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253rqu
|
When was the last time a general was captured as a prisoner of war?
|
AskHistorians
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/253rqu/when_was_the_last_time_a_general_was_captured_as/
|
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"Definitely more recent than WW2 was the capture of US Major General William F. Dean in the Korean War.\n\nSaddam Hussein was officially the Commander in Chief of the Iraqi Mujahed Armed Forces. He was also treated as a prisoner of war by the United States when he was captured in 2003. [[1]](_URL_0_)",
"I would think it would be Col. Muammar Qaddafi (so many spellings!), as he retained his rank of colonel in Libya despite being dictator and general of Libya's armed forces. It's unclear whether he was captured and then executed or killed outright, but the consensus leans towards captured. This was in 2011."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/faq/5v7kdz.htm"
],
[]
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||
1k30h1
|
Could the Romans have build a steam engine? The Byzantines or maybe the Chinese? What technologies are needed to build a steam engine and when was the earliest that one could have been built?
|
AskHistorians
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/1k30h1/could_the_romans_have_build_a_steam_engine_the/
|
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"If we define a steam engine as a machine that is powered by steam, then [Hero of Alexandria's aelophile](_URL_1_) from the 1st century A.D. is credited as the first steam engine. For practical purposes, I am by no means an expert on steam engines, but the key technology that would have been needed to construct a practical steam engine would have been on how to quantify vacuum and atmospheric pressure, which wasn't done until [Evangelista Torricelli](_URL_0_) did it in the 1600's. Prior to that, the presence of a vacuum or 'void' was hotly debated by philosophers stretching back to Plato's time.",
"There are several critical inventions that are necessary for a useful steam engine that can do arbitrary work (as opposed to Hero's Engine, which is a toy and cannot do useful work, or pressure-differential pumps).\n\nFirst is accurate machine tools. Without lathes to turn parts accurately, you're not going to be able to make an effective engine. The tolerances required for the piston and cylinder need to be tighter than what you can do with smithing and casting.\n\nLathes sufficiently accurate for making pistons weren't developed until the late 18th century.\n\nThe critical invention directly related to steam engines for getting a steam engine to do \"useful work\" was the centrifugal governor. Without a proper governor, the speed of the engine is totally dependent on steam pressure generated in the boiler. Since regulating the boiler accurately is more or less impossible, you need some way of controlling the steam output from the boiler.\n\nThe centrifugal governor works on a simple principle - negative feedback. Basically, it's a mini-steam engine that powers a vertical crank. Attached to the crank are two arms with heavy weights on the end that are free to move up and down.\n\nNow here's the clever part: as more steam power is delivered, the crank spins faster, and the weights move up. The weighted arms are connected to the valve controlling steam output, so as the arms move up, less steam is allowed out of the boiler.\n\nIf too little steam is delivered, the weights droop, and more steam is allowed out of the boiler.\n\nThis governor was the critical piece that allows steam engines to do \"useful work\". This could have been invented at any point, I suppose, but it was in fact invented in the 1500s, and used to regulate water power in mills.\n\nIn order to have a truly useful steam engine, you need to have separated the boiling, working, and condensing functions of the machine, too, but that's less of a technology (to my mind) than it is an organizational factor that will become obvious as you're attempting to build an engine.\n\nSo, the short answer:\n\nCould the Romans, Byzantines, or Chinese have built a steam engine?\n\nNo. They lacked the necessary machine tools, and the knowledge of centrifugal governors.\n\nEdit: As to your second question, the earliest they could have been built was the late 18th century, which is when they were actually built. That is when the necessary machine tools were developed.\n\nEdit edit: as /u/manfromporlock/ points out, there were practical steam engines in the early 18th century, but they were specialized units, and not very efficient/useful. The efficient, general-purpose steam engine that enable the industrial revolution were not developed until the end of the 18th century.",
"The [Thunder In the Skies](_URL_0_) episode of James Burke's awesome *Connections* series deals in part with the prerequisites that were necessary to make a useful steam engine.",
"There's a missing question here: why would they have wanted to?\n\n[There were a lot of experiments with steam power over the years](_URL_0_), but the [first practical and commercially successful one](_URL_2_) was intended mainly for pumping water out of flooded mines, replacing a team of horses - a useful purpose, but a small niche. Even when the American [John Fitch](_URL_1_) got the idea to drive a boat with it (and he wasn't the first), he couldn't turn it profitable; that had to wait for [Robert Fulton](_URL_4_)'s superior entrepreneurship. And it wasn't until several generations into the development of the steam engine that anyone had [a good stationary version to drive a factory](_URL_3_).\n\nSo, maybe we should ask, why weren't previous societies *interested* in engines? Was it because the Industrial Revolution of Europe and North America spawned generations of inventors looking for problems to solve with machines? Or because it was only then that their economies had enough centralization for One Big Machine to be a worthwhile investment? Or because there simply wasn't enough other technology around yet for anyone to have known what to do with a lot of mechanical energy?",
"I'm going to take a contrarian position on this question and say that many cultures had the technical ability to invent a practical steam engine based on Hero's [prototype](_URL_1_). But why they didn't is probably a more interesting question than just the string of technical advancements needed.\n\nLet start with this analogy: Why didn't the Andean cultures like the Incas invent the wheel/wagon? They had the brains and the technical know-how to do it; additionally, they had beasts (alpacas and llamas) that could pull carts. Similarly the Greeks and Romans possessed the ability to finely work metal into intricate machinery. Look at the [Antikythera mechanism](_URL_0_) for an example.\n\nSo why didn't they? Invention requires more than technical ability. It also requires some one who sees a need and a way to solve that need in a novel way using that technical ability. All are needed: technology, smart person, & need. So what need does a steam engine fill? Power, as a replacement for muscle. Where did many of the ancients get their power from? Slaves & beasts of burden. No one saw a need to replace muscle with steam/fire until they had to pay for that power rather than acquire it from conscripted labor. In this case, the invention needed a context that created the *need* for it.\n\nEdit: It seems that my position is not so contrarian after all.",
"I would say that Hero of Alexandria (c. AD 10-70) /could/ have build a steam engine had he saw the need, but never put the pieces together. At the time, manual labor was so cheap and common, that devices were considered luxuries for temples (to preform actions without an observed worker). \n\nLet me support that Hero knew enough to build a steam engine from a translated copy of his \"[Pneumatica](_URL_7_)\" from a copy that was translated in 1851 (which was a treat to find and read :)\n\nHe knew how to make a [one-way value](_URL_5_).\n\nHero knew how to use [pistons to pump a fluid](_URL_6_).\n\nHe knew that [hot gas expanded into a container, causing the container to expand, and could use the knowledge to produce work](_URL_0_).\n\nHe knew that steam would rush from a [\"boiler\" into the atmosphere](_URL_2_).\n\nThe ability to [resupply a boiler with water, where the water is being turned into steam and expelled.](_URL_8_)\n\nIn addition to Pneumatica, check out his [other works](_URL_3_) (sorry for the wikipedia link). He knew of gears, pulleys, war machines, the odometer (which would require gear reduction), soldering (using metals with low melting points) and lathing. Heck, he even knew about [syringes](_URL_4_).\n\nEdit: Bah, sorry, I skipped his most famous steam device. His [aeolipile](_URL_1_) turns heat from a fire into steam, which then turns the globe. It's more of a steam rocket than a steam engine, but shows that he can channel the steam to making something move.\n\nHowever, it's possible that Ctesibius might have had most of the same knowledge as Hero years earlier (he was active 285-222 BC) but none of Ctesibius' writtings have survived. He knew a lot about compressed air and pumps, but I honestly don't know what he knew about steam.",
"This is not a direct answer to your question, but after pasting this three times I feel I will just put this in a top level comment for everyone who wants to repeat the tired old cliche about the ready availability of slavery holding back the Roman Industrial Revolution:\n\nThe Romans made extensive use of very complicated machinery in mills, mining, constructions, shipping, etc. The Hierapolis sawmill, for example, is an application of crank ad rod technology to a water mill for sawing blocks of marble--after the discovery of the mechanism on a tombstone in 2004 two actual examples have been tentatively identified, which is actually quite remarkable.\n\nThe \"human labor was cheap\" argument is one that needs to die."
]
}
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[] |
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[
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"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelista_Torricelli",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeolipile"
],
[],
[
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lOQATN2nTfk"
],
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_steam_engine",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Fitch_(inventor\\)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Newcomen",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corliss_steam_engine",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Fulton"
],
[
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria"
],
[
"http://web.archive.org/web/20120204034628/http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/hero/section38.html",
"http://web.archive.org/web/20120103123333/http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/hero/section50.html",
"http://web.archive.org/web/20120211203641/http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/hero/section45.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria#Bibliography",
"http://web.archive.org/web/20120211205200/http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/hero/section57.html",
"http://web.archive.org/web/20120211200855/http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/hero/section10.html",
"http://web.archive.org/web/20120121101418/http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/hero/section27.html",
"http://web.archive.org/web/20120119060333/http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/hero/index.html",
"http://web.archive.org/web/20111217081215/http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/hero/section74.html"
],
[]
] |
||
12us3d
|
So, about Brazilian participation in WWII...
|
I'm not quite interested in the reasons as for that part there are lots of sources. But, when it comes to the battles per se, history (at least on my side of the Atlantic) is surprisingly reticent. Some say Brazilians became famous as fierce, borderline lunatic fighters. Some go even further and say that a platoon made a bigger unit surrender entirely (or something like, the numbers/units varies from person to person, but the story is surprisingly consistent).
And, if anyone wants to know, yes, we still have Paraguay's National Archives from before the BR-AR-UR-PR War, and no, we're not ever giving it back. We don't want anybody to know that we killed 70% to 90% of their pop.
|
AskHistorians
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/12us3d/so_about_brazilian_participation_in_wwii/
|
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"Militærhistorie, a Norwegian magazine on military history had a profile on Brazilian infantryman 1944-45 in issue 1-2012. Not much, so the relevant stuff:\n\nThe soldiers were sent to Italy without equipment, but were given US equipment when they arrived. They were organized as a standard US infantry division. It was made up of 1st, 6th, and 11th infantry regiments, each regiment had three battalions and each battalion was divided into four companies. In addition Air Force & Naval units were established too and all-in-all 25300 men in the three branches were sent to Italy.\n\nFirst unit to arrive in Italy was 6th regiment, who reached the front lines the 15th September 1944 at the Arno River, where the Brazilians conducted patrols and gained combat experience through skirmishes. In the meantime the remaining Brazilian troops had arrived and between 3rd and 7th November, the entire division was deployed to the front lines to replace US troops. They fought for 8 months in Italy and the fighting was done in difficult terrain and adverse climatic conditions during the winter (does not elaborate wheter due to Italian winter being bad or if Brazilians were unsuited due to different climate). The Brazilians did their part in winning the Italian campaign and they took 20 573 prisoners, including two German generals and 948 Brazilians were killed, from all three branches. The Brazilian participation in Italy, made it possible for the Allies to release other forces for Operation Dragoon, the invasion of southern France.\n\nIn late 1944 a divsion insignia was used, suggested by the US liaison officer Veron Walters. The insignia was of a cigarette-smoking cobra (the illustration shows the insigna made up of a green cobra smoking on a yellow field, with the top part being a blue field with Brasil written on it, in white letters). The reason for this insignia was due to a rumour, that Hitler had said he would rather see a smoking snake than Brazilian soldiers participating in the war. The insignia became very popular that even other units than just the infantry division began using it.\n\nThe 14th April 1945, the largest and bloodiest battle, since the Paraguay war in 1865-70, occured (in Brazilian military history). For the first time all three regiments were deployed together when they were tasked with seizing the town of Montese from the Germans. With support from American tanks, the Brazilians seized the town after three hard days of battle, with 453 killed or wounded Brazilian troopers. The Brazilians had gained vital combat experience during the winter months.\n\nDuring the Allied pursuit of German troops in Italy, the Brazilians were apparently riding on American tanks during said pursuit.\n\n\nHope it helps a bit."
]
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[] |
[] |
[
[]
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|
eo7le5
|
Why does shampoo become foamy when lathered, but conditioner remains lotion-like?
|
askscience
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/eo7le5/why_does_shampoo_become_foamy_when_lathered_but/
|
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"Shampoo is, at its core, a kind of soap. All soaps, at the [molecular level](_URL_0_), have a hydrophillic end and a hydrophobic end. The process of washing with soap creates \"balls\" of soap molecules that trap dirt particles inside them while repelling water, allowing them to be washed away. \n\nThe simple truth of it is that conditioner isn't a soap. It's more or less a bonding agent that [smooths down the scaly, jagged bits that stick off of hairs called cuticles](_URL_1_).",
"Sodium Lauryl Sulfate is a common ingredient that serves the purpose of \"lathering up\" shampoo. It's in a lot of stuff like toothpaste. When some people use \"sulfate free\" shampoo for things like hair extensions or hair dyes, they're specifically referring to shampoos that don't have sodium lauryl sulfate or other sulfates that serve the same lathering purpose."
]
}
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[
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"https://qph.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-4c872122328a7badf8dce5e2c1c28030-c"
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2wwg30
|
why don't bookstores offer the same prices in-store as they do online?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/2wwg30/eli5_why_dont_bookstores_offer_the_same_prices/
|
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"Brick and mortar stores have more overhead that needs to be covered by the sale of books (rent, power, employee wages, insurance, etc.). Typically online warehouses have less overhead. Additionally, some states to not charge tax or charge a lower amount of tax for online sales."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[]
] |
||
v7vpr
|
What has, historically, lead to the unique development of a univeral welfare state seen in the Scandinavian countries?
|
AskHistorians
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/v7vpr/what_has_historically_lead_to_the_unique/
|
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"It ain't unique, for starters. Australia has a universal welfare state. So do many other democratic capitalist countries. \n\nI think the better question is what led to the unique development of a universal **anti-**welfare state in the USA.",
"The welfare state originated in Bismarckian Germany in the second half of the 19th century and is far, far from unique to Scandenavia. Essentially the entire Western world has had a welfare state for many decades, including the U.S.\n\nIt's a somewhat bizarre anomaly that both critics and advocates of a U.S. welfare state ignore that, for better or worse, it already has a fairly substantial one, even not including the tax system, though that contributes substantially."
]
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|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
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||
36aecx
|
What is the heaviest rainfall possible under natural conditions?
|
Heaviest meaning inches/hour or a similar metric. Not heaviest raindrops. I think that would be a different question altogether.
|
askscience
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/36aecx/what_is_the_heaviest_rainfall_possible_under/
|
{
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"The first difficulty in answering this question is that rainfall is dependent on spatial and temporal resolution. Consider this: an intense thunderstorm may produce a very high rain rate but it has limited area coverage (typically several km). If you look at the small region of heavy rain, you'll get a higher rain rate than a larger region encompassing this storm and its surrounding. Likewise, since the storm is likely to be moving, a measurement lasting one minute may get a very different answer from a measurement lasting one day (during which the storm may have propagated out of the measurement region).\n\nThe second difficulty lies in the statistical nature of rainfall or, to be precise, the microphysical laws governing the formation of precipitation. As far as I know, there are no theoretical reasons why a tower of cumulonimbus cloud cannot precipitate all its water such that it all falls within one minute (similar to how it may be possible for air molecules in a room to crowd in one corner of a room). If this were so, the rain rate (for that minute) would be extremely high.\n\nI can ask the similar question, \"what is the highest temperature possible under natural conditions?\" Not only is it dependent on the scale you are looking at, it is also a statistical process (temperature is a function of the average speed of all the particles), so it is theoretically unlimited."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[]
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|
1gcy8a
|
why scientists haven't been able to produce a drug that makes fat people skinny
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/1gcy8a/eli5_why_scientists_havent_been_able_to_produce_a/
|
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"They have. There have been all kinds of weight loss medications made. Remember Fen Phen? There was a big problem because the medicine caused cardiac issues. From what I remember though, it was really only dangerous to people who were taking it incorrectly such as taking more than prescribed to have it work faster or taking it when it wasn't prescribed by a doctor.\n\nThere are tons of medical procedures and drugs for weight loss, though, so I'm not really sure what you're looking for. Are you just asking why there is no miracle pill where you can take one pill a day, eat whatever you want and still be in great shape?",
"Because it'd be very hard to do without killing the person or at least causing irreparable damage. Fat cells are cells too, think of them as balloons, on fat people their fat cells are puffed up full of fat, and skinny people they're small, but regardless fat an skinny people both have the same number of fat cells. When the body needs energy it tells the fat cells to let go of some of the fat so that the liver can turn it into sugar which the body can then use for energy. Fat cells can only release fat at about the rate of 31 (kilo)calories per pound of fat a day. If you have someone a pill that made their fat cells dump all their fat quicker than usual it would play havoc with many bodily systems like blood lipid levels, blood acidity, renal health, liver health, cholesterol levels, etc. So now you can see its more complicated than just giving someone a pill to make them skinny. What we can do with medicine is, increase the persons metabolism (so they burn more energy per a day, but still the person's fat cells can only supply so much so we have to be careful), or give them something so that the food they eat isn't absorbed as much and just passed through relatively undigested. It's a much more complicated answer than to just give someone a pill to make them lose fat",
"Drugs cause side effects. \nLosing fat causes side effects and can strain the filter organs. \n(see: [Ketoacidosis](_URL_0_)) \nUsing drugs that cause extreme fat loss can literally kill your kidneys. \nCombine that with drugs that reduce appetite or boost metabolism artificially and you are \"running your car engine on jet fuel and NOS at the same time while using a clogged air filter.\"",
"Amephetamines are good for keeping you skinny, but they are illegal and addictive and have other bad side effects",
"It's called meth.",
"Fat is stored energy. You can't simply \"get rid of\" energy by swallowing a pill.\n\nPills can only try to prevent you from storing more energy (which is not completely unlike starving yourself) or try to make you burn off energy faster (which is like overclocking a computer... it can mess up and/or destroy your internal systems).",
"They have, it is called DNP, it is an amazing weight loss drug that has ridiculous results. Downside? It cooks you from the inside out.",
"Even if they did (or have), it wouldn't be nearly as delicious as all the foods that contribute to going over your calorie limit. You can't escape the fact that your body needs X amount of energy every day, and eating above that will cause your body to store it. So even if you were to make a pill that allowed you to feel full all day and gave you ~1500 calories of terrific nutrition without harming your body, random fat person X would probably still eat all the yummy stuff just because it's yummy. Metabolism isn't *that* different from person to person (PCOS-type conditions aside) and can't be manipulated *that* much that it can lead to someone who only needs 2000 calories to be able to handle 4000. "
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27ea8k
|
how do world leaders (like at the g7 meeting right now) communicate during their roundtable dinners?
|
Pictures from the event shows that it's just the politicians at the table, and no translators. I imagine that they use earpieces, but with English, French, Italian, German, and Japanese all represented, wouldn't conversation move slowly with all the translating occurring?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/27ea8k/eli5_how_do_world_leaders_like_at_the_g7_meeting/
|
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"Most world leaders can all speak English. ",
"English is the [lingua franca](_URL_0_) nowadays. It is understood that to be a high politician or businessperson you'd have to have a good grasp of English.\n\n\nAlso air traffic control is done in English everywhere in the world. ",
"As well as most speaking some level of English, they usually have ear pieces with an interpreter translating. ",
"English is widely spoken among World Leaders, though leaders of prominent countries often avoid doing it in public settings. \n\n[Hollande](_URL_2_)\n\n[Merkel](_URL_3_)\n\n[Abe](_URL_1_)\n\n[Renzi](_URL_0_)\n\nAll four speak with accents but it's probably enough to converse in a private setting. Few world leaders from non-English speaking countries are completely fluent (Netanyahu, Abdullah of Jordan, etc are exceptions), but nearly all know it at the conversational level. Some might avoid speaking in English in formal settings if they think it may seem weak."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
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"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca"
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"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4blKB1_Cc54&t=0m18s",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ApRaK516PZU&t=3m5s",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aMJJAmUybvQ&t=4m35s",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cGZWR5S1lCo&t=0m7s"
]
] |
|
9a6edc
|
when and why did the notion (in fiction) that acute exposure to ionizing radiation causes drastic changes in an individuals (extra limb/super powers) arise?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/9a6edc/eli5_when_and_why_did_the_notion_in_fiction_that/
|
{
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"Early on in the discovery and understanding of DNA, we believed that DNA could be manipulated in certain ways to achieve superhuman effects. Everything from increased strength and endurance to regeneration or even extremely increased intellect were believed to be encoded somewhere in our DNA.\n\nThen we discovered that certain kinds of radiation can actually cause DNA to spontaneously and randomly mutate, and thus the trope was born. \n\nMuch more recently, we've figured out that DNA isn't some all-powerful designer, but instead just a sort of framework for epigenetic factors to express themselves, and it's highly unlikely that our DNA can be manipulated in order to achieve those kinds of superhuman factors.",
"Scientifically ignorant dime-novel writers in the 1950s, churned out science*-fiction* horror stories/comics/etc. in an effort to cash in on the public's general fear of a nuclear war.",
"The dramatization of fact did it. In real life you're obviously probably just going to get cancer and/or bleed from your orifices as your gastrointestinal tract melts.\n\nBUT it can cause mutations. In fact, we purposefully used it to breed new varieties of plants by bombarding their seeds with radiation and growing them. It's like playing the lottery for genetic traits. One funny legal quirk is that it doesn't count as genetic engineering so producers can claim they're organic. \n\nIf you want to read up a little on it, here's the wiki page: _URL_0_",
"Remember how before those tropes it was a lab explosion with mysterious chemicals, or before that, lightning? \n\nPeople not fully understanding how something works leaves an air of mystery and possibility that is easy to drop into a story to explain the unexplainable. We don’t expect the audience (or ourselves) to know how it works (or happened to work that one time because of that rogue variable) so, why not have it shake out that way?",
"In 1954, the original Godzilla film was released in Japan. Godzilla was canonically a monster created by nuclear radiation - this was a cultural response to the recent Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings and widespread fear of nuclear radiation. \n\nOn the other side of the Pacific, the US began popularizing superhero characters who had been empowered by radiation like Superman. It could be argued that the turnaround in narrative from radiation = monsters in Japan and radiation = superheroes in the US were two sides of the same WWII coin. ",
"Okay, I'm going to make a lot of people sad by pointing this out, but exceptional heroes, superheroes, aliens, and gods are all really the same artistic device: a way to isolate and magnify some particular facet of the human condition. We'll stick to the science-ey ones here, but honestly they're pretty much all represented in the comic book universes, as far as I can tell. (Thor: god. Superman: alien. Batman: just a pissed off dude.)\n\n & #x200B;\n\nIn terms of storytelling, the way your subject becomes a superhero, or whatever, is comparatively unimportant. Don't get me wrong, many many stories, even the great ones, luxuriate in those details of origin and world building and so on, and make the origin story the first act, even. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nBut just as often as not, especially in highly abbreviated formats like film, television, and short(er) stories, the details get dumped in the name of pure exposition. You gotta get it out, get past it, and be done with it so you can hide your vulnerabilities and your deus ex machina and all that other bullshit in it and whip it out as needed.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nIt is at that point that the writer reaches into his bag of tropes--I'm sorry, ideas. \n It has to be something with just enough plausibility to jump the disbelief hurdle, just new enough to be different, but it also has to be *familiar* to the audience. You've got to decide early whether your gimmick is gonna be science or magic, 'cause if you switch tracks on your audience, you'll get your own midichlorians shoved straight up your tail.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nPlausible, familiar, and quick. Otherwise you've got to show it or explain it or whatever, and now you've got to bake a damned pie because you're the one who threw the bake sale. And that wastes time. So you give 'em something that goes down quick and easy, and get going. \n\n & #x200B;\n\n( I'm sure there's a name for this trick. A MacGuffin is the gimmick that moves the plot along. This gimmick defines the origin of the character.)\n\n & #x200B;\n\nSo the mechanism that creates your hero (and/or villain) just cannot be too far out of step with the audience of your day, see? It has to be familiar enough that the audience buys it, doesn't dwell on it, and moves on. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nSo for Mary Shelley, the gimmick is electricity in the form of lightning (and yo look there's ionized stuff hiding in that plasma). That gag still holds up, by the way, along with moonlight, which is a much older trope. Soon after Shelley the grim march of the industrial world led to mechanical-type plot devices--Captain Nemo isn't exactly a mechanical supervillain at first glance... except that he's basically wearing a giant submersible turtle suit that lets him roam around and fuck shit up. Then World War I came along and the horrors of chemistry did the trick. When astronomy became regularly taught in schools, the gimmick could suddenly be aliens and \"beams.\" Then World War II and the atomic age gave us \"radiation\", which is usually as nebulous as James Mason's \"secrets\" in *North by Northwest*.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nToday, audiences get told a lot more stories than they likely ever did before, so the explanations vary amusingly and some of them I love dearly.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nSo, there's the why, and the when naturally follows from it: ionizing radiation as a trope arose within a few months or years of the terms becoming widely popularized in non-fiction and conversation. So you should see an uptick in its use in the early 1930s, when there were fairly well publicized stories about pre-war developments in physics, then an explosion after August, 1945, and probably a continued rise in its use as weird shit like peppermint came onto the market.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nYou should probably see a few science fiction writers anticipate that time frame, too, as their audiences can have somewhat different standards when it comes to suspension of disbelief. In fact I remember one story about a guy who was run down by the FBI because he published a story about a dirty bomb before the first A-bomb test. That's why I love the science fiction writers. They're pie-bakers. I'm a pie-baker. I like pie."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[],
[
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutation_breeding"
],
[],
[],
[]
] |
||
2p3ncw
|
How long did it take after the fall of Rome before the tech level was the same again?
|
AskHistorians
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/2p3ncw/how_long_did_it_take_after_the_fall_of_rome/
|
{
"a_id": [
"cmt43lz"
],
"score": [
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"text": [
"Hi, this is a very common mistake that people got \"stupider\" after the fall of Rome or any significant amount of knowledge 'disappeared' after the fall. We have a pretty extensive FAQ which gathers some of the better answers to them. The first one I believe is the most comprehensive but I'll post another of my favorite ones:\n\n* [Why are the European \"Dark Ages\" considered a misnomer?](_URL_4_)\n\n* [How was the relationship between the Church and science in the Middle Ages? Does it really deserves to be called the Dark Age?](_URL_2_)\n\nThe issue is not that people \"got dumber\" or \"fell behind\" but rather Europe went through a massive fragmentation process and it created the illusion of 'dumbing down' not because people were dumber but because people just fundamentally held less land, had less people, and less money and trade connections. \n\nThe Romans could build these enormous stone monoliths in central Italy even though Italy isn't exactly a stoneworks producing region because they could sail in thousands upon thousands of tonnes of stone from across a safe Mediterranean (because they owned all of it) from territories they owned across it for essentially \"free\". However how can we expect a continuous series of successor states all fighting each other for the territory now being divvied up and trying to consolidate themselves, without the trade connections and sheer size of empire, be expected to do the same scale of works?\n\nWhy would a small Count or Duke need an aqueduct? Or an extensive series of roads? How can someone who is trying to just keep their small plot of land together justify building a giant Roman-like temple? With no strong centralized power along with a continuous series of invading powers Europe just became a fragmented place that frankly did not have the time nor inclination or funds/justification to do the splendorous things Roman's did. \n\nWe see that right when things started to stabilize these things start coming back but bigger and better. We see the rise of the University, modern medicine, [absolutely](_URL_7_) beautiful [and](_URL_0_) intricate [Gothic](_URL_3_) Cathedrals. The Medieval Era, especially post-1000, is home to such an extensive list of engineering feats and technological inventions it would be redundant to go through them all. Independently developed gunpowder, glasses, clocks, modern papermaking techniques, Arab numerals, the compass, [astrolabs](_URL_8_) to calculate latitude, [cross staffs](_URL_1_), [artesian wells](_URL_6_) which didn't need to be pumped, advancements in mill and windmills which removed the need for manual labor, horseshoes, and that's not even going into the laundry list of military inventions the Medieval Era was home too.\n\nSo they never really \"fell behind\" they just had more priorities than competing with and continuing on the masterful works Rome was capable of doing out of the luxury of it holding just about the entire Mediterranean (and then some) with a strong, centralized bureaucracy in the middle of it all. However, if we just include ourselves to the Eastern Roman Empire [there was still quite the list throughout this period as well.](_URL_5_)"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"http://images.fineartamerica.com/images-medium-large/barcelona-cathedral-yhun-suarez.jpg",
"http://www.historymuseum.ca/cmc/exhibitions/hist/frobisher/images/fr57602b.jpg",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/10an7j/how_was_the_relationship_between_the_church_and/",
"http://www.adaynotwasted.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/saint-patricks-cathedral.jpg",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/235w3l/why_are_the_european_dark_ages_considered_a/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/1zw63t/ama_late_antiquityearly_medieval_era_circa_400/cfxpnr6",
"http://water.usgs.gov/edu/graphics/artesiandiagram.gif",
"http://gregannandale.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Barcelona-Gothic-Cathedral-1920x1278.jpg",
"http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/whipple/explore/images/astronomy/1264large.jpg"
]
] |
||
5331wa
|
When will certain stars in constellations (such as the Big Dipper) disappear?
|
The star, Dubhe, in the big dipper, when will it 'burn out' to where it's no longer seen in the constellation?
I know that the star is burning hydrogen right now. When it's out of hydrogen, it'll burn helium, and then when it's out of helium, turn into a 'white dwarf' then a 'black dwarf'. Is the 'black dwarf' stage of the star when we will not see it from Earth anymore?
|
askscience
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/5331wa/when_will_certain_stars_in_constellations_such_as/
|
{
"a_id": [
"d7q8ok9"
],
"score": [
5
],
"text": [
"Dubhe is a red giant, so it has already evolved off the main sequence and will be the first star of the Big Dipper to die. It probably has millions of years left until it collapses into a white dwarf.\n\nLong before that happens though, the stars of the Big Dipper will drift apart and will no longer be together in a constellation.\n\nIt takes much longer than the current age of the universe for a white dwarf to cool into a black dwarf, so at this time there are no black dwarfs."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[]
] |
|
3idxzz
|
if caught. what would the ashley madison hacker(s) likely be charged with?
|
I know they probably won't be since they appear to have taken most precautions but everyone is so accepting of the hack as in "f all cheaters" I wonder if courts would likely go easy on them? Also would they take into account things such as the guys who killed themselves or whatever millions it cost Ashley Madison. I know everyone hated the business but I'm not sure if arguing the morality if a business would get you any leniency.
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/3idxzz/eli5_if_caught_what_would_the_ashley_madison/
|
{
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"text": [
" > I wonder if courts would likely go easy on them?\n\nNot likely. The courts are designed to take all emotional aspects out of a trial. In practice, sometimes it's shady. But generally the defendant's attorneys would emphasize the jury to focus on the strict legal definitions of the charges without moral issues.\n\n---\n\nRegarding the charges, I could see theft of property & blackmail as being two large ones. I don't think there could be any manslaughter charges for the suicides. I'm not a lawyer.",
"Not a lawyer, but my guess is they'll be able to charge them under at least one of the provisions of [18 U.S. Code § 1030](_URL_0_), probably either (a)(6) or (a)(7), or both. And it looks like both of those will put them in jail for up to 5 years (assuming you can argue that the value of Ashley Madison's database was greater than $5k, which shouldn't be too hard).",
"Some states have enacted statutes that criminalize the mere act of hacking a network, for example Colorado:\n\n > (1) A person commits computer crime if the person knowingly:\n(a) Accesses a computer, computer network, or computer system or any part thereof without authorization; exceeds authorized access to a computer, computer network, or computer system or any part thereof; or uses a computer, computer network, or computer system or any part thereof without authorization or in excess of authorized access; or ... \n(d) Accesses any computer, computer network, or computer system, or any part thereof to commit theft\n\nC.R.S. 18-5.5-102\n\nThe severity of the offense is based on the value/damage the hacker was attempting to steal/cause ($1 million or more being a class 2 felony). If nothing of value is taken or no damage is caused to the network, it's still a class 2 misdemeanor just for unauthorized access. \n\nI believe there is a similar federal statute but I am not in a position to quickly locate it at the moment."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[
"https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1030"
],
[]
] |
|
28q311
|
why do we have self esteem?
|
Is self esteem just made up or is it actually a part of our brain, do we NEED to have self esteem?
Do animals have self esteem?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/28q311/eli5_why_do_we_have_self_esteem/
|
{
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"cidcq4e"
],
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"text": [
"Everyone has thoughts and feelings about themselves, and \"self esteem\" is really just a fancy term for this. If you look at different people, you will see that people who feel pretty good about themselves, and feel like they can do well at some things, are generally more successful and less likely to suffer from depression than those who think they're failures and can't do anything right. If you grow up with your parents telling you that you never do anything right, you're bad at school, you're dumb, and so on, you are very likely to \"internalize\" those feelings and start to believe them yourself. Once this happens, it's very tough to shake it, even when you're an adult. It can affect your relationships, your motivation and ambitions, mental health, and pretty much every aspect of your life, so self-esteem is very important.\n\nAs for animals, it's tough to get into their heads and see what they think and feel. But animals can act very differently depending on if they are rewarded and given treats or if they are kicked and abused. They may have something similar to self-esteem, even though they may not really have a concept of \"self\"."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[]
] |
|
3ii5x8
|
why do cats always seem to run away from dogs instead of the other way around?
|
I have a cocker spaniel and I noticed that whenever she meets a cat, no matter whether it's bigger or smaller than her (and usually it's either the same size or smaller than the cat, she's only a puppy yet), the cat always seems ready to flee first, whereas my dog automatically assumes a threatening position and is ready to chase the cat, even though she's not very aggressive at all and is actually quite timid in most situations, and she's too slow. I also notice the same dynamic whenever I see a random cat and dog encounter one another. Why is it like that? I always thought cats and dogs were roughly on equal level on the food chain - they're both predators, after all. Do cats have some inherent "flight rather than fight" instinct that dogs lack? If so, how and why did it develop? Are dogs physically stronger than cats and more capable of hurting them than the other way arond even when they're the same size and that's why the cats are the ones to run away?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/3ii5x8/eli5_why_do_cats_always_seem_to_run_away_from/
|
{
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"cugmb5f",
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7,
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"text": [
"Cats are suited to ambushing; the attack pattern universal to most cats involves pouncing from behind and biting the back of the neck, and their physiology favors this with a body streamlined for speed and light footing. \n\nDespite the fact that cats hone their claws for maximum effect (even housecats are capable of killing a person with a slash to the neck if they were trying to kill), they aren't as good in a straight fight against a more robust animal because they can't take as much punishment. \n\nDogs are stronger and able to take more punishment, but they aren't as fast, so they prefer to tackle prey head-on. \n\nCats, realizing that they won't do as well in a head-on confrontation, tend to flee with their superior speed. ",
"On thing to consider is language. Butt high, head low mean opposite things to cats and dogs.\n\nFor a cat that is an attack position, for a dog play.\n\nBasic communication may be a factor as the dog is saying \"I will fuck you up\" in cat speak without knowing it"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[]
] |
|
cnk6ee
|
why is losing your job called being "fired"?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/cnk6ee/eli5_why_is_losing_your_job_called_being_fired/
|
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"According to [etymology online](_URL_0_) it has its roots in the concept of firing a gun. Being fired (from a job) is called being discharged, which again is another word for firing a gun. I guess \"discharged\" colloquially became \"fired\" over time. Also, you can drive something out by fire, which definitely seems connected.",
"In sSpanish you say Despedir, which means to give someone their fairwells, but that literally translates as to “unask” someone.",
"i wonder if canned meant put in a barrel and then thrown overboard... old england was brutal",
"Its a phrase from the middle nineteenth century. Fired out used be many any sort of forceful ejection from a place. so you used to \"Fire out\" belligerent drunks from a bar, \"Fire out\" non-paying tenants, and \" fire out\" terrible employees from a job. It was synonymous with throw out but with a more angry connotation.",
"There are 2 theories going around:\n\nIt comes from people's stuff getting set on fire after they get dismissed from a job when they did really badly. An example for this would be the laws of the mendip miners against thieves:\n\n > that if any man of that occupacõn doe pick or steale any Lead or Lead oare to the value of xiiid. ob. the Lord or his officer may arrest all his Lead and oare house or hearths wth all his Grooves and workes and keepe them as a forfeit to his owne use And shall take the person that soe hath offended and bring him where his house or worke and all his tooles and Instruments belonging to the same occupacõn bee and put him into his house or worke and set fire in all together about him and banish him from that occupacõn before all the Myneders for ever. [Source](_URL_0_)\n\nThe other one is about it not being taken in the literal sense, but more metaphor of firing a bullet being fired/discharged.",
"The Danes in the 1920’s used to shoot people in the groin who’s employment they had recently terminated, hence the expression ‘to be fired’.",
"It may have already been stated, and I'm not sure if it's a folk etymology, but it supposedly relates to travelling tradesmen that carried their tools around from job to job.\n\nIf you were 'sacked' you were able to leave the job with your tools in your sack.\n\nIf you were 'fired' your failing was so egregious that your tools would be burned (I.e. Fired) making it much more difficult for you to get a job anywhere else.\n\nEdit: removal of the extra 'a job'.",
"In spanish you dont get fired when you loose your job you get fired when you fail grade its called quemarse (being fired)",
"I once heard it had colonial roots. When a town or colony wanted someone to leave they would burn the person's house down. \n\n\"That person got fired\" aka we burned his house down so he would leave."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"https://www.etymonline.com/word/fire"
],
[],
[],
[],
[
"http://www.thelog.org.uk/more06.html"
],
[],
[],
[],
[]
] |
||
141657
|
what is a "non-member observer state", and what does this mean for palestinians?
|
Reference? _URL_0_
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/141657/eli5_what_is_a_nonmember_observer_state_and_what/
|
{
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"text": [
"Its a half-way step to becoming a full-blown member of the UN. It is recognized as an official country (State), which means they get to send a representative to sit in and listen to the goings-on in the UN (Observer), but not cast any votes (Non-Member)."
]
}
|
[] |
[
"http://www.reddit.com/r/worldnews/comments/140m1g/un_votes_to_upgrade_palestinians_to_nonmember/"
] |
[
[]
] |
|
74rboo
|
If my 60 GB phone is full or empty, is there any difference in weight at the nano level?
|
askscience
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/74rboo/if_my_60_gb_phone_is_full_or_empty_is_there_any/
|
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"text": [
"Yes, if my understanding of this article is correct:\n_URL_0_ \n(I hope nytimes is an acceptable source, even if not academic)\n\nIn the linked article, John D. Kubiatowicz, a professor of computer science at the University of California, Berkeley says that for a kindle with 4 Gigabyte memory, this would mean a rough increase in weight of 10^–18 grams.\n\nFor your situation of a 60GB phone, this would mean \n(60Gb/4Gb) * (10^-18 grams) = 1.5 × 10^-17 grams. So certainly less than what you would be able to feel.\n\nWhile I originally thought this would be because the storage would use extra electrons, the article/Prof. Kubiatowicz say otherwise:\n\n\"Although the total number of electrons in the memory does not change as the stored data changes,” Dr. Kubiatowicz said, the trapped ones have a higher energy than the untrapped ones. A conservative estimate of the difference would be 10^–15 joules per bit.\n\n\"As the equation E=mc2 makes clear, this energy is equivalent to mass and will have weight.\"\n\nIt is my understanding that most/all mobile phones use flash memory for storage so the linked article about flash memory in Kindles would be applicable here. Please let me know (or just delete this outright) if I am mistaken.\n\n*edited to fix exponent formatting\n \n\n",
"Most comments here are assuming that \"empty\" space on the phone is occupied by 0 bits, and that new data will switch some to 1. In reality, there's no guarantee that those bits are 0, since most operating systems have clever bookkeeping to allow regions of memory to be marked as empty without having to overwrite that entire section with 0 bits.\n\nYour meta question appears to be: does data have mass? And the answer to that question, and in my mind one of the cool things about data, is that it does not. \n\nA knit quilt with intricate, colorful patterns weighs the same as a gray, featureless one. A book filled with random scribblings weighs the same as an equivalent dictionary. We're a species that evolved to match patterns; data is just patterns: human-interpretable arrangements of things. ",
"With NAND, the opposite would be true. Flash erases to 1 and writes 0. When you erase a NAND cell, the hardware fills the cell with that highest possible amount of voltage. Writing a page then reduces that voltage. ",
"From a comp science perspective, IF there is a difference in weight between a bit having a value of 1 and a value of 0, the answer is it depends.\n\nThe thing about digital storage is the data is not erased when you delete a file, it's only removed form the \"index\" so to speak. If you have a 60GB file which is just straight 1s for all of its bits, and you delete it, they don't become 0, they stay at 1 but your file system will set the memory addresses as available for new files to be written to. In the same vein you could have a 60GB file filled with straight 0s. That's why when you delete a file there are file recovery tools that can scan your drive and recover them, as long as you haven't overwritten the data with a new file, it's 1s and 0s all are there and can be read.\n\nIt doesn't end there, some chips use inverse logic, where a high (voltage) state means a logic 0 and low state is a logic 1. This is the case for NAND flash memories which most if not all modern smartphones use for their internal storage.",
"There is no clear meaning for a \"full\" or \"empty\" phone from an Information Science point of view. The least weighing combination of 1s and 0s could stand for a fully filled storage, simply because that might be the exact information that you want to save. Similarly, the highest weighing combination can be interpreted as empty, as the software dealing with storage information doesn't really bother what state the physical storage is in, it just calls it unused and therefore empty. So this is somewhat about perspectives and what you call full and empty. ",
"To be purely pedantic, no. Because nano means 10^(-9), there is no perceptible change in weight. A change in the energy levels of electrons is virtually undetectable from a weight perspective. We can calculate out the possible differences, but they are in the 10^(-18) range of a difference.\n\nIn order for the question to be relevant, you would need to double the precision of your orders of magnitude. To put it in perspective, you would need to take a particle on the nano level and grow it to human proportions. Then you’d need to measure the difference in nano based weight on the enlarged particle to notice anything. ",
"It would, but the difference would be negligible. For example, you could also calculate your phones thrust from the light leaving the screen, or the weight of the battery charged vs not charged, ect. On that level there’s a lot you could calculate, but in practical terms it is nothing. ",
"In short, the answer would be yes. But the answer is much longer than that, since it also depends on: \"how does your phone store data?\" and most importantly \"what is data?\".\n\nFirst let's use an example like a hard drive, that uses a magnetic head to record the data bit by bit in the metalic disk, each bit corresponds to a tiny sector of the disk that is magnetized either positive or negative. In this case, the difference of mass from a empty drive and a full drive would be basically none, since there wasn't really a \"change of state\" in the parts inside of the hard drive (except for the circuits that drive the magnetic head) but the data storage part of it mostly stay with the same number of electrons and overall mass.\n\nNow, if we're talking about solid state data, or data that is recorded in a method that utilizes transistor states, then I'd say that the difference in mass would be less negligible but still it is just extra electrons in the form of stored data, since this time you'd have to \"turn on\" some transistors in order to store the data. It would also depend on the configuration of the transistors, some my weigh more empty than full if they're p-type transistors.\n\nThe difference of weigh would also be so little... I even found this example that was set by a professor, while talking about solid state data:\n\n\"Prof John Kubiatowicz, a computer scientist at the University of California, Berkeley, explained that storing new data involves holding electrons in a fixed place. Using Einstein's E=mc² formula, which states that energy and mass are directly related, Prof Kubiatowicz calculated that filling a 4GB Kindle to its storage limit would increase its weight by a billionth of a billionth of a gram, or 0.000000000000000001g.\"\n\n",
"Mechanical engineer here. Answer is no. Data saved on your phone is stored on the existing infrastructure, so if you keep your phone in a vacuum and download a bunch of movies the mass of your phone remains constant. Similarly, your battery is the same mass whether full or empty, the electrons simply move around from what I understand. You can write and unwrite data to a storage device all day long and the mass should stay the same."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/25/science/25qna.html"
],
[],
[],
[],
[],
[],
[],
[],
[]
] |
||
6gefk3
|
Why does it seem like the Spanish conquered most of the world except the USA?
|
It seems like all the current Spanish speaking countries spoke Spanish and were thus conquered by the Spanish long before the american colonies came, unless I'm mistaken.
It just seems like there would have been a shitload more Spanish speaking allies from all those countries fighting together to save/conquer America (**USA**) for their own rather than let the English speaking armies take it.
Why didnt or weren't they able to do it? Why is Spanish not THE dominant language?
|
AskHistorians
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/6gefk3/why_does_it_seem_like_the_spanish_conquered_most/
|
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"Before I try to answer this (Can't promise anything), are you asking why the Spanish didn't settle in northern America or why they didn't try to attack it after the english-speaking northern colonies were formed?",
"By the world I assume you mean the Americas. \n\nSpain's voyages of exploration were the first to \"discover\" the new world (if you don't count the Viking who failed to establish successful colonies). While there were great empires in the Americas prior to Columbus's arrival, they were completely devastated by European diseases (smallpox etc.) It is estimated between the arrival of Columbus and the conquest of the Aztec's and Incas that 90% of the population of the Americas died of European diseases. This made it easy for European's to establish colonies in the Americas. Cortes conquered the Aztec Empire establishing the colony of New Spain (modern day Mexico) and Pizarro conquered the Inca's establishing the Spanish main (modern day Peru). Portuguese ships a atempting to round the tip of Africa and landed in modern day Brazil establishing Portuguese colonies in there. Britain colonized the east coast of the North America and France had Quebec and a lot of open land in modern day USA. \n\nThis left Spain with a vast empire including basically all central and south America apart from Brazil. They became the dominant world power of the 16th century. The Spanish monarchs were not very good with economics and Spain experienced rapid silver inflation and this coupled with overspending and just bad luck (Spanish Armada) caused Spain to go bankrupt in the early 17th century.\n\nThis started the decline of the Spanish Empire. The Spanish supported the Americans during the American war of independence but did not recognise the independence of the USA after the war. Then in 1803 during the Napoleonic wars France sold Louisiana to the USA. (This area was given to Spain after the Seven years war but taken back by France in 1800). \n\nMost of Spain colonies became independent in the early 19th century. This was kicked off in 1808 when Naploean for whatever reason decided to invade his ally Spain and imprison the King. This lead to conflict in the Spanish colonies. In the next few decades South America became many different independent countries. \n\nNow back to USA. In 1848 the a newly independent Mexico came into conflict with the USA over Texas which ended in USA annexing most of Northern Mexico all the way to the Pacific. \n\nThe Spanish American war in 1898 was fought over the remaining Spanish colonies which were all islands which ended in America taking Puerto Rico and the Phillipiens.\n\nIn the end, when Spain was powerful enough to conquer North America it was more focused on invading Britain and sent several Armadas to invade but all but one failed because of weather. In theory if the Armadas were successful Spain would have taken the British colonies in the new world. \n \nTL;DR The Spanish Empire in America and the USA only co-existed for a short time. \n\n"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[]
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|
2c0pfx
|
How do plants manage to attack each other without destroying themselves or offspring? e.g. oils that inhibit germination
|
Also are there species which use these methods to outright destroy other plants for their future gain?
|
askscience
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2c0pfx/how_do_plants_manage_to_attack_each_other_without/
|
{
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"cjax0kq"
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"text": [
"We call the process of a plant pre-emptively fighting off other plants [negative allelopathy](_URL_1_). This is often done through the use of tertiary metabolites or secreted proteins. [Eucalyptus trees](_URL_2_) are a common example of this process. The tree dumps a compound from its roots into the surrounding soil, this compound inhibits the growth of other organisms. As the paper I linked indicates, concentration of Eucalyptus trees in a mono-culture will eventually concentrate the phytotoxin enough to prevent the growth of Eucalyptus. So, like any biological agent of war, too much will kill the producer eventually.\n\nNote that allelopathy is an *active effect*, that is to say the tree actively expends calories for the purpose of creating a presence of this compound in surrounding soils. Lets contrast this with the activity of Redwood trees and tannin distribution. Redwood trees produce tannins in various tissues for the purpose of preventing fungal infection over long periods of growth. This is not an allelopathic event, the tannins have their own purpose and it is not for fending off competitors. Yet, as leaf litter deposits around redwood trees grow the tannin concentration in the soil rises, preventing all but certain species from growing in the area. Redwood duff as we know it today prevents the germination of a huge variety of plants, but the redwood trees have specifically adapted pathways in young plants for dealing with high tannin concentrations. Other plants do not have the advantage of living with the selective pressure of high tannin concentrations, so they have simply not had any way of developing specific pathways for dealing with it. This is one of the major contributors to redwood forest ecology.\n\nAs for the second question, this just seems like a generalization for competition. [The strangler fig](_URL_0_) is an interesting example. This common name for a variety of moraceous plants denotes a vining plant that uses a grown tree for support, but as the vine corticates and thickens in later years it strangles and kills the tree that supports it, leaving the thickened vine to support itself."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strangler_fig",
"http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/hs186",
"http://hs.scib.ac.cn/inc/paper_sfu/200905.pdf"
]
] |
|
1aj15b
|
The technology to get humans to Mars and keep them alive there exists. The technology to bring humans from Mars back to Earth simply does not exist yet. Why is that?
|
I was reading [this article](_URL_0_) and it struck me as kind of weird that we couldn't get people back from Mars.
Is it a fuel problem or what?
|
askscience
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1aj15b/the_technology_to_get_humans_to_mars_and_keep/
|
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"text": [
"Pretty much the fuel, yes. We'd need to both lift the return trip fuel out of Earth orbit and land it safely on Mars. To land it safely, we need to bring more fuel to slow it down when we get there - so we need to lift even more fuel into orbit. And every bit of extra fuel we add, we need to add extra fuel to lift it... you see how it goes!\n\nI've heard suggestions of using multiple, separate launches to get over the Earth end problem - we either lift and assemble in orbit, or we send the lander over first, and later send over the fuel for the return journey, which is picked up in Mars orbit. I don't know if anyone's come up with a sensible solution to landing on Mars with enough fuel to return to Mars orbit, though.",
"There is a plan for in situ production of fuel for a return flight. May I direct your attention to [Mars Direct](_URL_0_).\n\nIf you're really interested in the subject of Martian exploration, may I recommend [The Case for Mars](_URL_1_)."
]
}
|
[] |
[
"http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2013/03/16/mars-one-live-die-mars.html?cmp=rss"
] |
[
[],
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Direct",
"http://www.amazon.com/The-Case-Mars-Settle-Planet/dp/145160811X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1363650199&sr=8-1&keywords=the+case+for+mars"
]
] |
|
238t74
|
How accurate is pop culture's portrayal of Native Americans as "one with nature"
|
In movies and such, Native American tribes are often shown to be much more environmentally friendly and conscious compared to their European counterparts, going so far as to share a "bond" with mother nature. How accurate is this? Did Native Americans really treat all nature with respect, or did their relatively small tribes just simply leave less of an impact?
|
AskHistorians
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/238t74/how_accurate_is_pop_cultures_portrayal_of_native/
|
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"text": [
"A bit of both. There was a lower permanent population density before white settlement which is an important factor. However, historians have shown that many tribes did not have the same consumption and land use beliefs and behaviors as Europeans. Each tribe had its own practices as well. Additionally, there is the myth that the Native Americans lived in a pristine environment when Europeans arrived. Scholars have debunked this concept.\n\nCheck out these books for more on this topic\n\nChanges in the Land by William Cronon\nThe Ecological Indian by Shephard Krech\nThe California Indians and their Environment by Kent Lightfoot\nThe Destruction of the Bison by Andrew Isenberg\n",
"The origin of the belief itself needs to be addressed; it can't be said to originate in pop culture because the concept of *\"the noble savage\"* is quite old in western tradition.",
"I know you are asking specifically about Northern Amerindians, but I found out that in South America the portrayal of Amerindians as \"one with nature\" was not completely fictional. I've read a book called Urutopiag by native Brazilian author Yaguarê Yamã. Modern thought influences in his writing are obvious, but still, the way he depicts Amazonian (?) mythology really makes a point that Brazilian Indians always had a different relationship with nature than Europeans had.\n\nFor example, \"respecting the nature\" happens in many ways. You shouldn't hunt excessively because that would anger a benign deity, Ga'Apy'Hog. However, speaking loudly while in the forest would anger evil demons, the Ahiãg, who will torture human beings gruesomely. Finally, you should not hurt the wild animals that are protected by your spirit guardian; however, you *should* hurt the animals that are protected by the spirit which antagonizes your guardian. Enraging your guardian will make crossing the woods much less safe, as you won't be protected against the Ahiãg, or maybe even a spirit guardian might try to hurt you.\n\nIt's clear that what Yamã presents as \"Amazonian religion\" isn't the original thing people had in the 16th century. For example, it's full of mythological beings of Guarani (who used to live in the Atlantic shore an in Argentina/Paraguay) culture like the Kurupyra, and it sometimes uses the Nhengatu language which is an artificial language created by Jesuits. Still, seems fair to me to say that the notion that you should respect nature so that demons won't torture and rape you isn't an Westernized concept.",
"Native American tribes from the east coast of North America, upon which much of the \"one with nature\" ideals seem to be based, used nature to suit their needs. \n\nFirst, tribes such as the Powhatan, who lived near Jamestown, did not store much food for the winter because they required the hard winter months to keep the population of their tribe in check. If they grew too big, they would have to move, so the hardships of nature kept their size sustainable. \n\nSecond, many tribes cultivated the environment around them very carefully. What many colonists saw as rich, abundant nature, was actually a controlled environment a tribe had made. Think about the forest as a garden: you have certain plants in certain areas to attract certain animals, you have burned the trees in one area to allow new growth, and in other places you are cultivating edible vegetables. From a european perspective, this was a more \"one with nature\" way to sustain yourself in your environment, but it was definitely controlled. "
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
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|
1bzs6q
|
Did the average peasant understand Shakespeare's plays?
|
Shakespeare is known as one of the most impressive playwrights of all time, yet common folk- in modern times- have to take a lot of time translating different jokes and simply re-reading his plays to even understand what is happening. While it is easier to understand when actually seen on stage, as it would have been, many things are lost in the jumble of eloquence that Shakespeare uses. Did this also happen during his time?
|
AskHistorians
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/1bzs6q/did_the_average_peasant_understand_shakespeares/
|
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"text": [
"Actually, you can argue that most of his plays were targeted at the lower classes. There's actually a term, [groundling](_URL_0_), for those too poor to afford the nicer seats at the Globe and had to sit in the cheaper, \"penny\" seats. For all the lords and ladies that attended, a lot of the revenue was generated by these lower class patrons. \n\nDid they understand everything going on, given that they lacked an education that would tell them about Julius Ceasar or other historical figures in the plays? Probably not. But there were always plenty of sword fights and dirty jokes peppered in the plays to keep everyone happy."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundling"
]
] |
|
2nyan3
|
what happens to the particles we smell?
|
Are they absorbed in our nose? Do we breathe them in or digest them or what?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/2nyan3/eli5_what_happens_to_the_particles_we_smell/
|
{
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"text": [
"After they interact with the receptors in your olfactory nerves they are washed out through mucus secretions and you either sneeze them out and pick at them with your finger when you're bored.",
"After they hit your smell receptors, they either come out as snot, or enter your blood stream directly, at low concentrations. Once they're in your blood stream, they'd eventually be filtered out by either your liver or your kidneys."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[]
] |
|
rm8cz
|
Can two wounds heal so they fuse together? For instance, if I had two cuts or burns, and they were kept in contact the entire healing process, would the skin between them fuse?
|
askscience
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/rm8cz/can_two_wounds_heal_so_they_fuse_together_for/
|
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"text": [
"You mean, say, you have a cut on two adjacent fingers, and then you held your two fingers together with a split while the cuts healed?",
"Harold Gillies invented a technique that was later developed by Archibald McIndoe (a dutch plastic surgeon who worked for the RAF in WWII) that may be relevant to your question.\n\n[walking-stalk skin graft](_URL_2_)\n\n[pic here](_URL_0_)\n\nIn this technique one end of a graft is attached to the target area while the other remains at the original site to avoid initial loss of vascular connection and also gives the graft a little extra time to bond to the target area before being entirely grafted there.\n\nThe first pilots to receive this pioneering treatment were called the [guinea pig club](_URL_1_).\n\nAs an aside I also admire McIndoe and his team for their recognition of the psychological aspect of body disfigurement. At the hospital, aside from adequate clinical skill, the nurses would often be chosen for their beauty. This was in an effort to reassure the men that they could still interact comfortably with women and still appear attractive, despite their injuries. I saw a great documentary on this once, I'll see if I can find the name.",
"In cases of severe frostbite or burns, the digits need to be kept apart, for this reason, scar tissue will form, possibly adhering digits together",
"Check out the last thread where this was discussed:\n\n_URL_0_",
"Yes, this happens all the time with burns. That is why you see each individual finger wrapped. If the entire hand is wrapped, the skin of each finger will fuse together. "
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
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"http://newsimg.bbc.co.uk/media/images/40833000/jpg/_40833422_qvh_toper_203.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinea_Pig_Club",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walking-stalk_skin_graft"
],
[],
[
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/ilriy/theoretically_if_i_were_to_cut_say_two_of_my/"
],
[]
] |
||
5jbmza
|
Looking for a WWII Army unit (my grandfathers). Only have a picture of the crest
|
My grandfather passed away in 2001, and left no military records. He was drafted into the Army in 1942, and was sent to fight in Europe. Being a veteran myself, I am very interested to learn of his personal exploits and his unit's involvements. He did not speak about his involvements in WWII with the exception of when he received a Bronze Star with V device and a purple heart during the Battle of the Bulge. According to my father, the records building containing my grandfathers records burned down many years ago. It is also possible that this is not a US Army crest. My father has a box of Nazi memorabilia my grandfather brought back. Link to the crest:
_URL_0_
Any information about what unit this is from / any information would be immensely appreciated. I have tried the brute force approach of scrolling through thousands of historical military society archives, but to no avail (yet).
|
AskHistorians
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/5jbmza/looking_for_a_wwii_army_unit_my_grandfathers_only/
|
{
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"That's the Shoulder Sleeve Insignia of the [80th Infantry Division](_URL_1_). The actual \"crest\" (known as a Distinctive Unit Insignia) of the 80th Division looks like [this](_URL_4_). \n\nThe 80th Infantry Division, during World War I, was made up of draftees from New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania, mostly from the latter three states; this is how the division earned its nickname \"Blue Ridge\". After the war, in 1921, the division was reconstituted in the Organized Reserve, maintained in an essentially inactive state with all of its officers but few enlisted men. The 80th Infantry Division was formally reactivated for service on July 15, 1942 and draftees like your grandfather streamed in from all over the country to fill its ranks. \n\nI touch on what your grandfather might have gone through as a draftee [here](_URL_2_).\n\nThe 80th Division Association (which I've linked above) has an unusually complete (for a veterans' association) archive of division documents from WWII; you may be able to find out more about your grandfather's Bronze Star and Purple Heart by scanning through the General Orders. This could take some time, however, as they were issued every day!\n\n > The 80th Infantry Division landed on Utah Beach, 3 August 1944, assembled near St. Jores by 7 August, and on 8 August was ordered to stop the German attack at Avranches. Arriving too late to take part in smashing the German drive, it turned east to seize Evron and Ste. Suzanne, 10 August. The Division then attacked Argentan, taking it, 20 August, and creating the Falaise Pocket. After mopping up in the area, the 80th took part in the Third Army dash across France, cutting through St. Mihiel, Chalons, and Commercy in pursuit of the retreating Germans until stopped by the lack of gasoline and other supplies at the Seille River. From 25 September to 7 November, the Division maintained an aggressive defense of positions west of the Seille, and prepared for the Third Army sweep into the industrially vital Saar Basin. The attack jumped off on 8 November, the 80th advancing through Delme Ridge, Faulquemont, and St. Avold to within 5 miles of Saarbrucken, when it was relieved by the 6th Armored Division, 7 December 1944. After 10 days' rest, the Division returned to combat, moving southeast to take part in an attack on the Siegfried Line at Zweibrucken when the Germans launched their winter offensive in the Ardennes. The 80th was moved northward to Luxembourg and was hurled against the German salient, fighting at Luxembourg and Bastogne, driving the enemy across the Sure [Sauer] to Dahl and Goesdorf, 7 January 1945, and across the Clerf and Wiltz Rivers by 23 January. On 7 February 1945, the Division stormed across the Our and Sauer Rivers at Wallendorf, broke through the Siegfried Line, pursued the fleeing enemy to Kaiserlautern, 20 March, and crossed the Rhine, 27-28 March, near Mainz. Pursuit continued in April, the Division driving rapidly to Erfurt on the 12th, and Weimar, Jena, and Gera on the 14th. Relieved, 21 April, it moved to Nurnberg for occupation duty and on 28 April, to Regensburg, then to the Enns River, when the war in Europe ended.\n\n**Awards: (as of October 1948)**\n\nDistinguished Unit Citations: 6\n\nMOH|DSC|DSM|SSM|LM|DFC|SM|BSM|AM\n:--|:--|:--|:--|:--|:--|:--|:--|:--\n4|34|1|771|12|5|35|3,869|23\n\n**Battle Casualties:**\n\nTotal battle casualties|Deaths among battle casualties|*KIA*|*DOW*|*MIA and declared dead*|*Died while POW*|WIA|MIA|POW\n:--|:--|:--|:--|:--|:--|:--|:--|:--\n17,087|3,500|*3,038*|*442*|*12*|*8*|12,484|488 (476 returned to duty or discharged)|1,077 (1,069 returned to duty or discharged)\n\nSources:\n\n[US World War I order of battle](_URL_3_)\n\n[Army Battle Casualties and Nonbattle Deaths (Statistics and Accounting Branch, Office of the Adjutant General, 1 June 1953)](_URL_0_)\n\n[80th Infantry Division Combat Chronicle](_URL_5_)"
]
}
|
[] |
[
"http://imgur.com/Rrq1dky"
] |
[
[
"http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/ref/Casualties/",
"http://www.80thdivision.com",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/561vrb/what_was_boot_campmilitary_training_like_during/",
"http://www.newrivernotes.com/topical_history_ww1_oob_american_forces.htm",
"http://imgur.com/aROLz6X",
"http://www.history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/cbtchron/cc/080id.htm"
]
] |
|
2zp12d
|
why do you smell burnt toast before having a stroke?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/2zp12d/eli5_why_do_you_smell_burnt_toast_before_having_a/
|
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"text": [
"Generally speaking, you don't. It's from a Canadian Heritage Minute commercial about the first brain surgery for epilepsy. ",
"Didn't know this was a thing...\n\nIt would be highly dependent on where in the brain the stroke occurred. One could have any number of strange sensations relating to that particular area of the brain. \n\nRight before my grandmother had a deadly brain bleed in her brain stem she complained of being nauseous and having a massive headache. This only lasted long enough for my mother to grab a bowl and some aspirin from a few feet away and she was nonresponsive.",
"This was faked by a company. They made a commerical.",
"This is not really true. Sometimes before a major event like a stroke or a seizure the individual might smell a characteristic smell or experience other odd sensations, but it varies from person to person (if it happens at all).\n\nSource: Red Cross first responder trained for the past 6 years."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[],
[],
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||
duq1l9
|
why do some song with spoken segments have them edited out on the radio?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/duq1l9/eli5why_do_some_song_with_spoken_segments_have/
|
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"I’m not 100% certain, but I think it has to do with length. If a song is too long, the least necessary parts will be edited out. \n\nThat’s my general understanding but I could definitely be wrong.",
"In some cases, spoken sections are removed due to licensing. But more frequently, it's due to a desire to not confuse the consumer.\n\nSomeone could hear that DJ bit and believe that it was a real traffic report, no matter how silly that may seem.",
"Songs released as singles often are mixed differently or re-edited so that it’s supposedly more palatable to the average listener and is therefore more likely to get played again or become a hit. Long intros or outros getting trimmed are probably the most common thing; sometimes they’ll cut out verses if the song itself is too long, sometimes they’ll add or take out or adjust the volumes of certain instruments or vocal tracks. \n\nIn this case, the record company might have thought that a spoken-word section in the middle of an anthemic pop song would sound “weird” or something, so what they sent out to radio stations has it mixed out. \n\nSometimes though, the radio stations just play the songs off the albums so we hear the “normal” version.\n\nETA: ok so according to Wikipedia, radio stations sometimes wanted to add their own announcers into that part of the song, so I guess you heard a version of the song sent out for that purpose: _URL_0_"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[],
[
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_Built_This_City"
]
] |
||
g1l25y
|
When slavery was legal in the US, if someone sexually assaulted another person's slave, would their be a criminal charge? What would it be?
|
Would the crime be something like sexual assault, like as a person, or would it be something like destruction of property/vandalism?
|
AskHistorians
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/g1l25y/when_slavery_was_legal_in_the_us_if_someone/
|
{
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"text": [
"There were some laws and instances of enforcement of those laws, related to abuse or killing of another person’s slave. [Georgia](_URL_1_) codified these in their slave codes. I am not aware of any laws specifically against the rape of a slave. There were many laws, including some requiring castration, for various offenses (including sex offenses) allegedly committed by slaves. \n\nThe closest thing I can find to a law prohibiting rape of slaves by owners or whites is in Colonia Louisiana’s Code Noir, which restricted interracial relations resulting in mulatto children. \n\nAs to the criminal charge itself, if it had existed, the name of the charge would have likely varied from state to state, as do the titles of laws and offenses in the modern day. \n\nThere are many recorded instances of slaves having been raped. [It was not uncommon](_URL_4_), and was ingrained in the culture. Elizabeth Keckley, a former slave who later worked in the Lincoln White House, [wrote](_URL_3_) of sexual assault in her memoirs. \n\nWhile the sources I consulted to double-check lack of a law relating to the rape of another slave owner’s slave didn’t affirm the negative that I could find, these are some works I consulted: \n\n[Alabama Slave Codes](_URL_0_) (1833)\n\n[Missouri’s Early Slave Laws[Missouri Slavery Laws](_URL_2_) \n\nEverett, Donald E., “Free Persons of Color in Colonial Louisiana,” The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association, Vol. 7, No. 1. \n\nBardaglio, Peter. “Rape and the Law in the Old South: ‘Calculated to excite Indignation in every heart,’” The Journal of Southern History, Vol. 60, No. 4"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"https://archives.alabama.gov/teacher/slavery/lesson1/doc1-3.html",
"https://www.georgiaarchives.org/documents/Slave_Laws_of_Georgia_1755-1860.pdf",
"https://www.sos.mo.gov/archives/education/aahi/earlyslavelaws/slavelaws",
"https://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/keckley/summary.html",
"https://www.thirteen.org/wnet/slavery/experience/gender/history2.html"
]
] |
|
7q9u87
|
pressure cooking
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/7q9u87/eli5_pressure_cooking/
|
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"text": [
"one of the things that affects how fast something cooks is the temperature. if cooking in water, without a pressure cooker, the highest temperature you can attain in 100 degrees C (or 212 degrees F). If you want to cook something in water at a higher temperature, you can raise the pressure, which allows the water to stay liquid at higher temperatures. As the water starts boiling off in a pressure cooker, it will expand a lot, and since it's contained, it will increase the pressure. If the pressure gets to double atmospheric pressure, which is normal, temperatures can go to 250 degrees F, and cook faster. The cooker will also have a pressure relief valve that opens at a set pressure, to keep pressures from becoming dangerous.",
"At normal atmospheric pressure, water turns to steam at 100C. This means a pot of water can't go over 100C, regardless of how much heat you put in it.\n\nIf you boil that water in a closed vessel, the steam builds up & increases the pressure on the water, allowing it to hit higher temperatures",
"Ahoy, fellow redditor. Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained:\n\n1. [ELI5: How does a pressure cooker work and what goes on inside of it? Is it possible to put a camera inside to see? ](_URL_0_) ^(_5 comments_)\n1. [ELI5: How does a pressure cooker work? ](_URL_2_) ^(_6 comments_)\n1. [ELI5: how do pressure cookers work and who still uses them? ](_URL_1_) ^(_9 comments_)\n1. [Is low temperature pressure cooking useful at all? ](_URL_3_) ^(_1 comment_)\n"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[],
[
"https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/3ogchp/eli5_how_does_a_pressure_cooker_work_and_what/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/5hq1gp/eli5_how_do_pressure_cookers_work_and_who_still/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/2w5w4a/eli5_how_does_a_pressure_cooker_work/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/NoStupidQuestions/comments/5eud30/is_low_temperature_pressure_cooking_useful_at_all/"
]
] |
||
3ua9g1
|
how did a single cell, that replicates it's dna and is supposed to be the exact same, evolve into all the life we now have on earth?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/3ua9g1/eli5_how_did_a_single_cell_that_replicates_its/
|
{
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"text": [
"Cells don't copy their DNA perfectly. Mistakes are made, either because the machinery that makes more DNA isn't flawless or because something in the environment causes damage to the cell. Some of the copies of that theoretical first cell likely got mutations that benefited them and started outcompeting the other cells. These pressures and pressures from the environment selected for competitive mutations and different cell lines emerged. ",
"DNA replication is *not* perfect, errors can and do happen during the replication process. \n\nThat's the whole concept around random mutations... DNA replication can result in random errors that produce feature/behavior changes that may be beneficial, harmful, or neutral to the organism.\n\nOne causal factor that contributes to DNA damage and the development of mutations is ionizing radiation. There are many other reasons, however, why DNA may be damaged or why the replication process may be subject to copying errors.",
"In short: because the DNA is **supposed** to be the exact same, but it isn't. \n\nEvery time DNA replicates itself, there are literally billions of opportunities for error (\"typos\" if you will), and quite a few of these mutations sneak by, ranging from negligible to noticeable. This means that pretty much no offspring cell is exactly like its parent. \n\nFor example: [studies have shown](_URL_0_) that each newborn human has 100-200 new mutations not present in their parent. \n\nSo that one first cell gives rise to two slightly different cells, which become four slightly different cells, and so on. \n\nTiny changes over a looooooooooooong period of time lead to pretty big changes. "
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[],
[
"http://www.nature.com/news/2009/090827/full/news.2009.864.html"
]
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||
d496ns
|
why is radiation most commonly associated with the color green when in reality it is just invisible energy?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/d496ns/eli5_why_is_radiation_most_commonly_associated/
|
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"Early \"glow in the dark\" materials used radioactive materials mixed with phosphorus to provide that glow effect. It happened to be green. Since there's no real color associated with radiation, it just kinda stuck.\n\n[_URL_2_](_URL_2_)\n\n & #x200B;\n\nedit: Correction - Thanks Baud! Mixed with [a phosphor](_URL_1_). Not [phosphorus](_URL_0_).",
"Gadolinium Oxysulfide screen with a terbium activator emission = green light output\n\nBarium Strontium sulfide screen with a europium activator emission = Blue / UV output",
"The first atomic bomb test (Trinity) left a glassy residue called ‘trinitite’ on the desert flood. Trinitite is often green. \n\n_URL_0_",
"Fun fact, radiation CAN be seen under the right circumstances due to the [Cherenkov effect](_URL_0_).\n\nBut it is blue, not green.",
"Here's a mundane, non-scientific explanation... Many years ago (50's) when you went into the shoe store there was a \"fluoroscope\" (near as I can remember) where the shoe salesman would have you stand and look down into the viewer. You saw the image of your feet inside the shoes you were about to buy on a bright green screen allowing you to see how they fit. You could even see the bones inside your feet. These were very popular for awhile and I think the bright green of that image became associated with radioactivity in the public's mind. At least it did in mine! :-)",
"One possibility is because uranium oxide fluoresces green under a black light. It has nothing to do with the radioactivity, but it does glow bright green. [Vaseline glass](_URL_0_) is made with uranium oxide to give it its color, and [it glows quite beautifully](_URL_1_). Note that it is entirely safe.",
"After uranium was first discovered, one of the first things people used it for was adding it to glass to create a green-ish color. The glass also glows green under UV light - without the use of phosphor which has been mentioned in other answers. So the color green has been associated with uranium before humanity really understood what radiation was or that uranium was radioactive\n\n [_URL_1_](_URL_0_)",
"It's because of Glow in the Dark paint.\n\nIn 1908 a scientist named Sabin Arnold von Sochocky invented radioluminescent paint. Ie, paint that glows in the dark due to low-level radiation. That paint consists of two components.\n\n1. Something slightly radioactive. von Sochocky used Radium 226, but today we use tritium (in those cases where we use radioluminescent paint)\n2. Something that glows when exposed to such radiation. The cheapest such paint (and therefor the most common) was Zinc Sulfide with just a tiny bit of copper in it. That paint glows green. Radioactive green. Other slightly more expensive versions can glow blue-green or orange.\n\nSo when people needed to show that \"This is radioactive!\" they automaticly went \"Well, it should probably glow like this radioactive paint. Green!\"",
"The green idea may come from a type of depression era glass that had a radioactive component. This glass had a violently green color that really glows under a black light. In real life straight radiation actually glows blue. \n\nSource: One of my old 4H club moms is a nuclear engineer in charge of decommissioning an outdated nuclear power plant.",
"If you look into the Radium girls you will find a scary history where they all got radiation poisoning from working with glow in the dark paint.",
"Even today you can buy watches with radioactive illumination (it's based on tritium to release energy and phosphor to turn the energy into visible light). The brightest version is green because that's how the physics lines up.\n\nHere's an example: [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)",
"It's blue to me but that's because i've worked at a nuclear power plant and the fuel glows blue",
"The same reason acid is shown as a slimy, corrosive liquid when in reality it looks like water and burns a bit.\n\nBecause it looks cooler.",
"Radium based paint was used on watch faces and hands, especially during WW II. Hundreds of thousands of troops, flyers, and sailors relied on them for accurate timing. The advantage of Radium paint vs Phosphor paint is the Radium paint did not need to be charged with sunlight like the Phosphor. It emitted the same steady green glow all day and all night. And it was fairly bright as well, depending on how much was used on the dial and hands. Not enough to read by, but enough to get you shot at in darkness. \n\nWhen the radioactivity issues associated with atomic power and nuclear weapons came into common experience and discussion, these Radium watches were revealed as a threat, and no doubt their green glow in part became the \"face\" of radioactivity.",
"In visual fiction, green is the color for every kind of dangerous toxic matter: poison, acid, viruses, and radiation.",
" A friend of mine is a nuclear engineer and literally builds and maintains the core of nuclear power plants. He was showing me all kinds of pictures the other day of stuff that’s way over my head. One of the pictures was a bunch of rods and the core in a huge pool, glowing blue. He said that’s normal and just how it is. It was at a party and we didn’t talk very long, plus I’m nowhere near qualified to talk about the stuff at all, but it was definitely glowing blue. \n\nI’d love to hear from someone more qualified to elaborate a bit.",
"Marvel comics had a lot to do with the public perception of radiation . A lot of people associate radiation with green simply because of the Incredible Hulk. Ironically the hulk was originally supposed to be gray but at the time (1962) there were technical problems with inking a gray character so he was changed to be green.",
"You know how some toys and decorations glow green in the dark? This is due to a phosphor chemical that is painted onto or mixed into the plastic. The glow in the dark items you get nowadays stop glowing after a few minutes in the dark when they run out of stored energy. \n\nBack a long time ago (100 years or so), people figured out that you could make the phosphor glow for years by mixing in a bit of radioactive material. The radiation is invisible, but it \"feeds\" the phosphor and allows it to keep glowing green. \n\nIt turns out that adding radioactive materials to everyday items was a bad idea, especially for the people who worked in the factory, who were surrounded by lots of radiation every day. Laws were passed, and you can't get radioactive phosphor items anymore except in antique stores. \n\nPeople culturally learned to associate these glowing phosphor paints with radiation, since for quite a long time they were frequently combined. This is probably the source of the \"green glow\" myth. \n\nAnother source of glowing light related to radiation comes from the \"Cherenkov effect\", which is caused by the super fast radiation particles moving through water, which creates a blue glow. \n_URL_0_\n\nBoth the green phosphor glow and the blue cherenkov glow aren't actually the high energy radiation, which is invisible. They are caused by a reaction between the radiation and the material nearby (phosphor or water). In most cases, ionizing radiation is invisible.",
"Glow in the dark material (called something like tritumite?) is the most common type of visible radiation that people experience (ignoring the sun and stuff like that). It's greenish, so that's why probably",
"I've always associated yellow more with radiation than green, but Uranium glass glows green under the black light though too.",
"Why is hulk not invisible then?",
"MARVEL \n\nIncredible HULK = Green Human = Anger = incredible strength ???",
"Uranium and uranium glass often has a vivid yellow/green colour and uranium glass glows bright neon under uv leds",
"I dont know if this is the reason, but green is generally a color related with poison.( food, water etc)",
"Radiation and radioactivity are two different things firstly. \n\nRadiation= For example- x- Ray's are produced inside a vacuum tube using electrons generated by a tungsten filament on a negatively charged cathode and then shot at a positively charged anode with a tiny tungsten plate on it called a target. When the electrons hit the target they are destroyed but their energy remains. The energy that remains is x-radiation used for xrays. One of xrays qualities is it causes fluorescence in some materials ( glow green). X Ray's were discovered by a guy messing with a vacuum tube and then noticing something glowing green across the room. Radiation has no mass. _URL_0_\n\nRadioactivity- unstable molecules degrade releasing subatomic particles and massive amounts of energy, often heat. Can glow, but not necessarily green. Has mass."
]
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|
[] |
[] |
[
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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphor",
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],
[],
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"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinitite"
],
[
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation"
],
[],
[
"http://www.southworksantiques.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/vaseline-glass-pitcher-and-6-glasses-2.jpg",
"https://toledocitypaper.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/16358401_e08aa4da7b_b.jpg"
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[
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_glass",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium\\_glass"
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"https://images.app.goo.gl/6AvTNWGhvGT6LxkU9"
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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation"
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[],
[],
[],
[],
[
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen"
]
] |
||
2r3wfj
|
Why was Winston Churchill against Indian independence?
|
AskHistorians
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/2r3wfj/why_was_winston_churchill_against_indian/
|
{
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"text": [
"After reading Manchester's biography, it seems the biggest reason was simply the Victorian idea that India was somehow \"earned\" by the British empire and he wasn't about to give it up. More realistically Churchill mentions that the British are the only thing keeping the Hindus and Muslims at peace. He also thought that the British were ethnically superior and were doing a favor to the the Indians by ruling them."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[]
] |
||
2420sm
|
why do birds and squirrels walk away from you when you approach them?
|
Why do most animals do this?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/2420sm/eli5_why_do_birds_and_squirrels_walk_away_from/
|
{
"a_id": [
"ch2x362"
],
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2
],
"text": [
"They aren't curious about you like you are about them. To you, they're interesting. To them, you're huge and very likely murderous.\n\nHumans have the ability to ignore fear. Humans also have the mind-bendingly stupid habit of ignoring fear, but then again it hasn't driven us to extinction yet, so there's that.\n\nAnimals without what humans would call \"higher brain functions\" and what animals would call \"noise\" just rank self-preservation as top priority, and anything they don't understand or at least find familiar could potentially end their little lives. Things like \"wonder\" and \"curiosity\" don't apply when you're a food source."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[]
] |
|
1xmggs
|
What happens to a virus or infection after a host dies?
|
[This story about 1,000 dead bodies being found on a college campus](_URL_0_) states they may find more bodies, some from Tuberculosis patients, in unmarked graves.
Do viruses and infections pose a threat long after the host has died and is buried? Is there a fear of getting sick from old illnesses in mass, unmarked graves filled with the remains of sick bodies?
|
askscience
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1xmggs/what_happens_to_a_virus_or_infection_after_a_host/
|
{
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"It really depends on the specific virus, bacteria, ect. Some survive years while others last seconds. Infections like anthrax form a really resilient structure called a spore where they can survive for centuries until they come in contact with a host through inhalation skin ect. Tuberculosis can only be spread thorough inhalation and can survive for about about a month outside a body. \n\nMore here if you're interested in the actual bacterium. _URL_0_"
]
}
|
[] |
[
"http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/02/10/1000-bodies-university-mississippi-insane-asylum_n_4761166.html"
] |
[
[
"http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/lab-bio/res/psds-ftss/tuber-eng.php"
]
] |
|
665t17
|
valves in engine
|
When car manuf. say things like hey look my gt500 has a 32 valve engine, what does that mean?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/665t17/eli5_valves_in_engine/
|
{
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"text": [
"Engines have intake valves and exhaust valves. The intake valves open as the piston is traveling down during the \"Intake stroke\" to allow air (and fuel in some cases) to enter the combustion chamber, then the valves close. The piston then travels back up and compresses the air (and fuel in some cases) during the \"Compression stroke\". The fuel is added at this point (if it hasn't been already) and it either ignites (diesel) or is ignited by a spark plug (gasoline) and the resulting explosion forces the piston back down during the \"Power stroke\". Finally, the exhaust valves open and the piston travels up to expel the spent combustion byproducts during the \"Exhaust stroke\". This process is repeated thousands of times per minute and produces the rotational force to the transmission or transaxle and moves the vehicle. \n\nSomeone discovered along the way that more valves is usually better to an extent. Two smaller valves will flow better than one larger valve, and things usually fit better that way as well. So when you hear about a 32-valve engine, it means that each of the eight cylinders has two intake and two exhaust valves. There is a lot more to this, but this is the best simplified answer I could come up with. Also, the four stages of a four stroke engine are sometimes referred to as suck, squeeze, bang, blow.",
"Are you sure you own a car?"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[]
] |
|
24tbsn
|
Who was the first individual to realize that light took time to get to a point, as opposed to being instantaneous?
|
AskHistorians
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/24tbsn/who_was_the_first_individual_to_realize_that/
|
{
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"chaq7s7"
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"text": [
"In *Sense and Sensibilia*, Aristotle laid out arguments against some of his contemporaries in which he argued *against* the idea of a finite speed of light. He argued it was an infinite speed. So we can trace back some realization to the speed of light going back to ~300-400 BCE.\n\nOle Rømer was the first recorded man to measure the speed of light accurate to an order of magnitude in 1676. [Here's some info on this](_URL_0_).\n\nThat's a pretty huge range. Somewhere in it exists the first person who had a proper, rational reason to believe light's speed was finite, but until it could actually be measured/tested, it's not *really* science. Testability is a cornerstone of good science. As such, I think it's safe to drop the time period in the early 1600s, when testability first became possible."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"http://njsas.org/projects/speed_of_light/roemer/index.html"
]
] |
||
6h1fue
|
why is chicken the most common and usually the only kind of bird people eat?
|
Why aren't other kind of birds, like pigeons or crows, popular on the market for food?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/6h1fue/eli5_why_is_chicken_the_most_common_and_usually/
|
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"text": [
"Chickens are domesticated and compare one chicken compared to one crow or something. Which one has more meat? The only other birds with enough meat are not domesticated and a lot of them are predators.\n\n\nI don't know why farmers of the past decided to domesticate chickens over other birds. It was probably just the first flightless birds that worked.",
"They grow fast, are reasonably large, are very poor flyers, and live well in large groups.\n\nThat makes them an easy bird to farm in large numbers.\n\nTurkeys, ducks, and geese are also farmed, but they're not as easy to handle and the meat is more expensive as a result.\n\nPigeons and crows don't have any meat on them, it's all bones and feathers.",
"Most people eat turkey as well. \n\nChickens grow fast, and are used for their eggs as well. Their meat is inexpensive so it has made its way into lots of types of cuisine. ",
"Chickens are also some of the best egg layers in the bird world, given proper access to food they will just crank eggs out like an assembly line. This makes farming them awesome because you get easy access to protein without having to kill your farmed animal. Other common farm birds (Turkeys, ducks, geese) just don't crank out eggs as fast, or the eggs are much smaller.",
"Turkeys are eaten nearly as often as chicken, and duck, swan, geese, pigeon (called squab wh cooking), and quail are all fairly regularly eaten. \n\nBut the biggest reason that chickens are eaten is that they are domesticated in such a way that they lay eggs nearly continuously so have a lot of chickens for eggs, which means we have a lot of chicken for meat when they are no longer able to lay eggs. "
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[],
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|
2uz4f2
|
why do jewish people make up just 2% of the us population, yet they are very dominant in many industries (i.e. banking, hollywood, corporate, etc.)?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/2uz4f2/eli5_why_do_jewish_people_make_up_just_2_of_the/
|
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"Connections, hard work and a cultural importance of a good education. ",
"A big part of it is that all of these things were at one point considered fairly disreputable and not something that good WASP type people would be involved in. As people who faced quite a lot of discrimination historically but who are also generally smart and hard working, Jews ended up being very successful in the handful of industries that were open to them.\n\nEdit: Also, fields where you see a lot of Jews tend to be ones where you succeed by being well educated rather than by having a bunch of capital built up. A big part of what happened to Jews historically was that a wave of anti-semitism would sweep through an area and the local powers would seize all their assets and force them to move. If you're a farmer having your land taken away is a huge fucking problem, but if you're a doctor or a banker most of what makes you valuable economically is between your ears and can't really be stolen from you.",
"Arab imigrants are pretty wealthy in my country, too, though being an even smaller minority. It has a lot to do with how immigrants/outsiders behave in a society. They generally work harder.",
"It was originally prohibited for Christians to earn interest from credits and Jews also weren't allowed to join craftsmen guilds (Which was a huge deal back then. Think of getting excluded from Amazon). So that's kinda driven them into the banking sector.",
"Many Jewish families, less so as time goes on, give their children very few options about their future. It was(is?) common practice for the children to be told they can be a doctor, lawyer, engineer, or other high paying jobs with no real alternative. Similar reasons are why many doctors are first or second generation immigrants. They or their families saw them here for a reason, and it was to get ahead in life financially, likely to support the family, so that's what they did.\n\nMy best friends father is Jewish and was told he could be a Dentist, Doctor, or Lawyer. He's a Dentist and his sister is a Pharmaceutical Engineer. Similarly a friend from High School is now an ophthalmologist because he is a 2nd generation immigrant and saw it as his way to support his parents.",
"Hard Work, Education, Motivation, and Ambition. ",
"I spent my childhood working and socializing at a Jewish Community Center. It was very clear that Jewish kids were expected to work hard and succeed in school and focus on getting a job with both power and a high income. Parents expected their kids to go to law school or medical school and there was very little room for negotiating from the child. \n\nIf your whole life you are brought up to get a \"good job\" and work hard naturally you'll find an area in which you can be successful. It really isn't different from non-Jewish kids in the same situation. The difference is there are a lot more non-achieving non-Jewish kids so it doesn't seem as obvious.",
"In terms of hollywood, many Jewish immigrants in the early 1900's brought vaudeville and other performing arts to the area and it jews have been part of the industry since then.",
"Most Jewish cultures and societies never created a negative connotation around many professions that a good, socially established Christian wouldn't think of. Banking, Lawyering, Doctoring, Trading, Merchantilism, all of these were considered middle/lower class (relative to High Christian Society) and since Jews were never nobles in pre-20th century Europe, they never had the aspiration to that sort of lifestyle, which was leisurely, only superficially educated and basically devoid of actual work.\n \nAlso, for centuries, Jews were discriminated against in terms of trading, and would occasionally have all their worldly posessions taken from them, and many of their community murdered (in Eastern Europe they were called Pogroms, but these events happened wherever there were Jews in Europe). Because of this, the Jews of various regions developed networks among themselves that they could rely on when the community was attacked from without. This is also why you found many Jewish communities in trading centers like Amsterdam.\n \nDue to the serf status and strict settling regulations of the Russian Empire, most Eastern European Jews were less able to avail themselves of living in Trading/Multi-cultural centers, however many that could settled in places like Odessa and Prague, among other places.",
"Jewish people in the US (and any other country besides Israel, pretty much) have been, for centuries, predominately urban-dwelling. The largest Jewish population in the US is in New York, where they are far more common than they would be with a random distribution. So they are disproportionately represented in industries that are centered in New York (finance), and other industries which are located in cities with major jewish populations (film industry started in new york but moved to LA along with a lot of Jewish Yankees.) You notice how the car, agriculture, or steel industries for comparison are not particularly known for having a lot of Jews? \n\nI think there are also some cultural reasons why Jewish Americans are driven to achieve highly- the Jewish faith is very academic in its approach to scripture (at least compared to many other religions) leading to a high crossover into academics and law. However I would not say that is a more important factor than the fact that there are a disproportionate number of Jews in New York and other major US cities. ",
"a teacher of mine back in high school, said it was because Hitler almost killed them off, so they agreed to never let anything like that happen again, and now they own/control or have influence over major industries. Ensuring nothing major happens without jewish consent.\n\ni dont agree with this i just remember him saying it. LOL i thought he was a little off in the head 1/2 the time. ",
"From what I understand, hundreds/thousands of years ago, many areas has physical laws on the books that said Jews could ONLY work as bankers, jewelers, and certain other trades. When you lock an entire race into certain career paths, this is why you see swimlanes of prosperity today.\n\nNow I know you are thinking, \"But those laws don't apply today\", but they sort of do....\n\n1. Jews are a loyal culture like other cultures and would rather visit \"Sam the Baker\" than any other baker so they perpetuate the roles.\n2. Like ANY family, \"nepotism\" tends to dominate. It's not a Jewish thing per se as we all know 2nd/3rd/4th generation firefighters, police, soldiers, dentists, etc. It's super common for use to mimic our parents.\n\nThis question isn't so much about Jews in the big picture as it is about why *.people are stereotypically in X line of work. Sure there are a lot of Jewish dentists, but there are a lot of black rappers, Irish firefighters, Hispanics in the US Marine Corps, women in the nursing field, and pale bearded white dudes pounding out code on keyboards.",
"In the Middle Ages, Jews weren't allowed to own property, so they couldn't farm. So they went into professions such as banking, which happened to be lucrative. Racial discrimination backfired sort of in their favour - besides being discriminated against and the targets of violence.",
"A LOT of it is cultural.\n\nGrowing up in a Jewish household, even a reformed, mostly secular one like I grew up in, education & work ethic is paramount over all else, including the religion itself. Almost to an obsessive degree. In the vast majority of Jewish households that I know, not going to college was not an option. Not doing well in school was not an option. Not getting a good job was not an option.\n\nAt my school at least, most of the Jewish kids were in the advanced classes. Their parents would closely follow their school work, and if the kid ever fell behind, they would make them do whatever it takes to get back on track. ",
"First of all I have to say its somewhat unsavory to phrase this question. Jews are not \"dominant\" in any of the industries you listed per se, \"overrepresented\" would more accurate. \n\nBut besides that... jewish culture, even amongst the millions of atheist jews who still feel connected to the jewish community, places a high emphasis on education, hard work, living up to your potential, *and not being an idiot*. It wasn't until I got out into the wider world outside the 50% jewish community that I grew up in that I understood the significance of that last part, or even that other people behaved differently in that respect. Within jewish culture it is extremely embarrassing to not be prepared for a conceivable problem or to get taken advantage of. Basically if bad things happen to you and they were forecastable or preventable, it is perceived as your fault and you are perceived as an idiot. ",
"Let's not forget good positioning after and during alcohol prohibition.",
"I was told by Jewish friends that giving someone a job was the [highest mitzvah](_URL_0_)\n\nIt comes from here:\n\nListed below are Maimonides' eight levels of giving from lowest to highest: \n\n\n1. A person gives but is not happy when s/he digs into his/her pocket in order to give. \n\n\n2. A person gives cheerfully, but gives less than s/he should. \n\n\n3. A person gives, but only when asked by a poor person. \n\n\n4. A person gives without having to be asked, but gives directly to the poor. The poor person knows who gave the help, and the giver knows who was benefited\n \n \n5. A person gives a donation in a certain place, but walks away so that the giver does not know who received the benefit. However, the poor person knows the giver. \n \n\n6. A person makes a donation to a poor person secretly. The giver knows who was benefited, but the poor person does not know who the giver was. \n\n7. A person contributes anonymously to the tzedakah fund, which is then distributed to the poor. \n\n8. The highest level of charity is to give money and help to prevent another person from becoming poor. For example, teaching a person a trade, finding them a job, lending money, teaching them to fish.\n\n\nI can't obviously say this is entirely why but I think it plays a role.\n",
"In SE Asia, a similar situation also arose. Chinese are a minority in most SE Asian countries but are dominant in many industries and professionals.",
"Because that percentage is much higher in cities like New York and Los Angeles."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[],
[],
[],
[],
[],
[],
[],
[],
[],
[],
[],
[],
[],
[],
[],
[
"http://learningtogive.org/faithgroups/voices/tzedakah_jewish_view_of_phil.asp"
],
[],
[]
] |
||
b4gz9o
|
the difference between exponential growth and sequential growth?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/b4gz9o/eli5_the_difference_between_exponential_growth/
|
{
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6,
2,
2
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"text": [
"AFAIK this would just be called a linear growth. It always grows the same amount with every step (+1 action done for every +1 loop). ",
"Using the mathematics terms, one is called an arithmetic progression (or arithmetic sequence), another one is a geometric progression or geometric sequence.",
"Exponential growth is when the increments of growth increase as the growth proceeds. Think a snowball rolling down a hill, the surface area is what captures more snow, so as the snowball gets bigger it has a greater surface area capable of capturing more snow and... it snowballs! Exponentially - because it grows more and more the further it goes\n\nSequential growth is rather different as this is a term often used to address the growth of business between one point of measure and another. Usually, you'll see this used when discussing growth from Q1 to Q2 etc. I think you may have meant to refer to linear growth?\n\nDefining just 'sequential' and 'exponential' may be an easier way to break down the differences;\n____________________________\nsequential\n/sɪˈkwɛnʃ(ə)l/Submit\nadjective\nforming or following in a logical order or sequence.\n\"a series of sequential steps\"\nCOMPUTING\nperformed or used in sequence.\n\"sequential processing of data files\"\n\n____________________________\nexponential\n/ˌɛkspəˈnɛnʃ(ə)l/Submit\nadjective\n1.\n(of an increase) becoming more and more rapid.\n\"the social security budget was rising at an exponential rate\"\n2.\nMATHEMATICS\nof or expressed by a mathematical exponent.\n\"an exponential curve\"\n"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[],
[]
] |
||
169t5b
|
why couldn't sauron simply create another ring?
|
After all, didn't he create it in the first place?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/169t5b/why_couldnt_sauron_simply_create_another_ring/
|
{
"a_id": [
"c7u1eqr",
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],
"score": [
7,
11,
3
],
"text": [
"Sauron put his soul into the ring when making it or whatever and got killed when it melted.",
"Well, as evidenced by the end of the story, Sauron seemed to tie some of his life force to the Ring. In his weakened state he didn't have enough strength left to create another one.",
"In LotR there are no deities. Instead there are beings of great, but finite, power. By placing his power into the One Ring, Sauron could basically game the system and net himself more power (this is the gist of it). Once this power is expended, it is gone. There is no recharge.\n\n**tl;dr** Sauron could not make a second ring since all of his power was in the first."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[],
[]
] |
|
4gl47y
|
why are metal shavings flammable?
|
im just curious how Metal shavings of something like Steel can be flammable even though the metal itself ( and most others) do not combust like that.
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/4gl47y/eli5_why_are_metal_shavings_flammable/
|
{
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5,
79,
2
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"text": [
"Many metals are flammable but most are not *very* flammable. Shaving the metal into tiny thin bits greatly increases their surface area, exposing them to much more oxygen and also making it easier to get one portion heated up without the next portion conducting the heat away.",
"Metals can oxidize- this is what happens when they rust or otherwise react with oxygen. Usually this happens slowly, since only the surface is exposed to air and rust/oxides on the surface actually block the air from touching fresh metal underneath. \n\nRusting/oxidizing produces heat. A rusty nail is rusting very slowly so the heat is easily dissipated and not noticed.\n\nIf you shave the metal super-thin, thee is more surface area that can react with oxygen, and if it's thin enough it will react *very quickly*, and the small amount of heat will help feed the reaction even more.\n\nRusting is just burning *really slowly*.",
"Things which can burn, only burn when there is oxygen. The only oxygen available to fuel a burning block of iron is the bit of air on the surface. Metal shaving has a bigger surface, so there's more oxygen to fuel the flame.\n\nYou can also see this with wood. A massive log of wood takes longer to catch fire than sawdust, which can even be explosive, because the sawdust has a much higher surface area compared to its volume."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[],
[]
] |
|
31tmex
|
Why is it that when I touch the end of an aux cord with the other end plugged into a speaker a loud buzzing occurs?
|
I have a Logitech S-00067 and when I touch the aux cord I keep plugged into it a loud buzzing occurs. This happens even if I step on it with sock on. If anyone needs to hear the sound I can add a link to the sound the speaker makes.
~TT
EDIT: Thanks guys for the help!
|
askscience
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/31tmex/why_is_it_that_when_i_touch_the_end_of_an_aux/
|
{
"a_id": [
"cq4vbym"
],
"score": [
86
],
"text": [
"Your body acts as a circuit that picks up RF signals from your mains. The signals get transmitted to your speakers and amplified to cause the hum. \n\nEdit: You can test this by listening to a clip of a 50/60 Hz test tone and comparing it to the noise. "
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[]
] |
|
ztd1q
|
Looking for academic sources on the Arab-Israeli 6 day war of 1967
|
Hi all,
I'm doing an essay on this event and was wondering if anybody would be able to provide me with some good information. I'm specifically writing about why it started and why the Israeli's secured victory so quickly. if you have any book suggestions or published academic articles, it would be greatly appreciated :)
Thank you
|
AskHistorians
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/ztd1q/looking_for_academic_sources_on_the_arabisraeli_6/
|
{
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"text": [
"I would suggest the two Osprey books on the Six Day War, there is one volume on the [Sinai](_URL_1_) part of the campaign and one on [Jordan and Syria](_URL_0_). They're about 90 pages each and are a good starting point I think.",
"The current Israeli ambassador to the US, Michael Oren, wrote a pretty comprehensive history of the Six-Day War, called [*Six Days of War*](_URL_0_). It's very readable and highly respected, so I'd very much recommend it.",
"I think I have a perfect source for you! Check out *An Introduction to the Causes of War: Patterns of Interstate Conflict from WWI to Iraq*. I had to use it for an upper-level Int'l Conflict and Conciliation class a few years back. It's a case study textbook ($37 new on Amazon), but it had a great section on the Six Day War. \n\nAs previously stated, *Six Days of War* is a good, reputable book, but not academic. More than checking out books specifically related to the Six Day War, also check out books on international conflict in general, as I'm sure a lot would mention the war.",
"Tom Segev wrote *1967: Israel, the War, and the Year that Transformed the Middle East*. He's part of a revisionist take on Israeli history, so it could be a counterpoint to Oren's account. "
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"http://www.ospreypublishing.com/store/The-Six-Day-War-1967--Jordan-and-Syria_9781846033643",
"http://www.ospreypublishing.com/store/The-Six-Day-War-1967--Sinai_9781846033636"
],
[
"http://www.amazon.com/Six-Days-War-Making-Modern/dp/0345461924"
],
[],
[]
] |
|
ax62at
|
As a fighter pilot during the Battle of Britain, how likely was it to outlive your plane?
|
During the Battle of Britain, the RAF had the advantage of being able to recover their surviving pilots as they parachuted into friendly territory. But how many pilots outlived their planes? What was the survivability rate of pilots being shot down? Are there any statistics available on the subject?
|
AskHistorians
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/ax62at/as_a_fighter_pilot_during_the_battle_of_britain/
|
{
"a_id": [
"ehrywdw"
],
"score": [
20
],
"text": [
"There are plenty of statistics, though definitions and precision are always an issue. As a starting point there's [a BBC piece](_URL_2_) with Fighter Command aircraft and aircrew loss figures taken from *The Battle of Britain: Then and Now*; that gives a total of 1012 aircraft losses and 537 aircrew. Stephen Bungay gives Fighter Command aircraft and aircrew losses as 1,023 and 544 respectively in *Most Dangerous Enemy*; Wood & Dempster's *The Narrow Margin* has fighter pilot casualties totalling 481 killed, missing or POW from July - October 1940, and Category 3 (destroyed) losses of 1,173 aircraft over the period. It's tricky to pin down precise numbers for various reasons; the dates of the Battle are usually, somewhat arbitrarily, given as July 10th - October 31th 1940 but there wasn't a clear start and end point. RAF statistics are generally given for Fighter Command, but can be blurred by squadrons and aircrew seconded from other parts of the RAF or the Fleet Air Arm; note also some sources specify \"aircrew\" and others \"pilots\", though the majority of Fighter Command's aircraft were single-seat Spitfires and Hurricanes there were also two and three crew Defiants and Blenheims, observers and gunners may or may not be included in totals. With all those caveats the figures suggest a roughly 50% chance of a pilot surviving being shot down; drilling into the BBC figures more deeply the lowest chances of survival are in July and early August as would be expected, this period of the Battle being largely focused on coastal targets and shipping in the English Channel (the *Kanalkampf*), with RAF pilots having more chance of ending up in the sea and a lack of rescue services. Once the Luftwaffe move on to targeting RAF bases, then London, chances of survival improve significantly over August and September, though they dip again in October.\n\nI haven't got figures for a direct comparison with German survival chances, as the above sources give only total aircrew/aircraft with many of the German aircraft being bombers. Patrick Bishop's *Battle of Britain: A Day-to-Day Chronicle* does have tables broken down by type for July and August, but I can't find the source for his figures. According to that, in August the destroyed/damaged figures for the Messerschmitt 109 are 217/45, with 54 pilots killed, 91 missing and 39 wounded, but it's not clear how many of the missing/wounded may have been taken prisoner. The destroyed/damaged distinction also raises another problem with comparing statistics: an RAF pilot in a damaged aircraft might be able to make a forced landing, if the aircraft was repairable it would not necessarily be counted as an loss whereas a German pilot in the same situation would be taken prisoner.\n\nThe [Battle of Britain Historical Society](_URL_1_) have a chronology on their website, for September 15th (subsequently known as Battle of Britain Day) a [full list of Fighter Command casualties](_URL_0_) is given. Of the 56 incidents, 25 aircraft are marked as lost or destroyed, the other 31 damaged (Alfred Price gives a figure of 29 RAF fighters shot down in *Battle of Britain Day*, presumably including aircraft written off after landing). 31 pilots were unhurt, 13 died (12 in combat and one in a training incident), 11 were wounded, and one taken prisoner. 15 pilots baled out, of which 13 survived (8 with wounds). Fighter Command flew 705 daylight operational sorties that day, so excluding the training incident a pilot had something like an 8% chance of being damaged/shot down, 24% of those pilots being killed or captured and 56% being unhurt. Though only a single day, it's not a bad representative sample in the absence of more complete statistics."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"https://www.battleofbritain1940.net/0042.html",
"https://www.battleofbritain1940.net/contents-index.html",
"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-11029903"
]
] |
|
3b56rj
|
what was the point of the cold war
|
why did the US and the USSR begin to hate eachother?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/3b56rj/eli5_what_was_the_point_of_the_cold_war/
|
{
"a_id": [
"csiyqmv"
],
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],
"text": [
"The main issue at play was sphere of influence in the world. From the side of the West (US, Canada, UK, and many other nations), it felt that communism was a threat to the way things are done here. That if it allowed the USSR to expand, the influence will expand into their own nations. For the East, it had the fear that the West would interfere with its plans.\n\nTo understand the idea of the \"Cold War\" you have to understand that there was no large scale direct conflict between the USSR and Western nations. It first started in Europe, and first around Germany. After World War II, US, UK, France and the USSR split up German and the city of Berlin into equal portions. This resulted in future disagreements. Then the West developed pacts over many Western European nations, while the USSR did it around many Eastern European nations.\n\nThe two superpowers kept trying to spread their influence, and at the same time, build tremendous military and nuclear arsenals. All of the fear of losing influence and power. \n\nThey also had proxy wars, with combat missions in Afghanistan, Vietnam and Korea. "
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[]
] |
|
6hlrsz
|
Western films often depict characters getting tied down to railroad tracks and run over as a means of execution. Are there any recorded instances of that actually happening?
|
AskHistorians
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/6hlrsz/western_films_often_depict_characters_getting/
|
{
"a_id": [
"dj1hoie"
],
"score": [
2
],
"text": [
"Hi, you'll find additional responses in these threads\n\n* /u/leyebrow in [Do we know of anyone actually being tied up and left on the railroad tracks?](_URL_2_)\n\n* /u/AshkenazeeYankee in [Did criminals from the West in the 19th century actually tie women to train tracks or is this just a trope from tv shows and cartoons?](_URL_1_)\n\n* /u/Romiress in [Back in the old west, were people actually tied to train tracks, or is this concept just created by Hollywood?](_URL_0_)\n\nThese posts have all been archived by now, so if you have follow-up questions for any of the users, ask here & tag their username to notify them"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/1phzg6/back_in_the_old_west_were_people_actually_tied_to/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/2s04dt/did_criminals_from_the_west_in_the_19th_century/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/3hp2y3/do_we_know_of_anyone_actually_being_tied_up_and/"
]
] |
||
1ry3il
|
why we get lights in front of our eyes when we stand up too quickly, please.
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/1ry3il/eli5_why_we_get_lights_in_front_of_our_eyes_when/
|
{
"a_id": [
"cds2z42"
],
"score": [
2
],
"text": [
"I'm not entirely sure that the lights that you are referring to is what I refer to as \"temporary blindness\", but I'll explain what I mean, and then we'll see.\nWhen I stand up to quickly, I often get dark spots or blindness, where my vision will completely go, with very sudden throbbing headaches, along with dizziness and a light-headed feeling. I had these symptoms for a few years, and finally decided to go to the doctor about it. \n\nI was officially diagnosed with Orthostatic Hypotension. This is a massively common thing for people to have. It's simply a light-headed feeling that happens when you stand up to quickly. The reason it happens is because your body isn't able to pump blood quick enough from your legs up to your brain. \n\nThe way to fix this? Drink lots of water and exercise more. Also, stand up slower, which may sound silly, but it helps!\n"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[]
] |
||
9t5ym0
|
During the inter-war period fascism developed a strong following in the UK but ultimately failed as a political movement. Is there a general consensus on the factors which lead to the failure of the movement in the UK as compared to European countries in which it was successful?
|
AskHistorians
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/9t5ym0/during_the_interwar_period_fascism_developed_a/
|
{
"a_id": [
"e8u6z92",
"e8uxbev"
],
"score": [
10,
2
],
"text": [
"While you're waiting for a fuller answer, you might find an [older post](_URL_1_) of mine useful (drawing in turn on [this answer](_URL_0_)), discussing the extent that anti-fascist activism should be credited with preventing fascism in Britain. As I concluded there, anti-fascism is at best one piece of the puzzle, with the failure of British fascism (and extremist politics more generally) ultimately best explained by the durability of mainstream politics and institutions in Britain. Hopefully someone else is able to discuss this in more depth.\n\nYou might also want to check out [this post](_URL_2_) by u/Vespertine, discussing the basis of the British Union of Fascists' appeal and the extent they actually had a strong following.",
"Post-war Germany was a complete mess under the Weimar government with the Spartacist revolt, Kapp Putsch, hyperinflation, financial crash etc whereas post-war Britain wasn't nearly as chaotic, meaning extremist politics didn't rise to the forefront to the same extent they did in Germany and other European countries."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/8ssqqv/inspired_by_the_turn_the_western_world_seems_to/e122x1n/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/9682qj/the_battle_of_cable_street_has_been_portrayed_as/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/8432sq/what_made_the_british_union_of_fascists_so/"
],
[]
] |
||
1rbylv
|
Pottery found Salar de Uyuni Bolivia
|
So I found this shard of pottery amongst a pile of human bones in an abandoned village on the southern side of Salar de Uyuni. I was wondering how old it could possibly be. Also any insight into what the picture on it is? _URL_0_
|
AskHistorians
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/1rbylv/pottery_found_salar_de_uyuni_bolivia/
|
{
"a_id": [
"cdls4ml"
],
"score": [
3
],
"text": [
"Dude, you really should be taking that to a museum, rather than posting it on reddit. Especially if you found it in a pile of human bones. Museum. Now."
]
}
|
[] |
[
"http://imgur.com/Ag4IEQ0,bWiQoUG#0"
] |
[
[]
] |
|
3m8s5d
|
Do tornadoes historically prefer flat terrain and avoid hills, or is that merely coincidence?
|
askscience
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3m8s5d/do_tornadoes_historically_prefer_flat_terrain_and/
|
{
"a_id": [
"cvdhs9c"
],
"score": [
5
],
"text": [
"[Link](_URL_0_)\n\n\nTornadoes can and do occur at high elevations. In fact, a tornado was recorded at 12,000 feet in California's Sequoia National Park in July 2004. The majority of tornadoes in the USA occur east of the Rockies, where atmospheric conditions are more favorable in the relatively flat Plains states. Part of the reason that we seldom hear about tornadoes in the mountains is the low population density and limited sight-lines in mountainous areas."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/weather/resources/askjack/archives-tornado-science.htm"
]
] |
||
3fekb1
|
would farm animals (cows, pigs etc) be able to survive in their current state without human interaction?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/3fekb1/eli5_would_farm_animals_cows_pigs_etc_be_able_to/
|
{
"a_id": [
"ctnvks1",
"ctnvlqn"
],
"score": [
3,
3
],
"text": [
"no. Few at least. They might survive the summer but come winter they will most likely starve or fall pray to predators or animals better suited for their environment. Domesticated animals are really dependent on us. ",
"Sure. Many pigs that escape go feral and do very well. Pigeons are often raised for food, but are essentially self-sufficient and given free range. I've personally released rabbits that were born in captivity and raised for food that did well on my land for at least a year (I moved away after that time). Sheep might have a problem; sheep left unshorn will die eventually."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[]
] |
||
1qmpyg
|
What was life like in Switzerland during WWII?
|
AskHistorians
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/1qmpyg/what_was_life_like_in_switzerland_during_wwii/
|
{
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"text": [
"Although a work of fiction, the movie \"The Boat is Full\" (Das Boot ist voll, 1981) deals with some of the conflicts and guilt over Switzerland's war-time policies, specifically on turning away refugees.\n\n(If this doesn't pass muster with mods, well, I'm sure I'll learn that soon. Trying to stick to the spirit of it, by pointing to specific resources, rather than speculating.)",
"For those curious, I have removed all personal anecdotes [as per our rules](_URL_0_). No offense intended to those who contributed these, but these types of answers are not really what AskHistorians is looking for. /r/AskHistorians, tries to provide in-depth, source-based answers from people who have studied the area or topic under discussion; personal anecdotes are subjective and singular by nature!",
" Judging from writings both created by war-time Swiss citizens and by historians after the fact, the idea of Swiss neutrality was one that tended to be ignored upon occasion. According to the BBC's collection of writings from survivors of World War 2, life in Switzerland was much like it was in England during the time, with strong rationing of food and children working on farms in order to provide supplies for themselves and for the country as a whole. In addition to these economic disparities, Switzerland was also involved in the war in a military sense, if only in a limited way. Border towns and even cities like Zurich were affected by German attacks. This ensured that, much like British families and American families during the Cold War, Swiss families were subject to air raid drills frequently. \n\n Along with Axis bombings, there were occasions in which Swiss towns, especially the towns of Schaffhausen, Zurich, Stein am Rhein and Basel were mistakenly bombed by Allied airplanes. Due to frequent invasions of supposedly neutral Swiss airspace by both German and Allied planes, the Swiss military initially took to shooting down the German planes, then simply decided that their airspace was completely off limits for both Allied and Axis planes. \n\n Due to its close proximity to Germany and other Central European countries, thousands of refugees fleeing the Nazis searched for asylum within Swiss borders, but were turned away due to strict Swiss immigration policies. Despite these strict policies, however, it is estimated that a total of around 116,000 refugees resided in Switzerland by the end of the war, which, in a country of around 4 million people, was a rather large percentage. This large influx of refugees caused an already resource-strapped Switzerland even more problems and dwindling supplies.\n\n In conclusion, though the country of Switzerland was not affected much by large scale battles, the country, and her people, most certainly felt the physical and economic hardships caused by the war. I hope this answers any questions you may have, and if there are any mistakes I've made, please let me know. \n\nFor further reading, see the [BBC's collection of War Survivors](_URL_0_) and the Time Life book \"The Neutrals,\" which was part of [the \"World War II\" series](_URL_2_).\n\nEDIT: Also [\"The Diplomacy of Apology\" by Dr. Johnathan Helmreich](_URL_1_)\n\nEDIT 2: Stein am Rhein was attacked mistakenly by Allied forces, not the Nazis.",
"Follow-up questions.\n\n1.) What were Switzerland's policies regarding refugees.\n\n2.) Would Germany take into account Jewish population, including refugees, when evaluating their next strategic move, for the purpose of securing that population for extermination?"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/wiki/rules#wiki_speculate"
],
[
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ww2peopleswar/stories/64/a7912064.shtml",
"http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj00/sum00/helmreich.html",
"http://www.amazon.com/World-War-II-Volume-Set/dp/B000MC7H4I"
],
[]
] |
||
uprv3
|
[Biology] What is the maximum rate at which the human body can convert fat into energy?
|
What I mean is if the energy were being used as fast as it was being produced, what is the maximum power we can generate from conversion of fat to energy assuming no source of energy (i.e. food) was entering our body?
|
askscience
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/uprv3/biology_what_is_the_maximum_rate_at_which_the/
|
{
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"c4xif3g"
],
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"text": [
"The body is extremely adaptable to balancing energy deficits from inadequate energy intake, and this involves a complex cascade of hormones that signal a number of metabolic changes in the tissues involved in the provision of energy substrates (adipose, muslce, and liver). Adipose has a very high capacity to generate free fatty acids from stored triglyceride and depending on the extent of stimulation by neurotransmitters and circulating hormones, it can increase or decrease this release. However, the ability to burn these released fatty acids in other tissues is highly dependent on the availability of intermediates in the Krebs cycle (derived from amino acids or carbohydrate). So there is a limit to the amount of fat we can actually burn given limited intake of other energy substrates. Given this scenario(essentially a prolongued fast), the body will switch to ketogenesis, which is essentially incomplete oxidation of fatty acids. But the maximal power will depend highly on the availability of other substrates, the capacity for the body to provide sufficient oxygen to the tissues burning the fatty acids. \n\nSo to succinctly answer your question, the maximal power one can produce utilizing almost exclusively fatty acid will depend on the capability of the muscle to receive oxygen during bouts of exercise. Here's a pretty good [review] (_URL_0_) that discusses the utilization of different substrates for varying intensities of exercise. _URL_0_"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"http://jap.physiology.org/content/76/6/2253.short"
]
] |
|
2litcr
|
What was the first animal humans domesticated? Why did we domesticate that animals instead of some other?
|
.
|
askscience
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2litcr/what_was_the_first_animal_humans_domesticated_why/
|
{
"a_id": [
"clvuc7o"
],
"score": [
3
],
"text": [
"Watched an episode of Cosmos that explained this. While Hunters and Gatherers would gather around the fire, wolves would come close trying to eat. They would throw food to the wolves and they would calmly take the food and leave them alone. For the wolves it was much easier to be domesticated and be given food on a daily basis then to go out hunting and not catch a meal, even worse get hurt or die. We would then select the best, loyal dogs to be bred, thus creating artificial selection.\rEdit: Left out that the outcome of artificial selection is what today is considered our canine companions. Also best & loyal wolves* not dogs. :D"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[]
] |
|
1nkxlh
|
what are the laws regarding salary change of us congressmen?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/1nkxlh/eli5_what_are_the_laws_regarding_salary_change_of/
|
{
"a_id": [
"ccjif44"
],
"score": [
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"text": [
"Because your post isn't asking a simplified conceptual explanation, but rather for an answer, its been removed. \n\nYou should try /r/answers, /r/askreddit or even one of the more specialized answers subreddits like /r/askhistorians, /r/askscience or others too numerous and varied to mention. \n\nRest assured this doesn't make your question *bad*, it just makes it more appropriate for another subreddit. Good luck! "
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[]
] |
||
2hawl1
|
If the moon were suddenly destroyed how soon would we feel the effects on Earth?
|
We all know that the moon is essential to Earth for many reasons such as ocean tides and the tilt of the Earth. So, if somehow the moon were suddenly to be destroyed how quickly would we feel the effects and what exactly would happen?
|
askscience
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2hawl1/if_the_moon_were_suddenly_destroyed_how_soon/
|
{
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"ckr03pz",
"ckr42c3"
],
"score": [
27,
10
],
"text": [
"Gravitational effects travel at the speed of light, which is ~300,000 km/s. The moon is ~384,000 km from Earth. That means the effects would be noticeable 1.28 seconds after it was destroyed.\n",
"Unless you mean the moon would be teleported away, one of the more urgent effects would be the earth getting hit by debris starting a bit over an hour later (based on my guesstimation that the fastest fragments will travel in the order of about 100 km/s straight towards the earth)"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[]
] |
|
4z1j1f
|
what are the origins of male obsession/competition with/over penis size?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/4z1j1f/eli5_what_are_the_origins_of_male/
|
{
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"text": [
"I have a reason to believe that this originated in antiquity, far beyond the invention of written language so no records were kept.\n\nPenis cults have arisen independently several times in many cultures around the world. The phallus is seen as a symbol of male fertility, an area where men find themselves in competition against one another, so it's natural for men to obsess over it and compare theirs against another's.\n\nCuriously, in the classic tradition, large penises were undesirable from an artistic standpoint, since they were seen as the mark of someone unrefined and crude. Perhaps the de-emphasis of sex for reproduction in ancient Greece or Rome made the worship of large penises fall out of fashion, due to their association with the base function of fertility.",
"I don't fully agree with the \"biological\" explanations. Obsession over penis size is largely cultural. Take the Greeks during the ancient times, for instance. For them, the ideal male body had a small penis, while large genitals were used to depict Satyrs, which spent their time masturbating. A manly man was a good lover, regardless of the size of their penis. Even in XVIIIth century Europe, penis size was not a big deal, or it doesn't seem to be, when looking at the artistic representations of the male body at the time. In libertine literature, it was not about the size of the penis of the lover, but as his capacity to seduce women, his passion (there are some exceptions, such as Sade's description of enormous cocks in The 120 Days of Sodom).\n\nSo where does the origins of the current obsession with penis size? It maybe originated in the post-industrial society, when pop culture and the pornographic industry became prevalent and the ideas of sexual performance (as in productivity) and athletic male bodies (but with big penises, contrary to the classic Greek male beauty standard) were ingrained into the collective psyche. According to Baudrillard, we live in the society of spectacle, so a \"spectacular\" penis is the most appropriate for the current times.\n\nPS: the biological theories can explain why the human penis is so large compared to other primate's penises (it has been suggested that human females prefer larger penises, so it has become a physical trait selected through evolution), but it doesn't explain why it's such an important matter in contemporary culture.\n\nTl; dr: culture, not nature."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[]
] |
||
24bw6z
|
is it feasible for homes to be fitted with bicycle powered generators to save on energy costs?
|
I've wondered this for a while. If each member of a family allotted an hour of time a day to produce energy, could that time spent pedaling equate to as much energy (in dollar value) as a person making a minimum hourly wage?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/24bw6z/eli5_is_it_feasible_for_homes_to_be_fitted_with/
|
{
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"ch5l0wx",
"ch5lscd"
],
"score": [
2,
3
],
"text": [
"Pedalling continuously produces about 80 Watts of energy at any given time, you might be able to keep a lightbulb on.",
"The problem may be that your nutritional costs would increase more than your power costs would decrease. \n\nTo give a good comparison, you should consider how many calories are burned producing how much energy. "
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[]
] |
|
1jpe20
|
fight club
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/1jpe20/eli5_fight_club/
|
{
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"text": [
"Poor guy will never get an answer from anyone who's seen it.",
"If you really want to know, watch the DVD commentary. It's a satire that is critical of modern society, with a focus on consumerism, and also critical of complete rebellion against of the modern lifestyle.",
" There's this guy, we'll call him Jack. Jack isn't the happiest of men. Jack is quiet, Jack is weak, and Jack feels as though he isn't a real man. Jack feels like his life is empty and has these dark clouds over him. This depression goes so deep that it affects his mind and just when things are getting out of control, Jack meets Tyler. Tyler is very different from Jack, in all the ways he wishes he could be. Oh how Jack looks up to Tyler! This robust, dynamic, critically thinking, pinnacle of a man is everything Jack wants to be, (but not all that he seems to be). So as the two spend more time together (and even live together!), Tyler's 'words of wisdom' begin to resonate with Jack. They both feel as though people today are sheep. They buy, eat, fuck, and sleep. They adhere to lifestyle choices that mean nothing. They spend their time and money on things they don't need to appease people they don't know or care about. This angers our dynamic duo so they decide to make a change. To 'hit bottom', as Tyler would say. They begin to fight. Not to kill, not to maim, but to vent. These boys would take their frustrations and the worries and vent it out on each other in the form of frenzied fighting, bonding the members in such an intimate way that it became a life style. They breathe, eat, and sleep fight club. It becomes a religion to these men. Fuck social norms. Fuck being 'pretty'. The only time they truly felt alive was when they were beating each other to a pulp. As time progresses, the ego of Tyler swells to almost 0.5 Kanyes, and he decides that just fighting isn't enough. He wants to flip the script and make everyone wake up from this daze he believes we are all slumbering in. \n\n\n\nSo he turns Fight Club into Project Mayhem, and does this alone. Jack is devastated when he finds out he is not in on Project Mayhem. Why would Tyler do this without him? Wasn't it the two of them that started this thing? Weren't they brothers? Tyler claims that Jack isn't letting go enough and that he's not hitting bottom, and this places a wedge between the two for the first time in their relationship. Eventually, the mounted frustration between the two explodes and Tyler disappears completely. Jack then chases after him, only to find that no matter how hard he tries, he can't catch up. \n\nThis brings us to the climax of the film. Tyler finally confesses to Jack that he and Tyler are in fact the same person. Tyler manifested from the unmet desires in Jack's heart, and has begun his takeover. The ego that is Tyler starts to take control of the consciousness that is Jack, and the two clash in one final conflict to determine the dominant personality, with Jack coming out on top. He gets the girl, wins, etc. \n\nAlso alongside this is a love story between Jack and Tyler and Marla, but I'm too high and I've already written a lot and it didn't seem as pertinent to the plot. I hope this all made sense.",
"OP, can you expand what about the movie you don't understand? I'm technically am supposed to remove this thread, but it is a complex movie. What aspects of Fight Club are you confused about? Thanks."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[],
[],
[]
] |
||
3dvcn6
|
What are the vertical streaks next to the mushroom cloud?
|
_URL_0_
|
askscience
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3dvcn6/what_are_the_vertical_streaks_next_to_the/
|
{
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"ct8zwxy"
],
"score": [
12
],
"text": [
"They are [smoke rockets](_URL_0_), which are launched to give a reference point for photographic analysis of the bomb's shock wave. Basically they make it easier to see exactly where the shock wave front is, since the shock wave is invisible but it causes the refractive index of air to change (similar to a mirage), bending light coming from behind the bomb and [appearing as a discontinuity](_URL_1_).\n\nUnfortunately I can't find any footage of those rockets actually being launched, but presumably they would be launched very shortly before detonation of the nuclear device."
]
}
|
[] |
[
"http://youtu.be/ZWSMoE3A5DI"
] |
[
[
"http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/SmokeTrails.html",
"http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Trinity90MS640c10.jpg"
]
] |
|
6wtf7c
|
how to 'happy tears' come about, and do they differ from 'sad tears'?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/6wtf7c/eli5_how_to_happy_tears_come_about_and_do_they/
|
{
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"dmaw7vp"
],
"score": [
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],
"text": [
"I was hoping there would be an answer on here, but there wasn't so I became curious and looked it up. Supposedly it has to do with different molecules that are in the tears. Happy and sad tears also look different under a microscope which I found very interesting. \n\nHere is the site I used incase anyone else wants to read and see the difference. :)\n_URL_0_"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"https://www.google.com/amp/sploid.gizmodo.com/tears-of-joy-and-tears-of-sadness-look-different-under-1468602557/amp"
]
] |
||
1xupv9
|
why do we allow north korea to have internment camps similar to nazi germany?
|
I've seen a post with a man that escaped a North Korean prisoner camp and it was horrendous, he said things that made me honestly question whether or not these camps are WORSE than the Nazi camps- and we liberated them as fast as we could. Everyone on the planet knows the USA along with the EU could liberate the people, so why don't we?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/1xupv9/eli5_why_do_we_allow_north_korea_to_have/
|
{
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"text": [
"Nazi Germany invaded other countries\n\nChina does not want the US invading North Korea, because the refugee crisis will hit them directly and the US would gain North Korea as a base.\n\nNorth Korea has no desirable or strategic resources the US requires.\n\n",
"For the same reasons that we never went in and liberated the [Gulags of Soviet russia](_URL_0_) (\"Some estimates for total number deaths in the Gulag go beyond 10 million.\"): Because it would require a major war, costly in money and lives, including the lives of many of the people in the camps.\n\nThere are many people who think that \"we\" should go in and end the North Korean Regime. You're welcome to believe that it would be wise policy, but the ELI5 version of why we don't is because of the cost. ",
"I know it's a common myth that the US joined the Second World War to end the mistreatment of various peoples in Europe but the fact of the matter is that the US joined the Second World War against Germany because Germany declared war on the US.",
"North Korea has thousands of artillery pieces permanently trained on Seoul and loaded at all times.\nWith a travel time in the seconds they could kill hundreds of thousands of South Koreans within seconds of the beginning of any hostilities.",
"Keep in mind that we entered WW2 as a result of Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor. Unless I am mistaken, the U.S. had no intention of entering Nazi-occupied Europe before the attack. It is also my understanding that we (or at least the public) were not even aware of the concentration camps before entering the war. \n\nI believe the primary reason we aren't doing anything about North Korea is because it would piss off China and possibly Russia. Plus, as others have commented, they have no resources of interest to us. The latter is the same reason the U.S. does nothing about other heinous atrocities happening in other countries throughout the world. Also, realize that a government is not a person. It has no conscience. It is made up of people, the vast majority of which have little to do with decisions about N. Korea at all and of those that do, well...it's real easy to to tell one's self that any inaction on their part alone is inconsequential and does not directly contribute to the situation at hand. \n\nFinally, consider what would happen if the U.S. just said \"Fuck it, we're taking these mofo's down\" and invaded. China and Russia would likely not tolerate U.S. forces invading a country (and thus gaining more territory) that is right next to them. Also consider how \"good\" of a job we did with Iraq...once we invaded and removed the North Korean government, we would be morally obliged to replace that government. We've all seen how well that has worked with Iraq. Consider the danger to South Korea. They would have to be on board with the plan and even if they were, they would stand to sustain heavy civilian casualties. North Korea may not have missiles that can reach the U.S., but they sure as hell can rain down on South Korea and possibly Japan. Finally, keep in mind that the vast majority of N. Korean citizens are innocent of the crimes committed by a few people in powerful government positions. I can even sympathize with camp guards...to disobey orders would mean their own incarceration as well as the incarceration (and possible execution of) their families. I would like to think that if given the choice between torturing people and losing my own freedom (and being subject to torture) that I would have the fortitude to choose the latter...but if my family were at risk because of my actions, I don't think I could trade their lives for another. The U.S. would inevitably have to kill a lot of innocent people...and people who for decades have been brainwashed to believe we are already evil. Many would likely not view our invading forces as a liberating force. \n"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag"
],
[],
[],
[]
] |
|
3x50vy
|
how are borders that overlap with rivers determined?
|
How do you know which side of the border are you on if you, say, are on a boat?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/3x50vy/eli5_how_are_borders_that_overlap_with_rivers/
|
{
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"cy1km78",
"cy1knsx"
],
"score": [
2,
2
],
"text": [
"I have seen three definitions in place.\n\n(1): the mean high tide line on one side or the other. (that is, the average location of the daily high tide on one side).\n\n(2): halfway between the two mean high tide lines.\n\n(3) the line directly above the deepest point in the channel. ",
"1 down the center of th channel. So, if you are in a boat, basically whichever shore you are closer to\n\nor\n\n2 The bordering states share responsibility for the water, from shore to shore, so you are technically in both. The ST Croix River between Minnesota and Wisconsin is this way\n\nor very rarely\n\n3 Nothing except emergency enforcement is done on the water, and the agencies just wait until you reach land to act"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[]
] |
|
2bqzx1
|
why is there an assumption that if two nuclear powers go to war with each other they would necessarily use nuclear weapons?
|
Given the concept of mutually assured destruction, it doesn't make any rational sense to me for either side to conduct a nuclear first strike.
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/2bqzx1/eli5_why_is_there_an_assumption_that_if_two/
|
{
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"cj81m6h",
"cj81mcy",
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2,
2,
2
],
"text": [
"The very act of war, I believe, belies the rationality of the actors. There is nothing that could not otherwise be accomplished without war, yet we have typically raced into it with abandon. And we've used those weapons before.\n\nBesides, MAD is not necessarily a rational strategy. It is a threat, not a necessary outcome. If we see bombs in the air, we know that we will die. At that point, we might decide that is better for the Evil Enemy to survive than for _everybody_ to die.",
"I think the worry is more about the possibility of the escalation to that level. The concept of winning war is closely tied to being able to make a bigger bang than your enemies, so it seems like a natural assumption that a country might use them out of desperation, perhaps. Though, mostly I believe it is an \"if\" factor. People like to think of worst-case scenarios, and this is an easy way to do so.",
"the reasoning is because with nuclear weapons, there may not be an opportunity to strike second. MAD is a deterrent, but it isn't a guarantee. war like that is ultimately about survival, and if a nation is at war, they have absolutely no reason to trust their enemy."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[],
[]
] |
|
1sy84g
|
Why did people write sagas in 13th century Iceland?
|
It always felt a bit weird to me considering Iceland is on the very outskirts of Europe and would therefore not be as exposed to european literature. Also, where did they get the money to make books? Wasn't Iceland quite poor back then?
|
AskHistorians
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/1sy84g/why_did_people_write_sagas_in_13th_century_iceland/
|
{
"a_id": [
"ce2j4qf",
"ce2jcsz"
],
"score": [
3,
6
],
"text": [
"hi! not discouraging anyone from contributing more detail, but FYI there was a good thread on sagas here, which touches on your questions\n\n[Questions about the Icelandic Saga](_URL_0_)\n\nI recall that there was another thread explaining the process to create & ready availability of vellum in Iceland, so if someone can remember the title of that one, please add a link, thx!",
"Wow, that's a good question and a hard one. The short answer is we're not quite sure. For the long answer we have to look at several different factors:\n\nTo get the last part of your question out of the way first: no, Iceland wasn't especially poor in the thirteenth century. That time marks the end of the so-called commonwealth period in which Iceland was an independent country and the beginning of Norwegian royal control over the island. A civil war was fought by influential and rich families many of whom had close connections to the Norwegian court (and its wealth).^1 Interestingly enough many saga writers we know by name come from one of these families. The real decline of Icelandic economy only began later with the Little Ice Age and with Danish rule.\n\nMany of the members of these families were educated in continental cathedral schools, such as Paris and they would have ample contact with contemporary European literature. In fact influence by such works can be shown consistently in a large part of Old Norse literature.\n\nIt's certainly no coincidence that people wrote down stories of their own independent past in a time in which their society was threatened by outside influences. \n\nHowever it is also worth noting that writing didn't start in the 13th century in Iceland. There is ample evidence that books were already being produced in the beginning of the 12th century, even if we don't have any extant manuscripts from that time. Both Landnámabók and Íslendingabók were probably first being composed then as well as the first written Icelandic law code we know of, Hafliðaskrá. \n\nThere is a tradition of writing about kings' deeds that is common to all of medieval Europe (think of Einhard's Gesta Caroli) which got hold in the North as well. The first of these were in latin and they were produced in mainland Scandinavia. But at some point in the 12th century they began to be written down in the vernacular and it seems like many of the authors were Icelanders, who even before that had a reputation as court poets. When the first few generations of bishops in Iceland died this expertise was also directed towards preserving their memory, possibly in preparation for a potential later sainting. So when the Sagas of Icelanders began to be written down in the 13th century there was already a long tradition of vernacular story-writing in Iceland.\n\nBut why did this new genre join the already estabished ones?\nI've already mentioned one theory: an uncertainty about the future and a desire to commemorate one's own ancestors lead wealthy families to write about their ancestors. They not only had the means to produce manuscripts and enough family members who were educated on the continent and by the church but also an interest to assert their own dominance through utilising their country's past. Personally I think this is the main reason for saga writing.\n\nThere's another reason that has been cited by a few scholars although personally I don't find it too convincing: the farming practices of Iceland mean that a lot of cattle had to be killed before the winter because there was not enough fodder for all of them. This might have made calfskins more available in Iceland then elsewhere, making book production feasible on a larger scale. \n\nThen there's the theory that a large amount of Irish slaves brought book culture to Iceland or even that relatively isolated islands, such as Ireland or Iceland automatically develop such a culture. I can't say I find the latter very convincing. The former theory could have some merit though.\n\nThis can of course be but a rough overview of the theories concerning this problem. Some of these factors will certainly have played a role and there were doubtlessly others but I fear we will never be able to answer this question completely.\n\n----------------\n\nEdit:\n\n^^1 ^(But since you seem to be an Icelander you should probably know that. I am of course talking about the Sturlungar and the Oddaverjar, Ásbirningar etc.)\n"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/1l1698/questions_about_the_icelandic_saga/"
],
[]
] |
|
1bdyry
|
Wikipedia suggests that the Xiongnu of Chinese records may in fact be the fabled Huns that swept into Europe - how credible is this theory?
|
Is it a controversial but plausible statement? Or crackpot conspiracy like rumours of Chinese contact with the Americas?
|
AskHistorians
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/1bdyry/wikipedia_suggests_that_the_xiongnu_of_chinese/
|
{
"a_id": [
"c963bly",
"c963t7z",
"c963ujl",
"c965rgb"
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"score": [
29,
8,
14,
3
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"text": [
"It isn't crackpot on the order of Ancient Aliens or Gavin Menzies, it just doesn't have much to support it. Pretty much the entire argument rests on a phonetic link of their names, which are exogenous. Against that is a very large gap in time and space, and rather distinct cultures once you get past the \"scary horseman\" bit (for example, the Huns scarred their chins to stay clean shaven, the Xiongnu wore beards).\n\nIt is not impossible, and the archaeology on both ends is too underdeveloped to make definitive statements, but for now the theory must be confined to speculation.",
"In his book, *Attila: The Barbarian King Who Challenged Rome*, John Man covers that theory, and he seems to put it in the \"possible, but we need more archeological evidence\" category. I suspect it's one of those things everyone would really *like* to be true, because it would be pretty cool, but there are large distances involved, in terms of both time and distance, and evidence of a transitional culture somewhere along the way is needed.\n\nBut... now that I type that, it seems like I remember seeing a headline somewhere, quite recently, about a find that linked the two, but I don't remember the details.",
"If I can answer this a little from the language perspective, it *is* reasonable to say that \"Hun\" and \"Xiong\" could be cognates by way of loans, but it's not worth much. In Chinese sources, the two names that come up for the Han-era barbarians to the north are Xiongnu 匈奴 and Xūn Yù 葷粥, the latter being the name used by [Sima Qian](_URL_1_). If an outside group didn't speak a Sinitic language, the Chinese would still use characters to record their endonym. It's not a stretch to say Xiongnu and Xunyu are the same people.\n\nThe problem with saying that they're for the Huns based on the same approach is that etymology dictionaries then [say things like this](_URL_2_):\n\n > *apparently ultimately from Turkic Hun-yü, the name of a tribe (they were known in China as Han or Hiong-nu)*\n\nWe know that the Xiongnu aren't the Han.\n\nBetween Hun and Xiong, the etymological connection is credible based on reconstructed pronunciations, but it's not enough. The Xiongnu didn't have written language (again according to Sima Qian in *Shiji*), so we don't really have a good way to track the development of their autonym.\n\nStill, the time between when the Chinese were writing about the Xiongnu and when the west was writing about the Huns is pretty problematic. I assume you read [this part](_URL_0_) of the Wiki article on the Huns. The quote from Peter Heather sums it up pretty well for me:\n\n > The ancestors of our [4th century European] Huns could even have been a part of the [1st century] Xiongnu confederation, without being the 'real' Xiongnu. Even if we do make some sort of connection between the 4th century Huns and the 1st century Xiongnu, an awful lot of water has passed under an awful lot of bridges in the three hundred years' worth of lost history.",
"The problem is that to the Chinese, one Turkic speaking Central Asian nomad was the same as any other. And even amongs themselves, they didn't identify themselves as anything more than a clan group of varying size. In other words, they didn't have a very distinct notion of ethnic or national identity. \n\nAdd to this, the fact that there were incredible migrations by Central Asian nomads: in some instances, hundreds of thousands of loosely-allied clans would pull up stakes and move vast distances, such as when the Oirats (Kalmyks) moved to the Volga region from western Mongolia.\n\nSo, can you with any real authority say that the groups raiding China that were known as the Xiongnu were also the Huns? No. They could have been, but they easily couldn't have been- it could have been some other, similar group of Turkic-speaking nomads."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[],
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huns#Traditional_Xiongnu_theory",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sima_Qian",
"http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Hun"
],
[]
] |
|
2ldzct
|
If I remember a song in my head, lyrics and all, does the brain use the equivalent amount of memory to store this as it would need in a device?
|
Say I remember a 50 mb song completely. Every sound and every word said. Does this mean my brain used the same amount of memory the song would take up on say a phone? Or would it use less?
|
askscience
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2ldzct/if_i_remember_a_song_in_my_head_lyrics_and_all/
|
{
"a_id": [
"cluspow"
],
"score": [
10
],
"text": [
"This is a difficult question to answer. And it's even quite difficult to explain why it is difficult.\n\nLet me put this question to you. Pick up whatever is to closest to your right hand, say, it's a pen. How many megabytes is that pen? Is that a reasonable question to even ask? Plainly, it currently is not represented in a digital form, but perhaps you mean, \"How many megabytes would it take to store that pen in digital form?\" Well then the question is, to what resolution? If you just say the pen is basically a cylinder, it will only take a few bytes to store it. However, if you wanted to store it absolutely perfectly, down to every atom, well, by my very very rough calculations (assuming each atom needs 3 64bit numbers for its position/state), it would take on the order of 1 yottabytes, which is about 3000 times the total amount of digital storage in world. Just for a pen.\n\nI point this out for two reasons, firstly, when it comes to things that exist first in the \"real world\" (non-digital world) talking about how many bytes it is, is pretty weird. If I ask you how many bytes a pen, or a piece of paper or a car takes up in the real world, it kinda doesn't make too much sense when you think about it at first. Secondly, it shows you how something that exists in the non-digital world can take up completely different amounts of space, depending on how you store it. So your 50mb for a song is actually 50mb for some estimation of a song. It does not contain all of the sonic information of the original song, just some approximation of it, that happens to sound similar when you listen.\n\nHOWEVER, people do try to figure out information content. Information content can be measured in bits. In this way, the outcome of a fair coin contains one bit of information*. Also, if you took an bitmap image, and compressed it with a lossless algorithm, so that it took up less space on your hard drive, but when reconstructed you got the exact same picture, then the information content is the same. This way we can think about our \"how much storage space does a \"pen\" take\" now can be addressed in a slightly more meaningful way; if our \"stored pen\" could be reconstructed into an exact replica of our original pen, then the \"stored pen\" (irrespective of how many gigabytes it took on the computer) would have the exact same information content as the real pen.\n\nSo, now we can ask, how \"good\" is your memory of the 50mb song? If, after listening, you could in some manner recreate it (with a guitar, synth program, just by singing it, however...), and recreate it perfectly, then your brain had all the information content as the original 50mb song. However, every mistake, would count against you.\n\nTL;DR. Talking about how many digital bits your brain stores is as silly as asking how many digital bits is a pen. However, you can compare information content. If two representations of the same content can produce an identical output, then they have the same information content.\n\n*An aside, to explain the coin flip. I say a fair coin flip contains one bit of information. This is because before hand, you cannot guess it's outcome. Thus, the result is completely new information. However an unfair coin flip contains less information. This can be explained (roughly) like this: For instance, if the coin came up heads 75% of the time, then it only contains 1/4 of a bit. This is because beforehand, you \"kinda knew\" the outcome. If you guessed heads, you would get it right 3 times out of 4. Thus out of 4 coin flips, you would only have been wrong once, hence you only got new bit of information once, so for 4 flips, you got one bit of information, so each coin flip contains 1/4 of a bit."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[]
] |
|
lrza2
|
Why can't we make large LED bulbs?
|
Why do all LEDs have to be small? Can't we make a big one that would go in cars or lighthouses? What would be the biggest we could make one?
|
askscience
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/lrza2/why_cant_we_make_large_led_bulbs/
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2v4y23",
"c2v4y23"
],
"score": [
35,
35
],
"text": [
"LED are grown on top from semiconductor wafers approx. 1mm thick, mostly [GaAs](_URL_1_). On top of the wafer a different semiconductors are grown in very thin layers (less than a 1 micron thick); it is these layers that emit light. The properties of additional layers are chosen such that electrons and holes (the absence of an electron) are driven towards each other when an electrical bais is applied to the top and bottom of the device. When electrons and hole recombine they emit light.\n\nFor this reason LEDs are surface emitters. So to make a huge 3D cube-like LED (for a light house) wouldn't have any benefit because light is only coming from the first 1 micron of the material. The generation of heat would be an enormous problem too!\n\nSo how about we make 1m^2 sheet of GaAs? This can't be done because GaAs wafers that size do not exist. Furthermore the machines that deposit the active layers ([MOVPE machines](_URL_0_)) only accept wafer of a several inches in diameter.\n\nFinally there is the issue of cost. GaAs is expensive but LEDs are really cheap -- this is actually an amazing achievement. The reason you can go an buy an LED for a few pence is because of post-growth processing of the completed wafer and cheap optics. \n\nThe wafer is divided into tiny (several 10 of micron squares) meaning that one wafer and give 1000s if working LED devices. The optics take the Lambertian (diffuse) emission from the surface and collimate is as best as possible into beam.\n\nHigh-power LEDs are possible but become much more expensive because you need larger area of wafer meaning that you can sell fews etc. Heat build up is also a problem. Large LEDs will have to pass much higher currents. This generates heat which in turn can reduces the device efficiency.\n\nIn principle the biggest you could make would be 4 inches this is approx. the size of large GaAs wafers (to the best of my knowledge). But it would cost a lot!",
"LED are grown on top from semiconductor wafers approx. 1mm thick, mostly [GaAs](_URL_1_). On top of the wafer a different semiconductors are grown in very thin layers (less than a 1 micron thick); it is these layers that emit light. The properties of additional layers are chosen such that electrons and holes (the absence of an electron) are driven towards each other when an electrical bais is applied to the top and bottom of the device. When electrons and hole recombine they emit light.\n\nFor this reason LEDs are surface emitters. So to make a huge 3D cube-like LED (for a light house) wouldn't have any benefit because light is only coming from the first 1 micron of the material. The generation of heat would be an enormous problem too!\n\nSo how about we make 1m^2 sheet of GaAs? This can't be done because GaAs wafers that size do not exist. Furthermore the machines that deposit the active layers ([MOVPE machines](_URL_0_)) only accept wafer of a several inches in diameter.\n\nFinally there is the issue of cost. GaAs is expensive but LEDs are really cheap -- this is actually an amazing achievement. The reason you can go an buy an LED for a few pence is because of post-growth processing of the completed wafer and cheap optics. \n\nThe wafer is divided into tiny (several 10 of micron squares) meaning that one wafer and give 1000s if working LED devices. The optics take the Lambertian (diffuse) emission from the surface and collimate is as best as possible into beam.\n\nHigh-power LEDs are possible but become much more expensive because you need larger area of wafer meaning that you can sell fews etc. Heat build up is also a problem. Large LEDs will have to pass much higher currents. This generates heat which in turn can reduces the device efficiency.\n\nIn principle the biggest you could make would be 4 inches this is approx. the size of large GaAs wafers (to the best of my knowledge). But it would cost a lot!"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalorganic_vapour_phase_epitaxy",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium_arsenide"
],
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalorganic_vapour_phase_epitaxy",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium_arsenide"
]
] |
|
var8f
|
Was US involvement in Pinochet's overthrow of Allende decisive?
|
AskHistorians
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/var8f/was_us_involvement_in_pinochets_overthrow_of/
|
{
"a_id": [
"c52ta43"
],
"score": [
5
],
"text": [
"My feeling is that Somoza's overthrow in Nicaragua in 1979 suggests that American power over things in Chile in 1973 is oft overstated. \n\nCould Pinochet have overthrown Allende without US approval? \n\nAnd if he could have done, would he have done?\n"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[]
] |
||
2qzkaf
|
the usa has a huge spanish-speaking population and a tiny french-speaking population. why do so many products have labels in english and french, instead of english and spanish?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/2qzkaf/eli5_the_usa_has_a_huge_spanishspeaking/
|
{
"a_id": [
"cnb097h",
"cnb09u2",
"cnb1uu5"
],
"score": [
11,
3,
2
],
"text": [
"Many products are sold in Canada where it's required by law in some provinces to have French on the label.",
"Where are you from? Maybe the NE, near French-speaking Quebec, possibly? There, many products there are labeled in both French and English because Quebec is French speaking. \n\nIn my experience of living on the west coast, the midwest, the southwest, and in the mountain states, that I have rarely encountered products that are dual labeled with English and French.",
"In Canada all products have to be labelled in both French and English by law. Maybe its cheaper for some companies who sell goods in both the US and Canada to just print all the labels in French and English so they can distribute to both markets. Even though lots of Americans speak Spanish, there's no legal requirement to put Spanish on labels in the USA."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[],
[]
] |
||
41bar7
|
why do tightrope walkers balance better carrying a long dowel or with arms outstretched to the sides?
|
I just finished watching Man on Wire, and the whole time it just seemed like carrying that thing should throw him off instead of helping him, which was obviously not the case. How does this work?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/41bar7/eli5_why_do_tightrope_walkers_balance_better/
|
{
"a_id": [
"cz101mr",
"cz13nph"
],
"score": [
6,
3
],
"text": [
"TLDR; It allows them to fine tune their balancing needs. Longer pole allows more subtle changes to their balance. ",
"The wider an object is, the more energy it takes to change its equilibrium—assuming it starts off balanced.\n\nIf you balance a chopstick or a pencil on your finger, a small push on either end can unbalance it. Now try again with a broomstick or a six-foot plank. Obviously it takes more energy. And don't forget that the rope-walker is positioned at the centre where they have a lot of leverage."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[]
] |
|
1cn5n0
|
Evidence of some Bible stories
|
What are some examples of artifact or textual evidence to suggest stories or people from the Bible may have existed?
|
AskHistorians
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/1cn5n0/evidence_of_some_bible_stories/
|
{
"a_id": [
"c9i7jft",
"c9ibs5d"
],
"score": [
2,
3
],
"text": [
"The [historicity of the Bible is problematic](_URL_2_). Certainly, towns and places in the Bible existed, with [numerous artifacts](_URL_3_) found. On the other hand, major discrepancies are found between Biblical accounts and archaelogical findings.\n\nSome examples include:\n\n* [Walls of Jericho](_URL_1_) - the walls once existed and were burnt down, but it was all over long before Joshua showed up on the scene.\n* ['Hezekiah's tunnel'](_URL_0_) - the tunnel exists but it was built many decades before the reign of Hezekiah, who the Biblical account says was responsible for its construction.",
"One figure I can throw in is Pontius Pilate. \n\nIn 1961, archeologists discovered the \"Pilate Stone\" which is a limestone block with an inscription praising the deified Augustus, inscribed with the name Pontius Pilate, Prefect of Judea. \n"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezekiah%27s_tunnel",
"http://www.biblicalchronologist.org/answers/bryantwood.php",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bible_and_history#Challenges_to_historicity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artifacts_significant_to_the_Bible"
],
[]
] |
|
cdrkzd
|
Why did Vermont form the green mountain republic? What was stopping them from simply joining the us in 1777?
|
AskHistorians
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/cdrkzd/why_did_vermont_form_the_green_mountain_republic/
|
{
"a_id": [
"etxxse3"
],
"score": [
7
],
"text": [
"It was in large part due to competing land claims. In the 1700s, both NH and NY thought that the land between the Connecticut river and the Hudson/Lake Champlain was theirs, at least as far as handing out land grants - a pretty lucrative trade - was concerned. This was not helped, so to speak, by the British crown whose grasp of geography was not great ( nobody's was at the time, although the French and Indian War had helped).\n\nAs the Revolutionary War started, the question of the legal status of the State was not a high priority, although Vermonters did participate in the Battle of Bennington on the side of the Americans. Even so, Vermont adopted a constitution which was fairly progressive for the times, banning slavery and eliminating the property qualification for voting.\n\nStill, NY was opposed to admitting Vermont because they felt their land granting rights had been ignored. \n\nEventually, Vermont paid 30,000 Spanish milled dollars to NY, and their objection was removed.\n\nFurther reading:\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_1_\n\nAdditional fun things: Ethan Allen rowed across Lake Champlain with a bunch of his homies and captured Fort Ticonderoga. The cannons were sent down to Boston to help the fight there at a time when the revolution had very few cannons.\n\nEthan Allen and his brother Ira held quite a bit of NH land grants, and were accused of driving off holders of competing NY land grants. Ethan was by report quite the young thug when doing so. He and a band of others drove off, sometimes beat up, and often burned out settlers who had NY land grants.\n\nEthan Allen claims he told the commander of the Ticonderoga fort to \"Surrender in the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress\". Since Ethan was agnostic at best and an atheist possibly, the competing narrative is the he said, \"Come on out of there, you old bastard\"."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/new-connecticut-vermont-declares-independence",
"https://ancestralfindings.com/vermont/",
"http://freedomandunity.org/new_frontier/frontier.html"
]
] |
||
6vjjwq
|
why do chains like eddie bauer and jos a banks open stores in airports? how do they possibly make any money?
|
Many other chains too that I know don't move enough product to afford the high rent of an airports space - especially behind security.
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/6vjjwq/eli5_why_do_chains_like_eddie_bauer_and_jos_a/
|
{
"a_id": [
"dm0o30j",
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"dm0oxkk"
],
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3,
3,
2
],
"text": [
"The great thing about a retail store at an airport, for a retailer, is they have a pretty consistent number of people who will show up and need to be at the airport for a certain amount of time. For many retailers, high rents are normal (prime retail spaces downtown or in a thriving mall or other high traffic area is always expensive) but most spaces can't guarantee a captive audience the way an airport can. \n\n[This article](_URL_0_) cites specialty retailers (which covers most of the retail spaces) in airports as generating nearly $1300/square foot in annual sales, a close to triple the $400 revenue per square foot of mall retailers. Granted it's a few years old, but given the struggles of shopping malls since then it's unlikely that airports are doing worse than other shopping areas. ",
"It's a pretty simple formula. People in airports are wealthier than average, and they have time to kill. A captive audience with disposable income retail gold. \n\nAlso, the higher cost of rent and labor is easier to absorb with a high end high markup product. You might grumble at paying $12 bucks for a burrito instead of $7, but paying $300 in stead of $250 for an outfit doesn't feel so bad.\n\nFinally, luggage gets lost, and people forget to pack things. Being able to fix those mistakes at the airport is worth paying a little bit more.",
"In addition to crowds, people often needing to kill time, and being wealthier than general population there are also times people urgently need new clothes--they spill coffee on their tie on way to meeting/interview, or kid pukes on the only pants they packed, or realize they forgot to pack something, etc."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"http://www.franchisetimes.com/October-2011/How-to-land-in-an-airport/"
],
[],
[]
] |
|
131o18
|
What factors led to and/or allowed some dinosaurs to be massive on a scale not seen by land animals in any other period in history?
|
I recently learnt about Square-cube law thanks to the dust mite thread and now thinking about the sizes of some dinosaur species hurts my head even more.
|
askscience
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/131o18/what_factors_led_to_andor_allowed_some_dinosaurs/
|
{
"a_id": [
"c702u48"
],
"score": [
4
],
"text": [
"As far as I am aware the answer is unknown. The correlation between home range and maximal body mass can be extrapolated for terrestrial mammals all the way up to the largest extinct land mammal. \nThis is not particularly helpful in explaining the size of the largest dinosaurs, perhaps because of the many unknowns in regards to the environment of the Mesozoic Era. It is certain, however, that endothermic herbivores and carnivores can grow larger than their respective ectothermic counterparts.\n\nHigh oxygen saturation (~28KPa vs 21KPa today) towards the end of the Cretaceous period (when the largest known dinosaurs existed), coupled with the high efficiency of their lungs is often cited as the reason, but there is no way to know that this is the cause.\n\nThere is also the \"Homeothermy\" hypothesis, which posits that as body size increases the temperature of the animal increases. Smaller dinosaurs may have had temperatures similar to those of modern reptiles, while largest ones may have had temperatures approaching 118 degrees fahrenheit. Most animals today cannot survive temperatures much higher than this and it is suggested that internal temperature may have limited the maximal growth of dinosaurs.\n\n_URL_3_ ---- Homeothermy\n_URL_1_ ---- Homerange/size correlation\n_URL_0_ ---- size/ectotherm vs endotherm graph\n_URL_2_ ---- Oxygen saturation\n\nIf anybody can expound upon this feel free to do so. "
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC64714/figure/F1/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC64714/",
"http://jxb.oxfordjournals.org/content/52/357/801.full",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1489188/"
]
] |
|
32og5x
|
why is it so common for europeans to speak english as a second language?
|
As opposed to french or spanish or mandarin?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/32og5x/eli5_why_is_it_so_common_for_europeans_to_speak/
|
{
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"It's just so incredibly useful in business, science, etc, that many countries mandate English classes in primary and/or secondary education. It's required in the the Netherlands and Sweden, for instance, as well as a bunch of other countries.\n\nIn other times, one might have preferred to study French or German, as they'd be the most useful languages to know in addition to the local one(s). Today it happens to be English. For all we know, in a century it will be Hindi or something.",
"Basically, because first Britain and then the USA became huge superpowers and trading partners, so they want to communicate. \n\nFrench used to be the common language of European high life and politics. Not anymore. \n\nMandarin is less relevant, and hard for most Europeans to learn. ",
"English got spread around the world through British colonisation. In many former British colonies English is still an important language, or even an official language.\n\nOne former British colony went on to be hugely influential in world politics and trade: the United States of America.\n\nThe USA were major players setting up the UN, with the result that the UN's primary language is English.\n\nAmerican brands moved across the world, bringing an English speaking culture with them. This caused some interesting situations: a Volkswagen factory in India ended up adopting English as its main language, because none of the German managers knew Hindi, and none of the Indian workers knew German, but they did all know English as a second language. This kind of thing further reinforces English's position.\n\nAmerican music crossed the Atlantic, bringing this hip, popular new sound with lyrics in English. It became cool to understand and speak English. American TV made the transition as well. (Many German people I know speak excellent English thanks to watching *Friends* and other popular shows in English with subtitles.)\n\nI wouldn't say that any one of these made English the global lingua franca, but the combination certainly did.\n\nEnglish has a few more things going for it: it is very easy to learn English well enough to be understood. ~~It's~~^1 Its grammar is simple, similar to several European languages already, and flexible. (In English: \"the dog bites the man\", \"the dog is biting the man\" and \"the man is bitten by the dog\" are all valid constructions. We have very permissive grammar rules in that way, which makes the language easier to learn.) We also have very simple verb conjugations (to run; I run; you run; he/she/it runs; we run; you run (or \"you all run\"); they run. Compare to Spanish: correr; corro; corres; corre; corremos; corréis; corren.)\n\nEnglish also has, I think, fewer idioms than any other languages I know. (Compare it to Japanese, which can feel like nothing but idiomatic imagery sometimes.) This probably isn't a big deal, since most people will avoid idioms when they're talking to non-native speakers anyway.\n\nAs for the specific languages you mention:\n\n- French: used to be the lingua franca, until it fell out of favour. It's still commonly taught in England, and the rest of Western Europe, though.\n\n- Spanish: Still widely spoken in former Spanish colonies. Maybe if Mexico became the world power than the USA is everyone would know Spanish.\n\n- Mandarin: The most commonly spoken language in the world, perhaps, but not widely spoken. It's only spoken in China, and is not - therefore - a global language.\n\n.1. Oooooops.\n\nEDIT: Some of this I knew already, the rest came from here: _URL_0_\n\nEDIT 2: Fixing my grammar. :-/",
"The British have invaded all but like 2 countries in the world. They brought their language with them, and taught it to the locals. \n\nIt's popularity also helps itself. You live in spain, speak spanish, and you want to learn a second language. You could learn Portuguese, which will really only help in Portugal and Brazil. You could learn French which will really only help in France, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Belgium, Quebec, ETC\n\nOr you could learn english, Spoken in all of Canada, All of the U.S., All of the U.K., All of Australia, All of New Zealand, All or most of South Africa, All or most of India, All or most of pakistan, largely in Continental Europe, largely in South America, largely in Africa, largely in Asia.\n\nYour chances of finding someone who also speaks English is much higher around the world than other languages, which is why you learn it, which is why you'll be able to find someone who speaks it and so on. \n\nEdit: 22, not 2, Still an impressive number, about 90% of all the countries in the world have been invaded by Britain. ",
"You probably would have had English as a second or third language in high school. Which gives you the basics. After that, you are (by far) far more exposed to English then any other langauge (movies, video games, the internet). Hence, you practice that skill more. Once it became the most common one (and it had been other ones before the second world war: French, German in large parts of Europe), it has become the default language between europeans from different countries.\n\nIt used to be a joke that only the small countries would speak English, because they wouldn't dub their movies. Nowadays though, almost everyone under a certain age does to a certain degree. You used to have to go out of your way to come into contact with English, nowadays you would have to actively avoid it.",
"I always feel ignorant that I only speak English (I am English), but what other language is as widespread and useful? When I travel I'm embarrassed I can't speak the local language but they often speak perfect English as well as their native tongue. Even in Hungary I hung out with two Austrian guys, an Indian guy, a Mexican and a Portugese woman on a bar crawl and we all just spoke English, they all ordered their drinks in English from Hungarian bartenders who didn't speak Austrian/Hindi/Spanish/Portugese but spoke English. ",
"Several Reasons:\n1. English is required in most European schools.\n2. English is the universal language. It is the language of commerce, science, diplomacy (the French are still miffed at this), medicine, and even air traffic control.\n3. Europeans can switch to English first if they do not speak the same language rather than try German then French then Spanish then Italian then Greek then etc.",
"What would they speak?\n\nMandarin is difficult and far away. And China was not so cool even 15 years ago.\n\nIn many countries though (especially Spanish-speaking) French is more popular as a second language though.",
"So many different languages are spoken in Europe that they had to settle on one. (Legend has it that members of the Belgian Parliament, after endless sniping over whether French or Dutch should be given prominence, finally threw up their hands and made everything English.)",
"it's common for Europeans to speak German, French, Italian, or Russian as a second language too. Just like it's common for Americans to spanish. Most High schools in Europe require several years of foreign language classes to graduate. In the US this isn't a requirement which explains why bilingualism is a lot less common.",
"One of the most important reasons: internet. Europe is Western culture, and Western internet is 99% in English. So are movies, TV shows from the USA (which is the majority of films, tv shows). French, Spanish, Mandarin, while learned by a lot of Europeans, is just not as useful in everyday life.",
"Because we also want to watch Breaking Bad, and play GTA V."
]
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[] |
[] |
[
[],
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|
3hpqyw
|
why do satellites appear to be glowing like feint stars?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/3hpqyw/eli5why_do_satellites_appear_to_be_glowing_like/
|
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"The sun shines on them, and they reflect some of that light back at us. Equally important, though, is the fact that Earth also reflects a lot of light from the sun back into space."
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|
[] |
[] |
[
[]
] |
||
3lggxk
|
Was there a failed D-Day before the successful one?
|
A friend recently told me a remarkable story about her grandfather, a WWII vet. It goes like this:
Grandfather, a polish-American man living in Nebraska, never spoke about his service. At least not until very recently. According to her, he had been involved in a failed European invasion, a "practice dday," that had ended catastrophically, with almost everyone killed. One of the few survivors, her grandfather had been forbidden from discussing the operation, or its outcome, to mitigate the impact of such a failure on the war effort/nation. She said the operation had been revealed in recent years via release of some documents overseas, and the U.S. government had recognized her grandfather (as one of, maybe the only? still living survivor) for both his service and many years of silence.
She (admittedly) didn't have a ton more details, but I thought the story was interesting and sounded plausible (re: propaganda/information control). Curious to see if anyone on AskHistorians knows what the real story here could be!
|
AskHistorians
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/3lggxk/was_there_a_failed_dday_before_the_successful_one/
|
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"If he served in the US Army he is likely remembering \"Exercise Tiger\" it was a training operation in April 1944, designed to practice and figure out best practices for landing lots of crafts from different services, nations, and sizes, and timing things like shore bombardment. Unfortunately it just wasn't practical to bring ships from the Pacific, and it would have been unnecessarily complex. the plan was to land several thousand US troops from British ships in Devon in SW England. \n\nThe day as a disaster. A RN Cruiser, the Hawkins due to a delay in H-Hour, was firing live shells onto the beach when US troops had already landed(the landing craft hadn't heard about the delay). Then the worst of it was when German E-Boats attacked a convoy of LST's bringing the second wave of troops for the exercise. All told about 1,000 servicemen were killed. \n\nThe deaths were not released immediately (which was extremely common in lots of circumstances such as an important ship sinking) and released during the summer as part of the casualties from Overlord itself. ",
"One possible match would be the raid at Dieppe. It was undertaken by the Allies and featured a large Canadian contingent. In a way it was a \"practice D-Day,\" as it did try out some invasion techniques. It achieved few of its objectives, but as a raid it was never intended as an invasion. It was also costly, but I don't know of any secrecy around the operation.\n\nAn operation that *was* hushed up was Excercise Tiger, which was a practice D-Day. The simulated assault was in the UK (Slapton Sands), not France. It had a tragic amount of friendly fire as well as attacks by German E-boats. The resulting cost was nearly a thousand dead. There is some debate as to whether it was covered up or merely forgotten in the grander scheme of the war, but it certainly did not feature prominently in heroic memory.",
"Two incidents come to mind. The first is the landings at Dieppe, but I suspect this is not what he refers to, as only a handful of American commandos were involved. A mostly British-Canadian (with some French and American commandos) force landed at the resort town of Dieppe in France on August 19, 1942, and the operation was mostly a failure, with high losses, and very few objectives achieved before the decision was made to evacuate those still able. As I said though, no Americans, so I don't think this is it.\n\nMore likely, it is a reference to Operation Tiger, which was a training maneuver held at 'Slapton Sands' off the English coast on April 28, 1944. The coast in that region was not too different from the region the D-Day landings were to take place so it was being used to practice on. The convoy carrying the troops was not being closely guarded, with only one destroyer close in, and the next nearest escorts some 12 miles away, enough for a flotilla of German E-Boats to slip through and attach in the early hours of the morning, sinking three LSTs. Some 700 sailors and soldiers were confirmed dead, including several officers who knew the entire D-Day plan, which caused serious worries until all of their bodies were recovered from the wreck.\n\nThat wasn't the only disaster during \"Tiger\" though. During the practice landings, when deposited on the beach the troops were supposed to be preceded by artillery fire, but due to organizational errors, the artillery that was supposed to stop before they landed continued, and added more to the casualty rolls, bringing the total killed from the Slapton Sands debacle to 946, considerably higher than were lost on many of the actual D-Day beaches! It did have some \"positive\" effects though, as the Army learned some lessons for the real deal.\n\nAs you note, the whole thing was kept hush-hush, with court-martial facing anyone who talked, and information was not released for several decades, although it doesn't seem to have been strictly speaking, classified.\n\nRick Atkinson, Guns at Last Light pages 16-17\n\nAlso, [NPR has a short article on it.](_URL_0_)"
]
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|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
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|
2r7uao
|
what is with all the "am i being detained officer?" comments?
|
I've seen it in so many threads. What's up with this? Is this a bad thing to say to a cop? Is there some historical precedent to it?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/2r7uao/eli5_what_is_with_all_the_am_i_being_detained/
|
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"It's an important question to ask. If you aren't under arrest, and you aren't being detained, you are free to leave.",
" > Is this a bad thing to say to a cop?\n\nNo; it's one of the few things one ought to say to a cop, ever. Others include:\n\nI do not consent to any searches.\n\nI am invoking my fifth amendment right to remain silent.\n\nI would like to speak to my attorney.",
"In most (all?) states, when a police officer asks your name, you're required to answer a name. If he asks any other question of you, you're not required to reply. If you are not being detained, you don't have to wait there for the officer and you can resume doing whatever you were doing before the encounter",
"From this site: _URL_0_\n\n > 4) Determine if You Can Leave\n\n > You have the right to terminate an encounter with a police officer unless you are being detained under police custody or have been arrested. The general rule is that you don't have to answer any questions that the police ask you. This rule comes from the Fifth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, which protects you against self-incrimination. If you cannot tell if you are allowed to leave, say to the officer, \"I have to be on my way. Am I free to go?\"\nIf the officer says \"Yes,\" tell him to have a nice day, and leave immediately. If the officer's answer is ambiguous, or if he asks you another unrelated question, persist by asking \"Am I being detained, or can I go now?\" If the officer says \"No,\" you are being detained, and you may be placed under arrest. If this is the case, reassert your rights as outlined above, and follow Rules #5 and #6.\n\nIt's become a joke at this point to blurt out that statement whenever someone has any encounter with the police whatsoever, no matter how non-confrontational the situation actually is. \n\nIt's not a bad thing to say because you do have the right to leave if you aren't being detained, but it's a nice way to look like a dick to the cop and seem like you're trying to hide something by knowing your rights so thoroughly. That's not enough to detain you or anything, but it might be enough to convince the cop to try to find something to arrest you for. It's within your rights, though.",
"It comes from the fact that an officer could be asking you questions voluntarily as any regular citizen might, or he might be placing you under arrest because he has probable cause to believe you've committed a crime, or he might have merely stopped you under reasonable suspicion that you've committed a crime. In the first case, you ought be free to go. In the second case, you In the In the second case, the stop has to be [temporary](_URL_1_) and related to the crime. As Jay-Z explains in 99-problems, they can't hold you for 45 minutes on a routine traffic stop while they wait for a K-9 unit (a bitch) to arrive. \n\nFolk interested in the rules regarding search, seizure, and interrogation should also check out [The Illustrated Guide to the Law](_URL_9_), a webcomic drawn by a practicing defense attorney from NYC. It also has sections on: \n\n* [the exclusionary rule](_URL_0_)\n\n* [wiretapping warrants](_URL_6_)\n\n* [self-defense](_URL_2_)\n \n* [entrapment](_URL_5_)\n\n* [memory and eyewitness identification](_URL_4_)\n\n* [the history of interrogation in Common Law](_URL_7_)\n\nAnd flowcharts for [the 4th amendment](_URL_3_) and [the 5th amendment](_URL_8_)\n",
"All of you guys are right as to what it means, but it is from Breaking Bad in season 5. That's why so many comment it.",
"Am I being dethroned?",
"Every answer here has answered it as what it 'actually' means.\n\nOn Reddit, it is now being used to satirise the overreaction of Redditors when they are around police. Police on Reddit have a reputation of 'literally hitler' standards, and many posts are made about how to not cooperate under any circumstances.\n\nThe joke therefore is whenever a Redditor describes a neutral story which involves a cop, to squeal the line- as the 'stereotypical' Redditor would."
]
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[
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"http://lawcomic.net/guide/?p=1813",
"http://lawcomic.net/guide/?p=864",
"http://lawcomic.net/guide/?p=2256",
"http://lawcomic.net/guide/?p=3044",
"http://lawcomic.net/guide/?p=633",
"http://lawcomic.net/guide/?p=1704",
"http://lawcomic.net/guide/?p=2314",
"http://lawcomic.net/guide/?p=2897",
"http://lawcomic.net/guide/?p=1859"
],
[],
[],
[]
] |
|
5zgq8s
|
Do snow covered mountains still erode?
|
If the temperature on the mountain never reaches below zero, I figure the only source of erosion is the wind. But when the mountain is covered with snow, does it not act as a barrier between the wind and the mountain?
|
askscience
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/5zgq8s/do_snow_covered_mountains_still_erode/
|
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"Yes, snow covered mountains still erode, sometimes in a spectacular fashion. \n\nYou have to keep in mind that snow cover is not static, but represents a dynamic equilibrium between precipitation and slope stability. When that equilibrium is disrupted, say by a surfeit of fresh snow, mass wastage ensues and avalanches occur.\n\nConsider for instance [this avalanche on the Zanskar massif](_URL_1_). It acts pretty much like a debris flow, and is an effective motor force to displace boulders, rocks and some of the finer grained sediment encased in the dirty snow.\n\nIn that same video, you will also notice an alpine glacier. They too are active motors of erosion in alpine areas. The weight of that mass of packed dirty ice allows gravity to drag it down and scour the side of the mountain, albeit at a much slower pace than the avalanche. The cumulative effect of such alpine glaciers can nonetheless be impressive, resulting in [the classic \"U\"-shaped valley shown in many a textbook](_URL_2_) [corrected].\n\nThere may also be active water flow in rivers and streams flowing downhill, some even under the ice, although I admit this may seem counter intuitive to someone in a locality with little exposure to winter conditions. Their erosive action remains uninterrupted. For a concrete example, I'll point across town (I'm writing this from Québec City) to the [Montmorency falls, where a webcam](_URL_0_) bears witness to the uninterrupted flow of water down the Ste-Anne river and the falls down the escarpment there. We are currently locked down after a substantial snowstorm (we just got about 30 cm of fresh snow - ski conditions at the neighboring Mt Ste-Anne should be awesome this weekend), winter is solidly in place."
]
}
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[] |
[] |
[
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"http://wxyzwebcams.com/fr/webcam-1364.php",
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"http://www.obs.ujf-grenoble.fr/paysagesglaciaires.net/site_source/Photos/AX1.jpg"
]
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|
6s6f7s
|
how did pixar create such amazing cgi (i.e. toy story, a bug's life) with early 90's technology?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/6s6f7s/eli5_how_did_pixar_create_such_amazing_cgi_ie_toy/
|
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"CGI movies are not bound by the need to be rendered in real time.\n\nVideo games need to be rendered at 30-60fps in real time in order to appear fluid and responsive. But with movies, you can quite literally render one frame every 12 hours, and then play back the final render at 24 fps.\n\nBasically, you can get terrific graphics with old tech, as long as you are willing to wait months for it to finish rendering.",
"Two observations.\n\nFirst, yes, the state of computer graphics in 1995 was not nearly so advanced as today. But it wasn't as bad as all that. Ray tracing had been around for more than a decade at that point. Pixar had actually used RenderMan--its proprietary software responsible for much of the heavy lifting in the *Toy Story* animation process--in films as early as 1991's *Beauty and the Beast* (Remember the ballroom scene? Yeah. That.). Then, as now, *cost* is as much an issue in the realism of computer graphics as technical ability. Sure, today's technology lets us achieve a higher degree of realism than we could in the 1990s for the same price. But even back in 1995, you would probably have been surprised at the degree of realism possible with CG given enough budget. Most people were.\n\nSecond, it's undeniable that Pixar significantly advanced the state of CG technology in the course of producing *Toy Story*. Motion blur and texture mapping in particular got a lot of attention. So the answer, in part, is that they simply made new technology as they went. ",
"Much of the software required had to be made from very elementary work into 3D modelling things that we now take for granted, like polygons and UV coordinates (systems for applying 2d textures to 3d objects). In the earliest days, like with the short Luxo Jr., polygon coordinates had to be manually plotted and programmed by calculating and then writing down the XYZ coordinates of each point for each polygon, before animation work could take place.\n\nPixar's software developed similar but different tech to the animation and modelling techniques used in early 3D video games, but with more sophisticated rendering and motion controls.\n\nYou can really see the level of detail increase over time when you watch their movies in chronological release date order.\n\n* Toy Story - ambitious tech demo with extremely well done plot and characters\n* A Bug's Life - Lighting and scene detail density improvements, with grass, plants, and large crowds\n* Toy Story 2 - Texture and rendering improvements for human characters\n* Monsters Inc. - Fur and environments\n* The Incredibles - Lots of everything, but most importantly clothes and cloth simulation\n* Cars - Lighting and rendering improvements\n* Ratatouille - Rendering improvements for human characters and organic matter like food\n* WALL-E - Lighting and procedural generation (like trash and robots\n* Up - Lighting and color effects\n\nand it goes on.",
"To add on: Earlier on, they also purposely picked objects with a focus on \"plastic-y\" textures that worked well in early CGI and minimized other objects. For example, their first two movies focused on toys (with some humans but screen time minimized) and bugs mostly with hard shells. And even the humans that do get screen time, things were focused on keeping them simple. E.g. Andy and Sid both have conveniently buzzcut hair.",
"Another point\n\nThe human animation in Toy Story left much to be desired, reflective of the technology at that time. By using toys and bugs, Pixar could get around that problem, because your brain isn't expecting realism from toys and bugs"
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4evc14
|
what does post-modernism, and minamilism mean, in american literature?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/4evc14/eli5_what_does_postmodernism_and_minamilism_mean/
|
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"Literary minimalism is a little difficult to explain, and I'd suggest googling if I make no sense. \n\nIt has a lot to do with simply not being overly wordy and descriptive. The writing relies on context and other clues to help give weight to a scene or story, for instance. It might not give a ton of background information explicitly and instead paint the picture by providing context. A minimalist sci fi story might not explain any of the setting or the technology, but might give you the picture by having characters use tech or mention the setting casually. A story might be entirely dialog. \n\nPost-modernism is defined by being, well, after the modern period and not adhering to (or playing with or parodying) modernist tropes. It's not easy to pin down, but in a nutshell it is literature that is intentionally not straightforward, may be open to interpretation, and may not have \"standard\" things like a neatly tied up ending, it may have an unreliable narrator, etc. But the word is extremely broadly defined. "
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[]
] |
||
pijkg
|
maps split down the atlantic not the pacific
|
Most maps (Of the flat variety) are split down the Pacific. Since coming to Reddit I've seen an unusual quantity of maps split down the Atlantic.
Why is this? There's a much cleaner split down the Pacific. Do people just hate Greenland?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/pijkg/elif_maps_split_down_the_atlantic_not_the_pacific/
|
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"text": [
"The reason maps have the edges cutting through the Pacific has nothing to do with the oceans. Maps (most of them, at least) are made with Europe at the center. The current setup of the world map was created during a period of European dominance, so it features Europe in the middle! It is just coinsidence that the opposite side of the globe convieniently runs down the middle of the Pacific."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[]
] |
|
45xzuv
|
Was the Civil War Conscription Act Necessary for the Union army if they already had such an advantage of man power and industrial resources?
|
[deleted]
|
AskHistorians
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/45xzuv/was_the_civil_war_conscription_act_necessary_for/
|
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"McPherson, *Battle Cry of Freedom*, covers United States conscription from near the start of chapter 16.\n\nRecruiting of volunteers and calling up of militias had served their needs for 1861. But after US failure in the Seven Days', morale plunged for a time. Recruiting went less well in the new call of July 1862. \"The parades and rallies of 1862 were a pale imitation of the stirring demonstrations of 1861. The lengthening casualty lists had taught people that war was not a glorious game. Although the North had mobilized only a third of its potential military manpower, a booming war economy and the busy summer season on farms had left few young men at loose ends and ready to volunteer. Moreover, the new recruits, like those already in the army, had to enlist for three years.\" I presume that recruiting went badly in Democratic areas like New York City and the butternut areas of southern Indiana and southern Illinois. The later draft certainly did (the US sent troops into four states to keep order and carry out the draft).\n\nHis discussion of the militia act of 17 July 1862 is confusing, not least because the act itself is confusing. State militia men were called up for up to nine months and the War Department was enabled to start levying. There were formulae where missing volunteers under an earlier call caused levys of militia men (I gather there was districting and quotas per district), but \"every three-year volunteer enlisted above quota would be counted as four men against the nine-month militia quota.\" The purpose, expanded on later, was more to stimulate volunteering rather than to cause a draft.\n\nCh. 20: a further draft act became necessary in 1863. \"The men likely to enlist for patriotic reasons or adventure or peer-group pressure were already in the army.\" More war weariness and more of a booming economy. \"The still tentative enlistment of black soldier could scarcely begin to replace losses from disease and combat and desertion during the previous six months. Like the Confederacy in early 1862, the Union army in 1863 faced a serious manpower loss through expiration of enlistments ...\"\n\nQuotas were assigned to districts (congressional districts). \"Each district had fifty days to fill its quota with volunteers [those who had previously volunteered counted too]. Those that failed to do so then held a lottery draft to obtain a sufficient number of men to meet the quota.\"\n\nBut he adds, \"If a man's name was drawn in this lottery, one of several things would happen to him next---the least likely of which was induction into the army.\"\n\n* 20% skedaddled. Of those who reported,\n* 12% were sent home because the quota was filled. Of the remaining,\n* 60% were sent home for physical handicap, mental handicap, or they convinced the board they were \"the sole support for a widow, an orphan sibling, a motherless child, or an indigent parent.\" Of those nonetheless drafted,\n* 40% paid a commutation fee of $300 (a one-time \"get out of army\" card; repealed July 1864)\n* 35% hired a substitute\n\nResult: of the 776K called up in the first four drafts, only 6% (46K) were drafted into the army.\n\nLots of cities, counties, and political machines paid the commutation fees for men. Some businesses paid for commutation based on wage levies. You could buy actual draft insurance policies.\n\n\"... it was not conscription at all, but a clumsy carrot and stick device to stimulate volunteering. The stick was the threat of being drafted and the carrot was a bounty for volunteering. ... [reciting the draft and substitute figures], some 800K men enlisted or re-enlisted voluntarily during the two years after passage of the conscription act.\"\n\nSome bounties were given by the War Department. There could also be benefits in choosing your own regiment or electing its officers. States, counties, and cities provided bounties, to the soldiers or to help support their families. \"... the shock of the first draft, which provoked bitter resistance in many areas, caused communities to resolve to fill future quotas by any means possible to avoid a draft.\" There could be massive piles of bounties late in the war -- $1000 or more.\n\nBut he concludes the bounty men and sustitutes, though technically volunteers, didn't really contribute a lot to the victory, due to desertion (with optional repeated bounty hunting). He writes that the original volunteers of 1861 and 1862 mostly led the US victory.\n"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[]
] |
|
2nm9x1
|
what does cracking a videogame usually involve and why is denuvo so much harder for pirates to crack?
|
While I'm at it: why was this solution so difficult to come up with?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/2nm9x1/eli5_what_does_cracking_a_videogame_usually/
|
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"In the old days when the DRM was merely the program (exe) checking to see if the CDrom was good, you would use an assembly debugger to track to the point where it reports a success. You change it so the fail outcome also jumps to the success outcome. A more modern DRM scheme might have the program ask the developer's server if the customer's/pirate's program is valid, the cracker changes or provides a substitute answer of yes.\n\nA quick websearch says Denuvo is a modern style DRM which uses encryption (and probably a few other unreported methods too). This makes cracking really difficult because good encryption schemes are difficult to crack intellectually, take a lot of time and crackers are only doing it for fun.\n\nsource; I wasn't a successful debugger, I was only mucking around to remove CDrom-checks.",
"What is Denuvo? I googled it and still can't seem to figure it out."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[]
] |
|
203qn8
|
why did the hobbit frame rate matter and what does it mean for future movies?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/203qn8/eli5_why_did_the_hobbit_frame_rate_matter_and/
|
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"The frame rate used for the Hobbit is only realistically possible with digital projectors. Mechanical projectors are all built to run film at the slower rate and upgrading them would be prohibitively expensive. So while high frame rate might be possible with analog tech, nobody will pay to make that tech. Digital projectors don't have the limits of analog projectors - they could potentially display films at even higher frame rates than the rate used in the Hobbit, but the value starts to diminish rapidly and then ceases to matter.\n\nThe human eye does not see an image continuously. Instead, the retina \"fires\" neurotransmitters to the optic nerve about once every 1/30th of a second. So the eye \"sees\" 30 \"frames\" a second. Anything that happens in between those fractions of a second isn't detectable. This concept is called \"persistence of vision\".\n\nFor most people, most of the time, a movie projected at 30 frames a second is the limit of their ability to detect changes between frames. Traditional movies are actually projected a little bit slower than this rate, but still, for most people, the \"flicker\" this causes is undetectable.\n\nSo the first thing the Hobbit's frame rate increase does is get to the point where *no human* can detect the flicker. There are enough frames being shown that your brain literally can't detect any more data and cannot detect the brief \"black\" moments between frames.\n\nIt turns out this has some meaningful effects.\n\nFirst, you can move a camera faster than it can capture images, creating distortions in the frames. Instead of a crisp image, you get \"motion blur\". The faster the frame rate, the faster you can move the camera without getting these distortions. There are scenes in the Hobbit movies that could not be captured or played back with traditional frame rates without losing a lot of image quality. (You probably haven't seen what this looks like because Hollywood movie cinematographers know how fast they can move their cameras to avoid the problem, and you rarely if ever see it in a mainstream movie [and if you do, it's often essentially a \"special effect\" and you're not supposed to know it's a problem anyway].\n\nSecond and related to the first, when an object moves in front of another object that is called \"parallax\". Even when the camera is moving slowly enough to keep the foreground from distorting, the relative speed of the background will be faster - sometimes much faster. To account for this, the cinematographer will use a lens with a plane of focus that keeps the foreground subject in sharp focus, but allow the background to become slightly (or very) out of focus. This effect is called \"bokeh\", and it's considered very desirable as it keeps the viewer's eye on the foreground image which is usually the character the director wants you to be looking at. At the high frame rates used in the Hobbit, the cinematographers were able to use lenses with deeper depths of field, keeping more of the scene in focus without motion distorting the background.\n\nThe result of this effect, ironically, was that the film looks \"cheaper\" to some viewers. The flatter, more in-focus images, which look more like what you would see if you were standing on set watching the scene, have qualities which are similar to those that are achieved by home video recording equipment and old video cameras. Those pieces of equipment tended to have very deep fields so that everyone at the birthday party was in focus without asking Mom or Dad to know much about optics. They could do that because the resolution of those images was fairly low, much lower than film - and with the lower resolution they could record at higher frame rates without getting too much motion blur.\n\nSo when people see the Hobbit for the first time, they may have the odd sensation of feeling like they're seeing something from a home-shot camcorder, or an old BBC TV series (the Beeb used a lot of videocameras for a lot of their shows). They're so used to the tricks and techniques used by Hollywood cinematographers to turn problems with motion and depth of field into aesthetically pleasing images that their brains have trouble seeing the improved quality of the Hobbit.\n\n[This drives me personally nuts. I **know** the picture is \"better\", but my brain keeps seeing it as \"cheap\". It will take a lot more movies using the format before the brains reprogram themselves - although I noted much less of this feeling in Desolation of Smaug compared to Unexpected Journey.)\n\nFinally, the Hobbit is not just shot at a higher frame rate. It's also shot at a higher resolution. Film is an analog system of course and doesn't use \"pixels\". Film captures very fine changes in color and extremely fine details. However the lenses used with film cameras and the film itself have various technical features which affect how much fine detail is captured for display. Motion picture lenses and film are designed to cope with a lot of motion and a wide range of lighting conditions and they typically sacrifice some fine detail.\n\nThe tech used in the Hobbit captures more of the fine details than the film that would be traditionally used in many of the kinds of shots seen in the movie. As a result, details on costumes and props became more noticeable than they normally are. There are stray hairs on actor's faces that would be invisible with traditional film, and marks and blemishes on props that would similarly not be seen. \n\nFor Unexpected Journey, Jackson left a lot of these kinds of details in the movie and many viewers either found them distracting or thought they made the sets, props and costumes look \"cheap\". Even though, knowing that they'd be capturing a higher level of detail, everything was actually made much more fine-detailed than for traditional filming. This, combined with the effect I described above regarding depth of field, contributed to many viewers feeling like the film was a lower-quality production.\n\nFor Desolation of Smaug I could tell that they had intentionally backed off the resolution in some scenes to achieve a more \"film like\" quality. It was a very subtle thing - and there are certainly a lot of parts of the film where you see all sorts of very fine details, so the production team didn't try to back it off everywhere. I think this is one reason there was so much less backlash to the 2nd film than the 1st.\n\nThe question of what it means for the future of movies is a very open one. Some people feel like Jackson is doing pioneering work and that he's right in that many future movies will be shot with this technology. It blows up real good to IMAX, for example, and IMAX has become a big profit center for theaters. On the other hand there is 80+ years of history and experience in Hollywood about how to light, shoot, and process film to get really beautiful images. Set, prop and costume designers know what will and won't show up on film. Makeup and hair stylists do to. Getting all the \"crafts\" to change and upgrade to take advantage of the improved qualities high frame rate offers may take some time and along the way there will be missteps - movies that are so shockingly bad that people will think the *tech* is bad, not just the craftsmanship.\n\nIf I had to bet, I would bet Jackson is right. Digital is the future, no matter what. And once theaters go digital and filmmakers get comfortable with digital they'll start doing things on screen that simply couldn't be done with film. The barrels on the river scene in Desolation, for example, couldn't have been shot on film - the fast camera moves and swooping \"point of view\" effects would simply not work without the high frame rate process.",
"Faster frame rates (to a point) make the action in videos look more smooth. Since The Hobbit used a faster frame rate than the other movies you see in a theater, people notice how smooth it looks. The problem is that since we're all so used to slower frame rates, many people perceive the faster frame rate to look more 'fake', so they say that they prefer the slower frame rate. Frame rate can also affect how we perceive special effects.. a faster frame rate might make us notice subtle things about special effects that we might not otherwise notice, so the movie again seems more 'fake'.. when you notice the special effects, it breaks your 'suspension of reality' (meaning, you stop being engulfed in the movie, and instead suddenly realize that you're sitting in a theater, watching a movie). Breaking your suspension of reality can really wreck a movie.\n\nThe issue with a lot of people thinking that higher FPS = more 'fake' looking movies is that it will lead to slower adoption of what is actually a more realistic way to see a movie. The goal for movies should really be getting as close to reality as possible. So basically, resolution that's high enough for us not to notice any pixels, 3D with enough depth to seem like it's real life (without any headaches or glasses or anything else that makes you realize you're watching a movie), colors that appear completely life-like, and a screen that lets us see only the movie, and no edges (or anything else outside of the screen, for that matter).\n\nEvery time someone says, \"I don't like higher FPS movies\" or, \"I don't like 3D,\" it impedes our progress toward more realistic movies. Since most people ended up not liking the higher FPS in The Hobbit (mainly since they weren't used to higher FPS movies), that means that we're less likely to see other high-FPS movies in the near future, because studios aren't going to spend the money switching to higher-FPS movies if it doesn't help them make more money. Lame.",
"A shorter answer from a slightly different angle: \n\nWe're all used to constant improvements and developments in image quality - like megapixel cameras, or IMAX format film - that provide more detail and resolution due to the increased scale or pixel count. High Frame Rate (HFR) addresses the TEMPORAL quality of film - not just how our eye sees detail, but how it perceives motion. \n\nThe 24fps standard for film was originally an economic decision: Film stock is expensive, so how few frames of film can we use and get away with it? 24fps is on the low end of what's 'acceptable.' So the standard is just what we're accustomed to, which I believe (as a VFX artist) is where the majority of the resistance stems from.\n\nWhat it means for future movies, should it be widely adopted, is that other aspects of film-making will have to catch up. Prosthetics, make-up, props, and VFX have all adapted to the 24fps look, which is WAY more forgiving than 48fps in Hobbit (or potentially 60fps in the Avatar sequels). The 'fake' look people criticize is partially due to the novelty of the higher frame rate, but also comes from the additional detail people can now notice in the props, costumes, prosthetics, etc. - even at high motion. So background and make-up artists will have to up their game now that every blemish and seam can be picked up by the viewer, much more so than ever before.\n\nCinematically, it will also open up Directors to use new camera moves in 3D. A sideways dolly with extreme FG elements, for example, was considered unacceptable because the FG elements would 'strobe' too much to be considered acceptable in the camera move (travelling more distance than the 24fps would allow for persistence of motion). This sort of framing and motion now becomes available due to the increased frame rate.",
"Even SHORTER ELI5 answer.\n\nInstead of improving the quality of the picture through image size, high frame rate improves it by giving you more images over time. \n\nWhat it means for future movies: Other aspects of the film-making process - like make-up, VFX, and costumes - will now have to add more detail and precision on their side, since every blemish and seam can now be seen by the viewer, even at high motion.",
"Wow, most upvoted would get a 5 year old bored in the first parragraph.\n\nWhat you see in a movie is a bunch of pictures moving really fast, around 24-30 per second. But our eyes can really notice that it isn't quite real (although we choose to not notice). The last hobbit movie had way more images per second, looking more realistic, which is great... but some people didn't like it because it didn't look \"like a movie\"; it looked like actors moving on a set.\n\nWhat does it mean for future movies? Well, as with everything, it means we have the ability to make things more realistic. That doesn't mean we WANT to though. Not every painter is a hyper-realist.",
"It's honestly all about motion blur. Wave you hand in front of you face you won't see individual fingers, you see the motion blur of your hand.\n\nWhen a camera records film at the native rate of 24fps (actually 23.976) it replicates what you eye sees naturally. \n\nWhen a camera records at 30fps or 60fps and played back at 30fps and 60fps you have more information, you will see less motion blur; therefore looking less natural. When you up the frame rate you also have to adjust the shutter, which also lowers motion blur intensity by exposing the film for less time. Think of a still picture of moving cars at night. Exposing at 1/24 of a second, the tail lights will have a streak. Exposing the same image at 1/60 of a second will have less of a light streak if not any. \n\nIf you record 60fps or 120fps and playback at 24fps you now have slow-motion. Doing the opposite recording 15fps and playing back at 24fps will have the fast \"Benny Hill\" motion. Or the Wonders Years intro 8mm look. 8mm typically being shot at 16fps. \n\nThe first motion photography movie came about due to a theory of rather or not when a horse ran all of its feet left the ground. _URL_0_\n\nReading the article you will see they used 24 cameras to capture a horse running. Which gave them 24 still pictures or frames. Essentially freezing motion they could look at each individual frame and see each foot. It was after this, that flipping through them like a flip book the illusion of motion was witnessed, thus giving birth to motion photography. If they had 60 cameras giving them 60 still frames, they would see almost double the amount of movement in the same amount of time. You would not only see the foot leave the grown but the muscle contract and lift, dirt getting kicked up etc. \n\nMore information sometimes could be good a good thing. Seeing ballistic characteristics of a bullet, how dummies in a car crash react, your favorite QB crumbling to ground as he is sacked. But squeezing all that info into the same 1 second could seem a little unnatural. \n\nThe decision for cinematographers to originally use 24fps is derived to replicate what your eyes sees naturally. The basic and most simplistic idea of the camera and film is to replica the human eye. You have a lens (eye) that has an aperture (iris) that opens and closes allowing light through to the film reacting with silver halide which acts like your cones and rods. \n\nAs to what this will do for the future of film...In my opinion, absolutely nothing. We've seen the rise and fall of 3d twice, we seen hits come from hand held VHS cam like Blair Witch, 28 days later, [REC], Paranormal Activity even cut scenes from Pulp Fiction make use of low quality looks. Digital, 35mm, 16mm, IMAX large format 70mm, VHS, it doesn't mater. It's just another paint brush, another medium. Some works are better oil on canvas, others water color...that is why cinematography and film making an art form. You pick the camera, film stock, lens, light, color, and of course frame rate that best push the story forward in achieving the directors vision. \n"
]
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[] |
[] |
[
[],
[],
[],
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[
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sallie_Gardner_at_a_Gallop"
]
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||
ebn6sa
|
what do the numbers in the cpu stand for? like i7-9700 vs the i7-8700 vs the i5-8600/9600?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/ebn6sa/eli5_what_do_the_numbers_in_the_cpu_stand_for/
|
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"Whatever the manufacturer wants, really.\n\nFor Intel, the general idea is i3 = budget, i5 = good, i7 = high end, i9 = top of the line. The bigger the number after that, the more powerful.\n\nThey've been around for a long time so it's hard to deduce anything specific from the number, like the number of cores. and i7 will definitely have more than an i3, but now many exactly varies.\n\nAlso different uses have different trade-offs. Less cores in some cases might actually better. In other cases, the more cores, the better. If you're concerned about performance you should really find benchmarks of whatever you're interested in -- games, 3D rendering, etc, and deciding based on that.",
"It explains the generation and tier.\n\nSo i5 is the intermediary\n\n8600 means it's from the 8th generation, 600 means is the best from the i5s (you also have the i5 8400, same generation but a bit weaker). The 9600 is the next generation.\n\ni7 is high class (though there's also the i9), and the rest is the same, 9 is because is generation number 9, 700 because is the stronger.\n\nYou also have letters sometimes at the end. K means you can overclock, F it means that doesn't have integrated graphics (meaning you need a GPU for the PC to work).",
"They are Intel model numbers. Basically it means whatever the marketing department at Intel wants them to mean. Generally bigger numbers is better, or at least more expensive. It could be because the parts are newer, have more cores or cache, or better quality, but that may not always bet the case. In general i3 is the brand used for low end CPUs, i5 for normal desktop CPUs, i7 for businesses and high end consumers and i9 for top of the line CPUs. The rest of the numbers can mean anything the marketing department wants however the first digit is generally the generation number of the Intel Core architecture.",
"For both types of CPU, Intel and AMD, the modern cpu designations follow a trend.\n\nFor intel, i3-i5-i7-i9, are general grades of CPU, the total cores normally.\n\nthe first of the 4 digit number for both main brands, is generation, Intel's range of this number model have held for longer though, so where an intel i9-9900 would be ninth generation of intel core, an AMD ryzen 3900 is roughly the same age and quality, despite being the third generation of ryzen cpu.\n\nThe second digit number, which on the previous example is a 9 for both, means sub grade. Where for example: with intel a 9500 is the lowest model, and a 9900 would be the highest model of cpu in the ninth generation.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nTl;Dr: i number is budget, first number is generation, second number is strength of the model."
]
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[] |
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[],
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||
2x4bxm
|
why is the keystone xl pipeline more controversial than other pipelines? i know that the oil is dirtier than other types if oil, but is there another reason? don't we have lots of other pipelines all over the u.s. carrying oil and natural gas. noone seems to be against those.
|
explainlikeimfive
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/2x4bxm/eli5_why_is_the_keystone_xl_pipeline_more/
|
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"Mostly just politics. This particular one has come into the public eye so Politicians on both sides have taken very public vocal sides. I honestly don't know if it is a good idea or a bad idea, and I bet the politicians arguing it don't either.",
"It crosses the border, and so needs a different type of government approval than other ones do.\n\nPlenty of people don't like other pipelines either, but if they already exist, or don't need presidential approval, there is less to publicly fight over.",
"The fact that a foreign company is trying to use eminent domain to force landowners to accept the pipeline crossing their land is one reason, another is that it is suspected that little to none of that oil would be used domestically in the United States when one of the arguments for is \"increased energy independence (ignoring that even if we used the oil, it's still foreign).\""
]
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[] |
[] |
[
[],
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||
7dxg5x
|
can you explain the genetic process behind height, and why a tall parent with a short partner is more likely to produce average or marginally shorter off spring?
|
I'm curious as my grand father on my dads side was 6'6 while his wife 5'2, and my grand father on my moms side was 6'4 while his wife 5'4. Resulting mostly in kids who were in the 5'10- 5'11 range, and my dad himself was 6'1 3/4 and my mom who is 5'8.
So, if you could provide a simplified explanation of the gene and processes that determine height, and explain why the height of their children tends to lean shorter not taller.
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/7dxg5x/eli5_can_you_explain_the_genetic_process_behind/
|
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"I believe there are many genes that influence your height. You get a combination from both parents, and sometimes you’ll get complimentary genes that produce children taller than their parents, and sometimes you’ll get a combination that produce children that do not grow as tall as the taller parent. These are genes that are involved in development, so they’re not simply about height but the length of time your bones grow and how early or late they start, and many other switches. \n\nAlso, your height isn’t simply defined by your genes, it also is affected by childhood nutrition and diseases. See the article which discusses the subject:\n\n_URL_0_\n“The short answer to this question is that about 60 to 80 percent of the difference in height between individuals is determined by genetic factors, whereas 20 to 40 percent can be attributed to environmental effects, mainly nutrition.”\n\n"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-much-of-human-height/"
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|
6bo58q
|
Did European royal houses and Asian royal houses intermarry? If not, have such marriages ever been proposed or seriously considered?
|
To clarify: "Asian royal houses" refer to royal houses that still exist in geographic Asia, including Japan, Thailand, Cambodia, Brunei, Bahrain, Jordan, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Malaysia, etc.
|
AskHistorians
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/6bo58q/did_european_royal_houses_and_asian_royal_houses/
|
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"*I missed OP's clarification and this is about Mongols.*\n\nYou know how there are some stories that are just waiting for their soapy, bloody, sexy HBO miniseries?\n\nByzantine emperor Michael VIII (r. 1259-1282) was, among other little things like *reestablishing the Byzantine Empire*, pretty much the champion of making alliances. This included sending two of his illegitimate daughters north and east to marry Mongol rules: Maria married Abaqa Khan of the Ilkhanate, and Euphrosyne married one-eyed Nogai (Nogaj) Khan of the Golden Horde.\n\nWhat this did *not* include was dealing with the troublesome Bulgars/Bulgarian Empire, an off-and-on subject people of the Byzantines whom Michael strongly wished to remain \"on.\" With a revolt looming in the late 1270s, Michael instead married his daughter Irene to an *exiled* Bulgarian, Ivan Asen III, and dispatched him to Bulgaria at the front of an army to take the country back by force.\n\nAmbitiously cold-blooded Hungarian-Bulgarian noble George Terter seized the opportunity of a new tsar: he summarily divorced his wife Maria to marry Ivan Asen's sister (also named Maria). To prove his loyalty, he packed his ex-wife and son Theodor Svetoslav off to Nicaea (i.e. in the Byzantine Empire but at a safe remove from power) as hostages.\n\nIvan Asen proved to be no better this time around, and another revolt in 1280 sent him fleeing back to Constantinople once again. George was pleased: he seized the Bulgarian throne for himself. With some leverage over Michael, now--I promise I won't revolt, too--he brought the first Maria and son Theodor back to Bulgaria, even making Theodor co-emperor.\n\nWell, remember what I said about cold-blooded? The Mongols got pesky again in the middle of the decade. George's response? He sent Theodor and sister Helena off to the Golden Horde, where Helena married Chaka Khan and Theodor seethed as a hostage yet again. In an effort to seize back a modicum of the power he had once wielded, he finagled a marriage alliance for himself with the daughter of Nogaj Khan and (Emperor Michael's daughter) Euphrosyne, also named Euphrosyne because *why not*.\n\nSo now we're at three and a half Christian-Mongol marriage alliances, and the real fun can start.\n\nGeorge Terter proved to be only marginally better at wrangling Bulgaria than his predecessors. By 1292, he had either given up or was forced to give up--it's not clear. A ruler probably handpicked by Nogaj Khan (that would be Theodor's father-in-law) ascended to the Bulgarian throne. George fled to Byzantium, where he was apparently forced to live in a situation *far* below what he perceived as his station.\n\nBut new ruler Smilec couldn't tame Bulgaria--much less his own family. A succession crisis between his brothers and his wife as regent for their son (she won) gave George's son Theodor, master of the long game, his opening. In 1299-1300, Theodor leaned on his brother-in-law Chaka Khan to go after the Bulgarian throne with the might of the Golden Horde. He didn't have to work too hard. Chaka's father Nogai was busy losing his power, territory, reputation, and why not also his life to onetime ally, now bitter enemy Toqta Khan (himself the husband of one of Emperor Andronikos' daughters, named Maria, because *WHY NOT*). Chaka needed an outlet for his anger and, you know, someplace new to govern.\n\nWheeling and dealing, Theodor got the outsider Chaka grudgingly accepted as Bulgarian ruler. But Toqta's consolidation of power and territory changed the geopolitical calculus, and his probable conversion to Christianity couldn't have hurt. Or maybe the Bulgarian had been plotting something all along. Theodor deposed Chaka, ordered his assassination, and--finally, finally--seized the Bulgarian throne for himself.\n\nTo thank his father for the the Y chromosome donation, Theodor negotiated his release and return from exile/captivity/shame in Byzantium. To thank his father for everything else, he basically threw his dad into really nice jail.\n\nAnd because all of this started with Byzantium having a little Bulgarian problem, Bulgarian tsar Theodor married Byzantine princess Theodor**a** in 1308.\n\nAnd somewhere along the way he has his minions throw Patriarch Joakim off a cliff, but no one is entirely sure why."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[]
] |
|
bzu1io
|
How do rashes target specific parts of the body?
|
I came across [Hand Foot and Mouth disease](_URL_0_) which results in rashes on the palms of the hands and feet.
> “It’s one of the few rashes where you’ll have bumps or blisters on the palms and soles of the feet,” Dr. Derickson says. "Usually rashes on the whole body spare those parts, so that's one of the give-aways."
I've always thought of rashes as being the result of a physical irritant, so you get the rash wherever the thing that causes it touches you, or it's in your bloodstream and you get breakouts pretty much all over.
But this particular virus causes rashes in specific areas. How does it do that? And the claim I quote above suggests that most rashes don't happen on the palms of soles and feet, so why is that? How are these rashes able to target specific areas of the skin?
|
askscience
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/bzu1io/how_do_rashes_target_specific_parts_of_the_body/
|
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"I believe the answer is \"we don't know\" (though I'd love to hear what the answer is if we do know. Any dermatology buffs around?)\n\nRashes from different disease processes can take stereotyped albeit different forms, I'm not sure why. H, F & M disease is an interesting example. There are many others which have stereotyped rashes: the heliotrope rash of dermatomyositis, the salmon-pink maculopapular rash of adult-onset Still's disease, the classic flexor rash of eczema vs the extensor rash of psoriasis, the target lesions in the rash of Lyme's disease or even the dreaded non-blanching purpuric rash of meningococcal septicaemia. There must be hundreds of examples.\n\nAn interesting example where the answer is known is the herpetic rash from viral herpes. Typically, the rash appears in the [dermatome](_URL_0_) corresponding to the nerve root which the herpes virus is infecting. \n\n > rashes as being the result of a physical irritant\n\nRashes can and often are the result of physical irritant. Viral rashes, however, are not necessarily due to physical irritation of the local area, and often appear in a general distribution. For example, children will often get a generic rash from just being unwell with a viral cough, cold etc."
]
}
|
[] |
[
"https://www.trihealth.com/dailyhealthwire/miscellaneous/whats-going-around-hand-foot-and-mouth-disease"
] |
[
[
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dermatome_(anatomy)"
]
] |
|
pxdic
|
What's in old gold tooth fillings/crowns besides gold? Why aren't they pure?
|
A relative gave me some old gold tooth fillings they had lying around and asked if I would be willing to melt them down and purify them at the assay lab I work at. When I got them it turned out to be three gold fillings, two crowns and a gold bridge. I wrapped the whole mess in lead foil and cupelled in a 1700F furnace for an hour. What came out was about a 10.8g bead of what looks like very impure gold. I re-wrapped this and cupelled it again, for longer this time to make sure all the lead had boiled off. Still ended up with a very dirty-looking gold bead with what seems to have a dull grey graphite-like sheen to it.
Basically I'd just like to know what else might be in old (1930s/40s I believe) crowns, fillings, and bridges, and why they aren't pure gold. Was it too expensive, or did adding other metals make it easier to use somehow? I thought that pure gold was used specifically because it's a non-reactive substance that won't break down in the mouth, so why add impurities?
Thanks.
|
askscience
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/pxdic/whats_in_old_gold_tooth_fillingscrowns_besides/
|
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"Gold by itself is pretty malleable. Alloying it with other metals can increase it's hardness, which would be valuable to keep the crown from deforming while chewing. Poking around, it actually looks like standard practice. Many metal fillings today are made by alloying some noble metal (Gold or Platinum which have similar mechanical and biological properties), and other metals (copper, silver, tin). It doesn't appear that the alloying effects the stability of the crown all that much. \n\nIn fact, there are so many options that there's apparently a certificate system to certify your crown/filling as having different compositions. \n\n_URL_0_ "
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"http://www.identalloy.org/identalloy"
]
] |
|
9wdvf3
|
what does it mean when the rule of thirds is intentionally being subverted?
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/9wdvf3/eli5_what_does_it_mean_when_the_rule_of_thirds_is/
|
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"e9ju90q"
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"The \"rule\" is more of a convention but we are that used to it that it makes us feel uneasy when it's broken. So if it is being deliberately broken then the intention is to create feelings such as mystery, suspense, unease, tension etc."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[]
] |
||
ll46e
|
Questions about extremophiles and xenobiology.
|
About extremeophiles, did they evolve after life evolved on this planet, or were they the progenitors? I thought the obvious answer to this would be they evolved after since they seem to be specialized in terms of proteins and enzymes able to handle extreme conditions but I wanted to ask this question (without doing the research beforehand) to test out the askscience forum and see how responses develop.
Contingent on the "correct" answer to this question, the followup: If extremophiles indeed evolved first, then would that answer support the existence of life on Venus? We talk about Mars a lot, but I haven't heard Venus getting any exposure in terms of this. The planet is super hot (~465 C), CO2 and sulfuric acid atmo, intense pressure at surface, no liquid water on the planet due to the heat, and lots of volcanoes. My initial take would be to say the combination of all these factors would not be conducive to life since even extremophiles only deal with one or two extreme factors. However, I ask the people who would probably know more about this, what is the current opinion?
In follow up to that question (not science related but relevant to the question to give nonscience people a chance to add some flair in addition to a researched response), has there been any speculation/science fiction stories stipulating a civilization that evolved on an originally verdant Venus which (following the overused post-apocalyptic themes you see in movies nowadays) destroyed itself and rendered the planet no longer supportive of life (or was destroyed by factors they could not control) and in the effort to perpetuate life, sent probes to earth to start life here instead?
|
askscience
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/ll46e/questions_about_extremophiles_and_xenobiology/
|
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"Chapter 5, Venusian at Heart by Victoria Sutton © 2011\n\n\tGeorgian was always right there in her laboratory, right when she didn’t need him. She was in the middle of a gene isolation experiment, and couldn’t be interrupted. She needed to get this finished in time to give the human subjects the gene therapy treatment, so that she could time their ordered termination, for a full moon. That way, they could have some light on their way to the Everglades. Janis thought how lucky she was that no one had perfected the ability to read thoughts, or she would be headed for the death penalty. \nThat’s exactly what crossed her mind when Georgian entered her laboratory. He was much too interested, and should not be in her laboratory. He had something up his sleeve. She could tell by the look on his face.\n“Janis,” Georgian called her name and she had to look up from her work.\n“Oh hi, Georgian,” Janis said casually and continued to work.\n\t“I am bringing the investigators to talk to you about the human subject escape,” Georgian said with stern seriousness, “and they want to talk to you about where the escape route could be. I told them that you knew this laboratory and the human subject pod better than anyone else.”\n\t“Sure, I am happy to talk to them,” Janis said, having done this several times before for each of her carefully orchestrated escapes. She had always thrown them off track enough that they never came close to discovering her escape route.\n\t“They have some idea that you may be their insider suspect who is planning the escape, but I told them that was nonsense. You were up for the promotion to head the gene design exploration project, and you had much better things to do with your time.”\n\tJanis laughed a nervous laugh, try as she would not to sound so nervous.\n\t“Exactly. I am quite excited about the possibility of heading the Gene Design Exploration project,” Janis managed to get out a sentence that didn’t sound nervous or flustered. She needed to sound perfectly confident. She didn’t need to add to any suspicion he might have. \n\t“Well, just a heads up that you can expect them any time, and I know you will take care of their concerns,” Georgian sounded satisfied. He turned to go as he finished his sentence like he usually did. Then he turned back around at the doorway, which he usually did not do.\n\t“Oh, and one more thing. Make sure that Ali has everything she needs to do her work,” Georgian added.\n\tHe really didn’t need to add that, Janis thought, but she nodded dutifully toward Georgian as he continued out of her doorway and down the hall.\nAs promised, the investigators show up at Janis’s laboratory within the hour. She begins to shut down her experiment because she knows this will take at least an hour and blow the rest of her productive day in the laboratory. \n“Janis69?” the investigator asked, and when Janis replied in the affirmative, sticking her tongue out for the optical DNA scan to confirm her identity, scanning her DNA that sat ready for the viewing on her tongue. Then in a millisecond it linked to her employment identification and position in Progenitor.\n“Research scientist, Director of the Gene Laboratory,” it read.\nAnd your creds?” Janis replied in return, knowing that she needed to affirm their identity as well. They complied by showing her their pocket reader scans of their DNA linked to their position in Progenitor. \n“Janis, we are here to just ask you a few questions, and I know that you have done this before, so we have only a couple of things to ask,” the guy with a scar over his eyebrow responded.\n“How much laboratory space do you have here?”\nJanis thought that an odd question for an criminal investigator but responded, “20,000 square feet.”\n“And how many portable pods do you have with your work in storage?” Again, Janis thought this an odd question, and responded, “twenty-seven.”\n“Very good,” the investigator looked satisfied, “we can effect your transfer immediately and transfer your pods to the laboratory in the East quad while we continue the investigation.”\nJanis heart sank. They couldn’t move her from her laboratory! That was her area, and they had no right to take her space and just haul her into another quad! And the human subjects. She would not be able to carry out her next escape plan, and they would soon learn that the one person who was no longer here was responsible when no other escapes occurred! That must be their plan.\n“I find this highly irregular,” Janis said without emotion, “I need to stay in my space. I have a limited amount of time, and we are in the middle of accelerating our project to finish with our human subjects.”\n“That has all been taken care of. You can continue with your research, but your laboratory will be under the supervision of …. Let’s see here, yes, Ali51 will be the temporary laboratory director while you are in your temporary space,” the scar on his forehead twitched as he spoke.\n",
"continued . . . Chapter 5, Venusian at Heart by Victoria Sutton© 2011 \n“It is only a temporary arrangement to clear you of any suspicion,” the second investigator added, who up until this point had been decidedly quiet.\n“You can gather your things and you have two hours, before the movers will transport you to the East quad,” the first investigator added, “and please touch the pad to signify that you understand what we are doing and that this is not an admission of guilt.”\n“Sure,” Janis replied trying not to show the panic that was cursing through her body at this very moment. She dearly hoped that no one noticed her deep fear that she would be discovered. But what is worse, the human subjects will be ordered to termination and she would be absolutely powerless to help them.\n“Good day,” they hardly smiled and Janis thought it just as well, relieving her of the obligation to smile back.\nWhile Janis was reeling from the new chaos that was her life, now Georgian walked into her doorway. That man always managed to appear at the most unfortunate times.\n“Janis, I am sorry we have to move you,” Georgian said, and he hardly knew how to say the words ‘I am sorry’ so Janis was a bit worried.\n“Are you crazy making Ali the head of this lab?” Janis said to Georgian, “you know she is a security risk and has a terminator gene!”\n“Yes, I know Janis, that is what you say, but we need to clear your name. The rumors that you are the insider responsible for the escapes are creating a morale problem, and it is also going to affect my ability to promote you to the laboratory director position that you want.”\n“Are you kidding me?” Janis was incredulous, “over some silly rumors?”\n“Fewer rumors have sunk more than one ship, Janis,” Georgian remarked in his usual cold way, then added, “we also believe that there is a corporate spy that may have infiltrated Progenitor, and we want to isolate them. We have found irregularities in the entries and searches in the bioinformatics databases.”\nJanis is immediately suspicious of Ali but holds back from pointing this out to Georgian. Janis thought surely he hadn’t been completely blinded by her beauty, too? \n“How long is this temporary transfer?” Janis wanted a direct answer.\n“I don’t know, but probably for maybe three weeks,” Georgian said knowing more than he was telling her.\n“That is too long! This is going to slow down my research and the replication we need for the gene to get the conception insertion rate higher, and you know this!” Janis knew she was beginning to sound exasperated.\n “It‘s a deal that is closed, Janis. I’ll check in with you in the East quad later today,” Georgian said, as he turned and disappeared quickly out of her doorway. There was no more to be said.\nJanis had two hours, and she needed to get to find the gene that Ali was searching, the one that she was replicating that had origins in Venus bacteria. This just doesn’t make sense, and she would not dare tell Georgian because then they would all just dismiss her and conclude that she was jealous of Ali. She had to find real proof.\nJanis went to the classified database with the access code for her laboratory which Ali had already entered. As she watched the codes spinning like an old slot machine on her wallscreen, she watched for the gene’s code to appear. When the spinning stopped, she hit the jackpot. There was the gene and the information she wanted to search.\n“Hi Janis!” Magellan lumbered into the laboratory, like he was floating on a cloud. Janis thought he was the last thing she needed just now.\n“Magellan, I don’t have time to hear about your lunch with Ali, right now, I have two hours before I am being transferred to the East quad,” Janis talked without removing her gaze from the wallscreen.\n“What? The East quad? That’s the Siberia of Progenitor. What is going on?” Magellan said.\n“You know perfectly well what is going on,” Janis said, still not looking away from the wallscreen, “they are trying to find the insider they believe is pulling the escapes of the human subjects.”\n“So it is just a temporary move, and after the next escape you will be back,” Magellan said trying to cheer his friend, while a worried look crossed his face.\nJanis stops talking, and just looks quietly at the wallscreen, then turns it off.\n“Let me know if I can help,” Magellan said as he turned to go.\n“Yeah, I will let you know,” Janis said quietly.\nShe had just discovered that the gene Ali had isolated and identified for insertion in every baby born in America was not only the CO2 tolerant gene, but another gene in the same sequence that would go quietly undetected in the insertion along with the CO2 gene. It originated on Venus, too. It was the terminator gene.\n",
"Venusian at Heart, Victoria Sutton ©2011, Chapter 6\n\tJanis watched as each of her precious work pods was crated into a container for rapid transport to her East quad exile. But she couldn’t stop thinking about her human subjects and she walked down to the laboratory to see them. How she wished she could let them go right now, but that would bring the investigation to an unsavory end, and the death penalty would be waiting for her. This was a prima facia crime, and there would be no trial, just the death penalty. The Congress had considered it so serious that the uncertainty of a jury could not be risked. Mistakes might be made with convictions, but it was that serious to the survival of the human race.\n\tThis was the first time that Janis felt completely out of options. She couldn’t be seen anywhere in this quad or suspicions would soar. Her hopes of freeing the human subjects were quickly diminishing with each hour, and tomorrow, Ali, the new laboratory director would be giving the order to exterminate them in the afternoon. It was a blessing indeed, that the human subjects never knew the date or the time of their extermination. They only knew it would be coming.\n\tJanis didn’t plan to go on her own to the East quad, she knew she would be escorted, and her escorts had arrived. As she picked up her wallscreen key, she noticed Ali walking down the hallway toward her, a smile easing across her face. She was not hiding her pleasure with Janis’s removal and her sudden promotion. Magellan was not far behind her in the hallway. Janis couldn’t help but think that Ali was the corporate spy, but from where and why would she be inserting terminator genes? Or was it simply for retribution because she had mistakenly been inserted with a terminator gene? Or was it a mistake?\n\tJanis turned to the information she had discovered about this gene. Something obscure in the footnote had been nagging at her, and it was this strange property of being triggered by a pheromone, a chemical produced by humans, a natural perfume perceptible only if the right gene happened to be there.\n\tIn her new quarters in exile, Janis began setting up to look at her wallscreen from a comfortable vantage point in the room. \n\t“Janis, did everything arrive in order?” Georgian appeared as promised. \n\t“What is it that you are looking at?” Georgian moved into her vantage point to view the wall screen.\n\t“It’s a world history bioinformatics database. It describes the use of pheromone triggers for genes. It looks like it was a technique used in one of the old bioweapons programs last century,” Janis continued to explore the data while Georgian focused on the wallscreen.\n\t“Let’s take a look at the gene sequence we have been inserting for the last thirty years,” Janis said to Georgian as he looked confused.\n\t“Look at this gene sequence we have been using since the beginning of the CO2 tolerant gene project, Georgian,” Janice pointed with her chubby hand at the wallscreen. She wasn’t thinking about her unpolished nails right now.\n\t“Yes, I see it, and run it through the bioinformatics database,” Georgian said with certainty. The gene code whirled to a stop like three oranges on a slot machine.\n\t“There it is. The gene code is exactly what we have in the bioinformatics database,” Georgian said smugly, “it is the CO2 tolerant gene.”\n\t“Yes, but it is in a gene sequence, Georgian. Let’s see what else is in the gene sequence,” Janis said, eyes focused intently on the screen.\n\t“These are just genes which do nothing, or nothing important,” Georgian said. We have tested them and run them through the database for thirty years. Janis, you are really going beyond reason, here.”\n\t“Wait. Let’s access the classified bioinformatics database that you gave Ali full and free access to,” Janis smirked a bit.\n\t“So what, Janis? I have my reasons for giving her access,” Georgian said, now defensively.\n\tThe gene code whirled again and landed on a match, and just as Janis had expected.\n\t“It’s a terminator gene,” Janis let the words sink in and watched Georgian’s reaction.\n\t“My God! Why did we never discover this before?” Georgian reels from this discovery.\n\t“It was in our off-limits database, and it was always just in the useless part of the gene sequence, merely a handle bar for the gene we were inserting,” Janis continued, “Now we have a terminator gene in every child conceived in America for the last thirty years.”\n\t“Look, this is impossible. If that were true, then we would have people terminating!”\n\t“It has only been thirty years. What if the terminator ends in thirty years, like Ali’s claim, or what if it is triggered by something like the old bioweapons plan?”\n\t“You mean by pheromones?” Georgian asked incredulously.\n\t“Yes, I mean by pheromones and what if Ali has been coded for the release of the pheromone? Maybe she could trigger the gene to begin termination with one person she was close to, but so what?” Janis said.\n\t“It would have to be dispersed over the earth, and there is nothing that can do that other than a nuclear blast and a pheromone would disappear in the cloud immediately, like alcohol evaporating in the sun,” Georgian surmised.\n\tJust then the Progenitor alarm sounded, and alert-optics pierced their exchange. \n\tJanis and Georgian looked around, and the hallways filled with emergency Progenitor police, each reaching their monitoring stations in seconds.\n\t“It looks like you don’t need to worry about further rumors,” the investigator with the scar above his eyebrow had appeared behind her quietly emerging from the hallway chaos, “we have had another human subject escape, and this time it is a record number. We estimate almost 250 on the way to the Everglades. It’s a full moon, too. Really bad timing for us.” \n\tJanis was stunned. An escape?\n\tGeorgian smiled, “I knew you were innocent all the time, we just had to prove it,” he said nervously, “I told Ali that I knew you were innocent but she kept telling us that she had seen you behaving suspiciously the day of the last escape.” \n\tAli. No surprise. Janis knew Georgian was just as suspicious of her as the rest of the rumormongers. But she couldn’t worry about Georgian’s fickleness now, she had to focus on Ali and what she might do to trigger the terminator gene.\n\t“Where is Ali, anyway?” Georgian asked.\n\t“I know that she was going with Magellan to hike Mt. Ranier today, after closing,” Janis said, still wondering how the human subjects had escaped.\n\t“Now that’s bad timing,” Georgian remarked, “Mt. Ranier is rumbling and the entire northeast is under a volcanic ash warning.”\n\t“What happens to volcanic ash, Georgian?” Janis said rhetorically, “A huge cloud forms and covers most of the earth for the next year,” Janis grabbed her coat and started for the door with Georgian following her.",
"Venusian at Heart by Victoria Sutton ©2011, Chapter 7 will be posted on Friday, 11-11-11 at _URL_0_ for the final chapter.",
"Chapter 5, Venusian at Heart by Victoria Sutton © 2011\n\n\tGeorgian was always right there in her laboratory, right when she didn’t need him. She was in the middle of a gene isolation experiment, and couldn’t be interrupted. She needed to get this finished in time to give the human subjects the gene therapy treatment, so that she could time their ordered termination, for a full moon. That way, they could have some light on their way to the Everglades. Janis thought how lucky she was that no one had perfected the ability to read thoughts, or she would be headed for the death penalty. \nThat’s exactly what crossed her mind when Georgian entered her laboratory. He was much too interested, and should not be in her laboratory. He had something up his sleeve. She could tell by the look on his face.\n“Janis,” Georgian called her name and she had to look up from her work.\n“Oh hi, Georgian,” Janis said casually and continued to work.\n\t“I am bringing the investigators to talk to you about the human subject escape,” Georgian said with stern seriousness, “and they want to talk to you about where the escape route could be. I told them that you knew this laboratory and the human subject pod better than anyone else.”\n\t“Sure, I am happy to talk to them,” Janis said, having done this several times before for each of her carefully orchestrated escapes. She had always thrown them off track enough that they never came close to discovering her escape route.\n\t“They have some idea that you may be their insider suspect who is planning the escape, but I told them that was nonsense. You were up for the promotion to head the gene design exploration project, and you had much better things to do with your time.”\n\tJanis laughed a nervous laugh, try as she would not to sound so nervous.\n\t“Exactly. I am quite excited about the possibility of heading the Gene Design Exploration project,” Janis managed to get out a sentence that didn’t sound nervous or flustered. She needed to sound perfectly confident. She didn’t need to add to any suspicion he might have. \n\t“Well, just a heads up that you can expect them any time, and I know you will take care of their concerns,” Georgian sounded satisfied. He turned to go as he finished his sentence like he usually did. Then he turned back around at the doorway, which he usually did not do.\n\t“Oh, and one more thing. Make sure that Ali has everything she needs to do her work,” Georgian added.\n\tHe really didn’t need to add that, Janis thought, but she nodded dutifully toward Georgian as he continued out of her doorway and down the hall.\nAs promised, the investigators show up at Janis’s laboratory within the hour. She begins to shut down her experiment because she knows this will take at least an hour and blow the rest of her productive day in the laboratory. \n“Janis69?” the investigator asked, and when Janis replied in the affirmative, sticking her tongue out for the optical DNA scan to confirm her identity, scanning her DNA that sat ready for the viewing on her tongue. Then in a millisecond it linked to her employment identification and position in Progenitor.\n“Research scientist, Director of the Gene Laboratory,” it read.\nAnd your creds?” Janis replied in return, knowing that she needed to affirm their identity as well. They complied by showing her their pocket reader scans of their DNA linked to their position in Progenitor. \n“Janis, we are here to just ask you a few questions, and I know that you have done this before, so we have only a couple of things to ask,” the guy with a scar over his eyebrow responded.\n“How much laboratory space do you have here?”\nJanis thought that an odd question for an criminal investigator but responded, “20,000 square feet.”\n“And how many portable pods do you have with your work in storage?” Again, Janis thought this an odd question, and responded, “twenty-seven.”\n“Very good,” the investigator looked satisfied, “we can effect your transfer immediately and transfer your pods to the laboratory in the East quad while we continue the investigation.”\nJanis heart sank. They couldn’t move her from her laboratory! That was her area, and they had no right to take her space and just haul her into another quad! And the human subjects. She would not be able to carry out her next escape plan, and they would soon learn that the one person who was no longer here was responsible when no other escapes occurred! That must be their plan.\n“I find this highly irregular,” Janis said without emotion, “I need to stay in my space. I have a limited amount of time, and we are in the middle of accelerating our project to finish with our human subjects.”\n“That has all been taken care of. You can continue with your research, but your laboratory will be under the supervision of …. Let’s see here, yes, Ali51 will be the temporary laboratory director while you are in your temporary space,” the scar on his forehead twitched as he spoke.\n",
"continued . . . Chapter 5, Venusian at Heart by Victoria Sutton© 2011 \n“It is only a temporary arrangement to clear you of any suspicion,” the second investigator added, who up until this point had been decidedly quiet.\n“You can gather your things and you have two hours, before the movers will transport you to the East quad,” the first investigator added, “and please touch the pad to signify that you understand what we are doing and that this is not an admission of guilt.”\n“Sure,” Janis replied trying not to show the panic that was cursing through her body at this very moment. She dearly hoped that no one noticed her deep fear that she would be discovered. But what is worse, the human subjects will be ordered to termination and she would be absolutely powerless to help them.\n“Good day,” they hardly smiled and Janis thought it just as well, relieving her of the obligation to smile back.\nWhile Janis was reeling from the new chaos that was her life, now Georgian walked into her doorway. That man always managed to appear at the most unfortunate times.\n“Janis, I am sorry we have to move you,” Georgian said, and he hardly knew how to say the words ‘I am sorry’ so Janis was a bit worried.\n“Are you crazy making Ali the head of this lab?” Janis said to Georgian, “you know she is a security risk and has a terminator gene!”\n“Yes, I know Janis, that is what you say, but we need to clear your name. The rumors that you are the insider responsible for the escapes are creating a morale problem, and it is also going to affect my ability to promote you to the laboratory director position that you want.”\n“Are you kidding me?” Janis was incredulous, “over some silly rumors?”\n“Fewer rumors have sunk more than one ship, Janis,” Georgian remarked in his usual cold way, then added, “we also believe that there is a corporate spy that may have infiltrated Progenitor, and we want to isolate them. We have found irregularities in the entries and searches in the bioinformatics databases.”\nJanis is immediately suspicious of Ali but holds back from pointing this out to Georgian. Janis thought surely he hadn’t been completely blinded by her beauty, too? \n“How long is this temporary transfer?” Janis wanted a direct answer.\n“I don’t know, but probably for maybe three weeks,” Georgian said knowing more than he was telling her.\n“That is too long! This is going to slow down my research and the replication we need for the gene to get the conception insertion rate higher, and you know this!” Janis knew she was beginning to sound exasperated.\n “It‘s a deal that is closed, Janis. I’ll check in with you in the East quad later today,” Georgian said, as he turned and disappeared quickly out of her doorway. There was no more to be said.\nJanis had two hours, and she needed to get to find the gene that Ali was searching, the one that she was replicating that had origins in Venus bacteria. This just doesn’t make sense, and she would not dare tell Georgian because then they would all just dismiss her and conclude that she was jealous of Ali. She had to find real proof.\nJanis went to the classified database with the access code for her laboratory which Ali had already entered. As she watched the codes spinning like an old slot machine on her wallscreen, she watched for the gene’s code to appear. When the spinning stopped, she hit the jackpot. There was the gene and the information she wanted to search.\n“Hi Janis!” Magellan lumbered into the laboratory, like he was floating on a cloud. Janis thought he was the last thing she needed just now.\n“Magellan, I don’t have time to hear about your lunch with Ali, right now, I have two hours before I am being transferred to the East quad,” Janis talked without removing her gaze from the wallscreen.\n“What? The East quad? That’s the Siberia of Progenitor. What is going on?” Magellan said.\n“You know perfectly well what is going on,” Janis said, still not looking away from the wallscreen, “they are trying to find the insider they believe is pulling the escapes of the human subjects.”\n“So it is just a temporary move, and after the next escape you will be back,” Magellan said trying to cheer his friend, while a worried look crossed his face.\nJanis stops talking, and just looks quietly at the wallscreen, then turns it off.\n“Let me know if I can help,” Magellan said as he turned to go.\n“Yeah, I will let you know,” Janis said quietly.\nShe had just discovered that the gene Ali had isolated and identified for insertion in every baby born in America was not only the CO2 tolerant gene, but another gene in the same sequence that would go quietly undetected in the insertion along with the CO2 gene. It originated on Venus, too. It was the terminator gene.\n",
"Venusian at Heart, Victoria Sutton ©2011, Chapter 6\n\tJanis watched as each of her precious work pods was crated into a container for rapid transport to her East quad exile. But she couldn’t stop thinking about her human subjects and she walked down to the laboratory to see them. How she wished she could let them go right now, but that would bring the investigation to an unsavory end, and the death penalty would be waiting for her. This was a prima facia crime, and there would be no trial, just the death penalty. The Congress had considered it so serious that the uncertainty of a jury could not be risked. Mistakes might be made with convictions, but it was that serious to the survival of the human race.\n\tThis was the first time that Janis felt completely out of options. She couldn’t be seen anywhere in this quad or suspicions would soar. Her hopes of freeing the human subjects were quickly diminishing with each hour, and tomorrow, Ali, the new laboratory director would be giving the order to exterminate them in the afternoon. It was a blessing indeed, that the human subjects never knew the date or the time of their extermination. They only knew it would be coming.\n\tJanis didn’t plan to go on her own to the East quad, she knew she would be escorted, and her escorts had arrived. As she picked up her wallscreen key, she noticed Ali walking down the hallway toward her, a smile easing across her face. She was not hiding her pleasure with Janis’s removal and her sudden promotion. Magellan was not far behind her in the hallway. Janis couldn’t help but think that Ali was the corporate spy, but from where and why would she be inserting terminator genes? Or was it simply for retribution because she had mistakenly been inserted with a terminator gene? Or was it a mistake?\n\tJanis turned to the information she had discovered about this gene. Something obscure in the footnote had been nagging at her, and it was this strange property of being triggered by a pheromone, a chemical produced by humans, a natural perfume perceptible only if the right gene happened to be there.\n\tIn her new quarters in exile, Janis began setting up to look at her wallscreen from a comfortable vantage point in the room. \n\t“Janis, did everything arrive in order?” Georgian appeared as promised. \n\t“What is it that you are looking at?” Georgian moved into her vantage point to view the wall screen.\n\t“It’s a world history bioinformatics database. It describes the use of pheromone triggers for genes. It looks like it was a technique used in one of the old bioweapons programs last century,” Janis continued to explore the data while Georgian focused on the wallscreen.\n\t“Let’s take a look at the gene sequence we have been inserting for the last thirty years,” Janis said to Georgian as he looked confused.\n\t“Look at this gene sequence we have been using since the beginning of the CO2 tolerant gene project, Georgian,” Janice pointed with her chubby hand at the wallscreen. She wasn’t thinking about her unpolished nails right now.\n\t“Yes, I see it, and run it through the bioinformatics database,” Georgian said with certainty. The gene code whirled to a stop like three oranges on a slot machine.\n\t“There it is. The gene code is exactly what we have in the bioinformatics database,” Georgian said smugly, “it is the CO2 tolerant gene.”\n\t“Yes, but it is in a gene sequence, Georgian. Let’s see what else is in the gene sequence,” Janis said, eyes focused intently on the screen.\n\t“These are just genes which do nothing, or nothing important,” Georgian said. We have tested them and run them through the database for thirty years. Janis, you are really going beyond reason, here.”\n\t“Wait. Let’s access the classified bioinformatics database that you gave Ali full and free access to,” Janis smirked a bit.\n\t“So what, Janis? I have my reasons for giving her access,” Georgian said, now defensively.\n\tThe gene code whirled again and landed on a match, and just as Janis had expected.\n\t“It’s a terminator gene,” Janis let the words sink in and watched Georgian’s reaction.\n\t“My God! Why did we never discover this before?” Georgian reels from this discovery.\n\t“It was in our off-limits database, and it was always just in the useless part of the gene sequence, merely a handle bar for the gene we were inserting,” Janis continued, “Now we have a terminator gene in every child conceived in America for the last thirty years.”\n\t“Look, this is impossible. If that were true, then we would have people terminating!”\n\t“It has only been thirty years. What if the terminator ends in thirty years, like Ali’s claim, or what if it is triggered by something like the old bioweapons plan?”\n\t“You mean by pheromones?” Georgian asked incredulously.\n\t“Yes, I mean by pheromones and what if Ali has been coded for the release of the pheromone? Maybe she could trigger the gene to begin termination with one person she was close to, but so what?” Janis said.\n\t“It would have to be dispersed over the earth, and there is nothing that can do that other than a nuclear blast and a pheromone would disappear in the cloud immediately, like alcohol evaporating in the sun,” Georgian surmised.\n\tJust then the Progenitor alarm sounded, and alert-optics pierced their exchange. \n\tJanis and Georgian looked around, and the hallways filled with emergency Progenitor police, each reaching their monitoring stations in seconds.\n\t“It looks like you don’t need to worry about further rumors,” the investigator with the scar above his eyebrow had appeared behind her quietly emerging from the hallway chaos, “we have had another human subject escape, and this time it is a record number. We estimate almost 250 on the way to the Everglades. It’s a full moon, too. Really bad timing for us.” \n\tJanis was stunned. An escape?\n\tGeorgian smiled, “I knew you were innocent all the time, we just had to prove it,” he said nervously, “I told Ali that I knew you were innocent but she kept telling us that she had seen you behaving suspiciously the day of the last escape.” \n\tAli. No surprise. Janis knew Georgian was just as suspicious of her as the rest of the rumormongers. But she couldn’t worry about Georgian’s fickleness now, she had to focus on Ali and what she might do to trigger the terminator gene.\n\t“Where is Ali, anyway?” Georgian asked.\n\t“I know that she was going with Magellan to hike Mt. Ranier today, after closing,” Janis said, still wondering how the human subjects had escaped.\n\t“Now that’s bad timing,” Georgian remarked, “Mt. Ranier is rumbling and the entire northeast is under a volcanic ash warning.”\n\t“What happens to volcanic ash, Georgian?” Janis said rhetorically, “A huge cloud forms and covers most of the earth for the next year,” Janis grabbed her coat and started for the door with Georgian following her.",
"Venusian at Heart by Victoria Sutton ©2011, Chapter 7 will be posted on Friday, 11-11-11 at _URL_0_ for the final chapter.",
"The surface of Venus (the upper clouds are a different story) is far beyond the tolerance of any type of extremophile. The CO2 and sulfuric acid and the pressure aren't insurmountable problems, but the lack of water is. All extremophiles need liquid water to function, even if they can survive without it in a dormant state they need it to reproduce. I really have no idea if some form of life could survive in 465C water kept liquid by high pressure. No earth life could, but that condition doesn't exist on earth so there's been no need to evolve to deal with it.",
"It is hypothesized that the entire surface of Venus melts into magma once in a while, sterilizing whatever might be there, unless your extremophiles are tougher than rocks:\n[Resurfacing event](_URL_0_)",
"I have a short story on this science, involving Venus, geography, extremophiles and interplanetary history. When you asked whether anyone knew of any fiction about this topic, I thought, what a great opportunity to get some feedback on what I believe is an interesting perhaps plausible theory, from the scientists who are so familiar with this area of science. My Ph.D. is Environmental Sciences so you may recognize that perspective. The short story is about a future laboratory doing experimentation to hasten human evolution to cope with the changing atmosphere. The three main characters are working at the world’s largest company engaged in this work, but their idealism has had to give way to reality, and their compromises test their relationships as they uncover classified scientific information.\nThere are seven sections, I call chapters, and the short story is about 10,000 words. I thought it would be fun to post each of the chapters, each day for a week, and hopefully get some feedback.\nI hope you enjoy! Here is my first chapter. \n",
"Venusian at Heart\n\n by \nVictoria Sutton © 2011\n\n\nChapter 1\n\t“Go! Go!” Janis69 whispers in staccato notes, as she guides each one with her rubber-gloved hand into the tunnel, which could hold either life or death for all of them. The frightened humans, some barely clothed, some having never seen daylight, some knowing very little of the outside world are very definite about one thing, and that is they want freedom.\n\t“Don’t look back, just run!” Janis chides them, while giving each one of them a moment of a smile, a token of kindness that resonates with each of them, because they smile back, some worried, some elated, some confused, some tormented. These were the human subjects of experiment 543A, just another group ordered terminated by Progenitor, the earth’s largest genetic construction company. Janis is the laboratory director and she has to be careful. Simply aiding and abetting the escape of human genetic experimental subjects carries the death penalty, and Janis was the perpetrator. She had barely gotten a traffic ticket before this had happened. \n\tA Progenitor guard somehow was alerted at the end of the hallway, which Janis could see from her body monitor mounted on her cleansuit, which she wore for experimentation work. She saw him stride quickly to his monitoring station at the door, and touch the alarm pad with his index finger, sending a shrieking sound through the corridor with that unmistakable escape alert signal to everyone in the building pod. In seconds, the place would be crawling with Progenitor specialists with monitors to track them. The human subjects had tracking devices built into their genes, but getting underground could avoid detection. That was the only way to escape.\n\tAs Janis literally pushed the last human subject into the tunnel, she caught a view of the little one, for whom she felt a sudden pang of sadness. She pushed herself back against the wall of the corridor to avoid detection of the tracking beam that flashed toward them, as the secret tunnel entrance folded up camouflaged as a freezer door, becoming a wall between the human’s captivity and their hopes of freedom. She needed to inch her way to her own escape door before the guards arrived, who for some reason responded much too quickly, eclipsing her own plan to fade back into the building pod.\n\t“Good Creator!” Janis mutters to herself, as she pulls on the air locked door, that was her escape, now a deathly trap if locked. Guards thundering into the corridor made her panic mode increase, and she took a deep breath. One more push and pull, and this time it opens. Janis breathes an audible sigh of relief and slips back into her laboratory’s storeroom, where she would normally be at work. The fact that she had given an order to destroy the human subjects for the afternoon, was perfectly coordinated with the morning escape. She had done it before, but each time the odds were growing against her, as the guards adjusted to better responses to the escapes.\n\t“Dr. 69?” a special investigator entered her laboratory as she shut her escape door behind her.\n\t“Yes, this is Janis, what can I help you with?” she asked calmly.\n\t“There has been an escape of human subjects from your laboratory, and we need to ask you about their last holding pod, the ingress, egress from it and anyone who may have last had contact with them,” the special investigator asked as he watched for her reaction.\n\t“Are you sure?” I hear the alarm, but why do you think we have human subjects escaping from my laboratory?” Janis asked as much for her own planning as for the part she was playing for time with the guard.\n\t“A guard caught a glimpse of motion in the corridor on his monitor, but couldn’t say much more about it. There are 145 human subjects missing from the monitoring count.”\n\t“Are you certain? How could they possibly have escaped from our secure pod?” Janis again prods to test her success with the escape.\n\t“We think there is an escape tunnel somewhere but we have been unable to locate it. If there is one it is shielded from our detecting devices.”\n\t“I will search the ID information on each of them, and get it to you as soon as possible, “Janis said, knowing that it would be too late for them to catch them with the ID information that she could give him.\n\t“Thanks, Dr. 69, I will check in with you later,” the Guard said and left.\n\tBefore Janis had a moment to breathe a sigh of relief, one that had to be undetectable from the surveillance devices in her laboratory which detected her every move, Magellan24, from the Lawyer’s Quad appeared at her door.\n\t“Another escape of the human subjects, Janis?” Magellan smiled at her as he leaned against the door opening.\n\t“Can you believe, another one,” she said without looking up, then cast a smile toward him to punctuate her reply. Magellan was her hiking buddy and had been her friend since high school. When about that time, the reality that earth’s temperature had begun to increase much faster than the models had predicted with the increasing CO2 levels, and humans were affected by an unexpected increasing percentage of CO2, replacing oxygen, they both had made a high school pact. They had both promised that they, together, would find a way to save humans and the earth. When they both went separate ways to different graduate schools, they still kept in touch and kept their pact. Janis had gotten her Ph.D. in Human Evolution Advancement Science and Magellan, a more traditional law degree.\n“They were scheduled to be terminated this afternoon,” Janis said looking down at her monitor as she scanned for ID information.\n\t“It is sad to think of these human subjects. All without histories, but all wanting futures,” Magellan remarked.\n\t“Who would have thought that we would actually carry out our pact, and both end up in the one project that might save humans?” Janis said, “It’s just too bad that we find out that to get the job done, sacrifices have to be made, like our own ethics. I don’t like using human subjects, but there is no other way to test human genes and expression of genes, except actually inserting them in humans.”\n\t“A future in the Everglades is not much of one,” Janis continued still not looking up, “but if they make their way to the Everglades, they can live freely for whatever time their destinies have allotted for them, and then they terminate.”\n No harm done, I suppose,” Magellan reflects, while watching Janis’s reaction. She doesn’t react, but somehow he knows she has something to do with the escapes. He has known her too long. He remembered she couldn’t even kill a cricket in high school.\n\t“Their lives have not been in vain, if they can help to save humanity with the genetic work that you are doing, Janis,” Magellan said half-in comfort to Janis, half to console himself, “to develop the genes to help humanity cope with the high CO2 levels and lower oxygen levels, then they have done a tremendous service.”\n\t“Do you want to hike Mt. Ranier later this week?” Janis wanted to change the subject.\n\t“Sure, let’s do it,” Magellan added, “why don’t we invite Ali51 to join us, make her feel welcome her first week at Progenitor.”\n\t“Sure,” Janis deadpanned, wondering why the Director had hired this new scientist for her lab without her knowing?\n\t\n\n",
"Venusian at Heart\nby Victoria Sutton ©2011\nChapter 2\nGeorgian50, the director of the Progenitor Atmosphere Gene Project, walks into Janis’s laboratory just like he has done every other day for the last year, but today, he is not alone.\n“Janis, I would like to introduce to you, Ali51,” Georgian says politely.\n“She is going to work on the replication of the CO2 gene and see if we can’t get it into life trials, before the end of the year,” he said proudly, as if he had just found a gold nugget in a pile of dirt.\n“So very nice to meet you,” Janis walks toward Ali greeting her with a polite palm touch, palm facing upward. Ali responds by placing her outstretched hand palm-to-palm with Janis, then both pulled back after a respectable few of seconds. You could always tell a lot about a person by their handtouch, but Janis couldn’t read anything into Ali’s handtouch. The old-fashioned handshake of the 19th Century before we knew that most bacteria and viruses were passed that way, was a lot more interesting and you could tell a lot more about a person by the grip of that greeting. But that was long gone, and Janis had only read text about it.\n“I will leave you to introduce Ali to the rest of the project crew,” Georgian said and turned to leave, closing the door behind him. She could see that he glanced back through the glass door at her, and she pretended not to notice. Georgian was up to something, but she wasn’t sure what.\nMagellan walked into the laboratory, passing Georgian in the hallway, and entered the laboratory.\n“Magellan24,” Janis said as she saw him enter her laboratory, “Ali51.” They met for a brief handtouch.\n“Ali will be working with us on the project to get the replication perfected. Georgian has his hopes on getting this project to life trials before the end of the year.”\n“Optimism is important as a project leader,” Magellan says as he smiles at Ali. It is clear her stunning beauty did not escape him.\n“Would you like to take a look at what we are working with?” Janis said as she directed Ali’s attention to the lab work space.\n“Absolutely,” Ali said, “I can’t wait to get started.”\nJanis takes Ali to a screen that is the wall of the room, and points to the animated replication of the chromosome with the gene they have isolated.\n“What does the gene do for your project?” Ali asked.\n“Simple. It is taken from a plant that processes CO2 so that humans can break down the increased levels of CO2 in the atmosphere into CO2 for breathing and for metabolic functions.”\nBoth Ali and Janis look at the unwinding, unzipping and replication of the gene on the wallscreen. \n“Let’s look at a magnification of the gene and see the nucleotide base pairs,” Ali said.\nJanis motions the magnification sector of the wall screen and the gene’s intricate nucleotides appear on the screen.\n“Can you run that through the genelibrary so that we can see its matches?”\n“Oh, there really is no need for that. We are long past that. It is a gene that matches with the plant, a rare orchid at high elevation which efficiently processes CO2.”\n“Well, just humor me,” Ali says and smiles.\nJanis is starting to dislike Ali.\nThe close-up of the nucleotides sort into A,T,C,G code and the whirl of matching at quantum speed flashes and the screen blinks.\nNO MATCH.\n“Something must be wrong,” Janis said, “they may be updating the library. It is the orchid gene, I assure you.”\n“Look at the near matches,” Ali is peering at the code on the wallscreen and points with her long manicured hand using two fingers at the screen.\n“Several base pairs off,” Janis mumbled as she looked at the closest matches.\n“Was this gene engineered from one of these?” Ali asked.\n“No. It is the orchid gene perfected by millions of years of evolution,” Janis said with a tone of conclusivity.\n“This kind of mutation would be rare indeed,” Ali said looking at Janis with piercing blue eyes.\n“Let’s move on to the replication bioprocessing unit,” Janis said with some disappointment in being unable to demonstrate that she was right.\n“We will come back to this, later?” Ali inquired.\n“Yes, of course,” Janis said, hoping that they never would.\n****************** \n",
"continued.... Venusian at Heart, Chap. 2 by Victoria Sutton 2011\n\nAli began to try on lab coats, and no matter how ill-fitted they might be, Ali made each and every one of them look fabulous. \nHow could someone make a lab coat look sexy? Janis thought to herself, as she watched Ali begin to move into her workspace and organize her research. Ali’s long platinum hair looked natural, but how could it be? No one has hair like that. Janis had always felt comfortable with her auburn locks, but Ali was enough to unnerve any woman. Every man in the quad did a double-take when they saw her. Well, it will eventually, stop, Janis consoled herself.\nJanis noticed that Ali was in her workspace searching the genelibrary again, searching for a match. Why did she want to know where it came from so badly? Janis thought.\nThen Janis saw something on the screen. An unauthorized database of some kind, that Ali pulled up on her screen and was running a code match. Janis walked closer to the screen in their open space laboratory, and watched from behind Ali without her knowing. Ali zeroed on to a match. It was a match alright, right down to every single nucleotide. Janis walked in closer, and saw that it was a primitive bacteria source of which she was completely unfamiliar.\n“Unauthorized biodata banks can threaten the integrity of our system, Ali,” Janis said as Ali looked around.\n“I found it, Janis,” Ali said, “look, it is from a bacteria. An extremophile.”\n“I have never heard of this,” Janis said as she looked at the extremophile, a bacteria that could withstand extreme environments, and in this case an atmospheric composition extreme with lots of CO2.\n“I wonder why they never told us about this,” Janis said.\n“It looks pretty straight forward to me,” Ali said, “and now I can better develop a replication technique.”\n“What was the database you were using, Ali?” Janis asked as Ali dissolved its identity from the screen.\n“Just a private corporation database --- you know, one of those failed biotech companies of the last century,” Ali said, “they still have lots of interesting but unused discoveries in their gene libraries.”\n“Can you pull it up again?” Janis persisted. She didn’t believe it because she knew every possible gene that existed with CO2 properties. This was her project.\n“Sure, but I have to meet Magellan for lunch break. I am already late,” Ali said as she got up to disrobe her laboratory coat.\nAli left and Janis searched the history of the wallscreen and found that Ali had been in a private genebank, all right. It was so private, its identification was missing, and it appeared to be coming from an unknown satellite server. Satellite servers were off limits, top secret and not available to anyone. She would have to confront Ali about her search into secured servers when she got back from lunch.\nAnd Magellan. He didn’t take long to respond to new opportunities, and Ali was definitely of high interest to him.\nJanis returned to her workspace and took a look at the population report. Fourteen billion people, and they are dying out. That fit all population equations – a rise in the population and then a die-off when the resources or environment turned less inhabitable. We have to work faster to replenish even a small part of it. But Ali is here to take care of the replicating speed, so it’s not like Georgian hasn’t been working on it. To make matters worse, the rising CO2 concentration is changing faster than we have ever let the public know, still the backlash from the industrial revolution on the planet. The newly conceived are our salvation when we can insert this gene into the conception phase in order to speed our evolution along without wiping out most of the human race. \nGeorgian, Janis’s boss strolls into her workspace, and sits down beside her at the wallscreen station.\n“How is Ali working out, so far?” Georgian asked Janis with an eye toward her reaction.\n“I think she will be fine, as long as she stays out of secret satellite genebank databases for her searches,” Janis said.\n“She was hired to find faster replications methods.”\n“Well, she insisted on finding the gene’s origin.”\n“Did she find it?”\n“Yes. I saw it on the screen when she found a match. Some extremophile I have never heard of,” Janis said with some remorse. She was sorry that she let Georgian know that there was something she didn’t know.\n“Let her use the gene library database,” Georgian said matter-of-factly.\n“What? Let her use it? It’s absolutely off limits, and it is a threat to our database security, Georgian!”\n“Let her use it. We’ll talk.”\nJanis hated it when Georgian said, “we’ll talk”. That meant he had no intention of ever bringing up the subject again, and she had just had her own laboratory security compromised, and he was fine with it! Whoever this Ali is, she must be something special for Georgian.\nJanis looks at the secure data on the population and sees the wallscreen flashing where there are die outs of humans. The rising CO2 levels are hitting some areas harder depending on the heat inversions and today, there is a die out in the northeastern United States. That’s strange, Janis thought because there was no heat inversion in the northeast. In fact, it was very cold and under a storm watch.\nMagellan and Ali walked into the laboratory, laughing and continuing to carry on what must have been a lunchtime fervor of spirited conversation, no doubt with Magellan fascinated by her voice. He probably didn’t listen to anything she said.\n“Magellan. Ali,” Janis interrupted their chat, “come look at the population map.”\n“You should have joined us, Janis,” Magellan remarked, “it was great to get to know Ali better.”\nJanis ignored his comment, and wondered if he actually believed that she thought she had been invited.\n“Look at this die out cluster in the northeast,” Janis pointed with her hand, which she noticed for the first time was neither manicured or long and graceful, and was slightly pudgy. Janis was somewhat overweight, despite her genetic plan, and so what if she didn’t do her nails? She had important work to do.\n“There is no heat inversion here today, so why are we having a die out of six thousand people?” Janis said with sincere surprise.\n“It could be a coincidence,” Ali said, “statistically, this could happen.”\n“It is not a coincidence,” Janis said now with some annoyance, “maybe one hundred people but not a variation of 110% from a coincidental die out.”\n“You are right,” Magellan said, as he took a closer look, “something is going on there.”\nFor the first time since Ali had arrived, Janis felt somewhat better. With renewed confidence, Janis touched her communication device and asked for Georgian to respond.\n“Yes, Janis?” Georgian replied dryly as usual.\n“We are having a die out in the northeast, which is highly unusual. Six thousand people.”\n“Don’t worry about it,” Georgian replied not the least bit disturbed, which disturbed Janis.\n“Why?” Janis insisted, “this is a report required by protocol. It has to be reported.”\n“I have received word this morning that this was not unexpected.”\n“What does that mean?”\n“It means what I said. It was not unexpected.”\n“What caused it?” Janis persisted. Ali and Magellan listened closely.\n“Let’s just say it was expected,” and Georgian disconnected himself.\nJanis looked at her communication band with disbelief.\n“Do you think those rumors are true?” Magellan looked at Janis with real surprise.\n“You mean the kills --- to accelerate the evolution process?” Janis replied.\n“Yes, I mean killing people to make room for more who are better adapted. Do you really think that is what happened?”\n“It does seem to be the best explanation,” Janis remarked while watching Ali’s lack of a reaction.\n\n",
"Venusian at Heart, Victoria Sutton © 2011\nChapter 3 \n\tMagellan watches Ali as she walks down the hallway from his office door, leaning into the doorway in a deplorable fashion, Janis thought. Magellan was a handsome 35, and his dark hair and eyes would make anyone wonder how he had stayed unattached from a mate for so long. But Janis knew about his short-lived marriage, which ended in acrimony, leaving Magellan distrustful of women. Janis even felt he distrusted her sometimes and she was a long time friend. Janis shook her head and returned to her research, but something just didn’t feel right to Janis.\n\t“Janis,” Ali walked back in to their laboratory space, “that was truly tragic with the human subject escape, wasn’t it?”\n\tJanis felt the muscles in her lower back suddenly tighten, “Yes, tragic. They were scheduled for extermination this afternoon.” Janis didn’t look up.\n\t“It must be a lot of pressure on you, being responsible for the research subjects and to have them escape under your watch,” Ali said as she kept her eyes on Janis, “being among the EvoHums gives you some advantage, doesn’t it, Janis?” \nNot only did Janis feel she was probing too much, but now she was throwing up her class status like she had some special privilege to make mistakes. That was not true. The EvoHums who had been genetically designed to accelerate human evolution to withstand the changing atmosphere certainly were the hope of earth, but it also placed high expectations on its members.\n\t“Sometimes things happen, and even the best plans can’t prevent mishaps,” Janis said, trying to contain her anger toward Ali. Who was she to come into her laboratory and make such remarks? Janis assumed that Ali was a member of the EvoHums to be hired to work in her laboratory, but it was not at all clear.\n\t“I heard that this is not the first time that there has been a big escape,” Ali pressed her, “some people think it is an inside job.”\n\t“I really doubt it,” Janis said, now thoroughly annoyed and concerned that Ali was pressing her a little too hard.\n\t“Are you ready to give us an update on your plan to increase the replication speed?” Janis tried to shift the focus back on Ali and her work.\n\t“Yes, I am anxious to show everyone on the project my plan,” Ali said, as she whirled around on her heels and went to her space. \n\tJanis thought that the annoying part was that Ali didn’t even try to look good. Her long blonde hair flowed, and her legs were longer than anyone should rightfully have, Janis thought. Ali was just a natural beauty and making no effort just didn’t seem fair to Janis.\n***************** \n\tThe weekend had been much too short, Janis thought. She had ridden the bullet train to Shanghai from New York for the weekend, and walked the open walkway of the Yangtze River with her SCAU, looking for the gold fish monsters that they had genetically synthesized to survive in the polluted waters. They were surviving just fine, and they had become quite a tourist attraction for a number of years, but were just a passing fascination on the riverwalk. Janis wished that her friend, Magellan would be more than a friend and then he would be here with her, walking along the Yangtze, talking about their lives together.\nInstead, Janis had Monday morning with Magellan. Janis and Magellan carpooled together in the mornings, since they lived in the same community quad. Well, at least they were friends. \n“This temperature makes driving more stressful than it should be,” Magellan remarked as he focused on the traffic around them.\n“It’s 117 degrees Fahrenheit, and it is going to be around 121 later, so we shouldn’t have to worry about the battery stalling,” Janis said.\nMagellan and Janis swung into the parking garage and into the solar collector space to which he was entitled because they carpooled. Keeping their self-contained atmospheric suits on or as it was also called, SCOU the ancient moniker that had stuck, they moved into the laboratory quad. Once inside, they were able to climb out of their SCOU apparatus in the atmospheric-controlled laboratory. It had just the right about of oxygen for humans, with only slightly elevated CO2 levels. They were in Generation 5X, the fifth level of increased CO2 human evolution enhancement which meant they had an inserted gene for CO2 tolerance of 5X the ambient level of 2000. This was not keeping up with the increasing CO2 percentage of the atmosphere, but it allowed them the ability to function for short periods in the earth’s atmosphere, where their parents, Generation 4X and grandparents, Generation 3X could not. \n“The gene that we have isolated and we have been inserting at conception, is one that has a very interesting pedigree,” Janis said to Magellan.\n\t“You mean, the part about it being from a secret data base that Ali was using?” Magellan responded.\n\t“Yes, that’s exactly what I mean,” Janis said, “she is acting very strange, and she should not have been accessing that database, yet Georgian said to let her do whatever she wanted to do. Something is very strange about that, too. Maybe you should just be cautious, Magellan.”\n\t“Don’t be absurd. Do you think you might be a little jealous?” Magellan taunted Janis like he knew that he could. They were friends.\nJanis ignored him, but then her face lit up.\n“Let’s see if we can find the classified database she used and identify the origin of this gene,” Janis said as Magellan followed her into the laboratory.\nJanis waves the wallscreen on, and looks into the history of Ali’s search. \n“There it is,” Janis said, “it is a classified database stored on Satellite 3A, a fairly new one, and out of the clouds enough to avoid hacking.”\n“So what. What’s the data base?” Magellan said.\n“The name of the location where the bacteria is found is here. It is small, hard to see --- looks like, Maxwell Montes,” Janis said, as she entered the name into a cloudsearch device.\n“If that’s a place, I have never heard of it. It must be part of a mountain range – montes, means ‘mountain’ in Spanish?”\n“Maxwell Montes,” Janis reads from her cloudsearch, “is a mountain in the Range of mountains, approximately seven miles high, it is the highest point in the mountain range, which is covered with a layer of pyrite.”\n“But where is this mountain range? I have never heard of it.”\n“I don’t know, the screen seems to be overlapping with another one,” Janis fumbles with the cloudsearch device, going back and forth between her screens, dissolving in and out.\n“It is on Venus,” Janis says in a whisper looking up from her search, stunned by her discovery.\n",
"continuation of Chapter 3 \nVenusian at Heart, Victoria Sutton © 2011\n\n“That’s impossible. There is no life on Venus,” Magellan smiles with disbelief.\n“No, I am certain, it is a mountain range on Venus, and Venus is well defined for having a layer of pyrite everywhere,” Janis continued.\nAli appeared wearing her usual black dress.\n“Ali,” Magellan turned to greet her as she entered the laboratory space, “come look at this information about the gene. We found your database and the origin of the gene. Did you know that the note says it is from Venus? It is from the most extreme elevation on Venus on Montes Maxwell.”\nAli looked stoic, then looked away. Janis knew she had hit something with Ali but it was not clear exactly what that might be. \n\t“Let’s take a look at a topography,” Janis persisted. Janis turned toward the wallscreen and swept her hand from left to right to open the wallscreen, opening the map.\n\t“That’s a topography of earth,” Magellan said, proudly. Since he was a lawyer and not a scientist he enjoyed the occasional moment when he could point out things to the scientists that maybe they had missed.\n\t“Yes, we last had a look at some of the extreme environments on earth, scanning for extremophiles and genes we might be able to use,” Janis remarked, as she spread out the earth in front of her. The wall screen flashed on the Asian region of earth.\n\t“Look, that’s the Mariana Trench!” Magellan was on a roll now, and couldn’t resist pointing out every feature he saw. He was obviously trying to impress Ali with his knowledge and insights.\n\t“Yes, Magellan, that’s the Mariana Trench, 7 miles deep and considered to be the place where life began,” Janis patronizingly said, “and a place where we go to find extremophiles that haven’t already been harvested that could be useful for human insertion.”\n\t“Ali,” Janis asked, “do you know where the Montes Maxwell is located on Venus?”\n\t“Of course,” Ali said without hesitation, “ right here.” She waved the wallscreen toward a focus on the topography of Venus, and a beautiful mountain range, crescent-shaped from the sky, showed a high peak, which she identified as Montes Maxwell.\n\tJanis glanced at Magellan to gauge his reaction, and he was mightily impressed and not the least bit suspicious of why she knew so readily where to find the mountain on Venus. One learns a lot about the planets in training but not typically every geographic feature. All the blood had drained from his brain into other parts of his body, Janis thought. \nThis was just impossible, Janis thought. Life doesn’t exist on Venus. It is too hot, it is too dry and the atmosphere is mostly CO2. Yes, it sounds good, and bacteria that could utilize CO2 would be perfect, but it doesn’t mean that bacteria exist there. \n\t“Ali,” Janis continued, “did this gene come from this mountain on Venus?”\n\t“That’s what the database says,” Ali said, not offering further insight.\n\t“Do you remember learning about Pangea, the beginning of earth’s continents when the one large land mass, Pangea broke apart and the continents drifted across the earth?” Ali asked.\n\t“Of course, I remember. Every school child has learned that by age 3,” Janis remarked coldly. Her impatience was beginning to show.\n\t“In fact, it was so obvious, the scientists missed it for years, until a school child pointed out that the continents all fit together like pieces of a puzzle into one big land mass, isn’t that right, Janis?” Ali persisted.\n\t“Yes, what are you getting at?” Janis was now at her wits end with Ali.\n\t“Wait, I think I see it!” Magellan spoke up, interrupting the rhythm of the two women.\n\tMagellan rose from his seat and walked toward the wallscreen, waving his arm to shift the scene back to the earth view of the Mariana Trench.\n\t“Look at the shape of the Mariana Trench! It is a crescent-shape and 7 miles deep, the deepest spot on the planet,” Magellan then waives his arm to shift the wall screen to the topography of Venus.\n\t“Now look at Montes Maxwell. In a crescent-shaped mountain range, 7 miles in elevation, one of the highest points on the planet, Venus! Now look as I superimpose earth over Venus and the Mariana Trench over Montes Maxwell. It is a three-dimensional puzzle that fits together, just like Pangea was a two-dimensional puzzle. Venus was once a part of earth, and this is where they were joined before Venus broke away and entered its own orbit!” Magellan was in awe of his own observation, and didn’t notice that Janis was shaking her head in disbelief, while Venus had folded her arms across her chest and had just a hint of a smile that might have even been considered smug.\n\t“Even if this three-dimensional Pangea theory is correct, it doesn’t mean that life developed on Venus like it did on earth,” Janis pointed out.\n\t“No, but what if life began before Venus broke off into its own orbit?” Ali asked.\n\t“No way it could have survived,” Janis was quick with you reply.\n\t“But why not?” Magellan asked.\n",
"Chapter 4\nVenusian at Heart by Victoria Sutton © 2011\n\n“Yes, but do you believe that the CO2 gene is from Venus?” Janis asked incredulously.\n\t“Well, why not? Pyrite is where the first DNA arose, and that is where life began. Venus is covered with pyrite, making it the perfect substrate for the spark needed to start to attach the nucleotides creating a DNA spine, right?” Ali looked at Janis and then Magellan, and both returned her look with a look of disbelief, even Magellan.\n\t“The origins of DNA are likely from the hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the deepest parts of the ocean, like those in the Mariana Trench,” Janis said, “and the pyrite theory is just that, a theory.”\n\t“So is the hydrothermal vent theory, a theory,” Ali remarked, “why couldn’t both theories be correct?”\n\t“So both theories of the beginning of life are correct,” Janis is thinking out loud pretending to ignore Ali, “the hydrothermal vents were once next to the pyrite surface, and together they both gave rise to DNA.”\n\t“Yes, I think an explanation would go something like that,” Ali added.\n\t“Where are those biotech protesters from the last century when you need them?’ Magellan quipped, “If they only knew that inserting genes from other species into their vegetables was only the tip of the iceberg lettuce.”\n\t“Engineering not just cross species but interplanetary species was never contemplated by the bioethicists, and it is increasingly clear that no one wanted this secret discovery to leak,” Janis thought outloud.\n\t“Alien DNA is inserted in practically every child conceived in the world, since 2050,” Ali said matter-of-factly.\n\t“How much alien DNA does it take to make an illegal alien?” Magellan quipped.\n\t“It’s not a legal question, Magellan, it’s a serious bioethical question!” Janis protested Magellan’s levity.\n\t“It doesn’t seem to have harmed anyone,” Magellan said.\n\t“It has done exactly what it was intended to do, advance human evolution to cope with the rapidly rising CO2 composition of the air we breathe,” and if we were in another age, we would be wiped out like an Ice Age, but we aren’t.”\n\t“Even if we become something else,” Janis reflects on this discovery with some growing angst.\n******************** \nJanis and Magellan were playing a game of Biochess, and when Janis captured Magellan’s knight with her pawn, it made a squeaking noise like its genes had programmed to do. \n“Well, at least my castle didn’t squirt you!” Janis said gleefully, know the seasquirt gene was a special favorite of Magellan’s used to make the players think of water in a moat around a castle when it was captured in Biochess.\n“I am not jealous,” Janis protested, “I am just saying you should be skeptical about her motivations. Her hiring, her protection by Georgian and her behavior outside of laboratory protocol are all troublesome and as far as I am concerned, they need an explanation before I feel comfortable that she is on our team.”\n“What do you mean?” Magellan retorted, “she has not done anything but help with the gene replication project, and has made great strides I might add. Her finding that the gene originated from Venus is pretty spectacular. No wonder it was classified.”\n“Exactly. How did she even know to access that classified database if she didn’t already know something about it.” Janis captured Magellan’s Queen, with a pawn which let out its squeak.\n“I don’t know, but I do know that we are going to hike Mt. Ranier this weekend,” Magellan smiled a devilish smile.\n“We were going to hike Mt. Ranier this weekend!” Janis couldn’t help but reply with some shock and disappointment in her friend. After all, they had been hiking buddies for a couple of years, and sure there was something between them, but nothing romantic. Just solid friendship, and maybe Janis thought about going further with their relationship but it just didn’t seem to click with Magellan.\n“Oh, gosh, sorry Janis,” Magellan looked slightly sorry, “I forgot that we had plans to hike this weekend. So let’s take a rain check?”\n“Checkmate,” Janis swallowed her disappointment, and her pawn squeaked.\n***************** \nBy afternoon, Magellan and Ali have still not returned from their long lunch at the other end of the quad, and Janis is getting concerned. Maybe she is a little jealous she surmises, but more importantly, Magellan is not thinking with his brain, and she is probably not good for him.\n\tAli and Magellan stroll into the laboratory, and Janis looks up to see them go off to their offices with a lingering extended arm touch, before the goodbye. It is clear that this has been a productive lunch for Magellan.\n\t“Oh, Magellan,” Janis calls out to him, and he turns around at the sound of his name, “do you have a minute?”\n“No, I am late getting back from lunch, so I have to run. How about later?” Magellan says as he walks backward as he is talking to Janis.\n\t“Yeah, later is fine,” Janis says with a sigh. Yes, it is clear that Magellan is not thinking with his brain.\n\tAn hour rolls by, and Magellan appears in the laboratory space doorway, clearly looking for Ali.\n\t“She’s out, Magellan,” Janis says without prompting, “she’s in the conception room for the next hour or so.”\n\t“Who?” Magellan asks innocently.\n\t“So do you have a minute now?” Janis ignores his feigned ignorance of his purpose in lurking in the doorway.\n\t“So what’s going on with you and Ali?” Janis asks.\n\t“Oh nothing, other than we are planning our hike to Mt. Ranier.”\n\t“So where are you going on Mt. Ranier?”\n\t“Ali wants to go to the very top of the volcano crater’s edge,” Magellan said.\n\t“That sounds dangerous enough,” Janis continued, “ it is time for Mt. Ranier to explode again, you know.”\n\t“Really? Of course I know that! She thought it would be exciting to do something a little dangerous on our first outing, and I thought that sounded intriguing.”\n\t“She certainly likes to live life dangerously.”\n\t“Well it is no surprise. And she told me that she could never marry or plan a future with me,” Magellan reflected.\n\t“What do you mean?”\n\t“She told me in confidence that she has a terminator gene, inserted at conception, because of some paperwork screw-up at the conception center,” Magellan said.\n\t“Did you ask her if she sued them?”\n\t“No, I was just sad to hear that she knew she would die so young,” Magellan concluded.\n\t“You are a lawyer, and you had no interest in this insane malpractice case?” Janis asked with astonishment.\n\t“To be honest with you, talking about a malpractice case was the furthest thing from my mind,” Magellan said, “I felt so deeply sorry for her, knowing that she had only a short time to live and she knows it. But she seems to be making the best of her time by having as much fun as possible!”\n\t“Yeah, it sounds like it, and I am sure you won’t take advantage of that?” Janis asked with a sly smile.\n\t“Janis, you know me better than that. I am a gentleman to the core, and feel only the need to protect her, now.”\n\t“I am sure that is exactly what she wanted.”\n\t“Janis, I am in complete control, and don’t think otherwise.”\n",
"The surface of Venus (the upper clouds are a different story) is far beyond the tolerance of any type of extremophile. The CO2 and sulfuric acid and the pressure aren't insurmountable problems, but the lack of water is. All extremophiles need liquid water to function, even if they can survive without it in a dormant state they need it to reproduce. I really have no idea if some form of life could survive in 465C water kept liquid by high pressure. No earth life could, but that condition doesn't exist on earth so there's been no need to evolve to deal with it.",
"It is hypothesized that the entire surface of Venus melts into magma once in a while, sterilizing whatever might be there, unless your extremophiles are tougher than rocks:\n[Resurfacing event](_URL_0_)",
"I have a short story on this science, involving Venus, geography, extremophiles and interplanetary history. When you asked whether anyone knew of any fiction about this topic, I thought, what a great opportunity to get some feedback on what I believe is an interesting perhaps plausible theory, from the scientists who are so familiar with this area of science. My Ph.D. is Environmental Sciences so you may recognize that perspective. The short story is about a future laboratory doing experimentation to hasten human evolution to cope with the changing atmosphere. The three main characters are working at the world’s largest company engaged in this work, but their idealism has had to give way to reality, and their compromises test their relationships as they uncover classified scientific information.\nThere are seven sections, I call chapters, and the short story is about 10,000 words. I thought it would be fun to post each of the chapters, each day for a week, and hopefully get some feedback.\nI hope you enjoy! Here is my first chapter. \n",
"Venusian at Heart\n\n by \nVictoria Sutton © 2011\n\n\nChapter 1\n\t“Go! Go!” Janis69 whispers in staccato notes, as she guides each one with her rubber-gloved hand into the tunnel, which could hold either life or death for all of them. The frightened humans, some barely clothed, some having never seen daylight, some knowing very little of the outside world are very definite about one thing, and that is they want freedom.\n\t“Don’t look back, just run!” Janis chides them, while giving each one of them a moment of a smile, a token of kindness that resonates with each of them, because they smile back, some worried, some elated, some confused, some tormented. These were the human subjects of experiment 543A, just another group ordered terminated by Progenitor, the earth’s largest genetic construction company. Janis is the laboratory director and she has to be careful. Simply aiding and abetting the escape of human genetic experimental subjects carries the death penalty, and Janis was the perpetrator. She had barely gotten a traffic ticket before this had happened. \n\tA Progenitor guard somehow was alerted at the end of the hallway, which Janis could see from her body monitor mounted on her cleansuit, which she wore for experimentation work. She saw him stride quickly to his monitoring station at the door, and touch the alarm pad with his index finger, sending a shrieking sound through the corridor with that unmistakable escape alert signal to everyone in the building pod. In seconds, the place would be crawling with Progenitor specialists with monitors to track them. The human subjects had tracking devices built into their genes, but getting underground could avoid detection. That was the only way to escape.\n\tAs Janis literally pushed the last human subject into the tunnel, she caught a view of the little one, for whom she felt a sudden pang of sadness. She pushed herself back against the wall of the corridor to avoid detection of the tracking beam that flashed toward them, as the secret tunnel entrance folded up camouflaged as a freezer door, becoming a wall between the human’s captivity and their hopes of freedom. She needed to inch her way to her own escape door before the guards arrived, who for some reason responded much too quickly, eclipsing her own plan to fade back into the building pod.\n\t“Good Creator!” Janis mutters to herself, as she pulls on the air locked door, that was her escape, now a deathly trap if locked. Guards thundering into the corridor made her panic mode increase, and she took a deep breath. One more push and pull, and this time it opens. Janis breathes an audible sigh of relief and slips back into her laboratory’s storeroom, where she would normally be at work. The fact that she had given an order to destroy the human subjects for the afternoon, was perfectly coordinated with the morning escape. She had done it before, but each time the odds were growing against her, as the guards adjusted to better responses to the escapes.\n\t“Dr. 69?” a special investigator entered her laboratory as she shut her escape door behind her.\n\t“Yes, this is Janis, what can I help you with?” she asked calmly.\n\t“There has been an escape of human subjects from your laboratory, and we need to ask you about their last holding pod, the ingress, egress from it and anyone who may have last had contact with them,” the special investigator asked as he watched for her reaction.\n\t“Are you sure?” I hear the alarm, but why do you think we have human subjects escaping from my laboratory?” Janis asked as much for her own planning as for the part she was playing for time with the guard.\n\t“A guard caught a glimpse of motion in the corridor on his monitor, but couldn’t say much more about it. There are 145 human subjects missing from the monitoring count.”\n\t“Are you certain? How could they possibly have escaped from our secure pod?” Janis again prods to test her success with the escape.\n\t“We think there is an escape tunnel somewhere but we have been unable to locate it. If there is one it is shielded from our detecting devices.”\n\t“I will search the ID information on each of them, and get it to you as soon as possible, “Janis said, knowing that it would be too late for them to catch them with the ID information that she could give him.\n\t“Thanks, Dr. 69, I will check in with you later,” the Guard said and left.\n\tBefore Janis had a moment to breathe a sigh of relief, one that had to be undetectable from the surveillance devices in her laboratory which detected her every move, Magellan24, from the Lawyer’s Quad appeared at her door.\n\t“Another escape of the human subjects, Janis?” Magellan smiled at her as he leaned against the door opening.\n\t“Can you believe, another one,” she said without looking up, then cast a smile toward him to punctuate her reply. Magellan was her hiking buddy and had been her friend since high school. When about that time, the reality that earth’s temperature had begun to increase much faster than the models had predicted with the increasing CO2 levels, and humans were affected by an unexpected increasing percentage of CO2, replacing oxygen, they both had made a high school pact. They had both promised that they, together, would find a way to save humans and the earth. When they both went separate ways to different graduate schools, they still kept in touch and kept their pact. Janis had gotten her Ph.D. in Human Evolution Advancement Science and Magellan, a more traditional law degree.\n“They were scheduled to be terminated this afternoon,” Janis said looking down at her monitor as she scanned for ID information.\n\t“It is sad to think of these human subjects. All without histories, but all wanting futures,” Magellan remarked.\n\t“Who would have thought that we would actually carry out our pact, and both end up in the one project that might save humans?” Janis said, “It’s just too bad that we find out that to get the job done, sacrifices have to be made, like our own ethics. I don’t like using human subjects, but there is no other way to test human genes and expression of genes, except actually inserting them in humans.”\n\t“A future in the Everglades is not much of one,” Janis continued still not looking up, “but if they make their way to the Everglades, they can live freely for whatever time their destinies have allotted for them, and then they terminate.”\n No harm done, I suppose,” Magellan reflects, while watching Janis’s reaction. She doesn’t react, but somehow he knows she has something to do with the escapes. He has known her too long. He remembered she couldn’t even kill a cricket in high school.\n\t“Their lives have not been in vain, if they can help to save humanity with the genetic work that you are doing, Janis,” Magellan said half-in comfort to Janis, half to console himself, “to develop the genes to help humanity cope with the high CO2 levels and lower oxygen levels, then they have done a tremendous service.”\n\t“Do you want to hike Mt. Ranier later this week?” Janis wanted to change the subject.\n\t“Sure, let’s do it,” Magellan added, “why don’t we invite Ali51 to join us, make her feel welcome her first week at Progenitor.”\n\t“Sure,” Janis deadpanned, wondering why the Director had hired this new scientist for her lab without her knowing?\n\t\n\n",
"Venusian at Heart\nby Victoria Sutton ©2011\nChapter 2\nGeorgian50, the director of the Progenitor Atmosphere Gene Project, walks into Janis’s laboratory just like he has done every other day for the last year, but today, he is not alone.\n“Janis, I would like to introduce to you, Ali51,” Georgian says politely.\n“She is going to work on the replication of the CO2 gene and see if we can’t get it into life trials, before the end of the year,” he said proudly, as if he had just found a gold nugget in a pile of dirt.\n“So very nice to meet you,” Janis walks toward Ali greeting her with a polite palm touch, palm facing upward. Ali responds by placing her outstretched hand palm-to-palm with Janis, then both pulled back after a respectable few of seconds. You could always tell a lot about a person by their handtouch, but Janis couldn’t read anything into Ali’s handtouch. The old-fashioned handshake of the 19th Century before we knew that most bacteria and viruses were passed that way, was a lot more interesting and you could tell a lot more about a person by the grip of that greeting. But that was long gone, and Janis had only read text about it.\n“I will leave you to introduce Ali to the rest of the project crew,” Georgian said and turned to leave, closing the door behind him. She could see that he glanced back through the glass door at her, and she pretended not to notice. Georgian was up to something, but she wasn’t sure what.\nMagellan walked into the laboratory, passing Georgian in the hallway, and entered the laboratory.\n“Magellan24,” Janis said as she saw him enter her laboratory, “Ali51.” They met for a brief handtouch.\n“Ali will be working with us on the project to get the replication perfected. Georgian has his hopes on getting this project to life trials before the end of the year.”\n“Optimism is important as a project leader,” Magellan says as he smiles at Ali. It is clear her stunning beauty did not escape him.\n“Would you like to take a look at what we are working with?” Janis said as she directed Ali’s attention to the lab work space.\n“Absolutely,” Ali said, “I can’t wait to get started.”\nJanis takes Ali to a screen that is the wall of the room, and points to the animated replication of the chromosome with the gene they have isolated.\n“What does the gene do for your project?” Ali asked.\n“Simple. It is taken from a plant that processes CO2 so that humans can break down the increased levels of CO2 in the atmosphere into CO2 for breathing and for metabolic functions.”\nBoth Ali and Janis look at the unwinding, unzipping and replication of the gene on the wallscreen. \n“Let’s look at a magnification of the gene and see the nucleotide base pairs,” Ali said.\nJanis motions the magnification sector of the wall screen and the gene’s intricate nucleotides appear on the screen.\n“Can you run that through the genelibrary so that we can see its matches?”\n“Oh, there really is no need for that. We are long past that. It is a gene that matches with the plant, a rare orchid at high elevation which efficiently processes CO2.”\n“Well, just humor me,” Ali says and smiles.\nJanis is starting to dislike Ali.\nThe close-up of the nucleotides sort into A,T,C,G code and the whirl of matching at quantum speed flashes and the screen blinks.\nNO MATCH.\n“Something must be wrong,” Janis said, “they may be updating the library. It is the orchid gene, I assure you.”\n“Look at the near matches,” Ali is peering at the code on the wallscreen and points with her long manicured hand using two fingers at the screen.\n“Several base pairs off,” Janis mumbled as she looked at the closest matches.\n“Was this gene engineered from one of these?” Ali asked.\n“No. It is the orchid gene perfected by millions of years of evolution,” Janis said with a tone of conclusivity.\n“This kind of mutation would be rare indeed,” Ali said looking at Janis with piercing blue eyes.\n“Let’s move on to the replication bioprocessing unit,” Janis said with some disappointment in being unable to demonstrate that she was right.\n“We will come back to this, later?” Ali inquired.\n“Yes, of course,” Janis said, hoping that they never would.\n****************** \n",
"continued.... Venusian at Heart, Chap. 2 by Victoria Sutton 2011\n\nAli began to try on lab coats, and no matter how ill-fitted they might be, Ali made each and every one of them look fabulous. \nHow could someone make a lab coat look sexy? Janis thought to herself, as she watched Ali begin to move into her workspace and organize her research. Ali’s long platinum hair looked natural, but how could it be? No one has hair like that. Janis had always felt comfortable with her auburn locks, but Ali was enough to unnerve any woman. Every man in the quad did a double-take when they saw her. Well, it will eventually, stop, Janis consoled herself.\nJanis noticed that Ali was in her workspace searching the genelibrary again, searching for a match. Why did she want to know where it came from so badly? Janis thought.\nThen Janis saw something on the screen. An unauthorized database of some kind, that Ali pulled up on her screen and was running a code match. Janis walked closer to the screen in their open space laboratory, and watched from behind Ali without her knowing. Ali zeroed on to a match. It was a match alright, right down to every single nucleotide. Janis walked in closer, and saw that it was a primitive bacteria source of which she was completely unfamiliar.\n“Unauthorized biodata banks can threaten the integrity of our system, Ali,” Janis said as Ali looked around.\n“I found it, Janis,” Ali said, “look, it is from a bacteria. An extremophile.”\n“I have never heard of this,” Janis said as she looked at the extremophile, a bacteria that could withstand extreme environments, and in this case an atmospheric composition extreme with lots of CO2.\n“I wonder why they never told us about this,” Janis said.\n“It looks pretty straight forward to me,” Ali said, “and now I can better develop a replication technique.”\n“What was the database you were using, Ali?” Janis asked as Ali dissolved its identity from the screen.\n“Just a private corporation database --- you know, one of those failed biotech companies of the last century,” Ali said, “they still have lots of interesting but unused discoveries in their gene libraries.”\n“Can you pull it up again?” Janis persisted. She didn’t believe it because she knew every possible gene that existed with CO2 properties. This was her project.\n“Sure, but I have to meet Magellan for lunch break. I am already late,” Ali said as she got up to disrobe her laboratory coat.\nAli left and Janis searched the history of the wallscreen and found that Ali had been in a private genebank, all right. It was so private, its identification was missing, and it appeared to be coming from an unknown satellite server. Satellite servers were off limits, top secret and not available to anyone. She would have to confront Ali about her search into secured servers when she got back from lunch.\nAnd Magellan. He didn’t take long to respond to new opportunities, and Ali was definitely of high interest to him.\nJanis returned to her workspace and took a look at the population report. Fourteen billion people, and they are dying out. That fit all population equations – a rise in the population and then a die-off when the resources or environment turned less inhabitable. We have to work faster to replenish even a small part of it. But Ali is here to take care of the replicating speed, so it’s not like Georgian hasn’t been working on it. To make matters worse, the rising CO2 concentration is changing faster than we have ever let the public know, still the backlash from the industrial revolution on the planet. The newly conceived are our salvation when we can insert this gene into the conception phase in order to speed our evolution along without wiping out most of the human race. \nGeorgian, Janis’s boss strolls into her workspace, and sits down beside her at the wallscreen station.\n“How is Ali working out, so far?” Georgian asked Janis with an eye toward her reaction.\n“I think she will be fine, as long as she stays out of secret satellite genebank databases for her searches,” Janis said.\n“She was hired to find faster replications methods.”\n“Well, she insisted on finding the gene’s origin.”\n“Did she find it?”\n“Yes. I saw it on the screen when she found a match. Some extremophile I have never heard of,” Janis said with some remorse. She was sorry that she let Georgian know that there was something she didn’t know.\n“Let her use the gene library database,” Georgian said matter-of-factly.\n“What? Let her use it? It’s absolutely off limits, and it is a threat to our database security, Georgian!”\n“Let her use it. We’ll talk.”\nJanis hated it when Georgian said, “we’ll talk”. That meant he had no intention of ever bringing up the subject again, and she had just had her own laboratory security compromised, and he was fine with it! Whoever this Ali is, she must be something special for Georgian.\nJanis looks at the secure data on the population and sees the wallscreen flashing where there are die outs of humans. The rising CO2 levels are hitting some areas harder depending on the heat inversions and today, there is a die out in the northeastern United States. That’s strange, Janis thought because there was no heat inversion in the northeast. In fact, it was very cold and under a storm watch.\nMagellan and Ali walked into the laboratory, laughing and continuing to carry on what must have been a lunchtime fervor of spirited conversation, no doubt with Magellan fascinated by her voice. He probably didn’t listen to anything she said.\n“Magellan. Ali,” Janis interrupted their chat, “come look at the population map.”\n“You should have joined us, Janis,” Magellan remarked, “it was great to get to know Ali better.”\nJanis ignored his comment, and wondered if he actually believed that she thought she had been invited.\n“Look at this die out cluster in the northeast,” Janis pointed with her hand, which she noticed for the first time was neither manicured or long and graceful, and was slightly pudgy. Janis was somewhat overweight, despite her genetic plan, and so what if she didn’t do her nails? She had important work to do.\n“There is no heat inversion here today, so why are we having a die out of six thousand people?” Janis said with sincere surprise.\n“It could be a coincidence,” Ali said, “statistically, this could happen.”\n“It is not a coincidence,” Janis said now with some annoyance, “maybe one hundred people but not a variation of 110% from a coincidental die out.”\n“You are right,” Magellan said, as he took a closer look, “something is going on there.”\nFor the first time since Ali had arrived, Janis felt somewhat better. With renewed confidence, Janis touched her communication device and asked for Georgian to respond.\n“Yes, Janis?” Georgian replied dryly as usual.\n“We are having a die out in the northeast, which is highly unusual. Six thousand people.”\n“Don’t worry about it,” Georgian replied not the least bit disturbed, which disturbed Janis.\n“Why?” Janis insisted, “this is a report required by protocol. It has to be reported.”\n“I have received word this morning that this was not unexpected.”\n“What does that mean?”\n“It means what I said. It was not unexpected.”\n“What caused it?” Janis persisted. Ali and Magellan listened closely.\n“Let’s just say it was expected,” and Georgian disconnected himself.\nJanis looked at her communication band with disbelief.\n“Do you think those rumors are true?” Magellan looked at Janis with real surprise.\n“You mean the kills --- to accelerate the evolution process?” Janis replied.\n“Yes, I mean killing people to make room for more who are better adapted. Do you really think that is what happened?”\n“It does seem to be the best explanation,” Janis remarked while watching Ali’s lack of a reaction.\n\n",
"Venusian at Heart, Victoria Sutton © 2011\nChapter 3 \n\tMagellan watches Ali as she walks down the hallway from his office door, leaning into the doorway in a deplorable fashion, Janis thought. Magellan was a handsome 35, and his dark hair and eyes would make anyone wonder how he had stayed unattached from a mate for so long. But Janis knew about his short-lived marriage, which ended in acrimony, leaving Magellan distrustful of women. Janis even felt he distrusted her sometimes and she was a long time friend. Janis shook her head and returned to her research, but something just didn’t feel right to Janis.\n\t“Janis,” Ali walked back in to their laboratory space, “that was truly tragic with the human subject escape, wasn’t it?”\n\tJanis felt the muscles in her lower back suddenly tighten, “Yes, tragic. They were scheduled for extermination this afternoon.” Janis didn’t look up.\n\t“It must be a lot of pressure on you, being responsible for the research subjects and to have them escape under your watch,” Ali said as she kept her eyes on Janis, “being among the EvoHums gives you some advantage, doesn’t it, Janis?” \nNot only did Janis feel she was probing too much, but now she was throwing up her class status like she had some special privilege to make mistakes. That was not true. The EvoHums who had been genetically designed to accelerate human evolution to withstand the changing atmosphere certainly were the hope of earth, but it also placed high expectations on its members.\n\t“Sometimes things happen, and even the best plans can’t prevent mishaps,” Janis said, trying to contain her anger toward Ali. Who was she to come into her laboratory and make such remarks? Janis assumed that Ali was a member of the EvoHums to be hired to work in her laboratory, but it was not at all clear.\n\t“I heard that this is not the first time that there has been a big escape,” Ali pressed her, “some people think it is an inside job.”\n\t“I really doubt it,” Janis said, now thoroughly annoyed and concerned that Ali was pressing her a little too hard.\n\t“Are you ready to give us an update on your plan to increase the replication speed?” Janis tried to shift the focus back on Ali and her work.\n\t“Yes, I am anxious to show everyone on the project my plan,” Ali said, as she whirled around on her heels and went to her space. \n\tJanis thought that the annoying part was that Ali didn’t even try to look good. Her long blonde hair flowed, and her legs were longer than anyone should rightfully have, Janis thought. Ali was just a natural beauty and making no effort just didn’t seem fair to Janis.\n***************** \n\tThe weekend had been much too short, Janis thought. She had ridden the bullet train to Shanghai from New York for the weekend, and walked the open walkway of the Yangtze River with her SCAU, looking for the gold fish monsters that they had genetically synthesized to survive in the polluted waters. They were surviving just fine, and they had become quite a tourist attraction for a number of years, but were just a passing fascination on the riverwalk. Janis wished that her friend, Magellan would be more than a friend and then he would be here with her, walking along the Yangtze, talking about their lives together.\nInstead, Janis had Monday morning with Magellan. Janis and Magellan carpooled together in the mornings, since they lived in the same community quad. Well, at least they were friends. \n“This temperature makes driving more stressful than it should be,” Magellan remarked as he focused on the traffic around them.\n“It’s 117 degrees Fahrenheit, and it is going to be around 121 later, so we shouldn’t have to worry about the battery stalling,” Janis said.\nMagellan and Janis swung into the parking garage and into the solar collector space to which he was entitled because they carpooled. Keeping their self-contained atmospheric suits on or as it was also called, SCOU the ancient moniker that had stuck, they moved into the laboratory quad. Once inside, they were able to climb out of their SCOU apparatus in the atmospheric-controlled laboratory. It had just the right about of oxygen for humans, with only slightly elevated CO2 levels. They were in Generation 5X, the fifth level of increased CO2 human evolution enhancement which meant they had an inserted gene for CO2 tolerance of 5X the ambient level of 2000. This was not keeping up with the increasing CO2 percentage of the atmosphere, but it allowed them the ability to function for short periods in the earth’s atmosphere, where their parents, Generation 4X and grandparents, Generation 3X could not. \n“The gene that we have isolated and we have been inserting at conception, is one that has a very interesting pedigree,” Janis said to Magellan.\n\t“You mean, the part about it being from a secret data base that Ali was using?” Magellan responded.\n\t“Yes, that’s exactly what I mean,” Janis said, “she is acting very strange, and she should not have been accessing that database, yet Georgian said to let her do whatever she wanted to do. Something is very strange about that, too. Maybe you should just be cautious, Magellan.”\n\t“Don’t be absurd. Do you think you might be a little jealous?” Magellan taunted Janis like he knew that he could. They were friends.\nJanis ignored him, but then her face lit up.\n“Let’s see if we can find the classified database she used and identify the origin of this gene,” Janis said as Magellan followed her into the laboratory.\nJanis waves the wallscreen on, and looks into the history of Ali’s search. \n“There it is,” Janis said, “it is a classified database stored on Satellite 3A, a fairly new one, and out of the clouds enough to avoid hacking.”\n“So what. What’s the data base?” Magellan said.\n“The name of the location where the bacteria is found is here. It is small, hard to see --- looks like, Maxwell Montes,” Janis said, as she entered the name into a cloudsearch device.\n“If that’s a place, I have never heard of it. It must be part of a mountain range – montes, means ‘mountain’ in Spanish?”\n“Maxwell Montes,” Janis reads from her cloudsearch, “is a mountain in the Range of mountains, approximately seven miles high, it is the highest point in the mountain range, which is covered with a layer of pyrite.”\n“But where is this mountain range? I have never heard of it.”\n“I don’t know, the screen seems to be overlapping with another one,” Janis fumbles with the cloudsearch device, going back and forth between her screens, dissolving in and out.\n“It is on Venus,” Janis says in a whisper looking up from her search, stunned by her discovery.\n",
"continuation of Chapter 3 \nVenusian at Heart, Victoria Sutton © 2011\n\n“That’s impossible. There is no life on Venus,” Magellan smiles with disbelief.\n“No, I am certain, it is a mountain range on Venus, and Venus is well defined for having a layer of pyrite everywhere,” Janis continued.\nAli appeared wearing her usual black dress.\n“Ali,” Magellan turned to greet her as she entered the laboratory space, “come look at this information about the gene. We found your database and the origin of the gene. Did you know that the note says it is from Venus? It is from the most extreme elevation on Venus on Montes Maxwell.”\nAli looked stoic, then looked away. Janis knew she had hit something with Ali but it was not clear exactly what that might be. \n\t“Let’s take a look at a topography,” Janis persisted. Janis turned toward the wallscreen and swept her hand from left to right to open the wallscreen, opening the map.\n\t“That’s a topography of earth,” Magellan said, proudly. Since he was a lawyer and not a scientist he enjoyed the occasional moment when he could point out things to the scientists that maybe they had missed.\n\t“Yes, we last had a look at some of the extreme environments on earth, scanning for extremophiles and genes we might be able to use,” Janis remarked, as she spread out the earth in front of her. The wall screen flashed on the Asian region of earth.\n\t“Look, that’s the Mariana Trench!” Magellan was on a roll now, and couldn’t resist pointing out every feature he saw. He was obviously trying to impress Ali with his knowledge and insights.\n\t“Yes, Magellan, that’s the Mariana Trench, 7 miles deep and considered to be the place where life began,” Janis patronizingly said, “and a place where we go to find extremophiles that haven’t already been harvested that could be useful for human insertion.”\n\t“Ali,” Janis asked, “do you know where the Montes Maxwell is located on Venus?”\n\t“Of course,” Ali said without hesitation, “ right here.” She waved the wallscreen toward a focus on the topography of Venus, and a beautiful mountain range, crescent-shaped from the sky, showed a high peak, which she identified as Montes Maxwell.\n\tJanis glanced at Magellan to gauge his reaction, and he was mightily impressed and not the least bit suspicious of why she knew so readily where to find the mountain on Venus. One learns a lot about the planets in training but not typically every geographic feature. All the blood had drained from his brain into other parts of his body, Janis thought. \nThis was just impossible, Janis thought. Life doesn’t exist on Venus. It is too hot, it is too dry and the atmosphere is mostly CO2. Yes, it sounds good, and bacteria that could utilize CO2 would be perfect, but it doesn’t mean that bacteria exist there. \n\t“Ali,” Janis continued, “did this gene come from this mountain on Venus?”\n\t“That’s what the database says,” Ali said, not offering further insight.\n\t“Do you remember learning about Pangea, the beginning of earth’s continents when the one large land mass, Pangea broke apart and the continents drifted across the earth?” Ali asked.\n\t“Of course, I remember. Every school child has learned that by age 3,” Janis remarked coldly. Her impatience was beginning to show.\n\t“In fact, it was so obvious, the scientists missed it for years, until a school child pointed out that the continents all fit together like pieces of a puzzle into one big land mass, isn’t that right, Janis?” Ali persisted.\n\t“Yes, what are you getting at?” Janis was now at her wits end with Ali.\n\t“Wait, I think I see it!” Magellan spoke up, interrupting the rhythm of the two women.\n\tMagellan rose from his seat and walked toward the wallscreen, waving his arm to shift the scene back to the earth view of the Mariana Trench.\n\t“Look at the shape of the Mariana Trench! It is a crescent-shape and 7 miles deep, the deepest spot on the planet,” Magellan then waives his arm to shift the wall screen to the topography of Venus.\n\t“Now look at Montes Maxwell. In a crescent-shaped mountain range, 7 miles in elevation, one of the highest points on the planet, Venus! Now look as I superimpose earth over Venus and the Mariana Trench over Montes Maxwell. It is a three-dimensional puzzle that fits together, just like Pangea was a two-dimensional puzzle. Venus was once a part of earth, and this is where they were joined before Venus broke away and entered its own orbit!” Magellan was in awe of his own observation, and didn’t notice that Janis was shaking her head in disbelief, while Venus had folded her arms across her chest and had just a hint of a smile that might have even been considered smug.\n\t“Even if this three-dimensional Pangea theory is correct, it doesn’t mean that life developed on Venus like it did on earth,” Janis pointed out.\n\t“No, but what if life began before Venus broke off into its own orbit?” Ali asked.\n\t“No way it could have survived,” Janis was quick with you reply.\n\t“But why not?” Magellan asked.\n",
"Chapter 4\nVenusian at Heart by Victoria Sutton © 2011\n\n“Yes, but do you believe that the CO2 gene is from Venus?” Janis asked incredulously.\n\t“Well, why not? Pyrite is where the first DNA arose, and that is where life began. Venus is covered with pyrite, making it the perfect substrate for the spark needed to start to attach the nucleotides creating a DNA spine, right?” Ali looked at Janis and then Magellan, and both returned her look with a look of disbelief, even Magellan.\n\t“The origins of DNA are likely from the hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the deepest parts of the ocean, like those in the Mariana Trench,” Janis said, “and the pyrite theory is just that, a theory.”\n\t“So is the hydrothermal vent theory, a theory,” Ali remarked, “why couldn’t both theories be correct?”\n\t“So both theories of the beginning of life are correct,” Janis is thinking out loud pretending to ignore Ali, “the hydrothermal vents were once next to the pyrite surface, and together they both gave rise to DNA.”\n\t“Yes, I think an explanation would go something like that,” Ali added.\n\t“Where are those biotech protesters from the last century when you need them?’ Magellan quipped, “If they only knew that inserting genes from other species into their vegetables was only the tip of the iceberg lettuce.”\n\t“Engineering not just cross species but interplanetary species was never contemplated by the bioethicists, and it is increasingly clear that no one wanted this secret discovery to leak,” Janis thought outloud.\n\t“Alien DNA is inserted in practically every child conceived in the world, since 2050,” Ali said matter-of-factly.\n\t“How much alien DNA does it take to make an illegal alien?” Magellan quipped.\n\t“It’s not a legal question, Magellan, it’s a serious bioethical question!” Janis protested Magellan’s levity.\n\t“It doesn’t seem to have harmed anyone,” Magellan said.\n\t“It has done exactly what it was intended to do, advance human evolution to cope with the rapidly rising CO2 composition of the air we breathe,” and if we were in another age, we would be wiped out like an Ice Age, but we aren’t.”\n\t“Even if we become something else,” Janis reflects on this discovery with some growing angst.\n******************** \nJanis and Magellan were playing a game of Biochess, and when Janis captured Magellan’s knight with her pawn, it made a squeaking noise like its genes had programmed to do. \n“Well, at least my castle didn’t squirt you!” Janis said gleefully, know the seasquirt gene was a special favorite of Magellan’s used to make the players think of water in a moat around a castle when it was captured in Biochess.\n“I am not jealous,” Janis protested, “I am just saying you should be skeptical about her motivations. Her hiring, her protection by Georgian and her behavior outside of laboratory protocol are all troublesome and as far as I am concerned, they need an explanation before I feel comfortable that she is on our team.”\n“What do you mean?” Magellan retorted, “she has not done anything but help with the gene replication project, and has made great strides I might add. Her finding that the gene originated from Venus is pretty spectacular. No wonder it was classified.”\n“Exactly. How did she even know to access that classified database if she didn’t already know something about it.” Janis captured Magellan’s Queen, with a pawn which let out its squeak.\n“I don’t know, but I do know that we are going to hike Mt. Ranier this weekend,” Magellan smiled a devilish smile.\n“We were going to hike Mt. Ranier this weekend!” Janis couldn’t help but reply with some shock and disappointment in her friend. After all, they had been hiking buddies for a couple of years, and sure there was something between them, but nothing romantic. Just solid friendship, and maybe Janis thought about going further with their relationship but it just didn’t seem to click with Magellan.\n“Oh, gosh, sorry Janis,” Magellan looked slightly sorry, “I forgot that we had plans to hike this weekend. So let’s take a rain check?”\n“Checkmate,” Janis swallowed her disappointment, and her pawn squeaked.\n***************** \nBy afternoon, Magellan and Ali have still not returned from their long lunch at the other end of the quad, and Janis is getting concerned. Maybe she is a little jealous she surmises, but more importantly, Magellan is not thinking with his brain, and she is probably not good for him.\n\tAli and Magellan stroll into the laboratory, and Janis looks up to see them go off to their offices with a lingering extended arm touch, before the goodbye. It is clear that this has been a productive lunch for Magellan.\n\t“Oh, Magellan,” Janis calls out to him, and he turns around at the sound of his name, “do you have a minute?”\n“No, I am late getting back from lunch, so I have to run. How about later?” Magellan says as he walks backward as he is talking to Janis.\n\t“Yeah, later is fine,” Janis says with a sigh. Yes, it is clear that Magellan is not thinking with his brain.\n\tAn hour rolls by, and Magellan appears in the laboratory space doorway, clearly looking for Ali.\n\t“She’s out, Magellan,” Janis says without prompting, “she’s in the conception room for the next hour or so.”\n\t“Who?” Magellan asks innocently.\n\t“So do you have a minute now?” Janis ignores his feigned ignorance of his purpose in lurking in the doorway.\n\t“So what’s going on with you and Ali?” Janis asks.\n\t“Oh nothing, other than we are planning our hike to Mt. Ranier.”\n\t“So where are you going on Mt. Ranier?”\n\t“Ali wants to go to the very top of the volcano crater’s edge,” Magellan said.\n\t“That sounds dangerous enough,” Janis continued, “ it is time for Mt. Ranier to explode again, you know.”\n\t“Really? Of course I know that! She thought it would be exciting to do something a little dangerous on our first outing, and I thought that sounded intriguing.”\n\t“She certainly likes to live life dangerously.”\n\t“Well it is no surprise. And she told me that she could never marry or plan a future with me,” Magellan reflected.\n\t“What do you mean?”\n\t“She told me in confidence that she has a terminator gene, inserted at conception, because of some paperwork screw-up at the conception center,” Magellan said.\n\t“Did you ask her if she sued them?”\n\t“No, I was just sad to hear that she knew she would die so young,” Magellan concluded.\n\t“You are a lawyer, and you had no interest in this insane malpractice case?” Janis asked with astonishment.\n\t“To be honest with you, talking about a malpractice case was the furthest thing from my mind,” Magellan said, “I felt so deeply sorry for her, knowing that she had only a short time to live and she knows it. But she seems to be making the best of her time by having as much fun as possible!”\n\t“Yeah, it sounds like it, and I am sure you won’t take advantage of that?” Janis asked with a sly smile.\n\t“Janis, you know me better than that. I am a gentleman to the core, and feel only the need to protect her, now.”\n\t“I am sure that is exactly what she wanted.”\n\t“Janis, I am in complete control, and don’t think otherwise.”\n"
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[],
[],
[],
[]
] |
|
5n6e9o
|
If language is primarily localized to the left hemisphere, what does the right hemisphere of brain do when you are reading?
|
Is it different for people who have had their corpus callosum severed (i.e. split brain patients)?
|
askscience
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/5n6e9o/if_language_is_primarily_localized_to_the_left/
|
{
"a_id": [
"dc9j9l3",
"dca60rh",
"dcafrsk"
],
"score": [
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3,
2
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"text": [
"The cardinal rule of brain function is \"the whole thing is always functioning.\" A person who's speaking will have RELATIVELY higher activation of certain areas in the left hemisphere. It takes a lot of complex math to make an image like this:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nbecause there's constantly so much going on everywhere. Those brightly colored areas really only represent modestly higher activation, while the dull grey background is quite full of life. Some of it may be more or less noise, but it takes a lot to activate and coordinate every function of our existence.\n\nThink of what else is involved in reading. You're holding the book in both hands, while positioning your body, so you're activating the motor cortex on both sides. You're processing input from your whole visual field (visual cortex, both sides) and paying attention to it (parietal cortex, especially right side.) If the book's any good, you're doing complex things with imagination and decision-making, so the frontal cortex is in. And all that's just cerebral cortex! You haven't fallen over, so there's firing in the cerebellum. You're breathing without effort, so your brainstem is mercifully active. Your thalamus is relaying sensory information where it needs to go, all this motion has the basal ganglia working hard, your hippocampus is helping encode memories, and simply being alert enough to read at all means diffuse action in the reticular activating system. ",
"The best way neuroscientists have of knowing what a part of the brain does, is to see what it stops doing when that part is damaged.\n\nPeople with damage to the right hemisphere often have problems maintaining the theme of a conversation. They're missing the big picture. They keep things simple. When they receive information that conflicts with what they already believe, they miss it. They fail to understand metaphors and indirect language. In a sense, they lose the ability to tie things together coherently at a higher level.\n\nBased on these findings, studies have been carried out on normal people to see whether the same phenomenon can be observed.\n\n[In an fMRI study](_URL_0_), researchers gave healthy participants paragraphs to read. Some were titled. Some were untitled. When they were untitled, the participants' right hemispheres showed a stronger activation. To tie the information in the untitled paragraph into a coherent idea, they relied on their right hemispheres.\n\nThere are several models of lateralization. I think Joseph Dien's JANUS-model is pretty convincing. He sums it up as follows: \"It is proposed that the left hemisphere has the role of anticipating future scenarios and choosing between them while the right hemisphere has the role of integrating ongoing information into a unitary view of the past in order to immediately detect and respond to novel and unexpected events.\"\n\n\n\nIf you ask the average neuroscientist, he will say something to the effect that it is a useless endeavour to talk about the differences between the hemispheres. Even Stephen Kosslyn, noted for his research on hemispheric lateralization, has written [a pop-psych book arguing that we should rather be focusing on the differences between the top and the bottom of the brain](_URL_1_).\n\nHowever, there is a lot of evidence from animal research that has been neglected by neuroscientists. This is simply because it's published in scientific journals they don't usually read. *Divided Brains* by Rogers, Vallortigara, and Andrew is a nice introduction to animal research on lateralization.",
"I was just wondering, might be stupid question, but how does brain image differentiate from one who is speaking verbally and the other one, who was born deaf and talks in sign language?"
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[
"http://www.mayfieldclinic.com/Images/PE-fMRI1.jpg"
],
[
"http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/122/7/1317.long",
"https://www.amazon.com/Top-Brain-Bottom-Surprising-Insights/dp/1451645104"
],
[]
] |
|
2ly363
|
Why did Japan attack America - Why not the Netherlands/Britain and other countries in the Pacific on their own - More detailed explanation of my question within
|
I understand Japan entered war with the Netherlands, Britain, and a number of other countries in the Pacific in a desperate bid to secure oil, which they had been deprived of due to the American-led embargo, but why exactly did they attack America? Couldn't they just have attacked the aforementioned countries and gotten the resources they need without attacking America? Or were they expecting America to attack them in response should they do that, and would have preferred to start the war on their own terms, so to speak?
|
AskHistorians
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/2ly363/why_did_japan_attack_america_why_not_the/
|
{
"a_id": [
"clz8vc8",
"clzgbbc"
],
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2
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"text": [
" > Or were they expecting America to attack them in response should they do that, and would have preferred to start the war on their own terms, so to speak?\n\nThis is basically it.\n\nThe problem for the Japanese war planners of the day was the Philippines. The Philippines was in American hands, and Japanese ships attempting to reach Dutch East Indies or British Malaya and Singapore would have to sail past the Philippines to en route. The Philippine Islands are in a very good strategic position to block Japanese expansion to their south.\n\nThe Japanese saw war with America as inevitable. America had made quite the stink about Japanese actions in China and Indochina, eventually going so far as embargoing several goods crucial to the maintenance of the Japanese Empire and the war effort in China. Japanese leaders wanted to attack British and Dutch holdings in order to acquire their resources, but they also thought that America would enter into war with them *even if* Japan only went to war with Britain and the Netherlands. If America went to war with Japan on America's terms, the Philippines would serve as the perfect base of operations for the US Pacific Fleet.\n\nAs a result, Japanese planners decided that it was best to strike the US Pacific Fleet and take the Philippines before the US could effectively react. The IJN would then slowly wear down the US Pacific Fleet as it moved across the Pacific (with submarines, aircraft, and night battles), before engaging it in a decisive battle and defeating it. With the US Navy defeated, Japan would be able to secure terms that would have allowed them to keep their new gains.\n\nThat plan obviously failed on multiple levels during the war - the IJN botched several of their encounters with the USN (most notable at Midway), and ultimately speaking the Japanese severely underestimated the US's will to fight - but nonetheless there was *some* logic to it at the time. If you think that war with another power is inevitable, you might as well initiate the war yourself in order to try to gain the upper hand.\n\nWhether the US actually would have gone to war with Japan had Japan only attacked the British and Dutch is another question, and one that I can't quite answer. I'm not that well-versed in US politics of the time.",
"An important thing to understand is that we *now*, with the benefit of hindsight and perfect information on all side's strength and weaknesses, know that America's entry on the Allied side was the single most important thing that made Allied victory not only possible, but inevitable.\n\nThe Axis did not have this perspective. Now I'm not versed on the exact knowledge and internal politics of the Axis powers. But afaik what they would've in general known was that America was definitely on the Allied side (America was covertly doing everything it could to aid the Allies), but for whatever reason was not willing to declare war as of yet.\n\nNow, if you could go back you'd tell the Axis to do everything in their power to prevent an American entry into the war. But at the time, you'd have this economically powerful country, almost blatantly doing everything it can to provide aid to the countries you're at war with. Why *shouldn't* you just go ahead and make it official that you're at war?\n\nAlso, and this may add some perspective. It is my recent understanding that in WW1 Germany was doing everything it could to keep England out of the war. But they just got outplayed by the English pro-war politicians and Britain entered the war anyway. So in that context, if I was alive at the time, I wouldn't have that much confidence that Roosevelt couldn't get America to enter the war anyway either."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[]
] |
|
ernjry
|
Why does Ancient Greek art frequently depict soldiers wearing helmets halfway on? Is this authentic to how a soldier would wear it when he wasn't in immediate need, or is it a purely stylistic choice?
|
Examples:
[This coin dated 340-330 BC](_URL_0_)
[Bust of Pericles](_URL_1_)
|
AskHistorians
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/ernjry/why_does_ancient_greek_art_frequently_depict/
|
{
"a_id": [
"ff5mswo"
],
"score": [
7
],
"text": [
"There are obvious artistic reasons to disregard or alter the head protection of a warrior so you can show his face. This is also why Trajan's Column gave generations of historians and costume designers the notion that the Roman legionary helmet's cheek plates were much smaller than they actually were. I wrote more about the raised Corinthian helmet [here](_URL_0_)."
]
}
|
[] |
[
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/MetapontumDrachmRutter1576Obverse.jpg",
"https://www.ancient.eu/uploads/images/1246.jpg?v=1485680433"
] |
[
[
"https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/4xyfrw/is_it_true_that_those_helmets_of_the_kind/d6jhfq5/"
]
] |
|
ehbaj9
|
why are ‘highway kilometres’ better than ‘city kilometres’ for your car?
|
I’m buying my first car used and many people list that they have driven mostly on the highway etc... I’m so confused about how highway driving impacts a car differently in comparison to city driving!
Thanks in advance!
|
explainlikeimfive
|
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/ehbaj9/eli5_why_are_highway_kilometres_better_than_city/
|
{
"a_id": [
"fchpr0t",
"fci9x87"
],
"score": [
17,
2
],
"text": [
"City driving involves a lot of starting and stopping with short trips. Motors tend to suffer the most wear when they are cold, and wear more when revs are constantly changing than when they are steady. In the city you're also using the brakes, steering, and transmission a whole lot more.\n\nHighway driving is long trips, on (usually) smooth roads, where it's all pretty much a straight line with only light to moderate braking. It allows your motor to warm up and just sit at the rev range where it is most efficient for most of the drive.",
"Engine life is measured in mega revs. A mega rev is one million revolutions of an engine. When driving on city streets your revs are constantly changing. During acceleration your car is going to hit let's say 3500-4000 rpm before shifting it shifts, the revs drop and then rise again on the way to the next gear. Because you are doing this constantly during stop and go driving your engine will have done many more revolutions to cover one mile in the city than it would have on a highway in 5th or 6th gear at 1500ish revs. A city mile could mean as much as twice the amount of wear on an engine than a highway mile might. Then you have the added stress on other components that comes with all of the other usual nastiness that comes with driving on city streets."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[]
] |
|
321k0k
|
when the body is presented with an immune challenge that it has never experienced before, it seems to be able to produce a molecule to match. How does this happen?
|
askscience
|
http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/321k0k/when_the_body_is_presented_with_an_immune/
|
{
"a_id": [
"cq7gdbo",
"cq7o70o"
],
"score": [
2,
8
],
"text": [
"the molecule challenging the immune system is a unknown \"keyhole\", how does the body has the right key?\n\nShort answer: cells in your tymus and bone marrow turned into all possible keys beforehand through V(D)J recombination. A process that creates genetic variability in key genes of aquired immune response.\nI'm not really knowledgeable enough to give a good longer answer. But i'll make some comments.\n\n\"Long answer\": Well, as you said, there is something challenging the body. Or you may think that the body, through the inate immunity, will react against anything alien (e.g. bacterias) or \"wrong\" (a macrophage cleaning debris of a dead cells). In any case, these \"samples\" from inate immunity related events will be presented by specialized cells (APCs - antigen presenting cells) asking: \"hey, wondering lymphocyte number 13857233472284, can you bind to any of this stuff? if you do, i'll let you proliferate a lot and handle the witch hunt against this alien killing cells everywhere!\" (context here is REALLY importante to set up the right response so i'm not delving in kinds of cells and where it happens)",
"There are two answers to your question, because there are two parts to the immune system. People spend careers studying small parts of this stuff, so it should go without saying that I am oversimplifying things to an almost obscene degree.\n\n1) Innate - Let's say you've never seen a Southern purple footed warbler before^1 . It's a bird. The first time you see one, you may not recognize it as a Southern purple footed warbler, but you will certainly recognize it as a bird. This is because you recognize certain patterns that are associated with a bird. \n\nYour innate immune system has the same ability; it may not have ever seen *Haemophilus influenzae* before, but there are certain molecular patterns that let your body recognize it as \"a bad guy\". Collectively, these are known as PAMPs (**P**athogen **A**ssociated **M**olecular **P**atterns).\n\nSpecific proteins in your immune system see certain stretches of DNA, certain types of lipids (fats) in its cell membrane, certain patterns in proteins, etc, and recognizes them as being associated with pathogens. Collectively, these are referred to as PRRs (**P**attern **R**ecognition **R**eceptors). \n\n2) Acquired - This is a little more complicated. Your acquired immune system has the ability to make even more specific recognition agents (antibodies). Each one is *highly* specific. PRRs are looking for \"birds\". Antibodies aren't just looking for Southern purple footed warblers, they are looking for the left third toe of a Southern purple footed warbler. \n\nBut that would require a *lot* of different kinds of antibodies. Because you won't just have one to the left third toe....there are more toes. And a beak. And wings. And so on.\n\nCheck [this](_URL_0_) page out. Imagine that somewhere on that list is a toxic insult, one that will shame a specific bacterium so badly that it will have no choice but to curl up and die. Another insult will kill another bacterium. Some won't do anything.\n\nThat's kind of how your immune system makes antibodies. It's a mix & match. There's a stretch of DNA that kind of codes for column 1, column 2 and column 3. At some point in the development of a cell of the acquired immune system, it will trim down that list, picking one word from each column. It will then go around for the rest of its life going \"Rank toad-spotted codpiece?\".\n\nNow say you get an infection. An immune cell walks up to the invading pathogen and says \"mewling pottle-deep miscreant?\" and the pathogen does nothing. Another immune cell walks up and says \"Impertinent full-gorged fustilarian?\" and again...nothing happens. \n\nNow our hero walks up and says \"Rank toad-spotted codpiece?\" and the pathogen is so insulted that it dies, right on the spot. \n\nOver the next few days, that immune cell will now start making copies of itself. And all of them will shout \"Rank toad-spotted codpiece!, Rank toad-spotted codpiece!\", and the pathogen will wilt under the onslaught.\n\n\n^1 odds are you haven't seen one, because I just made that name up."
]
}
|
[] |
[] |
[
[],
[
"http://www.pangloss.com/seidel/shake_rule.html"
]
] |
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