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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
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101 043
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8.1.19 Process Access Request negative response
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The negative response information element can take the following values: - Roaming not allowed; - System failure; - Unidentified subscriber; - Illegal equipment; - Illegal subscriber. ETSI TS 101 043 V5.6.0 (1998-11) 154 GSM 03.18 version 5.6.0 Release 1996
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
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101 043
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8.1.20 Process Call Waiting
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The following information elements are required: Information element name Required Description MSISDN M MSISDN of the MS for which the Process Call Waiting is sent. GSM bearer capability C Shall be present if it was received in the Provide Roaming Number for the waiting call; otherwise shall be absent. ISDN bearer capability C Shall be present if it was received in the Provide Roaming Number for the waiting call; otherwise shall be absent. ISDN low layer compatibility C Shall be present if it was received in the Provide Roaming Number for the waiting call; otherwise shall be absent. ISDN high layer compatibility C Shall be present if it was received in the Provide Roaming Number for the waiting call; otherwise shall be absent. CLIP provision C Indicates that CLIP is provisioned. Shall be present if CLIP is provisioned; otherwise shall be absent. CLIR override provision C Indicates that the CLIR override subscription option of CLIP is provisioned. Shall be present if CLIP is provisioned with the CLIR override subscription option and the MS is registered in the HPLMN country; otherwise shall be absent. COLR provision C Indicates that COLR is provisioned. Shall be present if COLR is provisioned; otherwise shall be absent. No Reply Condition Timer C Value of timer to be used to determine the No subscriber reply condition. Shall be present if the Call Forwarding on No Reply service is active and operative; otherwise shall be absent. CUG index C For the definition of this IE, see ETS 300 546 [11]. Shall be present if the waiting call is a CUG call; otherwise shall be absent. Advice of Charge provision C Indicates whether Advice of Charge (Information) or Advice of Charge (Charging) is provisioned. Shall be present if Advice of Charge is provisioned; otherwise shall be absent.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.1.21 Process Call Waiting ack
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This message contains no information elements.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
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101 043
|
8.1.22 Process Call Waiting negative response
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The negative response information element can take the following values: - Busy subscriber; - No subscriber reply.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.1.23 Provide IMEI
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This message contains no information elements.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.1.24 Provide IMEI ack
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The following information element is required: Information element name Required Description IMEI M IMEI of the ME involved in the access request.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.1.25 Provide IMSI
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This message contains no information elements. ETSI TS 101 043 V5.6.0 (1998-11) 155 GSM 03.18 version 5.6.0 Release 1996
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.1.26 Provide IMSI ack
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The following information element is required: Information element name Required Description IMSI M IMSI of the MS involved in the access request.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
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101 043
|
8.1.27 Search For MS
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The following information elements are required: Information element name Required Description IMSI M IMSI of the MS to be paged in all location areas. Page type M Indicates whether the paging is for a circuit-switched call, MT SMS delivery or SS activity TMSI O TMSI to be broadcast to identify the MS.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.1.28 Search For MS ack
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The following information element is required: Information element name Required Description Location area ID M Location area in which the MS responded to the page.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.1.29 Search For MS negative response
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The negative response information element can take the following values: - Absent subscriber; - Busy subscriber (More calls possible); - Busy subscriber (NDUB); - System failure. The Search For MS negative response Busy subscriber (More calls possible) also indicates the basic service which applies for the established call. ETSI TS 101 043 V5.6.0 (1998-11) 156 GSM 03.18 version 5.6.0 Release 1996
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
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101 043
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8.1.30 Send Info For Incoming Call
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The following information elements are required: Information element name Required Description MSRN M Mobile Station Roaming Number received in the IAM. Bearer service C GSM bearer service required for the MT call. Shall be present if the MSC was able to derive a GSM bearer service from ISDN BC/LLC/HLC information received in the IAM; otherwise shall be absent. Teleservice C GSM teleservice required for the MT call. Shall be present if the MSC was able to derive a GSM teleservice from ISDN BC/LLC/HLC information received in the IAM; otherwise shall be absent. Dialled number C Number dialled by the calling subscriber. Shall be present if it was received in the IAM; otherwise shall be absent. Number of forwarding C Number of times the incoming call has already been forwarded. Shall be present if it was received in the IAM; otherwise shall be absent. CUG interlock C For the definition of this IE, see ETS 300 546 [11]. Shall be present if it was received in the IAM; otherwise shall be absent. CUG outgoing access C For the definition of this IE, see ETS 300 546 [11]. Shall be present if it was received in the IAM; otherwise shall be absent.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.1.31 Send Info For Incoming Call ack
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The following information elements are required: Information element name Required Description IMSI M IMSI of the B subscriber. Forwarded-to number M E.164 number of the C subscriber. Forwarding reason M Indication of why the call has been forwarded (on mobile subscriber busy, on mobile subscriber not reachable or on no subscriber reply). Notification to calling party M Indication of whether the calling party is to be notified that the call has been forwarded. Notification to forwarding party C Indication of whether the forwarding party is to be notified that the call has been forwarded. Shall be present if the call is to be forwarded on mobile subscriber busy or on no subscriber reply; otherwise shall be absent. Forwarded-to subaddress C Subaddress of the C subscriber (see ETS 300 523 [2]). Shall be present if a forwarded-to subaddress is stored in the VLR in association with the forwarded-to number; otherwise shall be absent. CUG interlock C For the definition of this IE, see ETS 300 546 [11]. Shall be present if the VLR has determined that the forwarded call is to be treated as a CUG call in accordance with the rules in ETS 300 546 [11], otherwise shall be absent. CUG outgoing access C For the definition of this IE, see ETS 300 546 [11]. Shall be present if the VLR has determined that the forwarded call is to be treated as a CUG call with outgoing access in accordance with the rules in ETS 300 546 [11], otherwise shall be absent. NAEA preferred Carrier Id O The preferred carrier identity identifying the carrier to be used to route the interexchange call if the forwarded call requires routing via an interexchange carrier. This parameter may be included at the discretion of the VLR operator. ETSI TS 101 043 V5.6.0 (1998-11) 157 GSM 03.18 version 5.6.0 Release 1996
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.1.32 Send Info For Incoming Call negative response
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The negative response information element can take the following values: - Absent subscriber; - Busy subscriber; - CUG reject (Called party SS interaction violation); - Forwarding violation; - Impossible call completion; - No subscriber reply; - System failure; - Unallocated roaming number;
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.1.33 Send Info For Outgoing Call
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The following information elements are required: Information element name Required Description Called number M E.164 number of the call destination. Bearer service C Bearer service required for the MO call, derived from the GSM bearer capability information received in the setup request from the MS. One of bearer service or teleservice shall be present. Teleservice C Teleservice required for the MO call, derived from the GSM bearer capability information received in the setup request from the MS or from the emergency setup request from the MS. One of bearer service or teleservice shall be present. CUG index C For the definition of this IE, see ETS 300 546 [11]. Shall be present if it was received in the setup request from the MS. Suppress preferential CUG C For the definition of this IE, see ETS 300 546 [11]. Shall be present if it was received in the setup request from the MS. Suppress CUG outgoing access C For the definition of this IE, see ETS 300 546 [11]. Shall be present if it was received in the setup request from the MS.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.1.34 Send Info For Outgoing Call negative response
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The negative response information element can take the following values: - Bearer service not provisioned; - Call barred (Operator determined barring); - Call barred (Supplementary service barring); - CUG reject (Inconsistent access information - index incompatible with basic service); - CUG reject (Inconsistent access information - no CUG selected); - CUG reject (Outgoing calls barred within the CUG); - CUG reject (Unknown CUG index); - Teleservice not provisioned. ETSI TS 101 043 V5.6.0 (1998-11) 158 GSM 03.18 version 5.6.0 Release 1996
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.1.35 Set ciphering mode
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The following information element is required: Information element name Required Description Ciphering mode M Indicates whether ciphering of the radio connection is required, and if so which ciphering algorithm is to be used. Kc C Ciphering key to be used if ciphering of the radio connection is required. Shall be present if the ciphering mode indicates that ciphering of the radio connection is required, otherwise shall be absent.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.1.36 Trace subscriber activity
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The following information elements are required: Information element name Required Description Trace reference M Reference number to be included with tracing reports which the MSC sends to the OMC Trace type M For the definition of this IE, see ETS 300 627 [20]
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.1.37 Use existing TMSI
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This message contains no information elements.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.2 Messages on the C interface (MSC-HLR)
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ETSI TS 101 043 V5.6.0 (1998-11) 159 GSM 03.18 version 5.6.0 Release 1996
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.2.1 Send Routeing Info
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The following information elements are required: Information element name Required Description MSISDN M MSISDN of the B subscriber (see ETS 300 523 [2]). CUG interlock C For the definition of this IE, see ETS 300 546 [11]. Shall be present if the GMSC received it in the IAM, otherwise shall be absent. CUG outgoing access C For the definition of this IE, see ETS 300 546 [11]. Shall be present if the GMSC received it in the IAM, otherwise shall be absent. Number of forwarding C Number of times the incoming call has already been forwarded. Shall be present if it was received in the IAM; otherwise shall be absent. ISDN BC C ISDN bearer capability. Shall be present if the GMSC received it in the IAM, otherwise shall be absent. ISDN LLC C ISDN lower layer compatibility. Shall be present if the GMSC received it in the IAM, otherwise shall be absent. ISDN HLC C ISDN higher layer compatibility. Shall be present if the GMSC received it in the IAM, otherwise shall be absent.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.2.2 Send Routeing Info ack
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The following information elements are required: Information element name Required Description IMSI M IMSI of the B subscriber (see ETS 300 523 [2]). Roaming number C E.164 number required to route the call to VMSCB (see ETS 300 523 [2]). Shall be present if the HLR received it in the Provide Roaming Number ack, otherwise shall be absent. Forwarded-to number C E.164 number of the C subscriber. Shall be present if the HLR has determined that the call is to be forwarded, otherwise shall be absent. Forwarded-to subaddress C Subaddress of the C subscriber (see ETS 300 523 [2]). Shall be present if the HLR has determined that the call is to be forwarded and a forwarded-to subaddress is stored in the HLR in association with the forwarded-to number, otherwise shall be absent. Notification to calling party C Indication of whether the calling party is to be notified that the call has been forwarded. Shall be present if the HLR has determined that the call is to be forwarded, otherwise shall be absent. Forwarding reason C Indication of why the call has been forwarded (unconditionally or on mobile subscriber not reachable). Shall be present if the HLR has determined that the call is to be forwarded, otherwise shall be absent. CUG interlock C For the definition of this IE, see ETS 300 546 [11]. Shall be present if the HLR has determined that the call is to be treated as a CUG call in accordance with the rules in ETS 300 546 [11], otherwise shall be absent. CUG outgoing access C For the definition of this IE, see ETS 300 546 [11]. Shall be present if the HLR has determined that the call is to be treated as a CUG call with outgoing access in accordance with the rules in ETS 300 546 [11], otherwise shall be absent. NAEA preferred Carrier Id O The preferred carrier identity identifying the carrier to be used to route the interexchange call if the call requires routing via an interexchange carrier. This parameter may be included at the discretion of the HLR operator. ETSI TS 101 043 V5.6.0 (1998-11) 160 GSM 03.18 version 5.6.0 Release 1996
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.2.3 Send Routeing Info negative response
|
The negative response information element can take the following values: - Absent subscriber; - Bearer service not provisioned; - Call barred (Operator determined barring); - Call barred (Supplementary service barring); - CUG reject (Called party SS interaction violation); - CUG reject (Incoming calls barred within CUG); - CUG reject (Requested basic service violates CUG constraints); - CUG reject (Subscriber not member of CUG); - Data missing; - Facility not supported; - Forwarding violation - Number changed; - System Failure; - Teleservice not provisioned; - Unexpected data value; - Unknown subscriber. ETSI TS 101 043 V5.6.0 (1998-11) 161 GSM 03.18 version 5.6.0 Release 1996
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.3 Messages on the D interface (VLR-HLR)
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.3.1 Provide Roaming Number
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The following information elements are required: Information element name Required Description IMSI M IMSI of the B subscriber (see ETS 300 523 [2]). MSC number M E.164 number which identifies VMSCB (see ETS 300 523 [2]). MSISDN O E.164 number which identifies the B subscriber. May be present if the HLR requires it to be included in the call data record. LMSI C Local Mobile Subscriber Identity. Shall be present if the LMSI was sent to HLRB at location updating. GSM bearer capability C Information to define the GSM bearer capability required for the call. For alternate speech/fax, alternate speech/data or speech followed by data calls this information element shall contain two GSM bearer capabilities, as specified in GSM 04.08. May be present if the HLR can determine the required GSM bearer capability from ISDN compatibility information received in the Send Routeing Info message, or from the MSISDN if a multi- numbering scheme is used; otherwise shall be absent. If the ISDN BC and ISDN LLC IEs are present, the GSM bearer capability IE shall be absent. ISDN BC C ISDN bearer capability. May be present if the HLR received it in the Send Routeing Info message, otherwise shall be absent. If the GSM bearer capability IE is present, the ISDN BC IE shall be absent. ISDN LLC C ISDN lower layer compatibility. May be present if the HLR received it in the Send Routeing Info message, otherwise shall be absent. If the GSM bearer capability IE is present, the ISDN LLC IE shall be absent. ISDN HLC C ISDN higher layer compatibility. Shall be present if the HLR received it in the Send Routeing Info message, otherwise shall be absent. Alerting Pattern C Shall be present if the HLR has determined an alerting category or an alerting level for the MT call configuration; otherwise shall be absent.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
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101 043
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8.3.2 Provide Roaming Number ack
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The following information element is required: Information element name Required Description Roaming number M E.164 number required to route the call to VMSCB (see ETS 300 523 [2]).
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.3.3 Provide Roaming Number negative response
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The negative response information element can take the following values: - Absent subscriber; - Data missing; - Facility not supported; - No roaming number available; - OR not allowed; - Unexpected data value. ETSI TS 101 043 V5.6.0 (1998-11) 162 GSM 03.18 version 5.6.0 Release 1996
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
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101 043
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8.3.4 Provide Subscriber Info
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The following information elements are required: Information element name Required Description IMSI M IMSI of the subscriber for whom information is requested (see ETS 300 523 [2]). LMSI C Local Mobile Subscriber Identity. Shall be present if the LMSI was sent to the HLR at location updating. Requested information M Indicates whether the HLR requires location information, subscriber state or both location information and subscriber state.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
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8.3.5 Provide Subscriber Info ack
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The following information elements are required: Information element name Required Description Location information C Information to define the location of the MS: see definition in subclause 8.3.5.1. Shall be present if location information was requested and is available; otherwise shall be absent. Subscriber state C Indicates whether the MS is busy (i.e. engaged on a circuit- switched call), network determined not reachable (IMSI detached or roaming in a prohibited location area) or assumed idle. Shall be present if subscriber state was requested; otherwise shall be absent.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.3.5.1 Location information
|
The compound information element Location information consists of the following subordinate information elements: Information element name Required Description Location number C For a definition of this information element, see ETS 300 356-1 [21]. Shall be present if the VLR can derive it from the stored cell global identity or location area identity; otherwise shall be absent. The mapping from cell ID and location area to location number is network-specific and outside the scope of the GSM standard. Cell ID C Cell global identity of the cell in which the MS last established a radio transaction. Shall be present if the MSC/VLR can supply it; otherwise shall be absent. Shall be absent if Location area ID is present. Location area ID C Identity of the location area in which the MS last established a radio transaction. Shall be present if the MSC/VLR can supply it; otherwise shall be absent. Shall be absent if Cell ID is present. Geographical information C For a definition of this information element, see GSM 03.32 (Universal Geographical Area Description). Shall be present if the VLR can derive it from the stored cell global identity or location area identity; otherwise shall be absent. VLR number O E.164 number which identifies the VLR (see ETS 300 523 [2]). If the HLR receives it from the VLR it shall ignore it. Age of location information C Measured in minutes. Shall be present if available in the MSC/VLR; otherwise shall be absent.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
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8.3.6 Provide Subscriber Info negative response
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The negative response information element can take the following values: - Data missing; - System failure; - Unexpected data value. ETSI TS 101 043 V5.6.0 (1998-11) 163 GSM 03.18 version 5.6.0 Release 1996
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
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101 043
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8.3.7 Restore Data
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The following information elements are required: Information element name Required Description IMSI M IMSI of the subscriber for whom data are to be restored (see ETS 300 523 [2]). LMSI O LMSI of the subscriber for whom data are to be restored (see ETS 300 523 [2]). May be included if required by the requesting VLR.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
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8.3.8 Restore Data ack
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The following information elements are required: Information element name Required Description HLR number M E.164 number which identifies the HLR (see ETS 300 523 [2]). MS not reachable flag C Indicates whether the VLR should notify the HLR when the MS next establishes radio contact. Shall be present if the corresponding indicator is set in the HLR record for the subscriber; otherwise shall be absent.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
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8.3.9 Restore Data negative response
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The negative response information element can take the following values: - System failure; - Unknown subscriber.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.4 Messages on the F interface (MSC-EIR)
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.4.1 Check IMEI
|
The following information element is required: Information element name Required Description IMEI M IMEI of the ME whose status is to be checked (see ETS 300 523 [2]).
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
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8.4.2 Check IMEI ack
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The following information element is required: Information element name Required Description Equipment status M Indicates whether the ME is black-listed, grey-listed or white-listed
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.4.3 Check IMEI negative response
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The negative response information element can take the following value: - Unknown equipment.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.5 Messages on the MSC internal interface
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This interface can carry ISUP messages received from the process MT_GMSC or the process ICH_MSC and to be forwarded to a destination exchange, and ISUP messages received from the destination exchange and to be forwarded to the process MT_GMSC or the process ICH_MSC. In addition, it carries the following inter-process messages:
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
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8.5.1 CF cancelled
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This message contains no information elements. ETSI TS 101 043 V5.6.0 (1998-11) 164 GSM 03.18 version 5.6.0 Release 1996
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
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8.5.2 Perform Call Forwarding
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Information element name Required Description Forwarded-to number M E.164 number of the C subscriber.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.5.3 Perform Call Forwarding ack
|
Information element name Required Description Forwarded-to number M E.164 number of the C subscriber. Note: this number may be different from the Forwarded-to number received in the Perform Call Forwarding, as a result of CAMEL handling.
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4adb5594a028990749bbb6b19a2cf30e
|
101 043
|
8.5.4 Perform Call Forwarding negative response
|
The negative response information element can take the following value: - Call forwarding failed. ETSI TS 101 043 V5.6.0 (1998-11) 165 GSM 03.18 version 5.6.0 Release 1996 Annex A (informative): Handling of an IAM at an MSC An MSC which receives an IAM from an originating exchange may react in three different ways: - It acts as a transit exchange, i.e. it relays the IAM to a destination exchange determined by analysis of the called party address, and thereafter relays other telephony signalling between the originating and destination exchange until the connection is released. This behaviour is not specific to GSM; - It acts as a terminating exchange, i.e. it attempts to connect the call to an MS currently registered in the service area of the MSC; - It acts as a GMSC, i.e. it interrogates an HLR for information to route the call. If the HLR returns routeing information, the MSC uses the routeing information from the HLR to construct an IAM, which it sends to a destination exchange determined by analysis of the routeing information from the HLR. Sheet 1: when the MSC co-ordinating process has decided whether the MSC is to act as a terminating VMSC, a GMSC or a transit exchange, it forwards the IAM to an idle instance of the appropriate process. Sheet 2: after the MSC co-ordinating process has sent an IAM to an instance of the process MT_GMSC or ICH_MSC, it acts as a transparent relay for messages received from the originating exchange and the process instance (denoted by "offspring"). After the MSC co-ordinating process has relayed a Release message, it returns to the idle state. Sheet 2: after the MSC co-ordinating process has sent an IAM to a destination exchange, it acts as a transparent relay for messages received from the originating exchange and the destination exchange. After the MSC co-ordinating process has relayed a Release message, it returns to the idle state. ETSI TS 101 043 V5.6.0 (1998-11) 166 GSM 03.18 version 5.6.0 Release 1996 Process in the MSC to handle an incoming IAM and trigger the correct application process Process MSC_Coord Coord_M1(2) IDLE Initial Address From originating exchange Called party address in MSRN range for this MSC? HLR address derivable? Initial Address To process MT_GMSC Relay_ Information_ Internally Initial Address To destination determined by routeing tables Relay_ Information_ Externally Initial Address To process ICH_MSC No Yes No Yes Figure 75a: Process MSC_Coord (sheet 1) ETSI TS 101 043 V5.6.0 (1998-11) 167 GSM 03.18 version 5.6.0 Release 1996 Process in the MSC to handle an incoming IAM and trigger the correct application process Process MSC_Coord Coord_M2(2) Relay_ Information_ Internally Release From originating exchange Release To offspring IDLE Release From offspring Release To originating exchange IDLE * From originating exchange - To offspring Relay_ Information_ Internally * From offspring - To originating exchange Relay_ Information_ Internally Relay_ Information_ Externally Release From originating exchange Release To destination exchange IDLE Release From destination exchange Release To originating exchange IDLE * From originating exchange - To destination exchange Relay_ Information_ Externally * From destination exchange - To originating exchange Relay_ Information_ Externally Figure 75b: Process MSC_Coord (sheet 2) ETSI TS 101 043 V5.6.0 (1998-11) 168 GSM 03.18 version 5.6.0 Release 1996 Annex B (informative): Change History SMG# TDoc VERS NEW_ VERS CR RE V PHASE CA T WORKITE M SUBJECT s21 044/97 2.1.0 5.0.0 NEW R96 BCH R96 Basic Call Handling s22 378/97 5.0.0 5.1.0 A001 2 R96 D BCH R96 Corrections of editorial errors s22 378/97 5.0.0 5.1.0 A002 R96 D BCH R96 Setting of Location number s22 378/97 5.0.0 5.1.0 A005 R96 B BCH R96 Introduction of Data Missing error for Provide Subscriber Info s22 378/97 5.0.0 5.1.0 A006 R96 B BCH R96 Introduction of System Failure negative response for PSI s23 97-689 5.1.0 5.2.0 A008 R97 B NAEA Support of NAEA s24 97-971 5.2.0 5.3.0 A004 1 R97 B NIAlert Network’s indication of Alerting Categories s24 97-911 5.2.0 5.3.0 A007 2 R96 F BCH R96 Sending ACM & similar messages only once for a call s24 97-913 5.2.0 5.3.0 A009 3 R96 D CAMEL R96, SOR R96 Concentration of description of core call handling functions in 03.18, Changes to ease the documentation of new services s24 97-912 5.2.0 5.3.0 A011 1 R97 B SIWF Modification due to the introduction of SIWF s24 97-915 5.2.0 5.3.0 A012 R96 F CAMEL R96 Interaction between OR of late call forwarding & CAMEL s25 98-089 5.3.0 5.4.0 A015 1 R96 F Corrections to Basic Call Handling description stage 2 s25 98-086 5.3.0 5.4.0 A016 2 R96 F Location Information elements in PSI response s25 98-086 5.3.0 5.4.0 A018 R96 F Correction to handling for failure in call forwarding involving ORLCF or CAMEL s26 98-404 5.4.0 5.5.0 A020 R96 F Release by A party for forwarded calls and CAMEL s27 98-726 5.5.0 5.6.0 A023 R96 F Corrections for successful case of TCH allocation s27 98-768 5.5.0 5.6.0 A025 R96 C SOR Optionality of support for OR of basic mobile-to-mobile calls s27 98-726 5.5.0 5.6.0 A028 1 R96 F Suppression of alerting to originating MS in the case of early ACM Approved Change Requests against GSM 03.18 ETSI TS 101 043 V5.6.0 (1998-11) 169 GSM 03.18 version 5.6.0 Release 1996 History Document history V5.0.1 April 1997 Publication V5.1.0 August 1997 Publication V5.3.0 January 1998 Publication V5.5.0 July 1998 Publication V5.6.0 November 1998 Publication ISBN 2-7437-2669-5 Dépôt légal : Novembre 1998
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1 Scope
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The present document deals with innovative technologies applicable to mmW transmission for what regards the antenna system.
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2 References
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2.1 Normative references
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Normative references are not applicable in the present document.
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2.2 Informative references
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References are either specific (identified by date of publication and/or edition number or version number) or non-specific. For specific references, only the cited version applies. For non-specific references, the latest version of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies. NOTE: While any hyperlinks included in this clause were valid at the time of publication, ETSI cannot guarantee their long-term validity. The following referenced documents may be useful in implementing an ETSI deliverable or add to the reader's understanding, but are not required for conformance to the present document. [i.1] ETSI EN 302 217-2: "Fixed Radio Systems; Characteristics and requirements for point-to-point equipment and antennas; Part 2: Digital systems operating in frequency bands from 1 GHz to 174,8 GHz; Harmonised Standard for access to radio spectrum". [i.2] ETSI EN 302 326-2: "Fixed Radio Systems; Multipoint Equipment and Antennas; Part 2: Harmonised Standard for access to radio spectrum". [i.3] ETSI EN 302 217-4: "Fixed Radio Systems; Characteristics and requirements for point-to-point equipment and antennas; Part 4: Antennas". [i.4] ETSI EN 302 326-3: "Fixed Radio Systems; Multipoint Equipment and Antennas; Part 3: Multipoint Antennas". [i.5] Luini L., Roveda G., Zaffaroni M., Costa M., Riva C. (2018): "EM wave propagation experiment at E band and D band for 5G wireless systems: preliminary results". Proceeding of EuCAP 2018, 9-13 April 2018, pp. 1-5, London, UK. [i.6] M. Frecassetti et al.: "SiGe:BiCMOS technology is enabling D-band link with Active Phased Antenna Array", 2021 Joint European Conference on Networks and Communications & 6G Summit (EuCNC/6G Summit). [i.7] ECC Report 342: "Microwave Point-to-Multipoint technologies based on active antennas for 5G backhaul above 27.5 GHz". [i.8] Recommendation ITU-R M.2101-0 (2017): "Modelling and simulation of IMT networks and systems for use in sharing and compatibility studies". [i.9] ECC Report 320: "Band and Carrier Aggregation in fixed point-to-point systems". [i.10] ECC Recommendation (18)01: "Radio frequency channel/block arrangements for Fixed Service systems operating in the bands 130-134 GHz, 141-148.5 GHz, 151.5-164 GHz and 167-174,8 GHz". [i.11] Roveda G., Costa M. (2018): "Flexible Use of D Band Spectrum for 5G Transport: a Research Field Trial as Input to Standardization". Proceeding of PIMRC 2018, 9-12 September 2018, Bologna, Italy. ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 8 [i.12] ETSI EN 301 126-1: "Fixed Radio Systems; Conformance testing; Part 1: Point-to-point equipment - Definitions, general requirements and test procedures". [i.13] ETSI EN 301 126-3-1: "Fixed Radio Systems; Conformance testing; Part 3-1: Point-to-Point antennas; Definitions, general requirements and test procedures". [i.14] ETSI TS 137 145-2: "Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS); LTE; 5G; Active Antenna System (AAS) Base Station (BS) conformance testing; Part 2: radiated conformance testing (3GPP TS 37.145-2)". [i.15] ETSI EN 302 217-1: "Fixed Radio Systems; Characteristics and requirements for point-to-point equipment and antennas; Part 1: Overview, common characteristics and requirements not related to access to radio spectrum". [i.16] ETSI EN 301 126-4: "Fixed Radio Systems; Conformance testing; Part 4: Definitions, general requirements and test procedures for radiated tests for point-to-point equipment and antenna". [i.17] ETSI GR mWT 015: "Frequency Bands and Carrier Aggregation Systems; Band and Carrier Aggregation".
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3 Definition of terms, symbols and abbreviations
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3.1 Terms
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Void.
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3.2 Symbols
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Void.
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3.3 Abbreviations
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For the purposes of the present document, the following abbreviations apply: 3GPP 3rd Generation Partnership Project AAS Active Antenna System BCA Band and Carrier Aggregation EIRP Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power FD Full Duplex FDD Frequency Division Duplex fFDD flexile FDD FS Fixed Service HPBW Half Power Beam Width IMT-2020 International Mobile Telecommunications-2020 mmW millimetre Wave MW MicroWave PoP Point of Presence (of optical fibre) PtMP Point to MultiPoint PtP Point to Point QoS Quality of Service RF Radio Frequency RPE Radiation Pattern Envelope RSL Received Signal Level RX Receiver TDD Time Division Duplex TRX Transmitter and Receiver (Transceiver) TX Transmitter ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 9
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4 Antenna classification and definitions
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Antennas can be classified according to several different criteria and parameters. They can be: • Detachable or non-detachable according to the presence or not of an antenna connector available for conformance testing. • Active or passive considering the presence or not of active components that may impact the antenna behaviour within the antenna itself (e.g. amplifiers, phase shifters, switches, etc.). • Single-beam or multi-beam considering the presence in the radiated pattern of one or more main beams. • Single frequency band or multi-band according to the emission spectrum being in one or more bands. • With or without beam-forming capability according to the possibility to modify the radiated pattern. • Static or time-variant according to the constant or variable radiated pattern in time during working conditions. The different types of antennas can be a combination of this classification criteria; one example is the traditional Fixed Service MW parabolic antenna that is detachable, passive, single beam, single frequency, without beam-forming and static; another example is the AAS of a mobile system that is non-detachable, active, multi-beam, single frequency, with beamforming and time variant. For what regards the present document the main important consideration is the availability of an antenna connector in the equipment, because this is the discriminant between the possibility to set the requirements and conformance testing in a "conductive" way and the necessity to develop them in a "radiated" way. In the "conductive" way a measurement instrument can be connected directly to the antenna connector of the equipment instead of the antenna. This is the current situation for FS equipment in ETSI EN 302 217-1 [i.15], where the antenna connector is well defined as shown in Figure 1 at section C/C'. Figure 1: ETSI system block diagram with antenna connector D In the "radiated" way the measurement is to be done on the integral equipment including its own antenna, with the instrument connected to its own antenna and both equipment and instrument placed into a controlled environment such as an anechoic chamber. This is a new situation for FS equipment to be properly studied, in particular when considering mmW frequencies where the sensitivity of measurement instruments is a critical issue. It is worthwhile to note that in some cases even if an integrated antenna could be physically separated from the radio part, nevertheless when control signals are needed to the antenna part in order for it to work properly this case should be considered as non-detachable as well. ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 10 A comparison among different models is shown in next clause on the base of experimental data.
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5 High directivity detachable antennas at mmW
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5.1 ETSI antenna classes
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5.1.1 Point to point systems
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ETSI Harmonised Standards for Fixed Service ([i.3], [i.4]) classify the different types of antennas according to well defined masks in the space domain defining different antenna classes, according to the frequency range, the azimuth or elevation direction and the co-polar or cross-polar behaviour. In the case of PtP systems (ETSI EN 302 217-4 [i.3]) and with respect to the Radiation Pattern Envelope (RPE) four classes (RPE classes 1 to 4) have been defined in the co-polar case and azimuth plane, summarized in Table 1. Table 1: Corner points of co-polar limits for actual RPE templates The antenna classes define the directional properties of the antenna, the higher the class the higher the directivity of the antenna and the lower the interference impact to be considered in network planning.
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5.1.2 Point to Multipoint systems
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Similar classes have been defined for PtMP systems (ETSI EN 302 326-3 [i.4]) for the different types of antennas used (directional, sectorial and omnidirectional), in line with the principle that antennas with more demanding maximum combined co-polar and cross-polar RPEs have higher class numbers: • Directional antennas have 5 classes, from DN1 to DN5. • Single-beam sectoral antennas have 4 classes, from SS1 to SS4. • Multi-beam sectoral antennas have 2 classes, MS1 and MS2. • Omnidirectional antennas are not differentiated in classes. ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 11
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5.2 New high directivity antennas
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5.2.1 High space-selectivity (ETSI class) antenna systems
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Technology evolution in detachable antennas and ever-increasing requirements in terms of interference handling will bring new antenna systems with possibly higher classes than current ETSI most demanding ones. As operational frequencies increase there is a requirement for interference mitigation using higher class RPE's, such as class 4, to allow for better spectrum utilization and improving link density. To illustrate antenna performance relative to a class 4 mask, an example of measurement is shown for class 4 at 42 GHz band (Figure 2). Figure 2: Measured Co-Pol radiation pattern for 2ft antenna @ 42 GHz - ETSI Class 4 RPE At this point in time class 3 at E-Band is generally considered as the 'standard' (an example of measurement is shown in Figure 3), but going forward there is a potential requirement for class 4 at E-Band (an example of simulation is shown in Figure 4), which can be attributed to expanding growth/densification of backhaul systems at E-Band. Comparing Figure 3 and Figure 4 it can be clearly seen the significant improvement in side-lobe performance that a class 4 antenna has over a class 3. -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 Azimuth (°) -80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 SHP2-42 ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 12 Figure 3: Measured Co-Pol radiation pattern 2ft antenna @ E-Band - ETSI Class 3 RPE Figure 4: Simulated Co-Pol radiation pattern 2ft antenna @ E-Band - ETSI Class 3 (red) & 4 (magenta) RPEs
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5.2.2 Electro-mechanical alignment-tracking antenna systems
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As long as the directivity of the antenna is increased the issue of maintaining the alignment of the link with pole swaying and/or bending due to thermal and/or wind reasons becomes more relevant. Am plitude (dB) ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 13 The entity of antenna swaying and bending depends on several factors: • Atmospheric situation (temperature variation, wind speed). • Type of pole (mono-pole, roof-pole, mast, tower). • Material and height of pole. The reduction in Received Signal Level (RSL) becomes significant when the pole swaying angle becomes comparable to the 3 dB beamwidth (HPBW) as shown in Figure 5; as a consequence the relevance of the issue grows with antenna gain and with frequency. Figure 5: Sway angle and HPBW In Table 2 some typical values at 23 GHz and E band are shown. Table 2: Typical values of HPBW Antenna 3 dB Beam 30 cm 23 GHz 3° (±1,5°) 60 cm 23 GHz 1,7° (±0,85°) 30 cm 80 GHz 0,9° (±0,45°) 60 cm 80 GHz 0,5° (±0,25°) In Figure 6 typical values of sway angles are shown. Figure 6: Typical sway angle for different pole types In case of deployment over a lamp pole the sway angle can be typically > 2°. ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 14 From the typical values shown in Table 2 and Figure 6 it is evident that the issue of maintaining link alignment becomes relevant at high mmW, starting from E band and over. Different systems which are able to control adaptively the link alignment can be considered: • In traditional parabolic antennas an electro-mechanical adaptation of the orientation of the antenna can be implemented. • In phased array antennas link alignment can be maintained by leveraging on beam-steering (see clause 6.2.5). The control mechanism has to be fast enough to be able to compensate for both swaying due to wind and bending due to temperature variation.
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6 Integrated non-detachable antennas at mmW
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6.1 Passive integrated antennas
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A passive integrated antenna is a non-detachable antenna without active components in it. An example of this kind of antenna is the one used by the D band prototype operating at Politecnico of Milan since November 2016 [i.5], which is an array antenna whose elements are fed by a passive distribution network in order to get a fixed and directive RPE. This antenna is connected directly at the RF front end and is not detachable from the rest of the system once the equipment is assembled. In this type of antennas an equivalent antenna port can be defined with an equivalent gain even if a physical port is not accessible; in this case by measuring the EIRP and knowing the declared antenna gain a TX power at the virtual antenna port can be calculated.
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6.2 Active integrated antennas
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6.2.1 General concept
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An active integrated antenna is a non-detachable antenna with active components within the antenna itself, with the possibility to control the antenna pattern (beamforming) either only at initial configuration (fixed pattern) or during operation (time-varying pattern). A very well-known example of active integrated antenna is given by phased array systems in which the antenna is constituted by a proper spatial distribution of radiating elements, the input signal to each one being controlled in amplitude and phase by means of active components, namely amplifiers and phase shifters. By controlling the amplitude and phase of the input signal to the antenna elements the generated radiation pattern can be controlled and defined in what is known as beamforming; from the technological point of view beamforming can be implemented in the analogue domain, in the digital domain or with a hybrid implementation. In any case the produced radiation pattern is given by the product of two main factors: • The element factor, which is the radiating pattern of a single element in the array and depends on the type of radiating element chosen for the specific implementation; in the most common implementations the element factor is the same for all antenna elements. • The array factor, which is fully defined by the geometry of the array and the frequency of operation, which in the common case of uniform distribution is just function of the number of elements and the element spacing as related to the wavelength. The boresight of the antenna is defined as the direction orthogonal to the antenna plane. In order to understand the basics of the behaviour of phased array antennas the following simple assumptions can be initially taken: • The elements are equally spaced. ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 15 • The spacing between elements is half-wavelength. • The amplitude of all elements is the same. • The phase shift between elements is equal. In this case the radiation pattern would be in the boresight direction, with small sidelobes decreasing according to a sin(x)/x envelope. The higher the number of elements, the higher the number of sidelobes but the faster their attenuation when going away from boresight and the narrower the beam-width. The radiation pattern produced in this simplified case can be seen in Figure 7. Figure 7: Normalized radiation pattern in simplified case with number of elements of 8, 16 and 32 In order to move the peak of RPE away from the boresight it is sufficient to modify the phases of the single elements, producing what is known as beam-steering. When shifting the beam away from the boresight the radiation pattern changes according to both the single element pattern and the number of elements, but in general the wider the steering angle the lower the peak of the main beam and the wider its beam-width. The normalized radiation pattern with three steering angles is shown in Figure 8, where the effect of the element pattern, reducing the main beam amplitude when shifting away from boresight, is not considered. ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 16 Figure 8: Normalized radiation pattern in simplified case with beam-steering (case of 32 elements) Once understood the basic impact of the single parameters to the phased antenna radiation pattern, the simplified assumptions taken at the beginning of the clause can be removed, adding degrees of freedom and complexity to the behaviour of the antenna system. For example if changing amplitude and phase of the signal given to the single elements, the radiation pattern can be not only beam-steered but more in general beam-formed. Also the element spacing can be in general different from half wavelength, taking into account the feasibility limitations of the antenna array itself when considering mmW frequencies. It is a well-known property of phased arrays that when using an element distancing larger than half wavelength, constructive interference will happen in directions other from the boresight (spatial aliasing effect), becoming even more significant when steering the beam: these peaks are known as grating lobes and are to be kept under control since they represent radiated energy in unwanted directions. In the case of uniform element spacing: • for d > λ grating lobes can be seen in the visible zone (-90° < θ < +90°) even without any steering; • for λ/2 < d < λ grating lobes enter the visible zone only when steering. Given a maximum steering angle θmax that the system has to fulfil, there is a maximum element spacing dmax that can be used to avoid the appearance of grating lobes in the steering zone: dmax= λ/(1+sinθmax) So there is a trade-off between the maximum steering angle and the element spacing that can be used in the design of the phased array. In even more complex antenna systems the distribution of the elements could in general be non-uniform and the element pattern itself could be different for different elements.
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6.2.2 Static active integrated antennas
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An active integrated antenna is static in case the controls on active elements of the antenna are defined at the configuration of the system and not changed any more during operation. ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 17 An example of use of this kind of active antenna is given by a PtMP system with star topology in which the beamforming capability is used at installation in order to direct the peaks of its RPE from a central point to the leaf sites. With regard to a traditional PtMP system, where a passive sector antenna is used at the node in order to cover a certain area where terminals are located, this new concept of PtMP employs an optimized RPE in order to maximize SINR leveraging on beamforming and on interference cancellation technologies. The structure of such a PtMP system is shown in Figure 9. Figure 9: General structure of a PtMP system based on active integrated antenna Considering as an example a sector 90° wide with 8 terminals to be connected to a central hub, the resulting RPE from the hub is shown in Figure 10. Figure 10: Example of overall RPE from a hub to a 90° sector with 8 terminals ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 18 The main use case for this PtMP system is backhauling of mobile networks, where the trend of the optical fibre to reach more and more in depth the extent of the mobile network generates the need for connecting the PoP of the fibre to the locations of the base stations surrounding the PoP, as shown in Figure 11. Figure 11: Topology evolution of backhaul network The description of this innovative PtMP system can be found in ECC Report 342 [i.7].
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6.2.3 Time varying active integrated antennas
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An active integrated antenna is time varying in case the controls on active elements of the antenna are adaptively changing during operation. In case only the phases are controlled there is beam-steering systems where the direction of the main beam can be modified; in case both amplitudes and phases are controlled there is beam-forming systems where the antenna pattern can be modified. The AAS used in IMT-2020 is a good example of a time-varying active integrated antenna system. In an AAS the antenna pattern is adaptively changing as a consequence of two main external factors: • The propagation environment, in which reflections, diffractions and transmissions are in general depending on time as long as the involved obstructing body is moving. • The user equipment distribution in space, which in general is changing in time since the terminals are moving. When dealing with Fixed Service the possibility of having one end of the link in movement is of course excluded. Nevertheless the possibility of antenna systems adaptive with the changes in propagation environment can be considered within Fixed Service, considering for example radio networks with mesh topology and real time re-configurability. The model used to describe analytically the antenna pattern of AAS is contained in Recommendation ITU-R M.2101-0 [i.8]. The spherical coordinates of reference are described in Figure 12. ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 19 Figure 12: Spherical coordinates for AAS The M.2101 model foresees some input parameters that are defined by the specific design for both the single element pattern and the composite antenna pattern, as reported in Table 3 and Table 4. ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 20 Table 3: Element pattern for antenna array model Table 4: Composite antenna pattern for beamforming ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 21 Apart from the details that can be found in the referenced Recommendation, it can be noted that the main design parameters required to describe the AAS pattern are the following: • 3 dB bandwidth of single element (H and V). • Front to back ratio of single element (H and V). • Single element gain. • Number of elements (H and V). • Element spacing (H and V). • Mechanical down-tilt.
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6.2.4 Consideration on the geometrical shape of the antenna
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The traditional antenna of a microwave PtP radio is of circular section and consequently its RPE has circular symmetry. When dealing with innovative types of antennas the section may have in general a different shape, for example rectangular or square in the case of phased array antennas; in these cases, the RPE has not circular symmetry and the orientation of the antenna with respect to the reference coordinates is to be duly considered.
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6.2.5 Electrical alignment-tracking antenna systems
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As long as the directivity of the antenna is increased the issue of maintaining the alignment of the link with pole swaying and/or bending due to thermal and/or wind reasons becomes more relevant (see clause 5.2.2). When considering time varying active integrated antennas the alignment can be maintained leveraging on the beam- steering feature, implementing a loop able to keep the beam alignment over the link.
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7 Dual band antennas for BCA
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7.1 BCA concept
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Band and Carrier Aggregation (BCA) is a concept enabling an efficient use of the spectrum through a smart aggregation, over a single physical link, of multiple frequency channels (in the same or different frequency bands) [i.9], [i.17]. A logical scheme of the BCA, shown in Figure 13, includes a carrier aggregation engine and different physical radio channels. Most of the BCA benefits can be obtained thanks to the engine design which takes into account both the required traffic QoS and the conditions of the radio channels. Radio channels (same or different frequency band) can be different in terms of: • Channel size. • Capacity and latency (according to the adopted radio profile). • Availability - due to different frequency band and different results of the engineered link (solution performance linked to antenna size, system gain, etc.). • Fixed or adaptive modulation scheme. • License scheme - subjected to interference-free operation or not. ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 22 Figure 13: BCA concept One of the most advantageous BCA configurations employs one link at traditional MW frequencies (e.g. 23 GHz) and one link at mmW (e.g. E band), where the high band is able to provide wide bandwidth (and consequently high throughput) for the majority of time whilst the low band provides the minimum committed capacity even in bad propagation conditions (e.g. with rain) assuring the required availability.
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7.2 Dual band antenna
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In order to get the higher advantage from a BCA solution, the availability of a dual band antenna able to work properly at both bands is essential. The main advantages with such technologies are: • Lower cost of ownership (equipment count, tower footprint). • Easier alignment during installation. • Lower visual impact. In particular the dual band antenna has to fulfil the following requirements at both bands: • Same gain as the single antennas, in order to maintain link budget. • Same performances as the single antennas in terms of radiation pattern, in order to preserve a safe interference situation. Achieving these targets is a technological challenge because of the optimization required at different frequencies on the same unit. In the case of parabolic antenna for example multisource feed technology is suitable, where some aperture blockage effect will limit performances in particular at the higher band, as shown in Figure 14. ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 23 Figure 14: Feed blockage effect The aperture blockage has impacts not only on antenna gain but also on side-lobes, the higher the distance between the two frequencies the higher the impact. Moreover other technological issues with dual band antennas are: • Isolation between the bands to limit cross-talk interference. • Antenna radome material electrically transparent to both bands. Dual band antennas for BCA are available on the market on several band combinations; one example is a 38 GHz/E band antenna, where ETSI class 3 performance is achieved for both antennas with better than 25 dB isolation between the two bands and 2 dB lower gain than with single antenna. 8 New architectures with separated TX and RX antennas
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8.1 Architecture
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In order to separate TX and RX directions in traditional radio links the two traditional approaches adopted are separation in frequency (FDD) or in time (TDD). The largely dominant solution in traditional MW links is FDD, implemented by means of duplexer filters which allows the use of one single antenna by providing two sufficiently isolated paths for TX and RX. The duplex separation in frequency is fixed per each frequency band and defined by proper regulation both at European (CEPT) and international (ITU-R) level. Systems employing TDD substitute the duplexer with a switch allowing the proper alternation between TX and RX time slots, with isolation between TX and RX paths as the main figure of merit. When considering mmW frequencies the dimensions of the antenna can be progressively reduced and the possibility to use two separated antennas for TX and RX within a reasonable equipment size begins to be feasible. In particular when considering D band (130 - 174,8 GHz) antennas with dimensions in the order of 5 - 10 cm can be implemented as demonstrated in the prototype developed and deployed in November 2016 at Politecnico of Milan [i.5]. In this case two passive phased array antennas with length of about 4 cm by 4 cm have been used in the same equipment, with measured isolation between TX and RX paths shown in Figure 15. ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 24 Figure 15: Antenna isolation with separated TX and RX antennas at D band The measured isolation is well over 70 dB along the whole bandwidth of interest. This kind of architecture provides two major advantages: • The duplexer filter is not any more necessary. • The duplex separation in frequency can be flexibly defined.
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8.2 DREAM project
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In the framework of the Horizon 2020, DREAM project [i.6] aims to demonstrate the feasibility of transceiver operating in D-band (130 - 174,8 GHz) with an active phased antenna array for beam steering functionality. The DREAM project is based on a power efficient silicon based BiCMOS transceiver analogue front end for enabling a cost-efficient mass-production transceiver with a beam steering integrated antenna array using an intelligent low-cost packaging technology. DREAM transceiver demonstrator has a 4x4 TX antenna array and 4x4 RX antenna array as shown in Figure 16, adopting for separating the transmitted and the received signal two different antennas instead of a more traditional diplexer filter in case of FDD or a switch in case of TDD approach (see clause 8.1). Figure 16: Transceiver architecture with 4x4 TX antenna array and 4x4 RX antenna array ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 25 The architecture is a simple and straightforward direct conversion (Zero IF) both for the TX and the RX side. This architecture can support either FDD or TDD, as duplex method. In addition to that, the demonstrator is ready to work in Full Duplex mode as well. Concerning the antenna implementation, each antenna element, RX or TX, has its own RF chain that includes amplification and phase shifter, implementing a full performance phase array for beam steering. Preliminary results from the demonstrator test bench are very encouraging. Figure 17 shows the demonstrator set-up, on the left, and the very preliminary result of beam steering measurements on the right, taken from the receiver antenna. Substantially a ±40° steering angle has been obtained and considering that the antenna array elements coefficients have not yet been tuned, the antenna response appears very promising. Figure 17: DREAM demonstrator test bench and preliminary antenna steering results
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8.3 Flexible FDD (fFDD)
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A system architecture that employs two separated antennas for TX and RX paths allows avoiding the use of a duplex filter with a fixed separation in frequency, provided that sufficient isolation is achieved between the two paths. On this base a flexible scheme for spectrum management named flexible FDD (fFDD) is feasible and has been proposed in ECC Recommendation (18)01 [i.10] with regard to D band. According to the Recommendation the channel raster is made by N × 250 MHz channels, grouped in 4 sub-bands, as described in Figure 18 and Table 5. Figure 18: D band spectrum and channel raster (ECC Recommendation (18)01 [i.10]) ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 26 Table 5: D band channelization (ECC Recommendation (18)01 [i.10]) The concept is that both channel width and duplex spacing can be freely defined under the conditions of respecting the central frequencies of the raster and of being multiples of 250 MHz. The aggregation of N × 250 MHz basic channels is a block; channels inside the blocks can be associated in various ways: • symmetric or asymmetric go-return configurations (whether go channel width is equal to its own return channel width or not); • consecutive or alternate go-return configurations (whether all go channels are consecutive and followed by all return channels or each go channel is followed by its own return channel). Some possibilities are described in the following examples and depicted in Figure 19. Example 1 describes 4 identical go channels, followed by their respective 4 identical return channels. Example 2 foresees 3 go channels of different widths, followed by their 3 return channels of the same respective width. Example 3 describes 4 identical go channels, each one followed by its respective identical return channel. Example 4 foresees 3 go channels of different widths, each one followed by its return channel of the same respective width. Example 5 describes 3 go channels of different widths, followed by their 3 return channels of different respective width. Example 6 foresees 3 go channels of different widths, each one immediately followed by its return channel of different respective width. ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 27 Figure 19: Flexible FDD examples Even traditional paired duplexing between two blocks can be achieved, with both symmetric (Figure 20) and asymmetric (Figure 21) go-return channel size, taking into account that in this case a duplex step longer than 15 GHz is required by ECC Recommendation (18)01 [i.10]. Figure 20: Paired blocks FDD examples for symmetric go-return channel size Figure 21: Paired blocks FDD examples for asymmetric go-return channel size ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 28 The flexible spectrum management allowed by fFDD can provide different advantages for national administrations in assigning spectrum resources to operators in both cases of traditional link-by-link licensing and block licensing [i.11]: • not all parts of a frequency band could be available in some administration's domain, so different duplex steps would be necessary in different countries; • interference reduction would be facilitated by having the possibility to assign the different channels to different locations in a more flexible way; • the possibility to define the go and return channels in an asymmetric way allows an efficient mapping between transport capacity and different access needs in terms of downlink and uplink traffic; • there is not a part of the spectrum that, being not FDD paired, is to be assigned as TDD or to be left as spare.
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8.4 Full duplex
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A Full Duplex (FD) system is one in which the transmission and reception in both directions of a link can be done at the same frequency and time. The separation between the two communication directions can be made based on dimensions other than time and frequency: • space separation (e.g. separated TX and RX antennas); • polarization separation (XPIC); • separation in the digital domain (e.g. code division). The main issue when dealing with a full duplex system is the self-interference, that is the possibility to get the signal transmitted from one unit to be received by the same unit; this could be due to different interference paths, as shown in Figure 22: • local coupling between TX and RX antennas; • reflections from the environment; • backscattering by rain. The local coupling between TX and RX antennas is limited by a proper geometrical separation; for example, measurements at D band indicated over 70 dB isolation with a few cm separation between TX and RX antennas (see Figure 15). Self-interference due to reflections or scattering can be compensated by proper cancellation algorithms in the digital domain, leveraging on the fact that the TX signal is known at the same radio unit. Different interference mechanisms can happen at network level in case the same frequency is used by different full duplex radio links operating in the same area. An example is given by a hub site with several PtP links, where different paths of interference across links can happen, as shown in Figure 23 and Figure 24: • between TX and RX antennas of different links on the same pole (local path); • between local and remote ends of different links; • between remote ends of different links (over-reach). This kind of interference across different links is to be handled by proper radio planning, dealing with the angular separation among the different links. It is important to consider that in systems operating at mmW the main beam is narrower than at lower frequencies somehow easing the angular separation of the different radio links. ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 29 Figure 22: Self-interference within one FD link Figure 23: Cross-link interference between different FD links (local to local, remote to local) Figure 24: Cross-link interference between different FD links (remote to remote, over-reach) ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 30 9 Implications of integrated antennas on system requirements
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9.1 Systems with equivalent virtual antenna connector
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Even if the antenna is non-detachable from the equipment, there are cases in which an equivalent antenna connector can be defined, by measuring the EIRP and going back to the transmitted power by means of the antenna gain declared by the manufacturer and/or calculated by means of equations. In general systems with one beam, either fixed or just steering within a limited angle (e.g. < 5°) for sway compensation and alignment tracking purpose, do have a well-defined antenna gain. In this case the requirements can still be defined at the virtual connector provided that the antenna gain is declared or calculated, even if the measurements for conformance are to be done on the full equipment in a radiated way. For such a kind of systems, already considered within ETSI EN 302 217-2 [i.1] as systems with integral antenna, a proper radiated test suite is to be developed within ETSI EN 301 126 series [i.12], [i.13]. Work is ongoing within ETSI ATTM TM4 in order to develop a proper standard dedicated to systems with integrated antenna, temporarily named as ETSI EN 301 126-4 [i.16].
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9.2 Systems without equivalent virtual antenna connector
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There are cases in which an antenna connector cannot be defined, not even in a virtual way. Systems providing multiple beams and dynamic beamforming are examples of this category. In this kind of systems both the requirements and the conformance testing are to be defined in a radiated way. Proper work is ongoing within ETSI ATTM TM4 as stated in the previous clause.
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10 Implications of integrated antennas on system testing
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10.1 Test bench for radiated measurements
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Systems with integrated antennas will require to have conformance testing done in radiated way. Such tests are typically performed in anechoic chamber in conditions of either near field or far field, depending on the considered frequency and on the antenna dimension; in general, near field measurements require both phase and amplitude information, involve shorter distances and take longer time, whilst far field measurements require only amplitude information, involve longer distances and take shorter time. For an antenna dimension D much larger than the wavelength λ, the border between near field and far field is defined in terms of Fraunhofer distance dF: = 2/ Within near field region, measurements are typically done out of the reactive zone immediately adjacent to the antenna, which is defined as dr: = /2
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10.2 Radiated RX test bench
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A possible test bench that can be conceived for radiated type of conformance testing of receiver parameters is shown in Figure 25. ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 31 Figure 25: Test bench for RX radiated conformance verification This test setup is extending the traditional setup used for conformance verification in conducted way by using some well-characterized antennas (G0) to transfer system test from the radiated to the conducted environment. All verification is to be conducted in an anechoic chamber. Losses and gains of the different sections, dynamic range and sensitivity of the measurement instruments are critical factors, the more critical the higher the operating frequency of the system.
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10.3 Radiated TX test bench
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A possible test bench that can be conceived for radiated type of conformance testing of transmitted power Ptx is shown in Figure 26. Figure 26: Test bench for radiated conformance verification of TX power In order to measure the transmitted power an initial bench calibration is to be performed to evaluate the propagation loss along the distance D. Once the loss is known, the TX power of the device under test can be measured under the condition of knowing the antenna gain of the device under test Gx (by declaration or by calculation). The received power would be measured by means of a proper power meter. ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 32 A different test bench is to be used when measuring the conformance of the TX signal with the spectrum mask defined in ETSI EN 302 217-2 [i.1]; a possible measurement setup is shown in Figure 27. Figure 27: Test bench for radiated conformance verification of TX spectrum mask Due to the limited frequency range of the current spectrum analysers, a mixer is to be interposed between the receiving antenna and the instrument; the linear range of the mixer is key in defining the dynamic range over which the spectrum mask can be verified, together with the noise floor of the spectrum analyser. Just to understand the values at stake, an available commercial mixer dedicated to interface a D band signal to a spectrum analyser shows a typical 1 dB compression point input power P_1 dB = -3 dBm. A proper back-off is to be maintained from this value in order to avoid having the measurement limited by the nonlinearities (spectral regrowth) of the mixer.
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11 Conclusions
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The traditional antenna used in MW radio links for Fixed Service is a passive detachable one, where system requirements are defined and verified at the antenna connector; the antenna is characterized by parameters like gain, bandwidth and loss and represented by its radiation pattern in space. Harmonised standards have been developed at ETSI for PtP [i.1] and PtMP [i.2] systems within this logical frame, where the antenna part is dealt with in related ETSI standards [i.3], [i.4]. Antenna technology is evolving in different directions: • on one side in the traditional path with the target to achieve higher directivity and lower sidelobes to allow a greater system gain and a better coexistence with other systems, both within Fixed Service (intra-service) and with other services (inter-service); • on alternative directions by investigating new architectures employing active antennas or separated TX and RX antennas. Innovation in passive, detachable antenna has directed towards ever improving directivity according to progressively more stringent antenna masks as defined by ETSI standards ([i.3], [i.4]), going in time from class 1 to class 4 types for PtP systems and from DN1 to DN5 for PtMP systems and possibly over with the target of improving the efficient use of spectrum. ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 33 When going towards frequencies in the mmW range the increasingly shorter wavelength makes antenna integration into the equipment feasible and advantageous from both technical and cost sides. In particular when considering D band (130 - 174,8 GHz range) the possibility to design a compact radio unit with integrated antennas has been already demonstrated with some prototypes and several research activities are ongoing on the subject. One prototype with passive, non-detachable and distinct TX and RX antennas was deployed in Milan in November 2016 for propagation investigations in D band [i.5]. Another prototype with active, integrated antennas was developed within the Horizon 2020 framework as well [i.6]. Apart from eliminating the need for a duplex filter, an architecture with separated TX and RX antennas opens the way towards innovative duplexing schemes such as flexible FDD (fFDD), where the frequency separation between the go and return channels of a radio link can be flexibly defined in order to optimize the efficient use of spectrum [i.11], or even Full Duplex (FD), where the spectral efficiency can be doubled. A great push towards the development of innovative antenna systems is coming from the introduction into IMT-2020 of Active Antenna Systems (AAS), which employ antenna array structure with active elements within the antenna in order to control the amplitude and phase of the signals to the single elements of the array. In this way beamforming is possible and the antenna pattern can be adaptively modified in time in order to adapt to the changing propagation conditions and user distribution. When considering an integrated non-detachable antenna where there is no physical antenna connector available, the problem of defining the system requirements and their verification is to be considered. Even if the antenna is non-detachable from the equipment, there are cases in which an equivalent antenna connector can be defined, by measuring the EIRP and going back to the transmitted power by means of the antenna gain declared by the manufacturer and/or calculated by means of equations. In this case the requirements can still be defined at the virtual connector provided that the antenna gain is declared or calculated, even if the measurements for conformance are to be done on the full equipment in a radiated way. On the other side there are cases in which an antenna connector cannot be defined, not even in a virtual way. Systems providing multiple beams and dynamic beamforming are examples of this category. In this kind of systems both the requirements and the conformance testing are to be defined in a radiated way. In any case for systems with integrated antenna a paradigm shift is necessary passing from conducted to radiated measurements. This change requires the measurements to be done in a controlled environment such as an anechoic chamber so to avoid any unwanted influence from the surrounding environment. This is a new situation for FS equipment to be properly studied, in particular when considering mmW frequencies where the sensitivity of measurement instruments is a critical issue. Work is ongoing within ETSI ATTM TM4 in order to develop a proper standard dedicated to systems with integrated antenna, temporarily named as ETSI EN 301 126-4 [i.16]. ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 34 Annex A: Change history Date Version Information about changes 15-10-2020 V0.0.1 First draft in ETSI format 08-02-2021 V0.0.2 Following ISG mWT #18 24-05-2021 V0.0.3 Input to ISG mWT #19 25-05-2023 V0.0.4 Input to ISG mWT #25 29-05-2025 V0.0.5 Stable draft ETSI ETSI TR 104 139 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 35 History Document history V1.1.1 August 2025 Publication
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1 Scope
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The present document is limited to providing information for the brain computer interface use case. The present document discusses proof of concept in the design of the wireless interface for the next-generation of μECoG electrode arrays implanted in the human brain. This includes recording and stimulation of large regions of the brain at a high spatial resolution, as well as energy harvesting, power management, and data communications processing. In particular, the present document focuses on the wireless communication interface.
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2 References
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2.1 Normative references
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Normative references are not applicable in the present document.
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2.2 Informative references
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References are either specific (identified by date of publication and/or edition number or version number) or non-specific. For specific references, only the cited version applies. For non-specific references, the latest version of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies. NOTE: While any hyperlinks included in this clause were valid at the time of publication, ETSI cannot guarantee their long-term validity. The following referenced documents may be useful in implementing an ETSI deliverable or add to the reader's understanding, but are not required for conformance to the present document. [i.1] ETSI TR 138 901 (V16.1.0): "5G; Study on channel model for frequencies from 0.5 to 100 GHz (3GPP TR 38.901 version 16.1.0 Release 16)". [i.2] T. Nagatsuma, et al.: "Advances in terahertz communications accelerated by photonics", Nature Photonics, vol. 10, pp. 371 to 379, 2016. [i.3] R.B. Reilly: Neurology: central nervous system, in: J.G. Webster (Ed.), "The Physiological Measurement Handbook", CRC Press, New York, 2014. [i.4] R. Muller et.al.: "A minimally invasive 64-channel wireless μECoG implant", IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 50 (1) (2015). [i.5] P.P. Mercier, A.P. Chandrakasan (Editors.): "Ultra-Low-Power Short-Range Radios", Springer, 2015. [i.6] IEC/IEEE™ 62209-1528: "Measurement procedure for the assessment of specific absorption rate of human exposure to radio frequency fields from hand-held and body-worn wireless communication devices". [i.7] R. Kankula: "Advances in hardware systems for implantable medical devices: challenges and opportunities", International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science 7(3):2582-5208. [i.8] Basabi, Inokawa, Roy (Editors): "Terahertz Biomedical and Healthcare Technologies", 2020, Elsevier. [i.9] Kürner, Mittleman, Nagatsuma (Editors): "THz Communications Paving the Way Towards Wireless Tbps", 2022, Springer. [i.10] World Radiocommunication Conference 2023 (WRC-23) Final Acts. [i.11] IEEE Std 802.15.3™-2017: "IEEE Standard for High Data Rate Wireless Multi-Media Networks". ETSI ETSI TR 103 952 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 8
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3 Definition of terms, symbols, and abbreviations
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3.1 Terms
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For the purposes of the present document, the following terms apply: craniotomy: surgical removal of a portion of the skull energy scavenging: conversion of ambient energy present in the environment into electrical energy for use in powering electronic devices or circuits
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3.2 Symbols
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Void.
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3.3 Abbreviations
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For the purposes of the present document, the following abbreviations apply: AP Access Point BCI Brain-Computer Interface BER Bit Error Rate EAP Extracellular Action Potentials ECoG Electrocorticography EEG ElectroEncephaloGraphy MEG Magneto-Encephalon-Graphy MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging NFC Near-Field Communication PET Positron Emission Tomography QCL Quantum Cascade Laser RF Radio Frequency RTD Resonant Tunneling Diodes SAR Specific Absorption Rate THz Tera Herz UTC-PD Uni-Traveling-Carrier Photodiode WPT Wireless Power Transfer
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4 BCI overview
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The use case of BCI targets the development and application of innovative neural technologies to advance the resolution of neural recording and stimulation toward the dynamic mapping of brain activity and neural processing. These advanced neuro-technologies will enable new studies and experiments to advance the current understanding of the brain. Hence, enabling advances in diagnosis and treatment opportunities over a broad range of neurological diseases and disorders, as well as commercial applications. Studying the dynamics and connectivity of the brain requires a wide range of technologies to address temporal and spatial resolutions. Figure 1 shows such spatial and temporal resolutions in the function of various brain monitoring technologies that are currently available [i.3]. Noninvasive methods such as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (FMRI), Magneto-Encephalon-Graphy (MEG), and Positron Emission Tomography (PET) provide whole-brain spatial coverage: • FMRI provides high spatial resolution (around 1 mm), but its temporal resolution is limited (1 sec to 10 sec) for the system measuring neural activity. • MEG provides higher temporal resolution (0,01 sec to 0,1 sec) at the expense of spatial resolution (1 cm). ETSI ETSI TR 103 952 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 9 • PET offers molecular selectivity in functional imaging at the expense of lower spatial (1 cm) and temporal (10 sec to 100 sec) resolutions. However, neither FMRI, MEG, nor PET is suitable for wearable or portable applications, as they all require very large, expensive, and high-power equipment to support the sensors, as well as extensively shielded environments. In contrast, electrophysiology methods that directly measure electrical signals from the neurons' activity offer superior temporal resolution. They have been extensively used to monitor brain activity due to their ability to capture wide ranges of brain activities from the subcellular level to the whole brain oscillation level as shown in Figure 1. Scalp Skull Outer skull table Inner skull table Diploe Dura matter Arachnoid Cerebrospinal fluid Pia matter Cortex EEG Epidural ECoG Subdural ECoG EAP & LFP Figure 1: Illustration of electrophysiology methods Due to recent advances in electrode and integrated circuit technologies, electrophysiological monitoring methods have become portable with wearable or implantable configurations for BCI. In particular, Electro-Encephalography (EEG) records the electrical activity on the scalp resulting from volume conduction of neural activity across the brain, as shown in Figure 1. Moreover, EEG recording is noninvasive, but its spatiotemporal resolution is limited to about 1 cm and 100 Hz due to the electrical properties of diverse layers of head and brain tissues, particularly the skull (between the brain and the scalp). In contrast, microelectrodes technology such as Extracellular Action Potentials (EAPs) and Local Field Potentials (LFPs) enable recording from multiple neurons across multiple cortical areas and layers. Those can achieve much higher resolution because of the closer proximity to individual neurons. Hence, EAP+LFP techniques are widely used for brain research and BCI applications. On the other hand, microelectrodes may suffer from tissue damage during insertion and be susceptible to signal degradation due to electrode displacement over time and an immune response against the electrodes. Because of these issues, penetrating microelectrodes in humans are not yet viable. A practical alternative is electrocorticography (ECoG), or intracranial/intraoperative EEG (iEEG), which records synchronized postsynaptic potentials at locations much closer to the cortical surface, as illustrated in Figure 1. Figure 2 illustrates the deployment of ECoG devices. ETSI ETSI TR 103 952 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 10 Figure 2: Illustration of ECoG devices and deployment in the brain ECoG has a higher spatial resolution than EEG, a higher signal-to-noise ratio, broader bandwidth, and much less susceptibility to displacement. Furthermore, ECoG does not penetrate the cortex, does not scar, and can have superior long-term signal stability recording. Furthermore, advances in integrated circuits that enable high channel count and wireless operation, ECoG has become an important tool not only for more effective treatment of neurological disorders, like epilepsy, but also for investigating other types of brain activity across the cortical surface, and its applications to BCI systems. ECoG recording provides stable brain activity recording at a mesoscopic spatiotemporal resolution with a large spatial coverage, or at least a significant area of the brain. Advanced and miniaturized electrode arrays have reached a spatial resolution of less than 1 mm, enabling monitoring of large-scale brain activity with greater accuracy. Moreover, wireless implantable microsystems based on flexible technology can record more closely to the cortical surface while enabling coverage along the natural curvature of the cortex without penetration as shown in Figure 3. μECoG Pia matter Figure 3: Implantable μECoG on flexible substrate This ECoG technology, labeled as μECoG, enables even higher spatial resolution than conventional ECoG systems and is beginning to enable next-generation brain mapping, therapeutic stimulation, and sophisticated BCI systems. Therefore, recording with modern implementations of ECoG arrays falls into one of two categories: 1) Medium-size brain regions (about 80 mm × 80 mm) at a low spatial resolution of 10 mm electrode spacing for conventional ECoG. 2) Small brain regions (10 mm × 10 mm) at high spatial resolution (0,5 mm to 1 mm electrode spacing): μECoG. The present document discusses the design of the wireless interface for the next-generation of μECoG electrode arrays, illustrated in Figure 4, including recording, stimulation of large regions of the brain at a high spatial resolution, as well as energy harvesting, power management, and data communications processing. In particular, the present document focuses on the wireless communication interface, including cybersecurity and privacy protection. ETSI ETSI TR 103 952 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 11 Analog Frontend ADC Communication interface Energy harvesting & Power management Stimulation Antenna Electrodes Figure 4: Schematic diagram of functional blocks for BCI node Neural data acquisition with a high spatial resolution requires a high channel density of ECoG arrays and, consequently, smaller electrode size. If the area overhead of the Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) should be kept small, then the area dedicated to the functions illustrated in Figure 4 (amplify and digitize each channel) should reduce as well. However, a denser array of amplifiers in the Analog Frontends (AFE) will dissipate more power and generate more heat. Thus, the power of each AFE is reduced to meet thermal regulatory limits [i.6]. Unfortunately, as the signal power decreases, the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) also decreases, affecting the transmission or reception performance requirements for wireless signals. On the other hand, a higher channel count requires higher communication throughput, increasing the power consumption and heat dissipation of the communication interface. All these requirements are interrelated and trade-off with each other. In addition, there are several circuit designs challenges, like high power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR), difficulty in using external components such as inductors or capacitors. However, these are not addressed in the present document. Another topic not addressed in the present document is interfaces for stimulation.
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5 BCI system considerations
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5.1 Energy source
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5.1.0 Introduction
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The constrained environment around the brain presents an energy source challenge. Indeed, one of the major challenges on implantable μECoG arrays for BCI nodes is how to power such implantable devices. Even logistically, it is an issue. For example, the electrode array is placed on the cortex, while the other components are placed under the scalp, connected with lead wires or better mounted over a titanium plaque that replaced part of the skull by a craniotomy, eliminating the risk of infection by the lead wires. Regardless of placement, the constrained environment around the brain presents an energy source challenge. There are three primary methods for powering an implanted device: 1) use a battery; 2) harvesting energy from the environment; 3) delivering power transcutaneous via a wireless power transmitter.
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5.1.1 Battery
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Another implantable application such as pacemakers has used batteries extensively. However, it makes sense to use a battery in a pacemaker, because the required power is relatively small (microwatts) and there is a large physical area available such that a battery can last 10 years or more. ETSI ETSI TR 103 952 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 12 In contrast, the power consumption in high-density neural recording and stimulation applications is typically much larger (milliwatts), and the physical volume available for a large battery is very small, making it unfit. Another important aspect is that going through surgical re-implantation to replace a battery is unacceptable to most patients. The medical risks of regular brain surgery and recovery disqualify batteries from being employed in high-density neural applications.
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5.1.2 Energy harvesting
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Harvesting energy from ambient sources in local environments has been studied as a potential power source option. Some scavenging methods include solar cells, biofuel cells, thermoelectric generators, piezoelectric generators, and ambient RF. While such approaches are theoretically attractive for implant neural devices, the limited area available near the brain and the stochastic nature of many energy harvesting sources result in a power source that is too small and too variable to operate multi-channel neural technologies.
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5.1.3 Wireless power transfer
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The most promising means to power an implanted device with higher power requirements than pacemakers is to deliver energy wirelessly via a transcutaneous link, also known as Wireless Power Transfer (WPT). A transcutaneous link may use light (typically near-infrared light), or acoustics (typically at ultrasound frequencies), or electromagnetic waves (obviously not in the light range). Each method can deliver from μW to mW of energy power. However, such delivered energy depends on the geometry, make-up, implant depth, and orientation of the receiving transducer. On the other hand, WPT via infrared light has a short penetration depth (around mm), limiting its utility to subcutaneous implant applications. Ultrasound can penetrate deeper into tissues. However, it is known that ultrasonic energy does not efficiently penetrate bone, limiting opportunities to directly power cortical implants from outside the skull. Therefore, the most promising transcutaneous power delivery approach utilizes electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves in the near- or mid-field is generally considered the most efficient and practical WPT method for such devices implanted a few cm. Therefore, most conventional designs for implant medical devices operate in the near-field between 120 MHz and 20 MHz (conductivity and losses in tissue increase at higher frequencies). Moreover, operating at higher frequencies is constrained by government regulations that limit the amount of dissipated power in tissues for safety reasons. For example, the FCC sets a Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) of less than 1,6 W/kg in the USA. For these reasons, conventional transcutaneous power transfer links operate in the low-MHz range. However, recent advances in small coil antennas show that the antenna's quality factor and radiation resistance increase with frequency. Thus, μECoG devices with small coils as transducers for WPT would perform better at higher frequencies. Moreover, the trade-off between frequency of operation and tissue heat-up shows that it is possible to deliver mW of power to small, implanted WPT antennas under regulatory limits [i.5], [i.6]. Thus, radio electromagnetic approaches are the primary means to deliver power to implanted ECoG devices.
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5.2 Communication interface
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5.2.0 Introduction
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ECoG devices convey the acquired data to an external controller or Access Point (AP) via a wireless link, where the information can be processed and monitored for diverse applications from healthcare providers to scientific research. In contrast to conventional star topologies, an ECoG network supports more traffic (aggregated throughput) from a number of ECoG devices to the AP in the uplink (device to AP), than the downlink (AP to device). Moreover, the uplink aggregated data rate may be relatively high (in the order of Mb/s), and subject to stringent power consumption constraints, especially when the number of electrodes (channels) increase significantly. ETSI ETSI TR 103 952 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 13 The radio waves for the uplink may be in the near-field or far-field, depending on the application. Assuming the AP is mounted on goggles, the radio link is in the near-field, while if the AP is at a distance of more than 1 m, the radio link is in the far-field. SmartBAN was designed to operate in the far field. However, it will not require much modification to the MAC layer, but would require a new PHY to cope with near-field protocols for communication and WPT at a higher frequency. The current state-of-the-art of wearable radios, like Bluetooth® Low Energy, require more than 1 nJ/bit [i.7], which is larger than what a typical ECoG device uses. Hence, the design problem is divided into two categories: research directions in THz spectrum, and a transition phase. An intermediate transition phase assumes one fusion center mounted on a titanium plaque implanted on the skull. Such fusion center can connect ECoG devices implanted on the brain without the radio interface via cables. Hence, the aggregated throughput is centralized in one unit, which is not close to the brain tissue and consequently tolerate a bit more heat-up. A candidate is UWB technology. UWB enables low power consumption (around pJ/bit). However, due to government regulatory constraints, the allocated UWB band varies from country to country, and it is not possible to operate a system in the range 3,1 GHz to 10 GHz anymore. However, a UWB system design in the high band of UWB may be worth studying.
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5.2.1 Backscatter communication in the near field
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Near-field communications operate at distances about one wavelength of the carrier frequency. Hence, it is suitable when the AP is located on the head, for instance, on virtual reality goggles. In addition, WPT can be integrated easily. Regarding the WPT for the downlink (AP to device), the backscattering method is one of the most popular. Backscattering is a technique to transfer power wirelessly from a transmitter to a receiver by modulating the impedance of the receiver's antenna such that the Electromagnetic Wave (EW) from the transmitter gets more absorbed at the receiver's antenna or more reflected back to the transmitter. The principle is that the reflected EW from the receiver modulates the information bits using a switch. In that manner, the power consumption on the ECoG's communication block is minimal (around pJ/bit), as conventional modulation is not used. However, the data reception of the reflected EW at the transmitter depends on the power of such backscattered signal, which in turn depends on the system design and distance between transmitter and receiver. Backscattering is best suited for applications where low to moderate power transfer is sufficient and energy efficiency and passive operation are priorities. Rx ECoG Tx AP Telemetry WPT RF Switch Z0 Z1 Backscatter modulator Neural data Carrier source Carrier wave Backscatter modulated data Figure 5: Schematic diagram of backscatter communication
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5.2.2 ECoG wireless links
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The processing, power, and size-constrained ECoG devices lead toward short-range wireless links. Moreover, ECoG devices typically have a depth of a few cm and high-throughput neural recording. Hence, WPT is a natural choice as the primary mode of power transfer due to its high efficiency and robustness in comparison to ultrasound and energy harvesting. ETSI ETSI TR 103 952 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 14 Thus, over the years, inductive power transfer has been the focus of studies resulting in the development of many efficient designs and methodologies. Moreover, Near-Field Communication (NFC) using inductive links offers a lower cost of communication than far-field communication methods, and it has become the primary means of communication. ECoG devices may be arranged with three configurations: an entire device placed on the cortex, an electrode array placed on the cortex with an interface on the craniotomy, or placed under the scalp. In these configurations, the location of such devices results in a challenge for WPT and data communication, besides the constrained power consumption and asymmetric traffic requirements as illustrated in Figure 6. Figure 6: Simplified illustration of an ECoG and requirements for WPT and data communication To have an idea of the throughput requirements, it is assumed an ECoG recording with 1 024-channels with a sampling rate of 600 samples/s per channel and a data resolution of 10 bits, requires 6,15 Mb/s. Similarly, 64-channels recording with 10 000 samples/s rate and 10-bit resolution, requires 6,4 Mb/s. State-of-the-art implant devices transmitting at these data rates typically consume several mW [i.7]. Moreover, the position of the ECoG's antenna on the brain tissue has an impact on the WPT and communication link requirements. Figure 7 shows options for implementation: Controller Implanted system Controller Implanted system Controller Implanted system Power Power Power Data Data Data a) b) c) Figure 7: Radio interfaces for WPT and data communication • Inductive links for power and data communication are shown in Figure 7a). The links are optimized independently. Hence, the configuration enables a high data rate while maintaining high power transfer efficiency. However, this approach requires a more complicated antenna structure and suffers from crosstalk. • Using different and distinct Radio Frequency (RF) bands as shown in Figure 7b). The scheme can achieve the required data rate. However, it may require more energy for data communications and increased complexity. • A simple approach uses a single inductive link to transfer both power and data, as illustrated in Figure 7c). Typically, backscattering is used for passive data communication. ETSI ETSI TR 103 952 V1.1.1 (2025-08) 15
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