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Gaia philosophy	Gaia in biology and science	Whether this sort of system is present on Earth is still open to debate. Some relatively simple homeostatic mechanisms are generally accepted. For example, when atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rise, plants are able to grow better and thus remove more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Other biological effects and feedbacks exist, but the extent to which these mechanisms have stabilized and modified the Earth's overall climate is largely not known.
Gaia philosophy	Gaia in biology and science	The Gaia hypothesis is sometimes viewed from significantly different philosophical perspectives. Some environmentalists view it as an almost conscious process, in which the Earth's ecosystem is literally viewed as a single unified organism. Some evolutionary biologists, on the other hand, view it as an undirected emergent property of the ecosystem: as each individual species pursues its own self-interest, their combined actions tend to have counterbalancing effects on environmental change. Proponents of this view sometimes point to examples of life's actions in the past that have resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the Earth's atmosphere from a reducing environment to an oxygen-rich one.
Gaia philosophy	Gaia in biology and science	Depending on how strongly the case is stated, the hypothesis conflicts with mainstream neo-Darwinism. Most biologists would accept Daisyworld-style homeostasis as possible, but would certainly not accept the idea that this equates to the whole biosphere acting as one organism. A very small number of scientists, and a much larger number of environmental activists, claim that Earth's biosphere is consciously manipulating the climate in order to make conditions more conducive to life. Scientists contend that there is no evidence to support this belief.
Gaia philosophy	Gaia in the social sciences and politics	A social science view of Gaia theory is the role of humans as a keystone species who may be able to accomplish global homeostasis. Whilst a few social scientists who draw inspiration from 'organic' views of society have embraced Gaia philosophy as a way to explain the human-nature interconnections, most professional social scientists are more involved in reflecting upon the way Gaia philosophy is used and engaged with within sub-sections of society. Alan Marshall, in the Department of Social Sciences at Mahidol University, for example, reflects upon the way Gaia philosophy has been used and advocated in various societal settings by environmentalists, spiritualists, managers, economists, and scientists and engineers. As Marshall explains, most social scientists had already given up on systems ideas of society in the 1960s before Gaia philosophy was born under James Lovelock's ideas since such ideas were interpreted as supporting conservatism and traditionalism.Gaia theory also influenced the dynamics of green politics.
Gaia philosophy	Gaia in religion	Rosemary Radford Ruether, the American feminist scholar and theologian, wrote a book called "Gaia and God: An Ecofeminist Theology of Earth Healing".
Gaia philosophy	Gaia in religion	A book edited by Allan Hunt Badiner called Dharma Gaia explores the ground where Buddhism and ecology meet through writings by the Dalai Lama, Gary Snyder, Thich Nhat Hanh, Allen Ginsberg, David Abram, Joanna Macy, Robert Aitken, and 25 other Buddhists and ecologists.Gaianism, an earth-centered philosophical, holistic, and spiritual belief that shares expressions with earth religions and paganism while not identifying exclusively with any specific religion, sprang from the gaia hypothesis.
Gaia philosophy	Criticism	One of the most problematic issues with referring to Gaia as an organism is its apparent failure to meet the biological criterion of being able to reproduce. Obviously this limited view misunderstands cosmic cycles of death of planets and stars into star stuff that creates more planets and stars over billions of years. Richard Dawkins has asserted that the planet is not the offspring of any parents and is unable to reproduce.
Gaia philosophy	Books on Gaia	Alan Marshall (2002), The Unity of Nature, Imperial College Press.
Gaia philosophy	Books on Gaia	Mary Midgley (2007), Earthy realism: the meaning of Gaia Mary Midgley (2001), Gaia: the next big idea Lawrence E. Joseph (1991), Gaia: the growth of an idea Stephen Henry Schneider (2004), Scientists debate gaia: the next century Allan Hunt Badiner (1990), Dharma Gaia: A Harvest of Essays in Buddhism and Ecology George Ronald Williams (1996), The molecular biology of Gaia Tyler Volk (2003), Gaia's Body: Toward a Physiology of Earth Norman Myers (1993), Gaia An Atlas of Planet Management Anne Primavesi (2008), Gaia and Climate Change: A Theology of Gift Events Anne Primavesi (2000), Sacred Gaia: holistic theology and earth system science Anne Primavesi (2003), Gaia's gift: earth, ourselves, and God after Copernicus Peter Bunyard (1996), Gaia in Action: Science of the Living Earth Francesca Ciancimino Howell (2002), Making Magic with Gaia: Practices to Heal Ourselves and Our Planet Pepper Lewis (2005), Gaia Speaks Toby Tyrrell (2013), On Gaia
Magic eye tube	Magic eye tube	A magic eye tube or tuning indicator, in technical literature called an electron-ray indicator tube, is a vacuum tube which gives a visual indication of the amplitude of an electronic signal, such as an audio output, radio-frequency signal strength, or other functions. The magic eye (also called a cat's eye, or tuning eye in North America) is a specific type of such a tube with a circular display similar to the EM34 illustrated. Its first broad application was as a tuning indicator in radio receivers, to give an indication of the relative strength of the received radio signal, to show when a radio station was properly tuned in.The magic eye tube was the first in a line of development of cathode ray type tuning indicators developed as a cheaper alternative to needle movement meters. It was not until the 1960s that needle meters were made economically enough in Japan to displace indicator tubes. Tuning indicator tubes were used in vacuum tube receivers from around 1936 to 1980, before vacuum tubes were replaced by transistors in radios. An earlier tuning aid which the magic eye replaced was the "tuneon" neon lamp.
Magic eye tube	History	The magic eye tube (or valve) for tuning radio receivers was invented in 1932 by Allen B. DuMont (who spent most of the 1930s improving the lifetime of cathode ray tubes, and ultimately formed the DuMont Television Network).The RCA 6E5 from 1935 was the first commercial tube.The earlier types were end-viewed (see the EM34), usually with an octal or side-contact base. Later developments featured a smaller side-viewed noval B9A based all-glass type with either a fan type display or a band display (see the EM84). The end-viewed version had a round cone-shaped fluorescent screen together with the black cap that shielded the red light from the cathode/heater assembly. This design prompted the contemporary advertisers to coin the term magic eye, a term still used.
Magic eye tube	History	There was also a sub-miniature version with wire ends (Mullard DM70/DM71, Mazda 1M1/1M3, GEC/Marconi Y25) intended for battery operation, used in one Ever Ready AM/FM battery receiver with push-pull output, as well as a small number of AM/FM mains receivers, which lit the valve from the 6.3 V heater supply via a 220 ohm resistor or from the audio output valve's cathode bias. Some reel-to-reel tape recorders also used the DM70/DM71 to indicate recording level, including a transistorized model with the valve lit from the bias-oscillator voltage.
Magic eye tube	History	The function of a magic eye can be achieved with modern semiconductor circuitry and optoelectronic displays. The high voltages (100 volts or more) required by these tubes are not present in modern devices, so the magic eye tube is now obsolete.
Magic eye tube	Method of operation	A magic eye tube is a miniature cathode ray tube, usually with a built-in triode signal amplifier. It usually glows bright green, (occasionally yellow in some very old types, e.g., EM4) and the glowing ends grow to meet in the middle as the voltage on a control grid increases. It is used in a circuit that drives the grid with a voltage that changes with signal strength; as the tuning knob is turned, the gap in the eye becomes narrowest when a station is tuned in correctly.
Magic eye tube	Method of operation	Internally, the device is a vacuum tube consisting of two plate electrode assemblies, one creating a triode amplifier and the other a display section consisting of a conical-shaped target anode coated with zinc silicate or similar material. The display section's anode is usually directly connected to the receiver's full positive high tension (HT) voltage, whilst the triode-anode is usually (internally) connected to a control electrode mounted between the cathode and the target-anode, and externally connected to positive HT via a high-value resistor, typically 1 megaohm.
Magic eye tube	Method of operation	When the receiver is switched on but not tuned to a station, the target-anode glows green due to electrons striking it, with the exception of the area by the internal control-electrode. This electrode is typically 150–200 V negative with respect to the target-anode, repelling electrons from the target in this region, causing a dark sector to appear on the display.
Magic eye tube	Method of operation	The control-grid of the triode-amplifier section is connected to a point where a negative control voltage dependent on signal strength is available, e.g. the AGC line in an AM superheterodyne receiver, or the limiter stage or FM detector in an FM receiver. As a station is tuned in the triode-grid becomes more negative with respect to the common cathode.
Magic eye tube	Use in radios	The purpose of magic eye tubes in radio sets is to help with accurate tuning to a station; the tube makes peaks in signal strength more obvious by producing a visual indication, which is better than using the ear alone. The eye is especially useful because the automatic gain control (AGC) action tends to increase the audio volume of a mistuned station, so the volume varies relatively little as the tuning knob is turned. The tuning eye was driven by the AGC voltage rather than the audio signal.
Magic eye tube	Use in radios	When, in the early 1950s, FM radio sets were made available on the UK market, many different types of magic eye tubes were made available, with differing displays, but they all worked the same way. Some had a separate small display to light up indicating a stereo signal on FM. The British Leak company used an EM84 indicator as a very precise tuning-indicator in their Troughline FM tuner series, by mixing the AGC voltages from the two limiter valve grids at the indicator sensing-grid. By this means accurate tuning was indicated by a fully open sharp shadow, whilst off-tune the indicator produced a partially closed shadow.
Magic eye tube	Common types	In USA made radios, the first type issued was the type 6E5 single pie shaped image, introduced by RCA and used in their 1936 line of radios. Other radio makers originally used the 6E5 as well until, soon after, the less sensitive type 6G5 was introduced. Also, a type 6AB5 aka 6N5 tube with lower plate voltage was introduced for series filament radios. Type number 6U5 was similar to the 6G5 but had a straight glass envelope. Zenith Radio used a type 6T5 in their 1938 model year radios with "Target tuning" indicator (resembling a camera iris), but was abandoned after a year already, with Ken-Rad manufacturing a replacement type. All the above types use a 6-pin base with two larger pins for filament connection.
Magic eye tube	Common types	Several other "eye tubes" were introduced in USA radios and also used in test equipment and audio gear, including the octal-based types 6AF6GT, 6AD6GT and 1629. The latter was an industrial type with 12 volt filament looking identical to type 6E5. Later USA made audio gear used European tubes like EM80 (equivalent to 6BR5), EM81 (6DA5), EM84 (6FG6), EM85 (6DG7) or EM87 (6HU6).
Magic eye tube	Other applications	Magic eye tubes were used as the recording level indicator for tape recorders (for example in the Echolette), and it is also possible to use them (in a specially adapted circuit) as a means of rough frequency comparison as a simpler alternative to Lissajous figures. A magic eye tube acts as an inexpensive uncalibrated (and not necessarily linear) voltage indicator, and can be used wherever an indication of voltage is needed, saving the cost of a more accurate calibrated meter. At least one design of capacitance bridge uses this type of tube to indicate that the bridge is balanced. The magic eye tube also appears on the cover of My Morning Jacket's 2011 album Circuital. The tube as shown is almost fully lit.
Acquired brain injury	Acquired brain injury	Acquired brain injury (ABI) is brain damage caused by events after birth, rather than as part of a genetic or congenital disorder such as fetal alcohol syndrome, perinatal illness or perinatal hypoxia. ABI can result in cognitive, physical, emotional, or behavioural impairments that lead to permanent or temporary changes in functioning. These impairments result from either traumatic brain injury (e.g. physical trauma due to accidents, assaults, neurosurgery, head injury etc.) or nontraumatic injury derived from either an internal or external source (e.g. stroke, brain tumours, infection, poisoning, hypoxia, ischemia, encephalopathy or substance abuse). ABI does not include damage to the brain resulting from neurodegenerative disorders.While research has demonstrated that thinking and behavior may be altered in virtually all forms of ABI, brain injury is itself a very complex phenomenon having dramatically varied effects. No two persons can expect the same outcome or resulting difficulties. The brain controls every part of human life: physical, intellectual, behavioral, social and emotional. When the brain is damaged, some part of a person's life will be adversely affected.Consequences of ABI often require a major life adjustment around the person's new circumstances, and making that adjustment is a critical factor in recovery and rehabilitation. While the outcome of a given injury depends largely upon the nature and severity of the injury itself, appropriate treatment plays a vital role in determining the level of recovery.
Acquired brain injury	Signs and symptoms	Emotional ABI has been associated with a number of emotional difficulties such as depression, issues with self-control, managing anger impulses and challenges with problem-solving, these challenges also contribute to psychosocial concerns involving social anxiety, loneliness and lower levels of self esteem. These psychosocial problems have been found to contribute to other dilemmas such as reduced frequency of social contact and leisure activities, unemployment, family problems and marital difficulties.How the patient copes with the injury has been found to influence the level at which they experience the emotional complications correlated with ABI. Three coping strategies for emotions related to ABI have presented themselves in the research, approach-oriented coping, passive coping and avoidant coping. Approach-oriented coping has been found to be the most effective strategy, as it has been negatively correlated with rates of apathy and depression in ABI patients; this coping style is present in individuals who consciously work to minimize the emotional challenges of ABI. Passive coping has been characterized by the person choosing not to express emotions and a lack of motivation which can lead to poor outcomes for the individual. Increased levels of depression have been correlated to avoidance coping methods in patients with ABI; this strategy is represented in people who actively evade coping with emotions. These challenges and coping strategies should be kept in consideration when seeking to understand individuals with ABI.
Acquired brain injury	Signs and symptoms	Memory Following acquired brain injury it is common for people to experience memory loss; memory disorders are one of the most prevalent cognitive deficits experienced in affected people. However, because some aspects of memory are directly linked to attention, it can be challenging to assess what components of a deficit are caused by memory and which are fundamentally attention problems. There is often partial recovery of memory functioning following the initial recovery phase; however, permanent handicaps are often reported with ABI patients reporting significantly more memory difficulties when compared people without an acquired brain injury.In order to cope more efficiently with memory disorders many people with ABI use memory aids; these included external items such as diaries, notebooks and electronic organizers, internal strategies such as visual associations, and environmental adaptations such as labelling kitchen cupboards. Research has found that ABI patients use an increased number of memory aids after their injury than they did prior to it and these aids vary in their degree of effectiveness. One popular aid is the use of a diary. Studies have found that the use of a diary is more effective if it is paired with self-instructional training, as training leads to more frequent use of the diary over time and thus more successful use as a memory aid.
Acquired brain injury	Children	In children and youth with pediatric acquired brain injury the cognitive and emotional difficulties that stem from their injury can negatively impact their level of participation in home, school and other social situations, participation in structured events has been found to be especially hindered under these circumstances. Involvement in social situations is important for the normal development of children as a means of gaining an understanding of how to effectively work together with others. Furthermore, young people with ABI are often reported as having insufficient problem solving skills. This has the potential to hinder their performance in various academic and social settings further. It is important for rehabilitation programs to deal with these challenges specific to children who have not fully developed at the time of their injury.
Acquired brain injury	Management	Rehabilitation following an acquired brain injury does not follow a set protocol, due to the variety of mechanisms of injury and structures affected. Rather, rehabilitation is an individualized process that will often involve a multi-disciplinary approach. The rehabilitation team may include but is not limited to nurses, neurologists, physiotherapists, psychiatrists (particularly those specialized in Brain Injury Medicine), occupational therapists, speech-language pathologists, music therapists, and rehabilitation psychologists. Physical therapy and other professions may be utilized post- brain injury in order to control muscle tone, regain normal movement patterns, and maximize functional independence. Rehabilitation should be patient-centered and guided by the individual's needs and goals.There is some evidence that rhythmic auditory stimulation is beneficial in gait rehabilitation following a brain injury. Music therapy may assist patients to improve gait, arm swing while walking, communication, and quality of life after experiencing a stroke. Newer treatment methods such as virtual reality and robotics remain under-researched; however, there is reason to believe that virtual reality in upper limb rehabilitation may be useful, following an acquired brain injury.Due to few random control trials and generally weak evidence, more research is needed to gain a complete understanding of the ideal type and parameters of therapeutic interventions for treatment of acquired brain injuries.For more information on therapeutic interventions for acquired brain injury, see stroke and traumatic brain injury.
Acquired brain injury	Management	Memory Some strategies for rehabilitating the memory of those affected by ABI have used repetitive tasks to attempt to increase the patients' ability to recall information. While this type of training increases performance on the task at hand, there is little evidence that the skills translate to improved performance on memory challenges outside of the laboratory. Awareness of memory strategies, motivation and dedication to increasing memory have been related to successful increases in memory capability among patients an example of this could be the use of attention process training and brain injury education in patients with memory disorders related to brain injury. These have been shown to increase memory functioning in patients based on self-report measures.Another strategy for improvement amongst individuals with poor memory functioning is the use of elaboration to improve encoding of items, one form of this strategy is called self-imagining whereby the patient imagines the event to be recalled from a more personal perspective. Self-imagining has been found to improve recognition memory by coding the event in a manner that is more individually salient to the subject. This effect has been found to improve recall in individuals with and without memory disorders.There is research evidence to suggest that rehabilitation programs that are geared toward the individual may have greater results than group-based interventions for improving memory in ABI patients because they are tailored to the symptoms experienced by the individual.More research is necessary in order to draw conclusions on how to improve memory among individuals with ABI that experience memory loss.
Acquired brain injury	Notable cases	There have been many popularized cases of various forms of ABI such as: Phineas Gage's case of traumatic brain injury that greatly stimulated discussion on brain function and physiology Henry Molaison, formerly known as patient H.M., underwent neurosurgery to remove scar tissue in his brain that was causing debilitating epileptic seizures, neurosurgeon William Beecher Scoville performed the surgery which created bilateral lesions near the hippocampus. These lesions helped remove symptoms of the epilepsy in Molaison but resulted in anterograde amnesia. Molaison has been studied by hundreds of researchers since this time, most notably Brenda Milner, and has been greatly influential in the study of memory and the brain.
Acquired brain injury	Notable cases	Zasetsky injured in the Battle of Smolensk, bullet entered his left parieto-occipital area and resulted in a long coma. Following this, he developed a form of agnosia and became unable to perceive the right side of things.
Dense irregular connective tissue	Dense irregular connective tissue	Dense irregular connective tissue has fibers that are not arranged in parallel bundles as in dense regular connective tissue. Dense irregular connective tissue consists of mostly collagen fibers. It has less ground substance than loose connective tissue. Fibroblasts are the predominant cell type, scattered sparsely across the tissue.
Dense irregular connective tissue	Function	This type of connective tissue is found mostly in the reticular layer (or deep layer) of the dermis. It is also in the sclera and in the deeper skin layers. Due to high portions of collagenous fibers, dense irregular connective tissue provides strength, making the skin resistant to tearing by stretching forces from different directions.Dense irregular connective tissue also makes up submucosa of the digestive tract, lymph nodes, and some types of fascia. Other examples include periosteum and perichondrium of bones, and the tunica albuginea of testis. In the submucosa layer, the fiber bundles course in varying planes allowing the organ to resist excessive stretching and distension.
Rapid casting	Rapid casting	Rapid casting is an integration of investment casting with rapid prototyping/3D printing. In this technique disposable patterns that are used for forming molds are created with 3D printing techniques like fused deposition modeling, stereolithography or any other 3D printing technique.
Rapid casting	Advantages	Cheap for batch production Reduced turnaround time Representative prototypes Easier to make patterns Possibility to make the part lighter by removing unwanted material and stiffer by adding rib features. Advantages of pressure die casting Cheap at scale Large parts Good surface finish High dimensional accuracy High tensile strength
Rapid casting	Procedure	A disposable pattern is 3D printed (can be of wax or any plastic used in 3D printing PLA,PETG,Etc.). The pattern, if made of wax, undergoes wax infiltration and other procedures to increase its strength and dewaxing properties. A mold is made by coating the printed pattern using a ceramic slurry. The pattern is melted out of the ceramic mold. Molten metal is poured into mold.
81 Cancri	81 Cancri	81 Cancri (Pi1 Cancri, π1 Cancri) is a stellar system that lies approximately 66 light-years away. The main component of the system is a close binary, while a brown dwarf binary is located at a wide separation.
81 Cancri	Components	81 Cancri has long been known to be a binary, both visually and spectroscopically (VBO=SB2O). Their orbit is an eccentric 2.7 year one, resolved by over 100 milli-arcseconds due to a modest separation and close distance. The two components have similar masses and temperatures, with the secondary being only ~0.04 M☉ lower in mass and a few hundred kelvin cooler.
81 Cancri	Components	A brown dwarf component in the system was detected in 2001. The source 2MASSW J0912145+145940 (2M0912+14) in the 2MASS catalogue was identified as having a common proper motion with the AB binary, and subsequent observations confirmed the brown dwarf nature of the companion. The new component, 81 Cancri C, was found to have a spectral type of L8, near to the L-T transition. Separated from the primary components by 43 arcseconds and at a distance of 20.4 parsecs, the brown dwarf has a minimum physical separation of approximately 880 AU.
81 Cancri	Components	The brown dwarf was found to be about half a magnitude brighter in the JHK bands than expected, compared to others of similar spectral type and known distance. The system was not found to not be particularly young to some confidence, so it was possible that component C could itself be a close binary not resolved by 2MASS. This was confirmed in 2006 as the source was found to be slightly oblong, caused by two components of similar spectral types. These two brown dwarfs, components C and D, have a separation of approximately 11 AU, and their mutual orbit likely takes on order of 150 years due to the small masses involved.
Orthogonal array testing	Orthogonal array testing	Orthogonal array testing is a black box testing technique that is a systematic, statistical way of software testing. It is used when the number of inputs to the system is relatively small, but too large to allow for exhaustive testing of every possible input to the systems. It is particularly effective in finding errors associated with faulty logic within computer software systems. Orthogonal arrays can be applied in user interface testing, system testing, regression testing, configuration testing and performance testing.
Orthogonal array testing	Orthogonal array testing	The permutations of factor levels comprising a single treatment are so chosen that their responses are uncorrelated and therefore each treatment gives a unique piece of information. The net effects of organizing the experiment in such treatments is that the same piece of information is gathered in the minimum number of experiments.
Orthogonal array testing	Background	Orthogonal vector Orthogonal vectors exhibit orthogonality. Orthogonal vectors exhibit the following properties: Each of the vectors conveys information different from that of any other vector in the sequence, i.e., each vector conveys unique information therefore avoiding redundancy. On a linear addition, the signals may be separated easily. Each of the vectors is statistically independent of the others, i.e., the correlation between them is nil. When linearly added, the resultant is the arithmetic sum of the individual components.
Orthogonal array testing	Benefits	Testing cycle time is reduced and analysis is simpler. Test cases are balanced, so it's straightforward to isolate defects and assess performance. This provides a significant cost savings over pair-wise testing.
Bronchitis kettle	Bronchitis kettle	The bronchitis kettle, typified by a long spout, was used in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to moisten the air for a sufferer of bronchitis, and was considered to make it easier to breathe for the patient. Sometimes menthol was added to the water to relieve congestion. The water was boiled on the fireplace in the room, or above a spirit lamp, or, in the twentieth century, by electricity. Sometimes the kettle was boiled within a tent placed around the patient.
Neodymium bismuthide	Neodymium bismuthide	Neodymium bismuthide or Bismuth-Neodymium is a binary inorganic compound of neodymium and bismuth with the formula NdBi. It forms crystals.
Neodymium bismuthide	Preparation	Neodymium bismuthide can be prepared by reacting a stoichiometric amount of neodymium and bismuth at 1900°C: Nd + Bi → NdBi
Neodymium bismuthide	Physical properties	Neodymium bismuthide forms cubic crystals of the space group Fm3m, with cell parameters a = 0.64222 nm, Z = 4 with a structure like sodium chloride. The compound melts at 1900°C. At a temperature of 24 K, an antiferromagnetic transition occurs in the compound.
Genitography	Genitography	Genitography is the radiography of the urogenital sinus and internal duct structures after injection of a contrast medium through the opening of the sinus.
Macintosh Font X encoding	Macintosh Font X encoding	Macintosh Font X is a character encoding which is used by Kermit to represent text on the Apple Macintosh (but not by standard Mac OS fonts). It is a modification of Mac OS Symbol to include all characters in DEC Special Graphics and the DEC Technical Character Set (unifying the ⎷ and √ from the Technical Character Set). � Characters at A4, A7, A9, D0, E1, and F1 do not have Unicode equivalents; these characters, along with the not sign at D8 are intended to assemble a 3x5 uppercase sigma.
Beck's cognitive triad	Beck's cognitive triad	Beck's cognitive triad, also known as the negative triad, is a cognitive-therapeutic view of the three key elements of a person's belief system present in depression. It was proposed by Aaron Beck in 1967. The triad forms part of his cognitive theory of depression and the concept is used as part of CBT, particularly in Beck's "Treatment of Negative Automatic Thoughts" (TNAT) approach.
Beck's cognitive triad	Beck's cognitive triad	The triad involves "automatic, spontaneous and seemingly uncontrollable negative thoughts" about: The self The world or environment The futureExamples of this negative thinking include: The self – "I'm worthless and ugly" or "I wish I was different" The world – "No one values me" or "people ignore me all the time" The future – "I'm hopeless because things will never change" or "things can only get worse!"
Beck's cognitive triad	Beck's cognitive model of depression	From a cognitive perspective, depressive disorders are characterized by people's dysfunctional negative views of themselves, their life experience (and the world in general), and their future—the cognitive triad.
Beck's cognitive triad	Beck's cognitive model of depression	People with depression often view themselves as unlovable, helpless, doomed or deficient. They tend to attribute their unpleasant experiences to their presumed physical, mental, and/or moral deficits. They tend to feel excessively guilty, believing that they are worthless, blameworthy, and rejected by self and others. They may have a very difficult time viewing themselves as people who could ever succeed, be accepted, or feel good about themselves and this may lead to withdrawal and isolation, which further worsens the mood.
Beck's cognitive triad	Beck's cognitive model of depression	Cognitive distortions Beck proposes that those with depression develop cognitive distortions, a type of cognitive bias sometimes also referred to as faulty or unhelpful thinking patterns. Beck referred to some of these biases as "automatic thoughts", suggesting they are not entirely under conscious control. People with depression will tend to quickly overlook their positive attributes and disqualify their accomplishments as being minor or meaningless. They may also misinterpret the care, good will, and concern of others as being based on pity or susceptible to being lost easily if those others knew the “real person" and this fuels further feelings of guilt. The main cognitive distortions according to Beck are summarised below: Arbitrary inference - drawing conclusions from insufficient or no evidence.
Beck's cognitive triad	Beck's cognitive model of depression	Selective abstraction - drawing conclusions on the basis of just one of many elements of a situation. Overgeneralisation - making sweeping conclusions based on a single event. Magnification - exaggerating the importance of an undesirable event. Minimisation - underplaying the significance of a positive event.
Beck's cognitive triad	Beck's cognitive model of depression	Personalisation - attributing negative feelings of others to oneself.Depressed people view their lives as devoid of pleasure or reward, presenting insuperable obstacles to achieving their important goals. This is often manifested as a lack of motivation and leads to the depressed person feeling further withdrawal and isolation as they may be seen as lazy by others. Everything seems and feels “too hard to manage” and other people are seen as punishing (or potentially so). They believe that their troubles will continue indefinitely, and that the future will only bring further hardship, deprivation, and frustration. “Paralysis of the will” results from the depressed patients' pessimism and hopelessness. Expecting their efforts to end in failure, they are reluctant to commit themselves to growth-oriented goals, and their activity level drops. Believing that they cannot affect the outcome of various situations, they experience a desire to avoid such situations.Suicidal wishes are seen as an extreme expression of the desire to escape from problems that appear to be uncontrollable, interminable, and unbearable.
Beck's cognitive triad	Beck's cognitive model of depression	Negative self-schemata Beck also believed that a depressed person will, often from childhood experiences, hold a negative self-schema. This schema may originate from negative early experiences, such as criticism, abuse or bullying. Beck suggests that people with negative self-schemata are liable to interpret information presented to them in a negative manner, leading to the cognitive distortions outlined above. The pessimistic explanatory style, which describes the way in which depressed or neurotic people react negatively to certain events, is an example of the effect of these schemata on self-image. This explanatory style involves blaming oneself for negative events outside of their control or the behaviour of others (personalisation), believing that such events will continue forever and letting these events significantly affect their emotional wellbeing.
Beck's cognitive triad	Measuring aspects of the triad	A number of instruments have been developed to attempt to measure negative cognition in the three areas of the triad. The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is a well-known questionnaire for scoring depression based on all three aspects of the triad. Other examples include the Beck Hopelessness Scale for measuring thoughts about the future and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale for measuring views of the self. The Cognitive Triad Inventory (CTI) was developed by Beckham et al. to attempt to systematically measure the three aspects of Beck's triad. The CTI aims to quantify the relationship between "therapist behaviour in a single treatment session to changes in the cognitive triad" and "patterns of changes to the triad to changes in overall depressive mood". This inventory has since been adapted for use with children and adolescents in the CTI-C, developed by Kaslow et al.
GPS2 (gene)	GPS2 (gene)	G protein pathway suppressor 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the GPS2 gene.
GPS2 (gene)	Function	This gene encodes a protein involved in G protein-mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling cascades. When overexpressed in mammalian cells, this gene could potently suppress a RAS- and MAPK-mediated signal and interfere with JNK activity, suggesting that the function of this gene may be signal repression. The encoded protein is an integral subunit of the NCOR1-HDAC3 (nuclear receptor corepressor 1-histone deacetylase 3) complex, and it was shown that the complex inhibits JNK activation through this subunit and thus could potentially provide an alternative mechanism for hormone-mediated antagonism of AP1 (activator protein 1) function.
GPS2 (gene)	Interactions	GPS2 (gene) has been shown to interact with:
Datanet	Datanet	DataNet, or Sustainable Digital Data Preservation and Access Network Partner was a research program of the U.S. National Science Foundation Office of Cyberinfrastructure. The office announced a request for proposals with this title on September 28, 2007. The lead paragraph of its synopsis describes the program as: Science and engineering research and education are increasingly digital and increasingly data-intensive. Digital data are not only the output of research but provide input to new hypotheses, enabling new scientific insights and driving innovation. Therein lies one of the major challenges of this scientific generation: how to develop the new methods, management structures and technologies to manage the diversity, size, and complexity of current and future data sets and data streams. This solicitation addresses that challenge by creating a set of exemplar national and global data research infrastructure organizations (dubbed DataNet Partners) that provide unique opportunities to communities of researchers to advance science and/or engineering research and learning.
Datanet	Datanet	The introduction in the solicitation goes on to say: Chapter 3 (Data, Data Analysis, and Visualization) of NSF’s Cyberinfrastructure Vision for 21st century Discovery presents a vision in which “science and engineering digital data are routinely deposited in well-documented form, are regularly and easily consulted and analyzed by specialists and non-specialists alike, are openly accessible while suitably protected, and are reliably preserved.” The goal of this solicitation is to catalyze the development of a system of science and engineering data collections that is open, extensible and evolvable.
Datanet	Datanet	The initial plan called for a $100 million initiative: five awards of $20 million each over five years with the possibility of continuing funding. Awards were given in two rounds. In the first round, for which full proposals were due on March 21, 2008, two DataNet proposals were awarded. DataONE, led by William Michener at the University of New Mexico covers ecology, evolutionary, and earth science. The Data Conservancy, led by Sayeed Choudhury of Johns Hopkins University, focuses on astronomy, earth science, life sciences, and social science.
Datanet	Datanet	For the second round, preliminary proposals were due on October 6, 2008, and full proposals on February 16, 2009. Awards from the second round were greatly delayed, and funding was reduced substantially from $20 million per project to $8 million. Funding for three second round projects began in Fall 2011. SEAD: Sustainable Environment through Actionable Data, led by Margaret Hedstrom of the University of Michigan, seeks to provide data curation software and services for the "long tail" of small- and medium-scale data producers in the domain of sustainability science. The DataNet Federation Consortium, led by Reagan Moore of the University of North Carolina, uses the integrated Rule-Oriented Data System (iRODS) to provide data grid infrastructure for science and engineering. Terra Populus, led by Steven Ruggles of the University of Minnesota focuses on tools for data integration across the domains of social science and environmental data, allowing interoperability of the three major data formats used in these domains: microdata, areal data, and raster data.
Hot and cold cognition	Hot and cold cognition	Hot cognition is a hypothesis on motivated reasoning in which a person's thinking is influenced by their emotional state. Put simply, hot cognition is cognition coloured by emotion. Hot cognition contrasts with cold cognition, which implies cognitive processing of information that is independent of emotional involvement. Hot cognition is proposed to be associated with cognitive and physiological arousal, in which a person is more responsive to environmental factors. As it is automatic, rapid and led by emotion, hot cognition may consequently cause biased decision making. Hot cognition may arise, with varying degrees of strength, in politics, religion, and other sociopolitical contexts because of moral issues, which are inevitably tied to emotion. Hot cognition was initially proposed in 1963 by Robert P. Abelson. The idea became popular in the 1960s and the 1970s. An example of a biased decision caused by hot cognition would be a juror disregarding evidence because of an attraction to the defendant. Decision making with cold cognition is more likely to involve logic and critical analysis. Therefore, when an individual engages in a task while using cold cognition, the stimulus is likely to be emotionally neutral and the "outcome of the test is not motivationally relevant" to the individual. An example of a critical decision using cold cognition would be concentrating on the evidence before drawing a conclusion.
Hot and cold cognition	Hot and cold cognition	Hot and cold cognition form a dichotomy within executive functioning. Executive functioning has long been considered as a domain general cognitive function, but there has been support for separation into "hot" affective aspects and "cold" cognitive aspects. It is recognized that executive functioning spans across a number of cognitive tasks, including working memory, cognitive flexibility and reasoning in active goal pursuit. The distinction between hot and cool cognition implies that executive function may operate differently in different contexts. The distinction has been applied to research in cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, clinical psychology, social psychology, neuropsychology, and other areas of study in psychology.
Hot and cold cognition	Development and neuroanatomy	Performance on hot and cold tasks improves most rapidly during the preschool years, but continues into adolescence. This co-occurs with both structural and functional development associated with the prefrontal cortex. Specific areas within the prefrontal cortex (PFC) are thought to be associated with both hot and cold cognition. Hot cognition is likely to be utilized during tasks that require the regulation of emotion or motivation, as well as the re-evaluation of the motivational significance of a stimulus. The ventral and medial areas of the prefrontal cortex (VM-PFC) are implicated during these tasks. Cold cognition is thought to be associated with executive functions elicited by abstract, deconceptualized tasks, such as card sorting. The area of the brain that is utilized for these tasks is the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DL-PFC). It is between the ages of 3 years and 5 years that the most significant change in task completion is seen. Age-related trends have been observed in tasks used to measure hot cognition, as well as cold cognition. However, the age at which children reach adult-like functioning varies. It appears as though children take longer to fully develop hot executive functioning than cold. This lends support to the idea that hot cognition may follow a separate, and perhaps delayed, developmental trajectory as opposed to cold cognition. Further research done on these neurological areas suggests there may be some plasticity during the development of both hot and cold cognition. While the preschool years are ones of extreme sensitivity to the development of prefrontal cortex, a similar period is found in the transition into adolescence. This gives rise to the idea that there may be a time window for intervention training, which would improve cognitive abilities and executive functioning in children and adolescents.
Hot and cold cognition	Marketing	In marketing research, an audience's energy takes the form of psychological heat: hot cognition is an emotional thought process and cold cognition is a cognitive thought process.
Hot and cold cognition	Assessment	This section explains the most common tasks that are used to measure hot and cold cognitive functioning. The cool tasks are neutrally affective and measure executive function abilities such as cognitive flexibility and working memory. In other words, there is nothing to be gained or lost by performing these tasks. The hot tasks also measure executive function, but these tasks result in emotionally significant consequences.
Hot and cold cognition	Assessment	Hot function tasks Iowa gambling task In the Iowa gambling task participants are initially given $2,000 facsimile dollars and asked to win as much money as possible. They are presented with four decks of cards that represent either a gain or loss in money. One card from each deck is drawn at a time. Consistently choosing a card from the advantageous decks results in a net gain, whereas choosing from a disadvantageous deck results in a net loss. Each card from the disadvantageous deck offers a higher reward than the advantageous deck, but also a higher and more variable loss.
Hot and cold cognition	Assessment	Delay of gratification Studies have been conducted on the concept of delay of gratification to test whether or not people are capable of waiting to receive a reward in order to increase the value of the reward. In these experiments, participants can choose to either take the reward they are immediately presented with or can choose to wait a period of time to then receive a higher valued reward. Hot cognition would motivate people to immediately satisfy their craving for the present reward rather than waiting for a better reward.
Hot and cold cognition	Assessment	Neutral versus negative syllogisms tasks The influence that beliefs can have on logical reasoning may vary as a result of emotions during cognitive processes. When presented with neutral content, this will typically lead to the exhibition of the belief-bias effect. In contrast, content that is emotionally charged will result in a diminished likelihood of beliefs having an influence. The impact of negative emotions demonstrates the capability they have for altering the process underlying logical reasoning. There is an interaction that occurs between emotions and beliefs that interferes with the ability that an individual has to reason.
Hot and cold cognition	Assessment	Cold function tasks The cool tasks are neutrally affective and measure executive function abilities such as cognitive flexibility and working memory. In other words, there is nothing to be gained or lost by performing these tasks. The hot tasks also measure executive function, but these tasks result in emotionally significant consequences.
Hot and cold cognition	Assessment	Self Ordered Pointing In this task an array of items is presented to participants. The position of these items then randomly changes from trial to trial. Participants are instructed to point to one of these items, but then asked to not point to that same item again. In order to perform well on this task, participants must remember what item they pointed to and use this information to decide on subsequent responses.
Hot and cold cognition	Assessment	Wisconsin Card Sort Task (WCST) The Wisconsin Card Sort Task requires participants to sort stimulus cards that differ in dimensions (shape, colour, or number). However, they are not told how to sort them. The only feedback they receive is whether or not a match is correct. Participants must discover the rule according to dimension. Once the participant matches a certain number of correct cards, the dimension changes and they must rediscover the new rule. This requires participants to remember the rule they were using and cognitively change the rule by which they use to sort.
Hot and cold cognition	Assessment	Dimensional Change Card Sort Task (DCCS) Participants are required to sort stimulus cards based on either shape or colour. They are first instructed to sort based on one dimension (colour) in a trial, and then it switches to the other (shape) in the following trial. "Switch" trials are also used where the participant must change back and forth between rules within a single trial. Unlike the WCST, the rule is explicitly stated and does not have to be inferred. The task measures how flexible participants are to changing rules. This requires participants to shift between dimensions of sorting.
Hot and cold cognition	Recent evidence	Research has demonstrated emotional manipulations on decision making processes. Participants who are induced with enthusiasm, anger or distress (different specific emotions) responded in different ways to the risky-choice problems, demonstrating that hot cognition, as an automatic process, affects decision making differently. Another example of hot cognition is a better predictor of negative emotional arousal as compared to cold cognition when they have a personal investment, such as wanting your team to win. In addition, hot cognition changes the way people use decision-making strategies, depending on the type of mood they are in, positive or negative. When people are in a positive mood, they tend to use compensatory, holistic strategies. This leads to a shallow and broad processing of information. In a negative mood people employ non-compensatory, narrow strategies which leads to a more detail-oriented and thorough processing of information. In the study participants were shown movie clips in order to induce a mood of happiness, anger or sadness and asked to complete a decision-making task. Researchers found that participants in the negative mood condition used more non-compensatory, specific decision-making techniques by focusing on the details of the situation. Participants in the positive mood condition used more compensatory, broad decision making techniques by focusing on the bigger picture of the situation. Also, hot cognition has been implicated in automatic processing and autobiographical memory. Furthermore, hot cognition extends outside the laboratory as exhibited in political process and criminal judgments. When police officers were induced with sadness they were more likely to think the suspect was guilty. However, if police officers were induced with anger there was no difference in judgments. There are also clinical implications for understanding certain disorders. Patients diagnosed with anorexia nervosa went through intervention training, which included hot cognition as a part of emotional processing development, did not show any improvement after this training. In another clinical population, those diagnosed with bipolar disorder exaggerated their perception of negative feedback and were less likely to adjust their decision making process in the face of risky-choices (gambling tasks).
Non-conventional trademark	Non-conventional trademark	A non-conventional trademark, also known as a nontraditional trademark, is any new type of trademark which does not belong to a pre-existing, conventional category of trade mark, and which is often difficult to register, but which may nevertheless fulfill the essential trademark function of uniquely identifying the commercial origin of products or services. The term is broadly inclusive as it encompasses marks which do not fall into the conventional set of marks (e.g. those consisting of letters, numerals, words, logos, pictures, symbols, or combinations of one or more of these elements), and therefore includes marks based on appearance, shape, sound, smell, taste and texture. Non-conventional trademarks may therefore be visible signs (e.g. colors, shapes, moving images, holograms, positions), or non-visible signs (e.g. sounds, scents, tastes, textures).
Non-conventional trademark	Trends and issues	Certain types of non-conventional trademarks have become more widely accepted in recent times as a result of legislative changes expanding the definition of "trademark". Such developments are the result of international treaties dealing with intellectual property, such as the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, which sets down a standardised, inclusive legal definition. Single colour trademarks, motion trademarks, hologram trademarks, shape trademarks (also known as three-dimensional trademarks or 3D trademarks), and sound trademarks (also known as aural trademarks), are examples of such marks.
Non-conventional trademark	Trends and issues	In the United Kingdom, colours have been granted trademark protection when used in specific, limited contexts such as packaging or marketing. The particular shade of turquoise used on cans of Heinz baked beans can only be used by the H. J. Heinz Company for that product. In another instance, BP claims the right to use green on signs for petrol stations.[1] In a widely disputed move, Cadbury's (confectioners) has been granted "the colour Purple".
Non-conventional trademark	Trends and issues	In the United States, it is possible, in some cases, for color alone to function as a trademark. Originally, color was considered not a valid feature to register a trademark Leshen & Sons Rope Co. v. Broderick & Bascom Rope Co., 201 U.S. 166 (1906). Later, with the passage of the Lanham Act the United States Supreme Court in the case of Qualitex Co. v. Jacobson Products Co., 514 U.S. 159, 165, 115 S.Ct. 1300, 1304, 131 L.Ed.2d 248 (1995) would rule that under the Lanham Act, subject to the usual conditions, a color is registrable as a trademark.
Non-conventional trademark	Trends and issues	The right to exclusive use of a specific color as a trademark on packaging has generally been mixed in U.S. court cases. Specific cases denying color protection include royal blue for ice cream packages (AmBrit Inc. v. Kraft, Inc., 812 F.2d 1531 (11th Cir. 1986), cert. denied, 481 U.S. 1041 (1987)); a series of stripes or multiple colors on candy packages (Life Savers v. Curtiss Candy Co., 82 F.2d 4 (7th Cir. 1950)); green for farm implements (Deere & Co. v. Farmhand Inc. (560 F. Supp. 85 (S.D. Iowa 1982) aff'd, 721 F.2d 253 (8th Cir. 1983)); black for motors (Brunswick Corp. v. British Seagull, Ltd., 35 F.3d 1527 (Fed. Cir.), cert. denied, 115 S. Ct. 1426 (1994)); and the use of red for one half of a soup can (Campbell Soup Co. v. Armour & Co., 175 F. 2d 795 (Court of App. 3d Cir., 1949)). A successful case granting color protection involved the use of the color red for cans of tile mastic Dap Products, Inc. v. Color Tile Mfg., Inc. 821 F. Supp. 488 (S.D. Ohio 1993), and a green-gold color for dry cleaning pads (Qualitex Co. v. Jacobson Products Co., 514 U.S. 159, 165, 115 S.Ct. 1300, 1304, 131 L.Ed.2d 248 (1995)).
Non-conventional trademark	Trends and issues	Although scent trademarks (also known as olfactory trademarks or smell trademarks), are sometimes specifically mentioned in legislative definitions of "trademark", it is often difficult to register such marks if consistent, non-arbitrary and meaningful graphic representations of the marks cannot be produced. This tends to be an issue with all types of non-conventional trademarks, especially in Europe. United States practice is generally more liberal; a trademark for plumeria scent for sewing thread was registered in 1990. In Europe, a written description, with or without a deposited sample, is not sufficient to allow the mark to be registered, whereas such formalities are acceptable in the United States. However, even in the United States "functional" scents that are inherent in the product itself, such as smell for perfume, are not accepted for registration.
Non-conventional trademark	Trends and issues	One example of a shape trademark recognized in Europe is the protection granted to Toblerone, a company which manufactures chocolate bars with a distinctive triangular shape.Presenting further difficulties are entirely new types of marks which, despite growing commercial adoption in the marketplace, are typically very difficult to register, often because they are not formally recognised as a "trademark". Examples of such marks are motion trademarks (also known as animated marks, moving marks, moving image marks or movement marks). Many web browsers feature a moving image mark in the top right hand corner of the browser screen which is visible when the browser is in the process of resolving a website.
Non-conventional trademark	Decisions on non-conventional trademarks	Owens-Corning Owens-Corning was issued a trademark for the color pink used to color its fiberglass batting insulation product. The decision was based upon the fact that the company had been emphasizing the pink color of its insulation for decades, had licensed use of the Pink Panther cartoon character in its ads, the color was a non-functional aspect of the product (fiberglass is normally tan or yellow), and Owens Corning had spent over US$50 million advertising its insulation product. In re Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corp., 774 F.2d 1116 (Fed. Cir. 1985).
Non-conventional trademark	Decisions on non-conventional trademarks	Sieckmann In Dr. Ralf Sieckmann vs Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt (case C-273/00), a judgement of the European Court of Justice issued on December 12, 2002, the ECJ held in relation to trademarks in the European Community that: Article 2 of Council Directive 89/104/EEC (of 21 December 1988 to approximate the laws of the Member States relating to trade marks) must be interpreted as meaning that a trade mark may consist of a sign which is not in itself capable of being perceived visually, provided that it can be represented graphically, particularly by means of images, lines or characters, and that the representation is clear, precise, self-contained, easily accessible, intelligible, durable and objective.
Non-conventional trademark	Decisions on non-conventional trademarks	In respect of an olfactory sign, the requirements of graphic representability are not satisfied by a chemical formula, by a description in written words, by the deposit of an odour sample or by a combination of those elements.
Defeat device	Defeat device	A defeat device is any motor vehicle hardware, software, or design that interferes with or disables emissions controls under real-world driving conditions, even if the vehicle passes formal emissions testing. The term appears in the US Clean Air Act and European Union regulations, to describe anything that prevents an emissions control system from working, and applies as well to power plants or other air pollution sources, as to automobiles.The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has taken numerous enforcement actions against car makers and other companies that have used or installed defeat devices, whether deliberately, or through error or negligence. Aftermarket parts or software, such as modified exhausts or chip tuning products and services, are considered defeat devices if they inhibit or bypass a vehicle's emissions controls.
Defeat device	Timeline	1970s In 1973 the Big 3 Detroit automakers, Chrysler, Ford Motor Company and General Motors, along with import brand Toyota, were ordered by the EPA to stop using ambient temperature switches which disabled pollution controls at low temperatures. The automakers agreed to cease using the ambient temperature switches in the way the EPA said was in violation of the Clean Air Act, while insisting that the switches were not 'defeat devices' intended to evade rules. The auto companies said the devices improved engine efficiency and actually reduced pollution. The EPA order affected 2 million 1973 model year cars slated for production, but did not require a recall of cars already on the road.Also in 1973, Volkswagen agreed to a settlement with the EPA, in which they admitted no wrongdoing and paid a $120,000 fine, for failing to disclose the existence of two temperature sensing switches that affected emissions function. In their 1974 model year application to the EPA, VW disclosed the presence of the switches and the EPA rejected them, so they were removed.
Defeat device	Timeline	1990s In 1995, General Motors was ordered to recall 470,000 model year 1991 through 1995 Cadillacs and pay an $11 million fine for programming the car's electronic control unit (ECU) to enrich the fuel mixture any time the car's air conditioning or cabin heat was operating, since the EPA tests are conducted with those systems turned off. The richer fuel mixture was needed to address an engine stalling problem, resulting in emissions of up to 10 grams per mile of carbon monoxide (CO), nearly three times the limit of 3.4 g/mi. While the EPA and Justice Department contended that GM intentionally violated emissions standards, GM said that was "a matter of interpretation." Besides the fine, the second largest Clean Air Act penalty to date in 1995, GM had to spend up to $34 million for anti-pollution programs and recall 470,000 Cadillac 4.9 liter Eldorados, Fleetwoods, DeVilles, and Sevilles. The largest civil penalty under the Clean Air Act was $11.1 million paid by Louisiana-Pacific lumber and paper company.In 1996, Honda reached an agreement with the EPA to extend the warranties and offer free services for 1.6 million 1995 Civics and 1996–1997 model year Acuras, Accords, Civics, Preludes, and Odysseys, because Honda had disabled an engine misfire monitoring device that would have otherwise directed drivers to seek repairs. Honda was required to spend a total of $254 million on the warranties, service, pollution reduction projects, and $12.6 million in civil penalties.Also in 1996, Ford reached a consent decree to spend $7.9 million to address a defeat device on 60,000 1997 model year Econoline vans which used a "sophisticated electronic control strategy designed to enhance fuel economy", disabling NOx emissions controls while the vans were driven at highway speeds, a circumstance not occurring during lab testing to verify emissions control compliance.In 1998, the EPA announced fines totaling $83.4 million against seven diesel engine manufacturers, the largest fine to date, which evaded testing by shutting down emissions controls during highway driving while appearing to comply with lab testing. The seven, Caterpillar, Cummins, Detroit Diesel, Mack Trucks, Navistar International, Renault Trucks, and Volvo Trucks, also agreed to spend more than $1 billion to correct the problem. The trucks used engine ECU software to engage pollution controls during the 20-minute lab tests to verify compliance with the Clean Air Act, but then disable the emissions controls during normal highway cruising, emitting up to three times the maximum allowed NOx pollution.
Defeat device	Timeline	2000s In 2000 the German motorcycle magazine Motorrad reported about a defeat device delivered with the BMW F 650 GS. BMW responded by issuing an improved injection as of 2001 and calling back the models from the previous year.
Defeat device	Timeline	2010s In late 2015, the EPA discovered that software used in millions of Volkswagen Group turbocharged direct injection (TDI) diesel engines included features intended to produce misleading results during laboratory emissions testing.On 10 October 2015, Consumer Reports tested a 2015 Jetta TDI and a 2011 Jetta Sportwagen TDI in what they presumed was the special emissions testing, or cheat mode. The 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km/h) acceleration time of the 2011 Jetta increased from 9.9 to 10.5 seconds, and the 2015 car's time went from 9.1 to 9.2 seconds. The fuel economy of the 2011 car decreased from 50 to 46 mpg‑US (4.7 to 5.1 L/100 km; 60 to 55 mpg‑imp) and the 2015 car's fuel economy decreased from 53 to 50 mpg‑US (4.4 to 4.7 L/100 km; 64 to 60 mpg‑imp). Consumer Reports's Director of Auto Testing said that while the added fuel costs, "may not be dramatic, these cars may no longer stand out among many very efficient competitors." The method the magazine used to engage cheat mode while driving required making assumptions about the ECU's operations. Because disabling electronic stability control is a necessary step for running a car on a dynamometer, the magazine assumed that this would put the car in cheat mode. In order to keep the electronic stability control from reactivating while driving, they disconnected the cars' rear wheel speed sensors, simulating the inputs the ECU receives while the car is on a stationary test rig, even though it was being driven on the road. Besides front and rear wheel speeds, the EPA had said that steering wheel movement, barometric pressure and duration of engine operation were factors in triggering cheat mode.Fiat Chrysler produced over 100,000 model year 2014 through 2016 Ram 1500 and Jeep Grand Cherokee vehicles for sale in the United States with EcoDiesel engines in which the US EPA and the California Air Resources Board alleged had a defeat device.
Antonella Zanna	Antonella Zanna	Antonella Zanna Munthe-Kaas is an Italian applied mathematician and numerical analyst whose research includes work on numerical integration of differential equations and applications to medical imaging. She is a professor and head of the mathematics department at the University of Bergen in Norway.
Antonella Zanna	Education	Zanna was born in Molfetta, in southern Italy, and earned a degree in mathematics from the University of Bari. She completed her PhD in the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics at the University of Cambridge in 1998. Her dissertation, Numerical Solution of Isospectral Flows, was supervised by Arieh Iserles.
Antonella Zanna	Recognition	Zanna won the Second Prize in the Leslie Fox Prize for Numerical Analysis in 1997. She is a member of the Norwegian Academy of Technological Sciences.
Antonella Zanna	Personal life	Zanna married to Norwegian mathematician Hans Munthe-Kaas in 1997; they have two children and a dog.
Technical peer review	Technical peer review	In engineering, technical peer review is a well defined review process for finding and correcting defects conducted by a team of peers with assigned roles. Technical peer reviews are carried out by peers representing areas of life cycle affected by material being reviewed (usually limited to 6 or fewer people). Technical peer reviews are held within development phases, between milestone reviews, on completed products, or on completed portions of products. A technical peer review may also be called an engineering peer review, a product peer review, a peer review/inspection or an inspection.
Technical peer review	Overview	The purpose of a technical peer review is to remove defects as early as possible in the development process. By removing defects at their origin (e.g., requirements and design documents, test plans and procedures, software code, etc.), technical peer reviews prevent defects from propagating through multiple phases and work products and reduce the overall amount of rework necessary on projects. Improved team efficiency is a side effect (e.g., by improving team communication, integrating the viewpoints of various engineering specialty disciplines, more quickly bringing new members up to speed, and educating project members about effective development practices).
Technical peer review	Overview	In CMMI, peer reviews are used as a principal means of verification in the Verification process area and as an objective evaluation method in the Process and Product Quality Assurance process area. The results of technical peer reviews can be reported at milestone reviews.

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