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Basal metabolic rate	Biochemistry	However, recent research from the Journal of Applied Physiology, published in 2012, compared resistance training and aerobic training on body mass and fat mass in overweight adults (STRRIDE AT/RT). When you consider time commitments against health benefits, aerobic training is the optimal mode of exercise for reducing fat mass and body mass as a primary consideration, resistance training is good as a secondary factor when aging and lean mass are a concern. Resistance training causes injuries at a much higher rate than aerobic training. Compared to resistance training, it was found that aerobic training resulted in a significantly more pronounced reduction of body weight by enhancing the cardiovascular system which is what is the principal factor in metabolic utilization of fat substrates. Resistance training if time is available is also helpful in post-exercise metabolism, but it is an adjunctive factor because the body needs to heal sufficiently between resistance training episodes, whereas with aerobic training, the body can accept this every day. RMR and BMR are measurements of daily consumption of calories. The majority of studies that are published on this topic look at aerobic exercise because of its efficacy for health and weight management.
Basal metabolic rate	Biochemistry	Anaerobic exercise, such as weight lifting, builds additional muscle mass. Muscle contributes to the fat-free mass of an individual and therefore effective results from anaerobic exercise will increase BMR. However, the actual effect on BMR is controversial and difficult to enumerate. Various studies suggest that the resting metabolic rate of trained muscle is around 55 kJ/kg per day. Even a substantial increase in muscle mass, say 5 kg, would make only a minor impact on BMR.
Basal metabolic rate	Longevity	In 1926, Raymond Pearl proposed that longevity varies inversely with basal metabolic rate (the "rate of living hypothesis"). Support for this hypothesis comes from the fact that mammals with larger body size have longer maximum life spans (large animals do have higher total metabolic rates, but the metabolic rate at the cellular level is much lower, and the breathing rate and heartbeat are slower in larger animals) and the fact that the longevity of fruit flies varies inversely with ambient temperature. Additionally, the life span of houseflies can be extended by preventing physical activity. This theory has been bolstered by several new studies linking lower basal metabolic rate to increased life expectancy, across the animal kingdom—including humans. Calorie restriction and reduced thyroid hormone levels, both of which decrease the metabolic rate, have been associated with higher longevity in animals.However, the ratio of total daily energy expenditure to resting metabolic rate can vary between 1.6 and 8.0 between species of mammals. Animals also vary in the degree of coupling between oxidative phosphorylation and ATP production, the amount of saturated fat in mitochondrial membranes, the amount of DNA repair, and many other factors that affect maximum life span.One problem with understanding the associations of lifespan and metabolism is that changes in metabolism are often confounded by other factors that may affect lifespan. For example under calorie restriction whole body metabolic rate goes down with increasing levels of restriction, but body temperature also follows the same pattern. By manipulating the ambient temperature and exposure to wind it was shown in mice and hamsters that body temperature is a more important modulator of lifespan than metabolic rate.
Basal metabolic rate	Longevity	Organism longevity and basal metabolic rate In allometric scaling, maximum potential life span (MPLS) is directly related to metabolic rate (MR), where MR is the recharge rate of a biomass made up of covalent bonds. That biomass (W) is subjected to deterioration over time from thermodynamic, entropic pressure. Metabolism is essentially understood as redox coupling, and has nothing to do with thermogenesis. Metabolic efficiency (ME) is then expressed as the efficiency of this coupling, a ratio of amperes captured and used by biomass, to the amperes available for that purpose. MR is measured in watts, W is measured in grams. These factors are combined in a power law, an elaboration on Kleiber's law relating MR to W and MPLS, that appears as MR = W^ (4ME-1)/4ME. When ME is 100%, MR = W^3/4; this is popularly known as quarter power scaling, a version of allometric scaling that is premised upon unrealistic estimates of biological efficiency.
Basal metabolic rate	Longevity	The equation reveals that as ME drops below 20%, for W < one gram, MR/MPLS increases so dramatically as to endow W with virtual immortality by 16%. The smaller W is to begin with, the more dramatic is the increase in MR as ME diminishes. All of the cells of an organism fit into this range, i.e., less than one gram, and so this MR will be referred to as BMR.
Basal metabolic rate	Longevity	But the equation reveals that as ME increases over 25%, BMR approaches zero. The equation also shows that for all W > one gram, where W is the organization of all of the BMRs of the organism's structure, but also includes the activity of the structure, as ME increases over 25%, MR/MPLS increases rather than decreases, as it does for BMR. An MR made up of an organization of BMRs will be referred to as an FMR. As ME decreases below 25%, FMR diminishes rather than increases as it does for BMR.
Basal metabolic rate	Longevity	The antagonism between FMR and BMR is what marks the process of aging of biomass W in energetic terms. The ME for the organism is the same as that for the cells, such that the success of the organism's ability to find food (and lower its ME), is key to maintaining the BMR of the cells driven, otherwise, by starvation, to approaching zero; while at the same time a lower ME diminishes the FMR/MPLS of the organism.
Basal metabolic rate	Medical considerations	A person's metabolism varies with their physical condition and activity. Weight training can have a longer impact on metabolism than aerobic training, but there are no known mathematical formulas that can exactly predict the length and duration of a raised metabolism from trophic changes with anabolic neuromuscular training.
Basal metabolic rate	Medical considerations	A decrease in food intake will typically lower the metabolic rate as the body tries to conserve energy. Researcher Gary Foster estimates that a very low calorie diet of fewer than 800 calories a day would reduce the metabolic rate by more than 10 percent.The metabolic rate can be affected by some drugs, such as antithyroid agents, drugs used to treat hyperthyroidism, such as propylthiouracil and methimazole, bring the metabolic rate down to normal and restore euthyroidism. Some research has focused on developing antiobesity drugs to raise the metabolic rate, such as drugs to stimulate thermogenesis in skeletal muscle.The metabolic rate may be elevated in stress, illness, and diabetes. Menopause may also affect metabolism.
Basal metabolic rate	Cardiovascular implications	Heart rate is determined by the medulla oblongata and part of the pons, two organs located inferior to the hypothalamus on the brain stem. Heart rate is important for basal metabolic rate and resting metabolic rate because it drives the blood supply, stimulating the Krebs cycle. During exercise that achieves the anaerobic threshold, it is possible to deliver substrates that are desired for optimal energy utilization. The anaerobic threshold is defined as the energy utilization level of heart rate exertion that occurs without oxygen during a standardized test with a specific protocol for accuracy of measurement, such as the Bruce Treadmill protocol (see metabolic equivalent of task). With four to six weeks of targeted training the body systems can adapt to a higher perfusion of mitochondrial density for increased oxygen availability for the Krebs cycle, or tricarboxylic cycle, or the glycolytic cycle. This in turn leads to a lower resting heart rate, lower blood pressure, and increased resting or basal metabolic rate.By measuring heart rate we can then derive estimations of what level of substrate utilization is actually causing biochemical metabolism in our bodies at rest or in activity. This in turn can help a person to maintain an appropriate level of consumption and utilization by studying a graphical representation of the anaerobic threshold. This can be confirmed by blood tests and gas analysis using either direct or indirect calorimetry to show the effect of substrate utilization. The measures of basal metabolic rate and resting metabolic rate are becoming essential tools for maintaining a healthy body weight.
Bromide peroxidase	Bromide peroxidase	Bromide peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.18, bromoperoxidase, haloperoxidase (ambiguous), eosinophil peroxidase) is a family of enzymes with systematic name bromide:hydrogen-peroxide oxidoreductase. These enzymes catalyse the following chemical reaction: HBr + H2O2 ⇌ HOBr + H2OThe HOBr is a potent brominating agent. The many organobromine compounds observed in marine environments are the products of reaction with this oxidized form of bromine. Bromo peroxidases of red and brown marine algae (Rhodophyta and Phaeophyta) contain vanadate (vanadium bromoperoxidase). Otherwise vanadium is unusual cofactor in biology. By virtue of this family of enzymes, a variety of brominated natural products have been isolated from marine sources. Related chloroperoxidase enzymes effect chlorination. In the nomenclature of haloperoxidase, bromoperoxidases classically are unable to oxidize chloride at all. For example, eosinophil peroxidase appears to prefer bromide over chloride, yet is not considered a bromoperoxidase because it is able to use chloride.
Bromide peroxidase	Bromide peroxidase	Muricidae (was Murex) spp. snails have a bromoperoxidase used to produce Tyrian purple dye. The enzyme is very specific to bromide and physically stable, but has not been characterized as to its active site metal. As of 2019, no specific gene has been assigned to such an enzyme in the snail genome. Such an activity is probably provided by symbiotic Bacillus bacteria instead. The identified enzyme belongs to the alpha/beta hydrolase superfamily; a structure for a similar bromoperoxidase is available as PDB: 3FOB. It runs on a catalytic triad of Ser 99, Asp 229 and His 258 and does not require metal cofactors.
Bromide peroxidase	Additional reading	De Boer, E.; Tromp, M.G.M.; Plat, H.; Krenn, G.E.; Wever, R (1986). "Vanadium(v) as an essential element for haloperoxidase activity in marine brown-algae - purification and characterization of a vanadium(V)-containing bromoperoxidase from Laminaria saccharina". Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 872 (1–2): 104–115. doi:10.1016/0167-4838(86)90153-6. Tromp MG, Olafsson G, Krenn BE, Wever R (September 1990). "Some structural aspects of vanadium bromoperoxidase from Ascophyllum nodosum". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Protein Structure and Molecular Enzymology. 1040 (2): 192–8. doi:10.1016/0167-4838(90)90075-q. PMID 2400770. Isupov MN, Dalby AR, Brindley AA, Izumi Y, Tanabe T, Murshudov GN, Littlechild JA (June 2000). "Crystal structure of dodecameric vanadium-dependent bromoperoxidase from the red algae Corallina officinalis". Journal of Molecular Biology. 299 (4): 1035–49. doi:10.1006/jmbi.2000.3806. PMID 10843856. Carter-Franklin JN, Butler A (November 2004). "Vanadium bromoperoxidase-catalyzed biosynthesis of halogenated marine natural products". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 126 (46): 15060–6. doi:10.1021/ja047925p. PMID 15548002. Ohshiro T, Littlechild J, Garcia-Rodriguez E, Isupov MN, Iida Y, Kobayashi T, Izumi Y (June 2004). "Modification of halogen specificity of a vanadium-dependent bromoperoxidase". Protein Science. 13 (6): 1566–71. doi:10.1110/ps.03496004. PMC 2279980. PMID 15133166.
Underwater logging	Underwater logging	Underwater logging is the process of logging trees from underwater forests. When artificial reservoirs and dams are built, large areas of forest are often inundated; although the trees die, the wood is often preserved. The trees can then be felled using special underwater machinery and floated up to the surface. One such machine is the sawfish harvester. There is an ongoing debate to determine whether or not underwater logging is a sustainable practice and if it is more environmentally sustainable than traditional logging.
Underwater logging	Underwater logging	Underwater logging has been introduced in select locations around the world, including Ghana's Lake Volta, the largest reservoir by surface area in the world. A related form of logging consists of salvaging logs which loggers have abandoned after they became waterlogged and sank. This activity can be quite profitable, since the prime "targets" are decades-old trees of a size and species difficult or impossible to find in their natural habitat.
Underwater logging	History	Rivers were a main method of transportation in the logging industry in the 19th and early 20th centuries in the United States. In the spring, logs were floated down waterways, especially those surrounding the Great Lakes and Maine, to transport them to mills downriver. Logs with a higher density than the density of water would sink. Other logs would get caught in jams, sloughs, or floods, and become lodged in the riverbed. Such logs were often known as "sinkers" or "deadheads." Loggers attempted to reduce the number of logs which remained in the river in order to maximize profits, but some losses were inevitable. Logs with legible log marks were sometimes returned to their owners.Underwater logs are safe from many of the forces which cause decomposition, including fungi. Log salvage operations began in the early 20th century across the United States. John Cayford and Ronald Scott's book Underwater Logging describes the process and prospects for retrieving sunken wood from American waterways, known as salvage logging.Salvage logging differs from underwater logging. Salvage logging recovers full-sized logs that were lost during past logging expeditions. Underwater logging uses new technology to cut down drowned trees that have been lost due to rising water levels or artificial reservoirs.
Underwater logging	Logging methods	Remote controlled vehicle One method of unearthing sunken trees is by sending a remote controlled vehicle, like a sawfish harvester, underwater to fell the trees. The vehicle is controlled by a cable that sends electricity and control inputs to the vessel which sends back a video feed for the operator. The operator sends inputs from a control panel on a barge. When a tree is found the Sawfish attaches and inflates a flotation device to it so that after the tree is cut it immediately rises to the surface for extraction from the water.
Underwater logging	Logging methods	Attaching buoys Attaching buoys is one of the main processes by which underwater logs are salvaged from the bottom of lakes and rivers. First, a scuba-diver must locate the sunken logs in the water, searching from about three feet from the bottom of the lake or river. Then, a buoy is placed around the log about three feet from its back. From there, a boat uses a gaff hook to catch the buoys and pulls the log close enough to the boat where the crew is able to tie the logs close to the side of the boat. This process repeats itself until the boat is filled to its capacity, after which the expedition is completed, and crew must return to base before harvesting any additional logs.
Underwater logging	Logging methods	Floating logs In the case of floating logs that have not been drowned but may have been separated from initial logging routes and stuck on the banks of rivers and lakes, a new process is utilized. Here, truck inner tubes are completely deflated so that a diver can slip them over the logs. After this occurs and once the tubes are securely in place, a hookah compressor and a low-pressure hose re-inflates them so that they form a tight grip around the floating logs. This process gives the logs more buoyancy and gives loggers easier access points to harvest them. As many tubes that are needed are used to float the logs.
Underwater logging	Environmental impacts	Marine pollution Ships are polluting both in the marine environment and in the atmosphere, and although it is difficult to estimate the magnitude of the problem, there is no uncertainty that increased usage of such ships will increase pollution. As the underwater logging industry becomes more popular and profitable, this increased usage will occur. The process of underwater logging itself will also have a negative impact on the environment, as the logs themselves add weight to the ships, forcing said ships to work harder and use more time and energy to transport their cargo. In terms of transportation, cargo ships transport the logs across the water. They use an immense amount of ballast water, which can have negative effects on the environment. When the ships reach the mills they empty the water, “Ballast water discharge typically contains a variety of biological materials, including plants, animals, viruses, and bacteria”. Dumping the ballast can change the aquatic ecosystems and even make the water undrinkable.
Underwater logging	Environmental impacts	Accidents Accidents related to this industry usually result in the release of oil and other resources, as these spills are difficult to maintain due to the fluidity of lakes and rivers. What this means is that the potential for collateral damage is large, both for marine and human life, because toxic resources such as oil can contaminate surrounding ecosystems. It is necessary, therefore, to exercise caution when partaking in processes, such as underwater logging, that require the use of potentially harmful resources.
Underwater logging	Environmental impacts	Deforestation Because the underwater logging process is essentially retrieving drowned logs and sunken trees that were already lost in previous logging expeditions, the logs are considered “rediscovered wood.” Because underwater logging is retrieving “rediscovered wood,” this has a positive impact on the forestry industry, as it reduces the need to log in land forests. In addition, when logging on land logging companies have to create new roads to get to higher quality wood. Road building is eliminated with underwater logging because the transportation paths across the rivers already exist.
Underwater logging	Environmental impacts	Potential erosion of lakes and rivers As some of these logs have been lost for upwards of a few decades, the local environment has inevitably grown and developed around said logs. Removing these logs, which provide structural support to a variety of these ecosystems, could result in erosion of the lakes and rivers that would change the structure and potentially degrade these bodies of water.
Underwater logging	Environmental impacts	Marine life Some of the logs that are retrieved have been underwater for upwards of a few decades, meaning local marine life will have formed their habitats around these drowned logs. These logs provide substantial structural support for these ecosystems, and removing them would inevitably destroy said natural habitats. Boats and crew members of underwater logging fleets can stir up and degrade the local ecosystems.
Underwater logging	Sustainability	Nature & Faune magazine describes the process of underwater logging's sustainability impact. The hydroelectric dam in Ghana built in Akosombo submerges forests of timber logs. The Clark Sustainable Resource Developments uses SHARC ROV technology to keep the roots of the trees intact not to disturb the lake bottom or disturb pollutants. After, they put canopies and buttresses to create artificial fish reefs and educated locals about fishing practices. Lastly, they can cut up to 25 meters (82 ft) below the lakes surface, which creates a depth sufficient to support routes for transportation lake vessels. This process was awarded for being sustainable by avoiding deforestation and making artificial reefs to maintain the current aquatic ecosystem.
SampTA	SampTA	SampTA (Sampling Theory and Applications) is a biennial interdisciplinary conference for mathematicians, engineers, and applied scientists. The main purpose of SampTA is to exchange recent advances in sampling theory and to explore new trends and directions in the related areas of application. The conference focuses on such fields as signal processing and image processing, coding theory, control theory, real analysis and complex analysis, harmonic analysis, and the theory of differential equations. All of these topics have received a large degree of attention from machine learning researchers, with SampTA serving as bridge between these two communities.
SampTA	SampTA	SampTA features plenary talks by prominent speakers, special sessions on selected topics reflecting the current trends in sampling theory and its applications to the engineering sciences, as well as regular sessions about traditional topics in sampling theory. Contributions from authors attending the SampTA conferences are usually published in special issues of Sampling Theory in Signal and Image Processing, an international journal dedicated to sampling theory and its applications. The proceedings of SampTA 2015 were indexed in IEEE Xplore.The SampTA conference series began as a small workshop in 1995 in Riga, Latvia, but the meetings grew into full-fledged conferences attracting an even mix of mathematicians and engineers as the interest in sampling theory and its many applications blossomed. This even mix makes the SampTA meetings unique in the scientific community. The conference organization is headed by an international steering committee consisting of prominent mathematicians and engineers, and a technical committee responsible for the conference program. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, SampTA paused from 2020–2022, but resumed in Summer 2032.
SampTA	SampTA	The biennial meetings are announced in various Mathematics and Engineering Calendars, including the Mathematics Calendar of the American Mathematical Society, the Wavelet Digest., the Numerical Harmonic Analysis Group (NuHAG) at the University of Vienna, the Norbert Wiener Center at the University of Maryland, and the IEEE Signal Processing Society.
SampTA	Past meetings	New Haven, U.S.A., July 10–14, 2023 link Bordeaux, France, July 8–12, 2019 link Tallinn, Estonia, July 3–7, 2017 link Washington, D.C., U.S., May 25–29, 2015 link Bremen, Germany, July 1–5, 2013 link Singapore, May 2–6, 2011 link Marseille, France, May 18–22, 2009 link Thessaloniki, Greece, June 1–5, 2007 link Samsun, Turkey, July 10–15, 2005 link Strobl, Austria, May 26– 30, 2003 link Orlando, U.S., May 13– 17, 2001 link Loen, Norway, August 11– 14, 1999 link Aveiro, Portugal, July 16– 19, 1997 link Riga, Latvia, September 20– 22, 1995 link
Mountain formation	Mountain formation	Mountain formation refers to the geological processes that underlie the formation of mountains. These processes are associated with large-scale movements of the Earth's crust (tectonic plates). Folding, faulting, volcanic activity, igneous intrusion and metamorphism can all be parts of the orogenic process of mountain building. The formation of mountains is not necessarily related to the geological structures found on it.The understanding of specific landscape features in terms of the underlying tectonic processes is called tectonic geomorphology, and the study of geologically young or ongoing processes is called neotectonics.From the late 18th century until its replacement by plate tectonics in the 1960s, geosyncline theory was used to explain much mountain-building.
Mountain formation	Types of mountains	There are five main types of mountains: volcanic, fold, plateau, fault-block and dome. A more detailed classification useful on a local scale predates plate tectonics and adds to these categories. Volcanic mountains Movements of tectonic plates create volcanoes along the plate boundaries, which erupt and form mountains. A volcanic arc system is a series of volcanoes that form near a subduction zone where the crust of a sinking oceanic plate melts and drags water down with the subducting crust.
Mountain formation	Types of mountains	Most volcanoes occur in a band encircling the Pacific Ocean (the Pacific Ring of Fire), and in another that extends from the Mediterranean across Asia to join the Pacific band in the Indonesian Archipelago. The most important types of volcanic mountain are composite cones or stratovolcanoes (Vesuvius, Kilimanjaro and Mount Fuji are examples) and shield volcanoes (such as Mauna Loa on Hawaii, a hotspot volcano).A shield volcano has a gently sloping cone due to the low viscosity of the emitted material, primarily basalt. Mauna Loa is the classic example, with a slope of 4°-6°. (The relation between slope and viscosity falls under the topic of angle of repose.) The composite volcano or stratovolcano has a more steeply rising cone (33°-40°), due to the higher viscosity of the emitted material, and eruptions are more violent and less frequent than for shield volcanoes. Besides the examples already mentioned are Mount Shasta, Mount Hood and Mount Rainier. Vitosha - the domed mountain next to Sofia, capital of Bulgaria, is also formed by volcanic activity.
Mountain formation	Types of mountains	Fold mountains When plates collide or undergo subduction (that is – ride one over another), the plates tend to buckle and fold, forming mountains. Most of the major continental mountain ranges are associated with thrusting and folding or orogenesis. Examples are the Balkan Mountains, the Jura and the Zagros mountains.
Mountain formation	Types of mountains	Block mountains When a fault block is raised or tilted, block mountains can result. Higher blocks are called horsts and troughs are called grabens. A spreading apart of the surface causes tensional forces. When the tensional forces are strong enough to cause a plate to split apart, it does so such that a center block drops down relative to its flanking blocks.
Mountain formation	Types of mountains	An example of this is the Sierra Nevada Range, where delamination created a block 650 km long and 80 km wide that consists of many individual portions tipped gently west, with east facing slips rising abruptly to produce the highest mountain front in the continental United States.Another good example is the Rila - Rhodope mountain Massif in Bulgaria, Southeast Europe, including the well defined horsts of Belasitsa (linear horst), Rila mountain (vaulted domed shaped horst) and Pirin mountain - a horst forming a massive anticline situated between the complex graben valleys of Struma and that of Mesta.
Mountain formation	Types of mountains	Uplifted passive margins Unlike orogenic mountains there is no widely accepted geophysical model that explains elevated passive continental margins such as the Scandinavian Mountains, Eastern Greenland, the Brazilian Highlands or Australia's Great Dividing Range.
Mountain formation	Types of mountains	Different elevated passive continental margins most likely share the same mechanism of uplift. This mechanism is possibly related to far-field stresses in Earth's lithosphere. According to this view elevated passived margins can be likened to giant anticlinal lithospheric folds, where folding is caused by horizontal compression acting on a thin to thick crust transition zone (as are all passive margins).
Mountain formation	Models	Hotspot volcanoes Hotspots are supplied by a magma source in the Earth's mantle called a mantle plume. Although originally attributed to a melting of subducted oceanic crust, recent evidence belies this connection. The mechanism for plume formation remains a research topic.
Mountain formation	Models	Fault blocks Several movements of the Earth's crust that lead to mountains are associated with faults. These movements actually are amenable to analysis that can predict, for example, the height of a raised block and the width of an intervening rift between blocks using the rheology of the layers and the forces of isostasy. Early bent plate models predicting fractures and fault movements have evolved into today's kinematic and flexural models.
Biblioteca ilustrada de Gaspar y Roig	Biblioteca ilustrada de Gaspar y Roig	Biblioteca ilustrada de Gaspar y Roig (Spanish for 'Illustrated Library of Gaspar y Roig') is an editorial collection published by Gaspar y Roig since 1851, in Madrid, Spain, under the direction of Eduardo Chao.
Biblioteca ilustrada de Gaspar y Roig	Overview	The Biblioteca ilustrada de Gaspar y Roig is a collection of cheap illustrated books of medium production quality, with two columns, condensed fonts and narrow margins to reducing costs, and engravings inserted into the text. The folio format is intended for newspaper readers.All the books begin with an engraving illustration in order to encourage reading, be it an allusion to the fine arts, a printing press, a garden with ladies or some reading gentlemen.Noted for its encyclopaedia-like material, the content matter of the collection covers a wide range of subjects, such as reference works (Diccionario Enciclopédico Gaspar y Roig); scientific disciplines (Buffon's Histoire Naturelle); history books (Cesare Cantù's Storia Universale, Juan de Mariana's Historia general de España, William H. Prescott's History of the Conquest of Peru, with a Preliminary View of the Civilization of the Incas); biographies (Washington Irving's A History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus); compilation of Costumbrist prints (Los españoles pintados por sí mismos); Romantic literary works by François-René de Chateaubriand; classic works by Miguel de Cervantes and Victor Hugo; novels by Manuel Fernández y González, Torcuato Tárrago y Mateos, Sophie Ristaud Cottin, Jules Verne, Walter Scott, among others; as well as a whole Bible in Spanish (Biblia de Scío).
Keytar	Keytar	Keytar (a portmanteau of keyboard and guitar) is a keyboard instrument similar to a synthesizer or MIDI controller that is supported by a strap around the neck and shoulders, similar to the way a guitar is held.
Keytar	Overview	Though the term "keytar" has been used since the introduction of the instrument, it was not used by a major manufacturer until 2012, when the Alesis company referred to the "Vortex", the company's first product of this type, as a "USB/MIDI Keytar Controller". CEO and co-founder of Tap Tap Strum, Kyle Zimmerman, later came out with the design for the Keytar L8R.Keytars allow players a greater range of movement onstage, compared to conventional keyboards, which are placed on stationary stands or which are part of heavy, floor-mounted structures. The instrument has a musical keyboard for triggering musical notes and sounds. Various controls are placed on the instrument's "neck", including those for pitch bends, vibrato, portamento, and sustain.
Keytar	Overview	Keytars may either contain their own synthesizer engines, or be MIDI controllers. In either case, a keytar needs to be connected to a keyboard amplifier or PA system to produce a sound that the performer and audience can hear. MIDI controller keytars trigger notes and other MIDI data on an external MIDI-capable synthesizer, sound module or computer with synthesizer software. While keytars are usually used to create musical sounds, like any other MIDI controller, it could also be used to trigger such as MIDI-enabled lighting controllers, effects devices and audio consoles.
Keytar	History	Early history (18th century–1970s) The oldest forerunner of the keytar probably is the orphica, a small portable piano invented in Vienna in 1795, which was played in a similar position as the modern keytar. The piano accordion first appeared in 1852. In 1963, the East German manufacturer Weltmeister introduced the Basset, as a Keytar shaped Electric Bass Piano.
Keytar	History	In 1966, Swedish organ manufacturer Joh Mustad AB introduced the Tubon, a tubular electric organ. This instrument was worn with a strap around the shoulder and could be played standing or sitting. The Tubon had a half-keyboard on one end accessible to the right hand, controls to be used at the "neck" on the opposite end for the left hand, and a speaker at the end of the tube. It was sold in the UK as the Livingstone. It saw use by Kraftwerk and Paul McCartney in the 1960s and early 1970s.In the early 1970s, Edgar Winter often performed with keyboards slung around his neck, but they were not technically keytars because they had no "neck"; he actually used an ARP 2600 keyboard and a lightweight Univox electronic piano with shoulder straps added.
Keytar	History	Keytar as synthesizer/controller (1970s–) The earlier keytars commercially released in late 1970s–early 1980s includes: Hillwood RockeyBoard RB-1 (synth piano with VCF) released in 1977 with influence from Edgar Winter, PMS Syntar, an early keytar synthesizer released by George Mattson (Performance Music Systems) and exhibited at 1979 Atlanta NAMM Davis Clavitar (controller) used by George Duke and Herbie Hancock in early 1980 Powell Probe (controller) designed by Roger Powell, and Royalex Probe (controller) helped to develop and used by Jan Hammer in early 1980setc. (for details, see List of keytars) In late 1970s and early 1980s, Jan Hammer, the composer best known for his composition and sound design successes for Miami Vice, frequently used several keytars including Royalex PROBE which he helped develop. Hammer is seen for instance using his PROBE in the music video for the "Miami Vice Theme". Also in the 1980s, Wayne Famous of the band the Producers strapped on a regular Oberheim synthesizer, which caused him to develop back problems.
Keytar	History	Among them, the most widely known earlier keytar may be the "Moog Liberation" released in 1980. Early users included Spyro Gyra keyboardist Tom Schuman. Though Devo is associated with keytars, they never used them except in music videos and promotional ads for the Liberation. The earliest printed use of the word "keytar" was in 1980, when it appeared in an interview with Jeffrey Abbott (Keytarjeff) by Tom Lounges of Illianabeat magazine (now Midwest BEAT Magazine) who now hosts a weekly interview show featuring legends of the music industry on N.W. Indiana's PBR radio station.
Keytar	History	Although Steve Masakowski has been incorrectly credited for many years as the inventor of the keytar, in an interview with Peter Hartlaub of the San Francisco Chronicle on December 11, 2009, he only claimed to have invented an instrument called the Key-tar which was a string-based instrument.
Keytar	History	The keytar was made popular in the 1980s by glam metal bands, as well as synthpop, new wave and electro musicians. Changing trends in music diminished the keytar's popularity during the 1990s, continuing on until the late 2000s when a major revival was sparked by artists and groups such as The Black Eyed Peas, Flight of The Conchords, Motion City Soundtrack, No Doubt, and Steely Dan. Another instance is in early 2008 with Snoop Dogg's music video for his single "Sensual Seduction", in which he uses a keytar as a throwback to old school bands.
Keytar	History	Current state (2010s–) Notable manufacturers of keytar models have included Moog, Roland, Yamaha, Korg and Casio. As of 2013, the Roland AX-Synth, the Roland Lucina, the Alesis Vortex and Rock Band 3 Wireless Pro Keyboard, are the mass-manufactured keytars on the market.
Keytar	Examples	1980s–1990s The Moog Liberation was released in 1980 by Moog Music, and was considered the first mass-produced strap synthesizer. It included two monophonic VCOs and a polyphonic section that could play organ sounds. The neck had spring-loaded wheels for filter cutoff, modulation, and volume as well as a ribbon-controlled pitch bend. The Liberation had a single VCF and two ADS envelope generators.
Keytar	Examples	The Roland SH-101 is a small, 32-key, monophonic analog synthesizer from the early 1980s. It has one oscillator with two waveforms, an 'octave-divided' sub-oscillator, and a low-pass filter/VCF capable of self oscillation. When a shoulder strap is connected to it, and the small handgrip with a pitch bend wheel and a pitch modulation trigger is used, the SH-101 becomes a keytar.
Keytar	Examples	The Yamaha SHS-10, released in 1987, has a small keyboard with 32 minikeys and a pitch-bend wheel, an internal Frequency modulation (usually referred to as FM) synthesizer offering 25 different voices with 6-note polyphony. Onboard voices include a range of keyboard instruments (pipe organ, piano, electric piano, etc.); strings (violin, guitar, double bass, etc.); and wind and brass (clarinet, flute, trumpet, etc.). A larger model, the Yamaha SHS-200, was released the following year, and came with 49 keys and dual stereo speakers.
Keytar	Examples	2000s–present The Roland AX-7, which was manufactured from 2001 to 2007, contains many more advanced features than early keytars. It has 45 velocity sensitive keys (without aftertouch), and a 3-character LED display. Several features aimed towards stage performance are present, such as a pitch bend ribbon, touchpad-like expression bar, sustain switch, and volume control knob, all on the upper neck of the instrument. There is also a proprietary "D-Beam" interface, made up of infrared sensors that detect nearby motion. This interface can be used to trigger and control effects.
Keytar	Examples	In August 2009, Roland released the Roland AX-Synth, a model of keytar that contains its own synthesizer sounds in addition to being a MIDI/USB controller. In 2010, Roland released the Roland Lucina AX-09. This model does not have a traditional neck, but is still considered a keytar because of it is a strap-on model and is in the AX line, with many identical features to its AX predecessors. It is unique in that it includes an additional, front panel USB port to accommodate a USB flash drive, which may contain MP3, WAV or AIFF files for playback. The Lucina has 150 internal sounds and may also be used as a MIDI/USB controller.
Keytar	Examples	Also in 2010, Mad Catz released the Wireless Pro Keyboard for Rock Band 3, a 25-key velocity-sensitive MIDI-compatible keytar controller. Despite its sub-$100 price, it is designed for serious use outside of the game. Synthpop band Freezepop have used it on stage.In 2012, Alesis released its first ever keytar and is the first major manufacturer to actually use the term "keytar" in the model name and description. The Alesis Vortex USB/MIDI Keytar Controller is unique in that it includes eight velocity-sensitive drum pads/sample triggers, which enable the performer to create beats or trigger clips, built right into the body of the keytar. It also features an accelerometer, which allows the performer to control MIDI parameters by tilting the neck. Although Alesis claims to have manufactured "the first USB keytar controller", the Roland AX-Synth and the Roland Lucina feature USB connections with the same function and were released three years prior to the Alesis Vortex.
CAMSAP3	CAMSAP3	Calmodulin-regulated spectrin-associated protein family member 3 (CAMSAP3) is a human protein encoded by the gene CAMSAP3. The protein is commonly referred to as Nezha.
CAMSAP3	Function	CAMSAP3 acts as a minus-end anchor of microtubules, and binds to them through its CKK domain.In epithelial cells, it anchors microtubules to the apical cortex, causing them to grow in an apical-to-basal direction. This gives the epithelial cells their rectangular shape. In early mouse embryogenesis, the interphase bridge linking sister cells is enriched with CAMSAP3.
Key-based routing	Key-based routing	Key-based routing (KBR) is a lookup method used in conjunction with distributed hash tables (DHTs) and certain other overlay networks. While DHTs provide a method to find a host responsible for a certain piece of data, KBR provides a method to find the closest host for that data, according to some defined metric. This may not necessarily be defined as physical distance, but rather the number of network hops.
Key-based routing	Key-based routing networks	Freenet GNUnet Kademlia Onion routing Garlic routing
Interferon gamma receptor 2	Interferon gamma receptor 2	Interferon gamma receptor 2 also known as IFN-γR2 is a protein which in humans is encoded by the IFNGR2 gene.
Interferon gamma receptor 2	Function	This gene (IFNGR2) encodes the non-ligand-binding beta chain of the gamma interferon receptor. Human interferon-gamma receptor is a multimer of two IFN-γR1 chains (encoded by IFNGR1) and two IFN-γR2 chains.
Interferon gamma receptor 2	Clinical significance	Defects in IFNGR2 are a cause of autosomal recessive mendelian susceptibility to mycobacterial disease (MSMD), also known as familial disseminated atypical mycobacterial infection. All known mutations in IFNGR2 are collected in the IFNGR2 mutation database.
Vanadium(III) bromide	Vanadium(III) bromide	Vanadium(III) bromide, also known as vanadium tribromide, describes the inorganic compounds with the formula VBr3 and its hydrates. The anhydrous material is a green-black solid. In terms of its structure, the compound is polymeric with octahedral vanadium(III) surrounded by six bromide ligands.
Vanadium(III) bromide	Vanadium(III) bromide	VBr3 has been prepared by treatment of vanadium tetrachloride with hydrogen bromide: 2 VCl4 + 8 HBr → 2 VBr3 + 8 HCl + Br2The reaction proceeds via the unstable vanadium(IV) bromide (VBr4), which releases Br2 near room temperature.Like VCl3, VBr3 forms red-brown soluble complexes with dimethoxyethane and THF, such as mer-VBr3(THF)3.Aqueous solutions prepared from VBr3 contain the cation trans-[VBr2(H2O)4]+. Evaporation of these solutions give the salt trans-[VBr2(H2O)4]Br.(H2O)2.
Coin magic	Coin magic	Coin magic is the manipulating of coins to entertain audiences. Because coins are small, most coin tricks are considered close-up magic or table magic, as the audience must be close to the performer to see the effects. Though stage conjurers generally do not use coin effects, coin magic is sometimes performed onstage using large coins. In a different type of performance setting, a close-up coin magician (or 'coin worker') will use a large video projector so the audience can see the magic on a big screen. Coin magic is generally considered harder to master than other close-up techniques such as card magic, as it requires great skill and grace to perform convincingly, and this requires much practice to acquire.
Coin magic	Elements	Coin effects include productions, vanishes, transformations, transpositions, teleportations, penetrations, restorations, levitations and mental magic—some are combined in a single routine. A simple effect might involve borrowing a coin, making it vanish, concealing the coin, then reproducing it again unexpectedly and returning it to the owner. More complex effects may involve multiple coins, substituting or switching coins and other objects or props can be employed (i.e. handkerchiefs, glasses) as well as the coins. However, the power of most coin magic lies in its simplicity and the solidity of the object; the basic skills of sleight of hand and misdirection often appear most magical without complex equipment. Almost any audience will be amazed by the simplest mystery, such as passing a coin through a table.
Coin magic	Sleights and tricks	Some classic coin magic effects: Coin vanish - making a coin seemingly vanish. Coin production - making a coin seemingly appear. Transposition - making two coins switch placesSome classic coin magic plots: Chink-a-chink - A bare-handed Matrix. Coins Across - The magical transfer of multiple coins from one hand to another. Coin Bite - Taking a bite out of a coin then visually restoring it right in front of the spectator. Coins Through Table - Coins penetrate through the surface of the table. Coin to Bottle - A coin is slammed into a sealed bottle. Coins to Glass - Similar to coins across - coins transfer from one hand to a glass. Matrix - A teleportation illusion of four coins moving invisibly under the cover of four playing cards. Miser's Dream - Grabbing multiple coins from thin air. Popularized by Thomas Nelson Downs, who would drop coin after coin into a borrowed top hat. Spellbound - Visually changing one coin into another, while only showing one coin at all times. Tenkai Pennies - A two coin routine where one coin travels from one hand to the other. Three fly - A coins across type effect involving three coins visually transferring from one hand to another.A sampling of coin sleights and moves: Palming - A form of concealment. Sleeving - A form of concealment. Lapping - A form of ditching a coin. The French Drop - a retention of vision coin vanish involving the Passing of a coin from one hand to the other than making it disappear. The Muscle Pass - Shooting a coin from one hand to the other, this can be done in such a way that can make the coin look as if it is defying gravity
Coin magic	Coin magicians	Some magicians widely known for coin magic include: Thomas Nelson Downs (considered, along with J.B. Bobo, one of the magicians key to the development and teaching of modern coin magic) J.B. Bobo (author of Modern Coin Magic, a core reference and starting point for coin magicians) Tony Slydini (a well-known magician whose style of magic transformed close-up magic including his impressive coin routines) Dai Vernon Ed Marlo David Roth (most important developer of coin magic in the twentieth century and inventor of the standard plots common in current coin magic) Larry Jennings Michael Ammar (one of the most prolific publishers and teachers, an experienced all around magician, including coin work) Dean Dill (coin magician and inventor who has appeared on television and also works as a barber) Michael Vincent Shoot Ogawa (Last Vegas restaurant performer known for highly stylized, high-difficulty, impressive coin magic) Apollo Robbins (contemporary of Shoot Ogawa and co-contributor to a number coin teaching materials) David Stone (talented performer and teacher of fast-paced, flashy coin magic) Rocco Silano Jay Sankey Rich Ferguson (author of Chip Tricks, a magician and mentalist who has authored various magic instructional videos) Luis Piedrahita Michael Rubinstein Mike Gallo Paul Cummins Ryan Hayashi
Coin magic	Performance	Although some coin magic use gimmicks (e.g. modified coins or trick coins), such gimmicks usually do not entirely create the magical effect. Gimmicked coins are made by several major manufacturers, such as Sterling, Johnson, Sasco or Tango Magic. Producing a memorable mystery requires significant skill in presenting the effect and utilizing misdirection to distract the audience from the secret of the gimmick. A performer who relies entirely on special equipment may not impress an audience. Many people are more impressed by an effect which depends (or seems to depend) entirely on skillful manipulation and misdirection than by an effect which appears to depend to some extent on specially made props. A performer who has mastered the basic skills can nonetheless use gimmicks to powerful effect without it being obvious to the audience. Some prefer not to use gimmicks at all, though most well-known coin magicians do use simple coin gimmicks.
Coin magic	In literature	Canadian novelist Robertson Davies devotes a good part of his Deptford Trilogy to the art of coin magic. All three novels follow in part or wholly the career of a fictitious magician, Magnus Eisengrim, who was abducted as a boy by a traveling circus and learned his craft while concealed in a papier-mâché automaton. The descriptions of coin magic throughout are remarkable for their clarity. The final novel in the series, World of Wonders, details his life and career.
Coin magic	In literature	In the Neil Gaiman novel American Gods, the main character, Shadow, is experienced with coin magic, and many different tricks and aspects of coin magic are discussed in the book. In the Dean Koontz novel From the Corner of His Eye, a police officer uses coin magic to interrogate suspects. In Stephen King's Dark Tower series of novels, the gunslinger Roland Deschain uses the coin walk, albeit substituting a bullet, to induce a hypnotic state in those concentrating on the object's movement across his knuckles.
Coin magic	In literature	Thieves, wizards, and jesters, in historical and fantasy literature are often depicted as being skilled in sleight of hand, and are often depicted doing standard coin magic. Rolling a coin across the knuckles (coin walking) is a popular image. Silk in David Eddings's Belgariad, and Mat Cauthon and Thom Merrilin in Robert Jordan's Wheel of Time do this frequently. Johnny Depp's whimsical character Jack Sparrow coin walks in the end of Pirates of the Caribbean. Also, Vila Restal in the BBC science fiction television program Blake's 7 mixed his skills as a thief with such tricks.
Loophole	Loophole	A loophole is an ambiguity or inadequacy in a system, such as a law or security, which can be used to circumvent or otherwise avoid the purpose, implied or explicitly stated, of the system.
Loophole	Loophole	Originally, the word meant an arrowslit, a narrow vertical window in a wall through which an archer (or, later, gunman) could shoot. Loopholes were commonly used in U.S. forts built during the 1800s. Located in the sally port, a loophole was considered a last ditch defense, where guards could close off the inner and outer doors trapping enemy soldiers and using small arms fire through the slits.Legal loopholes are distinct from lacunae, although the two terms are often used interchangeably. In a loophole, a law addressing a certain issue exists, but can be legally circumvented due to a technical defect in the law, such as a situation where the details are under-specified. A lacuna, on the other hand, is a situation in which no law exists in the first place to address that particular issue.
Loophole	Use and remediation	Loopholes are searched for and used strategically in a variety of circumstances, including elections, politics, taxes, the criminal justice system, or in breaches of security.
Back injury	Back injury	Back injuries result from damage, wear, or trauma to the bones, muscles, or other tissues of the back. Common back injuries include sprains and strains, herniated discs, and fractured vertebrae. The lumbar spine is often the site of back pain. The area is susceptible because of its flexibility and the amount of body weight it regularly bears. It is estimated that low-back pain may affect as much as 80 to 90 percent of the general population in the United States.
Back injury	Classification	Soft tissue graded system Muscle and soft tissue injuries can be classified using a graded system. Grade 1 muscle strain is the least severe with damage to few muscle fibers and little if any loss of function. Grade 2 muscle strain indicates a mild to moderate injury with appreciable tissue damage and some loss of function or strength. Grade 3 muscle strain is the most severe injury grade with the muscle being either completely torn or experiencing complete loss of function.
Back injury	Classification	AO spine injury classification system Spinal column or vertebral injuries can be classified using the AO spine injury classification system. The three categories - A, B, and C - are based on the location of damage on the vertebra (either on the anterior or posterior segment) and by the direction of the applied injurious force. Type A injuries are those associated with a compression force with damage to the vertebral bodies.
Back injury	Classification	Type B injuries are those associated with a distraction force resulting in structural damage to the posterior components of the vertebral column. Type C injuries are those associated with damage to both anterior and posterior aspects of the vertebral column resulting in displacement of the disconnected segments in any direction.This classification system can be used to classify injury to the cervical, thoracolumbar, and sacral regions of the spinal column. MSU classification for herniated discs Herniated discs can be graded based on the size and location of the herniation as seen on an MRI.
Back injury	Classification	Size The size of the herniation is the extent to which it protrudes into the vertebral foramen. The MSU Classification for herniated discs uses the proximity of the disc to the facet joint when measuring the size of a herniated disc. Using the MSU Classification, a grade of 1, 2 or 3 can be used to describe the size of a herniated disc with 1 being the least severe and 3 being the most severe.
Back injury	Classification	Location The location of the herniation can also be described using the MSU Classification for herniated discs. This classification describes how far away from mid-line a disc protrusion is using a grade of A, B, or C. Grade A describes a herniation at midline. Grade C herniations are the most lateral and protrude into the intervertebral foramen (through which spinal nerves travel). Grade B herniated discs are those located between grade A and C, using the facet joint as the landmark for the lateral border.MSU Classification is primarily used for classifying herniated discs in the lumbar spine.
Back injury	Causes	Many back injuries share similar causes. Strains and sprains to the back muscles can be caused by improper movements while lifting heavy loads, overuse of a muscle, sudden forceful movements, or direct trauma. Herniated discs are associated with age-related degeneration, trauma such as a fall or car accident, and bending or twisting while lifting heavy weights. Common causes of vertebral fractures include trauma from a direct blow, a compression force resulting in improper or excessive axial loading, and hyper-flexion or hyper-extension.Vertebral fractures in children or elderly individuals can be related to the development or health of their spine. The most common vertebral fracture in children is spondylolysis which can progress to spondylolisthesis. The immature skeleton contains growth plates which have not yet completely ossified into stronger mature bone. Vertebral fractures in elderly individuals are exacerbated by weakening of the skeleton associated with osteoporosis.
Back injury	Diagnosis	Diagnosis of a back injury begins with a physical examination and thorough medical history by health-care personnel. Some injuries, such as sprains and strains or herniated discs, can be diagnosed in this manner. To confirm these diagnoses, or to rule out other injuries or pathology, imaging of the injured region can be ordered. X-rays are often used to visualize pathology of bones and can be ordered when a vertebral fracture is suspected. CT scans produce higher resolution images when compared to x-rays and can be used to view more subtle fractures which may otherwise go undetected on x-ray. MRI is commonly referred to as the gold standard for visualizing soft tissue and can be used to assist with diagnosing many back injuries, including herniated discs and neurological disorders, bleeding, and edema.
Back injury	Prevention	Suggestions for preventing various back injuries primarily address the causes of those injuries. The risk for back sprains and strains may be reduced with lifestyle choices, including smoking cessation, limiting alcohol, maintaining a healthy weight, and keeping bones and muscles strong with adequate exercise and a healthy diet. The risk for disc herniations can be reduced by using proper techniques when lifting heavy loads, smoking cessation, and weight loss to reduce the load placed on the spine. Vertebral fractures may be difficult to prevent since common causes are related to accidents or age-related degeneration associated with osteoporosis. Treating osteoporosis with pharmacotherapy, enrolling in a fall prevention program, strengthening muscles and bones with a weight-bearing exercise program, and adopting a nutritional program that promotes bone health are all options to reduce the risk of vertebral fractures associated with osteoporosis.
Back injury	Treatment	Treatment for back injuries depends on the diagnosis, level of pain, and whether there is loss of function or quality of life. Conservative Cold therapy reduces inflammation, edema, pain, and muscle spasms associated with acute back injury. Heat therapy is used to reduce pain and alleviate sore and stiff muscles. Heat therapy is proposed to work by facilitating delivery of nutrients and oxygen to the site of injury to accommodate healing.
Back injury	Treatment	Medication: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or acetaminophen can be taken to reduce mild to moderate pain associated with back injuries. NSAIDs are suggested to be more effective for persistent pain than for acute pain. If pain remains intolerable while taking over the counter medications, a stronger pain medication such as a narcotic or a muscle relaxant can be prescribed at a physician's discretion.
Back injury	Treatment	Therapy and alternative medicine: an active approach to recovery is recommended over bed rest for most cases of back injury. Activity promotes strength and functional rehabilitation and counters atrophy associated with disuse. Physical therapy can help reduce pain and regain strength and function. The gentle movement of yoga and tai chi are suggested to improve function and to counter the negative psychosocial effects that can be secondary to injury. Spinal manipulation, massage, and acupuncture have been used to treat the pain associated with various back injuries, but there is little consensus on their degree of effectiveness.
Back injury	Treatment	Injections: Spinal nerve blocks and epidural injections are options available to alleviate pain and neurological symptoms. Injections of anesthetics alleviate pain while steroid injections can be used to reduce the inflammation and swelling surrounding spinal nerves. Non-Conservative Surgery is considered when symptoms persist after attempting conservative treatment. It is estimated 10-20 percent of individuals with low back pain fail to improve with conservative measures. A discectomy is a common procedure used to alleviate the radiating pain and neurological symptoms associated with a herniated disc. There are multiple variations of a discectomy with differing approaches to access the herniated disc, but the goal of the procedure is to remove the portion of the intervertebral disc that is protruding into the vertebral foramen. A total disc replacement can also be performed to address a herniated disc. Rather than removing only the portion of the disc that has prolapsed as in a discectomy, this procedure involves removing the entire vertebral disc and replacing it with an artificial one. Surgical remedies for vertebral fractures are found to be more effective than conservative treatment. Vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty are considered minimally invasive surgical procedures and are proposed to relieve pain and restore function of fractured vertebrae.
Back injury	Epidemiology	The two age groups with the highest rate of vertebral column injuries are ages 15–29 and 65 and older. An estimated 50 percent of spinal injuries are attributed to motor vehicle accidents. Although the majority of vertebral fractures go undiagnosed, the annual cost related to treatment of vertebral fractures is estimated to be $1 billion in the U.S. Symptomatic disc herniations are most common between ages 30–50 years. 95 percent of herniated discs diagnosed in patients 25–55 years are located in the lumbar spine. By age 15 an estimated 26-50 percent of children have experienced acute or chronic back pain.
Quadruple reed	Quadruple reed	A quadruple reed is a type of reed by means of which the sound is originated in various wind instruments. The term "quadruple reed" comes from the fact that there are four pieces of dried palm leaf vibrating against each other, in pairs. A quadruple reed, such as the Thai pinai, operates in a similar way as the double reed and produces a timbre similar to the oboe. The Arabic pii chawaa is "sometimes described as having a double reed, though this is actually folded yet again, creating four layers of reed and thus requiring considerable lung power to play".Presumably a quadruple reed is folded twice, in opposite directions, instead of once (\/\ or \/\/ instead of \/ shaped), or either folded twice in the same direction or wrapped around (◎ instead of ○ shaped). Both options could result in what may be considered a reed of quadruple thickness. A reed may be folded into the center at 1/4 and 3/4 the length, and then this may be folded in half, with the center being outwards and the four sides being enclosed, making a single reed of quadruple thickness.
Quadruple reed	Instruments which use quadruple reeds	Hne (Myanmar) Pi (Thailand) Pui' Pui' (Makassar, Indonesia) Sawnay (Mindanao, Philippines) Sarunay (Sulu archipelago, Philippines) Serunai (Malaysia) Shehnai (India) Shawm (Asia) "Each side of the [Thai and Cambonian] shawm's double reed is made from two layers of a smoked palm-leaf, making it in fact a quadruple reed. (Nepalese, Burmese, and Malaysian shawms have similar quadruple reeds.)" Sralai (Cambodia) Sri Lankan oboe Serune Kalee (Aceh, Indonesia)
CAT(k) space	CAT(k) space	In mathematics, a CAT (k) space, where k is a real number, is a specific type of metric space. Intuitively, triangles in a CAT ⁡(k) space are "slimmer" than corresponding "model triangles" in a standard space of constant curvature k . In a CAT ⁡(k) space, the curvature is bounded from above by k . A notable special case is k=0 ; complete CAT ⁡(0) spaces are known as "Hadamard spaces" after the French mathematician Jacques Hadamard.
CAT(k) space	CAT(k) space	Originally, Aleksandrov called these spaces “ Rk domain”. The terminology CAT ⁡(k) was coined by Mikhail Gromov in 1987 and is an acronym for Élie Cartan, Aleksandr Danilovich Aleksandrov and Victor Andreevich Toponogov (although Toponogov never explored curvature bounded above in publications).
CAT(k) space	Definitions	For a real number k , let Mk denote the unique complete simply connected surface (real 2-dimensional Riemannian manifold) with constant curvature k . Denote by Dk the diameter of Mk , which is ∞ if k≤0 and is πk if k>0 Let (X,d) be a geodesic metric space, i.e. a metric space for which every two points x,y∈X can be joined by a geodesic segment, an arc length parametrized continuous curve γ:[a,b]→X,γ(a)=x,γ(b)=y , whose length sup {∑i=1rd(γ(ti−1),γ(ti))\|a=t0<t1<⋯<tr=b,r∈N} is precisely d(x,y) . Let Δ be a triangle in X with geodesic segments as its sides. Δ is said to satisfy the CAT (k) inequality if there is a comparison triangle Δ′ in the model space Mk , with sides of the same length as the sides of Δ , such that distances between points on Δ are less than or equal to the distances between corresponding points on Δ′ The geodesic metric space (X,d) is said to be a CAT (k) space if every geodesic triangle Δ in X with perimeter less than 2Dk satisfies the CAT ⁡(k) inequality. A (not-necessarily-geodesic) metric space (X,d) is said to be a space with curvature ≤k if every point of X has a geodesically convex CAT ⁡(k) neighbourhood. A space with curvature ≤0 may be said to have non-positive curvature.
CAT(k) space	Examples	Any CAT ⁡(k) space (X,d) is also a CAT ⁡(ℓ) space for all ℓ>k . In fact, the converse holds: if (X,d) is a CAT ⁡(ℓ) space for all ℓ>k , then it is a CAT ⁡(k) space. The n -dimensional Euclidean space En with its usual metric is a CAT ⁡(0) space. More generally, any real inner product space (not necessarily complete) is a CAT ⁡(0) space; conversely, if a real normed vector space is a CAT ⁡(k) space for some real k , then it is an inner product space. The n -dimensional hyperbolic space Hn with its usual metric is a CAT ⁡(−1) space, and hence a CAT ⁡(0) space as well. The n -dimensional unit sphere Sn is a CAT ⁡(1) space.
CAT(k) space	Examples	More generally, the standard space Mk is a CAT ⁡(k) space. So, for example, regardless of dimension, the sphere of radius r (and constant curvature {\textstyle {\frac {1}{r^{2}}}} ) is a CAT {\textstyle \operatorname {CAT} \left({\frac {1}{r^{2}}}\right)} space. Note that the diameter of the sphere is πr (as measured on the surface of the sphere) not 2r (as measured by going through the centre of the sphere).
CAT(k) space	Examples	The punctured plane Π=E2∖{0} is not a CAT ⁡(0) space since it is not geodesically convex (for example, the points (0,1) and (0,−1) cannot be joined by a geodesic in Π with arc length 2), but every point of Π does have a CAT ⁡(0) geodesically convex neighbourhood, so Π is a space of curvature ≤0 The closed subspace X of E3 given by and z>0} equipped with the induced length metric is not a CAT ⁡(k) space for any k Any product of CAT ⁡(0) spaces is CAT ⁡(0) . (This does not hold for negative arguments.)
CAT(k) space	Hadamard spaces	As a special case, a complete CAT(0) space is also known as a Hadamard space; this is by analogy with the situation for Hadamard manifolds. A Hadamard space is contractible (it has the homotopy type of a single point) and, between any two points of a Hadamard space, there is a unique geodesic segment connecting them (in fact, both properties also hold for general, possibly incomplete, CAT(0) spaces). Most importantly, distance functions in Hadamard spaces are convex: if σ1,σ2 are two geodesics in X defined on the same interval of time I, then the function I→R given by t↦d(σ1(t),σ2(t)) is convex in t.

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