensation to the auricle. Its occipital branch supplies the occipitalis muscle.
Posterior auricular nerve	Structure	The posterior auricular nerve arises from the facial nerve (CN VII). It is the first branch outside of the skull. This origin is close to the stylomastoid foramen. It runs upward in front of the mastoid process. It is joined by a branch from the auricular branch of the vagus nerve (CN X). It communicates with the posterior branch of the great auricular nerve, as well as with the lesser occipital nerve.
Posterior auricular nerve	Structure	As it ascends between the external acoustic meatus and mastoid process it divides into auricular and occipital branches. The auricular branch travels to the posterior auricular muscle and the intrinsic muscles on the cranial surface of the auricule. The occipital branch, the larger branch, passes backward along the superior nuchal line of the occipital bone to the occipitalis muscle.
Posterior auricular nerve	Function	The posterior auricular nerve supplies the posterior auricular muscle, and the intrinsic muscles of the auricle. It gives sensation to the auricle. It also supplies the occipitalis muscle.
Posterior auricular nerve	Clinical significance	Nerve testing The posterior auricular nerve can be tested by contraction of the occipitalis muscle, and by sensation in the auricle. This testing is rarely performed. Biopsy The posterior auricular nerve can be biopsied. This can be used to test for leprosy, which can be important in diagnosis.
Stuart W. Krasner	Stuart W. Krasner	Stuart William Krasner (Born 1949), was the Principal Environmental Specialist (retired) with the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, at the Water Quality Laboratory located in La Verne, California. In his 41 years with Metropolitan, he made revolutionary changes in the field's understanding of how disinfection by-products occur, are formed and how they can be controlled in drinking water. His research contributions include the study of emerging DBPs including those associated with chlorine, chloramines, ozone, chlorine dioxide and bromide/iodide-containing waters. He made groundbreaking advances in understanding the watershed sources of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and wastewater impacts on drinking-water supplies. For DBPs and PPCPs, he developed analytical methods and occurrence data and he provided technical expertise for the development of regulations for these drinking water contaminants. In the early 1990s, Krasner developed the 3x3 matrix illustrating removal of total organic carbon from drinking water as a function of water alkalinity and initial total organic carbon concentration. The matrix was revised by him and included in the USEPA Stage 1 D/DBP regulation as the enhanced coagulation requirement. Every water utility in the U.S. that is subject to this regulation is required to meet total organic carbon removal requirements along with their exceptions.
Stuart W. Krasner	Stuart W. Krasner	He has been a key member of the toxicology and epidemiology community by providing key data for the development of improved carcinogen and non-carcinogen exposure assessments. In his early career at Metropolitan he developed key advances in the control of tastes and odors in drinking water including analytical methods, sensory analysis and determining sources and treatment of off-flavors.
Stuart W. Krasner	Early life and education	Stuart W. Krasner was born in 1949 in Los Angeles, California, and at the age of two, he moved with his family to Van Nuys, California where he grew up. He attended Kester Avenue Elementary School and Van Nuys High School. His father worked as an aerospace engineer at several companies in the Los Angeles area. His mother worked in the bookkeeping department for Warner Bros. Movie Studios before becoming a homemaker. His brother, Stanley, is three years younger. Stuart married Jan Patrice Barth on September 10, 1989.
Stuart W. Krasner	Early life and education	He earned his Bachelor of Science in chemistry (1971) and his Master of Science in analytical chemistry (1974) from the University of California, Los Angeles.
Stuart W. Krasner	Career	Krasner was a teaching and research assistant during his graduate work at UCLA. He worked for the Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts for four years (1974–77) before taking a position as a chemist with the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California in 1977. From the beginning of his career at Metropolitan, Krasner worked at the water quality laboratory which is located at the F.E. Weymouth Treatment Plant in La Verne, California. He held increasingly responsible positions as Research Chemist, Senior Chemist and Senior Research Chemist until being promoted to Principal Environmental Specialist in 1997. He retired from Metropolitan in September 2018.
Stuart W. Krasner	Career	As Principal Environmental Specialist, Krasner was responsible for the technical direction of DBP research at Metropolitan, as well as studies on the control of other micropollutants of health, regulatory, and aesthetic significance. He was involved in the design of experimental plans for natural organic matter (NOM), DBP, and PPCP research studies, project management, and interpretation of findings. In 1989, his article on the first national survey of multiple-DBP occurrence has received over 1,000 citations by other authors. Another survey of a new generation of DBPs in 2006 has been cited over 1,100 times.A few of the many externally funded projects for which he was responsible include: Co-Principal Investigator of a National Science Foundation (NSF) project on “Drinking Water Safety and Sustainability: Identifying Key Chemical Drivers of Toxicity for Long-Term Solutions in the United States.” (2017 – present) Technical advisor for a project on “Global Assessment of Exposure to Trihalomethanes in Drinking Water and Burden of Disease” being conducted by the Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal). (2017 – present).
Stuart W. Krasner	Career	Principal investigator for Water Research Foundation project on “Nitrosamine Occurrence Survey.” (2013 – 2016).” Co-principal investigator for Water Research Foundation project on “Investigating Coagulant Aid Alternatives to polyDADMAC Polymers.” (2012 – 2015) Principal investigator for Water Research Foundation project on “Controlling the Formation of Nitrosamines during Water Treatment.” (2012 – 2015) Co-principal investigator for Water Research Foundation project on “Optimizing Conventional Treatment for Removal of Cyanobacteria and their Metabolites.” (2011 – 2015)He was a consultant to the drinking water community since 1983. Some of his projects included: Peer reviewer for Imperial College, London, of report on “Review of the Current Toxicological and Occurrence Information Available on Nitrogen-Containing Disinfection By-Products.” Technical advisor to the University of the Aegean on reinterpreting DBP data for a European Union project (HiWATE) on DBPs.
Stuart W. Krasner	Career	Technical auditor for the European Commission on laboratory practices for a project (HiWATE) on DBPs.
Stuart W. Krasner	Career	Technical advisor for Scottish Executive study on “The Formation of Disinfection By-products of Chloramination, Potential Health Implications and Techniques for Minimisation.” Workshop participant for National Science Foundation on “Engineering Controls for Ballast Water Discharge: Developing Research Needs.” Co-investigator for AwwaRF project on “Improved Exposure Assessment on Existing Cancer Studies.” Co-investigator on USEPA project on “Enhanced Evaluation of Disinfectant By-Product Exposures for Epidemiological Studies.”
Stuart W. Krasner	Professional associations and journals	He made professional contributions to many institutions, including: American Water Works Association (1977 – present), AWWA Research Foundation (now Water Research Foundation, WRF) and American Chemical Society (1975 – present).
Stuart W. Krasner	Professional associations and journals	For AWWA, he has been involved in over one hundred committees, workgroups and advisory committees, which have included: Trustee (2 terms) of the Water Science & Research Division Member of Standard Methods Committee (multiple editions); chair of Joint Task Group (JTG) on closed-loop stripping analysis (CLSA) in Water, 17th ed.; Vice-Chair of Joint Task Group (JTG) on CLSA, 16th ed.; member of JTG on Taste, 17th ed.; member of JTG on Flavor Profile Analysis (FPA), 17th ed.
Stuart W. Krasner	Professional associations and journals	Chair of the D/DBP Technical Advisory Workgroup (TAW) Member of Technical Advisory Group (TAG), which provided technical input to Water Utility Council (WUC) on legislative and regulatory issues Manager of the D/DBP TAW; included technical management of and coordination with universities and consulting engineering firms performing studies for the D/DBP TAW. Selected projects included: Disinfectants/Disinfection By-Products (D/DBP) Data Base for Regulation Negotiation Process Mathematical Modeling of the Formation of THMs and HAAs in Chlorinated Natural Waters Effect of Coagulation and Ozonation on the Formation of Disinfection By-Products Establishment of database on THM and HAA formation kinetics and impacts of various water quality parameters Development of chlorine and chloramine residual decay equations Authored state-of-the-science literature review on nitrosamines for AWWA Government Affairs Office. (2012 – 2013) Guest technical editor for special issue of Journal AWWA on nitrosaminesFor AWWA Research Foundation (now Water Research Foundation): Invited expert for state-of-the-science expert workshop on Evaluating the Scientific Evidence for Chlorination Disinfection By-Products (CDBPs) Associated with Human Health Outcomes (i.e., Bladder Cancer) Project Advisory Committee (PAC) on “Exploring formation and Control of Emerging DBPs in Treatment Facilities: Halonitromethanes and Iodo-Trihalomethanes.
Stuart W. Krasner	Professional associations and journals	PAC on Quantitative Comparative Mammalian Cell Cytotoxicity and Genotoxicity of Selected Classes of Drinking Water Disinfection By-Products PAC on Exploring the Mechanisms of Dihalogenated Acetic Acid Formation (DXAA) During ChloraminationFor the American Chemical Society: Organized symposium on Occurrence, Formation, Health Effects and Control of Disinfection By-Products in Drinking Water.
Stuart W. Krasner	Professional associations and journals	Organized symposium on Natural Organic Matter and Disinfection By-Products in Drinking Water.Krasner has been a peer-reviewer for many professional and scientific journals including Journal American Water Works Association, Environmental Science & Technology, Ozone: Science & Engineering, Water Research, Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology – Aqua, Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, Analytical Chemistry, Water Environment Research, The Science of the Total Environment, Chemosphere and Talanta
Stuart W. Krasner	Invited lectures and technical exchanges	Tsinghua University, Beijing, Keynote Presentation: Theory and Practices of DBP Formation and Control. April 18, 2012. International Workshop on Urban Water Safety Tongji University, Shanghai, on formation and control of emerging disinfection by-products Hong Kong University of Science and Technology on formation and control of emerging disinfection by-products in wastewater and drinking water Cranfield University, UK, on formation and health effects of disinfection by-products, and balancing the control of disinfection by-products.
Stuart W. Krasner	Invited lectures and technical exchanges	University of California, Berkeley, on sources of NDMA precursors; and the formation, occurrence, and control of NDMA in chloraminated drinking water University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, on formation, occurrence, and control of emerging disinfection by-products of health concern
Stuart W. Krasner	Awards and honors	1990, AWWA Water Quality Division Best Paper Award 1996, George A. Elliot Award from the California-Nevada Section of AWWA 2007, AWWA's A.P. Black Research Award. This award recognizes “outstanding research contributions to water science and water supply rendered over an appreciable period of time.” The award citation stated: “In recognition of his outstanding, leading-edge research in the water industry in the area of disinfection by-products.” 2012, AWWA Engineering and Construction Division Best Paper Award 2017, Water Research Foundation's Dr. Pankaj Parekh Research Innovation Award. The award letter stated “Your significant contributions to the Water Research Foundation, both in the volume of work you have conducted, and the longevity of your participation in our research program, made you the unanimous choice for this year’s Research Innovation Award by the Foundation’s Awards Committee.” 2019, AWWA Publications Award; AWWA Water Quality & Technology Division Best Paper Award
Stuart W. Krasner	Books and edited works	Off-Flavours in Drinking Water and Aquatic Organisms. (P.-E. Persson, F.B. Whitfield, & S.W. Krasner, eds.). 1992. Water Sci. & Technol., Vol. 25, No. 2. Natural Organic Matter and Disinfection By-Products: Characterization and Control in Drinking Water (S.E. Barrett, S.W. Krasner, & G.L. Amy, eds.). 2000. ACS, Washington, D.C. Disinfection By-Products in Drinking Water: Occurrence, Formation, Health Effects, and Control (T. Karanfil, S.W. Krasner, P. Westerhoff, & Y. Xie, eds.). 2008. ACS, Washington, D.C. Special issue on nitrosamines (S.W. Krasner, guest technical editor). June 2017. Jour. AWWA
Stuart W. Krasner	Selected publications	S.W. Krasner, M.J. McGuire, & V.B. Ferguson. 1985. Tastes and Odors: The Flavor Profile Method. Jour. AWWA, 77:3:34. S.W. Krasner, S.E. Barrett, M.S. Dale, & C.J. Hwang. 1989. Free Chlorine Versus Monochloramine for Controlling Off-Tastes and Off-Odors. Jour. AWWA, 81:2:86. S.W. Krasner, M.J. McGuire, J.G. Jacangelo, N.L. Patania, K.M. Reagan, & E.M. Aieta. 1989. The Occurrence of Disinfection By-Products in U.S. Drinking Water. Jour. AWWA, 81:8:41. S.W. Krasner, W.H. Glaze, H.S. Weinberg, P.A. Daniel, & I.N. Najm. 1993. Formation and Control of Bromate During Ozonation of Waters Containing Bromide. Jour. AWWA, 85:1:73. S.W. Krasner, & G.L. Amy. 1995. Jar-Test Evaluations of Enhanced Coagulation. Jour. AWWA, 87:10:93. S.W. Krasner, J.-P. Croué, J. Buffle, & E.M. Perdue. 1996. Three Approaches for Characterizing NOM. Jour. AWWA, 88:6:66. S.W. Krasner, H.S. Weinberg, S.D. Richardson, S.J. Pastor, R. Chinn, M.J. Sclimenti, G.D. Onstad, and A.D. Thruston, Jr. 2006. Occurrence of a New Generation of Disinfection Byproducts. Environ. Sci. Technol., 40(23):7175-7185. S.W. Krasner, P. Westerhoff, B. Chen, B.E. Rittmann, S.-N. Nam, & G. Amy. 2009. Impact of Wastewater Treatment Processes on Organic Carbon, Organic Nitrogen, and DBP Precursors in Effluent Organic Matter. Environ. Sci. Technol., 43(8):2911-2918. S.W. Krasner, P. Westerhoff, B. Chen, B.E. Rittmann, & G. Amy. 2009. Occurrence of Disinfection Byproducts in United States Wastewater Treatment Plant Effluents Environ. Sci. Technol., 43(21):8320–8325. O. Lu, S.W. Krasner, & S. Liang. 2011. Modeling Approach to Treatability Analysis of an Existing Treatment Plant. Jour. AWWA, 103(4):103–117. S.W. Krasner, W.A. Mitch, D.L. McCurry, D. Hanigan, & P. Westerhoff. 2013. Formation, Precursors, Control, and Occurrence of Nitrosamines in Drinking Water: A Review. Water Res., 47:4433-4450.
The Pleasure of the Text	The Pleasure of the Text	The Pleasure of the Text (French: Le Plaisir du Texte) is a 1973 book by the literary theorist Roland Barthes.
The Pleasure of the Text	Summary	Barthes sets out some of his ideas about literary theory. He divides the effects of texts into two: plaisir ("pleasure") and jouissance, translated as "bliss" but the French word also carries the meaning of "orgasm".
The Pleasure of the Text	Summary	The distinction corresponds to a further distinction Barthes makes between texte lisible and texte scriptible, translated respectively as "readerly" and "writerly" texts (a more literal translation would be "readable" and "writable"). Scriptible is a neologism in French. The pleasure of the text corresponds to the readerly text, which does not challenge the reader's position as a subject. The writerly text provides bliss, which explodes literary codes and allows the reader to break out of his or her subject position.
The Pleasure of the Text	Summary	The "readerly" and the "writerly" texts were identified and explained in Barthes' S/Z. Barthes argues that "writerly" texts are more important than "readerly" ones because he sees the text's unity as forever being re-established by its composition, the codes that form and constantly slide around within the text. The reader of a readerly text is largely passive, whereas the person who engages with a writerly text has to make an active effort, and even to re-enact the actions of the writer himself. The different codes (hermeneutic, action, symbolic, semic, and historical) that Barthes defines in S/Z inform and reinforce one another, making for an open text that is indeterminant precisely because it can always be written anew.
The Pleasure of the Text	Summary	As a consequence, although one may experience pleasure in the readerly text, it is when one sees the text from the writerly point of view that the experience is blissful.
The Pleasure of the Text	Influences	Few writers in cultural studies and the social sciences have used and developed the distinctions that Barthes makes. The British sociologist of education Stephen Ball has argued that the National Curriculum in England and Wales is a writerly text, by which he means that schools, teachers and pupils have a certain amount of scope to reinterpret and develop it. On the other hand, artist Roy Ascott's pioneering telematic artwork, La Plissure du Texte ("The Pleating of the Texte", 1983) drew inspiration from Barthes' Le Plaisir du Texte. Ascott modified the title to emphasize the pleasure of collective textual pleating. In Ascott's artwork, the pleating of the text resulted from a process that the artist calls "distributed authorship," which expands Barthes' concept of the "readerly text." In Ascott's work, the text itself is the result of a collaborative reading/writing process among participants around the world, connected via computer networking (telematics). Ascott's work thus unravels the distinction between readers and writers, demonstrating a much greater degree of permeability than Barthes' distinction permits (and beyond Barthes' theory of the death of the author). Moreover, the mechanism of distributed authorship enabled Ascott's "planetary fairytale" to self-pleat in a way that, like a surrealist exquisite corpse, could not have been the product of a single mind. Rather, Ascott suggests, the work emerged as the result of an emergent field of collective intelligence that joined minds together in a global field of consciousness.
Hebereke's Popoon	Hebereke's Popoon	Hebereke's Popoon is a two player puzzle video game developed and published by Sunsoft. It is based on the Hebereke series. Hebereke means drunk or untrustworthy. Popoon is an onomatopoeia for the sound made by the game pieces when they explode. The game is a Puyo Puyo clone. Players align Popoons with others to make them explode.
Hebereke's Popoon	Availability	According to the Video Arcade Preservation Society, via their website Killer List of Video Games, the arcade machine itself is very rare, if it still exists in cabinet form at all.
Hebereke's Popoon	Gameplay	Hebereke's Popoon is a block-grouping game. There are four playable characters, each having different abilities. In story mode, the player is forced to play as Hebe and must battle certain characters. A defeated player may elect to resume play by using a continue. In versus mode, every playable character are immediately available to either player. Players can also select a handicap level (from 1 - 5) to increase or decrease the difficulty of the game.In each round, pairs of Popoons of various colors (the set of colors varying with the character(s) chosen by the player(s)) descend from the top of the screen. These can be rotated and placed by the player. The immediate aim is to create groups of three blocks of the same color arranged either horizontally, vertically, or diagonally. When such a group is created, the member blobs blow up, disappearing from the screen. Any blobs above the disappearing group then drop to fill any resulting empty space.
Hebereke's Popoon	Gameplay	Each time a player successfully creates a group, a Poro-poro will drop on the other player's screen in a random position. These poro-porous can be removed by the other player by placing a blob of the same color as the head such that it touches the head either horizontally or vertically. Both the head and the blob will disappear from the screen, in much the same manner as group of blobs, though no head will appear on the first player's screen as a result.
Hebereke's Popoon	Gameplay	A player can sometimes cause multiple groups to disappear. This can happen simultaneously if the placement of a pair of blobs immediately causes two groups of blobs (or heads) to form or it can happen in a chain reaction, as the formation and disappearance of one group causes the dropping of any pieces above it, which can result in the formation of another group, and so on. If the groups in either process are of different colors then this is said to be a combination or "combo". The colors in a combo (or even a group) appear as small tiles in the lower of two panes in the middle of the screen and above the score-box.
Hebereke's Popoon	Gameplay	While a combo of one color (simply an ordinary group) causes a single head to appear on the opponent's screen, a combo of two colors causes a full row of poro-porous to appear on the opponent's screen. Combos of three and four colors are much more dramatic, the precise effect depending on the player's character. Upcoming heads or special effects are kept track of by symbols placed by the players' characters in the upper of two panels in the middle of the screen.
Hebereke's Popoon	Gameplay	A notable feature in Hebereke's Popoon is the constant bevy of sound effects as each player's character celebrates each group or combo by making nonsense sounds or yelling Japanese phrases.
Hebereke's Popoon	Characters' combo abilities	When the player makes a combo of three or four colors different effects occur depending on the player's character: Hebereke Head Color: Blue 3 colors: Head flies towards opponents screen attached to body via a tether. A double row of heads then drops onto the opponent's screen. 4 colors: Flies off the screen on fire. The player's pieces are removed and a proportionate number of heads are dropped on the opponent's screen.Oh-Chan Head Color: Orange 3 colors: Uses magic electricity to turn pieces on opponent's screen into "frozen blocks" that can never be removed. 4 colors: Whisks away the bottom few rows of the player's pieces. A proportionate number of heads are dropped on the opponent's screen.Sukezaemon Head Color: Pink 3 colors: A giant hammer smashes through the player's pieces, removing them from the screen. A proportionate number of heads is dropped on the opponent's screen. 4 colors: Hammers himself in the head popping his eyeballs out. Turns some of the opponent's pieces into heads.Jennifer Head Color: Green 3 colors: Causes opponent's screen to freeze up for 10 seconds. All the heads from all the groups the player made are dropped at once on the opponent's screen at the end of this time.
Hebereke's Popoon	Characters' combo abilities	4 colors: Pukes up an iridescent blob which descends from the top of the player's screen. Wherever this blob is placed, several rows disappear and a proportionate number of heads are dropped on the opponent's screen.Bobodori Head Color: Light Purple 3 colors: Appears on the opponent's screen and turns it into an elevator which rises up and away. The opponent's screen then returns with many blobs having been turned into heads.
Hebereke's Popoon	Characters' combo abilities	4 colors: A dragonfly flies from the top of her hat to the top of the opponent's screen. The beating wings of the dragonfly force all the opponent's pieces to drop at the maximum rate.Utsujin Head Color: Yellow 3 colors: Appears in a spaceship on the opponent's screen and drops several small copies of himself which proceed to walk around for a moment. Opponent's controls switch "left" and "right" for 10 seconds.
Hebereke's Popoon	Characters' combo abilities	4 colors: Takes out a laser gun and fires a blast into the opponent's screen. The laser blast ricochets around several times, turning many blobs into heads.Pen-Chan Head Color: Purple 3 colors: For 10 seconds the opponent's screen is filled with an image of the crying child which obscures the opponent's vision. 4 colors: Sings and dances on the opponent's screen for 10 seconds, randomly permuting all the blobs and heads.Unyohn Head Color: Grey 3 colors: Surrounds himself with a shield on the player's screen, preventing the player from doing anything. While this is happening, any heads that would have dropped on the player's screen drop on the opponent's screen instead. 4 colors: Shoots a rocket from his hat which blows up all the pieces on the opponent's screen and replaces them with a proportionate number of heads.
Hebereke's Popoon	Reception	Hebereke's Popoon garnered generally favorable reception from critics. Computer and Video Games's Ed Lawrence and Mark Patterson praised the game's graphics, sound, and playability. While reckoning that the single-player mode was tame, both Automatic and Patterson were fond of its head-to-head mode, noting the use of special attacks and fast speed on higher levels. Video Games' Dirk Sauer felt mixed regarding the visuals and sound effects, but found both its music and gameplay to be addictive, the latter of which he noted for being initially difficult. Nintendo Magazine System's Paul Davies and Andy McVittie lauded its stylish and colorful imagery, audio, and compelling playability, but both felt that the game was less fun in single-player. Superjuegos' Javier Iturrioz commended the diverse music, and quality of the characters' voices. However, Iturrioz felt that it did not offer any novelty compared to Puyo Puyo and stated that its graphics, while colorful, were limited by the game's nature. Total!'s Josse and Atko gave positive remarks to the audiovisual presentation, gameplay, and overall longevity, finding it to be more fun than Super Puyo Puyo. Writing for the German edition, Michael Anton criticized its lack of depth but praised it for being a nice alternative to Tetris with usual gaudy Japanese graphics.Games World's four reviewers compared the gameplay with Dr Robotnik's Mean Bean Machine. Nevertheless, they gave it an overall positive outlook. MAN!AC's Martin Gaksch regarded it to be a fun Columns clone, commending its different game modes but was annoyed at the lack of multiplayer variants. In contrast to the other critics, Mega Fun's Götz Schmiedehause faulted the game for is visuals and audio. Play Time's Ulf Schneider noted its difficulty level and limited options. Super Gamer's three reviewers wrote that "Hebereke's Popoon relies more on chance than Super Puyo Puyo, which makes it just that crucial bit less satisfying." In 1995, Total! ranked the game as number 55 on its list of the top 100 SNES games, stating that it was "A bit like Kirby's Avalanche. If you like these puzzlers then it’s an absolute must." Hardcore Gaming 101's Federico Tiraboschi concurred with both Sauer and Schneider about the game's difficulty.
Monosodium tartrate	Monosodium tartrate	Monosodium tartrate or sodium bitartrate is a sodium acid salt of tartaric acid. As a food additive it is used as an acidity regulator and is known by the E number E335. As an analytical reagent, it can be used in a test for ammonium cation which gives a white precipitate.
SURF2	SURF2	SURF2 is a protein which in humans is encoded by the SURF2 gene.SURF2 is a member of the surfeit gene family. The SURF2 molecule interacts with beta-1, 4-Gal-T3, uPAR, and WDR20. As part of the surfeit gene cluster, SURF2 is one of several tightly linked genes that do not share sequence similarity. SURF2 maps to human chromosome 9q34.2 and shares a bidirectional promoter with SURF1 on the opposite strand. A bidirectional promoter activity is expected in the intergenic region between SURF1 and SURF2, as seen in mice.
Endurance running hypothesis	Endurance running hypothesis	The endurance running hypothesis is a series of conjectures which presume humans evolved anatomical and physiological adaptations to run long distances and, more strongly, that "running is the only known behavior that would account for the different body plans in Homo as opposed to apes or australopithecines".The hypothesis posits a significant role of endurance running in facilitating early hominins' ability to obtain meat. Proponents of this hypothesis propose that endurance running served as a means for hominins to effectively engage in persistence hunting and carcass poaching, thus enhancing their competitive edge in acquiring prey. Consequently, these evolutionary pressures have led to the prominence of endurance running as a primary factor shaping many biomechanical characteristics of modern humans.
Endurance running hypothesis	Evolutionary evidence	No primates other than humans are capable of endurance running, and in fact, Australopithecus did not have structural adaptations for running. Instead, forensic anthropology suggests that anatomical features that directly contributed to endurance running capabilities were heavily selected for within the genus Homo dating back to 1.9Ma. Consequently, selecting anatomical features that made endurance running possible radically transformed the hominid body. The general form of human locomotion is markedly distinct from all other animals observed in nature. ‘’From the Journal of Anatomy’’, author RM Alexander describes our unique form of bipedal motion: "… no animal walks or runs as we do. We keep the trunk erect; in walking, our knees are almost straight at mid-stance; the forces our feet exert on the ground are very markedly two-peaked when we walk fast; and in walking and usually in running, we strike the ground initially with the heel alone. No animal walks or runs like that." From the perspective of natural selection, scientists acknowledge that specialization in endurance running would not have helped early humans avoid faster predators over short distances. Instead, it could have allowed them to traverse shifting habitat zones more effectively in the African savannas during the Pliocene. Endurance running facilitated the timely scavenging of large animal carcasses and enabled the tracking and chasing prey over long distances. This tactic of exhausting prey was especially advantageous for capturing large quadrupedal mammals struggling to thermoregulate in hot weather and over extended distances. Conversely, humans possess efficient means to dissipate heat, primarily through sweating. Specifically, evaporative heat dissipation from the scalp and face prevents hyperthermia and heat-induced encephalitis by extreme cardiovascular loads. Furthermore, as humans continued to develop, our posture became more upright and subsequently increased vertically with the elongation of limbs and torso, effectively increasing surface area for corporeal heat dissipation.In work exploring the evolution of the human head, paleontologist Daniel Lieberman suggests that certain adaptations to the Homo skull and neck are correlational evidence of traits selective to endurance running optimization. Specifically, he posits that adaptations such as a flattening face and the development of the nuchal ligament promote improved head balance for cranial stabilization during extended periods of running.Compared to Australopithecus fossil skeletons, selection for walking by itself would not develop some of these proposed "endurance running" derived traits — evaporative heat dissipation from the scalp and face prevents hyperthermia flatter face makes the head more balanced Nuchal ligament helps counterbalance the head shoulders and body can rotate without rotating the head taller body has more skin surface for evaporative heat dissipation torso can counter-rotate to balance the rotation of the hindlimbs shorter forearms make it easier to counterbalance hindlimbs shorter forearms cost less to keep flexed backbones are wider, which will absorb more impact stronger backbone pelvis connection will absorb more impact compared to modern apes, human buttocks "are huge" and "critical for stabilization." longer hindlimbs Achilles tendon springs conserve energy lighter tendons efficiently replace lower limb muscles broader hindlimb joints will absorb more impact foot bones create a stiff arch for efficient push off broader heel bone will absorb more impact shorter toes and an aligned big toe provide better push off
Endurance running hypothesis	Academic discourse	The derived longer hindlimb was already present in Australopithecus along with evidence for foot bones with a stiff arch. Walking and running in Australopithecus may have been the same as early Homo. Small changes in joint morphology may indicate neutral evolutionary processes rather than selection.The methodology by which the proposed derived traits were chosen and evaluated does not seem to have been stated, and there were immediate highly technical arguments "dismissing their validity and terming them either trivial or incorrect."Most of those proposed traits have not been tested for their effect on walking and running efficiency. The new trunk shape counter-rotations, which help control rotations induced by hip-joint motion, seem active during walking. Elastic energy storage does occur in the plantar soft tissue of the foot during walking. Relative lower-limb length has a slightly larger effect on the economy of walking than running. The heel-down foot posture makes walking economical but does not benefit running.Model-based analysis showing that scavengers would reach a carcass within 30 minutes of detection suggests that "endurance running" would not have given earlier access to carcasses and so not result in selection for "endurance running". Earlier access to carcasses may have been selected for running short distances of 5 km or less, with adaptations that generally improved running performance.The discovery of more fossil evidence resulted in additional detailed descriptions of hindlimb bones with measurable data reported in the literature. From a study of those reports, hindlimb proposed traits were already present in Australopithecus or early Homo. Those hindlimb characteristics most likely evolved to improve walking efficiency with improved running as a by-product.Gluteus maximus activity was substantially higher in maximal effort jumping and punching than sprinting, and substantially higher in sprinting than in running at speeds that can be sustained. The activity levels are not consistent with the suggestion that the muscle size is a result of selection for sustained endurance running. Additionally, gluteus maximus activity was much greater in sprinting than in running, similar in climbing and running, and greater in running than walking. Increased muscle activity seems related to the speed and intensity of the movement rather than the gait itself. The data suggests that the large size of the gluteus maximus reflects multiple roles during rapid and powerful movements rather than a specific adaptation to submaximal endurance running.
Wheat lamp	Wheat lamp	A wheat lamp is a type of incandescent light designed for use in underground mining, named for inventor Grant Wheat and manufactured by Koehler Lighting Products in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, United States, a region known for extensive mining activity.A safety lamp designed for use in potentially hazardous atmospheres such as firedamp and coal dust, the lamp is mounted on the front of the miner's helmet and powered by a wet cell battery worn on the miner's belt. The average wheat lamp uses a three to five watt bulb which will typically operate for five to 16 hours depending on the amp-hour capacity of the battery and the current draw of the bulb being used.A grain-of-wheat lamp is an unrelated, very small incandescent lamp used in medical and optical instruments, as well as for illuminating miniature railroad and similar models.
Wv (software)	Wv (software)	The software library wv, also known as wvware or by its previous name mswordview, is a set of free software programs licensed under the GNU General Public License which can be used for viewing and/or converting files in the Microsoft .doc format to plain text, LaTeX, HTML or other formats. The wv library provides several tools on the command line of a Unix shell, such as wvText for converting a .doc file to a plain text file. It is used by the program abiword, which provides a GUI interface for reading .doc files.
Pass the hash	Pass the hash	In computer security, pass the hash is a hacking technique that allows an attacker to authenticate to a remote server or service by using the underlying NTLM or LanMan hash of a user's password, instead of requiring the associated plaintext password as is normally the case. It replaces the need for stealing the plaintext password to gain access with stealing the hash. The attack exploits an implementation weakness in the authentication protocol, where password hashes remain static from session to session until the password is next changed.
Pass the hash	Pass the hash	This technique can be performed against any server or service accepting LM or NTLM authentication, whether it runs on a machine with Windows, Unix, or any other operating system.
Pass the hash	Description	On systems or services using NTLM authentication, users' passwords are never sent in cleartext over the wire. Instead, they are provided to the requesting system, like a domain controller, as a hash in a response to a challenge–response authentication scheme.Native Windows applications ask users for the cleartext password, then call APIs like LsaLogonUser that convert that password to one or two hash values (the LM or NT hashes) and then send that to the remote server during NTLM authentication.If an attacker has the hashes of a user's password, they do not need the cleartext password; they can simply use the hash to authenticate with a server and impersonate that user. In other words, from an attacker's perspective, hashes are functionally equivalent to the original passwords that they were generated from.
Pass the hash	History	The pass the hash technique was originally published by Paul Ashton in 1997 and consisted of a modified Samba SMB client that accepted user password hashes instead of cleartext passwords. Later versions of Samba and other third-party implementations of the SMB and NTLM protocols also included the functionality.
Pass the hash	History	This implementation of the technique was based on an SMB stack created by a third-party (e.g., Samba and others), and for this reason suffered from a series of limitations from a hacker's perspective, including limited or partial functionality: The SMB protocol has continued to evolve over the years, this means that third parties creating their own implementation of the SMB protocol need to implement changes and additions to the protocol after they are introduced by newer versions of Windows and SMB (historically by reverse engineering, which is very complex and time-consuming). This means that even after performing NTLM authentication successfully using the pass the hash technique, tools like Samba's SMB client might not have implemented the functionality the attacker might want to use. This meant that it was difficult to attack Windows programs that use DCOM or RPC.
Pass the hash	History	Also, because attackers were restricted to using third-party clients when carrying out attacks, it was not possible to use built-in Windows applications, like Net.exe or the Active Directory Users and Computers tool amongst others, because they asked the attacker or user to enter the cleartext password to authenticate, and not the corresponding password hash value.
Pass the hash	History	In 2008, Hernan Ochoa published a tool called the "Pass-the-Hash Toolkit" that allowed 'pass the hash' to be performed natively on Windows. It allowed the user name, domain name, and password hashes cached in memory by the Local Security Authority to be changed at runtime after a user was authenticated — this made it possible to 'pass the hash' using standard Windows applications, and thereby to undermine fundamental authentication mechanisms built into the operating system.
Pass the hash	History	The tool also introduced a new technique which allowed dumping password hashes cached in the memory of the lsass.exe process (not in persistent storage on disk), which quickly became widely used by penetration testers (and attackers). This hash harvesting technique is more advanced than previously used techniques (e.g. dumping the local Security Accounts Manager database (SAM) using pwdump and similar tools), mainly because hash values stored in memory could include credentials of domain users (and domain administrators) that logged into the machine. For example, the hashes of authenticated domain users that are not stored persistently in the local SAM can also be dumped. This makes it possible for a penetration tester (or attacker) to compromise a whole Windows domain after compromising a single machine that was a member of that domain. Furthermore, the attack can be implemented instantaneously and without any requirement for expensive computing resources to carry out a brute force attack.
Pass the hash	History	This toolkit has subsequently been superseded by "Windows Credential Editor", which extends the original tool's functionality and operating system support. Some antivirus vendors classify the toolkit as malware.
Pass the hash	Hash harvesting	Before an attacker can carry out a pass-the-hash attack, they must obtain the password hashes of the target user accounts. To this end, penetration testers and attackers can harvest password hashes using a number of different methods: Cached hashes or credentials of users who have previously logged onto a machine (for example at the console or via RDP) can be read from the SAM by anyone who has Administrator-level privileges. The default behavior of caching hashes or credentials for offline use can be disabled by administrators, so this technique may not always work if a machine has been sufficiently hardened.
Pass the hash	Hash harvesting	Dumping the local user's account database (SAM). This database only contains user accounts local to the particular machine that was compromised. For example, in a domain environment, the SAM database of a machine will not contain domain users, only users local to that machine that more likely will not be very useful to authenticate to other services on the domain. However, if the same local administrative account passwords are used across multiple systems the attacker can remotely access those systems using the local user account hashes.
Pass the hash	Hash harvesting	Sniffing LM and NTLM challenge–response dialogues between client and servers, and later brute-forcing captured encrypted hashes (since the hashes obtained in this way are encrypted, it is necessary to perform a brute-force attack to obtain the actual hashes).
Pass the hash	Hash harvesting	Dumping authenticated users' credentials stored by Windows in the memory of the lsass.exe process. The credentials dumped in this way may include those of domain users or administrators, such as those logged in via RDP. This technique may therefore be used to obtain credentials of user accounts that are not local to the compromised computer, but rather originate from the security domain that the machine is a member of.
Pass the hash	Mitigations	Any system using LM or NTLM authentication in combination with any communication protocol (SMB, FTP, RPC, HTTP etc.) is at risk from this attack. The exploit is very difficult to defend against, due to possible exploits in Windows and applications running on Windows that can be used by an attacker to elevate their privileges and then carry out the hash harvesting that facilitates the attack. Furthermore, it may only require one machine in a Windows domain to not be configured correctly or be missing a security patch for an attacker to find a way in. A wide range of penetration testing tools are furthermore available to automate the process of discovering a weakness on a machine.
Pass the hash	Mitigations	There is no single defense against the technique, thus standard defense in depth practices apply – for example use of firewalls, intrusion prevention systems, 802.1x authentication, IPsec, antivirus software, reducing the number of people with elevated privileges, pro-active security patching etc. Preventing Windows from storing cached credentials may limit attackers to obtaining hashes from memory, which usually means that the target account must be logged into the machine when the attack is executed. Allowing domain administrators to log into systems that may be compromised or untrusted will create a scenario where the administrators' hashes become the targets of attackers; limiting domain administrator logons to trusted domain controllers can therefore limit the opportunities for an attacker. The principle of least privilege suggests that a least user access (LUA) approach should be taken, in that users should not use accounts with more privileges than necessary to complete the task at hand. Configuring systems not to use LM or NTLM can also strengthen security, but newer exploits are able to forward Kerberos tickets in a similar way. Limiting the scope of debug privileges on system may frustrate some attacks that inject code or steal hashes from the memory of sensitive processes.Restricted Admin Mode is a new Windows operating system feature introduced in 2014 via security bulletin 2871997, which is designed to reduce the effectiveness of the attack.
Combinant	Combinant	In the mathematical theory of probability, the combinants cn of a random variable X are defined via the combinant-generating function G(t), which is defined from the moment generating function M(z) as log ⁡(1+t)) which can be expressed directly in terms of a random variable X as := E[(1+t)X],t∈R, wherever this expectation exists. The nth combinant can be obtained as the nth derivatives of the logarithm of combinant generating function evaluated at –1 divided by n factorial: log ⁡(G(t))\|t=−1 Important features in common with the cumulants are: the combinants share the additivity property of the cumulants; for infinite divisibility (probability) distributions, both sets of moments are strictly positive.
Dendrite (adhesive)	Dendrite (adhesive)	Dendrite is a contact adhesive and rubber cement brand marketed in South Asia, mainly in Northeast India, Bangladesh and Bhutan.
Dendrite (adhesive)	Products	The adhesive is marketed in glue sticks, glue tubes and in cans. Dendrite holds 80% of the market share throughout the country in footwear retail market.Its marketing slogan is Bonding our world together.
Dendrite (adhesive)	Production Company	Dendrite is produced by the Chandras' Chemical Enterprises (Pvt) Limited under the umbrella of the P. C. Chandra Group based in Kolkata.
Dendrite (adhesive)	Production Company	Chandras' Chemical Enterprises (Pvt) Limited is the second unit of the Group which was set up in 1965. The company has three factories in Kolkata. The company manufactures and markets a variety of Synthetic Adhesives based on Polychloroprene, Polyurethane, Epoxy, EVA, Lamination and other Elastomers. These products are mainly used in footwear, automobile, shipbuilding, railway coaches, engineering, electronics, leather goods, flooring, packaging, construction and household applications. The company's major product is marketed under the brand name 'DENDRITE'.
Dendrite (adhesive)	Production Company	The products are marketed through an All-India network of dealers and through its several branches all over the country. The products are also exported to Middle East and SAARC countries.
Phantom structure	Phantom structure	Phantom structures are artificial structures designed to emulate properties of the human body in matters such as, including, but not limited to, light scattering and optics, electrical conductivity, and sound wave reception. Phantoms have been used experimentally in lieu of, or as a supplement to, human subjects to maintain consistency, verify reliability of technologies, or reduce experimental expense. They also have been employed as material for training technicians to perform imaging.
Phantom structure	Optical phantoms	Optical tissue phantoms, or imaging phantoms, are reported to be used largely for three main purposes: to calibrate optical devices, record baseline reference measurements, and for imaging the human body. Optical tissue phantoms may have irregular shape of body parts. Composite Materials Optical phantoms can be made from a number of materials. These are including but not limited to: homogenized milk non-dairy creamer wax blood and yeast suspension water-soluble dye (India ink) intralipid latex microspheres solid epoxy liquid rubber silicone polyester polyurethane
Phantom structure	Computational phantoms	Computational human phantoms have many uses, including but not limited to, biomedical imaging computational modeling and simulations, radiation dosimetry, and treatment planning.
Phantom structure	Physiological models	Phantom head While using research oriented and Commercial Off The Shelf (COTS) EEG technologies built for monitoring brain activity, scientists established the need for a benchmark reading of neural electrical activity. EEG readings’ strong dependency on mechanical contact makes the technology sensitive to movement. This and a high responsivity to environmental conditions may lead to signal noise. Without a baseline, it is hard to interpret whether abnormal clinical data is a result of faulty technology, patient inconsistency or noncompliance, ambient noise, or an unexplained scientific principle.A phantom head was described by researchers in 2015. This head was developed at the U.S. Army Research Laboratory. Reported intent for the engineering of this phantom head was to “accurately recreate real and imaginary scalp impedance, contain internal emitters to create dipoles, and be easily replicable across various labs and research groups.” The scientists used an inverse 3D printed mold that was reproduced an anonymized MRI image. The head consisted of ballistics gel with a composition that included salt in order to conduct electricity like human tissue. Ballistics gelatin was chosen because it conducts electricity, while also possessing mechanical properties similar to living tissue. Multiple electric wires within the Army’s phantom head carried electric current. A CT scan was used to verify proper electrode placement. The limitations of this phantom was that the material was not sufficiently durable. The refrigerated gel degraded relatively quickly, by approximately .3% each day.Other reported models had been made of saline filled spheres.
Phantom structure	Physiological models	Phantom prostate In 2013, a patent submission for a prostate phantom was reported. The prostate was composed of three separate phantom layers of prostate, perineal gland, and skin tissue and developed for the study of prostate cancer brachytherapy. The scientists claimed that the phantom emulates the imaging and mechanical properties of the prostate and surrounding tissues. Phantom ear In 2002, researchers proposed an ear phantom for experimental studies on sound absorbance rates of cellular emissions. Phantom skin Several designs of phantom skin have been developed for various uses including, but not limited to, studying skin lesion therapy, applications of narrowband and ultra-band microwaves (like breast cancer detection), and imaging fingernails and underlying tissues.
Phantom structure	Physiological models	Phantom breast Ultrasound tissue elastography is a method to determine tissue health, as pathologies have been noted to increase the elasticity of tissue. In 2015, a tissue-like agar-based phantom had been reported to be useful in compression elastographical diagnosis of breast cancer. The scientists replicated the clinical appearance of conditions such as fibroadenoma and invasive ductal carcinoma in the phantom breast and compared elastographic and sonographic images.Additionally, a recipe for the formation of a semi-compressible phantom breast with liquid rubber has been reported.
Phantom structure	Physiological models	Phantom muscle There have been many fabrication methods developed on muscle phantoms over the years, and the research is still going on. Still, here in the year 2020, researchers have developed muscle phantoms to implicate or act as tumors in breast imaging for cancer detection.
Batch renaming	Batch renaming	Batch renaming is a form of batch processing used to rename multiple computer files and folders in an automated fashion, in order to save time and reduce the amount of work involved. Some sort of software is required to do this. Such software can be more or less advanced, but most have the same basic functions. Batch renaming can also be referred to as 'mass file renaming', rename 'en masse' and 'bulk renaming'.
Batch renaming	Common functions	Most batch renamers share a basic set of functions to manipulate the filenames: Find a string within the filename and replace it with another, or remove it. Setting the capitalization of the letters in the filenames. Extracting information from the files, such as Mp3 ID3 tags, and putting it in the filename. Add a number sequence (001,002,003,...) to a list of files. Use a text file as a source for new file names.Some batch rename software can do more than just renaming filenames. Features include changing the dates of files and changing the file attributes (such as the write protected attribute).
Batch renaming	Common uses	There are many situations where batch renaming software can be useful. Here is a list of some common uses: Many digital cameras store images using a base filename, such as DCSN0001 or IMG0001. Using a batch renamer the photographer can easily give the pictures meaningful names. When downloading files from the Internet such as mp3 music, the files often have crude names. A batch renamer can be used to quickly change the filenames to a style that suits the person who downloaded them. When managing large amount of files, such as a picture database, a batch renamer is more or less essential for the task of maintaining filenames without too much manual labour. When authoring music files onto a CD/DVD or transferring the files to a digital audio player, a batch renamer can be used to listen to songs in desired order. When uploading files to a web server or transferring the files to an environment that does not support space or non-English characters in filenames, a batch renamer can be used to substitute such characters with acceptable ones.

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