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Surgery_Schwartz_3902
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Surgery_Schwartz
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and growth factor receptors such as human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)/neu, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), transforming growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, and the insulin-like growth factor family; (c) indices of proliferation such as proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and Ki-67; (d) indi-ces of angiogenesis such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and the angiogenesis index; (e) the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway; (f) tumor-suppressor genes such as p53; (g) the cell cycle, cyclins, and cyclin-depen-dent kinases; (h) the proteasome; (i) the COX-2 enzyme; (j) the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs); and (k) indices of apoptosis and apoptosis modulators such as bcl-2 and the bax:bcl-2 ratio.Steroid Hormone Receptor Pathway. Hormones play an important role in the development and progression of breast cancer. Estrogens, estrogen metabolites, and other steroid hor-mones such as progesterone all have
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Surgery_Schwartz. and growth factor receptors such as human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)/neu, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), transforming growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, and the insulin-like growth factor family; (c) indices of proliferation such as proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and Ki-67; (d) indi-ces of angiogenesis such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and the angiogenesis index; (e) the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway; (f) tumor-suppressor genes such as p53; (g) the cell cycle, cyclins, and cyclin-depen-dent kinases; (h) the proteasome; (i) the COX-2 enzyme; (j) the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs); and (k) indices of apoptosis and apoptosis modulators such as bcl-2 and the bax:bcl-2 ratio.Steroid Hormone Receptor Pathway. Hormones play an important role in the development and progression of breast cancer. Estrogens, estrogen metabolites, and other steroid hor-mones such as progesterone all have
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Surgery_Schwartz_3903
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Surgery_Schwartz
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Receptor Pathway. Hormones play an important role in the development and progression of breast cancer. Estrogens, estrogen metabolites, and other steroid hor-mones such as progesterone all have been shown to have an effect. Breast cancer risk is related to estrogen exposure over time. In postmenopausal women, hormone replacement therapy consisting of estrogen plus progesterone increases the risk of breast cancer by 26% compared to placebo.70 Patients with hor-mone receptor-positive tumors survive two to three times longer after a diagnosis of metastatic disease than do patients with hor-mone receptor-negative tumors. Patients with tumors negative for both estrogen receptors and progesterone receptors are not considered candidates for hormonal therapy. Tumors positive Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 57701/03/19 5:05 PM 578SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IITable 17-11TNM stage groupingsWhen T is...And N is...And M is...Then the stage group
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Surgery_Schwartz. Receptor Pathway. Hormones play an important role in the development and progression of breast cancer. Estrogens, estrogen metabolites, and other steroid hor-mones such as progesterone all have been shown to have an effect. Breast cancer risk is related to estrogen exposure over time. In postmenopausal women, hormone replacement therapy consisting of estrogen plus progesterone increases the risk of breast cancer by 26% compared to placebo.70 Patients with hor-mone receptor-positive tumors survive two to three times longer after a diagnosis of metastatic disease than do patients with hor-mone receptor-negative tumors. Patients with tumors negative for both estrogen receptors and progesterone receptors are not considered candidates for hormonal therapy. Tumors positive Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 57701/03/19 5:05 PM 578SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IITable 17-11TNM stage groupingsWhen T is...And N is...And M is...Then the stage group
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Surgery_Schwartz_3904
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Surgery_Schwartz
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therapy. Tumors positive Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 57701/03/19 5:05 PM 578SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IITable 17-11TNM stage groupingsWhen T is...And N is...And M is...Then the stage group is...TisN0M00T1N0M0IAT0N1miM0IBT1N1miM0IBT0N1M0IIAT1N1M0IIAT2N0M0IIAT2N1M0IIBT3N0M0IIBT0N2M0IIIAT1N2M0IIIAT2N2M0IIIAT3N1M0IIIAT3N2M0IIIAT4N0M0IIIBT4N1M0IIIBT4N2M0IIIBAny TN3M0IIICAny TAny NM1IVNotes:1. T1 includes Tl mi.2. T0 and T1 tumors with nodal micrometastases (N1mi) are staged as Stage IB.3. T2, T3, and T4 tumors with nodal micrometastases (N1mi) are staged using the N1 category.4. M0 includes M0(i+).5. The designation pM0 is not valid; any M0 is clinical.6. If a patient presents with M1 disease prior to neoadjuvant systemic therapy, the stage is Stage IV and remains Stage IV regardless of response to neoadjuvant therapy.7. Stage designation may be changed if postsurgical imaging studies reveal the presence of distant metastases, provided the studies are per-formed within 4 months
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Surgery_Schwartz. therapy. Tumors positive Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 57701/03/19 5:05 PM 578SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IITable 17-11TNM stage groupingsWhen T is...And N is...And M is...Then the stage group is...TisN0M00T1N0M0IAT0N1miM0IBT1N1miM0IBT0N1M0IIAT1N1M0IIAT2N0M0IIAT2N1M0IIBT3N0M0IIBT0N2M0IIIAT1N2M0IIIAT2N2M0IIIAT3N1M0IIIAT3N2M0IIIAT4N0M0IIIBT4N1M0IIIBT4N2M0IIIBAny TN3M0IIICAny TAny NM1IVNotes:1. T1 includes Tl mi.2. T0 and T1 tumors with nodal micrometastases (N1mi) are staged as Stage IB.3. T2, T3, and T4 tumors with nodal micrometastases (N1mi) are staged using the N1 category.4. M0 includes M0(i+).5. The designation pM0 is not valid; any M0 is clinical.6. If a patient presents with M1 disease prior to neoadjuvant systemic therapy, the stage is Stage IV and remains Stage IV regardless of response to neoadjuvant therapy.7. Stage designation may be changed if postsurgical imaging studies reveal the presence of distant metastases, provided the studies are per-formed within 4 months
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Surgery_Schwartz_3905
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Surgery_Schwartz
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of response to neoadjuvant therapy.7. Stage designation may be changed if postsurgical imaging studies reveal the presence of distant metastases, provided the studies are per-formed within 4 months of diagnosis in the absence of disease progres-sion, and provided the patient has not received neoadjuvant therapy.8. Staging following neoadjuvant therapy is denoted with a “yc” or “yp” prefix to the T and N classification. There is no anatomic stage group assigned if there is a complete pathological response (pCR) to neoad-juvant therapy, for example, ypT0ypN0cM0.Used with the permission of the American College of Surgeons. Amin MB, Edge SB, Greene FL, et al. (Eds.) AJCC Cancer Staging Manual, 8th Ed. Springer New York, 2017.for estrogen or progesterone receptors have a higher response rate to endocrine therapy than tumors that do not express estro-gen or progesterone receptors. The determination of estrogen and progesterone receptor status used to require biochemical evaluation of fresh
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Surgery_Schwartz. of response to neoadjuvant therapy.7. Stage designation may be changed if postsurgical imaging studies reveal the presence of distant metastases, provided the studies are per-formed within 4 months of diagnosis in the absence of disease progres-sion, and provided the patient has not received neoadjuvant therapy.8. Staging following neoadjuvant therapy is denoted with a “yc” or “yp” prefix to the T and N classification. There is no anatomic stage group assigned if there is a complete pathological response (pCR) to neoad-juvant therapy, for example, ypT0ypN0cM0.Used with the permission of the American College of Surgeons. Amin MB, Edge SB, Greene FL, et al. (Eds.) AJCC Cancer Staging Manual, 8th Ed. Springer New York, 2017.for estrogen or progesterone receptors have a higher response rate to endocrine therapy than tumors that do not express estro-gen or progesterone receptors. The determination of estrogen and progesterone receptor status used to require biochemical evaluation of fresh
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Surgery_Schwartz_3906
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Surgery_Schwartz
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endocrine therapy than tumors that do not express estro-gen or progesterone receptors. The determination of estrogen and progesterone receptor status used to require biochemical evaluation of fresh tumor tissue. Today, however, estrogen and progesterone receptor status can be measured in archived tis-sue using immunohistochemical techniques. Hormone receptor status also can be measured in specimens obtained with fine-needle aspiration biopsy or core-needle biopsy, and this can help guide treatment planning. Testing for estrogen and progesterone receptors should be performed on all primary invasive breast cancer specimens. The tumor hormone receptor status should be ascertained for both premenopausal and postmenopausal patients to identify patients who are most likely to benefit from endocrine therapy.Growth Factor Receptors and Growth Factors. Overexpres-sion of EGFR in breast cancer correlates with estrogen recep-tor–negative status and with p53 overexpression.170-172 Similarly,
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Surgery_Schwartz. endocrine therapy than tumors that do not express estro-gen or progesterone receptors. The determination of estrogen and progesterone receptor status used to require biochemical evaluation of fresh tumor tissue. Today, however, estrogen and progesterone receptor status can be measured in archived tis-sue using immunohistochemical techniques. Hormone receptor status also can be measured in specimens obtained with fine-needle aspiration biopsy or core-needle biopsy, and this can help guide treatment planning. Testing for estrogen and progesterone receptors should be performed on all primary invasive breast cancer specimens. The tumor hormone receptor status should be ascertained for both premenopausal and postmenopausal patients to identify patients who are most likely to benefit from endocrine therapy.Growth Factor Receptors and Growth Factors. Overexpres-sion of EGFR in breast cancer correlates with estrogen recep-tor–negative status and with p53 overexpression.170-172 Similarly,
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Surgery_Schwartz_3907
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Surgery_Schwartz
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therapy.Growth Factor Receptors and Growth Factors. Overexpres-sion of EGFR in breast cancer correlates with estrogen recep-tor–negative status and with p53 overexpression.170-172 Similarly, increased immunohistochemical membrane staining for the HER2 growth factor receptor in breast cancer is associated with mutated TP53, Ki67 overexpression, and estrogen receptor–negative status. HER2 is a member of the ErbB family of growth factor receptors in which ligand binding results in recep-tor homodimerization and tyrosine phosphorylation by tyrosine kinase domains within the receptor. Tyrosine phosphorylation is followed by signal transduction, which results in changes in cell behavior. An important property of this family of receptors is that ligand binding to one receptor type also may result in heterodimerization between two different receptor types that are coexpressed; this leads to transphosphorylation and transactiva-tion of both receptors in the complex (transmodulation). In this
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Surgery_Schwartz. therapy.Growth Factor Receptors and Growth Factors. Overexpres-sion of EGFR in breast cancer correlates with estrogen recep-tor–negative status and with p53 overexpression.170-172 Similarly, increased immunohistochemical membrane staining for the HER2 growth factor receptor in breast cancer is associated with mutated TP53, Ki67 overexpression, and estrogen receptor–negative status. HER2 is a member of the ErbB family of growth factor receptors in which ligand binding results in recep-tor homodimerization and tyrosine phosphorylation by tyrosine kinase domains within the receptor. Tyrosine phosphorylation is followed by signal transduction, which results in changes in cell behavior. An important property of this family of receptors is that ligand binding to one receptor type also may result in heterodimerization between two different receptor types that are coexpressed; this leads to transphosphorylation and transactiva-tion of both receptors in the complex (transmodulation). In this
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Surgery_Schwartz_3908
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Surgery_Schwartz
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in heterodimerization between two different receptor types that are coexpressed; this leads to transphosphorylation and transactiva-tion of both receptors in the complex (transmodulation). In this context, the lack of a specific ligand for the HER2/neu receptor suggests that HER2/neu may function solely as a co-receptor, modulating signaling by other EGFR family members. HER2/neu is both an important prognostic factor and a predictive fac-tor in breast cancer.173 When overexpressed in breast cancer, HER2/neu promotes enhanced growth and proliferation, and increases invasive and metastatic capabilities. Clinical studies have shown that patients with HER2/neu–overexpressing breast cancer have poorly differentiated tumors with high prolifera-tion rates, positive lymph nodes, decreased hormone receptor expression, and an increased risk of recurrence and death due to breast cancer.173-177 Routine testing of the primary tumor specimen for HER2/neu expression should be performed on all
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Surgery_Schwartz. in heterodimerization between two different receptor types that are coexpressed; this leads to transphosphorylation and transactiva-tion of both receptors in the complex (transmodulation). In this context, the lack of a specific ligand for the HER2/neu receptor suggests that HER2/neu may function solely as a co-receptor, modulating signaling by other EGFR family members. HER2/neu is both an important prognostic factor and a predictive fac-tor in breast cancer.173 When overexpressed in breast cancer, HER2/neu promotes enhanced growth and proliferation, and increases invasive and metastatic capabilities. Clinical studies have shown that patients with HER2/neu–overexpressing breast cancer have poorly differentiated tumors with high prolifera-tion rates, positive lymph nodes, decreased hormone receptor expression, and an increased risk of recurrence and death due to breast cancer.173-177 Routine testing of the primary tumor specimen for HER2/neu expression should be performed on all
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Surgery_Schwartz_3909
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Surgery_Schwartz
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receptor expression, and an increased risk of recurrence and death due to breast cancer.173-177 Routine testing of the primary tumor specimen for HER2/neu expression should be performed on all invasive breast cancers. This can be done with immunohis-tochemical analysis to evaluate for overexpression of the cell-surface receptor at the protein level or by using fluorescence in situ hybridization to evaluate for gene amplification. While HER2/ERBB2 activation can also be assessed based on mRNA expression and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) (Oncotype Dx, Genomic Health), this approach is not recommended for clinical decision-making because of the high false negative rate.178 Patients whose tumors show HER2 ampli-fication or HER2/neu protein overexpression are candidates for anti-HER2/neu therapy. Trastuzumab (Herceptin) is a recombi-nant humanized monoclonal antibody directed against HER2. Randomized clinical trials have demonstrated that single-agent trastuzumab
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Surgery_Schwartz. receptor expression, and an increased risk of recurrence and death due to breast cancer.173-177 Routine testing of the primary tumor specimen for HER2/neu expression should be performed on all invasive breast cancers. This can be done with immunohis-tochemical analysis to evaluate for overexpression of the cell-surface receptor at the protein level or by using fluorescence in situ hybridization to evaluate for gene amplification. While HER2/ERBB2 activation can also be assessed based on mRNA expression and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) (Oncotype Dx, Genomic Health), this approach is not recommended for clinical decision-making because of the high false negative rate.178 Patients whose tumors show HER2 ampli-fication or HER2/neu protein overexpression are candidates for anti-HER2/neu therapy. Trastuzumab (Herceptin) is a recombi-nant humanized monoclonal antibody directed against HER2. Randomized clinical trials have demonstrated that single-agent trastuzumab
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Surgery_Schwartz_3910
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Surgery_Schwartz
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for anti-HER2/neu therapy. Trastuzumab (Herceptin) is a recombi-nant humanized monoclonal antibody directed against HER2. Randomized clinical trials have demonstrated that single-agent trastuzumab therapy is well tolerated and active in the treatment of women with HER2/neu–overexpressing metastatic breast cancer.179 Subsequent adjuvant trials demonstrated that trastu-zumab also was highly effective in the treatment of women with early-stage breast cancer when used in combination with che-motherapy.180-182 Patients who received trastuzumab in combina-tion with chemotherapy had between a 40% and 50% reduction in the risk of breast cancer recurrence and approximately a one-third reduction in breast cancer mortality compared with those who received chemotherapy alone.181,183-185Indices of Proliferation. PCNA is a nuclear protein asso-ciated with a DNA polymerase whose expression increases in phase G1 of the cell cycle, reaches its maximum at the G1/S inter-face, and then decreases through
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Surgery_Schwartz. for anti-HER2/neu therapy. Trastuzumab (Herceptin) is a recombi-nant humanized monoclonal antibody directed against HER2. Randomized clinical trials have demonstrated that single-agent trastuzumab therapy is well tolerated and active in the treatment of women with HER2/neu–overexpressing metastatic breast cancer.179 Subsequent adjuvant trials demonstrated that trastu-zumab also was highly effective in the treatment of women with early-stage breast cancer when used in combination with che-motherapy.180-182 Patients who received trastuzumab in combina-tion with chemotherapy had between a 40% and 50% reduction in the risk of breast cancer recurrence and approximately a one-third reduction in breast cancer mortality compared with those who received chemotherapy alone.181,183-185Indices of Proliferation. PCNA is a nuclear protein asso-ciated with a DNA polymerase whose expression increases in phase G1 of the cell cycle, reaches its maximum at the G1/S inter-face, and then decreases through
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Surgery_Schwartz_3911
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Surgery_Schwartz
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is a nuclear protein asso-ciated with a DNA polymerase whose expression increases in phase G1 of the cell cycle, reaches its maximum at the G1/S inter-face, and then decreases through G2.186-189 Immunohistochemical staining for PCNA outlines the proliferating compartments in Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 57801/03/19 5:05 PM 579THE BREASTCHAPTER 17breast tissue. Good correlation is noted between PCNA expres-sion and (a) cell-cycle distributions seen on flow cytometry based on DNA content, and (b) uptake of bromodeoxyuridine and the proliferation-associated Ki67 antigen. Individual prolif-eration markers are associated with slightly different phases of the cell cycle and are not equivalent. PCNA and Ki67 expression are positively correlated with p53 overexpression, high S-phase fraction, aneuploidy, high mitotic index, and high histologic grade in human breast cancer specimens, and are negatively cor-related with estrogen receptor content. Ki67 was included with three other
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Surgery_Schwartz. is a nuclear protein asso-ciated with a DNA polymerase whose expression increases in phase G1 of the cell cycle, reaches its maximum at the G1/S inter-face, and then decreases through G2.186-189 Immunohistochemical staining for PCNA outlines the proliferating compartments in Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 57801/03/19 5:05 PM 579THE BREASTCHAPTER 17breast tissue. Good correlation is noted between PCNA expres-sion and (a) cell-cycle distributions seen on flow cytometry based on DNA content, and (b) uptake of bromodeoxyuridine and the proliferation-associated Ki67 antigen. Individual prolif-eration markers are associated with slightly different phases of the cell cycle and are not equivalent. PCNA and Ki67 expression are positively correlated with p53 overexpression, high S-phase fraction, aneuploidy, high mitotic index, and high histologic grade in human breast cancer specimens, and are negatively cor-related with estrogen receptor content. Ki67 was included with three other
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Surgery_Schwartz_3912
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Surgery_Schwartz
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fraction, aneuploidy, high mitotic index, and high histologic grade in human breast cancer specimens, and are negatively cor-related with estrogen receptor content. Ki67 was included with three other widely measured breast cancer markers (ER, PR, and HER2) into a panel of four immunohistochemical makers (IHC4), which together provided similar prognostic informa-tion to that in the 21 Gene Recurrence Score (Oncotype DX, Genomic Health).190 While there has been significant interest in using Ki67 as a biomarker, and while the IHC4 panel would be much less expensive than the 21 Gene Recurrence Score, there remain issues regarding reproducibility across laboratories.Indices of Angiogenesis. Angiogenesis is necessary for the growth and invasiveness of breast cancer and promotes cancer progression through several different mechanisms, including delivery of oxygen and nutrients and the secretion of growth-promoting cytokines by endothelial cells.191,192 VEGF induces its effect by binding to
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Surgery_Schwartz. fraction, aneuploidy, high mitotic index, and high histologic grade in human breast cancer specimens, and are negatively cor-related with estrogen receptor content. Ki67 was included with three other widely measured breast cancer markers (ER, PR, and HER2) into a panel of four immunohistochemical makers (IHC4), which together provided similar prognostic informa-tion to that in the 21 Gene Recurrence Score (Oncotype DX, Genomic Health).190 While there has been significant interest in using Ki67 as a biomarker, and while the IHC4 panel would be much less expensive than the 21 Gene Recurrence Score, there remain issues regarding reproducibility across laboratories.Indices of Angiogenesis. Angiogenesis is necessary for the growth and invasiveness of breast cancer and promotes cancer progression through several different mechanisms, including delivery of oxygen and nutrients and the secretion of growth-promoting cytokines by endothelial cells.191,192 VEGF induces its effect by binding to
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Surgery_Schwartz_3913
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Surgery_Schwartz
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through several different mechanisms, including delivery of oxygen and nutrients and the secretion of growth-promoting cytokines by endothelial cells.191,192 VEGF induces its effect by binding to transmembrane tyrosine kinase recep-tors. Overexpression of VEGF in invasive breast cancer is cor-related with increased microvessel density and recurrence in node-negative breast cancer. An angiogenesis index has been developed in which microvessel density (CD31 expression) is combined with expression of thrombospondin (a negative modulator of angiogenesis) and p53 expression. Both VEGF expression and the angiogenesis index may have prognostic and predictive significance in breast cancer.193 Bevacizumab (a monoclonal antibody to VEGF) was approved by the FDA for use in metastatic breast cancer in combination with pacli-taxel chemotherapy. This approval was based on results from a phase 3 trial by the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. The group’s E2100 trial showed that when bevacizumab was
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Surgery_Schwartz. through several different mechanisms, including delivery of oxygen and nutrients and the secretion of growth-promoting cytokines by endothelial cells.191,192 VEGF induces its effect by binding to transmembrane tyrosine kinase recep-tors. Overexpression of VEGF in invasive breast cancer is cor-related with increased microvessel density and recurrence in node-negative breast cancer. An angiogenesis index has been developed in which microvessel density (CD31 expression) is combined with expression of thrombospondin (a negative modulator of angiogenesis) and p53 expression. Both VEGF expression and the angiogenesis index may have prognostic and predictive significance in breast cancer.193 Bevacizumab (a monoclonal antibody to VEGF) was approved by the FDA for use in metastatic breast cancer in combination with pacli-taxel chemotherapy. This approval was based on results from a phase 3 trial by the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. The group’s E2100 trial showed that when bevacizumab was
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Surgery_Schwartz_3914
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Surgery_Schwartz
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combination with pacli-taxel chemotherapy. This approval was based on results from a phase 3 trial by the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. The group’s E2100 trial showed that when bevacizumab was added to paclitaxel chemotherapy, median progression-free survival increased to 11.3 months from the 5.8 months seen in patients who received paclitaxel alone.194 The results were not repro-duced in other trials, and the indication for the drug was revoked by the FDA in 2011.Indices of Apoptosis. Alterations in programmed cell death (apoptosis), which may be triggered by p53-dependent or p53-independent factors, may be important prognostic and pre-dictive biomarkers in breast cancer.195-197 Bcl-2 family proteins appear to regulate a step in the evolutionarily conserved pathway for apoptosis, with some members functioning as inhibitors of apoptosis and others as promoters of apoptosis. Bcl-2 is the only oncogene that acts by inhibiting apoptosis rather than by directly increasing cellular
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Surgery_Schwartz. combination with pacli-taxel chemotherapy. This approval was based on results from a phase 3 trial by the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. The group’s E2100 trial showed that when bevacizumab was added to paclitaxel chemotherapy, median progression-free survival increased to 11.3 months from the 5.8 months seen in patients who received paclitaxel alone.194 The results were not repro-duced in other trials, and the indication for the drug was revoked by the FDA in 2011.Indices of Apoptosis. Alterations in programmed cell death (apoptosis), which may be triggered by p53-dependent or p53-independent factors, may be important prognostic and pre-dictive biomarkers in breast cancer.195-197 Bcl-2 family proteins appear to regulate a step in the evolutionarily conserved pathway for apoptosis, with some members functioning as inhibitors of apoptosis and others as promoters of apoptosis. Bcl-2 is the only oncogene that acts by inhibiting apoptosis rather than by directly increasing cellular
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Surgery_Schwartz_3915
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Surgery_Schwartz
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with some members functioning as inhibitors of apoptosis and others as promoters of apoptosis. Bcl-2 is the only oncogene that acts by inhibiting apoptosis rather than by directly increasing cellular proliferation. The death-signal protein bax is induced by genotoxic stress and growth factor deprivation in the presence of wild-type (normal) p53 and/or AP-1/fos. The bax to bcl-2 ratio and the resulting formation of either bax-baxhomodimers, which stimulate apoptosis, or bax–bcl-2 het-erodimers, which inhibit apoptosis, represent an intracellular regulatory mechanism with prognostic and predictive implica-tions. In breast cancer, overexpression of bcl-2 and a decrease in the bax to bcl-2 ratio correlate with high histologic grade, the presence of axillary lymph node metastases, and reduced disease-free and overall survival rates. Similarly, decreased bax expression correlates with axillary lymph node metastases, a poor response to chemotherapy, and decreased overall survival.The
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Surgery_Schwartz. with some members functioning as inhibitors of apoptosis and others as promoters of apoptosis. Bcl-2 is the only oncogene that acts by inhibiting apoptosis rather than by directly increasing cellular proliferation. The death-signal protein bax is induced by genotoxic stress and growth factor deprivation in the presence of wild-type (normal) p53 and/or AP-1/fos. The bax to bcl-2 ratio and the resulting formation of either bax-baxhomodimers, which stimulate apoptosis, or bax–bcl-2 het-erodimers, which inhibit apoptosis, represent an intracellular regulatory mechanism with prognostic and predictive implica-tions. In breast cancer, overexpression of bcl-2 and a decrease in the bax to bcl-2 ratio correlate with high histologic grade, the presence of axillary lymph node metastases, and reduced disease-free and overall survival rates. Similarly, decreased bax expression correlates with axillary lymph node metastases, a poor response to chemotherapy, and decreased overall survival.The
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Surgery_Schwartz_3916
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Surgery_Schwartz
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disease-free and overall survival rates. Similarly, decreased bax expression correlates with axillary lymph node metastases, a poor response to chemotherapy, and decreased overall survival.The remaining biomarkers and biologic targets listed ear-lier are still in preclinical testing, and clinical trials are evaluat-ing their importance in breast cancer for both prognostic and predictive purposes.Coexpression of Biomarkers. Selection of optimal therapy for breast cancer requires both an accurate assessment of prog-nosis and an accurate prediction of response to therapy. The breast cancer markers that are most important in determining therapy are estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, and HER2/neu. Clinicians evaluate clinical and pathologic staging and the expression of estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, and HER2/neu in the primary tumor to assess prognosis and assign therapy. Adjuvant! Online (http://www.adjuvantonline.com) is one of a number of programs available to
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Surgery_Schwartz. disease-free and overall survival rates. Similarly, decreased bax expression correlates with axillary lymph node metastases, a poor response to chemotherapy, and decreased overall survival.The remaining biomarkers and biologic targets listed ear-lier are still in preclinical testing, and clinical trials are evaluat-ing their importance in breast cancer for both prognostic and predictive purposes.Coexpression of Biomarkers. Selection of optimal therapy for breast cancer requires both an accurate assessment of prog-nosis and an accurate prediction of response to therapy. The breast cancer markers that are most important in determining therapy are estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, and HER2/neu. Clinicians evaluate clinical and pathologic staging and the expression of estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, and HER2/neu in the primary tumor to assess prognosis and assign therapy. Adjuvant! Online (http://www.adjuvantonline.com) is one of a number of programs available to
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Surgery_Schwartz_3917
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Surgery_Schwartz
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receptor, progesterone receptor, and HER2/neu in the primary tumor to assess prognosis and assign therapy. Adjuvant! Online (http://www.adjuvantonline.com) is one of a number of programs available to clinicians that incor-porates clinical and pathologic factors for an individual patient and calculates risk of recurrence and death due to breast cancer and then provides an assessment of the reduction in risk of recurrence that would be expected with the use of combination chemotherapy, endocrine therapy, or both of these. Adjuvant! Online was developed using information from the SEER data-base, the EBCTCG overview analyses, and results from other individual published trials.198 The website is updated and modi-fied as new information becomes available. Clinicopathologic factors are used to separate breast cancer patients into broad prognostic groups, and treatment decisions are made on this basis (Table 17-12). Other indices and programs that are vali-dated and used include the
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Surgery_Schwartz. receptor, progesterone receptor, and HER2/neu in the primary tumor to assess prognosis and assign therapy. Adjuvant! Online (http://www.adjuvantonline.com) is one of a number of programs available to clinicians that incor-porates clinical and pathologic factors for an individual patient and calculates risk of recurrence and death due to breast cancer and then provides an assessment of the reduction in risk of recurrence that would be expected with the use of combination chemotherapy, endocrine therapy, or both of these. Adjuvant! Online was developed using information from the SEER data-base, the EBCTCG overview analyses, and results from other individual published trials.198 The website is updated and modi-fied as new information becomes available. Clinicopathologic factors are used to separate breast cancer patients into broad prognostic groups, and treatment decisions are made on this basis (Table 17-12). Other indices and programs that are vali-dated and used include the
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Surgery_Schwartz_3918
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Surgery_Schwartz
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used to separate breast cancer patients into broad prognostic groups, and treatment decisions are made on this basis (Table 17-12). Other indices and programs that are vali-dated and used include the Nottingham Prognostic Index, and PREDICT.199-201 When an approach, which combines prognostic factors is used, up to 70% of early breast cancer patients receive adjuvant chemotherapy that is either unnecessary or ineffective. As described earlier, a wide variety of biomarkers have been shown to individually predict prognosis and response to therapy, but they do not improve the accuracy of either the assessment of prognosis or the prediction of response to therapy.As knowledge regarding cellular, biochemical, and molec-ular biomarkers for breast cancer have improved, prognostic indices have been developed that combine the predictive power Table 17-12Traditional prognostic and predictive factors for invasive breast cancerTUMOR FACTORSHOST FACTORSNodal statusAgeTumor sizeMenopausal
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Surgery_Schwartz. used to separate breast cancer patients into broad prognostic groups, and treatment decisions are made on this basis (Table 17-12). Other indices and programs that are vali-dated and used include the Nottingham Prognostic Index, and PREDICT.199-201 When an approach, which combines prognostic factors is used, up to 70% of early breast cancer patients receive adjuvant chemotherapy that is either unnecessary or ineffective. As described earlier, a wide variety of biomarkers have been shown to individually predict prognosis and response to therapy, but they do not improve the accuracy of either the assessment of prognosis or the prediction of response to therapy.As knowledge regarding cellular, biochemical, and molec-ular biomarkers for breast cancer have improved, prognostic indices have been developed that combine the predictive power Table 17-12Traditional prognostic and predictive factors for invasive breast cancerTUMOR FACTORSHOST FACTORSNodal statusAgeTumor sizeMenopausal
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Surgery_Schwartz_3919
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have been developed that combine the predictive power Table 17-12Traditional prognostic and predictive factors for invasive breast cancerTUMOR FACTORSHOST FACTORSNodal statusAgeTumor sizeMenopausal statusHistologic/nuclear gradeFamily historyLymphatic/vascular invasionPrevious breast cancerPathologic stageImmunosuppressionHormone receptor statusNutritionDNA content (ploidy, S-phase fraction)Prior chemotherapyExtent of intraductal componentPrior radiation therapyHER2/neu expression Modified with permission from Ellis N: Inherited Cancer Syndromes. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 2004.Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 57901/03/19 5:05 PM 580SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IITable 17-13Diagnostic studies for breast cancer patients CANCER STAGE 0IIIIIIIVHistory & physicalXXXXXComplete blood count, platelet count XXXLiver function tests and alkaline phosphatase level XXXChest radiograph XXXBilateral diagnostic mammograms, ultrasound as indicatedXXXXXHormone receptor statusXXXXXHER2/neu
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Surgery_Schwartz. have been developed that combine the predictive power Table 17-12Traditional prognostic and predictive factors for invasive breast cancerTUMOR FACTORSHOST FACTORSNodal statusAgeTumor sizeMenopausal statusHistologic/nuclear gradeFamily historyLymphatic/vascular invasionPrevious breast cancerPathologic stageImmunosuppressionHormone receptor statusNutritionDNA content (ploidy, S-phase fraction)Prior chemotherapyExtent of intraductal componentPrior radiation therapyHER2/neu expression Modified with permission from Ellis N: Inherited Cancer Syndromes. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 2004.Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 57901/03/19 5:05 PM 580SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IITable 17-13Diagnostic studies for breast cancer patients CANCER STAGE 0IIIIIIIVHistory & physicalXXXXXComplete blood count, platelet count XXXLiver function tests and alkaline phosphatase level XXXChest radiograph XXXBilateral diagnostic mammograms, ultrasound as indicatedXXXXXHormone receptor statusXXXXXHER2/neu
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platelet count XXXLiver function tests and alkaline phosphatase level XXXChest radiograph XXXBilateral diagnostic mammograms, ultrasound as indicatedXXXXXHormone receptor statusXXXXXHER2/neu expression XXXXBone scan XXAbdominal (without or without pelvis) computed tomographic scan or ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging XXAbdominal imaging and bone scanning are indicated for evaluation of symptoms or abnormal laboratory test results at any presenting stage.Data from NCCN Practice Guidelines in Oncology. Fort Washington, PA: National Comprehensive Cancer Network, 2006.of several individual biomarkers with the relevant clinicopatho-logic factors.Recent technological advances have enabled implemen-tation of high throughput gene expression assays in clinical practice.202 These assays enable detailed stratification of breast cancer patients for assessment of prognosis and for predic-tion of response to therapy. The Oncotype DX is a 21-gene RT-PCR–based assay that has been
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Surgery_Schwartz. platelet count XXXLiver function tests and alkaline phosphatase level XXXChest radiograph XXXBilateral diagnostic mammograms, ultrasound as indicatedXXXXXHormone receptor statusXXXXXHER2/neu expression XXXXBone scan XXAbdominal (without or without pelvis) computed tomographic scan or ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging XXAbdominal imaging and bone scanning are indicated for evaluation of symptoms or abnormal laboratory test results at any presenting stage.Data from NCCN Practice Guidelines in Oncology. Fort Washington, PA: National Comprehensive Cancer Network, 2006.of several individual biomarkers with the relevant clinicopatho-logic factors.Recent technological advances have enabled implemen-tation of high throughput gene expression assays in clinical practice.202 These assays enable detailed stratification of breast cancer patients for assessment of prognosis and for predic-tion of response to therapy. The Oncotype DX is a 21-gene RT-PCR–based assay that has been
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assays enable detailed stratification of breast cancer patients for assessment of prognosis and for predic-tion of response to therapy. The Oncotype DX is a 21-gene RT-PCR–based assay that has been approved for use in newly diagnosed patients with node-negative, ER-positive breast cancer.203 A recurrence score is generated, and those patients with high recurrence scores are likely to benefit from che-motherapy, whereas those with low recurrence scores benefit most from endocrine therapy and may not require chemother-apy. Results from the Trial Assessing Individualized Options for Treatment for breast cancer (TAILORx), designed to pro-spectively validate the use of 21-gene expression assay, have shown that patients with low recurrence score (0 to 10) have a low rate of local-regional and distant recurrence (98.7%) and very good overall survival at 5 years (98%) with endocrine therapy alone without chemotherapy.204 This study has ran-domly assigned patients with an intermediate
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Surgery_Schwartz. assays enable detailed stratification of breast cancer patients for assessment of prognosis and for predic-tion of response to therapy. The Oncotype DX is a 21-gene RT-PCR–based assay that has been approved for use in newly diagnosed patients with node-negative, ER-positive breast cancer.203 A recurrence score is generated, and those patients with high recurrence scores are likely to benefit from che-motherapy, whereas those with low recurrence scores benefit most from endocrine therapy and may not require chemother-apy. Results from the Trial Assessing Individualized Options for Treatment for breast cancer (TAILORx), designed to pro-spectively validate the use of 21-gene expression assay, have shown that patients with low recurrence score (0 to 10) have a low rate of local-regional and distant recurrence (98.7%) and very good overall survival at 5 years (98%) with endocrine therapy alone without chemotherapy.204 This study has ran-domly assigned patients with an intermediate
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and distant recurrence (98.7%) and very good overall survival at 5 years (98%) with endocrine therapy alone without chemotherapy.204 This study has ran-domly assigned patients with an intermediate recurrence score (11 to 25) to endocrine therapy alone or to chemotherapy fol-lowed by endocrine therapy.Additionally, retrospective analysis has shown that the 21-gene recurrence score can be used in postmenopausal patients with ER-positive tumors and 1 to 3 involved axillary lymph nodes to predict the benefit of chemotherapy in addition to endocrine therapy.205 Knowledge of the recurrence score has been shown to alter treatment recommendations by oncologists, and patients likewise change their decision to undergo treatment based on the risk of recurrence.206 The MammaPrint assay uses a 70-gene expression profile to assess the risk of distant metas-tasis. Mammaprint is FDA approved for use in stage-1 or stage-2, node negative, ER-positive or ER-negative breast cancers to identify patients
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Surgery_Schwartz. and distant recurrence (98.7%) and very good overall survival at 5 years (98%) with endocrine therapy alone without chemotherapy.204 This study has ran-domly assigned patients with an intermediate recurrence score (11 to 25) to endocrine therapy alone or to chemotherapy fol-lowed by endocrine therapy.Additionally, retrospective analysis has shown that the 21-gene recurrence score can be used in postmenopausal patients with ER-positive tumors and 1 to 3 involved axillary lymph nodes to predict the benefit of chemotherapy in addition to endocrine therapy.205 Knowledge of the recurrence score has been shown to alter treatment recommendations by oncologists, and patients likewise change their decision to undergo treatment based on the risk of recurrence.206 The MammaPrint assay uses a 70-gene expression profile to assess the risk of distant metas-tasis. Mammaprint is FDA approved for use in stage-1 or stage-2, node negative, ER-positive or ER-negative breast cancers to identify patients
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expression profile to assess the risk of distant metas-tasis. Mammaprint is FDA approved for use in stage-1 or stage-2, node negative, ER-positive or ER-negative breast cancers to identify patients with high or low risk of recurrence. Although fresh tissue was initially required to perform the assay, it has since been adapted for use in paraffin-embedded tissue sam-ples. The prospective RASTER study reported that patients classified as low risk based on MammaPrint had a 97% distant recurrence-free interval at five years.207 Results of the prospec-tive MINDACT (MicroarrayInNode negative and 1–3 positive lymph node Disease may Avoid ChemoTherapy) trial were recently reported.208 The study was designed to assess whether the 70-gene expression assay would help avoid chemotherapy in patients who are considered clinically high risk but categorized as low genomic risk based on the assay. A 5-year rate of distant metastasis-free survival of more than 92% was identified as the cutoff for the
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Surgery_Schwartz. expression profile to assess the risk of distant metas-tasis. Mammaprint is FDA approved for use in stage-1 or stage-2, node negative, ER-positive or ER-negative breast cancers to identify patients with high or low risk of recurrence. Although fresh tissue was initially required to perform the assay, it has since been adapted for use in paraffin-embedded tissue sam-ples. The prospective RASTER study reported that patients classified as low risk based on MammaPrint had a 97% distant recurrence-free interval at five years.207 Results of the prospec-tive MINDACT (MicroarrayInNode negative and 1–3 positive lymph node Disease may Avoid ChemoTherapy) trial were recently reported.208 The study was designed to assess whether the 70-gene expression assay would help avoid chemotherapy in patients who are considered clinically high risk but categorized as low genomic risk based on the assay. A 5-year rate of distant metastasis-free survival of more than 92% was identified as the cutoff for the
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who are considered clinically high risk but categorized as low genomic risk based on the assay. A 5-year rate of distant metastasis-free survival of more than 92% was identified as the cutoff for the benefit of chemotherapy. At 5 years, the rate of survival without distant metastasis in patients with high clinical risk and low genomic risk was 94.7%, meeting the criteria for noninferiority. However, the rate of disease-free survival and overall survival was higher with chemotherapy in the intention to treat population.OVERVIEW OF BREAST CANCER THERAPYBefore diagnostic biopsy, the surgeon must consider the possi-bility that a suspicious mass or mammographic finding may be a breast cancer. Once a diagnosis of breast cancer is made, the type of therapy offered to a breast cancer patient is determined by the stage of the disease, the biologic subtype, and the general health status of the individual. Laboratory tests and imaging studies are performed based on the initial stage as presented
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Surgery_Schwartz. who are considered clinically high risk but categorized as low genomic risk based on the assay. A 5-year rate of distant metastasis-free survival of more than 92% was identified as the cutoff for the benefit of chemotherapy. At 5 years, the rate of survival without distant metastasis in patients with high clinical risk and low genomic risk was 94.7%, meeting the criteria for noninferiority. However, the rate of disease-free survival and overall survival was higher with chemotherapy in the intention to treat population.OVERVIEW OF BREAST CANCER THERAPYBefore diagnostic biopsy, the surgeon must consider the possi-bility that a suspicious mass or mammographic finding may be a breast cancer. Once a diagnosis of breast cancer is made, the type of therapy offered to a breast cancer patient is determined by the stage of the disease, the biologic subtype, and the general health status of the individual. Laboratory tests and imaging studies are performed based on the initial stage as presented
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by the stage of the disease, the biologic subtype, and the general health status of the individual. Laboratory tests and imaging studies are performed based on the initial stage as presented in Table 17-13. Before therapy is initiated, the patient and the sur-geon must share a clear perspective on the planned course of treatment. Before initiating local therapy, the surgeon should determine the clinical stage, histologic characteristics, and appropriate biomarker levels.In Situ Breast Cancer (Stage 0)Both LCIS and DCIS may be difficult to distinguish from atypical hyperplasia or from cancers with early invasion.60,209-214 Expert pathologic review is required in all cases. Bilateral mammography is performed to determine the extent of the in situ cancer and to exclude a second cancer. Because LCIS is considered a marker for increased risk rather than an inevitable precursor of invasive disease, the current treatment options for LCIS include observation, chemoprevention, and bilateral
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Surgery_Schwartz. by the stage of the disease, the biologic subtype, and the general health status of the individual. Laboratory tests and imaging studies are performed based on the initial stage as presented in Table 17-13. Before therapy is initiated, the patient and the sur-geon must share a clear perspective on the planned course of treatment. Before initiating local therapy, the surgeon should determine the clinical stage, histologic characteristics, and appropriate biomarker levels.In Situ Breast Cancer (Stage 0)Both LCIS and DCIS may be difficult to distinguish from atypical hyperplasia or from cancers with early invasion.60,209-214 Expert pathologic review is required in all cases. Bilateral mammography is performed to determine the extent of the in situ cancer and to exclude a second cancer. Because LCIS is considered a marker for increased risk rather than an inevitable precursor of invasive disease, the current treatment options for LCIS include observation, chemoprevention, and bilateral
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LCIS is considered a marker for increased risk rather than an inevitable precursor of invasive disease, the current treatment options for LCIS include observation, chemoprevention, and bilateral total mastectomy. The goal of treatment is to prevent or detect at an early stage the invasive cancer that subsequently develops in 25% to 35% of these women. There is no benefit to excis-ing LCIS because the disease diffusely involves both breasts in many cases and the risk of developing invasive cancer is equal for both breasts. The use of tamoxifen as a risk-reduction strat-egy should be considered in women with a diagnosis of LCIS.Women with DCIS and evidence of extensive disease (>4 cm of disease or disease in more than one quadrant) usu-ally require mastectomy (Fig. 17-29). For women with lim-ited disease, lumpectomy and radiation therapy are generally recommended. For nonpalpable DCIS, needle localization or other image-guided techniques are used to guide the surgical resection.
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Surgery_Schwartz. LCIS is considered a marker for increased risk rather than an inevitable precursor of invasive disease, the current treatment options for LCIS include observation, chemoprevention, and bilateral total mastectomy. The goal of treatment is to prevent or detect at an early stage the invasive cancer that subsequently develops in 25% to 35% of these women. There is no benefit to excis-ing LCIS because the disease diffusely involves both breasts in many cases and the risk of developing invasive cancer is equal for both breasts. The use of tamoxifen as a risk-reduction strat-egy should be considered in women with a diagnosis of LCIS.Women with DCIS and evidence of extensive disease (>4 cm of disease or disease in more than one quadrant) usu-ally require mastectomy (Fig. 17-29). For women with lim-ited disease, lumpectomy and radiation therapy are generally recommended. For nonpalpable DCIS, needle localization or other image-guided techniques are used to guide the surgical resection.
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with lim-ited disease, lumpectomy and radiation therapy are generally recommended. For nonpalpable DCIS, needle localization or other image-guided techniques are used to guide the surgical resection. Specimen mammography is performed to ensure that all visible evidence of cancer is excised. Adjuvant tamoxi-fen therapy is considered for DCIS patients with ER-positive 8Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58001/03/19 5:05 PM 581THE BREASTCHAPTER 17ABFigure 17-29. Extensive DCIS seen on mammography. A. Exten-sive calcifications are seen throughout the breast on this cranial caudal view. B. Magnification view of calcifications. Due to the extent of the disease the patient is not a good candidate for breast conserving surgery. (Used with permission from Dr. Anne Turnbull, Consultant Radiologist/Director of Breast Screening, Royal Derby Hospital, Derby, UK.)disease. The gold standard against which breast conservation therapy for DCIS is evaluated is mastectomy. Women treated with mastectomy
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Surgery_Schwartz. with lim-ited disease, lumpectomy and radiation therapy are generally recommended. For nonpalpable DCIS, needle localization or other image-guided techniques are used to guide the surgical resection. Specimen mammography is performed to ensure that all visible evidence of cancer is excised. Adjuvant tamoxi-fen therapy is considered for DCIS patients with ER-positive 8Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58001/03/19 5:05 PM 581THE BREASTCHAPTER 17ABFigure 17-29. Extensive DCIS seen on mammography. A. Exten-sive calcifications are seen throughout the breast on this cranial caudal view. B. Magnification view of calcifications. Due to the extent of the disease the patient is not a good candidate for breast conserving surgery. (Used with permission from Dr. Anne Turnbull, Consultant Radiologist/Director of Breast Screening, Royal Derby Hospital, Derby, UK.)disease. The gold standard against which breast conservation therapy for DCIS is evaluated is mastectomy. Women treated with mastectomy
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of Breast Screening, Royal Derby Hospital, Derby, UK.)disease. The gold standard against which breast conservation therapy for DCIS is evaluated is mastectomy. Women treated with mastectomy have local recurrence and mortality rates of <2%. There is no randomized trial comparing mastectomy vs. breast conserving surgery, and none of the randomized trials of breast-conserving surgery with or without radiotherapy for DCIS were powered to show a difference in mortality. Women treated with lumpectomy and adjuvant radiation therapy in the initial clinical trials were noted to have a local recurrence rate that is increased compared to mastectomy. About 45% of these recurrences will be invasive cancer when radiation therapy is not used. The B-17 trial was conducted by the NSABP to assess the need for radiation in patients treated with breast conserv-ing surgery for DCIS.215 Patients were randomly assigned to lumpectomy with radiation or lumpectomy alone, and after a mean follow-up time of 90
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Surgery_Schwartz. of Breast Screening, Royal Derby Hospital, Derby, UK.)disease. The gold standard against which breast conservation therapy for DCIS is evaluated is mastectomy. Women treated with mastectomy have local recurrence and mortality rates of <2%. There is no randomized trial comparing mastectomy vs. breast conserving surgery, and none of the randomized trials of breast-conserving surgery with or without radiotherapy for DCIS were powered to show a difference in mortality. Women treated with lumpectomy and adjuvant radiation therapy in the initial clinical trials were noted to have a local recurrence rate that is increased compared to mastectomy. About 45% of these recurrences will be invasive cancer when radiation therapy is not used. The B-17 trial was conducted by the NSABP to assess the need for radiation in patients treated with breast conserv-ing surgery for DCIS.215 Patients were randomly assigned to lumpectomy with radiation or lumpectomy alone, and after a mean follow-up time of 90
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for radiation in patients treated with breast conserv-ing surgery for DCIS.215 Patients were randomly assigned to lumpectomy with radiation or lumpectomy alone, and after a mean follow-up time of 90 months rates of both ipsilateral noninvasive and invasive recurrences were significantly lower in patients who received radiation. However, in the B-17 trial the margins were not prospectively assessed, and it is estimated that up to half of the patients may have had tumor at the mar-gin of resection. The benefit of the addition of radiation over breast-conserving surgery alone for DCIS has also been dem-onstrated in several other randomized trials where margins were prospectively assessed including the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) protocol 10853; the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand DCIS Trial; and the Swedish Trial.209,216-218 In 2016, the Society of Surgi-cal Oncology (SSO), American Society for Radiation Oncol-ogy (ASTRO), and the American
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Surgery_Schwartz. for radiation in patients treated with breast conserv-ing surgery for DCIS.215 Patients were randomly assigned to lumpectomy with radiation or lumpectomy alone, and after a mean follow-up time of 90 months rates of both ipsilateral noninvasive and invasive recurrences were significantly lower in patients who received radiation. However, in the B-17 trial the margins were not prospectively assessed, and it is estimated that up to half of the patients may have had tumor at the mar-gin of resection. The benefit of the addition of radiation over breast-conserving surgery alone for DCIS has also been dem-onstrated in several other randomized trials where margins were prospectively assessed including the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) protocol 10853; the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand DCIS Trial; and the Swedish Trial.209,216-218 In 2016, the Society of Surgi-cal Oncology (SSO), American Society for Radiation Oncol-ogy (ASTRO), and the American
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Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand DCIS Trial; and the Swedish Trial.209,216-218 In 2016, the Society of Surgi-cal Oncology (SSO), American Society for Radiation Oncol-ogy (ASTRO), and the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) established consensus guidelines on margins for patients with DCIS undergoing breast-conserving surgery.219 Based on a multidisciplinary consensus panel using a meta-analysis of margin width and ipsilateral breast tumor recur-rence, a 2-mm margin was determined as adequate width for DCIS for patients undergoing breast-conserving surgery with whole-breast radiation therapy.219Despite the data from randomized trials showing a benefit in all patient subgroups with the addition of radiation in DCIS, there has been an interest in trying to define a subset where radiation could be avoided in order to minimize the cost and inconvenience associated with radiation. In addition, there have been several studies published where patients were treated with excision alone
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Surgery_Schwartz. Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand DCIS Trial; and the Swedish Trial.209,216-218 In 2016, the Society of Surgi-cal Oncology (SSO), American Society for Radiation Oncol-ogy (ASTRO), and the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) established consensus guidelines on margins for patients with DCIS undergoing breast-conserving surgery.219 Based on a multidisciplinary consensus panel using a meta-analysis of margin width and ipsilateral breast tumor recur-rence, a 2-mm margin was determined as adequate width for DCIS for patients undergoing breast-conserving surgery with whole-breast radiation therapy.219Despite the data from randomized trials showing a benefit in all patient subgroups with the addition of radiation in DCIS, there has been an interest in trying to define a subset where radiation could be avoided in order to minimize the cost and inconvenience associated with radiation. In addition, there have been several studies published where patients were treated with excision alone
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could be avoided in order to minimize the cost and inconvenience associated with radiation. In addition, there have been several studies published where patients were treated with excision alone and never developed invasive breast cancer even at 25 years of follow-up. Silverstein and colleagues were pro-ponents of avoiding radiation therapy in selected patients with DCIS who have widely negative margins after surgery.213 They reported that when greater than 10-mm margins were achieved, there was no additional benefit from radiation therapy. When margins were between 1 and 10 mm, there was a relative risk of local recurrence of 1.49, compared to 2.54 for those with margins less than 1 mm. These data suggested that appropri-ately selected patients with DCIS might not require postopera-tive radiation therapy.The Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) initi-ated a prospective registry trial (ECOG 5194) to identify those patients who could safely undergo breast-conserving surgery
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Surgery_Schwartz. could be avoided in order to minimize the cost and inconvenience associated with radiation. In addition, there have been several studies published where patients were treated with excision alone and never developed invasive breast cancer even at 25 years of follow-up. Silverstein and colleagues were pro-ponents of avoiding radiation therapy in selected patients with DCIS who have widely negative margins after surgery.213 They reported that when greater than 10-mm margins were achieved, there was no additional benefit from radiation therapy. When margins were between 1 and 10 mm, there was a relative risk of local recurrence of 1.49, compared to 2.54 for those with margins less than 1 mm. These data suggested that appropri-ately selected patients with DCIS might not require postopera-tive radiation therapy.The Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) initi-ated a prospective registry trial (ECOG 5194) to identify those patients who could safely undergo breast-conserving surgery
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radiation therapy.The Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) initi-ated a prospective registry trial (ECOG 5194) to identify those patients who could safely undergo breast-conserving surgery without radiation.222 Eligible patients were those with low or intermediate grade DCIS measuring 2.5 cm or less who had negative margins of at least 3 mm and those with high-grade DCIS who had tumors measuring 1 cm or less with a negative margin of at least 3 mm. At a median follow-up of 6.2 years, patients with low or intermediate grade DCIS had an in-breast Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58101/03/19 5:05 PM 582SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIrecurrence rate of 6.1% while those with high-grade DCIS had a recurrence rate of 15.3%. Approximately 4% of patients developed a contralateral breast cancer during follow-up in both the low/intermediate and high-grade groups. This study identi-fied an acceptable recurrence rate for those patients with low or intermediate grade DCIS treated with
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Surgery_Schwartz. radiation therapy.The Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) initi-ated a prospective registry trial (ECOG 5194) to identify those patients who could safely undergo breast-conserving surgery without radiation.222 Eligible patients were those with low or intermediate grade DCIS measuring 2.5 cm or less who had negative margins of at least 3 mm and those with high-grade DCIS who had tumors measuring 1 cm or less with a negative margin of at least 3 mm. At a median follow-up of 6.2 years, patients with low or intermediate grade DCIS had an in-breast Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58101/03/19 5:05 PM 582SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIrecurrence rate of 6.1% while those with high-grade DCIS had a recurrence rate of 15.3%. Approximately 4% of patients developed a contralateral breast cancer during follow-up in both the low/intermediate and high-grade groups. This study identi-fied an acceptable recurrence rate for those patients with low or intermediate grade DCIS treated with
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cancer during follow-up in both the low/intermediate and high-grade groups. This study identi-fied an acceptable recurrence rate for those patients with low or intermediate grade DCIS treated with excision alone with a margin of at least 3 mm. In contrast, patients with high-grade DCIS had an unacceptably high local recurrence rate.The Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG) initi-ated the 9804 trial for patients with “good risk” DCIS and randomized them to lumpectomy vs. lumpectomy with whole breast irradiation. Eligible patients were those with unicentric, low or intermediate grade DCIS measuring 2.5 cm or less with a margin of 3 mm or greater. The trial was closed early due to slow accrual; however, the results for 585 patients were recently reported with a median follow-up of 6.46 years.223,224 The local recurrence rate at 5 years was 0.4% for patients ran-domized to receive radiation and 3.2% for those who did not receive radiation.Solin et al utilized samples from the ECOG 5194
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Surgery_Schwartz. cancer during follow-up in both the low/intermediate and high-grade groups. This study identi-fied an acceptable recurrence rate for those patients with low or intermediate grade DCIS treated with excision alone with a margin of at least 3 mm. In contrast, patients with high-grade DCIS had an unacceptably high local recurrence rate.The Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG) initi-ated the 9804 trial for patients with “good risk” DCIS and randomized them to lumpectomy vs. lumpectomy with whole breast irradiation. Eligible patients were those with unicentric, low or intermediate grade DCIS measuring 2.5 cm or less with a margin of 3 mm or greater. The trial was closed early due to slow accrual; however, the results for 585 patients were recently reported with a median follow-up of 6.46 years.223,224 The local recurrence rate at 5 years was 0.4% for patients ran-domized to receive radiation and 3.2% for those who did not receive radiation.Solin et al utilized samples from the ECOG 5194
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The local recurrence rate at 5 years was 0.4% for patients ran-domized to receive radiation and 3.2% for those who did not receive radiation.Solin et al utilized samples from the ECOG 5194 trial to develop a quantitative multigene RT-PCR assay for predict-ing recurrence risk in patients with DCIS treated with surgery alone.201 They were able to define low, intermediate, and high risk groups using a DCIS Score. The DCIS Score was able to quantify the risk of recurrence in the breast for both DCIS and invasive events. This tool has recently been evaluated in another dataset and appears to be a promising tool for clinical use.225 When selecting therapy for patients with DCIS, one must con-sider clinical and pathologic factors, including tumor size, grade, mammographic appearance, and patient preference. There is no single correct surgical treatment, and many patients will require extensive counseling in order to make a decision regarding sur-gical therapy. The role of axillary staging in
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Surgery_Schwartz. The local recurrence rate at 5 years was 0.4% for patients ran-domized to receive radiation and 3.2% for those who did not receive radiation.Solin et al utilized samples from the ECOG 5194 trial to develop a quantitative multigene RT-PCR assay for predict-ing recurrence risk in patients with DCIS treated with surgery alone.201 They were able to define low, intermediate, and high risk groups using a DCIS Score. The DCIS Score was able to quantify the risk of recurrence in the breast for both DCIS and invasive events. This tool has recently been evaluated in another dataset and appears to be a promising tool for clinical use.225 When selecting therapy for patients with DCIS, one must con-sider clinical and pathologic factors, including tumor size, grade, mammographic appearance, and patient preference. There is no single correct surgical treatment, and many patients will require extensive counseling in order to make a decision regarding sur-gical therapy. The role of axillary staging in
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preference. There is no single correct surgical treatment, and many patients will require extensive counseling in order to make a decision regarding sur-gical therapy. The role of axillary staging in patients with DCIS is limited. One consideration is for patients undergoing mastec-tomy. Since most lesions are currently diagnosed with needle core biopsy, there is about a 20% incidence of invasive breast cancer on final pathologic assessment of the primary tumor. Since it is not feasible to perform sentinel node dissection after mastectomy, most surgeons will recommend the use of sentinel node dissection at the time of mastectomy for DCIS.Results from the NSABP B-24 trial reported a signifi-cant reduction in local recurrence after 5 years of tamoxifen in women with ER-positive DCIS. Based on this finding, some guidelines have advocated that all patients (women with ER-positive DCIS without contraindications to tamoxifen therapy) should be offered tamoxifen following surgery and
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Surgery_Schwartz. preference. There is no single correct surgical treatment, and many patients will require extensive counseling in order to make a decision regarding sur-gical therapy. The role of axillary staging in patients with DCIS is limited. One consideration is for patients undergoing mastec-tomy. Since most lesions are currently diagnosed with needle core biopsy, there is about a 20% incidence of invasive breast cancer on final pathologic assessment of the primary tumor. Since it is not feasible to perform sentinel node dissection after mastectomy, most surgeons will recommend the use of sentinel node dissection at the time of mastectomy for DCIS.Results from the NSABP B-24 trial reported a signifi-cant reduction in local recurrence after 5 years of tamoxifen in women with ER-positive DCIS. Based on this finding, some guidelines have advocated that all patients (women with ER-positive DCIS without contraindications to tamoxifen therapy) should be offered tamoxifen following surgery and
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Based on this finding, some guidelines have advocated that all patients (women with ER-positive DCIS without contraindications to tamoxifen therapy) should be offered tamoxifen following surgery and radiation therapy for a duration of 5 years. The B-24 trial revealed a sig-nificant reduction in recurrence with adjuvant tamoxifen therapy for patients with DCIS; however, the results were not initially assessed based on ER status.226 There were 1804 women with DCIS randomized to lumpectomy and radiation with or without tamoxifen. The rate of breast cancer events was significantly lower in those who received tamoxifen at a median follow-up of 74 months (8.2% vs. 13.4%, P = 0.0009). Subsequently, Allred and colleagues evaluated 41% of patients with DCIS in the NSABP B-24 trial to determine the effect of tamoxifen based on ER status measured in the primary tumor.203 They found that 76% of women had DCIS that was ER-positive and these women had a greater reduction in ipsilateral breast tumor
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Surgery_Schwartz. Based on this finding, some guidelines have advocated that all patients (women with ER-positive DCIS without contraindications to tamoxifen therapy) should be offered tamoxifen following surgery and radiation therapy for a duration of 5 years. The B-24 trial revealed a sig-nificant reduction in recurrence with adjuvant tamoxifen therapy for patients with DCIS; however, the results were not initially assessed based on ER status.226 There were 1804 women with DCIS randomized to lumpectomy and radiation with or without tamoxifen. The rate of breast cancer events was significantly lower in those who received tamoxifen at a median follow-up of 74 months (8.2% vs. 13.4%, P = 0.0009). Subsequently, Allred and colleagues evaluated 41% of patients with DCIS in the NSABP B-24 trial to determine the effect of tamoxifen based on ER status measured in the primary tumor.203 They found that 76% of women had DCIS that was ER-positive and these women had a greater reduction in ipsilateral breast tumor
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effect of tamoxifen based on ER status measured in the primary tumor.203 They found that 76% of women had DCIS that was ER-positive and these women had a greater reduction in ipsilateral breast tumor recur-rence with tamoxifen than did patients with ER-negative DCIS (11% vs. 5.2%, P <0.001). However, it should be noted that 15% of patients in B-24 had tumor at the resection margins. For these patients, tamoxifen could be viewed as treating what, by the current standard, would be viewed as inadequate local exci-sion of the primary tumor.Early Invasive Breast Cancer (Stage I, IIA, or IIB)There have been six prospective randomized trials comparing breast-conserving surgery to mastectomy in early stage breast cancer, and all have shown equivalent survival rates regardless of the surgical treatment type. One caveat, however, is that the majority of studies had a restriction of tumor size; most were either 2 cm or 2.5 cm, while the NSABP B-06 trial was 4 cm, and the NCI trial was up to 5
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Surgery_Schwartz. effect of tamoxifen based on ER status measured in the primary tumor.203 They found that 76% of women had DCIS that was ER-positive and these women had a greater reduction in ipsilateral breast tumor recur-rence with tamoxifen than did patients with ER-negative DCIS (11% vs. 5.2%, P <0.001). However, it should be noted that 15% of patients in B-24 had tumor at the resection margins. For these patients, tamoxifen could be viewed as treating what, by the current standard, would be viewed as inadequate local exci-sion of the primary tumor.Early Invasive Breast Cancer (Stage I, IIA, or IIB)There have been six prospective randomized trials comparing breast-conserving surgery to mastectomy in early stage breast cancer, and all have shown equivalent survival rates regardless of the surgical treatment type. One caveat, however, is that the majority of studies had a restriction of tumor size; most were either 2 cm or 2.5 cm, while the NSABP B-06 trial was 4 cm, and the NCI trial was up to 5
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Surgery_Schwartz_3938
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type. One caveat, however, is that the majority of studies had a restriction of tumor size; most were either 2 cm or 2.5 cm, while the NSABP B-06 trial was 4 cm, and the NCI trial was up to 5 cm. NSABP B-06, which is the largest of all the breast conservation trials, compared total mastectomy to lumpectomy with or without radiation therapy in the treatment of women with stages I and II breast cancer.227-233 After 5and 8-year follow-up periods, the disease-free (DFS), distant dis-ease-free, and overall survival (OS) rates for lumpectomy with or without radiation therapy were similar to those observed after total mastectomy. However, the incidence of ipsilateral breast cancer recurrence was higher in the group not receiving radia-tion therapy. These findings supported the use of lumpectomy and radiation therapy in the treatment of stages I and II breast cancer and this has since become the preferred method of treat-ment for women with early stage breast cancer who have uni-focal disease
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Surgery_Schwartz. type. One caveat, however, is that the majority of studies had a restriction of tumor size; most were either 2 cm or 2.5 cm, while the NSABP B-06 trial was 4 cm, and the NCI trial was up to 5 cm. NSABP B-06, which is the largest of all the breast conservation trials, compared total mastectomy to lumpectomy with or without radiation therapy in the treatment of women with stages I and II breast cancer.227-233 After 5and 8-year follow-up periods, the disease-free (DFS), distant dis-ease-free, and overall survival (OS) rates for lumpectomy with or without radiation therapy were similar to those observed after total mastectomy. However, the incidence of ipsilateral breast cancer recurrence was higher in the group not receiving radia-tion therapy. These findings supported the use of lumpectomy and radiation therapy in the treatment of stages I and II breast cancer and this has since become the preferred method of treat-ment for women with early stage breast cancer who have uni-focal disease
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Surgery_Schwartz_3939
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radiation therapy in the treatment of stages I and II breast cancer and this has since become the preferred method of treat-ment for women with early stage breast cancer who have uni-focal disease and who are not known BRCA mutation carriers. Reanalysis of the B-06 study results was undertaken after 20 years of follow-up and confirmed that there was no differ-ence in disease-free survival rates after total mastectomy or after lumpectomy with or without adjuvant radiation therapy. The in-breast recurrence rate was substantially higher in the lumpec-tomy alone group (39.2%) compared with the lumpectomy plus adjuvant radiation therapy group (14.3%), confirming the importance of radiation therapy in the management of patients with invasive disease. However, it should be noted that there were several criteria in the B-06 study. There was a specific lymphadenopathy exclusion criteria. Secondly, all patients ran-domized to breast-conserving surgery had a frozen section, and if the margins
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Surgery_Schwartz. radiation therapy in the treatment of stages I and II breast cancer and this has since become the preferred method of treat-ment for women with early stage breast cancer who have uni-focal disease and who are not known BRCA mutation carriers. Reanalysis of the B-06 study results was undertaken after 20 years of follow-up and confirmed that there was no differ-ence in disease-free survival rates after total mastectomy or after lumpectomy with or without adjuvant radiation therapy. The in-breast recurrence rate was substantially higher in the lumpec-tomy alone group (39.2%) compared with the lumpectomy plus adjuvant radiation therapy group (14.3%), confirming the importance of radiation therapy in the management of patients with invasive disease. However, it should be noted that there were several criteria in the B-06 study. There was a specific lymphadenopathy exclusion criteria. Secondly, all patients ran-domized to breast-conserving surgery had a frozen section, and if the margins
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Surgery_Schwartz_3940
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several criteria in the B-06 study. There was a specific lymphadenopathy exclusion criteria. Secondly, all patients ran-domized to breast-conserving surgery had a frozen section, and if the margins were involved, they were converted to mastec-tomy but were included in the analysis as having had a breast-conserving operation (on the basis of intention to treat). Finally, in the breast-conserving group recurrences in the treated breast were considered as a “nonevent.”Data from all of the randomized trials where breast con-servation was performed with or without radiation therapy have been examined by the EBCTCG.12 At 15 years of follow-up, the absolute reduction in mortality with the use of radiation therapy after lumpectomy was 5.1% in node-negative patients and 7.1% in node-positive patients. These data support the concept that the addition of radiation not only improves local control but also has an impact on survival. Similar to DCIS, clinicians have sought to identify subgroups of
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Surgery_Schwartz. several criteria in the B-06 study. There was a specific lymphadenopathy exclusion criteria. Secondly, all patients ran-domized to breast-conserving surgery had a frozen section, and if the margins were involved, they were converted to mastec-tomy but were included in the analysis as having had a breast-conserving operation (on the basis of intention to treat). Finally, in the breast-conserving group recurrences in the treated breast were considered as a “nonevent.”Data from all of the randomized trials where breast con-servation was performed with or without radiation therapy have been examined by the EBCTCG.12 At 15 years of follow-up, the absolute reduction in mortality with the use of radiation therapy after lumpectomy was 5.1% in node-negative patients and 7.1% in node-positive patients. These data support the concept that the addition of radiation not only improves local control but also has an impact on survival. Similar to DCIS, clinicians have sought to identify subgroups of
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Surgery_Schwartz_3941
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Surgery_Schwartz
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These data support the concept that the addition of radiation not only improves local control but also has an impact on survival. Similar to DCIS, clinicians have sought to identify subgroups of patients who may not benefit from the addition of radiation therapy, particularly older patients who may have a shorter life expectancy due to medical comor-bidities. Randomized trials have shown that in selected patients with small, ER-positive, low-grade tumors, lumpectomy alone without radiation therapy may be appropriate.211,212 The Cancer and Leukemia Group B (CALGB) C9343 trial enrolled women over the age of 70 with T1N0 breast cancer and randomized them to lumpectomy with or without radiation therapy. All patients received adjuvant tamoxifen.233a At 5 years, although Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58201/03/19 5:05 PM 583THE BREASTCHAPTER 17there were fewer local recurrences with radiation (1% vs. 4%, P <0.001), there were no differences in DFS and OS. While long-term follow-up at
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Surgery_Schwartz. These data support the concept that the addition of radiation not only improves local control but also has an impact on survival. Similar to DCIS, clinicians have sought to identify subgroups of patients who may not benefit from the addition of radiation therapy, particularly older patients who may have a shorter life expectancy due to medical comor-bidities. Randomized trials have shown that in selected patients with small, ER-positive, low-grade tumors, lumpectomy alone without radiation therapy may be appropriate.211,212 The Cancer and Leukemia Group B (CALGB) C9343 trial enrolled women over the age of 70 with T1N0 breast cancer and randomized them to lumpectomy with or without radiation therapy. All patients received adjuvant tamoxifen.233a At 5 years, although Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58201/03/19 5:05 PM 583THE BREASTCHAPTER 17there were fewer local recurrences with radiation (1% vs. 4%, P <0.001), there were no differences in DFS and OS. While long-term follow-up at
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Surgery_Schwartz_3942
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58201/03/19 5:05 PM 583THE BREASTCHAPTER 17there were fewer local recurrences with radiation (1% vs. 4%, P <0.001), there were no differences in DFS and OS. While long-term follow-up at 10 years showed fewer local recurrences with radiation (2% vs. 10%), there were no significant differ-ences in time to distant metastasis, breast cancer–specific sur-vival, or OS between the two groups. A trial similar to CALGB C9343 was conducted in Canada where they enrolled women age 50 years and older and randomized them to lumpectomy with or without radiation. Mean age was 68 years, and 80% of women had ER-positive tumors. Again, local recurrence rates were lower in women who received radiation (0.6% vs. 7.7%, P <0.001); however, at a median follow-up of 5.6 years, there were no differences in DFS or OS. The PRIME-2 study enrolled women age 65 years or older with ER-positive, node-negative, up to 3 cm breast cancers, who had undergone breast-conserving surgery and were candidates for adjuvant
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Surgery_Schwartz. 58201/03/19 5:05 PM 583THE BREASTCHAPTER 17there were fewer local recurrences with radiation (1% vs. 4%, P <0.001), there were no differences in DFS and OS. While long-term follow-up at 10 years showed fewer local recurrences with radiation (2% vs. 10%), there were no significant differ-ences in time to distant metastasis, breast cancer–specific sur-vival, or OS between the two groups. A trial similar to CALGB C9343 was conducted in Canada where they enrolled women age 50 years and older and randomized them to lumpectomy with or without radiation. Mean age was 68 years, and 80% of women had ER-positive tumors. Again, local recurrence rates were lower in women who received radiation (0.6% vs. 7.7%, P <0.001); however, at a median follow-up of 5.6 years, there were no differences in DFS or OS. The PRIME-2 study enrolled women age 65 years or older with ER-positive, node-negative, up to 3 cm breast cancers, who had undergone breast-conserving surgery and were candidates for adjuvant
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Surgery_Schwartz_3943
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or OS. The PRIME-2 study enrolled women age 65 years or older with ER-positive, node-negative, up to 3 cm breast cancers, who had undergone breast-conserving surgery and were candidates for adjuvant endocrine treatment. They were assigned to receive whole-breast irradiation or no treatment. After a median follow-up of 5 years, ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence was 1.3% with radiation vs. 41% in those assigned to no radiotherapy. However, no differences in distant metastases, contralateral breast cancers, or overall survival were noted between the groups.234 These studies suggest that radia-tion can be avoided in select older patients with ER-positive, early-stage breast cancer.Accelerated partial breast irradiation (APBI) is also an option for carefully selected patients with DCIS and early-stage breast cancer. Since the majority of recurrences after breast conservation occur in or adjacent to the tumor bed, there has been interest in limiting the radiation to the area of the
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Surgery_Schwartz. or OS. The PRIME-2 study enrolled women age 65 years or older with ER-positive, node-negative, up to 3 cm breast cancers, who had undergone breast-conserving surgery and were candidates for adjuvant endocrine treatment. They were assigned to receive whole-breast irradiation or no treatment. After a median follow-up of 5 years, ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence was 1.3% with radiation vs. 41% in those assigned to no radiotherapy. However, no differences in distant metastases, contralateral breast cancers, or overall survival were noted between the groups.234 These studies suggest that radia-tion can be avoided in select older patients with ER-positive, early-stage breast cancer.Accelerated partial breast irradiation (APBI) is also an option for carefully selected patients with DCIS and early-stage breast cancer. Since the majority of recurrences after breast conservation occur in or adjacent to the tumor bed, there has been interest in limiting the radiation to the area of the
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Surgery_Schwartz_3944
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Surgery_Schwartz
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and early-stage breast cancer. Since the majority of recurrences after breast conservation occur in or adjacent to the tumor bed, there has been interest in limiting the radiation to the area of the primary tumor bed with a margin of normal tissue. APBI is delivered in an abbreviated fashion (twice daily for 5 days) and at a lower total dose compared with the standard course of 5 to 6 weeks of radiation (50 Gy with or without a boost) in the case of whole breast irradiation. Proponents have suggested that this shortened course of treatment may increase the feasibility of breast con-servation for some women and may improve radiation therapy compliance. The RTOG 04-13/NSABP B-39 trial is a random-ized comparison of whole breast irradiation to APBI in women with early stage breast cancer. The trial has completed accrual, and it will likely be several years before data are mature to report outcomes between the two radiation treatment strategies. TARGIT is another study that randomized
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Surgery_Schwartz. and early-stage breast cancer. Since the majority of recurrences after breast conservation occur in or adjacent to the tumor bed, there has been interest in limiting the radiation to the area of the primary tumor bed with a margin of normal tissue. APBI is delivered in an abbreviated fashion (twice daily for 5 days) and at a lower total dose compared with the standard course of 5 to 6 weeks of radiation (50 Gy with or without a boost) in the case of whole breast irradiation. Proponents have suggested that this shortened course of treatment may increase the feasibility of breast con-servation for some women and may improve radiation therapy compliance. The RTOG 04-13/NSABP B-39 trial is a random-ized comparison of whole breast irradiation to APBI in women with early stage breast cancer. The trial has completed accrual, and it will likely be several years before data are mature to report outcomes between the two radiation treatment strategies. TARGIT is another study that randomized
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Surgery_Schwartz_3945
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Surgery_Schwartz
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The trial has completed accrual, and it will likely be several years before data are mature to report outcomes between the two radiation treatment strategies. TARGIT is another study that randomized 3451 patients in 33 centers in over 10 countries to intraoperative breast irradiation (IORT) or external beam radiotherapy (EBRT). The prelimi-nary results were reported in 2012: with a median follow-up of 2.4 years, use of IORT had a recurrence rate of 3.3% vs. 1.3% with EBRT, a 2% increased recurrence risk.235,236 ASTRO developed guidelines for the use of APBI outside of clinical trials based on data reported from published studies.237,238 The ASTRO guidelines describe patients “suitable” for APBI to include women age 60 years or older with a unifocal, T1, ER-positive tumor with no lymphovascular invasion and margins of at least 2 mm. They describe a group where there is uncer-tainty about the appropriateness of APBI (“cautionary” group) to include patients with invasive lobular
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Surgery_Schwartz. The trial has completed accrual, and it will likely be several years before data are mature to report outcomes between the two radiation treatment strategies. TARGIT is another study that randomized 3451 patients in 33 centers in over 10 countries to intraoperative breast irradiation (IORT) or external beam radiotherapy (EBRT). The prelimi-nary results were reported in 2012: with a median follow-up of 2.4 years, use of IORT had a recurrence rate of 3.3% vs. 1.3% with EBRT, a 2% increased recurrence risk.235,236 ASTRO developed guidelines for the use of APBI outside of clinical trials based on data reported from published studies.237,238 The ASTRO guidelines describe patients “suitable” for APBI to include women age 60 years or older with a unifocal, T1, ER-positive tumor with no lymphovascular invasion and margins of at least 2 mm. They describe a group where there is uncer-tainty about the appropriateness of APBI (“cautionary” group) to include patients with invasive lobular
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Surgery_Schwartz_3946
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invasion and margins of at least 2 mm. They describe a group where there is uncer-tainty about the appropriateness of APBI (“cautionary” group) to include patients with invasive lobular histology, a tumor size of 2.1 cm to 3 cm, ER-negative disease, focal lymphovascular invasion, or margins less than 2 mm. Finally, a group felt to be “unsuitable” for APBI includes those with T3 or T4 disease, ER-negative disease, multifocality, multicentricity, extensive LVI, or positive margins.Currently, mastectomy with axillary staging and breast conserving surgery with axillary staging and radiation therapy are considered equivalent treatments for patients with stages I and II breast cancer. Breast conservation is considered for all patients because of the important cosmetic advantages and equivalent survival outcomes; however, this approach is not advised in women who are known BRCA mutation carriers due to the high lifetime risk for development of additional breast cancers. Relative
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Surgery_Schwartz. invasion and margins of at least 2 mm. They describe a group where there is uncer-tainty about the appropriateness of APBI (“cautionary” group) to include patients with invasive lobular histology, a tumor size of 2.1 cm to 3 cm, ER-negative disease, focal lymphovascular invasion, or margins less than 2 mm. Finally, a group felt to be “unsuitable” for APBI includes those with T3 or T4 disease, ER-negative disease, multifocality, multicentricity, extensive LVI, or positive margins.Currently, mastectomy with axillary staging and breast conserving surgery with axillary staging and radiation therapy are considered equivalent treatments for patients with stages I and II breast cancer. Breast conservation is considered for all patients because of the important cosmetic advantages and equivalent survival outcomes; however, this approach is not advised in women who are known BRCA mutation carriers due to the high lifetime risk for development of additional breast cancers. Relative
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Surgery_Schwartz_3947
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Surgery_Schwartz
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equivalent survival outcomes; however, this approach is not advised in women who are known BRCA mutation carriers due to the high lifetime risk for development of additional breast cancers. Relative contraindications to breast conserva-tion therapy include (a) prior radiation therapy to the breast or chest wall, (b) persistently positive surgical margins after reex-cision, (c) multicentric disease, and (d) scleroderma or lupus erythematosus.For most patients with early-stage disease, reconstruc-tion can be performed immediately at the time of mastectomy. Immediate reconstruction allows for skin-sparing, thus optimiz-ing cosmetic outcomes. Skin-sparing mastectomy with immedi-ate reconstruction has been popularized over the past decade as reports of low local-regional failure rates have been reported and reconstructive techniques have advanced. There is a grow-ing interest in the use of nipple-areolar sparing mastectomy with reports suggesting the oncologic safety of this approach in
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Surgery_Schwartz. equivalent survival outcomes; however, this approach is not advised in women who are known BRCA mutation carriers due to the high lifetime risk for development of additional breast cancers. Relative contraindications to breast conserva-tion therapy include (a) prior radiation therapy to the breast or chest wall, (b) persistently positive surgical margins after reex-cision, (c) multicentric disease, and (d) scleroderma or lupus erythematosus.For most patients with early-stage disease, reconstruc-tion can be performed immediately at the time of mastectomy. Immediate reconstruction allows for skin-sparing, thus optimiz-ing cosmetic outcomes. Skin-sparing mastectomy with immedi-ate reconstruction has been popularized over the past decade as reports of low local-regional failure rates have been reported and reconstructive techniques have advanced. There is a grow-ing interest in the use of nipple-areolar sparing mastectomy with reports suggesting the oncologic safety of this approach in
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Surgery_Schwartz_3948
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Surgery_Schwartz
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reported and reconstructive techniques have advanced. There is a grow-ing interest in the use of nipple-areolar sparing mastectomy with reports suggesting the oncologic safety of this approach in early stage breast cancer. Patients who are planned for postmastec-tomy radiation therapy may not be ideal candidates for nipple-sparing mastectomy because of the effects of radiation on the preserved nipple. In addition to providing optimal cosmesis from preservation of the skin and/or the nipple-areolar complex, immediate reconstruction allows patients to wake up with a breast mound, which provides some psychological benefit for the patient. Immediate reconstruction is also more economical as both the extirpative and reconstructive surgery are combined in one operation.Immediate reconstruction can be performed using implants or autologous tissue; tissue flaps commonly used include the transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous flap, deep inferior epigastric perforator flap, and latissimus
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Surgery_Schwartz. reported and reconstructive techniques have advanced. There is a grow-ing interest in the use of nipple-areolar sparing mastectomy with reports suggesting the oncologic safety of this approach in early stage breast cancer. Patients who are planned for postmastec-tomy radiation therapy may not be ideal candidates for nipple-sparing mastectomy because of the effects of radiation on the preserved nipple. In addition to providing optimal cosmesis from preservation of the skin and/or the nipple-areolar complex, immediate reconstruction allows patients to wake up with a breast mound, which provides some psychological benefit for the patient. Immediate reconstruction is also more economical as both the extirpative and reconstructive surgery are combined in one operation.Immediate reconstruction can be performed using implants or autologous tissue; tissue flaps commonly used include the transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous flap, deep inferior epigastric perforator flap, and latissimus
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Surgery_Schwartz_3949
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Surgery_Schwartz
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can be performed using implants or autologous tissue; tissue flaps commonly used include the transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous flap, deep inferior epigastric perforator flap, and latissimus dorsi flap (with or without an implant). If postmastectomy radiation therapy is needed, a tissue expander can be placed at the time of mastec-tomy to save the shape of the breast and reduce the amount of skin replacement needed at the time of definitive reconstruc-tion. The expander can be deflated at the initiation of radiation therapy to allow for irradiation of the chest wall and regional nodal basins. Removal of the tissue expander and definitive reconstruction, usually with autologous tissue, can proceed 6 months to 1 year after completion of radiation therapy.Axillary lymph node status has traditionally been an important determinant in staging and prognosis for women with early stage breast cancer. Historically, axillary lymph node dis-section (ALND) was utilized for axillary staging
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Surgery_Schwartz. can be performed using implants or autologous tissue; tissue flaps commonly used include the transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous flap, deep inferior epigastric perforator flap, and latissimus dorsi flap (with or without an implant). If postmastectomy radiation therapy is needed, a tissue expander can be placed at the time of mastec-tomy to save the shape of the breast and reduce the amount of skin replacement needed at the time of definitive reconstruc-tion. The expander can be deflated at the initiation of radiation therapy to allow for irradiation of the chest wall and regional nodal basins. Removal of the tissue expander and definitive reconstruction, usually with autologous tissue, can proceed 6 months to 1 year after completion of radiation therapy.Axillary lymph node status has traditionally been an important determinant in staging and prognosis for women with early stage breast cancer. Historically, axillary lymph node dis-section (ALND) was utilized for axillary staging
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Surgery_Schwartz_3950
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traditionally been an important determinant in staging and prognosis for women with early stage breast cancer. Historically, axillary lymph node dis-section (ALND) was utilized for axillary staging and regional control by removing involved lymph nodes. Randomized tri-als evaluating immediate ALND over ALND performed in a delayed fashion once clinically palpable axillary disease became evident have not shown any detriment in survival.9,239 With increased mammographic screening and detection of smaller, node-negative breast cancers, it became clear that routine use of ALND for axillary staging was not necessary in up to 75% percent of women with operable breast cancer presenting with a negative axilla at the time of screening. Lymphatic mapping and sentinel lymph node (SLN) dissection were initially devel-oped for assessment of patients with clinically node-negative melanoma. Given the changing landscape of newly diagnosed breast cancer patients with a clinically node-negative axilla,
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Surgery_Schwartz. traditionally been an important determinant in staging and prognosis for women with early stage breast cancer. Historically, axillary lymph node dis-section (ALND) was utilized for axillary staging and regional control by removing involved lymph nodes. Randomized tri-als evaluating immediate ALND over ALND performed in a delayed fashion once clinically palpable axillary disease became evident have not shown any detriment in survival.9,239 With increased mammographic screening and detection of smaller, node-negative breast cancers, it became clear that routine use of ALND for axillary staging was not necessary in up to 75% percent of women with operable breast cancer presenting with a negative axilla at the time of screening. Lymphatic mapping and sentinel lymph node (SLN) dissection were initially devel-oped for assessment of patients with clinically node-negative melanoma. Given the changing landscape of newly diagnosed breast cancer patients with a clinically node-negative axilla,
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Surgery_Schwartz_3951
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Surgery_Schwartz
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initially devel-oped for assessment of patients with clinically node-negative melanoma. Given the changing landscape of newly diagnosed breast cancer patients with a clinically node-negative axilla, sur-geons quickly began to explore the utility of SLN dissection as a replacement for ALND in axillary staging.Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58301/03/19 5:05 PM 584SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIIn the early 1990s, David Krag at the University of Vermont began performing SLN dissection with injection of a radioisotope in the primary tumor site and localizing the SLN node with a handheld gamma probe.240 He was able to identify a SLN in 18 of 22 patients examined, and the SLN was posi-tive in all 7 patients with positive lymph nodes. Giuliano and colleagues initiated a pilot study in 1991 to examine the use of SLN dissection using blue dye in patients with clinically nega-tive nodes. They reported successful identification of a SLN in 114 (65.5%) of 174 patients, and in 109 (95.6%),
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Surgery_Schwartz. initially devel-oped for assessment of patients with clinically node-negative melanoma. Given the changing landscape of newly diagnosed breast cancer patients with a clinically node-negative axilla, sur-geons quickly began to explore the utility of SLN dissection as a replacement for ALND in axillary staging.Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58301/03/19 5:05 PM 584SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIIn the early 1990s, David Krag at the University of Vermont began performing SLN dissection with injection of a radioisotope in the primary tumor site and localizing the SLN node with a handheld gamma probe.240 He was able to identify a SLN in 18 of 22 patients examined, and the SLN was posi-tive in all 7 patients with positive lymph nodes. Giuliano and colleagues initiated a pilot study in 1991 to examine the use of SLN dissection using blue dye in patients with clinically nega-tive nodes. They reported successful identification of a SLN in 114 (65.5%) of 174 patients, and in 109 (95.6%),
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Surgery_Schwartz_3952
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Surgery_Schwartz
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to examine the use of SLN dissection using blue dye in patients with clinically nega-tive nodes. They reported successful identification of a SLN in 114 (65.5%) of 174 patients, and in 109 (95.6%), the SLN accurately predicted the status of the axillary nodes.241,242 These studies along with initial work by Doug Reintgen and Charles Cox at the Moffitt Cancer Center and Umberto Veronesi and his colleagues at the European Institute of Oncology in Milan led the way toward validation of the technique in large single institution and multicenter studies.Following validation of the technique of SLN dissection for staging of the axilla by multiple centers, randomized tri-als were initiated in order to determine if SLN dissection could replace ALND in the contemporary management of breast cancer patients. The ALMANAC trial randomized 1031 patients with primary operable breast cancer to SLN dissection vs. standard axillary surgery. The incidence of lymphedema and sensory loss for the SLN group
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Surgery_Schwartz. to examine the use of SLN dissection using blue dye in patients with clinically nega-tive nodes. They reported successful identification of a SLN in 114 (65.5%) of 174 patients, and in 109 (95.6%), the SLN accurately predicted the status of the axillary nodes.241,242 These studies along with initial work by Doug Reintgen and Charles Cox at the Moffitt Cancer Center and Umberto Veronesi and his colleagues at the European Institute of Oncology in Milan led the way toward validation of the technique in large single institution and multicenter studies.Following validation of the technique of SLN dissection for staging of the axilla by multiple centers, randomized tri-als were initiated in order to determine if SLN dissection could replace ALND in the contemporary management of breast cancer patients. The ALMANAC trial randomized 1031 patients with primary operable breast cancer to SLN dissection vs. standard axillary surgery. The incidence of lymphedema and sensory loss for the SLN group
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Surgery_Schwartz_3953
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Surgery_Schwartz
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The ALMANAC trial randomized 1031 patients with primary operable breast cancer to SLN dissection vs. standard axillary surgery. The incidence of lymphedema and sensory loss for the SLN group was significantly lower than with the standard axillary treatment. At 12 months, drain usage, length of hospital stay, and time to resumption of normal day-to-day activities after surgery were also statistically significantly lower in the SLN group.221The NSABP B-32 trial compared clinically node-negative patients undergoing SLN dissection followed by ALND with patients undergoing SLN dissection with ALND only if a SLN was positive for metastatic disease.243 A total of 5611 patients were randomized with a SLN identification rate of 97% and a false-negative rate of 9.7%. A total of 26% of these clini-cally node-negative patients had a positive SLN. Over 60% of patients with positive SLNs had no additional positive lymph nodes within the ALND specimen. The B-32 trial and other randomized trials
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Surgery_Schwartz. The ALMANAC trial randomized 1031 patients with primary operable breast cancer to SLN dissection vs. standard axillary surgery. The incidence of lymphedema and sensory loss for the SLN group was significantly lower than with the standard axillary treatment. At 12 months, drain usage, length of hospital stay, and time to resumption of normal day-to-day activities after surgery were also statistically significantly lower in the SLN group.221The NSABP B-32 trial compared clinically node-negative patients undergoing SLN dissection followed by ALND with patients undergoing SLN dissection with ALND only if a SLN was positive for metastatic disease.243 A total of 5611 patients were randomized with a SLN identification rate of 97% and a false-negative rate of 9.7%. A total of 26% of these clini-cally node-negative patients had a positive SLN. Over 60% of patients with positive SLNs had no additional positive lymph nodes within the ALND specimen. The B-32 trial and other randomized trials
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node-negative patients had a positive SLN. Over 60% of patients with positive SLNs had no additional positive lymph nodes within the ALND specimen. The B-32 trial and other randomized trials demonstrated no difference in DFS, OS, and local-regional recurrence rates between patients with negative SLNs who had SLN dissection alone compared with those who underwent ALND.244,245 Most important, patients who had SLN dissection alone were found to have decreased morbidity (arm swelling and range of motion) and improved quality of life vs. patients who underwent ALND.245,246The American College of Surgeons Oncology Group (ACOSOG) initiated the Z0010 and Z0011 trials in order to evaluate the incidence and prognostic significance of occult metastases identified in the bone marrow and SLNs (Z0010) of early-stage clinically node-negative patients and to evaluate the utility of ALND in patients with clinical T1-2, N0 breast cancer with 1 or 2 positive SLNs for patients treated with
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Surgery_Schwartz. node-negative patients had a positive SLN. Over 60% of patients with positive SLNs had no additional positive lymph nodes within the ALND specimen. The B-32 trial and other randomized trials demonstrated no difference in DFS, OS, and local-regional recurrence rates between patients with negative SLNs who had SLN dissection alone compared with those who underwent ALND.244,245 Most important, patients who had SLN dissection alone were found to have decreased morbidity (arm swelling and range of motion) and improved quality of life vs. patients who underwent ALND.245,246The American College of Surgeons Oncology Group (ACOSOG) initiated the Z0010 and Z0011 trials in order to evaluate the incidence and prognostic significance of occult metastases identified in the bone marrow and SLNs (Z0010) of early-stage clinically node-negative patients and to evaluate the utility of ALND in patients with clinical T1-2, N0 breast cancer with 1 or 2 positive SLNs for patients treated with
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SLNs (Z0010) of early-stage clinically node-negative patients and to evaluate the utility of ALND in patients with clinical T1-2, N0 breast cancer with 1 or 2 positive SLNs for patients treated with breast-conserving surgery and whole breast irradiation (WBI) (Z0011).247,248The Z0010 study enrolled 5539 patients with clinical T1-2 breast cancer planned for breast conserving surgery and WBI.247 Of these patients, 24% proved to have positive SLNs based on standard pathologic assessment, and of the negative SLNs sub-jected to immunohistochemical staining for cytokeratin, 10.5% proved to have occult metastasis. Of the patients who had bone marrow aspiration, 3.0% had immunohistochemically detected tumor cells in the bone marrow. Although the presence of dis-ease in the bone marrow identified a population at high risk for recurrence, neither immunohistochemical detection of disease in the SLNs or the bone marrow was statistically significant on multivariable analysis with clinicopathologic
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Surgery_Schwartz. SLNs (Z0010) of early-stage clinically node-negative patients and to evaluate the utility of ALND in patients with clinical T1-2, N0 breast cancer with 1 or 2 positive SLNs for patients treated with breast-conserving surgery and whole breast irradiation (WBI) (Z0011).247,248The Z0010 study enrolled 5539 patients with clinical T1-2 breast cancer planned for breast conserving surgery and WBI.247 Of these patients, 24% proved to have positive SLNs based on standard pathologic assessment, and of the negative SLNs sub-jected to immunohistochemical staining for cytokeratin, 10.5% proved to have occult metastasis. Of the patients who had bone marrow aspiration, 3.0% had immunohistochemically detected tumor cells in the bone marrow. Although the presence of dis-ease in the bone marrow identified a population at high risk for recurrence, neither immunohistochemical detection of disease in the SLNs or the bone marrow was statistically significant on multivariable analysis with clinicopathologic
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population at high risk for recurrence, neither immunohistochemical detection of disease in the SLNs or the bone marrow was statistically significant on multivariable analysis with clinicopathologic and treatment factors included. The investigators concluded that routine use of immunohistochemistry to detect occult disease in SLNs is not warranted.The Z0011 trial was a companion study to Z0010 and was designed to study the role of completion ALND on survival in women with positive SLNs. Patients were not eligible if they received neoadjuvant chemotherapy or neoadjuvant hormonal therapy or if their treatment plan included mastectomy, lumpec-tomy without radiation, or lumpectomy with APBI. WBI was to be administered using standard tangential fields without specific treatment of the axilla or additional fields targeting other nodal basins. Patients with 1 or 2 positive SLNs were randomized to completion ALND or no further surgery. Adjuvant systemic therapy recommendations were left to
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Surgery_Schwartz. population at high risk for recurrence, neither immunohistochemical detection of disease in the SLNs or the bone marrow was statistically significant on multivariable analysis with clinicopathologic and treatment factors included. The investigators concluded that routine use of immunohistochemistry to detect occult disease in SLNs is not warranted.The Z0011 trial was a companion study to Z0010 and was designed to study the role of completion ALND on survival in women with positive SLNs. Patients were not eligible if they received neoadjuvant chemotherapy or neoadjuvant hormonal therapy or if their treatment plan included mastectomy, lumpec-tomy without radiation, or lumpectomy with APBI. WBI was to be administered using standard tangential fields without specific treatment of the axilla or additional fields targeting other nodal basins. Patients with 1 or 2 positive SLNs were randomized to completion ALND or no further surgery. Adjuvant systemic therapy recommendations were left to
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or additional fields targeting other nodal basins. Patients with 1 or 2 positive SLNs were randomized to completion ALND or no further surgery. Adjuvant systemic therapy recommendations were left to the treating clinicians. After median follow-up of 6.3 years, there was no difference between patients randomized to ALND and those randomized to no further surgery (SLN only) in terms of OS (91.9% and 92.5%, respectively; P = 0.25) or DFS (82.2% and 83.8%, respectively; P = 0.14). The low local regional failure rates and similar survival outcomes were recently reported with 10-year follow-up.249,250The morbidity of SLN dissection alone vs. SLN dissec-tion with completion ALND has been reported by the ACOSOG investigators.251,252 Immediate effects of SLN dissection in the Z0010 trial included wound infection in 1%, axillary seroma in 7.1%, and axillary hematoma in 1.4%.251 At 6 months following surgery, axillary paresthesias were noted in 8.6% of patients, decreased range of motion in the
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Surgery_Schwartz. or additional fields targeting other nodal basins. Patients with 1 or 2 positive SLNs were randomized to completion ALND or no further surgery. Adjuvant systemic therapy recommendations were left to the treating clinicians. After median follow-up of 6.3 years, there was no difference between patients randomized to ALND and those randomized to no further surgery (SLN only) in terms of OS (91.9% and 92.5%, respectively; P = 0.25) or DFS (82.2% and 83.8%, respectively; P = 0.14). The low local regional failure rates and similar survival outcomes were recently reported with 10-year follow-up.249,250The morbidity of SLN dissection alone vs. SLN dissec-tion with completion ALND has been reported by the ACOSOG investigators.251,252 Immediate effects of SLN dissection in the Z0010 trial included wound infection in 1%, axillary seroma in 7.1%, and axillary hematoma in 1.4%.251 At 6 months following surgery, axillary paresthesias were noted in 8.6% of patients, decreased range of motion in the
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wound infection in 1%, axillary seroma in 7.1%, and axillary hematoma in 1.4%.251 At 6 months following surgery, axillary paresthesias were noted in 8.6% of patients, decreased range of motion in the upper extremity was reported in 3.8%, and 6.9% of patients had a change in the arm circum-ference of >2 cm on the ipsilateral side, which was reported as lymphedema. Younger patients were more likely to report paresthesias, whereas increasing age and body mass index were more predictive of lymphedema. When adverse surgical effects were examined in the Z0011 trial, patients undergoing SLN dissection with ALND had more wound infections, seromas, and paresthesias than those women undergoing SLN dissec-tion alone. Lymphedema at 1 year after surgery was reported by 13% in the SLN plus ALND group but only 2% in the SLN dissection alone group. Arm circumference measurements were greater at 1 year in patients undergoing SLN dissection plus ALND, but the difference between study groups was not
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Surgery_Schwartz. wound infection in 1%, axillary seroma in 7.1%, and axillary hematoma in 1.4%.251 At 6 months following surgery, axillary paresthesias were noted in 8.6% of patients, decreased range of motion in the upper extremity was reported in 3.8%, and 6.9% of patients had a change in the arm circum-ference of >2 cm on the ipsilateral side, which was reported as lymphedema. Younger patients were more likely to report paresthesias, whereas increasing age and body mass index were more predictive of lymphedema. When adverse surgical effects were examined in the Z0011 trial, patients undergoing SLN dissection with ALND had more wound infections, seromas, and paresthesias than those women undergoing SLN dissec-tion alone. Lymphedema at 1 year after surgery was reported by 13% in the SLN plus ALND group but only 2% in the SLN dissection alone group. Arm circumference measurements were greater at 1 year in patients undergoing SLN dissection plus ALND, but the difference between study groups was not
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but only 2% in the SLN dissection alone group. Arm circumference measurements were greater at 1 year in patients undergoing SLN dissection plus ALND, but the difference between study groups was not statisti-cally significant.252 This supports the results published from the ALMANAC trial.Prior to the publication of ACOSOG Z0011, completion ALND was standard of care for patients with positive SLNs. Since the reporting of ACOSOG Z0011, the National Com-prehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) guidelines now state that there was no OS difference for patients with 1 or 2 positive SLNs treated with breast-conserving surgery who underwent completion ALND vs. those who had no further axillary sur-gery. In addition, the American Society of Breast Surgeons issued a consensus statement supporting omission of ALND for patients who meet Z0011 criteria.253 The results of ACOSOG Z0011 have revolutionized management of the axilla and changed practice such that selected patients with axillary metas-tasis can
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Surgery_Schwartz. but only 2% in the SLN dissection alone group. Arm circumference measurements were greater at 1 year in patients undergoing SLN dissection plus ALND, but the difference between study groups was not statisti-cally significant.252 This supports the results published from the ALMANAC trial.Prior to the publication of ACOSOG Z0011, completion ALND was standard of care for patients with positive SLNs. Since the reporting of ACOSOG Z0011, the National Com-prehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) guidelines now state that there was no OS difference for patients with 1 or 2 positive SLNs treated with breast-conserving surgery who underwent completion ALND vs. those who had no further axillary sur-gery. In addition, the American Society of Breast Surgeons issued a consensus statement supporting omission of ALND for patients who meet Z0011 criteria.253 The results of ACOSOG Z0011 have revolutionized management of the axilla and changed practice such that selected patients with axillary metas-tasis can
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ALND for patients who meet Z0011 criteria.253 The results of ACOSOG Z0011 have revolutionized management of the axilla and changed practice such that selected patients with axillary metas-tasis can now avoid ALND if they have clinical and pathologic features similar to those patients enrolled on Z0011. However, there have been some concerns raised about the Z0011 study that include the fact that the study only recruited about half of Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58401/03/19 5:05 PM 585THE BREASTCHAPTER 17the intended patients and that there was no standardization of whether or not patients received irradiation to the low axilla when the radiation oncologist irradiated the breast. These issues have thus far limited the uptake of the results of Z0011 by some centers.The International Breast Cancer Study Group (IBCSG) 23-01 trial was similar in design to Z0011 but enrolled only patients with micrometastases in the SLNs. Patients with SLN micrometastases were randomized to ALND
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Surgery_Schwartz. ALND for patients who meet Z0011 criteria.253 The results of ACOSOG Z0011 have revolutionized management of the axilla and changed practice such that selected patients with axillary metas-tasis can now avoid ALND if they have clinical and pathologic features similar to those patients enrolled on Z0011. However, there have been some concerns raised about the Z0011 study that include the fact that the study only recruited about half of Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58401/03/19 5:05 PM 585THE BREASTCHAPTER 17the intended patients and that there was no standardization of whether or not patients received irradiation to the low axilla when the radiation oncologist irradiated the breast. These issues have thus far limited the uptake of the results of Z0011 by some centers.The International Breast Cancer Study Group (IBCSG) 23-01 trial was similar in design to Z0011 but enrolled only patients with micrometastases in the SLNs. Patients with SLN micrometastases were randomized to ALND
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Breast Cancer Study Group (IBCSG) 23-01 trial was similar in design to Z0011 but enrolled only patients with micrometastases in the SLNs. Patients with SLN micrometastases were randomized to ALND vs. no further sur-gery. Unlike Z0011, the 23-01 trial did not exclude patients treated with mastectomy. Approximately 9% of patients ran-domized to each study arm underwent mastectomy. The inves-tigators published the primary and secondary endpoints of the trial showing no differences in OS or local-regional recurrence between the study arms.254 However, as with the Z0011 trial, some concerns have been raised regarding the 23-01 study. For example, in the statistics on the primary endpoint, local recur-rence included contralateral breast cancer and other tumor types as events. No hypothesis was presented as to why the differ-ence in axillary surgery should impact on either of these events. Including these events therefore reduced the power of the study to show a statistical difference
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Surgery_Schwartz. Breast Cancer Study Group (IBCSG) 23-01 trial was similar in design to Z0011 but enrolled only patients with micrometastases in the SLNs. Patients with SLN micrometastases were randomized to ALND vs. no further sur-gery. Unlike Z0011, the 23-01 trial did not exclude patients treated with mastectomy. Approximately 9% of patients ran-domized to each study arm underwent mastectomy. The inves-tigators published the primary and secondary endpoints of the trial showing no differences in OS or local-regional recurrence between the study arms.254 However, as with the Z0011 trial, some concerns have been raised regarding the 23-01 study. For example, in the statistics on the primary endpoint, local recur-rence included contralateral breast cancer and other tumor types as events. No hypothesis was presented as to why the differ-ence in axillary surgery should impact on either of these events. Including these events therefore reduced the power of the study to show a statistical difference
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was presented as to why the differ-ence in axillary surgery should impact on either of these events. Including these events therefore reduced the power of the study to show a statistical difference between treatment arms. There is also concern that the study appears underpowered to show a meaningful difference in overall survival.Most pathology laboratories perform a more detailed anal-ysis of the SLN than is routinely done for axillary nodes recov-ered from a levels I and II dissection. This can include examining thin sections of the node with step sectioning at multiple levels through the paraffin blocks or performing immunohistochemi-cal staining of the SLN for cytokeratin or a combination of these techniques. The results of ACOSOG Z0010 and NSABP B-32 showed no clinically meaningful difference in survival based on detection of occult metastases in the SLNs using immu-nohistochemical staining and do not support the routine use in SLN processing. The type of intraoperative
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Surgery_Schwartz. was presented as to why the differ-ence in axillary surgery should impact on either of these events. Including these events therefore reduced the power of the study to show a statistical difference between treatment arms. There is also concern that the study appears underpowered to show a meaningful difference in overall survival.Most pathology laboratories perform a more detailed anal-ysis of the SLN than is routinely done for axillary nodes recov-ered from a levels I and II dissection. This can include examining thin sections of the node with step sectioning at multiple levels through the paraffin blocks or performing immunohistochemi-cal staining of the SLN for cytokeratin or a combination of these techniques. The results of ACOSOG Z0010 and NSABP B-32 showed no clinically meaningful difference in survival based on detection of occult metastases in the SLNs using immu-nohistochemical staining and do not support the routine use in SLN processing. The type of intraoperative
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difference in survival based on detection of occult metastases in the SLNs using immu-nohistochemical staining and do not support the routine use in SLN processing. The type of intraoperative assessment of SLNs also varies for different clinicians and pathology labo-ratories. Some centers prefer to use touch preparation cyto-logic analysis of the SLNs, whereas others use frozen-section analysis, and the sensitivity and specificity of these assays vary considerably. The GeneSearch Breast Lymph Node Assay is a real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction assay that detects breast tumor cell metastasis in lymph nodes through the identification of the gene expression markers mammaglobin and cytokeratin 19. These markers are present in higher lev-els in breast tissue and not in nodal tissue (cell type-specific messenger RNA). The GeneSearch breast lymph node assay generates expression data for genes of interest, which are then evaluated against predetermined criteria to
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Surgery_Schwartz. difference in survival based on detection of occult metastases in the SLNs using immu-nohistochemical staining and do not support the routine use in SLN processing. The type of intraoperative assessment of SLNs also varies for different clinicians and pathology labo-ratories. Some centers prefer to use touch preparation cyto-logic analysis of the SLNs, whereas others use frozen-section analysis, and the sensitivity and specificity of these assays vary considerably. The GeneSearch Breast Lymph Node Assay is a real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction assay that detects breast tumor cell metastasis in lymph nodes through the identification of the gene expression markers mammaglobin and cytokeratin 19. These markers are present in higher lev-els in breast tissue and not in nodal tissue (cell type-specific messenger RNA). The GeneSearch breast lymph node assay generates expression data for genes of interest, which are then evaluated against predetermined criteria to
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in nodal tissue (cell type-specific messenger RNA). The GeneSearch breast lymph node assay generates expression data for genes of interest, which are then evaluated against predetermined criteria to provide a qualitative (positive/negative) result. The assay is designed to detect foci that correspond to metastases that are seen with examination by standard hematoxylin and eosin staining and measure >0.2 mm. The GeneSearch assay results have been compared with per-manent-section histologic analysis and frozen-section analy-sis of sentinel nodes in a prospective trial, and the assay was approved by the FDA for the intraoperative assessment of senti-nel nodes.255 When a positive node is identified intraoperatively by touch preparation, frozen-section analysis, or GeneSearch assay, the surgeon can proceed with immediate ALND. With the findings of ACOSOG Z0011 that there is not a survival ben-efit to the use of ALND in selected patients, many surgeons have abandoned the intraoperative
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Surgery_Schwartz. in nodal tissue (cell type-specific messenger RNA). The GeneSearch breast lymph node assay generates expression data for genes of interest, which are then evaluated against predetermined criteria to provide a qualitative (positive/negative) result. The assay is designed to detect foci that correspond to metastases that are seen with examination by standard hematoxylin and eosin staining and measure >0.2 mm. The GeneSearch assay results have been compared with per-manent-section histologic analysis and frozen-section analy-sis of sentinel nodes in a prospective trial, and the assay was approved by the FDA for the intraoperative assessment of senti-nel nodes.255 When a positive node is identified intraoperatively by touch preparation, frozen-section analysis, or GeneSearch assay, the surgeon can proceed with immediate ALND. With the findings of ACOSOG Z0011 that there is not a survival ben-efit to the use of ALND in selected patients, many surgeons have abandoned the intraoperative
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can proceed with immediate ALND. With the findings of ACOSOG Z0011 that there is not a survival ben-efit to the use of ALND in selected patients, many surgeons have abandoned the intraoperative evaluation of SLNs. There are a number of nomograms and predictive models designed to determine which patients with a positive SLN are at risk for har-boring additional positive non-SLNs in the axilla. These tools can be helpful in determining the likelihood of additional disease in the axilla and may be used clinically to counsel patients.256In patients who present with axillary lymphadenopa-thy that is confirmed to be metastatic disease on FNA or core biopsy, SLN dissection is not necessary, and patients can pro-ceed directly to ALND or be considered for preoperative sys-temic therapy (see “Neoadjuvant [Preoperative] Chemotherapy” under “Nonsurgical Breast Cancer Therapies”). Initially there was controversy about the suitability of SLN dissection in women with larger primary tumors (T3) and
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Surgery_Schwartz. can proceed with immediate ALND. With the findings of ACOSOG Z0011 that there is not a survival ben-efit to the use of ALND in selected patients, many surgeons have abandoned the intraoperative evaluation of SLNs. There are a number of nomograms and predictive models designed to determine which patients with a positive SLN are at risk for har-boring additional positive non-SLNs in the axilla. These tools can be helpful in determining the likelihood of additional disease in the axilla and may be used clinically to counsel patients.256In patients who present with axillary lymphadenopa-thy that is confirmed to be metastatic disease on FNA or core biopsy, SLN dissection is not necessary, and patients can pro-ceed directly to ALND or be considered for preoperative sys-temic therapy (see “Neoadjuvant [Preoperative] Chemotherapy” under “Nonsurgical Breast Cancer Therapies”). Initially there was controversy about the suitability of SLN dissection in women with larger primary tumors (T3) and
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[Preoperative] Chemotherapy” under “Nonsurgical Breast Cancer Therapies”). Initially there was controversy about the suitability of SLN dissection in women with larger primary tumors (T3) and those treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy. The American Society of Clini-cal Oncology has included SLN dissection is its guidelines as appropriate for axillary staging in these patients.257,258 If an SLN cannot be identified, then ALND is generally performed for appropriate staging. However, this is not universally accepted, and there are as yet no randomized studies that have assessed how a patient with a locally advanced cancer at presentation should be treated if SLN dissection reveals no metastases or micrometastases after neoadjuvant therapy.The ASCO guidelines suggest that adjuvant chemo-therapy should be considered for patients with positive lymph nodes, ER-negative disease, HER2-positive disease, Adju-vant! Online mortality greater than 10%, grade 3 node-neg-ative tumors >5 mm,
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Surgery_Schwartz. [Preoperative] Chemotherapy” under “Nonsurgical Breast Cancer Therapies”). Initially there was controversy about the suitability of SLN dissection in women with larger primary tumors (T3) and those treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy. The American Society of Clini-cal Oncology has included SLN dissection is its guidelines as appropriate for axillary staging in these patients.257,258 If an SLN cannot be identified, then ALND is generally performed for appropriate staging. However, this is not universally accepted, and there are as yet no randomized studies that have assessed how a patient with a locally advanced cancer at presentation should be treated if SLN dissection reveals no metastases or micrometastases after neoadjuvant therapy.The ASCO guidelines suggest that adjuvant chemo-therapy should be considered for patients with positive lymph nodes, ER-negative disease, HER2-positive disease, Adju-vant! Online mortality greater than 10%, grade 3 node-neg-ative tumors >5 mm,
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should be considered for patients with positive lymph nodes, ER-negative disease, HER2-positive disease, Adju-vant! Online mortality greater than 10%, grade 3 node-neg-ative tumors >5 mm, triple-negative tumors, lymphovascular invasion, or estimated distant relapse risk of greater than 15% at 10 years based on the 21 gene recurrence score assay.259 Adjuvant endocrine therapy is considered for women with hormone receptor-positive cancers, and an aromatase inhibi-tor is recommended if the patient is postmenopausal. HER2/neu status is determined for all patients with newly diagnosed invasive breast cancer and when positive, should be used to guide systemic therapy recommendations. The FDA approved trastuzumab in November 2006 for use as part of a treatment regimen containing doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide, and pacli-taxel for treatment of HER2/neu-positive, node-positive breast cancer.181,183 Subsequently, the BCIRG 006 study reported that giving trastuzumab concurrently with docetaxel
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Surgery_Schwartz. should be considered for patients with positive lymph nodes, ER-negative disease, HER2-positive disease, Adju-vant! Online mortality greater than 10%, grade 3 node-neg-ative tumors >5 mm, triple-negative tumors, lymphovascular invasion, or estimated distant relapse risk of greater than 15% at 10 years based on the 21 gene recurrence score assay.259 Adjuvant endocrine therapy is considered for women with hormone receptor-positive cancers, and an aromatase inhibi-tor is recommended if the patient is postmenopausal. HER2/neu status is determined for all patients with newly diagnosed invasive breast cancer and when positive, should be used to guide systemic therapy recommendations. The FDA approved trastuzumab in November 2006 for use as part of a treatment regimen containing doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide, and pacli-taxel for treatment of HER2/neu-positive, node-positive breast cancer.181,183 Subsequently, the BCIRG 006 study reported that giving trastuzumab concurrently with docetaxel
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and pacli-taxel for treatment of HER2/neu-positive, node-positive breast cancer.181,183 Subsequently, the BCIRG 006 study reported that giving trastuzumab concurrently with docetaxel and carbopla-tin appeared as effective as giving trastuzumab following an anthracycline containing regimen.182,185 In addition to trastu-zumab, pertuzumab has also recently been FDA approved for adjuvant use in patients with HER2 amplified breast cancers with high risk of recurrence.Advanced Local-Regional Breast Cancer (Stage IIIA or IIIB)Women with stage IIIA and IIIB breast cancer have advanced local-regional breast cancer but have no clinically detected distant metastases (Fig. 17-30).260 In an effort to provide opti-mal local-regional disease-free survival as well as distant dis-ease-free survival for these women, surgery is integrated with radiation therapy and chemotherapy (Fig. 17-31). However, it should be noted that these patients have an increased risk of distant metastasis that is often
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Surgery_Schwartz. and pacli-taxel for treatment of HER2/neu-positive, node-positive breast cancer.181,183 Subsequently, the BCIRG 006 study reported that giving trastuzumab concurrently with docetaxel and carbopla-tin appeared as effective as giving trastuzumab following an anthracycline containing regimen.182,185 In addition to trastu-zumab, pertuzumab has also recently been FDA approved for adjuvant use in patients with HER2 amplified breast cancers with high risk of recurrence.Advanced Local-Regional Breast Cancer (Stage IIIA or IIIB)Women with stage IIIA and IIIB breast cancer have advanced local-regional breast cancer but have no clinically detected distant metastases (Fig. 17-30).260 In an effort to provide opti-mal local-regional disease-free survival as well as distant dis-ease-free survival for these women, surgery is integrated with radiation therapy and chemotherapy (Fig. 17-31). However, it should be noted that these patients have an increased risk of distant metastasis that is often
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for these women, surgery is integrated with radiation therapy and chemotherapy (Fig. 17-31). However, it should be noted that these patients have an increased risk of distant metastasis that is often highlighted by radiological evidence when staging PET or CT and bone scans are per-formed. Thus, the paradigm for small screen detected cancers where cure can be expected in >90% of patients, often by local treatment alone, is not appropriate for patients with locally advanced disease.Preoperative (also known as neoadjuvant) chemotherapy should be considered in the initial management of patients with Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58501/03/19 5:05 PM 586SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 17-30. Locally advanced breast cancer. A. Mammography of the right breast reveals a large tumor with enlarged axillary lymph nodes. B. Imaging of the left breast is normal. (Used with permission from Dr. Anne Turnbull, Consultant Radiologist/Director of Breast Screening, Royal Derby Hospital,
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Surgery_Schwartz. for these women, surgery is integrated with radiation therapy and chemotherapy (Fig. 17-31). However, it should be noted that these patients have an increased risk of distant metastasis that is often highlighted by radiological evidence when staging PET or CT and bone scans are per-formed. Thus, the paradigm for small screen detected cancers where cure can be expected in >90% of patients, often by local treatment alone, is not appropriate for patients with locally advanced disease.Preoperative (also known as neoadjuvant) chemotherapy should be considered in the initial management of patients with Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58501/03/19 5:05 PM 586SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 17-30. Locally advanced breast cancer. A. Mammography of the right breast reveals a large tumor with enlarged axillary lymph nodes. B. Imaging of the left breast is normal. (Used with permission from Dr. Anne Turnbull, Consultant Radiologist/Director of Breast Screening, Royal Derby Hospital,
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with enlarged axillary lymph nodes. B. Imaging of the left breast is normal. (Used with permission from Dr. Anne Turnbull, Consultant Radiologist/Director of Breast Screening, Royal Derby Hospital, Derby, UK.)Figure 17-31. Treatment pathways for stage IIIA and stage IIIB breast cancer.locally advanced stage III breast cancer, especially those with estrogen receptor negative tumors. Chemotherapy is used to maximize distant disease-free survival, whereas radiation ther-apy is used to maximize local-regional control and disease-free survival.In selected patients with stage IIIA cancer, preoperative chemotherapy can reduce the size of the primary cancer and permit breast-conserving surgery. Investigators from the MD Anderson Cancer Center reported that low local-regional fail-ure rates could be achieved in selected patients with stage III disease treated with preoperative chemotherapy followed by breast-conserving surgery and radiation.261 The 5-year actuarial ipsilateral breast tumor
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Surgery_Schwartz. with enlarged axillary lymph nodes. B. Imaging of the left breast is normal. (Used with permission from Dr. Anne Turnbull, Consultant Radiologist/Director of Breast Screening, Royal Derby Hospital, Derby, UK.)Figure 17-31. Treatment pathways for stage IIIA and stage IIIB breast cancer.locally advanced stage III breast cancer, especially those with estrogen receptor negative tumors. Chemotherapy is used to maximize distant disease-free survival, whereas radiation ther-apy is used to maximize local-regional control and disease-free survival.In selected patients with stage IIIA cancer, preoperative chemotherapy can reduce the size of the primary cancer and permit breast-conserving surgery. Investigators from the MD Anderson Cancer Center reported that low local-regional fail-ure rates could be achieved in selected patients with stage III disease treated with preoperative chemotherapy followed by breast-conserving surgery and radiation.261 The 5-year actuarial ipsilateral breast tumor
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be achieved in selected patients with stage III disease treated with preoperative chemotherapy followed by breast-conserving surgery and radiation.261 The 5-year actuarial ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence-free survival rates in this study were 95%. They noted that the ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence rates increased when patients had clinical N2 or N3 disease, >2 cm of residual disease in the breast at surgery, a pattern of multifocal residual disease in the breast at surgery, and lymphovascular space invasion in the primary tumor. This study demonstrated that breast-conserving surgery can be used for appropriately selected patients with locally advanced breast cancer who achieve a good response with preoperative che-motherapy. However, the Oxford overview of all randomized studies of neoadjuvant therapy (vs. adjuvant therapy) reported a hazard ratio of 1.5 (i.e., 50% increase) in local recurrence rates. ABBrunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58601/03/19 5:05 PM 587THE
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Surgery_Schwartz. be achieved in selected patients with stage III disease treated with preoperative chemotherapy followed by breast-conserving surgery and radiation.261 The 5-year actuarial ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence-free survival rates in this study were 95%. They noted that the ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence rates increased when patients had clinical N2 or N3 disease, >2 cm of residual disease in the breast at surgery, a pattern of multifocal residual disease in the breast at surgery, and lymphovascular space invasion in the primary tumor. This study demonstrated that breast-conserving surgery can be used for appropriately selected patients with locally advanced breast cancer who achieve a good response with preoperative che-motherapy. However, the Oxford overview of all randomized studies of neoadjuvant therapy (vs. adjuvant therapy) reported a hazard ratio of 1.5 (i.e., 50% increase) in local recurrence rates. ABBrunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58601/03/19 5:05 PM 587THE
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studies of neoadjuvant therapy (vs. adjuvant therapy) reported a hazard ratio of 1.5 (i.e., 50% increase) in local recurrence rates. ABBrunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58601/03/19 5:05 PM 587THE BREASTCHAPTER 17A meta-analysis reported a hazard ratio of 1.3.262 These stud-ies included some patients treated with radiation therapy alone without resection of the primary tumor bed, which results in higher local failure rates. These findings are important in view of the previous findings that the avoidance of recurrence in a conserved breast avoids about one breast cancer death over the next 15 years for every four such recurrences avoided.12 The German Breast Cancer Group recently reported their local recurrence rate in 5535 patients in seven studies. With a median of 46 months (range 1–127) follow-up the local recurrence rates ranged from 7.6% to 19.5% for T1-T4 tumors and from 6.4% to 17.9% for N0-N3 tumors treated with neoadjuvant therapy.238 For patients with stage IIIA disease
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Surgery_Schwartz. studies of neoadjuvant therapy (vs. adjuvant therapy) reported a hazard ratio of 1.5 (i.e., 50% increase) in local recurrence rates. ABBrunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58601/03/19 5:05 PM 587THE BREASTCHAPTER 17A meta-analysis reported a hazard ratio of 1.3.262 These stud-ies included some patients treated with radiation therapy alone without resection of the primary tumor bed, which results in higher local failure rates. These findings are important in view of the previous findings that the avoidance of recurrence in a conserved breast avoids about one breast cancer death over the next 15 years for every four such recurrences avoided.12 The German Breast Cancer Group recently reported their local recurrence rate in 5535 patients in seven studies. With a median of 46 months (range 1–127) follow-up the local recurrence rates ranged from 7.6% to 19.5% for T1-T4 tumors and from 6.4% to 17.9% for N0-N3 tumors treated with neoadjuvant therapy.238 For patients with stage IIIA disease
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follow-up the local recurrence rates ranged from 7.6% to 19.5% for T1-T4 tumors and from 6.4% to 17.9% for N0-N3 tumors treated with neoadjuvant therapy.238 For patients with stage IIIA disease who experience minimal response to chemotherapy and for patients with stage IIIB breast cancer, preoperative chemotherapy can decrease the local-regional cancer burden enough to permit subsequent modified radical mastectomy to establish local-regional con-trol. In both stages IIIA and IIIB disease, surgery is followed by adjuvant radiation therapy. However there is a small percent-age of patients who experience progression of disease during neoadjuvant therapy, and therefore the surgeon should review patients with the oncologist at regular points during the neoad-juvant regimen.For selected clinically indolent, ER-positive, locally advanced tumors, primary endocrine therapy may be considered, especially if the patient has other comorbid conditions. A series of 195 patients with ER-positive,
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Surgery_Schwartz. follow-up the local recurrence rates ranged from 7.6% to 19.5% for T1-T4 tumors and from 6.4% to 17.9% for N0-N3 tumors treated with neoadjuvant therapy.238 For patients with stage IIIA disease who experience minimal response to chemotherapy and for patients with stage IIIB breast cancer, preoperative chemotherapy can decrease the local-regional cancer burden enough to permit subsequent modified radical mastectomy to establish local-regional con-trol. In both stages IIIA and IIIB disease, surgery is followed by adjuvant radiation therapy. However there is a small percent-age of patients who experience progression of disease during neoadjuvant therapy, and therefore the surgeon should review patients with the oncologist at regular points during the neoad-juvant regimen.For selected clinically indolent, ER-positive, locally advanced tumors, primary endocrine therapy may be considered, especially if the patient has other comorbid conditions. A series of 195 patients with ER-positive,
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indolent, ER-positive, locally advanced tumors, primary endocrine therapy may be considered, especially if the patient has other comorbid conditions. A series of 195 patients with ER-positive, locally advanced breast cancer treated by endocrine therapy—median age 69 years, median tumor size 6 cm, median follow-up 61 months—reported a 5-year overall survival of 76%, a breast cancer–specific sur-vival of 86%, and a metastasis-free survival of 77%. The median time to an alternative treatment was 48 months.263 Given that this was a 20-year series, the number of such patients is small but should be considered when the clinician is discussing treat-ment options. Results from the ACOSOG Z1031 trial suggest that neoadjuvant endocrine therapy is a good option for tumor downstaging in patients with strongly ER-positive tumors. The preoperative endocrine prognostic index (PEPI score) can be calculated based on pathologic findings from surgery following neoadjuvant endocrine therapy. This can
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Surgery_Schwartz. indolent, ER-positive, locally advanced tumors, primary endocrine therapy may be considered, especially if the patient has other comorbid conditions. A series of 195 patients with ER-positive, locally advanced breast cancer treated by endocrine therapy—median age 69 years, median tumor size 6 cm, median follow-up 61 months—reported a 5-year overall survival of 76%, a breast cancer–specific sur-vival of 86%, and a metastasis-free survival of 77%. The median time to an alternative treatment was 48 months.263 Given that this was a 20-year series, the number of such patients is small but should be considered when the clinician is discussing treat-ment options. Results from the ACOSOG Z1031 trial suggest that neoadjuvant endocrine therapy is a good option for tumor downstaging in patients with strongly ER-positive tumors. The preoperative endocrine prognostic index (PEPI score) can be calculated based on pathologic findings from surgery following neoadjuvant endocrine therapy. This can
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strongly ER-positive tumors. The preoperative endocrine prognostic index (PEPI score) can be calculated based on pathologic findings from surgery following neoadjuvant endocrine therapy. This can help guide decision-making regarding the need for systemic chemotherapy in this patient population.264,265Internal Mammary Lymph NodesMetastatic disease to internal mammary lymph nodes may be occult, may be evident on chest radiograph or CT scan, or may present as a painless parasternal mass with or without skin involvement. There is no consensus regarding the need for internal mammary lymph node radiation therapy in women who are at increased risk for occult involvement (cancers involving the medial aspect of the breast, axillary lymph node involve-ment) but who show no signs of internal mammary lymph node involvement. Systemic chemotherapy and radiation therapy are indicated in the treatment of grossly involved internal mammary lymph nodes.Distant Metastases (Stage IV)Treatment for stage IV
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Surgery_Schwartz. strongly ER-positive tumors. The preoperative endocrine prognostic index (PEPI score) can be calculated based on pathologic findings from surgery following neoadjuvant endocrine therapy. This can help guide decision-making regarding the need for systemic chemotherapy in this patient population.264,265Internal Mammary Lymph NodesMetastatic disease to internal mammary lymph nodes may be occult, may be evident on chest radiograph or CT scan, or may present as a painless parasternal mass with or without skin involvement. There is no consensus regarding the need for internal mammary lymph node radiation therapy in women who are at increased risk for occult involvement (cancers involving the medial aspect of the breast, axillary lymph node involve-ment) but who show no signs of internal mammary lymph node involvement. Systemic chemotherapy and radiation therapy are indicated in the treatment of grossly involved internal mammary lymph nodes.Distant Metastases (Stage IV)Treatment for stage IV
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lymph node involvement. Systemic chemotherapy and radiation therapy are indicated in the treatment of grossly involved internal mammary lymph nodes.Distant Metastases (Stage IV)Treatment for stage IV breast cancer is not curative but may prolong survival and enhance a woman’s quality of life.266 Endocrine therapies that are associated with minimal toxicity are preferred to cytotoxic chemotherapy in ER-positive disease. Appropriate candidates for initial endocrine therapy include women with hormone receptor-positive cancers who do not have immediately life threatening disease (or “visceral crisis”). This includes not only women with bone or soft tissue metastases but also women with limited visceral metastases. Symptoms per se (e.g., breathlessness) are not in themselves an indication for chemotherapy. For example, breathlessness due to a pleural effusion can be treated with percutaneous drainage, and if the breathlessness is relieved, the patient should be commenced on endocrine
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Surgery_Schwartz. lymph node involvement. Systemic chemotherapy and radiation therapy are indicated in the treatment of grossly involved internal mammary lymph nodes.Distant Metastases (Stage IV)Treatment for stage IV breast cancer is not curative but may prolong survival and enhance a woman’s quality of life.266 Endocrine therapies that are associated with minimal toxicity are preferred to cytotoxic chemotherapy in ER-positive disease. Appropriate candidates for initial endocrine therapy include women with hormone receptor-positive cancers who do not have immediately life threatening disease (or “visceral crisis”). This includes not only women with bone or soft tissue metastases but also women with limited visceral metastases. Symptoms per se (e.g., breathlessness) are not in themselves an indication for chemotherapy. For example, breathlessness due to a pleural effusion can be treated with percutaneous drainage, and if the breathlessness is relieved, the patient should be commenced on endocrine
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for chemotherapy. For example, breathlessness due to a pleural effusion can be treated with percutaneous drainage, and if the breathlessness is relieved, the patient should be commenced on endocrine therapy; if the breathlessness is due to lymphangitic spread, then chemotherapy would be the treatment of choice. The same approach should be taken to other symptoms such as pain. Systemic chemotherapy is indicated for women with hormone receptor-negative cancers, “visceral crisis,” and hormone-refractory metastases. Women with stage IV breast cancer may develop anatomically localized problems that will benefit from individualized surgical or radiation treatment, such as brain metastases, pleural effusion, pericardial effusion, biliary obstruction, ureteral obstruction, impending or existing pathologic fracture of a long bone, spinal cord compression, and painful bone or soft tissue metastases. Bisphosphonates or anti-RANKL (receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand) agent,
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Surgery_Schwartz. for chemotherapy. For example, breathlessness due to a pleural effusion can be treated with percutaneous drainage, and if the breathlessness is relieved, the patient should be commenced on endocrine therapy; if the breathlessness is due to lymphangitic spread, then chemotherapy would be the treatment of choice. The same approach should be taken to other symptoms such as pain. Systemic chemotherapy is indicated for women with hormone receptor-negative cancers, “visceral crisis,” and hormone-refractory metastases. Women with stage IV breast cancer may develop anatomically localized problems that will benefit from individualized surgical or radiation treatment, such as brain metastases, pleural effusion, pericardial effusion, biliary obstruction, ureteral obstruction, impending or existing pathologic fracture of a long bone, spinal cord compression, and painful bone or soft tissue metastases. Bisphosphonates or anti-RANKL (receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand) agent,
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pathologic fracture of a long bone, spinal cord compression, and painful bone or soft tissue metastases. Bisphosphonates or anti-RANKL (receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand) agent, denosumab, which may be given in addition to chemo-therapy or endocrine therapy, should be considered in women with bone metastases. Whether to perform surgical resection of the local-regional disease in women with stage IV breast cancer has been debated after several reports have suggested that women who undergo resection of the primary tumor have improved survival over those who do not. Khan and associates used the National Cancer Data Base to identify patterns of treat-ment in women with metastatic breast cancer and found that those who had surgical resection with negative margins had a better prognosis than those women who did not have surgical therapy.267 Gnerlich et al reported similar findings using the SEER database, and there have been several reports subsequent to this study from
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Surgery_Schwartz. pathologic fracture of a long bone, spinal cord compression, and painful bone or soft tissue metastases. Bisphosphonates or anti-RANKL (receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand) agent, denosumab, which may be given in addition to chemo-therapy or endocrine therapy, should be considered in women with bone metastases. Whether to perform surgical resection of the local-regional disease in women with stage IV breast cancer has been debated after several reports have suggested that women who undergo resection of the primary tumor have improved survival over those who do not. Khan and associates used the National Cancer Data Base to identify patterns of treat-ment in women with metastatic breast cancer and found that those who had surgical resection with negative margins had a better prognosis than those women who did not have surgical therapy.267 Gnerlich et al reported similar findings using the SEER database, and there have been several reports subsequent to this study from
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prognosis than those women who did not have surgical therapy.267 Gnerlich et al reported similar findings using the SEER database, and there have been several reports subsequent to this study from single institutions that have confirmed these findings.268 Some have suggested that the finding of improved survival is due to selection bias and that local therapy should be reserved for palliation of symptoms. A randomized trial through ECOG (E2108) was designed to address this question.269 The surgical management of patients with stage IV disease should be addressed by obtaining multidisciplinary input and by con-sidering the treatment goals of each individual patient and the patient’s treating physicians.Local-Regional RecurrenceWomen with local-regional recurrence of breast cancer may be separated into two groups: those who have had mastec-tomy and those who have had lumpectomy. Women treated previously with mastectomy undergo surgical resection of the local-regional recurrence and
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Surgery_Schwartz. prognosis than those women who did not have surgical therapy.267 Gnerlich et al reported similar findings using the SEER database, and there have been several reports subsequent to this study from single institutions that have confirmed these findings.268 Some have suggested that the finding of improved survival is due to selection bias and that local therapy should be reserved for palliation of symptoms. A randomized trial through ECOG (E2108) was designed to address this question.269 The surgical management of patients with stage IV disease should be addressed by obtaining multidisciplinary input and by con-sidering the treatment goals of each individual patient and the patient’s treating physicians.Local-Regional RecurrenceWomen with local-regional recurrence of breast cancer may be separated into two groups: those who have had mastec-tomy and those who have had lumpectomy. Women treated previously with mastectomy undergo surgical resection of the local-regional recurrence and
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separated into two groups: those who have had mastec-tomy and those who have had lumpectomy. Women treated previously with mastectomy undergo surgical resection of the local-regional recurrence and appropriate reconstruction. Chemotherapy and antiestrogen therapy are considered, and adjuvant radiation therapy is given if the chest wall has not pre-viously received radiation therapy or if the radiation oncologist feels that given the time from previous treatment there is scope for further radiation therapy, particularly if this is palliative. Women treated previously with a breast-conservation procedure undergo a mastectomy and appropriate reconstruction. Chemo-therapy and antiestrogen therapy are considered depending of the hormone receptor status and HER2 status of the tumor.Breast Cancer PrognosisSurvival rates for women diagnosed with breast cancer in the United States can be obtained from the SEER Program of the Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58701/03/19 5:05 PM 588SPECIFIC
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Surgery_Schwartz. separated into two groups: those who have had mastec-tomy and those who have had lumpectomy. Women treated previously with mastectomy undergo surgical resection of the local-regional recurrence and appropriate reconstruction. Chemotherapy and antiestrogen therapy are considered, and adjuvant radiation therapy is given if the chest wall has not pre-viously received radiation therapy or if the radiation oncologist feels that given the time from previous treatment there is scope for further radiation therapy, particularly if this is palliative. Women treated previously with a breast-conservation procedure undergo a mastectomy and appropriate reconstruction. Chemo-therapy and antiestrogen therapy are considered depending of the hormone receptor status and HER2 status of the tumor.Breast Cancer PrognosisSurvival rates for women diagnosed with breast cancer in the United States can be obtained from the SEER Program of the Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58701/03/19 5:05 PM 588SPECIFIC
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PrognosisSurvival rates for women diagnosed with breast cancer in the United States can be obtained from the SEER Program of the Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58701/03/19 5:05 PM 588SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIABFigure 17-32. Lesion to be targeted for excisional biopsy. A. Craniocaudal view of the left breast demonstrating 2 lesions (arrows) to be targeted for needle localization and excision. B. Oblique view demonstrating target lesions. (Used with permission from Dr. Anne Turnbull, Consultant Radiologist/Director of Breast Screening, Royal Derby Hospital, Derby, UK.)National Cancer Institute. Data have been collected since 1973 and are updated at regular intervals. The overall 5-year rela-tive survival for breast cancer patients from the time period of 2003 to 2009 from 18 SEER geographic areas was 89.2%.270 The 5-year relative survival by race was reported to be 90.4% for white women and 78.7% for black women. The 5-year sur-vival rate for patients with localized disease
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Surgery_Schwartz. PrognosisSurvival rates for women diagnosed with breast cancer in the United States can be obtained from the SEER Program of the Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58701/03/19 5:05 PM 588SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIABFigure 17-32. Lesion to be targeted for excisional biopsy. A. Craniocaudal view of the left breast demonstrating 2 lesions (arrows) to be targeted for needle localization and excision. B. Oblique view demonstrating target lesions. (Used with permission from Dr. Anne Turnbull, Consultant Radiologist/Director of Breast Screening, Royal Derby Hospital, Derby, UK.)National Cancer Institute. Data have been collected since 1973 and are updated at regular intervals. The overall 5-year rela-tive survival for breast cancer patients from the time period of 2003 to 2009 from 18 SEER geographic areas was 89.2%.270 The 5-year relative survival by race was reported to be 90.4% for white women and 78.7% for black women. The 5-year sur-vival rate for patients with localized disease
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geographic areas was 89.2%.270 The 5-year relative survival by race was reported to be 90.4% for white women and 78.7% for black women. The 5-year sur-vival rate for patients with localized disease (61% of patients) is 98.6%; for patients with regional disease (32% of patients), 84.4%; and for patients with distant metastatic disease (5% of patients), 24.3%. Breast cancer survival has significantly increased over the past two decades due to improvements in screening and local and systemic therapies. Data from the American College of Surgeons National Cancer Data Base can also be accessed; this data reports survival based on stage of disease at presentation using the AJCC staging system.SURGICAL TECHNIQUES IN BREAST CANCER THERAPYExcisional Biopsy With Needle LocalizationExcisional biopsy implies complete removal of a breast lesion with a margin of normal-appearing breast tissue. In the past, surgeons would obtain prior consent from the patient, allow-ing mastectomy if the initial
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Surgery_Schwartz. geographic areas was 89.2%.270 The 5-year relative survival by race was reported to be 90.4% for white women and 78.7% for black women. The 5-year sur-vival rate for patients with localized disease (61% of patients) is 98.6%; for patients with regional disease (32% of patients), 84.4%; and for patients with distant metastatic disease (5% of patients), 24.3%. Breast cancer survival has significantly increased over the past two decades due to improvements in screening and local and systemic therapies. Data from the American College of Surgeons National Cancer Data Base can also be accessed; this data reports survival based on stage of disease at presentation using the AJCC staging system.SURGICAL TECHNIQUES IN BREAST CANCER THERAPYExcisional Biopsy With Needle LocalizationExcisional biopsy implies complete removal of a breast lesion with a margin of normal-appearing breast tissue. In the past, surgeons would obtain prior consent from the patient, allow-ing mastectomy if the initial
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implies complete removal of a breast lesion with a margin of normal-appearing breast tissue. In the past, surgeons would obtain prior consent from the patient, allow-ing mastectomy if the initial biopsy results confirmed cancer. Today it is important to consider the options for local therapy (lumpectomy vs. mastectomy with or without reconstruction) and the need for nodal assessment with SLN dissection. Needle-core biopsy is the preferred diagnostic method, and excisional biopsy should be reserved for those cases in which the needle biopsy results are discordant with the imaging findings or clini-cal examination (Fig. 17-32). In general, circumareolar incisions can be used to access lesions that are subareolar or within a short distance of the nipple-areolar complex. Elsewhere in the breast, incisions can be placed along the lines of tension in the skin that are generally concentric with the nipple-areola complex. In the lower half of the breast, the use of radial incisions typically
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Surgery_Schwartz. implies complete removal of a breast lesion with a margin of normal-appearing breast tissue. In the past, surgeons would obtain prior consent from the patient, allow-ing mastectomy if the initial biopsy results confirmed cancer. Today it is important to consider the options for local therapy (lumpectomy vs. mastectomy with or without reconstruction) and the need for nodal assessment with SLN dissection. Needle-core biopsy is the preferred diagnostic method, and excisional biopsy should be reserved for those cases in which the needle biopsy results are discordant with the imaging findings or clini-cal examination (Fig. 17-32). In general, circumareolar incisions can be used to access lesions that are subareolar or within a short distance of the nipple-areolar complex. Elsewhere in the breast, incisions can be placed along the lines of tension in the skin that are generally concentric with the nipple-areola complex. In the lower half of the breast, the use of radial incisions typically
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incisions can be placed along the lines of tension in the skin that are generally concentric with the nipple-areola complex. In the lower half of the breast, the use of radial incisions typically provides the best outcome. When the tumor is quite distant from the central breast, the biopsy incision can be excised separately from the primary mastectomy incision, should a mastectomy be required. Radial incisions in the upper half of the breast are not recommended because of possible scar contracture resulting in displacement of the ipsilateral nipple-areola complex. Similarly, curvilinear incisions in the lower half of the breast may displace the nipple-areolar complex downward.After excision of a suspicious breast lesion, the specimen should be X-rayed to confirm that the lesion has been excised with appropriate margins. The biopsy tissue specimen is ori-entated for the pathologist using sutures, clips, or dyes. Addi-tional margins (superior, inferior, medial, lateral, superficial, and
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Surgery_Schwartz. incisions can be placed along the lines of tension in the skin that are generally concentric with the nipple-areola complex. In the lower half of the breast, the use of radial incisions typically provides the best outcome. When the tumor is quite distant from the central breast, the biopsy incision can be excised separately from the primary mastectomy incision, should a mastectomy be required. Radial incisions in the upper half of the breast are not recommended because of possible scar contracture resulting in displacement of the ipsilateral nipple-areola complex. Similarly, curvilinear incisions in the lower half of the breast may displace the nipple-areolar complex downward.After excision of a suspicious breast lesion, the specimen should be X-rayed to confirm that the lesion has been excised with appropriate margins. The biopsy tissue specimen is ori-entated for the pathologist using sutures, clips, or dyes. Addi-tional margins (superior, inferior, medial, lateral, superficial, and
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with appropriate margins. The biopsy tissue specimen is ori-entated for the pathologist using sutures, clips, or dyes. Addi-tional margins (superior, inferior, medial, lateral, superficial, and deep) may be taken from the surgical bed if the specimen X-ray shows the lesion is close to one or more margins. Some surgeons also take additional shavings from the margins as one approach to confirm complete excision of the suspicious lesion. Electrocautery or absorbable ligatures are used to achieve wound hemostasis. Cosmesis may be facilitated by approxima-tion of the surgical defect using 3-0 absorbable sutures. A run-ning subcuticular closure of the skin using 4-0 or 5-0 absorbable monofilament sutures is performed. Wound drainage is usually not required.Excisional biopsy with needle or seed localization requires a preoperative visit to the mammography suite for placement of a localization wire or a radioactive or magnetic seed that can be detected intraoperatively with a handheld probe.
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Surgery_Schwartz. with appropriate margins. The biopsy tissue specimen is ori-entated for the pathologist using sutures, clips, or dyes. Addi-tional margins (superior, inferior, medial, lateral, superficial, and deep) may be taken from the surgical bed if the specimen X-ray shows the lesion is close to one or more margins. Some surgeons also take additional shavings from the margins as one approach to confirm complete excision of the suspicious lesion. Electrocautery or absorbable ligatures are used to achieve wound hemostasis. Cosmesis may be facilitated by approxima-tion of the surgical defect using 3-0 absorbable sutures. A run-ning subcuticular closure of the skin using 4-0 or 5-0 absorbable monofilament sutures is performed. Wound drainage is usually not required.Excisional biopsy with needle or seed localization requires a preoperative visit to the mammography suite for placement of a localization wire or a radioactive or magnetic seed that can be detected intraoperatively with a handheld probe.
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localization requires a preoperative visit to the mammography suite for placement of a localization wire or a radioactive or magnetic seed that can be detected intraoperatively with a handheld probe. The lesion can also be targeted by sonography in the imaging suite or in the operating room. The lesion to be excised is accurately localized by mammography, and the tip of a thin wire hook or a seed is positioned close to the lesion (Fig. 17-33). Using the wire hook as a guide, or detection of the seed with a handheld probe, the surgeon subsequently excises the suspicious breast lesion while removing a margin of normal-appearing breast tissue. Before the patient leaves the operating room, specimen radiography is performed to confirm complete excision of the suspicious lesion (Fig. 17-34).Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58801/03/19 5:05 PM 589THE BREASTCHAPTER 17Figure 17-33. Wire localization procedure. Mammographic images of hookwire in place targeting lesions for excision in the
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Surgery_Schwartz. localization requires a preoperative visit to the mammography suite for placement of a localization wire or a radioactive or magnetic seed that can be detected intraoperatively with a handheld probe. The lesion can also be targeted by sonography in the imaging suite or in the operating room. The lesion to be excised is accurately localized by mammography, and the tip of a thin wire hook or a seed is positioned close to the lesion (Fig. 17-33). Using the wire hook as a guide, or detection of the seed with a handheld probe, the surgeon subsequently excises the suspicious breast lesion while removing a margin of normal-appearing breast tissue. Before the patient leaves the operating room, specimen radiography is performed to confirm complete excision of the suspicious lesion (Fig. 17-34).Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58801/03/19 5:05 PM 589THE BREASTCHAPTER 17Figure 17-33. Wire localization procedure. Mammographic images of hookwire in place targeting lesions for excision in the
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58801/03/19 5:05 PM 589THE BREASTCHAPTER 17Figure 17-33. Wire localization procedure. Mammographic images of hookwire in place targeting lesions for excision in the left breast (A) and the right breast (B). (Used with permission from Dr. Anne Turnbull, Consultant Radiologist/Director of Breast Screen-ing, Royal Derby Hospital, Derby, UK.)Figure 17-34. Specimen mammography. Specimen mam-mograms demonstrating excision of targeted (A) density, (B) calcifications, and (C) spiculated mass seen on preoperative imaging. (Used with permission from Dr. Anne Turnbull, Con-sultant Radiologist/Director of Breast Screening, Royal Derby Hospital, Derby, UK.)ABCABBrunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58901/03/19 5:05 PM 590SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IISentinel Lymph Node DissectionSentinel lymph node (SLN) dissection is primarily used to assess the regional lymph nodes in women with early breast cancers who are clinically node-negative by physical examina-tion and imaging studies.271-279 This
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Surgery_Schwartz. 58801/03/19 5:05 PM 589THE BREASTCHAPTER 17Figure 17-33. Wire localization procedure. Mammographic images of hookwire in place targeting lesions for excision in the left breast (A) and the right breast (B). (Used with permission from Dr. Anne Turnbull, Consultant Radiologist/Director of Breast Screen-ing, Royal Derby Hospital, Derby, UK.)Figure 17-34. Specimen mammography. Specimen mam-mograms demonstrating excision of targeted (A) density, (B) calcifications, and (C) spiculated mass seen on preoperative imaging. (Used with permission from Dr. Anne Turnbull, Con-sultant Radiologist/Director of Breast Screening, Royal Derby Hospital, Derby, UK.)ABCABBrunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 58901/03/19 5:05 PM 590SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IISentinel Lymph Node DissectionSentinel lymph node (SLN) dissection is primarily used to assess the regional lymph nodes in women with early breast cancers who are clinically node-negative by physical examina-tion and imaging studies.271-279 This
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Surgery_Schwartz
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(SLN) dissection is primarily used to assess the regional lymph nodes in women with early breast cancers who are clinically node-negative by physical examina-tion and imaging studies.271-279 This method also is accurate in women with larger tumors (T3 N0), but nearly 75% of these women will prove to have axillary lymph node metastases on histologic examination, and wherever possible it is better to identify them preoperatively as this will allow a definitive procedure for known axillary disease. SLN dissection has also been reported to be accurate for staging of the axilla after chemotherapy in women with clinically node-negative dis-ease at initial presentation.280,281 Tan et al in a review and meta-analysis of 449 cases of SLN biopsy in clinically lymph node-negative disease reported a sensitivity of 93%, giving a false negative rate of 7% with a negative predictive value of 94% and an overall accuracy of 95%.282 Clinical situations where SLN dissection is not recommended include
|
Surgery_Schwartz. (SLN) dissection is primarily used to assess the regional lymph nodes in women with early breast cancers who are clinically node-negative by physical examina-tion and imaging studies.271-279 This method also is accurate in women with larger tumors (T3 N0), but nearly 75% of these women will prove to have axillary lymph node metastases on histologic examination, and wherever possible it is better to identify them preoperatively as this will allow a definitive procedure for known axillary disease. SLN dissection has also been reported to be accurate for staging of the axilla after chemotherapy in women with clinically node-negative dis-ease at initial presentation.280,281 Tan et al in a review and meta-analysis of 449 cases of SLN biopsy in clinically lymph node-negative disease reported a sensitivity of 93%, giving a false negative rate of 7% with a negative predictive value of 94% and an overall accuracy of 95%.282 Clinical situations where SLN dissection is not recommended include
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Surgery_Schwartz_3989
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Surgery_Schwartz
|
a sensitivity of 93%, giving a false negative rate of 7% with a negative predictive value of 94% and an overall accuracy of 95%.282 Clinical situations where SLN dissection is not recommended include patients with inflammatory breast cancers, those with biopsy proven metasta-sis, DCIS without mastectomy, or prior axillary surgery. Although limited data are available, SLN dissection appears to be safe in pregnancy when performed with radioisotope alone.Evidence from large prospective studies suggests that the combination of intraoperative gamma probe detection of radioactive colloid and intraoperative visualization of blue dye (isosulfan blue dye or methylene blue) is more accurate for identification of SLNs than the use of either agent alone. Some surgeons use preoperative lymphoscintigraphy, although it is not required for identification of the SLNs. On the day before surgery, or the day of surgery, the radioactive colloid is injected either in the breast parenchyma around the
|
Surgery_Schwartz. a sensitivity of 93%, giving a false negative rate of 7% with a negative predictive value of 94% and an overall accuracy of 95%.282 Clinical situations where SLN dissection is not recommended include patients with inflammatory breast cancers, those with biopsy proven metasta-sis, DCIS without mastectomy, or prior axillary surgery. Although limited data are available, SLN dissection appears to be safe in pregnancy when performed with radioisotope alone.Evidence from large prospective studies suggests that the combination of intraoperative gamma probe detection of radioactive colloid and intraoperative visualization of blue dye (isosulfan blue dye or methylene blue) is more accurate for identification of SLNs than the use of either agent alone. Some surgeons use preoperative lymphoscintigraphy, although it is not required for identification of the SLNs. On the day before surgery, or the day of surgery, the radioactive colloid is injected either in the breast parenchyma around the
|
Surgery_Schwartz_3990
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Surgery_Schwartz
|
although it is not required for identification of the SLNs. On the day before surgery, or the day of surgery, the radioactive colloid is injected either in the breast parenchyma around the primary tumor or prior biopsy site, into the subareolar region, or subdermally in proximity to the primary tumor site. With a 25-gauge needle, 0.5 mCi of 0.2-μm technetium 99m–labeled sulfur colloid is injected for same-day surgery, or a higher dose of 2.5 mCi of technetium-labeled sulfur colloid is administered when the isotope is to be injected on the day before surgery. Subdermal injections are given in proximity to the cancer site or in the subareolar location. Later, in the operating room, 3 to 5 mL of blue dye is injected either in the breast parenchyma or in the subareolar location. It is not recommended that the blue dye be used in a subdermal injection because this can result in tattoo-ing of the skin (isosulfan blue dye) or skin necrosis (methylene blue). For nonpalpable cancers, the
|
Surgery_Schwartz. although it is not required for identification of the SLNs. On the day before surgery, or the day of surgery, the radioactive colloid is injected either in the breast parenchyma around the primary tumor or prior biopsy site, into the subareolar region, or subdermally in proximity to the primary tumor site. With a 25-gauge needle, 0.5 mCi of 0.2-μm technetium 99m–labeled sulfur colloid is injected for same-day surgery, or a higher dose of 2.5 mCi of technetium-labeled sulfur colloid is administered when the isotope is to be injected on the day before surgery. Subdermal injections are given in proximity to the cancer site or in the subareolar location. Later, in the operating room, 3 to 5 mL of blue dye is injected either in the breast parenchyma or in the subareolar location. It is not recommended that the blue dye be used in a subdermal injection because this can result in tattoo-ing of the skin (isosulfan blue dye) or skin necrosis (methylene blue). For nonpalpable cancers, the
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Surgery_Schwartz_3991
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Surgery_Schwartz
|
recommended that the blue dye be used in a subdermal injection because this can result in tattoo-ing of the skin (isosulfan blue dye) or skin necrosis (methylene blue). For nonpalpable cancers, the injection of the technetium-labeled sulfur colloid solution can be guided by ultrasound or by mammographic guidance. In women who have undergone previous excisional biopsy, the injections are made in the breast parenchyma around the biopsy cavity but not into the cavity itself. Women are told preoperatively that the isosulfan blue dye injection will cause a change in the color of their urine and that there is a very small risk of allergic reaction to the dye (1 in 10,000). Anaphylactic reactions have been documented, and some groups administer a regimen of antihistamine, steroids, and a histamine H-2 receptor antagonist preoperatively as a prophylactic regimen to prevent allergic reactions. The use of radioactive colloid is safe, and radiation exposure is very low. Sentinel node dissection
|
Surgery_Schwartz. recommended that the blue dye be used in a subdermal injection because this can result in tattoo-ing of the skin (isosulfan blue dye) or skin necrosis (methylene blue). For nonpalpable cancers, the injection of the technetium-labeled sulfur colloid solution can be guided by ultrasound or by mammographic guidance. In women who have undergone previous excisional biopsy, the injections are made in the breast parenchyma around the biopsy cavity but not into the cavity itself. Women are told preoperatively that the isosulfan blue dye injection will cause a change in the color of their urine and that there is a very small risk of allergic reaction to the dye (1 in 10,000). Anaphylactic reactions have been documented, and some groups administer a regimen of antihistamine, steroids, and a histamine H-2 receptor antagonist preoperatively as a prophylactic regimen to prevent allergic reactions. The use of radioactive colloid is safe, and radiation exposure is very low. Sentinel node dissection
|
Surgery_Schwartz_3992
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Surgery_Schwartz
|
H-2 receptor antagonist preoperatively as a prophylactic regimen to prevent allergic reactions. The use of radioactive colloid is safe, and radiation exposure is very low. Sentinel node dissection can be performed in pregnancy with the radioactive colloid without the use of blue dye.A hand-held gamma counter is used to transcutaneously identify the location of the SLN. This can help to guide place-ment of the incision. A 3to 4-cm incision is made in line with that used for an axillary dissection, which is a curved transverse 9incision in the lower axilla just below the hairline. After dis-secting through the subcutaneous tissue, the surgeon dissects through the axillary fascia, being mindful to identify blue lym-phatic channels. Following these channels can lead directly to the SLN and limit the amount of dissection through the axillary tissues. The gamma probe is used to facilitate the dissection and to pinpoint the location of the SLN. As the dissection continues, the signal from
|
Surgery_Schwartz. H-2 receptor antagonist preoperatively as a prophylactic regimen to prevent allergic reactions. The use of radioactive colloid is safe, and radiation exposure is very low. Sentinel node dissection can be performed in pregnancy with the radioactive colloid without the use of blue dye.A hand-held gamma counter is used to transcutaneously identify the location of the SLN. This can help to guide place-ment of the incision. A 3to 4-cm incision is made in line with that used for an axillary dissection, which is a curved transverse 9incision in the lower axilla just below the hairline. After dis-secting through the subcutaneous tissue, the surgeon dissects through the axillary fascia, being mindful to identify blue lym-phatic channels. Following these channels can lead directly to the SLN and limit the amount of dissection through the axillary tissues. The gamma probe is used to facilitate the dissection and to pinpoint the location of the SLN. As the dissection continues, the signal from
|
Surgery_Schwartz_3993
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Surgery_Schwartz
|
limit the amount of dissection through the axillary tissues. The gamma probe is used to facilitate the dissection and to pinpoint the location of the SLN. As the dissection continues, the signal from the probe increases in intensity as the SLN is approached. The SLN also is identified by visualization of blue dye in the afferent lymph vessel and in the lymph node itself. Before the SLN is removed, a 10-second in vivo radioactivity count is obtained. After removal of the SLN, a 10-second ex vivo radioactive count is obtained, and the node is then sent to the pathology laboratory for either permanentor frozen-section analysis. The lowest false-negative rates for SLN dissection have been obtained when all blue lymph nodes and all lymph nodes with counts >10% of the 10-second ex vivo count of the SLN are harvested (“10% rule”). Based on this, the gamma counter is used before closing the axillary wound to measure residual radioactivity in the surgical bed. A search is made for additional
|
Surgery_Schwartz. limit the amount of dissection through the axillary tissues. The gamma probe is used to facilitate the dissection and to pinpoint the location of the SLN. As the dissection continues, the signal from the probe increases in intensity as the SLN is approached. The SLN also is identified by visualization of blue dye in the afferent lymph vessel and in the lymph node itself. Before the SLN is removed, a 10-second in vivo radioactivity count is obtained. After removal of the SLN, a 10-second ex vivo radioactive count is obtained, and the node is then sent to the pathology laboratory for either permanentor frozen-section analysis. The lowest false-negative rates for SLN dissection have been obtained when all blue lymph nodes and all lymph nodes with counts >10% of the 10-second ex vivo count of the SLN are harvested (“10% rule”). Based on this, the gamma counter is used before closing the axillary wound to measure residual radioactivity in the surgical bed. A search is made for additional
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Surgery_Schwartz_3994
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Surgery_Schwartz
|
the SLN are harvested (“10% rule”). Based on this, the gamma counter is used before closing the axillary wound to measure residual radioactivity in the surgical bed. A search is made for additional SLNs if the counts remain high. This procedure is repeated until residual radioactivity in the surgical bed is less than 10% of the 10-second ex vivo count of the most radioac-tive SLN and all blue nodes have been removed. Studies have demonstrated that 98% of all positive SLNs will be recovered with the removal of four SLNs; therefore, it is not necessary to remove greater than four SLNs for accurate staging of the axilla.Results from the NSABP B-32 trial showed that the false-negative rate for SLN dissection is influenced by tumor loca-tion, type of diagnostic biopsy, and number of SLNs removed at surgery.243 The authors reported that tumors located in the lateral breast were more likely to have a false-negative SLN. This may be explained by difficulty in discriminating the hot spot in
|
Surgery_Schwartz. the SLN are harvested (“10% rule”). Based on this, the gamma counter is used before closing the axillary wound to measure residual radioactivity in the surgical bed. A search is made for additional SLNs if the counts remain high. This procedure is repeated until residual radioactivity in the surgical bed is less than 10% of the 10-second ex vivo count of the most radioac-tive SLN and all blue nodes have been removed. Studies have demonstrated that 98% of all positive SLNs will be recovered with the removal of four SLNs; therefore, it is not necessary to remove greater than four SLNs for accurate staging of the axilla.Results from the NSABP B-32 trial showed that the false-negative rate for SLN dissection is influenced by tumor loca-tion, type of diagnostic biopsy, and number of SLNs removed at surgery.243 The authors reported that tumors located in the lateral breast were more likely to have a false-negative SLN. This may be explained by difficulty in discriminating the hot spot in
|
Surgery_Schwartz_3995
|
Surgery_Schwartz
|
at surgery.243 The authors reported that tumors located in the lateral breast were more likely to have a false-negative SLN. This may be explained by difficulty in discriminating the hot spot in the axilla when the radioisotope has been injected at the primary tumor site in the lateral breast. Those patients who had undergone an excisional biopsy before the SLN procedure were significantly more likely to have a false-negative SLN. This report further confirms that surgeons should use needle biopsy for diagnosis whenever possible and reserve excisional biopsy for the rare situations in which needle biopsy findings are non-diagnostic or discordant. Finally, removal of a larger number of SLNs at surgery appears to reduce the false-negative rate. In B-32, the false-negative rate was reduced from 17.7% to 10% when two SLNs were recovered and to 6.9% when three SLNs were removed. Yi and associates reported that the number of SLNs that need to be removed for accurate staging is influenced by
|
Surgery_Schwartz. at surgery.243 The authors reported that tumors located in the lateral breast were more likely to have a false-negative SLN. This may be explained by difficulty in discriminating the hot spot in the axilla when the radioisotope has been injected at the primary tumor site in the lateral breast. Those patients who had undergone an excisional biopsy before the SLN procedure were significantly more likely to have a false-negative SLN. This report further confirms that surgeons should use needle biopsy for diagnosis whenever possible and reserve excisional biopsy for the rare situations in which needle biopsy findings are non-diagnostic or discordant. Finally, removal of a larger number of SLNs at surgery appears to reduce the false-negative rate. In B-32, the false-negative rate was reduced from 17.7% to 10% when two SLNs were recovered and to 6.9% when three SLNs were removed. Yi and associates reported that the number of SLNs that need to be removed for accurate staging is influenced by
|
Surgery_Schwartz_3996
|
Surgery_Schwartz
|
17.7% to 10% when two SLNs were recovered and to 6.9% when three SLNs were removed. Yi and associates reported that the number of SLNs that need to be removed for accurate staging is influenced by individual patient and primary tumor factors.283In the B-32 trial, SLNs were identified outside the levels I and II axillary nodes in 1.4% of cases. This was significantly influenced by the site of radioisotope injection. When a subareo-lar or periareolar injection site was used, there were no instances of SLNs identified outside the level I or II axilla, compared with a rate of 20% when a peritumoral injection was used. This sup-ports the overall concept that the SLN is the first site of drain-age from the lymphatic vessels of the primary tumor. Although many patients will have similar drainage patterns from injec-tions given at the primary tumor site and at the subareolar plexus, some patients will have extra-axillary drainage, either alone or in combination with axillary node drainage,
|
Surgery_Schwartz. 17.7% to 10% when two SLNs were recovered and to 6.9% when three SLNs were removed. Yi and associates reported that the number of SLNs that need to be removed for accurate staging is influenced by individual patient and primary tumor factors.283In the B-32 trial, SLNs were identified outside the levels I and II axillary nodes in 1.4% of cases. This was significantly influenced by the site of radioisotope injection. When a subareo-lar or periareolar injection site was used, there were no instances of SLNs identified outside the level I or II axilla, compared with a rate of 20% when a peritumoral injection was used. This sup-ports the overall concept that the SLN is the first site of drain-age from the lymphatic vessels of the primary tumor. Although many patients will have similar drainage patterns from injec-tions given at the primary tumor site and at the subareolar plexus, some patients will have extra-axillary drainage, either alone or in combination with axillary node drainage,
|
Surgery_Schwartz_3997
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Surgery_Schwartz
|
patterns from injec-tions given at the primary tumor site and at the subareolar plexus, some patients will have extra-axillary drainage, either alone or in combination with axillary node drainage, and this is best assessed with a peritumoral injection of the radioiso-tope. Kong et al reported that internal mammary node drain-age on preoperative lymphoscintigraphy was associated with Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 59001/03/19 5:05 PM 591THE BREASTCHAPTER 17worse distant disease-free survival in early-stage breast cancer patients.284Breast ConservationBreast conservation involves resection of the primary breast cancer with a margin of normal-appearing breast tissue, adju-vant radiation therapy, and assessment of regional lymph node status.285,286 Resection of the primary breast cancer is alterna-tively called segmental mastectomy, lumpectomy, partial mas-tectomy, wide local excision, and tylectomy. For many women with stage I or II breast cancer, breast-conserving therapy (BCT) is
|
Surgery_Schwartz. patterns from injec-tions given at the primary tumor site and at the subareolar plexus, some patients will have extra-axillary drainage, either alone or in combination with axillary node drainage, and this is best assessed with a peritumoral injection of the radioiso-tope. Kong et al reported that internal mammary node drain-age on preoperative lymphoscintigraphy was associated with Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 59001/03/19 5:05 PM 591THE BREASTCHAPTER 17worse distant disease-free survival in early-stage breast cancer patients.284Breast ConservationBreast conservation involves resection of the primary breast cancer with a margin of normal-appearing breast tissue, adju-vant radiation therapy, and assessment of regional lymph node status.285,286 Resection of the primary breast cancer is alterna-tively called segmental mastectomy, lumpectomy, partial mas-tectomy, wide local excision, and tylectomy. For many women with stage I or II breast cancer, breast-conserving therapy (BCT) is
|
Surgery_Schwartz_3998
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Surgery_Schwartz
|
is alterna-tively called segmental mastectomy, lumpectomy, partial mas-tectomy, wide local excision, and tylectomy. For many women with stage I or II breast cancer, breast-conserving therapy (BCT) is preferable to total mastectomy because BCT produces survival rates equivalent to those after total mastectomy while preserv-ing the breast.287 Six prospective randomized trials have shown that overall and disease-free survival rates are similar with BCT and mastectomy; however, three of the studies showed higher local-regional failure rates in patients undergoing BCT. In two of these studies, there were no clear criteria for histologically negative margins.285-287 Data from the EBCTCG meta-analysis revealed that the addition of radiation reduces recurrence by half and improves survival at year 15 by about a sixth.288 When all of this information is taken together, BCT is considered to be oncologically equivalent to mastectomy.In addition to being equivalent to mastectomy in terms of
|
Surgery_Schwartz. is alterna-tively called segmental mastectomy, lumpectomy, partial mas-tectomy, wide local excision, and tylectomy. For many women with stage I or II breast cancer, breast-conserving therapy (BCT) is preferable to total mastectomy because BCT produces survival rates equivalent to those after total mastectomy while preserv-ing the breast.287 Six prospective randomized trials have shown that overall and disease-free survival rates are similar with BCT and mastectomy; however, three of the studies showed higher local-regional failure rates in patients undergoing BCT. In two of these studies, there were no clear criteria for histologically negative margins.285-287 Data from the EBCTCG meta-analysis revealed that the addition of radiation reduces recurrence by half and improves survival at year 15 by about a sixth.288 When all of this information is taken together, BCT is considered to be oncologically equivalent to mastectomy.In addition to being equivalent to mastectomy in terms of
|
Surgery_Schwartz_3999
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Surgery_Schwartz
|
year 15 by about a sixth.288 When all of this information is taken together, BCT is considered to be oncologically equivalent to mastectomy.In addition to being equivalent to mastectomy in terms of oncologic safety, BCT appears to offer advantages over mas-tectomy with regard to quality of life and aesthetic outcomes. BCT allows for preservation of breast shape and skin as well as preservation of sensation, and it provides an overall psychologic advantage associated with breast preservation.Breast conservation surgery is currently the standard treat-ment for women with stage 0, I, or II invasive breast cancer. Women with DCIS require only resection of the primary cancer and adjuvant radiation therapy without assessment of regional lymph nodes. When a lumpectomy is performed, a curvilinear incision lying concentric to the nipple-areola complex is made in the skin overlying the breast cancer when the tumor is in the upper aspect of the breast. Radial incisions are preferred when the
|
Surgery_Schwartz. year 15 by about a sixth.288 When all of this information is taken together, BCT is considered to be oncologically equivalent to mastectomy.In addition to being equivalent to mastectomy in terms of oncologic safety, BCT appears to offer advantages over mas-tectomy with regard to quality of life and aesthetic outcomes. BCT allows for preservation of breast shape and skin as well as preservation of sensation, and it provides an overall psychologic advantage associated with breast preservation.Breast conservation surgery is currently the standard treat-ment for women with stage 0, I, or II invasive breast cancer. Women with DCIS require only resection of the primary cancer and adjuvant radiation therapy without assessment of regional lymph nodes. When a lumpectomy is performed, a curvilinear incision lying concentric to the nipple-areola complex is made in the skin overlying the breast cancer when the tumor is in the upper aspect of the breast. Radial incisions are preferred when the
|
Surgery_Schwartz_4000
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Surgery_Schwartz
|
incision lying concentric to the nipple-areola complex is made in the skin overlying the breast cancer when the tumor is in the upper aspect of the breast. Radial incisions are preferred when the tumor is in the lower aspect of the breast. Skin excision is not necessary unless there is direct involvement of the overlying skin by the primary tumor. The breast cancer is removed with an envelope of normal-appearing breast tissue that is adequate to achieve a cancer-free margin. Significant controversy has existed on the appropriate margin width for BCT.260 However, recently the SSO and ASTRO developed a consensus statement, supported by data from a systematic review data, encouraging “no tumor on ink” to be the standard definition of a negative margin for invasive stages I and II breast cancer in patients who undergo breast conserving surgery with whole-breast irradiation. The meta-analysis found that increasing the margin width does not affect local recurrence rates as long as the inked
|
Surgery_Schwartz. incision lying concentric to the nipple-areola complex is made in the skin overlying the breast cancer when the tumor is in the upper aspect of the breast. Radial incisions are preferred when the tumor is in the lower aspect of the breast. Skin excision is not necessary unless there is direct involvement of the overlying skin by the primary tumor. The breast cancer is removed with an envelope of normal-appearing breast tissue that is adequate to achieve a cancer-free margin. Significant controversy has existed on the appropriate margin width for BCT.260 However, recently the SSO and ASTRO developed a consensus statement, supported by data from a systematic review data, encouraging “no tumor on ink” to be the standard definition of a negative margin for invasive stages I and II breast cancer in patients who undergo breast conserving surgery with whole-breast irradiation. The meta-analysis found that increasing the margin width does not affect local recurrence rates as long as the inked
|
Surgery_Schwartz_4001
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Surgery_Schwartz
|
in patients who undergo breast conserving surgery with whole-breast irradiation. The meta-analysis found that increasing the margin width does not affect local recurrence rates as long as the inked or transected margin is microscopically negative.289-292 Specimen X-ray should routinely be performed to confirm the lesion has been excised. Specimen orientation is performed by the surgeon. Additional margins from the surgical bed are taken as needed to provide a histologically negative margin. Requests for determination of ER, PR, and HER2 status are conveyed to the pathologist.It is the surgeon’s responsibility to ensure complete removal of cancer in the breast. Ensuring surgical margins that are free of breast cancer will minimize the chances of local recurrence and will enhance cure rates. If negative margins are not obtainable with reexcision, mastectomy is required. SLN is performed before removal of the primary breast tumor. When indicated, intraoperative assessment of the sentinel
|
Surgery_Schwartz. in patients who undergo breast conserving surgery with whole-breast irradiation. The meta-analysis found that increasing the margin width does not affect local recurrence rates as long as the inked or transected margin is microscopically negative.289-292 Specimen X-ray should routinely be performed to confirm the lesion has been excised. Specimen orientation is performed by the surgeon. Additional margins from the surgical bed are taken as needed to provide a histologically negative margin. Requests for determination of ER, PR, and HER2 status are conveyed to the pathologist.It is the surgeon’s responsibility to ensure complete removal of cancer in the breast. Ensuring surgical margins that are free of breast cancer will minimize the chances of local recurrence and will enhance cure rates. If negative margins are not obtainable with reexcision, mastectomy is required. SLN is performed before removal of the primary breast tumor. When indicated, intraoperative assessment of the sentinel
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