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Solar power forecasting
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Short-term solar power forecasting
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Short-term forecasting provides predictions up to seven days ahead. Due to the power market regulation in many jurisdictions, intra-day forecasts and day-ahead solar power forecasts are the most important time horizons in this category. Basically all highly accurate short term forecasting methods leverage serval data input streams such as meteorological variables, local weather phenomena and ground observations along with complex mathematical models.
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Solar power forecasting
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Short-term solar power forecasting
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Ground based sky observations For intra-day forecasts, local cloud information is acquired by one or several ground-based sky imagers at high frequency (1 minute or less). The combination of these images and local weather measurement information are processed to simulate cloud motion vectors and optical depth to obtain forecasts up to 30 minutes ahead.
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Solar power forecasting
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Short-term solar power forecasting
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Satellite based methods These methods leverage the several geostationary Earth observing weather satellites (such as Meteosat Second Generation (MSG) fleet) to detect, characterise, track and predict the future locations of cloud cover. These satellites make it possible to generate solar power forecasts over broad regions through the application of image processing and forecasting algorithms. Some satellite based forecasting algorithms include cloud motion vectors (CMVs) or streamline based approaches.
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Solar power forecasting
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Short-term solar power forecasting
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Numerical weather prediction Most of the short term forecast approaches use numerical weather prediction models (NWP) that provide an important estimation of the development of weather variables. The models used included the Global Forecast System (GFS) or data provided by the European Center for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (ECMWF). These two models are considered the state of the art of global forecast models, which provide meteorological forecasts all over the world.
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Solar power forecasting
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Short-term solar power forecasting
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In order to increase spatial and temporal resolution of these models, other models have been developed which are generally called mesoscale models. Among others, HIRLAM, WRF or MM5. Since these NWP models are highly complex and difficult to run on local computers, these variables are usually considered as exogeneous inputs to solar irradiance models and ingested form the respective data provider. Best forecasting results are achieved with data assimilation. Some researchers argue for the use of post-processing techniques, once the models’ output is obtained, in order to obtain a probabilistic point of view of the accuracy of the output. This is usually done with ensemble techniques that mix different outputs of different models perturbed in strategic meteorological values and finally provide a better estimate of those variables and a degree of uncertainty, like in the model proposed by Bacher et al. (2009).
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Solar power forecasting
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Long-term solar power forecasting
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Long-term forecasting usually refers to forecasting techniques applied to time horizons on the order of weeks to years. These time horizons can be relevant for energy producers to negotiate contracts with financial entities or utilities that distribute the generated energy. In general, these long-term forecasting horizons usually rely on NWP and climatological models. Additionally, most of the forecasting methods are based on mesoscale models fed with reanalysis data as input. Output can also be postprocessed with statistical approaches based on measured data. Due to the fact that this time horizon is less relevant from an operational perspective and much harder to model and validate, only about 5% of solar forecasting publications consider this horizon.
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Solar power forecasting
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Energetic models
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Any output from a model must then be converted to the electric energy that a particular solar PV plant will produce. This step is usually done with statistical approaches that try to correlate the amount of available resource with the metered power output. The main advantage of these methods is that the meteorological prediction error, which is the main component of the global error, might be reduced taking into account the uncertainty of the prediction. As it was mentioned before and detailed in Heinemann et al., these statistical approaches comprises from ARMA models, neural networks, support vector machines, etc.
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Solar power forecasting
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Energetic models
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On the other hand, there also exist theoretical models that describe how a power plant converts the meteorological resource into electric energy, as described in Alonso et al. The main advantage of this type of models is that when they are fitted, they are really accurate, although they are too sensitive to the meteorological prediction error, which is usually amplified by these models.
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Solar power forecasting
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Energetic models
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Hybrid models, finally, are a combination of these two models and they seem to be a promising approach that can outperform each of them individually.
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Cabazitaxel
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Cabazitaxel
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Cabazitaxel, sold under the brand name Jevtana, is a semi-synthetic derivative of a natural taxoid. It is a microtubule inhibitor, and the fourth taxane to be approved as a cancer therapy.Cabazitaxel was developed by Sanofi-Aventis and was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of hormone-refractory prostate cancer in June 2010. It is available as a generic medication.
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Cabazitaxel
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Medical uses
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Cabazitaxel is indicated in combination with prednisone for the treatment of metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer following docetaxel-based treatment.
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Cabazitaxel
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Mechanism of action
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Taxanes enhance microtubule stabilization and inhibit cellular mitosis and division. Moreover, taxanes prevent androgen receptor (AR) signaling by binding cellular microtubules and the microtubule-associated motor protein dynein, thus averting AR nuclear translocation.
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Cabazitaxel
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Clinical trials
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In patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC), overall survival (OS) is markedly enhanced with cabazitaxel versus mitoxantrone after prior docetaxel treatment. FIRSTANA (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01308567) assessed whether cabazitaxel 20 mg/m2 (C20) or 25 mg/m2 (C25) is superior to docetaxel 75 mg/m2 (D75) in terms of OS in patients with chemotherapy-naïve mCRPC. However, C20 and C25 did not demonstrate superiority for OS versus D75 in patients with chemotherapy-naïve mCRPC. Cabazitaxel and docetaxel demonstrated different toxicity profiles, and C20 showed the overall lowest toxicity.
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Cabazitaxel
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Clinical trials
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In a phase III trial with 755 men for the treatment of castration-resistant prostate cancer, median survival was 15.1 months for patients receiving cabazitaxel versus 12.7 months for patients receiving mitoxantrone. Cabazitaxel was associated with more grade 3–4 neutropenia (81.7%) than mitoxantrone (58%). Common adverse effects with cabazitaxel include neutropenia (including febrile neutropenia) and GIT side effects appeared mainly in diarrhea, whereas, neuropathy was rarely detected.
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Cabazitaxel
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Pharmacokinetics
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Cabazitaxel administration causes a decrease in plasma concentrations showing triphasic kinetics: a mean half life (t1/2) of 2.6 min in the first phase, a mean t1/2 of 1.3 h in the second phase, and a mean t1/2 of 77.3 h in the third phase.
Metabolism Cabazitaxel is basically metabolized in the liver by [cytochrome P450 (CYP)3A4/5 > CYP2C8], which result in seven plasma metabolites and excreted 20 metabolites. During 14 days after administration, 80% of cabazitaxel is excreted: 76% in the feces and 3.7% as a renal excretion.
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Social grooming
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Social grooming
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Social grooming is a behavior in which social animals, including humans, clean or maintain one another's body or appearance. A related term, allogrooming, indicates social grooming between members of the same species. Grooming is a major social activity, and a means by which animals who live in close proximity may bond and reinforce social structures, family links, and build companionships. Social grooming is also used as a means of conflict resolution, maternal behavior and reconciliation in some species. Mutual grooming typically describes the act of grooming between two individuals, often as a part of social grooming, pair bonding, or a precoital activity.
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Social grooming
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Evolutionary advantages
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There are a variety of proposed mechanisms by which social grooming behavior has been hypothesized to increase fitness. These evolutionary advantages may come in the form of health benefits including reduced disease transmission and reduced stress levels, maintaining social structure, and direct improvement of fitness as a measure of survival.
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Social grooming
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Evolutionary advantages
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Health benefits It is often argued as to whether the overarching importance of social grooming is to boost an organism's health and hygiene or whether the social side of social grooming plays an equally or more important role. Traditionally, it is thought that the primary function of social grooming is the upkeep of an animal's hygiene. Evidence to support this statement involves the fact that all grooming concentrates on body parts that are inaccessible by autogrooming and that the amount of time spent allogrooming regions did not vary significantly even if the body part had a more important social or communicatory function.Social grooming behaviour has been shown to elicit an array of health benefits in a variety of species. For example, group member connection has the potential to mitigate the potentially harmful effects of stressors. In macaques, social grooming has been proven to reduce heart rate. Social affiliation during a mild stressor was shown to correlate with lower levels of mammary tumor development and longer lifespan in rats, while lack of this affiliation was demonstrated to be a major risk factor.
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Social grooming
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Evolutionary advantages
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On the other hand, it could be argued that the hygienic aspect to allogrooming does not play an as important role as the social aspect to it. Observational studies performed on 44 different primate species suggest that the number of times a species allogrooms, on average, correlates with its group size rather than with its body size. If allogrooming was purely required from a hygienic standpoint, then the larger an animal, the more and more often it would be groomed by members of its group. However, we see instead that when group size increases, members ensure that they spend an appropriate amount of time grooming everyone. Hence, the fact that animals, particularly primates here, groom each other more frequently than necessary from a hygienic standpoint suggests that the social angle of allogrooming plays an equally, if not more, important role. Another point of evidence for the importance of the social aspect is that in comparison to how much and how a primate grooms itself (autogrooming), allogrooming involved longer periods of time and different techniques, some of which have connotations of being affectionate gestures.
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Social grooming
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Evolutionary advantages
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Reinforcing social structure and building relationships Creation and maintenance of social bonds One of the most critical functions of social grooming is to establish social networks and relationships. In many species, individuals form close social connections dubbed "friendships" due to long durations spent together doing activities. In primates especially, grooming is known to have major social significance and function in the formation and maintenance of these friendships. Studies performed on rhesus macaques showed that fMRI scans of the monkeys' brains lit up more significantly at the perirhinial cortex (associated with recognition and memory) and the temporal pole (associated with social and emotional processing/analysis) when the monkeys were shown pictures of their friends' faces as compared to less familiar faces. Hence, primates recognize familiar and well-liked individuals ('friends') and spend more time grooming them as compared to less favoured partners. In species with a more tolerant social style, such as Barbary macaques, it is seen that females choose their grooming mates based on whom they know better rather than on social rank. In addition to primates, animals such as deer, cows, horses, vole, mice, meerkats, coati, lions, birds, bats also form social bonds through grooming behaviour.
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Social grooming
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Evolutionary advantages
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Social grooming may also serve to establish and recognize mates or amorous partners. For example, in short-nosed fruit bats, the females initiate grooming with the males just before flight at dusk. The male and his close-knit female harem apply bodily secretions on each other, which could possibly allow them to recognize the female's reproductive status. The 2016 study by Kumar et al. chemically analyzed these secretions, revealing that they may be required in chemosensory mediated communication and mate choice. Similarly, in the less aggressive herb-field mice species, males are observed to groom females for longer durations and even allow females to not reciprocate. Since the mating demands of males are greater than those of offered by females, the females use social grooming as a method to choose mates and males use it to incite mating.
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Social grooming
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Evolutionary advantages
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Finally, kin selection is not as important a factor as friendship or mate preference when choosing a grooming mate as previously thought. In the 2018 Phelps et al. captive study on chimpanzees, it was seen that the animals remembered interactions that were 'successful' or 'unsuccessful' and used that as a basis to choose grooming mates; they chose grooming mates based on who would reciprocate rather than who would not. More importantly, if the delay between two chimpanzees grooming each other is very little, then the chimpanzees tend to 'time match', i.e. the second groomer grooms the first for the same amount of time that he/she was groomed. This 'episodic memory' requires a demanding amount of cognitive function and emotional recognition, and has been tested experimentally with respect to food preferences, where apes chose between tasty perishable and non-tasty non-perishable food at shorter and longer delays respectively after trying the food. Hence, apes can distinguish between different events that occurred at different times.
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Social grooming
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Evolutionary advantages
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Enforcing hierarchy and social structure In general, social grooming is an activity that is directed up hierarchy, i.e. a lower ranking individual grooms a higher ranking individual in the group. In meerkats, social grooming has been shown to carry the role of maintaining relationships that increase fitness. In this system, researchers have observed that dominant males receive more grooming while grooming others less, thereby indicating that less dominant males groom more dominant individuals to maintain relationships. In a study conducted on rhesus monkeys, it was seen that more dominant group members were 'stroked' more than they were 'picked at' when getting groomed, as compared to lower ranking group members. From a utilitarian standpoint, stroking is a less effective technique for grooming than picking, but it is construed as being a more affectionate gesture. Hence, grooming a higher ranking individual could be conducted in order to placate a potential aggressor and reduce tension. Moreover, individuals closer in rank tend to groom each other more reciprocally than individuals further apart in rank.
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Social grooming
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Evolutionary advantages
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Grooming networks in black crested gibbons have been proven to contribute greater social cohesion and stability. Groups of gibbons with more stable social networks formed grooming networks that were significantly more complex, while groups with low stability networks formed far fewer grooming pairs.
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Social grooming
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Evolutionary advantages
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Interchange of favours Grooming is often offered by an individual in exchange for a certain behavioural response or action. Social grooming is critical for vampire bats especially, since it is necessary for them to maintain food-sharing relationships in order to sustain their food regurgitation sharing behaviour. In Tibetan macaques, infants are seen as a valuable commodity that can be exchanged for favours; mothers allow non-mothers to handle their infants for short durations in exchange for being groomed. Tibetan macaques measure and perceive the value of the infants by noting the relative ratio of infants in the group; as the number of infants increase, their 'value' decreases and the amount of grooming in exchange for infant-handling performed by non-mothers for mothers decreases.
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Social grooming
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Evolutionary advantages
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In male bonobos, it is suggested that grooming is exchanged in favour of some emotional component because grooming familiar individuals involves larger time differences (i.e. the duration for which each individual grooms the other is not equal) and reduced reciprocity (i.e. likelihood of grooming the other is unpredictable). Hence, the presence of some sort of social bond between individuals results in greater 'generosity' and tolerance between them.
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Social grooming
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Evolutionary advantages
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Direct fitness consequences Social grooming relationships have been proven to provide direct fitness benefits to a variety of species. In particular, grooming in yellow baboons (Papio cynocephalus) has been studied extensively, with numerous studies showing an increase in fitness as a result of social bonds formed through social grooming behavior. One such study, which collected 16 years of behavioral data on wild baboons, highlights the effects that sociality has on infant survival. A positive relationship is established between infant survival to one year and a composite sociality index, a measure of sociality based on proximity and social grooming. Evidence has also been provided for the effect of sociality on adult survival in wild baboons. Direct correlations between measures of social connectedness (which focuses on social grooming) and median survival time for both female and male baboons were modeled. Social bonds established by grooming may provide an adaptive advantage in the form of conflict resolution and protection from aggression. In wild savannah baboons, social affiliations are shown to augment fitness by increasing tolerance from more dominant group members and increasing the chance of obtaining aid from conspecifics during instances of within-group contest interactions. In the yellow baboon, adult females form relationships with their kin, who offer support during times of violent conflict within social groups. In Barbary macaques, social grooming results in the formation of crucial relationships among partners. These social relationships serve to aid cooperation and facilitate protection against combative groups composed of other males, which can oftentimes cause physical harm. Furthermore, social relationships have also been proven to decrease risk of infanticide in several primates.
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Social grooming
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Altruism
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Altruism, in the biological sense, refers to a behavior performed by an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the one performing the behavior. This differs from the philosophical concept of altruism which requires the conscious intention of helping another. As a behavior, altruism is not evaluated in moral terms, but rather as a consequence of an action for reproductive fitness. It is often questioned why the behavior persists if it is costly to the one performing it, however, Charles Darwin proposed group selection as the mechanism behind the clear advantages of altruism.Social grooming is considered a behavior of facultative altruism- the behavior itself is a temporary loss of direct fitness (with potential for indirect fitness gain), followed by personal reproduction. This tradeoff has been compared to the Prisoner's Dilemma model, and out of this comparison came Robert Trivers reciprocal altruism theory under the title "tit-for-tat". In conjunction with altruism, kin selection bears an emphasis on favoring the reproductive success of an organism's relatives, even at a cost to the organism's own survival and reproduction. Because of this, kin selection is an instance of inclusive fitness, which combines the number of offspring produced with the number an individual can ensure the production of by supporting others, such as siblings.
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Social grooming
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Altruism
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Hamilton's rule rB>C Developed by W.D. Hamilton, this rule governs the idea that kin selection causes genes to increase in frequency when the genetic relatedness (r) of a recipient to an actor multiplied by the benefit to the recipient (B) is greater than the reproductive cost to the actor (C). Thus, it is advantageous for an individual to partake in altruistic behaviors, such as social grooming, so long as the individual receiving the benefits of the behavior is related to the one providing the behavior.
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Social grooming
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Altruism
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Use as a commodity It was questioned whether some animals are instead using altruistic behaviors as a market strategy to trade for something desirable. In olive baboons, Papio anubis, it has been found that individuals perform altruistic behaviors as a form of trade in which a behavior is provided in exchange for benefits, such as reduced aggression. The grooming was evenly balanced across multiple bouts rather than single bouts, suggesting that females are not constrained to complete exchanges with single transactions and use social grooming to solidify long-term relationships with those in their social group.In addition, white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar) males were more attentive to social grooming during estrus of the females in their group. Though the behavior of social grooming itself was not beneficial to the one providing the service, the opportunity to mate and subsequent fertilization increases the reproductive fitness of those participating in the behavior. This study was also successful in finding that social grooming performance cycled with that of the females ovarian cycle, similar to a courting behavior.
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Social grooming
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Ontogeny of social grooming
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General learning and reciprocation of allogrooming In most cases, allogrooming is an action that is learned from an individual's mother. Infants are groomed by their mothers and mimic these actions on each other and the mother as juveniles. This action is reciprocated on other group members (non-mother or of a different rank) more often once the individual is a fully developed adult and can follow normal grooming patterns.
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Social grooming
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Ontogeny of social grooming
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Sex based differences in learning Male and female members of a species may differ in learning how, when and whom to groom. In stump-tailed macaques, infant females mimic their mothers' actions by grooming their mothers more often than their males counterparts do and by grooming the same group members that their mothers groom. This mimicry is suggested to indicate identification-based observational learning in infant stump-tailed macaques, and the daughters' penchants for maternal mimicry and kin-biased grooming versus the sons' penchants for rank-biased grooming falls in line with their social roles in groups, where adult males require alliances in order to gain and maintain rank.
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Social grooming
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Tool usage
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In nearly all instances of social grooming, individuals use their own body parts, such as hands, teeth or tongue, to groom a group member or infant. It is very rare to observe instances of tool usage in social grooming in non-human animals; however, a few such instances have been observed in primates. In a 1981 observational study of Japanese macaques at Bucknell University, a mother macaque was seen to choose a stone after observing several stones on the ground and then use this stone to groom her infant. It was hypothesized that the stone was used as a distractor for the infant so that the mother could adequately clean her infant while his attention was occupied elsewhere. This was supported by the fact that the infant picked up the stone once the mother dropped it and allowed her to groom him while he played with it. This action was seen in a few other members in the colony, but was not seen throughout the species at all. At another instance, a female chimpanzee at the Delta Regional Primate Research Center created a 'toothbrush' by stripping a twig of its leaves and used this toothbrush to groom her infant over several instances. However, both examples concern tool use in primates, which is already widely studied and scientifically backed. The wide working memory capacities and causal understanding capabilities of primates permit them to fashion and utilize tools far more extensively than other non-human animals. Apart from physical and mental constraints, perhaps a reason allogrooming animals do not use tools is because a major purpose of social grooming is social bonding and involves emotional exchanges, much of which is conveyed by touch.
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Social grooming
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Mutual grooming
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Many animals groom each other in the form of stroking, scratching, and massaging. This activity often serves to remove foreign material from the body to promote the communal success of these socially active animals. There exists a wide array of socially grooming animals throughout the kingdom, including primates, insects, birds, and bats. While thorough research has still yet to be engaged, much has been learned about social grooming in non-human animals via the study of primates. The driving force behind mammal social grooming is primarily believed to be rooted in adaptation to consolatory behavior as well as utilitarian purposes in the exchange of resources such as food, sex, and communal hygiene.
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Social grooming
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Mutual grooming
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Insects In insects, grooming often involves the important role of removing foreign material from the body. The honey bee, for example, engages in social grooming by cleaning body parts that cannot be reached by the receiving bee. The receiving bee extends its wings perpendicular to its body while its wings, mouth parts, and antennae are cleaned in order to remove dust and pollen. This removal of dust and pollen allows for sharpening of olfactory senses in contributing to the overall well-being of the group.
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Social grooming
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Mutual grooming
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Bats Recent studies have determined that vampire bats engage in social grooming much more than other types of bats to promote the well-being of the group. Facing higher levels of parasitic infection, vampire bats engage in cleaning one another as well as sharing food via regurgitation. This activity prevents ongoing infection while also promoting group success.
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Social grooming
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Mutual grooming
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Primates Primates provide perhaps one of the best examples of mutual grooming due to the intensive research performed regarding their varying lifestyles, and the direct variation of means of social grooming across different species. Among primates, social grooming plays a significant role in animal consolation behavior whereby the primates engage in establishing and maintaining alliances through dominance hierarchies, pre-existing coalitions, and for reconciliation after conflicts. Primates groom socially in moments of boredom as well, and the act has been shown to reduce tension and stress. This reduction in stress is often associated with observed periods of relaxed behavior, and primates have been known to fall asleep while receiving grooming. Conflict among primates has been observed by researchers as increasing stress among the group, making mutual grooming very advantageous.There are benefits to initiating grooming. The one that starts the grooming will in return be groomed themselves, getting the benefit of being cleaned. Research has found that primates that are lower on the social ladder may initiate grooming with a higher ranked primate in order to increase their position. Under times of higher conflict and competition, it has been found that this is less likely to occur. Researchers have suggested that primates may see a need to balance the uses of grooming, swapping between its use as a means to increase social standing and the use of grooming to keep oneself clean.Grooming in primates is not only utilized for alliance formation and maintenance, but to exchange resources such as communal food, sex, and hygiene. Wild baboons have been found to utilize social grooming as an activity to remove ticks and other insects from others. In this grooming, the body areas receiving significant attention appear to be the regions where the baboons themselves cannot reach. Grooming activity in these regions is used to remove parasites, dirt, dead skin, as well as tangled fur to help keep the animal's health in good condition despite an individual inability to reach and clean certain areas.Time primates spend grooming increases with group size, but too large of group sizes can lead to decreased group cohesion because time spent grooming is usually impacted by other factors. Consequently, some of these aspects that affect time spent grooming include ecological, phylogenetic, and life history. For example, the article states, "Cognitive constraints and predation pressure strongly affect group sizes and thereby have an indirect effect on primate grooming time". By analyzing past data and studies done about this topic, the authors found that a primate group greater than 40 will face greater ecological problems and, thus, time spent during social grooming is affected.Recent studies regarding chimpanzees have determined the direct correlation of the release of oxytocin to consolatory behavior. This behavior as well as release has been noted in primates such as the Vervet monkey, a primate species that actively engages in social grooming from early childhood to adulthood. Vervet monkey siblings often have conflict over grooming allocation by their mother, yet, grooming remains an activity that mediates tension and is low cost for alliance formation and maintenance. This grooming occurs both between the siblings as well as involving the mother.Recent studies regarding the crab-eating macaques have shown that males will groom females in order to procure sex. One study found that a female has a greater likelihood to engage in sexual activity with a male if he had recently groomed her, compared to males who had not groomed her.[41] Birds Birds engage in allopreening. Researchers believe that this practice builds pair bonds. In 2010, researchers determined the existence of a form of social grooming as a consolation behavior within ravens via a form of bystander contact, whereby observer ravens would act to console a distressed victim via contact sitting, preening, as well as beak-to-beak touching.
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Social grooming
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Mutual grooming
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Horses Horses engage in mutual grooming via the formation of 'pair bonds' where parasites and other contaminants on the surface of the body are actively removed. This removal of foreign material is primarily performed in hard-to-reach areas such as the neck via nibbling.
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Social grooming
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Mutual grooming
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Cattle Allogrooming is a behavior commonly seen in many types of cattle, including dairy and beef breeds. The act of social licking can be seen specifically in heifers to initiate social dominance, emphasize companionship and improve hygiene of oneself or others. This behavior seen in cows may provide advantages including reduced parasite loads, social tension and competition at the feed bunk. It is understood that social licking can provide long term benefits such as promoting positive emotions and a relaxed environment.
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Social grooming
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Endocrine effects
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Social grooming has shown to be correlated with changes in endocrine levels within individuals. Specifically, there is a large correlation between the brain's release of oxytocin and social grooming. Oxytocin is hypothesized to promote prosocial behaviors due to its positive emotional response when released. Further, social grooming also releases beta-endorphins which promote physiological responses in stress reduction. These responses can occur from the production of hormones and endorphins, or through the growth or reduction in nerve structures. For example, in studies of suckling rats, rats who received warmth and touch when feeding had lower blood pressure levels than rats who did not receive any touch. This was found to be a result of an increased vagal nerve tone, meaning they had had higher parasympathetic nervous response and lower sympathetic nervous response to stimulus, resulting in a lower stress response. Social grooming is a form of innocuous sensory activation. Innocuous sensory activation, characterized by non-aggressive contact, stimulates an entirely separate neural pathway from nocuous aggressive sensory activation. Innocuous sensations are transmitted through the dorsal column-medial lemniscal system.
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Social grooming
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Endocrine effects
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Oxytocin Oxytocin is a peptide hormone known to help express social emotions such as altruism, which in turn provides a positive feedback mechanism for social behaviors. For example, studies in vampire bats have shown that intranasal injections of oxytocin have increased the amount of allogrooming done by female bats. The release of oxytocin, found to be stimulated by positive touch (such as allogrooming), positive smells and sounds, can have physiological benefits to the individual. Benefits can include: relaxation, healing, and digestion stimulation. Further, reproductive benefits have been found such as studies in rats have shown that the release of oxytocin can increase male reproductive success. The role of oxytocin is important in maternal pair bonding, and is hypothesized to promote similar bonding in social groups as a result of positive feedback loops from social interactions.
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Social grooming
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Endocrine effects
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Beta-endorphins Grooming stimulates the release of beta-endorphin, which is one physiological reason for why grooming appears to be relaxing. Beta-endorphins are found in neurons in the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. Beta-endorphins are found to be opioid agonists. Opioids are molecules that act on receptors to promote feelings of relaxation, and reduce pain. A study in monkeys shows the changes in opiate expression in the body, mirroring changes in beta-endorphin levels, influences desire for social grooming. In using opiate receptor blockades, which decrease the level of beta-endorphins, the monkeys responded with an increased desire to be groomed. In contrast, when the monkeys were given morphine, the desire to be groomed dropped significantly. Beta- endorphins have been difficult to measure in animal species, differently from oxytocin which can be measured by sampling cerebrospinal fluid, and therefore have not been linked as strongly with social behaviors.
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Social grooming
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Endocrine effects
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Glucocorticoids receptors Glucocorticoids are steroid hormones that are synthesized in the adrenal cortex and are a part of the group of corticosteroids. Glucocorticoids are involved in immune function, and are a part of the feedback system that reduces inflammation. Further, glucocorticoids are involved in glucose metabolism. Studies in macaques have shown that increased social stress results in glucocorticoid resistance, further inhibiting immune function. Macaques who participated in social grooming showed decreased levels of viral load, which points toward decreased levels of social stress resulting in increased immune function and glucocorticoid sensitivity. Additionally, an article published in 1997 concluded that an increase in maternal grooming resulted in a proportionate increase in Glucocorticoid receptors on target tissue in the neonatal rat. In the study on neonatal rats, it was found that the receptor number was altered because of a change in both serotonin and thyroid-stimulating hormone concentrations. An increase in the number of receptors might influence the amount of negative feedback on corticosteroid secretion and prevent the undesirable side effects of an abnormal physiologic stress response. Social grooming can change the number of glucocorticoid receptors, which can result in increased immune function.
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Social grooming
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Endocrine effects
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Studies have also shown that male baboons who participate more in social grooming show lower basal cortisol concentrations.Faecal glucocorticoid (fGCs) is a hormone metabolite associated with stress that is seen to be present in lower levels in female baboons with stronger, well-established grooming networks. When potentially infanticidal male baboons immigrate into a group, the females' fGC levels are seen to rise, indicative of higher stress; however, females with reliable and well-established grooming partners have less of a fGC rise than those with weaker grooming networks. Hence, the social support received from a 'friendship' aids baboons in stress management. Similarly, fGC levels are also seen to rise in females when a close 'friend' dies; however, these rising fGC levels are seen to decrease in females that form new grooming partners, replacing their deceased friends.
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Social grooming
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Endocrine effects
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Opioids Endogenous opioids are chemical molecules produced in the brains of organisms and serve to create feelings of relaxation, happiness and pain relief. In primates, laughter and social grooming trigger opioid release in the brain, which is thought to form and maintain social bonds. In a study performed on rhesus monkeys, lactating females with 4- to 10-week-old infants were given low doses of naloxone, an opioid antagonist that blocks the opioid receptor and inhibits the effects of endogenous opioids. In comparison to the control females, who were given saline solutions, the naloxone females groomed their infants and other members of their group less. The naloxone females were also observed to be less protective of their young, which is uncharacteristic of new mothers. This decline in social interactions upon naloxone injection suggests that opioid antagonists interfere with maternal involvement in social actions – here, social grooming. We could hypothesize therefore that higher levels of opioids in new rhesus mothers cause increased levels of social involvement and 'maternal' characteristics, aiding the development and learning of the newborn.
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Social grooming
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Criticism for studies quoted
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Above all, the main criticism regarding studies concerning social grooming is that almost all of them focus on primates and a narrow range of species within primates themselves. This, therefore, does not give us a well-rounded idea of what the cognitive or behavioural basis for social grooming is, nor does it completely outline all the effects (benefits or costs) of it. Moreover, we may not have all the relevant data concerning social grooming even in a well-studied species. Secondly, data for most species is derived based on the members of a single group. In primates, whose behaviour is highly flexible depending on the socio-environmental conditions, this poses as a particular challenge. Thirdly, most studies are observational and short-termed. Hence the direct link between social grooming and fitness or mate choice outcomes cannot be studied directly as in long-term direct or captive studies.
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Identity (philosophy)
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Identity (philosophy)
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In philosophy, identity (from Latin: identitas, "sameness") is the relation each thing bears only to itself. The notion of identity gives rise to many philosophical problems, including the identity of indiscernibles (if x and y share all their properties, are they one and the same thing?), and questions about change and personal identity over time (what has to be the case for a person x at one time and a person y at a later time to be one and the same person?). It is important to distinguish between qualitative identity and numerical identity. For example, consider two children with identical bicycles engaged in a race while their mother is watching. The two children have the same bicycle in one sense (qualitative identity) and the same mother in another sense (numerical identity). This article is mainly concerned with numerical identity, which is the stricter notion.
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Identity (philosophy)
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Identity (philosophy)
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The philosophical concept of identity is distinct from the better-known notion of identity in use in psychology and the social sciences. The philosophical concept concerns a relation, specifically, a relation that x and y stand in if, and only if they are one and the same thing, or identical to each other (i.e. if, and only if x = y). The sociological notion of identity, by contrast, has to do with a person's self-conception, social presentation, and more generally, the aspects of a person that make them unique, or qualitatively different from others (e.g. cultural identity, gender identity, national identity, online identity, and processes of identity formation). Lately, identity has been conceptualized considering humans’ position within the ecological web of life.
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Identity (philosophy)
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Metaphysics of identity
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Metaphysicians and philosophers of language and mind ask other questions: What does it mean for an object to be the same as itself? If x and y are identical (are the same thing), must they always be identical? Are they necessarily identical? What does it mean for an object to be the same, if it changes over time? (Is applet the same as applet+1?) If an object's parts are entirely replaced over time, as in the Ship of Theseus example, in what way is it the same?The law of identity originates from classical antiquity. The modern formulation of identity is that of Gottfried Leibniz, who held that x is the same as y if and only if every predicate true of x is true of y as well.
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Identity (philosophy)
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Metaphysics of identity
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Leibniz's ideas have taken root in the philosophy of mathematics, where they have influenced the development of the predicate calculus as Leibniz's law. Mathematicians sometimes distinguish identity from equality. More mundanely, an identity in mathematics may be an equation that holds true for all values of a variable. Hegel argued that things are inherently self-contradictory and that the notion of something being self-identical only made sense if it were not also not-identical or different from itself and did not also imply the latter. In Hegel's words, "Identity is the identity of identity and non-identity." More recent metaphysicians have discussed trans-world identity—the notion that there can be the same object in different possible worlds. An alternative to trans-world identity is the counterpart relation in Counterpart theory. It is a similarity relation that rejects trans-world individuals and instead defends an objects counterpart – the most similar object.
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Identity (philosophy)
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Metaphysics of identity
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Some philosophers have denied that there is such a relation as identity. Thus Ludwig Wittgenstein writes (Tractatus 5.5301): "That identity is not a relation between objects is obvious." At 5.5303 he elaborates: "Roughly speaking: to say of two things that they are identical is nonsense, and to say of one thing that it is identical with itself is to say nothing." Bertrand Russell had earlier voiced a worry that seems to be motivating Wittgenstein's point (The Principles of Mathematics §64): "[I]dentity, an objector may urge, cannot be anything at all: two terms plainly are not identical, and one term cannot be, for what is it identical with?" Even before Russell, Gottlob Frege, at the beginning of "On Sense and Reference," expressed a worry with regard to identity as a relation: "Equality gives rise to challenging questions which are not altogether easy to answer. Is it a relation?" More recently, C. J. F. Williams has suggested that identity should be viewed as a second-order relation, rather than a relation between objects, and Kai Wehmeier has argued that appealing to a binary relation that every object bears to itself, and to no others, is both logically unnecessary and metaphysically suspect.
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Identity (philosophy)
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Identity statements
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Kind-terms, or sortals give a criterion of identity and non-identity among items of their kind.
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Boundary current
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Boundary current
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Boundary currents are ocean currents with dynamics determined by the presence of a coastline, and fall into two distinct categories: western boundary currents and eastern boundary currents.
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Boundary current
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Eastern boundary currents
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Eastern boundary currents are relatively shallow, broad and slow-flowing. They are found on the eastern side of oceanic basins (adjacent to the western coasts of continents). Subtropical eastern boundary currents flow equatorward, transporting cold water from higher latitudes to lower latitudes; examples include the Benguela Current, the Canary Current, the Humboldt (Peru) Current, and the California Current. Coastal upwelling often brings nutrient-rich water into eastern boundary current regions, making them productive areas of the ocean.
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Boundary current
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Western boundary currents
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Western boundary currents may themselves be divided into sub-tropical or low-latitude western boundary currents. Sub-tropical western boundary currents are warm, deep, narrow, and fast-flowing currents that form on the west side of ocean basins due to western intensification. They carry warm water from the tropics poleward. Examples include the Gulf Stream, the Agulhas Current, and the Kuroshio Current. Low-latitude western boundary currents are similar to sub-tropical western boundary currents but carry cool water from the subtropics equatorward. Examples include the Mindanao Current and the North Brazil Current.
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Boundary current
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Western boundary currents
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Western intensification Western intensification applies to the western arm of an oceanic current, particularly a large gyre in such a basin. The trade winds blow westward in the tropics. The westerlies blow eastward at mid-latitudes. This applies a stress to the ocean surface with a curl in north and south hemispheres, causing Sverdrup transport equatorward (toward the tropics). Because of conservation of mass and of potential vorticity, that transport is balanced by a narrow, intense poleward current, which flows along the western coast, allowing the vorticity introduced by coastal friction to balance the vorticity input of the wind. The reverse effect applies to the polar gyres – the sign of the wind stress curl and the direction of the resulting currents are reversed. The principal west-side currents (such as the Gulf Stream of the North Atlantic Ocean) are stronger than those opposite (such as the California Current of the North Pacific Ocean). The mechanics were made clear by the American oceanographer Henry Stommel.
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Boundary current
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Western boundary currents
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In 1948, Stommel published his key paper in Transactions, American Geophysical Union: "The Westward Intensification of Wind-Driven Ocean Currents", in which he used a simple, homogeneous, rectangular ocean model to examine the streamlines and surface height contours for an ocean at a non-rotating frame, an ocean characterized by a constant Coriolis parameter and finally, a real-case ocean basin with a latitudinally-varying Coriolis parameter. In this simple modeling the principal factors that were accounted for influencing the oceanic circulation were: surface wind stress bottom friction a variable surface height leading to horizontal pressure gradients the Coriolis effect.In this, Stommel assumed an ocean of constant density and depth D+h seeing ocean currents; he also introduced a linearized, frictional term to account for the dissipative effects that prevent the real ocean from accelerating. He starts, thus, from the steady-state momentum and continuity equations: cos (πyb)−Ru−g(D+h)∂h∂x=0(1) −f(D+h)u−Rv−g(D+h)∂h∂y=0(2) ∂[(D+h)u]∂x+∂[(D+h)v]∂y=0(3) Here f is the strength of the Coriolis force, R is the bottom-friction coefficient, g is gravity, and cos (πyb) is the wind forcing. The wind is blowing towards the west at y=0 and towards the east at y=b Acting on (1) with ∂∂y and on (2) with ∂∂x , subtracting, and then using (3), gives sin (πyb)+R(∂v∂x−∂u∂y)=0(4) If we introduce a Stream function ψ and linearize by assuming that >> h , equation (4) reduces to sin (πyb)(5) Here α=(DR)(∂f∂y) and γ=πFRb The solutions of (5) with boundary condition that ψ be constant on the coastlines, and for different values of α , emphasize the role of the variation of the Coriolis parameter with latitude in inciting the strengthening of western boundary currents. Such currents are observed to be much faster, deeper, narrower and warmer than their eastern counterparts.
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Boundary current
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Western boundary currents
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For a non-rotating state (zero Coriolis parameter) and where that is a constant, ocean circulation has no preference toward intensification/acceleration near the western boundary. The streamlines exhibit a symmetric behavior in all directions, with the height contours demonstrating a nearly parallel relation to the streamlines, in a homogeneously rotating ocean. Finally, on a rotating sphere - the case where the Coriolis force is latitudinally variant, a distinct tendency for asymmetrical streamlines is found, with an intense clustering along the western coasts. Mathematically elegant figures within models of the distribution of streamlines and height contours in such an ocean if currents uniformly rotate can be found in the paper.
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Boundary current
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Western boundary currents
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Sverdrup balance and physics of western intensification The physics of western intensification can be understood through a mechanism that helps maintain the vortex balance along an ocean gyre. Harald Sverdrup was the first one, preceding Henry Stommel, to attempt to explain the mid-ocean vorticity balance by looking at the relationship between surface wind forcings and the mass transport within the upper ocean layer. He assumed a geostrophic interior flow, while neglecting any frictional or viscosity effects and presuming that the circulation vanishes at some depth in the ocean. This prohibited the application of his theory to the western boundary currents, since some form of dissipative effect (bottom Ekman layer) would be later shown to be necessary to predict a closed circulation for an entire ocean basin and to counteract the wind-driven flow.
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Boundary current
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Western boundary currents
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Sverdrup introduced a potential vorticity argument to connect the net, interior flow of the oceans to the surface wind stress and the incited planetary vorticity perturbations. For instance, Ekman convergence in the sub-tropics (related to the existence of the trade winds in the tropics and the westerlies in the mid-latitudes) was suggested to lead to a downward vertical velocity and therefore, a squashing of the water columns, which subsequently forces the ocean gyre to spin more slowly (via angular momentum conservation). This is accomplished via a decrease in planetary vorticity (since relative vorticity variations are not significant in large ocean circulations), a phenomenon attainable through an equatorially directed, interior flow that characterizes the subtropical gyre. The opposite is applicable when Ekman divergence is induced, leading to Ekman absorption (suction) and a subsequent, water column stretching and poleward return flow, a characteristic of sub-polar gyres. This return flow, as shown by Stommel, occurs in a meridional current, concentrated near the western boundary of an ocean basin. To balance the vorticity source induced by the wind stress forcing, Stommel introduced a linear frictional term in the Sverdrup equation, functioning as the vorticity sink. This bottom ocean, frictional drag on the horizontal flow allowed Stommel to theoretically predict a closed, basin-wide circulation, while demonstrating the west-ward intensification of wind-driven gyres and its attribution to the Coriolis variation with latitude (beta effect). Walter Munk (1950) further implemented Stommel's theory of western intensification by using a more realistic frictional term, while emphasizing "the lateral dissipation of eddy energy". In this way, not only did he reproduce Stommel's results, recreating thus the circulation of a western boundary current of an ocean gyre resembling the Gulf stream, but he also showed that sub-polar gyres should develop northward of the subtropical ones, spinning in the opposite direction.
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Boundary current
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Western boundary currents
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Climate change Observations indicate that the ocean warming over the subtropical western boundary currents is two-to-three times stronger than the global mean surface ocean warming. A study finds that the enhanced warming may be attributed to an intensification and poleward shift of the western boundary currents as a side-effect of the widening Hadley circulation under global warming. These warming hotspots cause severe environmental and economic problems, such as the rapid sea level rise along the East Coast of the United States, collapse of the fishery over the Gulf of Maine and Uruguay.
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Comparison of anaerobic and aerobic digestion
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Comparison of anaerobic and aerobic digestion
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The following article is a comparison of aerobic and anaerobic digestion. In both aerobic and anaerobic systems the growing and reproducing microorganisms within them require a source of elemental oxygen to survive.In an anaerobic system there is an absence of gaseous oxygen. In an anaerobic digester, gaseous oxygen is prevented from entering the system through physical containment in sealed tanks. Anaerobes access oxygen from sources other than the surrounding air. The oxygen source for these microorganisms can be the organic material itself or alternatively may be supplied by inorganic oxides from within the input material. When the oxygen source in an anaerobic system is derived from the organic material itself, then the 'intermediate' end products are primarily alcohols, aldehydes, and organic acids plus carbon dioxide. In the presence of specialised methanogens, the intermediates are converted to the 'final' end products of methane, carbon dioxide with trace levels of hydrogen sulfide. In an anaerobic system the majority of the chemical energy contained within the starting material is released by methanogenic bacteria as methane.In an aerobic system, such as composting, the microorganisms access free, gaseous oxygen directly from the surrounding atmosphere. The end products of an aerobic process are primarily carbon dioxide and water which are the stable, oxidised forms of carbon and hydrogen. If the biodegradable starting material contains nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur, then the end products may also include their oxidised forms- nitrate, phosphate and sulfate. In an aerobic system the majority of the energy in the starting material is released as heat by their oxidisation into carbon dioxide and water.Composting systems typically include organisms such as fungi that are able to break down lignin and celluloses to a greater extent than anaerobic bacteria. Due to this fact it is possible, following anaerobic digestion, to compost the anaerobic digestate allowing further volume reduction and stabilisation.
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Medizinische Monatsschrift für Pharmazeuten
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Medizinische Monatsschrift für Pharmazeuten
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The Medizinische Monatsschrift für Pharmazeuten is a monthly peer-reviewed medical journal covering pharmacology. It has been published since 1947, originally under the title Medizinische Monatsschrift: Zeitschrift für allgemeine Medizin und Therapie. Its title was changed to Medizinische Monatsschrift für Pharmazeuten in 1978.
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Medizinische Monatsschrift für Pharmazeuten
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Abstracting and indexing
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The journal is abstracted and indexed in Chemical Abstracts, Index Medicus/MEDLINE/PubMed, and Scopus.
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Modern antique
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Modern antique
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Modern antique (an apparent oxymoron) can have various meanings. Since customs laws and dealers often stipulate an age of at least a hundred years for any item to be legitimately called an antique, the term is sometimes used to describe a collector's item that is technologically obsolete; for example, an older computer or retro toy.
This term is also used to describe new objects designed to appear much older than they are, as with reproductions of old devices and furniture with a distressed (lightly damaged or artificially worn) finish.
More rarely, modern antique may refer to an item from the modern era which is also old enough to qualify for the simple description antique.
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Multi-Environment Real-Time
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Multi-Environment Real-Time
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Multi-Environment Real-Time (MERT), later renamed UNIX Real-Time (UNIX-RT), is a hybrid time-sharing and real-time operating system developed in the 1970s at Bell Labs for use in embedded minicomputers (especially PDP-11s). A version named Duplex Multi Environment Real Time (DMERT) was the operating system for the AT&T 3B20D telephone switching minicomputer, designed for high availability; DMERT was later renamed Unix RTR (Real-Time Reliable).A generalization of Bell Labs' time-sharing operating system Unix, MERT featured a redesigned, modular kernel that was able to run Unix programs and privileged real-time computing processes. These processes' data structures were isolated from other processes with message passing being the preferred form of interprocess communication (IPC), although shared memory was also implemented. MERT also had a custom file system with special support for large, contiguous, statically sized files, as used in real-time database applications. The design of MERT was influenced by Dijkstra's THE, Hansen's Monitor, and IBM's CP-67.The MERT operating system was a four-layer design, in decreasing order of protection: Kernel: resource allocation of memory, CPU time and interrupts Kernel-mode processes including input/output (I/O) device drivers, file manager, swap manager, root process that connects the file manager to the disk (usually combined with the swap manager) Operating system supervisor User processesThe standard supervisor was MERT/UNIX, a Unix emulator with an extended system call interface and shell that enabled the use of MERT's custom IPC mechanisms, although an RSX-11 emulator also existed.
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Multi-Environment Real-Time
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Kernel and non-kernel processes
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One interesting feature that DMERT – UNIX-RTR introduced was the notion of kernel processes. This is connected with its microkernelish architecture roots. In support, there is a separate command (/bin/kpkill) rather than (/bin/kill), that is used to send signals to kernel processes. It is likely there are two different system calls also (kill(2) and kpkill(2), the first to end a user process and the second to end a kernel process). It is unknown how much of the normal userland signaling mechanism is in place in /bin/kpkill, assuming there is a system call for it, it is not known if one can send various signals or simply send one. Also unknown is whether the kernel process has a way of catching the signals that are delivered to it. It may be that the UNIX-RTR developers implemented an entire signal and messaging application programming interface (API) for kernel processes.
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Multi-Environment Real-Time
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File system bits
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If one has root on a UNIX-RTR system, they will surely soon find that their ls -l output is a bit different than expected. Namely, there are two completely new bits in the drwxr-xr-x field. They both take place in the first column, and are C (contiguous) and x (extents). Both of these have to do with contiguous data, however one may be to do with inodes and the other with non-metadata.
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Multi-Environment Real-Time
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Lucent emulator and VCDX
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AT&T, then Lucent, and now Alcatel-Lucent, are the vendor of the SPARC-based and Solaris-OEM package ATT3bem (which lives on Solaris SPARC in /opt/ATT3bem). This is a full 3B21D emulator (known as the 3B21E, the system behind the Very Compact Digital eXchange, or VCDX) which is meant to provide a production environment to the Administrative Module (AM) portion of the 5ESS switch. There are parts of the 5ESS that are not part of the 3B21D microcomputer at all: SMs and CMs. Under the emulator the workstation is referred to as the 'AW' (Administrative Workstation). The emulator installs with Solaris 2.6/SPARC and also comes with Solstice X.25 9.1 (SUNWconn), formerly known as SunLink X.25. The reason for packaging the X.25 stack with the 3B21D emulator is because the Bell System, regional Bell operating companies, and ILECs still use X.25 networks for their most critical of systems (telephone switches may live on X.25 or Datakit VCS II, a similar network developed at Bell Labs, but they do not have TCP/IP stacks).
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Multi-Environment Real-Time
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Lucent emulator and VCDX
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The AT&T/Alcatel-Lucent emulator is not an easy program to get working correctly, even if one manages to have an image from a pulled working 5ESS hard disk 'dd' output file. First, there are quite a few bugs the user must navigate around in the installation process. Once this is done, there is a configuration file which connects peripherals to emulated peripherals. But there is scant documentation on the CD which describes this. The name of this file is em_devmap for SS5s, and em_devmap.ultra for Ultra60s.
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Multi-Environment Real-Time
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Lucent emulator and VCDX
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In addition, one of the bugs mentioned in the install process is a broken script to fdisk and image hard disks correctly: certain things need to be written to certain offsets, because the /opt/ATT3bem/bin/3bem process expects, or seems to need, these hard-coded locations.
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Multi-Environment Real-Time
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Lucent emulator and VCDX
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The emulator runs on SPARCstation-5s and UltraSPARC-60s. It is likely that the 3B21D is emulated faster on a modern SPARC than a 3B21D microcomputer's processor actually runs as measured in MIPS. The most difficult thing about having the emulator is acquiring a DMERT/UNIX-RTR hdd image to actually run. The operating system for the 5ESS is restricted to a few people, employees and customers of the vendor, who either work on it or write the code for it. Having an image of a running system, which can be obtained on eBay, pulled from a working 3B21D, and imaged to a file or put into an Ultra60 or SPARCstation-5, provides the resources to attempt to run the UNIX-RTR system.
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Multi-Environment Real-Time
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Lucent emulator and VCDX
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The uname -a output of the Bourne shell running UNIX-RTR (Real-time Reliable) is: Though on 3B20D systems it will print 20 instead of 21, though 3B20Ds are rare, nowadays most non-VCDX 5ESSs are 3B21D hardware, not 3B20D (although they will run the software fine).
The 3B20D uses the WE32000 processor while the 21 uses the WE32100. There may be some other differences, as well. One thing unusual about the processor is the direction the stack grows: up.
Manual page for falloc (which may be responsible for Contiguous or eXtent file space allocation): FALLOC(1) 5ESS UNIX FALLOC(1) NAME falloc - allocate a contiguous file SYNOPSIS falloc filename size DESCRIPTION A contiguous file of the specified filename is allocated to be of 'size' (512 byte) blocks.
DIAGNOSTICS The command complains a needed directory is not searchable, the final directory is not writable, the file already exists or there is not enough space for the file.
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Multi-Environment Real-Time
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Lucent emulator and VCDX
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UNIX-RTR includes an atomic file swap command (atomsw, manual page below): ATOMSW(1) 5ESS UNIX ATOMSW(1) NAME atomsw - Atomic switch files SYNOPSIS atomsw file1 file2 DESCRIPTION Atomic switch of two files. The contents, permissions, and owners of two files are switched in a single operation. In case of a system fault during the operation of this command, file2 will either have its original contents, permissions and owner, or will have file1's contents, permissions and owner. Thus, file2 is considered precious. File1 may be truncated in case of a system fault.
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Multi-Environment Real-Time
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Lucent emulator and VCDX
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RESTRICTIONS Both files must exist. Both files must reside on the same file system. Neither file may be a "special device" (for example, a TTY port).
To enter this command from the craft shell, switching file "/tmp/abc" with file "/tmp/xyz", enter for MML: EXC:ENVIR:UPROC,FN="/bin/atomsw",ARGS="/tmp/abc"-"/tmp/xyz"; For PDS enter: EXC:ENVIR:UPROC,FN"/bin/atomsw",ARGS("/tmp/abc","/tmp/xyz")! NOTE File 1 may be lost during a system fault.
FILES /bin/atomsw
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World Atlas of Language Structures
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World Atlas of Language Structures
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The World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS) is a database of structural (phonological, grammatical, lexical) properties of languages gathered from descriptive materials. It was first published by Oxford University Press as a book with CD-ROM in 2005, and was released as the second edition on the Internet in April 2008. It is maintained by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and by the Max Planck Digital Library. The editors are Martin Haspelmath, Matthew S. Dryer, David Gil and Bernard Comrie.The atlas provides information on the location, linguistic affiliation and basic typological features of a great number of the world's languages. It interacts with OpenStreetMap maps. The information of the atlas is published under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. It is part of the Cross-Linguistic Linked Data project hosted by the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
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MacUser
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MacUser
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MacUser was a monthly (formerly biweekly) computer magazine published by Dennis Publishing Ltd. and licensed by Felden in the UK. It ceased publication in 2015.In 1985 Felix Dennis’ Dennis Publishing, the creators of MacUser in the UK, licensed the name and “mouse-rating” symbol for MacUser to Ziff-Davis Publishing for use in the rest of the world. The UK MacUser was never linked to the US MacUser. When Ziff-Davis merged its Mac holdings into Mac Publishing in September 1997, that new company gained the license to use the MacUser name. However, it opted to keep the Macworld magazine brand-name alive, albeit with MacUser-style mouse ratings. As a result, only the original UK-based MacUser remains, and the UK edition of Macworld is unable to use the mouse rating symbols used by its fellow Macworld editions.
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MacUser
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MacUser
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The UK magazine was aimed at Mac users in the design sector, and each issue brought the reader up-to-date with news, reviews, ‘Masterclass’ tutorials and technical advice. Masterclasses take the reader through tasks such as photo retouching, design techniques, and creating movies.
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MacUser
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Staff
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As of 2011, notable staff of the magazine included: Editor in Chief - Adam Banks Technical Editor - Keith Martin Contributing Features Editor - Nik Rawlinson Contributing Graphics Editor - Steve Caplin Contributing Products Editor - Kenny Hemphill Contributing Writer - Alan Stonebridge Production editor/sub-editor/layout - Kirsty Fortune Publisher - Paul Rayner
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Infrared window
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Infrared window
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The infrared atmospheric window refers to a region of the Infrared spectrum where there is relatively little absorption of terrestrial thermal radiation by atmospheric gases. The window plays an important role in the atmospheric greenhouse effect by maintaining the balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing IR to space. In the Earth's atmosphere this window is roughly the region between 8 and 14 μm although it can be narrowed or closed at times and places of high humidity because of the strong absorption in the water vapor continuum or because of blocking by clouds. It covers a substantial part of the spectrum from surface thermal emission which starts at roughly 5 μm. Principally it is a large gap in the absorption spectrum of water vapor. Carbon dioxide plays an important role in setting the boundary at the long wavelength end. Ozone partly blocks transmission in the middle of the window. The importance of the infrared atmospheric window in the atmospheric energy balance was discovered by George Simpson in 1928, based on G. Hettner's 1918 laboratory studies of the gap in the absorption spectrum of water vapor. In those days, computers were not available, and Simpson notes that he used approximations; he writes about the need for this in order to calculate outgoing IR radiation: "There is no hope of getting an exact solution; but by making suitable simplifying assumptions . . . ." Nowadays, accurate line-by-line computations are possible, and careful studies of the spectroscopy of infrared atmospheric gases have been published.
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Infrared window
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Mechanisms in the infrared atmospheric window
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The principal natural greenhouse gases in order of their importance are water vapor H2O, carbon dioxide CO2, ozone O3, methane CH4 and nitrous oxide N2O. The concentration of the least common of these, N2O, is about 400 ppbV. Other gases which contribute to the greenhouse effect are present at pptV levels. These include the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrofluororcarbons (HFC and HCFCs). As discussed below, a major reason that they are so effective as greenhouse gases is that they have strong vibrational bands that fall in the infrared atmospheric window. IR absorption by CO2 at 14.7 μm sets the long wavelength limit of the infrared atmospheric window together with absorption by rotational transitions of H2O at slightly longer wavelengths. The short wavelength boundary of the atmospheric IR window is set by absorption in the lowest frequency vibrational bands of water vapor. There is a strong band of ozone at 9.6 μm in the middle of the window which is why it acts as such a strong greenhouse gas. Water vapor has a continuum absorption due to collisional broadening of absorption lines which extends through the window. Local very high humidity can completely block the infrared vibrational window.
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Infrared window
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Mechanisms in the infrared atmospheric window
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Over the Atlas Mountains, interferometrically recorded spectra of outgoing longwave radiation show emission that has arisen from the land surface at a temperature of about 320 K and passed through the atmospheric window, and non-window emission that has arisen mainly from the troposphere at temperatures about 260 K.
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Infrared window
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Mechanisms in the infrared atmospheric window
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Over Côte d'Ivoire, interferometrically recorded spectra of outgoing longwave radiation show emission that has arisen from the cloud tops at a temperature of about 265 K and passed through the atmospheric window, and non-window emission that has arisen mainly from the troposphere at temperatures about 240 K. This means that, at the scarcely absorbed continuum of wavelengths (8 to 14 μm), the radiation emitted, by the Earth's surface into a dry atmosphere, and by the cloud tops, mostly passes unabsorbed through the atmosphere, and is emitted directly to space; there is also partial window transmission in far infrared spectral lines between about 16 and 28 μm. Clouds are excellent emitters of infrared radiation. Window radiation from cloud tops arises at altitudes where the air temperature is low, but as seen from those altitudes, the water vapor content of the air above is much lower than that of the air at the land-sea surface. Moreover, the water vapour continuum absorptivity, molecule for molecule, decreases with pressure decrease. Thus water vapour above the clouds, besides being less concentrated, is also less absorptive than water vapour at lower altitudes. Consequently, the effective window as seen from the cloud-top altitudes is more open, with the result that the cloud tops are effectively strong sources of window radiation; that is to say, in effect the clouds obstruct the window only to a small degree (see another opinion about this, proposed by Ahrens (2009) on page 43).
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Infrared window
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Importance for life
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Without the infrared atmospheric window, the Earth would become much too warm to support life, and possibly so warm that it would lose its water, as Venus did early in Solar System history. Thus, the existence of an atmospheric window is critical to Earth remaining a habitable planet.
As a proposed management strategy for global warming, passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) surfaces use the infrared window to send heat back into outer space with the aim of reversing rising temperature increases caused by climate change.
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Infrared window
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Threats
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In recent decades, the existence of the infrared atmospheric window has become threatened by the development of highly unreactive gases containing bonds between fluorine and carbon, sulfur or nitrogen. The impact of these compounds was first discovered by Indian–American atmospheric scientist Veerabhadran Ramanathan in 1975, one year after Roland and Molina's much-more-celebrated paper on the ability of chlorofluorocarbons to destroy stratospheric ozone.
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Infrared window
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Threats
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The "stretching frequencies" of bonds between fluorine and other light nonmetals are such that strong absorption in the atmospheric window will always be characteristic of compounds containing such bonds, although fluorides of nonmetals other than carbon, nitrogen or sulfur are short-lived due to hydrolysis. This absorption is strengthened because these bonds are highly polar due to the extreme electronegativity of the fluorine atom. Bonds to other halogens also absorb in the atmospheric window, though much less strongly.Moreover, the unreactive nature of such compounds that makes them so valuable for many industrial purposes means that they are not removable in the natural circulation of the Earth's lower atmosphere. Extremely small natural sources created by means of radioactive oxidation of fluorite and subsequent reaction with sulfate or carbonate minerals produce via degassing atmospheric concentrations of about 40 ppt for all perfluorocarbons and 0.01 ppt for sulfur hexafluoride, but the only natural ceiling is via photolysis in the mesosphere and upper stratosphere. It is estimated that perfluorocarbons (CF4, C2F6, C3F8), originating from commercial production of anesthetics, refrigerants, and polymers can stay in the atmosphere for between two thousand six hundred and fifty thousand years.This means that such compounds have an enormous global warming potential. One kilogram of sulfur hexafluoride will, for example, cause as much warming as 23 tonnes of carbon dioxide over 100 years. Perfluorocarbons are similar in this respect, and even carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) has a global warming potential of 1800 compared to carbon dioxide. These compounds still remain highly problematic with an ongoing effort to find substitutes for them.
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Infrared window
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Books
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Mihalas, D.; Weibel-Mihalas, B. (1984). Foundations of Radiation Hydrodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-503437-6. Archived from the original on 2011-10-08. Retrieved 2009-10-17.
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Epaulette
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Epaulette
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Epaulette (; also spelled epaulet) is a type of ornamental shoulder piece or decoration used as insignia of rank by armed forces and other organizations. Flexible metal epaulettes (usually made from brass) are referred to as shoulder scales.
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Epaulette
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Epaulette
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In the French and other armies, epaulettes are also worn by all ranks of elite or ceremonial units when on parade. It may bear rank or other insignia, and should not be confused with a shoulder mark – also called a shoulder board, rank slide, or slip-on – a flat cloth sleeve worn on the shoulder strap of a uniform (although the two terms are often used interchangeably).
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Epaulette
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Etymology
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Épaulette (French: [e.po.lɛt]) is a French word meaning "little shoulder" (diminutive of épaule, meaning "shoulder").
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Epaulette
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How to wear
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Epaulettes are fastened to the shoulder by a shoulder strap or passenten, a small strap parallel to the shoulder seam, and the button near the collar, or by laces on the underside of the epaulette passing through holes in the shoulder of the coat. Colloquially, any shoulder straps with marks are also called epaulettes. The placement of the epaulette, its color and the length and diameter of its bullion fringe are used to signify the wearer's rank. At the join of the fringe and the shoulderpiece is often a metal piece in the form of a crescent. Although originally worn in the field, epaulettes are now normally limited to dress or ceremonial military uniforms.
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Epaulette
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History
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Epaulettes bear some resemblance to the shoulder pteruges of ancient Greco-Roman military costumes. However, their direct origin lies in the bunches of ribbons worn on the shoulders of military coats at the end of the 17th century, which were partially decorative and partially intended to prevent shoulder belts from slipping. These ribbons were tied into a knot that left the fringed end free. This established the basic design of the epaulette as it evolved through the 18th and 19th centuries.From the 18th century on, epaulettes were used in the French and other armies to indicate rank. The rank of an officer could be determined by whether an epaulette was worn on the left shoulder, the right shoulder, or on both. Later a "counter-epaulette" (with no fringe) was worn on the opposite shoulder of those who wore only a single epaulette. Epaulettes were made in silver or gold for officers and in cloth of various colors for the enlisted men of various arms.
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Epaulette
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History
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Apart from that, flexible metal epaulettes were quite popular among certain armies in the 19th century, but were rarely worn on the field. Referred to as shoulder scales, they were e.g. an accoutrement of the US Cavalry, US Infantry and the US Artillery, from 1854 to 1872.
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Epaulette
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History
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By the early 18th century, epaulettes had become the distinguishing feature of commissioned rank. This led officers of military units still without epaulettes to petition for the right to wear epaulettes to ensure that their status would be recognized. During the Napoleonic Wars and subsequently through the 19th century, grenadiers, light infantry, voltigeurs and other specialist categories of infantry in many European armies wore cloth epaulettes with wool fringes in various colors to distinguish them from ordinary line infantry. Flying artillery wore epaulette-esque shoulder pads. Heavy artillery wore small balls representing ammunition on their shoulders.An intermediate form in some services, such as the Russian Army, is the shoulder board, which neither has a fringe nor extends beyond the shoulder seam. This originated during the 19th century as a simplified version for service wear of the heavy and conspicuous full dress epaulette with bullion fringes.
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Epaulette
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Modern derivations
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Today, epaulettes have mostly been replaced by a five-sided flap of cloth called a shoulder board, which is sewn into the shoulder seam and the end buttoned like an epaulette.
From the shoulder board was developed the shoulder mark, a flat cloth tube that is worn over the shoulder strap and carries embroidered or pinned-on rank insignia. The advantages of this are the ability to easily change the insignia as occasions warrant.
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Epaulette
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Modern derivations
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Airline pilot uniform shirts generally include cloth flattened tubular epaulettes having cloth or bullion braid stripes, attached by shoulder straps integral to the shirts. The rank of the wearer is designated by the number of stripes: traditionally four for a captain, three for senior first officer or first officer, and two for either a first officer or second officer. However, rank insignia are airline specific. For example, at some airlines, two stripes denote junior first officer and one stripe second officer (cruise or relief pilot). Airline captains' uniform caps usually will have a braid pattern on the bill. These uniform specifications change depending on the company's policy.
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Epaulette
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Belgium
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In the Belgian army, red epaulettes with white fringes are worn with the ceremonial uniforms of the Royal Escort while fully red ones are worn by the Grenadiers. Trumpeters of the Royal Escort are distinguished by all red epaulettes while officers of the two units wear silver or gold respectively.
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Epaulette
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Canada
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In the Canadian Armed Forces, epaulettes are still worn on some Army Full Dress, Patrol Dress, and Mess Dress uniforms. Epaulettes in the form of shoulder boards are worn with the officer's white Naval Service Dress.
After the unification of the Forces, and prior to the issue of the distinctive environmental uniforms, musicians of the Music Branch wore epaulettes of braided gold cord.
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Epaulette
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France
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Until 1914, officers of most French Army infantry regiments wore gold epaulettes in full dress, while those of mounted units wore silver. No insignia was worn on the epaulette itself, though the bullion fringe falling from the crescent differed according to rank. Other ranks of most branches of the infantry, as well as cuirassiers wore detachable epaulettes of various colours (red for line infantry, green for Chasseurs, yellow for Colonial Infantry etc.) with woollen fringes, of a traditional pattern that dated back to the 18th century. Other cavalry such as hussars, dragoons and chasseurs à cheval wore special epaulettes of a style originally intended to deflect sword blows from the shoulder.
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Epaulette
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France
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In the modern French Army, epaulettes are still worn by those units retaining 19th-century-style full dress uniforms, notably the ESM Saint-Cyr and the Garde Républicaine. The French Foreign Legion continued to wear their green and red epaulettes, except for a break from 1915 to 1930. In recent years, the Marine Infantry and some other units have readopted their traditional fringed epaulettes in various colours for ceremonial parades. The Marine nationale and the Armée de l'Air do not use epaulettes, but non-commissioned and commissioned officers wear a gilded shoulder strap called attentes, the original function of which was to clip the epaulette onto the shoulder. The attentes are also worn by Army generals on their dress uniforms.
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