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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC%20%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BA
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Устим Кармалюк
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Устим Кармалюк
Устим Якимович Кармалюк (також Кармелюк, Карманюк; , Головчинці (нині Кармалюкове) Подільське воєводство,— , Шляхові Коричинці (нині Волоське), Подільська губернія) — український селянин, ватажок селянського руху на Поділлі у 1813–1835 роках. В українському фольклорі — шляхетний розбійник та національний герой.
Кармалюк увійшов до фольклору як народний месник, який безстрашно боронив знедолених та скривджених (через що до його образу прив'язалися епітети «український Робін Гуд» та «останній гайдамака»).
Натомість дослідження істориків Валерія Дячка та Володимира Любченка свідчать про те, що Кармалюк був радше злочинцем і розбійником, який більшою мірою грабував саме селян.
Життєпис
Народився в родині кріпака Якима Карманюка. Про ранній період життя відомо небагато, крім того, що він володів грамотою та достатньо розумів російську, польську мови та їдиш. У 17-річному віці його забрали до двору пана Андрія Пігловського (брацлавський ловчий). Хлопець був роботящий, але непокірний. Поміщик не міг пережити того, що його кріпак не дозволяв собою керувати, а тому вирішив позбутися його і 1812 року віддав на 25 років до царської армії. Проте 1813 року разом з Д. Хроньом Кармелюк утік із 4-го уланського полку (Української кінно-козацької дивізії), який розміщався в Кам'янці-Подільському, і повернувся в рідні місця, де очолив ватагу кріпаків і військових-дезертирів, що нападали на маєтки панів. Незабаром був спійманий і засуджений до 50 ударів батогом, після чого його запроторили до кримського штрафного батальйону. На шляху до Криму Кармалюк втік із-під варти.
1814 року очолив повстанський рух селян проти російської адміністрації і дворянства, який розгорнувся в Літинському, Летичівському й Ольгопільському повітах.
1817 року жандарми схопили Кармелюка. Його засудили до страти, замінивши її в останню мить 25 ударами батогом і 10 роками каторги в Сибіру. Та Кармалюк втік із В'ятської етапної в'язниці. Повернувшись на Поділля, продовжував боротьбу, доки його знову не схопили під час облави. Скориставшись знанням російської мови й відповідними документами, видавав себе під час слідства за солдата з Костроми. Витримка не зрадила його й тоді, коли слідчі привели рідних на очну ставку і до нього радісно кинувся його 8-річний син Остап.
Невдовзі після того, як його запроторили у Кам'янець-Подільську фортецю, він організував разом з іншими в'язнями свою четверту втечу. Однак його поранили і прикували до кам'яного стовпа у вежі Юлія II (Папській), яку згодом назвали Кармалюковою.
Взимку 1824 його покарали 101 ударом батога, затаврували розпеченим залізом і знову відправили етапом у Сибір. Два роки конвоювали Кармалюка разом з іншими каторжанами до Тобольська.
1825 року після етапу, що тривав понад рік, Кармелюк із Тобольської каторжної в'язниці потрапив у Ялуторовськ. Незабаром знову втік, був схоплений і запроторений у набагато гірші умови. Втеча звідси — один із найзнаменитіших документованих випадків. Восени, під час нічної бурі, Кармалюк виламав ґрати, зібрав сорочки всіх співкамерників і зв'язав їх у довге полотнище. До кінця прив'язав камінь і закинув за частокіл в'язниці. По цьому висячому мосту, прямо з вікна за огорожу один за одним перебралися усі в'язні — зранку камера була порожня.
1828 року знову його спіймали через розгром загону урядовими військами в селі Кальна Деражня; до судової відповідальності було притягнуто 750 осіб; вирок Кармалюку — 101 удар батогами та довічна каторга, знову Сибір (Боровлянський скляний завод у Тобольській губернії), знову втеча.
1830 року — черговий арешт у Новій Синяві. Через два роки Кармелюк розібрав стелю у своїй камері й утік із Літинської в'язниці.
1830–1835 роки — селянський рух під проводом Кармелюка охопив усе Поділля, суміжні з ним райони Бессарабії, Волині та Київщини. У ньому брали участь близько 20 тисяч селян, які здійснили понад 1000 нападів на поміщицькі маєтки.
Протягом 23 років боротьби повстанські загони Кармелюка здійснили понад 1 тисячу нападів на поміщицькі маєтки. Захоплені у поміщиків гроші та майно роздавали селянській бідноті. Для боротьби з повстанцями російський уряд у листопаді 1833 р. створив так звану Галузинецьку комісію (в селі Галузинцях тепер Деражнянського району Хмельницької області) щодо заворушень у Літинському, Летичівському та Ольгопільському повітах Подільської губернії.
За словами тих, хто знав або бачив Кармелюка, Устим був не дуже високий, але плечистий, незвичайно сильний, дуже розумний лицар. Не любив грабіжників, сильно карав даремних злодіїв. Житель с. Гуменці Мисливський згадував, що одного разу Кармалюк відібрав багато золота у місцевого здирника і роздав бідним обідраним жінкам, що йшли по дорозі. На прощання сказав: «Беріть золото, хай діти ваші вдома не плачуть… Як мене десь вб'ють, споминайте Кармалюка…»
У повстанському русі брали участь не лише українці, а й поляки та євреї. Вихрест із євреїв Василь Добровольський довгі роки був найближчим сподвижником Кармалюка; поляки Ян і Олександр Глембоцькі, Фелікс Янковський та Олександр Витвицький до кінця життя були вірними товаришами Устима, як і євреї Аврум Ель Іцкович, Абрашко Дувидович Сокольницький, Арон Віняр. Всі вони на очних ставках і допитах ніколи не зрадили Кармалюка, за що були покарані і вивезені до Сибіру.
Кармелюка вбив із засідки шляхтич Рутковський. Стріляли, говорить переказ, не кулею, а срібним ґудзиком — тільки так можна убити характерника, тобто чаклуна, яким вважали отамана.
Тіло ватажка ще довго возили селами, щоб залякати селян. Поховали його в Летичеві (тепер Хмельницька область), де 1974 року на постаменті-валуні поставили 5-метровий пам'ятник.
Допитавши 2 700 осіб, урядова комісія встановила, що Кармелюк підняв на боротьбу 20 тисяч повстанців.
Історична оцінка
Образ Кармалюка зобразили у своїх творах Михайло Старицький, Марко Вовчок, Степан Васильченко, Василь Кучер та інші. Харківський композитор Валентин Костенко — автор опери «Кармелюк». Фольклорні добутки про народного героя збирали Микола Костомаров і Тарас Шевченко (останній назвав його «славним лицарем»). Народні чутки приписують Кармалюкові авторство ряду пісень. Хоча найвідоміша, «За Сибіром сонце сходить», складена усе-таки не ним, a Томашем Падурою. За твір про Устима Кармалюка письменниця Марко Вовчок в 1871 році, через 36 років після загибелі реального Кармалюка, потрапила в Петербурзі під суд. Той оштрафував її «за схвалення такого способу дій, який суперечить встановленим у нас засадам власності».
У Головчинцях резонанс справи Кармалюка був таким великим, що вся його численна рідня була змушена відмовитись від свого прізвища, аби не зазнавати репресій. Переважна більшість взяла собі прізвище Карман: таке було прізвисько соратників Устима. Після 1955 р., коли село перейменували на Кармалюкове, почався зворотний процес зміни прізвищ, майже всі Кармани стали Кармалюками.
До наших часів дійшов лише опис зовнішності Кармалюка, а єдиний імовірний його портрет належить пензлю Тропініна та відомий у кількох копіях, одна з яких зберігається в Ермітажі.
Є й інші, дещо критичні погляди на оцінку діяльності та образ Кармелюка. В деяких розвідках опублікована інша версія історії Устима Кармалюка, яка свідчить про те, що Кармалюк більшою мірою грабував саме селян, при чому ці напади не мали соціального чи повстанського характеру.
Вшанування пам'яті
Під час Перших визвольних змагань у 1920 році Армія УНР мала бронепоїзд «Кармелюк».
Іменем Кармалюка названо десятки вулиць в ряді міст України, зокрема у Києві, обласних центрах (Вінниця, Дніпро, Житомир, Івано-Франківськ, Луцьк, Львів, Полтава, Рівне, Суми, Ужгород, Харків, Хмельницький, Чернівці, Чернігів), інших містах, а також у рідному селі Кармалюкове.
Також на його честь названі два населені пункти:
Село Кармалюкове у Жмеринському районі Вінницької області.
Село Кармалюківка у Балтському районі Одеської області.
У культурі
Живопис
У 1818 році художник Василь Тропінін приїхав у Кам'янець і потрапив до фортеці, яка на той час правила за тюрму, де було ув'язнено Кармелюка як розбійника. Митець написав тоді портрет, який, за даними українського історика мистецтва Костя Широцького, був саме портретом Кармалюка. Цей твір Тропініна під назвою «Українець середніх років» зберігається у Київському державному музеї українського мистецтва, другий варіант — у Нижньотагільському музеї образотворчого мистецтва. Версію Широцького підтримав художник-графік Володимир Гагенмейстер, який у 1916—1933 роках керував Кам'янець-Подільською художньо-промисловою школою. 1924 року Гагенмейстер створив літографію «Устим Кармелюк» за мотивами Тропінінового «Українця середніх років». Портрет увійшов до всіх українських енциклопедій і підручників як портрет Кармелюка.
За словами Віри Шпильової, Кармелюка ув'язнювали в кам'янецькій фортеці в 1814, 1818, 1823 роках, а отже Тропінін міг намалювати його лише в 1818-му, коли той перебував в Україні. На той час Устиму Кармелюку виповнився 31 рік, і не міг бути літньою людиною з сивими скронями і вусами. За даними подільської дослідниці Валентини Вінюкової, це зображення не відповідає описам Кармелюка в офіційних документах: «На зріст 2 аршини і 6,5 вершка. Обличчя кругле, ніс помірний, волосся на голові, бровах, вусах і бороді світло-русяве, очі блакитні». За її словами, 1818 року Тропінін, супроводжуючи Іраклія Моркова в поїздці до брата, відвідав Кам'янець, у фортеці намалював одного з в'язнів, але чи то був Устим Кармелюк, чи хтось інший — не з'ясовано.
Кіно
Про Кармелюка зняли такі кінострічки:
«Кармалюк» (1931 — німа версія, 1935 — озвучена версія з піснями українською); режисер — Фауст Лопатинський
(російською) «Кармелюк» (1938); режисер — Георгій Тасін
(російською) «Кармелюк» (1986, т/ф, 4 серії); режисер — Григорій Кохан
дубляж українською від студії 1+1 у 1990/2000-х
Проза
Марко Вовчок. історична повість для дітей «Кармелюк» (1865)
(російською) Михайло Старицький. роман «Розбійник Кармелюк» (1908)
(переклад українською) Михайло Старицький. Розбійник Кармелюк: історичний роман (у 2-ох томах). Переклад з російської: Володимир Держирука, І. Г. Казаківський. Львів: [б.в.], 1909 (ч.1), 1910 (ч.2). — 431 стор. (ч.1), 436 стор. (ч.2)
(передрук) Михайло Старицький. Кармелюк (у 8-и частинах). Переклад з російської: Володимир Держирука. Вінніпеґ: Накладом Руської Книгарні, 1915. 803 стор. (всі 8 частини) (завантажити част 1-3 з е-бібліотеки archive.org)
(переклад українською) Михайло Старицький. Кармелюк: історичний роман. Переклад з російської: Микита Шумило. Київ: Дніпро, 1971. 708 стор.
Дмитро Тягнигоре. Кармелюк: драма на 4 дії; Діється на Великій Україні за часів кріпацтва (1920)
Людмила Старицька-Черняхівська. Розбійник Кармелюк: вистава на 5 дій і 6 одмін. — Харків: Кооперативне вид-во «Рух», 1926. — 107 с. (Театральна бібліотека, ч. 52.)
Степан Васильченко. П'єса на три дії «Кармелюк» (1927)
Василь Кучер. «Устим Кармалюк» (1940 — повість; 1954 — роман, що є розширеним варіантом повісті 1940 року)
Володимир Гжицький. «Кармалюк» (1971)
Олександра Гижа «Облога Кармалюка» (1990)
Антоній Роле. «Сліди з минулого» (1878). У творі описані деякі моменти життя Устима Кармалюка з точки зору польського шляхтича.
Музика
Кирило Стеценко. Опера «Кармелюк» (1905—1911)
Володимир Йориш. Опера «Кармелюк» (1929)
Валентин Костенко. Опера «Кармелюк» (1930)
Див. також
За Сибіром сонце сходить
Робін Гуд
Олекса Довбуш
Тадас Блінда
Примітки
Джерела
Гуржій І. О., Компан О. С. Устим Кармалюк: Іст.-біогр. нарис. — К., 1960. — 79 с.
Кармалюк // Українська Радянська Енциклопедія. Т. 5. — К., 1980. — С. 39;
Ерстенюк М. Кармелюк (Кармалюк) Устим Якимович — Довідник з історії України [Текст]: в 3 т. / Інститут історичних досліджень Львівського держ. ун-ту ім. Івана Франка. — К. : Генеза, 1993
Енциклопедія Українознавства. Т. 3. — Львів, 1994. — С. 960—961;
Завальнюк О. М., Комарніцький О. Б. Минуле і сучасне Кам'янця-Подільського. — Випуск 1. — Кам'янець-Подільський, 2003. — С. 35—40.
В. Ю. Король. Історія України. — Київ: ВЦ «Академія», 2005. — С. 191.
Дячок В. Устим Кармалюк (Карманюк) та розбійництво на Поділлі: конкретно-історичний та джерелознавчий аспекти // Наукові записки. Історичні науки. — Острог: Вид-во Національного університету «Острозька академія», 2008. — Вип. 12. — 300 с.
Д. В. Журавльов. ХТО є ХТО в українській історії. — Харків: Видавництво «Клуб сімейного дозвілля», 2011. — С. 280.
Селянські виступи під проводом У. Кармелюка (1813—1835 pp.) — Історія України опорні конспекти 9 клас
Олег Будзей. Устим Кармалюк: Герой чи Злочинець?
Любченко В. Б. Кармалюк чи Карманюк?
Богдан Шумилович. Фольклор не обманює. Хвороблива любов до міфів…
Бібліографії
Устим Кармалюк — український Робін Гуд: метод.-бібліогр. матеріали // Упр. культури, національностей та релігій Київ. облдержадмін., Київ. обл. б-ка для дітей; [підгот. Н. В. Бабич ; ред. Л. П. Соляник ; наук. ред. та відп. за вип. М. П. Зніщенко]. — Київ: КОБдД, 2014. — 18 с. : іл.
Посилання
Кармалюк Устин //
УСТИМ КАРМАЛЮК | Програма «Велич особистості» | 2016 (ВІДЕО)
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Єдиний державний реєстр судових рішень
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Єдиний державний реєстр судових рішень (ЄДРСР) — автоматизована система збирання, зберігання, захисту, обліку, пошуку та надання електронних копій судових рішень. До реєстру вносяться усі рішення судів України у цивільних, адміністративних, господарських справах, справах про адміністративні правопорушення та кримінальних провадженнях.
Історія
21 листопада 2002 Верховна Рада України схвалила Концепцію Загальнодержавної програми адаптації законодавства України до законодавства Європейського Союзу, де, серед іншого, передбачалось заснування національної інформаційної мережі судових рішень з метою забезпечення доступу до прикладів судової практики та можливості їх публічного обговорення.
Однак перша спроба втілити цю ідею у життя була зроблена 18 січня 2005 року, коли у Верховній Раді був зареєстрований законопроєкт «Про забезпечення гласності при здійсненні господарського судочинства». Авторами законопроєкту були Леонід Антоненко, та Іван Крулько, помічник народного депутата. Законодавча ініціатива належала Борису Тарасюку та Миколі Катеринчуку.
Законопроєкт отримав підтримку нового уряду і реалізацію закладених до нього ідей було передбачено затвердженою 4 лютого 2005 року. Майже одночасно з урядом ідея була підтримана і судовою владою. Так, постановою Президії Верховного Суду України, Президії Ради суддів України, колегії Державної судової адміністрації України «Про стан здійснення судочинства у 2004 р. і завдання на 2005 р.» від 18 лютого 2005 року, Державній судовій адміністрації України доручено запровадити реєстр судових рішень зі створенням у комп'ютерній мережі відповідної бази даних і забезпечити в установленому законом порядку доступ до неї.
Законопроєкт Тарасюка-Катеринчука було побудовано на 9 принципах, деякі з яких були згодом покладені в основу прийнятого пізніше того ж року закону, зокрема:
Централізації. На відміну від, скажімо, Сполучених Штатів, де процес оприлюднення судових рішень здійснюється з ініціативи судів і їхніми силами, законопроєкт зводив роль судів у процесі оприлюднення їхніх рішень лише до обов'язку суддів формувати судовий документ в електронному вигляді і надсилати його до центрального адміністратора системи або його структурного підрозділу при відповідному суді, який, однак, організаційно не входив до складу суду, але територіально займав одне й те саме приміщення, що і суд. Усі судові документи оприлюднюються на єдиному сайті, який утримується адміністратором, а не на сайтах відповідних судів. Пізніше цей сайт отримає назву «вебпорталу судової влади».
Вибірковості. Пропонувалося, що оприлюдненню підлягатимуть лише ті судові документи, які вирішують спір по суті (рішення, постанови) або припиняють подальший рух справи, наприклад, ухвала про затвердження мирової угоди. Документи, які приймаються судом на будь-якій іншій процесуальній стадії процесу, наприклад, ухвала про порушення справи або про забезпечення доказів, оприлюдненню не підлягали. Проте, усі інші судові документи підлягали оприлюдненню незалежно від того, чи мають вони прецедентне значення або суспільний резонанс.
Спеціалізації. Дія законопроєкту поширювалась на судові документи лише господарських судів. Це пояснювалось тим, що на той час в Україні ці суди були єдиною повністю комп'ютеризованою системою судів, і тому мети законопроєкту можна було досягти швидко і ефективно.
Фінансової автономії. Передбачалося, що заходи з оприлюднення судових документів фінансуватимуться за рахунок коштів, які сторони сплачували за розгляд їхнього конкретного спору (витрати на інформаційне-технічне забезпечення судового процесу)). Бюджетні кошти пропонувалося залучати лише як додаткове джерело.
Організаційної автономії. Адміністрування процесу оприлюднення рішень повністю покладалось на особу, яка була законодавчо визначена як отримувач збору на інформаційне-технічне забезпечення процесу, тобто на Державне підприємство «Судовий інформаційний центр». Це підприємство довело свою ефективність при створенні централізованої бази даних про рух господарських справ, а отже могло впоратись із задачею оприлюднення судових рішень. З огляду на те, що використання бюджетних коштів не передбачалося, залучення до процесу жодного органу виконавчої влади також видавалося зайвим.
Безоплатності. Усі тексти оприлюднених судових документів ставали суспільним надбанням і авторським правом не захищались. Будь-яка особа мала право безоплатного доступу до бази даних, право копіювати і відтворювати базу даних судових документів для комерційного використання.
Публічності. Жодні купюри у текстах судових документів не допускались, включаючи найменування сторін і імена суддів. Єдиний виняток — тексти судових документів, які приймались у закритих судових засіданнях, що було виправдано інтересами захисту державної або комерційної таємниці.
Персональної відповідальності суддів. Винні дії судді щодо ухилення від передачі судового документу для оприлюднення ставали підставою для дисциплінарного провадження. Суцільність оприлюднення також забезпечувалась правом сторони передати копію судового документу адміністратору системи напряму — у разі, якщо суд не виконує цього обов'язку.
Проактивної дії. Законопроєкт не ставив на меті створити і оприлюднити архів судових документів, що набули чинності у минулому. Законопроєкт стосувався лише майбутніх судових рішень, зокрема тих, які прийматимуться судами через 3 місяці після набуття ним чинності.
31 серпня 2005 року в парламенті був зареєстрований альтернативний законопроєкт «Про доступ до судових рішень» . Законодавча ініціатива належала голові профільного комітету Верховної Ради з питань правової політики Василю Онопенко, текст проєкту був розроблений Центром політико-правових реформ .
22 грудня 2005 року цей альтернативний проєкт було схвалено у другому читанні і в цілому конституційною більшістю — 303 голосами народних депутатів. Представляючи документ колегам, п-н Онопенко висловив сподівання, що «прийняття цього закону дасть можливість, щоб закони України однаково застосовувалися». Прийняття закону не викликало у парламенті дискусії. Поправки до другого читання були запропоновані лише двома депутатами, в тому числі самим Василем Онопенком.
Закон набрав чинності 1 червня 2006 року. Саме з цієї дати усі ухвалені судами України процесуальні документи (крім рішень місцевих загальних судів) повинні були заноситись до реєстру і з'являтися на Інтернет-запит будь-якого користувача, а рішення місцевих загальних судів — з 1 січня 2007 року. Проте, перші документи почали з'являтися на запит користувачів з затримкою в принаймні два тижні.
Принципи побудови реєстру
Від законопроєкту Тарасюка-Катеринчука закон перейняв такі риси як централізація, безоплатність, публічність (хоча і з деякими винятками, направленими на захист приватності фізичних осіб) і проактивність.
Від таких рис як спеціалізація, вибірковість, організаційна і фінансова автономність і персональна відповідальність суддів відмовилися. Натомість закон було побудовано на таких принципах:
Універсальність. Попри відсутність у багатьох районних судах комп'ютерів і електронної пошти було прийнято рішення поширити дію закону на всі без винятку суди країни і на всі провадження, включаючи і ті, в яких розглядаються чутливі з точки зору приватного життя питання, зокрема, кримінальні або сімейні. Слід визнати, що це був досить амбіційний крок, який, здається, не має аналогів в жодній іншій юрисдикції світу. Навіть на батьківщині системи права справедливості (тобто права, яке створюється судом), у Великій Британії, оприлюднюються далеко не всі ЭбДо
судові рішення. Так, відповідно до дослідження, проведеного університетом Редінгу, Англія, рішення трибуналів у трудових спорах, не підлягають оприлюдненню і зберігаються лише у паперовому форматі.
Суцільність. Незважаючи на побоювання перевантаження системи реєстру малозначущими процесуальними документами, закон не передбачає будь-яких виключень щодо категорій судових документів, що підлягають оприлюдненню. Вимога про оприлюднення поширюється на всі судові документи, які приймаються судами у відкритому судовому засіданні. Натомість закон передбачає, що користувачу реєстру має бути забезпечена можливість пошуку. Відповідно до постанови Кабінету Міністрів «Про затвердження Порядку ведення Єдиного державного реєстру судових рішень» від 25 травня 2006 року пошук може здійснюватися за такими параметрами: (1) найменування або код суду, (2) прізвище та ініціали судді, (3) дата ухвалення (постановлення) судового рішення, (4) форма судочинства, (5) форма судового рішення (зокрема, рішення, постанова, ухвала, окрема ухвала, вирок, судовий наказ), (6) номер справи та дата її надходження до суду, (7) найменування сторін судового процесу; (8) пошук за ключовими словами.
Захист конфіденційності фізичних осіб. Першою редакцією законопроєкту Онопенка передбачалось, що найменування і юридичних і фізичних осіб, а також інформація щодо них, яка здатна їх ідентифікувати (наприклад, адреси або номери реєстрації автомобілів) можуть бути доступні лише для обмеженого кола осіб, зокрема, для суддів. В загальному доступі до реєстру ця персональна інформація замінюється на літерні або цифрові позначення. У законі ці обмеження зберегли лише відносно фізичних осіб, при чому незалежно від того, чи стосується інформація приватного життя осіб або їх комерційної діяльності. Рішення про забезпечення конфіденційності фізичних осіб означало, що адміністратор реєстру мусить не лише автоматично перенести текст документу до системи, але й перевірити його на наявність відомостей, що можуть ідентифікувати фізичну особу, і провести роботу з шифрування цієї інформації.
Бюджетне фінансування. Відповідно до закону, реєстр судових рішень утримується за рахунок бюджетних коштів, а не коштів від збору на інформаційне-технічне забезпечення процесу. За оцінками Державної судової адміністрації, станом на 2006 рік сума бюджетних коштів, необхідних для утримання реєстру, становить «близько 70 тис. грн. на місяць для всієї системи судочинства». Відповідно до іншого джерела, щомісячні бюджетні витрати на утримання реєстру становлять 192 тис. грн. У 2008 році на утримання реєстру було витрачено, за деякими оцінками, приблизно 8 млн грн. В основному це «зарплатня тих, хто сканує рішення, що надійшли у паперовій формі, шифрує прізвища сторін процесу, плата за зв'язок».
Державне регулювання. Відмовившись від принципу організаційної автономії, закон передбачив, що діяльність зі збору судових рішень, їх оприлюдненню і утриманню бази даних скеровуватиметься Державною судовою адміністрацією, яка є розпорядником бюджетних коштів, що виділяються з Державного бюджету на утримання реєстру судових рішень.
Адміністрування реєстру
Адміністрування реєстру здійснюється на договірних засадах юридичною особою, яка визначається на конкурсній основі відповідно до Закону України «Про закупівлю товарів, робіт і послуг за державні кошти». Ця особа має відповідати встановленим Державною судовою адміністрацією кваліфікаційним вимогам. В результаті проведення конкурсу у 2006 році переможцем стало Державне підприємство «Судовий інформаційний центр». Наказом Державної судової адміністрації від 24.04.2007 року це підприємство було приєднане до Державного підприємства «Інформаційні судові системи», яке стало правонаступником і є адміністратором реєстру станом на 2011 рік.
Проте жодне з зазначених державних підприємств не розробляло власними силами програмне забезпечення для реєстру, яке було замовлено третій стороні — корпорації «Атлас». Як зазначається на сайті корпорації, її клієнтами є Верховна Рада, Секретаріат Президента, низка міністерств та великих компаній Речник «Атласу» стверджує, що у 2006 році компанія розробила софт для реєстру отримавши за це 269 тисяч гривень. Але договір на підтримку та супроводження системи було розірвано у вересні 2006 року.
Технологія наповнення реєстру
Оприлюднення судових рішень і наповнення реєстру відбувається в результаті взаємодії адміністративного персоналу судів і адміністраторів і операторів реєстру. Оператори реєстру — це штатні працівники ДП «Судові інформаційні системи», робоче місце яких розташоване в приміщенні кожного суду.
Технологія внесення судових документів до реєстру розроблена Державною судовою адміністрацією (ДСА), перед якою стояла досить делікатна задача покладення на суддів обов'язку з передачі для оприлюднення текстів їх судових рішень. Однак, ДСУ цієї задачі не виконала. Запропонований технологічний ланцюжок операцій з наповнення реєстру взагалі не включає суддю. Відповідальність за збір і передачу судових документів покладається на «штатного працівника суду» або «штатного працівника» «Судових інформаційних систем», які можуть заміняти один одного «у разі виникнення обставин, що унеможливлюють виконання [ними] своїх функціональних обов'язків у повному обсязі».
Друга важлива задача — забезпечити оприлюднення рішень на паперових носіях. На момент набуття чинності законом, система електронного документообігу діяла лише в 30 з 665 місцевих судів, на які поширювалася дія закону. Станом на 2008 рік ця цифра збільшилась до 428.
Внесення судових документів до реєстру складається з трьох етапів:
збір судових документів штатним працівником суду і передача їх оператору реєстру;
обробка документів оператором;
внесення документів до реєстру.
На першому етапі спеціально призначений штатний працівник суду збирає копії судових документів, які були ухвалені протягом робочого дня відповідним судом. У разі якщо суд комп'ютеризовано, він або вона також збирає електронні файли цих документів (тобто формує електронний пакет судових документів). Збір електронних файлів відбувається або через локальну комп'ютерну мережу суду або, у разі її відсутності, на USB флеш-носії. Усі електронні файли мають бути підписані електронним цифровим підписом відповідного судді. Далі сформований таким чином «електронний пакет» передається працівником суду (через локальну мережу або на флеш-носії) оператору реєстру. Постанова КМУ передбачає, що передача пакету (копій судових рішень) до оператора має відбутись не пізніше дня, що настає після ухвалення судового рішення (п. 13 Постанови) або в день складення повного судового рішення (п. 14 Постанови).
З вересня 2009 року суди надсилають адміністраторові реєстру копії всіх судових рішень виключно в електронній формі з використанням електронного цифрового підпису (п. 12 Постанови). Пересилання копій судових рішень на паперових носіях здійснювалось до зазначеної дати на підставі Інструкції про порядок виготовлення, надсилання, реєстрації, обліку та зберігання на паперових носіях та в електронному вигляді копій судових рішень, що підлягають внесенню до Єдиного державного реєстру судових рішень. Згідно з цією інструкцією, у разі якщо суддя виготовив(ла) судовий документ «у вигляді рукописного тексту або за допомогою друкарських машин», то відповідальна особа суду повинна була передрукувати цей документ і роздрукувати його на принтері.
На другому етапі оператор переносить реквізити судових документів до бази даних і шифрує тексти судових рішень, тобто замінює відповідними літеро-цифровими позначеннями відомості, що не можуть бути розголошені в текстах судових рішень, відкритих для загального доступу. Обов'язковими для внесення в базу даних є такі реквізити:
найменування суду, який ухвалив (постановив) судове рішення;
код суду згідно з Довідником статистичних кодів, затвердженим Державною судовою адміністрацією;
інстанція, у якій розглядалася справа;
форма судочинства (цивільне, кримінальне, господарське, адміністративне);
форма судового рішення;
дата ухвалення (постановлення) судового рішення;
номер та дата судової справи (якщо номер судової справи змінено, додатково зазначається попередній номер та дата судової справи);
номер та дата судової справи, рішення у якій переглядається;
дата ухвалення (постановлення) судового рішення, що переглядається;
найменування та код суду, що ухвалив (постановив) судове рішення, що переглядається, згідно із зазначеним Довідником статистичних кодів;
склад суду із зазначенням прізвища та ініціалів судді (суддів);
найменування сторін судового процесу (з урахуванням режиму доступу до судових рішень);
статус сторін судового процесу (фізична особа, юридична особа, зокрема державний орган, державне підприємство, установа, організація).
Третій етап — безпосереднє внесення тексту судового документу до реєстру. Відповідно до Правил, оператор повинен внести судовий документ до реєстр протягом 3 діб з моменту отримання копії судового документу від працівника суду.
Електронні копії судових рішень є документами безстрокового зберігання.
Закон забороняє вилучення судових рішень із реєстру. Також не допускається внесення будь-яких змін до судових рішень, крім тих, що необхідні для виправлення помилок, допущених під час внесення рішення до реєстру. Якщо ж виправлення судового рішення здійснено відповідно до процесуального закону, то до реєстру вноситиметься судове рішення про внесення змін, а виправлене рішення залишатиметься без змін.
Оцінка ефективності
Жодний з принципів, на яких побудовано реєстр, не виконується на практиці повною мірою.
Реєстр не охоплює усіх судів. Цим порушується принцип універсальності. Станом на 2009 рік, із 787 працюючих в Україні судів 35 взагалі не надсилають до реєстру свої рішення. Одним з таких судів був Шевченківський районний суд столиці.
Судові документи до реєстру вносяться вибірково. Цим порушується принцип суцільності. У січні 2009 року на прохання рівненського тижневика «ОГО» юридична фірма «Василь Кісіль і Партнери» провела дослідження, метою якого був пошук у реєстрі, а також в комерційних базах даних судових документів з п'яти резонансних судових процесів. Серед іншого результати дослідження виявили, що жодна з баз даних не містить будь-якого документу по справі щодо зупинення рішення Президента розпустити парламент або по справі «скнилівських генералів». В той же час рішення щодо права хворого робітника вимагати не вказувати хворобу у лікарняному були знайдені лише у комерційній базі, тоді як у реєстрі ці рішення були відсутні. Як стверджують у державному підприємстві «Судові інформаційні системи», підприємство навіть не веде статистики ухвалених і внесених до реєстру рішень ані в розрізі по конкретному суду, ані взагалі по системі судів.
Реєстр переобтяжений дріб'язковими малозначущими документами, число яких через 3 роки після створення реєстру сягає мільйонів, в той час як предметний пошук або пошук за ключовим словом фактично не працює. Цим порушується принцип вільного доступу до реєстру. За оцінкою ДСА, пошук за пошуковим словом можливий, «лише якщо одночасно в Реєстрі шукають рішення не більше 30 користувачів». Пошук за іншими критеріями часто є неефективним. Наприклад, система нездатна виокремити ухвали, які приймаються судами для оформлення якої-небудь процесульної дії, від ухвал, якими деякі суди вирішують справу по суті. Так само система реєстру не відрізняє судовий наказ як документ, яким вирішується по суті спори у справах за наказовим провадженням, і наказ як виконавчий документ, який видається господарськими судами на виконання прийнятого судом рішення.
Внаслідок неефективного пошукового апарату реєстру і безлічі малозначущих процесуальних документів, які в ньому містяться, користувачі вимушені отримувати доступ до документів реєстру за плату у приватних осіб, які розробили досконаліший пошуковий апарат або мають доступ до судових документів, які з якихсь причин не були внесені до реєстру. Зокрема, таку можливість забезпечує база даних «НАУ-Судові рішення», яка наповнюється на основі прямого договору з інформаційно-технічним адміністратором Єдиного державного реєстру судових рішень.
Доволі часто до реєстру потрапляють судові документи, які містять конфіденційну інформацію щодо фізичних осіб, чим порушується принцип захисту цієї інформації.
Реєстр не виконує своєї облікової функції, оскільки документам, які до нього заносяться, не присвоюється унікальний номер, а нумерація справ часто збігається, що призводить до того, що пошук за номером справи повертає десятки або сотні не пов'язаних між собою документів.
Відмова від принципу персональної відповідальності суддів призводить, за словами директора ДП «Судові інформаційні системи» А. Боделана, до низької наповнюваності реєстру документами за відсутності будь-якого важелю впливу на суддів, які ухиляються від передачі документу до реєстру. Нормативні документи ДСУ виписані таким чином, щоб звільнити суддів від будь-якого обов'язку (не кажучи вже про відповідальність) щодо передачі прийнятих суддями документів до реєстру.
Державне регулювання процесом, який за своєю суттю є виключно технологічною операцією, яка не вимагає прийняття будь-яких управлінських рішень, видається неоправданим. Залежність реєстру від бюджетного фінансування, яким розпоряджається регулятор, призводить до випадкового призупинення публічного доступу до реєстру внаслідок довільного рішення регулятору щодо припинення оплати робіт з утримання реєстру.
Позбавлення реєстру більш стабільного джерела фінансування на користь бюджетного фінансування, що за своєю природою є нестабільним і залежним від рішення регулятора, ставить під загрозу реалізацію мети, задля якої реєстр створено. Як повідомив голова ДП «Судово-інформаційні системи» А. Боделан на засіданні Ради суддів України, норма закону про бюджетне фінансування реєстру не дозволяє очолюваному ним підприємству використовувати кошти Спеціального фонду для того, щоб оплатити придбання електронного цифрового підпису та пов'язаного з цим спеціалізованого програмного забезпечення з метою надання можливості адміністративним судам формувати реєстр шляхом надсилання копій судових рішень не в паперовому, а в електронному вигляді. Причина полягає в тому, що Спеціальний фонд формується за рахунок оплати витрат на інформаційно-технічне забезпечення судових процесів, пов'язаних з розглядом цивільних та господарських, але не адміністративних справ.
Недосконалий інтерфейс. Так, згідно з дослідженням, проведеним Харківською правозахисною групою, «интерфейс реестра работает в значительной степени неэффективно: созданная техническая система обслуживания реестра не позволяет просматривать все решения конкретного суда — допускается поиск только определенного вида судопроизводства за один конкретный год. Кроме того, следует отметить частые перебои в работе реестра: часто появляются указания на то, что производятся сервисные работы и работа с реестром невозможна». Автори дослідження зазначають, що «ряд місцевих судів загальної юрисдикції внесено до реєстру з невірною назвою».
Збої реєстру
На початку листопаду 2006 року на сайті реєстру з'явилось повідомлення про те, що доступ до реєстру зупинено у зв'язку із припиненням фінансування Державною судовою адміністрацією адміністратора реєстру — державне підприємство «Судовий інформаційний центр» (ДП «СІЦ»). Як пояснив в інтерв'ю газеті «Бизнес» В. Живаєв, на той час директор ДП «СІЦ», Судова адміністрація протягом місяця не перераховувала коштів на наповнення реєстру (щомісячний авансовий платіж на ці цілі становив, за словами п-на Живаєва, 200 тис. грн.). За відсутності бюджетних коштів роботи з наповнення реєстру фінансувались за рахунок коштів, що сплачувались сторонами спорів на інформаційне-технічне забезпечення процесу. Однак з 1 вересня 2006 року відповідно до наказу ДСА ці кошти були перенаправлені з рахунків ДП «СІЦ» на рахунки територіальних відділень Судової адміністрації. Протягом вересня і жовтня 2006 року кошти акумулювались на зазначених депозитних рахунках і за призначенням не використовувались. Станом на початок листопада залишки цих коштів на рахунках ДП «СІЦ» скінчились і доступ до реєстру судових рішень було припинено. Реєстр не працював протягом тижня, що спричинило суспільний резонанс. Повідомляється, що 8 листопада 2006 року адвокат Д. Лошаков звернувся з адміністративним позовом до Печерського районного суду на неправомірні дії Судової адміністрації.
В інтерв'ю газеті «Бизнес» голова Судової адміністрації І. Балаклицькій пояснив, що причиною конфлікту між Судовою адміністрацією і ДП «Судовий інформаційний центр» була відмова останнього «перейти у відання» Судової адміністрації. Внаслідок цього Судова адміністрація створила альтернативне державне підприємство — Судові інформаційні системи, до якого пізніше було долучено ДП «Судовий інформаційний центр» внаслідок його реорганізації і позбавлення джерел фінансування. До злиття із ДП «Судові інформаційні системи» ДП «Судовий інформаційний центр» існувало як підприємство, створене і підпорядковане Вищому господарському суду України.
Реформа реєстру
З початку роботи реєстру в Верховній Раді було зареєстровано такі законопроєкти щодо внесення поправок до закону "Про доступ до судових рішень:
законопроєкт В. Стретовича і Т. Стецьківа від 24 вересня 2008 року (отримав негативний висновок Головного науково-експертного управління з рекомендацією про повернення на доопрацювання, однак прийнятий у першому читанні у березні 2009);
законопроєкт Р. Богатирьової від 16 листопада 2007 року (відкликаний 23 листопада 2007)
Законопроєктами пропонувалося: (проєкт Стретовича-Стецьківа):
припинити внесення до реєстру постанов у справах про адміністративні правопорушення;
встановити строк внесення судових документів до реєстру законом (замість двох підзаконних актів, якими це питання визначається на цей час) і скоротити цей строк до однієї доби;
доповнити обов'язкові реквізити судових документів, які підлягають внесенню до реєстру, номером, під яким ці документи були внесені до реєстру;
розширити довідкові функції реєстру за рахунок зазначення в ньому дати набуття чинності судових рішень, а також відображення зв'язків між документами, які були прийняті в одній справі;
встановити заборону на пересилання судових документів для обробки і внесення до реєстру на паперових носіях і запровадити суцільний електронний документообіг між судами і адміністратором реєстру;
встановити заборону на виконання не внесеного до реєстру судового рішення.
(проєкт Богатирьової):
поширити вимоги про обов'язкове оприлюднення в реєстрі текстів судових позовів.
Зазначені спроби реформи реєстру стосувалися здебільшого трьох основних тем:
уточнення обсягу документів, що підлягають внесенню до реєстру, зокрема, шляхом обмеження принципу суцільності;
законодавчої спроби вплинути на низьку ефективність наповнюваності реєстру і низьку якість пошукових функцій реєстру;
спроби законодавчого органу обмежити «недобросовісні» дії представників судової влади. Так, вимога про публікацію позовів повинна була служити цілі боротьби із рейдерством, а вимога про включення до реквізитів судових документів номера, під яким документ було внесено до реєстру, — цілі запобіганню «можливості видання деякими недоброчесними суддями виконавчих документів без ухвалення відповідного судового рішення».
Див. також
Система документообігу «Документообіг загальних судів»
Єдина судова інформаційно-телекомунікаційна система
Посилання
Єдиний державний реєстр судових рішень
Правила пошуку інформації в Єдиному державному реєстрі судових рішень
Дзеркало Єдиного державного рестру судових рішень
Єдиний державний реєстр судових рішень України (ЄДРСР) — пошук судових справ онлайн
Виноски
Судова система України
Державні реєстри України
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Іспанська монархія
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Іспанська монархія
Монархія Іспанії (конституційно визначається як Корона — конституційний інститут та найвища посада Іспанії. Монархія включає правлячого монарха, його сім'ю та королівський двір, який підтримує та сприяє монарху у виконанні своїх обов'язків та прерогатив. В 2020 році іспанську монархію представляють король Філіп VI, королева Летиція та їхні дочки Леонор, принцеса Астурійська та Софія, інфанта Іспанії.
Конституція Іспанії 1978 року відновила конституційну монархію як форму правління Іспанії після падіння диктатури Каудильйо Франсіско Франко та відновлення демократії Адольфо Суаресом у 1975 році. Конституцією 1978 року підтверджено роль короля Іспанії як живого уособлення і втілення іспанської держави та символу стійкої єдності та сталості Іспанії, а також позицію як «арбітра та модератора» іспанських державних установ. Конституційно, король — глава держави і головнокомандувач збройними силами Іспанії. Конституція кодифікує використання королівських стилів та титулів, королівських прерогатив, системи успадкування трону, забезпечення монарха та регентства-опікунства у випадках неповноліття чи недієздатності монарха. Відповідно до конституції, монарх також сприяє розвитку відносин з «народами своєї історичної спільноти». Король Іспанії — президент , яка представляє приблизно понад 700 млн людей у двадцяти чотирьох країнах-членах по всьому світу. У 2008 році король Хуан Карлос I вважався найпопулярнішим лідером у всій Іберо-Америці.
Іспанська монархія сягає корінням у Вестготське королівство зі столицею у Толедо, заснованому після падіння Західної Римської імперії. В той час Астурійське королівство почало боротьбу з арабським завоюванням після вторгнення Омеядського халіфату в Іспанію у 8 столітті. Династичний шлюб між Ізабеллою I Кастильською та Фернандо II Арагонським («Католицькі королі») об'єднав Іспанію у 15 столітті. Останній претендент на трон Візантійської імперії, Андрій Палеолог в своєму заповіті від 7 квітня 1502 року передав імператорський титул Фернандо II Арагонському та Ізабеллі I Кастильській.
Іспанська імперія стала однією з перших могутніх світових держав, коли Ізабелла та Фердинанд фінансували дослідницьку подорож Христофора Колумба через Атлантичний океан. Морський шлях, який він відкрив, проклав шлях для завоювання Іспанією більшої частини Америк.
У 2018 році бюджет іспанської монархії становив 7,9 млн євро. Ця сума є одною з найнижчих з державних витрат на інститут монархії в Європі.
Історія
Монархія в Іспанії сягає корінням у Вестготське королівство та його християнські держави-наступники Наварра, Астурія, Леон, Кастилія та Арагон, які почали боротьбу з арабським завоюванням після вторгнення Омеядського халіфату в Іспанію у VIII столітті. Однією з найбільш ранніх впливових династій були Хіменеси, які об'єднали більшу частину християнської Іберії під своїм керівництвом у XI столітті. Від Санчо III Наваррського (1000—1035) до Урраки Леонської (1106—1125) члени родини Хіменес претендували на історичний титул вестготів «Імператор усієї Іспанії». Правителі з династії Хіменесів прагнули приєднати свої королівства до європейського театру подій, тому часто вступали в міжпіренейські союзи та шлюби, і стали покровителями релігійних реформ (бл. 950 — бл. 1130). Син Урраки та спадкоємець Альфонсо VII, перший з іспанської гілки Бургундської родини, останнім претендував на титул «Імператор усієї Іспанії», але розділив свою імперію серед своїх синів. (1366—1369) закінчилася смертю короля Педро I (1334—1369) від руки його позашлюбного зведеного брата Енріке Трастамарського, який правив як Енріке II (1369—1379). Енріке II став першим правителем іспанського королівства з Трастамарської династії. Спадкоємиця короля Педро I, його внучка Катерина Ланкастерська, вийшла заміж за Енріке III, поєднавши династії Хіменисів та Трастамара в особі їхнього сина, короля Хуана II.
Подружній союз католицьких монархів
У XV столітті шлюб між Ізабеллою I Кастильською та Фернандо II Арагонським, обидва представники Трастамарської династії, відомі як «католицькі монархи», об'єднали два важливі королівства Піренейського півострова. Кожне королівство зберігало свою основну структуру. У 1492 році католицькі монархи завоювали Гранадський емірат на півдні Іспанії, останню мусульманську територію на Піренейському півострові. Об'єднання Іспанії відзначається з цієї дати, хоча різні іспанські королівства не припинили існування після цієї дати.
Території іспанської імперії за кордоном були залежними від Кастилії, і Кастилія мала там безмежний вплив. Після іспанських досліджень та поселень в Карибському басейні, завоювання Мексики та завоювання Перу, корона встановила високі суди у важливих регіонах та намісництва (Мексика, 1535; Перу, 1542) разом з намісником (віце-королем) та аудієнціями — ефективними адміністраторами королівської політики.
Габсбурги
На початку 16 століття за короля Карла I (також імператора Священної Римської імперії як Карл V), сина королеви Кастилії Хуани I іспанська монархія перейшла до Габсбургів. Правління Філіппа ІІ ознаменувало пік золотої доби Іспанії (1492—1659), періоду великої колоніальної експансії та торгівлі. У 1700 році Карл II був останнім з іспанських Габсбургів і його смерть спричинила війну за іспанську спадщину.
Бурбони
Зі смертю бездітного Карла II правонаступництво престолу було спірним. Карл II призначив своїм спадкоємцем онука своєї сестри Марії Терезії, Філіппа III Французького, герцога Анжуйського. На початку XVIII століття можливе об'єднання Іспанії з Францією, на той час двох великих європейських держав, спричинило війну за іспанську спадщину. Завершенням війни стали Утрехтський мир (1713) та Раштаттський мир (1714), які зберегли європейський баланс сил.
У середині XVIII століття, особливо при Карлі III, іспанська корона розпочала амбітний та далекосяжний проєкт щодо здійснення великих реформ в управлінні Іспанії та Іспанської імперії. Ці зміни, відомі як , намагалися вдосконалити управління та отримати більший дохід від заморських територій.
Філіп V був першим королем Іспанії з династії Бурбонів. Станом на 2020 рік Філіп VI зберігає трон Іспанії за Бурбонами.
1808 року під час Наполеонівських воєн французький імператор Наполеон I Бонапарт змусив Фердинанда VII зректися престолу. Бурбони стали центром народного опору проти французького панування. Однак відмова Фердинанда VII від ліберальної іспанської конституції 1812 року, а також його міністерські призначення, зокрема виключення лібералів, поступово підірвали народну підтримку іспанської монархії. У 1830 році Фердинанд VII ухвалив «», якою відмінив «Салічний Закон», запроваджений Філіпом V, згідно якого жінкам заборонялося бути суверенами Іспанії. Таким чином, як це було прийнято до приходу Бурбонів, старша дочка Фердинанда VII Ізабелла стала його спадкоємицею. Опоненти «Прагматичної санкції» стверджували, що вона ніколи не була офіційно оприлюднена, таким чином, молодший брат Фердинанда VII, принц Карлос законний спадкоємець трону відповідно до «Салічного Закону».
Перша Іспанська республіка
11 лютого 1873 року проголошена Перша Іспанська республіка. У грудні 1874 року державний переворот відновив Бурбонів на троні.
Друга Іспанська Республіка та режим Франсіско Франко
На місцевих та муніципальних виборах 1931 року перемогли (особливо в міських районах) кандидати, які виступали за ліквідацію монархії та створення республіки. Зіткнувшись з заворушеннями в містах, Альфонсо XIII залишив країну, але не зрікся трону. Держава перетворилася на відносно недовговічну Другу Іспанську Республіку. Період політичної нестабільності призвів до початку Громадянської війни, яка тривала з 1936 до 1939 року. Громадянська війна закінчилися перемогою генерала Франсіско Франко та його прихильників.
1947 року Іспанія прийняла та перетворилися на монархію. Згідно цього закону Франсіско Франко керував як глава держави Королівства Іспанія з вакантним місцем короля до своєї смерті у 1975 році.
Відновлення монархії
Франко призначив Хуана Карлоса де Бурбона своїм наступником, який потім очолив перехід Іспанії від диктатури до демократії шляхом проведення політичних реформ.
Незадоволений темпом демократичних реформ, новий король Хуан Карлос I, звільнив Карлоса Аріаса Наварро і призначив реформатора Адольфо Суареса головою уряду у 1977 році.
1978 на референдумі прийнято нову Конституцію Іспанії. А 1981 року рішучі дії короля дозволили швидко нівелювати спробу державного перевороту.
Після спроби перевороту Хуан Карлос відійшов від активної політичної діяльності.
Корона, конституція та королівські прерогативи
Корона Іспанії, яка походить від вестготського королівства V століття та наступних держав-наступників, визначена у II розділі «Корона» (статті 56—65) Конституції Іспанії 1978 року. Конституційно монарх втілює і уособлює «нерозривну» єдність і сталість іспанської держави, і представляє правосуб'єктність держави та в подальшому виконує роль «Батька нації». Як об'єднавча фігура для нації, у 2010 році король Хуан Карлос працював над тим, щоб «подолати розрив» між поляризованими політичними партіями Іспанії та розробити єдину стратегію у відповідь на .
Відповідно до конституції Іспанії, суверенітет походить від народу, тому народ надає королю владу монарха:
Монарх «регулює та модерує регулярне функціонування інституцій» та приймає на себе найвище представництво іспанської держави у міжнародних відносинах. Монарх виконує функції, прямо покладені на нього конституцією та законами.
Після коронації та проголошення перед Генеральними кортесами, король присягає вірно виконувати свої конституційні обов'язки та дотримуватися конституції та законів держави. Крім того, конституція покладає на короля додаткову відповідальність за забезпечення дотримання конституції. Нарешті, король присягає поважати права іспанських громадян та самоврядних громад. Принц Астурійський, досягнувши повноліття, робить ту саму присягу, що і король, разом з окремою присягою на вірність монарху.
Стаття 62 II розділу Конституції «Корона», визначає повноваження короля, тоді як Стаття 99 IV розділу «Уряд та управління справами», визначає роль короля у призначенні прем'єр-міністра та формуванні кабінету міністрів/уряду. Статті 117, 122—124 розділу VI «Судова влада», визначають роль короля в незалежній судовій системі країни. Однак, конституційною конвенцією, встановленою Хуаном Карлосом I, король здійснює свої прерогативи, питаючи поради уряду, при цьому зберігаючи політично безпартійну та незалежну монархію. Отримання урядових порад не обов'язково зобов'язує монарха їх виконувати, за винятком випадків, передбачених конституцією. Його акти завжди підписуються в порядку визначеному статтею 64. Без такого підпису вони не дійсні, за винятком випадків, передбачених пунктом 2 статті 65.
Згідно статті 62 розділу II, король:
Звернення до монарха, титули та джерело величі
Конституція 1978 року підтверджує титул монарха — «Король Іспанії». Він також може використовувати інші титули, історично пов'язані з Короною.
Згідно з Королівським указом 1368/1987, що регулює титули та почесті королівської сім'ї та регентів, король та його дружина, королева-консорт, офіційно будуть називатися «Його Величність та Її Величність» (Їх Величності, , де Su означає Його або Її), а не традиційно «католицька Величність». Принц-консорт, чоловік правлячої королеви, матиме звернення «Його Королівська Високість». Вдови та вдівці монархів повинні зберігати це звернення до наступного одруження. Спадкоємець трону з народження має титул принц Астурійський та інші титули, історично пов'язані з ним. Серед інших, до цих титулів відносять Принц Віанський, історично пов'язаний зі спадкоємцем Наваррського королівства; титули Принц Жиронський та Герцог Монтбланський — з Арагонською Короною. Інші діти монарха та діти спадкоємця повинні мати титул Інфант або Інфанта (принц чи принцеса) та мати форму звернення Його або Її Королівська Високість. Королівський указ додатково обмежує можливості будь-якого регента використовувати або створювати титули при неповнолітті або недієздатності монарха. До четвертого покоління нащадків, або правнуків правлячого монарха не передбачено титулів та форм звернення.
Після зречення трону у 2014 році Хуан Карлос I та його дружина Софія зберігають титули ввічливості короля та королеви Іспанії.
Див. також
Монарх
Список монархів Іспанії
Карлісти
Примітки
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184979
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Friday%20%281869%29
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Black Friday (1869)
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Black Friday (1869)
The Black Friday is the term for a gold panic on September 24, 1869, which triggered a financial crisis in the United States. It was the result of a conspiracy between two investors, Jay Gould, later joined by his partner James Fisk, and Abel Corbin, a small time speculator who had married Virginia (Jennie) Grant, the younger sister of President Ulysses S. Grant. They formed the Gold Ring to corner the gold market and force up the price of the metal on the New York Gold Exchange. The scandal took place during the Grant Presidency. The Secretary of the Treasury, George S. Boutwell, had a policy to sell Treasury gold at biweekly intervals for a to pay off the national debt. Along with other, non-routine gold sales, this acted to stabilize the dollar and boost the economy. The country had gone through tremendous upheaval during the Civil War and was not yet fully restored.
Gould hoped to take advantage of Corbin's relationship with his brother-in-law, President Grant, and Gould persuaded Corbin to introduce him to Grant. Gould and Fisk hoped that befriending the President would get them privy information about the government's gold policy—and even prevent the sale of gold—and thereby manipulate the market. It did not work, being foiled by the government, yet resulted in a scandal that undermined both the credibility of Grant's presidency and the national economy. Gould and Fisk used their personal appearances with Grant to gain credibility on Wall Street in addition to using their insider information.
During the first week of September, Grant's Secretary of the Treasury George S. Boutwell received a letter from Grant. It told him that gold sales would be harmful to Western farmers, a notion planted by Gould and Fisk. Boutwell countermanded his own order to sell a great deal of gold, suspending non-routine Treasury gold sales for the rest of the month. At the same time, Gould, now joined by Fisk, continued buying gold through New York City's Gold Room, raising the price of gold. After learning about the nature of their scheme, Grant first told Corbin to unload his gold holdings before ordering the release of $4 million in government gold on September 24. Grant's move immediately drove down the price of gold, crushing the Gold Ring'''s corner on the market. A panic on Wall Street ensued and the country went through months of economic turmoil, although a national depression was averted. Gould and Fisk hired the best defense available. Favored by Tweed Ring judges, the conspiratorial partners escaped prosecution. An 1870 government investigation, headed by fellow Republican James A. Garfield, exonerated Grant of any illicit involvement in the conspiracy.
History
To finance the Civil War and Reconstruction, the federal government had assumed a large national debt, escalating from $64 million in 1860 to $2.8 billion by the end of the Andrew Johnson administration, when Grant was elected president in 1868. The problem was further compounded when the federal government issued paper money. during the Civil War, known as "greenbacks", which were not redeemable in gold. Mandated as the only payment for federal debts, "both public and private", these "notes" served to take gold currency out of circulation, causing the price of gold to rise sharply. It was generally believed that the U.S. Government would eventually redeem the "greenbacks" with gold.
Grant believed that putting "sound money" back into circulation was the best approach to restoring the nation's economy.
Determined to return the national economy to pre-war monetary standards, one of his first actions as president was to sign the Public Credit Act of 1869, which established a 10-year timetable for returning to the Gold standard by repaying U.S. bonds in "gold or its equivalent" and redeeming greenbacks from the economy as soon as possible.
Grant had put the talented George S. Boutwell in charge of the U.S. Treasury. Boutwell's primary task was to reduce the national debt. To accomplish this, he ordered his assistant treasurer to begin selling gold from the Treasury and buying up wartime bonds in April 1869. He also initiated reforms in the Treasury Department by improving methods of tax collecting and attacking the problem of counterfeiting. By the end of May, the national debt had been reduced by $12 million. Boutwell's treasury policy of reducing the national debt kept the money supply level and the gold price artificially low. The goal of Grant's policy was to reduce the amount of greenbacks in circulation that could be redeemed in gold at some future date.
Cornering the gold market
In 1869, Jay Gould, a director of the Erie Railroad, sought to corner the gold market with the connivance of Abel Corbin, a financier with a shady past who was President Grant's brother-in-law. They worked to persuade the President to stop Secretary of the Treasury Boutwell from releasing weekly gold (but not affecting those routine gold sales for the sinking fund) from U.S. Treasury, with the intention of raising the gold price. James Fisk, another director who had made his fortune as a cotton smuggler during the Civil War, controlled the Erie Railroad in conjunction with Gould. He joined the conspiracy in force later on. The first step in Corbin and Gould's plan was to recruit Daniel Butterfield, a former Major General and war hero during the Civil War
who lacked any experience in finance. Both Corbin and Gould lobbied successfully for Butterfield's appointment as the assistant treasurer, through whom Boutwell gave orders to sell Treasury Department gold. Gould bribed Butterfield with a $10,000 check, more than Butterfield's annual salary of $8,000. Butterfield agreed to tip the men off when the government intended to sell gold.
Corbin was considered a smooth talker and had made money speculating in real estate. More importantly to Fisk and Gould, he had direct access to Grant. They used Corbin's relationship to get close to Grant in social situations, where they argued against government sale of gold, reinforced by Corbin. Gould also attempted to bribe Grant's personal secretary Horace Porter by giving him a $500,000 gold account in his name, but Porter, a former military aide to Grant, stated that he declined the offer. Not accustomed to having such offers turned down, Gould went ahead and made the purchase and opened a brokerage account in Porter's name regardless. When Porter was informed of Gould's unauthorized transaction, he refused the offer in writing. In similar fashion, Corbin approached Grant's wife Julia and attempted to entice her into accepting half interest in $250,000 in bonds, but she turned that offer down.
Gould secured controlling interest in the federally audited New York's Tenth National Bank, a Wall Street broker's bank that was used as a facility to contract business. In addition to meeting at Corbin's mansion, Fisk and Gould also talked with Grant on their Erie Canal railroad car and in Fisk's box seats at New York's Fifth Avenue Theatre. Gould suggested to Grant that increasing gold prices would lower the dollar and allow farmers in the West to sell their crops overseas, but Grant gave no response. Both Grant and Boutwell strongly felt that the nation's wartime debt had to be paid to assure the credibility of the United States in the eyes of the European banks. To accomplish this, Boutwell began selling gold from the Treasury's reserve of $100 million in gold bars, initially without the President's express consent, and using the proceeds to buy back U.S. bonds. Boutwell's controversial approach was later endorsed by Grant, giving Boutwell all the latitude he needed. Boutwell later wrote that only outsiders unaware of the finer designs of his dealings thought "the President was taking any part in the operations of the treasury concerning the price of gold". Grant, meanwhile, was unaware that his appearances in the company of Gould and Fisk sent a message to Wall Street that he supported raising the gold price.
When buying gold and bonds, Boutwell placed all his orders through Daniel Butterfield in New York. To reduce the temptation of illicit dealing, Boutwell, at Butterfield's recommendation, publicly announced his orders by telegraphing the news to the Associated Press. Over the next few months Treasury gold began to flood the market while Boutwell began buying back wartime bonds. By September 1, Boutwell had reduced the national debt by $50 million. He continued this practice at an accelerated rate while Grant, having closely followed Boutwell's dealings, began to express reservations and sent him a letter criticizing that driving the price of gold down would hurt farmers. Many brokerage firms collapsed while trade volume and agriculture prices plummeted, causing a mild recession, but by January 1870, the economy resumed its post-war recovery. Boutwell saw little merit in either Grant's or Gould's arguments, feeling that the government had no place in manipulating the market regardless of who benefited. However, not wanting to go against the President, Boutwell ordered Butterfield to halt semi-weekly September government gold sales. Believing he now had a "green light" from Grant, Gould began buying gold through brokers at an accelerated rate, increasing his gold stake from $10 to $18 million in specie.
Breaking the Gold Ring
Starting on September 1, 1869, Gould and Fisk put their plot into motion by purchasing $1.5million in gold in the names of Corbin and Butterfield. The conspirators would make $15,000 ($ in ) for every dollar rise in the price of gold (which was quoted in increments of $100 face value of gold coin, each containing 4.8375 troy ounces). By September 6, the gold quote had risen from $132.50 to $137. By September 7, Gould was faced with a startling reversal when were directed to sell off the $6million they had achieved during the Prices of gold fell sharply from $137 to $134 in one day. Gould lost more than $100,000 in two days.
Abandoned by his associates, Gould looked to Fisk for assistance, but he was away on railroad business. Fisk returned to New York on September 8 and found Gould worried and depressed. Fisk reminded Gould that he still had "enough gold to sink a ship" while the two looked to others and devised other schemes to come out on top, but they knew by this time that if they began buying again, the Treasury would counter their efforts and begin selling at an accelerated rate once again.
Gould and Fisk had a list of every broker and speculator who had borrowed gold from the gold exchange, some 250 in all, including Jay Cooke, the biggest financier on Wall Street and a prominent voice urging Grant to step in and break the Gold Ring. Fisk proposed that the list be published in the newspapers the next day with the demand that the "bulls and bears" settle on their debts by three o'clock, at a fixed rate of $160. If they refused, Fisk was ready to squeeze them at an even higher rate, a scheme that bordered on blackmail. Fisk's associates scoffed at the scheme and criticized Fisk of being true to form for suggesting such an unconventional idea. After being warned that the idea violated New York State criminal conspiracy law, Gould, Fisk and their associates chose another approach: On Friday, they drove the price of gold to an even higher price by buying large amounts of gold at the current high price regardless of the political and economic effects. Fisk, however, saw the flaw to this alternative approach, fearing that pushing the price of gold up too quickly would provoke the President to step in and break the gold corner.
On September 12, Grant warned Boutwell that a "desperate struggle" was taking place between the "bulls and bears" of the gold market and that Boutwell should continue the current policy, which was to suspend the sales of gold. Corbin told Gould he was concerned that Grant would start selling gold from the Treasury, so Gould told Corbin to write a letter to Grant encouraging him not to sell. Corbin wrote Grant the letter, now lost, encouraging Grant not to sell gold. Fisk had the letter delivered by William Chapin of the Erie Railroad, to Washington, Pennsylvania, where Grant was vacationing with his wife's cousin. Interrupting Grant's croquet game, Chapin gave him Corbin's letter, whereupon Grant read the letter and told Chapin that it was satisfactory, but said, "No, nothing" when Chapin asked for a reply. When Chapin had left, Porter told Grant about Gould setting up a $500,000 gold account in Porter's name. Upon hearing this, Grant finally realized what Gould and Fisk were up to. Through a letter his wife was writing to his sister, Grant urged Corbin to have nothing to do with Gould and Fisk and get out of the speculation, and Grant promptly arranged a meeting with Boutwell. On September 20, 1869, Gould and Fisk started hoarding gold, driving the price higher. Gold closed at $141 on September 22, at which time Fisk and Gould owned between $50 and $60million in gold between the two of them, about three times the public supply available in New York. The increase in gold prices on this day alone had netted a profit of $1.75million for the two conspirators. On Thursday, September 23, Gould visited Corbin's house and was informed of Julia's letter, which had arrived that day. After reading it and discovering that Grant was annoyed with Corbin's speculations, Gould knew that Grant was likely to sell government gold on Friday. Subsequently, Corbin asked Gould if he would buy Corbin's account so he could tell Grant that he no longer owned any gold, but Gould refused to bail Corbin out, fearing it would trigger a collapse in the market. Instead, he offered Corbin $100,000 interest and exclaimed, "Mr. Corbin, I am undone if that letter gets out". Gould chose not to inform Fisk of this recent development. When Grant returned to Washington D.C., he found $60,000 worth of gifts from the Gold Ring sent to the White House. Sensing bribery, Grant immediately ordered the paintings and statues boxed up and returned.
On September 23, Grant and Boutwell met and the two decided to break the Gold Ring by selling gold from the treasury if the gold price continued to rise. On September 24, Gould began quietly selling his gold while Gold Room agents put up a public front and continued buying at a lesser rate with Fisk leading the spurious buying activity. When gold had surpassed $155 on Friday, September 24, Grant ordered Boutwell to release $4million in gold and buy $4million worth of bonds. Within minutes, the price of gold dropped from $160 to $138 and Gould's and Fisk's gold corner was broken. Some speculators were ruined, while gamblers who had bet that the gold price would go down made money. Corbin lost money on the loan he had taken to buy gold.
Aftermath and investigation
The Black Friday September 24 gold crash caused the United States financial devastation for months. On Saturday, September 25, Gould, Fisk and Corbin met at Gould's office at the Opera House, each claiming to be the victim and blaming the other for the disaster. Obligated to make good on all debts, the Gold Exchange Bank no longer had enough reserves to cover the mounting debts, while the situation there deteriorated by the hour. The Tenth National Bank, which normally closed at 3:00 pm on that day, had depositors and speculators crowding the sidewalk at its front door. The police set up patrols inside and outside the bank.
Stock prices dropped by 20 percent from September 24 to October 1, while trade was minimal. Between January 1870 and September 1870, only 4 million shares of stock were exchanged. Dozens of brokerage firms went bankrupt, those who bought paper gold from Fisk's gold room going unpaid. Farmers, who constituted 50 percent of the country's workforce, suffered the worst: wheat prices on the Chicago trade fell from $1.40 to $0.77 a bushel, corn dropped from $0.95 to $0.68, and other commodities such as rye, oats, and barley had similar losses. The New York Tribune reported that goods ready for export could not be shipped. Grant's and Boutwell's actions to break the Gold Ring, however, kept the Wall Street panic from growing into a national depression. Butterfield was allowed to resign from the U.S. Treasury without an investigation in October, 1869.
The subsequent Congressional investigation was chaired by Republican James A. Garfield. Grant's decision to counter the escalating price of gold did not completely dispel rumors that he and his administration had profited from the affair. It has been alleged on the one hand that the investigation had been limited because Virginia Corbin and First Lady Julia Grant were not called to testify at President Grant's behest. Julia Grant may even have received $25,000 in profits from the speculation. The committee's Republican majority rejected the proffered testimony from a D.C. businessman who reported seeing the $25,000 entry in an Adams Express Company ledger. When forced to confront the entry in the ledger, however, even the Adams Express executive who brought the ledger in admitted that his first impression was that the figures in the entry for Mrs. U. S. Grant were $25,000. The committee's Republicans put forth the excuse this was really a $250.00 entry and denied "the groundless and wicked charge, that Mrs. Grant was interested in this speculation." Garfield's biographer, Alan Peskin maintains that the investigation was quite thorough. The investigation cleared Grant of wrongdoing, but excoriated Gould for his manipulation of the gold market and Corbin for exploiting his personal connections to Grant. Butterfield was implicated for serving as a double agent giving information to Gould. In his Congressional testimony, Gould said Grant "was a very pure, high-minded man; that if he was satisfied what was the best thing to do, that was what he would do."
Dodging any financial harm, Fisk and Gould escaped conviction, spending money to buy the best legal defense, including talented attorney David Dudley Field, while Democratic Tweed Ring judges such as Albert Cardozo shielded them in court. Gould remained a force on Wall Street, and when he died in December 1892, his estate was worth $70 million. Fisk remained wealthy, but was caught in a scandalous love triangle and shot to death on January 6, 1872. Boutwell served the remainder of Grant's first term, and resigned in 1873 to run for United States senator from Massachusetts, serving until 1877 before retiring to private life. In 1871, the Tweed Ring run by "Boss" Tweed was broken by New York reformers including Edwards Pierrepont, Grant's future Attorney General, and prominent member of the Committee of Seventy.
Henry Adams believed that President Ulysses S. Grant was much too tolerant of his corrupt associates. In 1870, Adams wrote an article, "The New York Gold Conspiracy", that detailed Gould and Fisk's scheme to corner the gold market, and hinted that Grant had participated in or at least known of the scheme.
See also
Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant
Ulysses S. Grant presidential administration scandals
Panic of 1857
Panic of 1893
Ponzi scheme
List of Ponzi schemes
Denver Depression of 1893
Stock market crashes
The Toast of New York'' – 1937 film of fictionalized story of Fisk's life, with dramatic presentation of the gold corner.
References
Citations
Sources
Books
Web sources
Further reading
(Good coverage of Jay Gould, Black Friday & other business dealings, including Tammany)
(eBook, 499 pages)
(eBook, 358 pages)
External links
H.W. Brands, "Lecture on Black Friday, 1869," (video) Hauerstein Center for Presidential Studies, Grand Valley State University, May 25, 2011. (1:04:29 running time)
NY Times – Oct. 16, 1869 Harper's Weekly Cartoon: "Black Friday" and the Attempt to Corner the Gold Market.
Illustration: "The New York Gold Room on 'Black Friday,' September 24, 1869." – E. Benjamin Andrews 1895
PBS American Experience
1869 in American politics
1869 in economic history
September 1869 events
Economic crises in the United States
Grant administration controversies
Gold standard
Presidential scandals in the United States
Stock market crashes
Gold investments
Gold in the United States
William M. Tweed
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%96%20%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0%20%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%97
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Сухопутні війська Індії
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Сухопутні війська Індії
{{Картка військового формування
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}}Сухопутні війська Індії''' — сухопутний вид та найбільший компонент Збройних сил Індії. Президент Індії є Верховним командувачем сухопутних військ Індії, а їх професійним командувачем є (COAS), який є чотиризірковим генералом. Двом офіцерам було присвоєно звання , п'ятизіркове звання, це церемоніальна посада великої поважності. Індійська армія була створена в 1895 році поряд із давно встановленими президентськими арміями Ост-Індійської компанії, які також були поглинені нею у 1903 році. Князівства мали власні війська, які після цього були об'єднані в національне військо після проголошення незалежності. Підрозділи та полки індійської армії мають різноманітну історію та брали участь у кількох битвах і кампаніях по всьому світу, заслуживши багато до й після Незалежності.
Основна місія індійської армії — забезпечення національної безпеки та національної єдності, захист нації від зовнішньої агресії та внутрішніх загроз, а також підтримання миру та безпеки всередині кордонів країни. Він проводить гуманітарні рятувальні операції під час стихійних лих та інших негараздів, таких як , а також може бути реквізований урядом для боротьби з внутрішніми загрозами. Це головний компонент національної влади, поряд із військово-морськими силами та повітряними силами. Армія була залучена до з сусіднім Пакистаном та однієї з КНР. Інші великі операції, які проводила армія, включають Операція Віджай, , та . Сухопутні війська проводять масштабні навчання в мирний час, як наприклад та навчання Шурвеер, а також були активними учасниками багатьох , включаючи , Ліван, Конго, Анголу, , В'єтнам, , , Ліберію, Мозамбік, Південний Судан, та Сомалі.
Індійська армія оперативно та географічно поділена на сім командувань, причому основним військовим формуванням є дивізія. Нижче рівня дивізії знаходяться постійні полки, які відповідають за свій власний набір і навчання. Армія є повністю і складається з понад 80% особового складу активної оборони країни. Це найбільша постійна армія в світі, з чисельністю 1 237 117 активних військ та 960 000 резервних. Армія розпочала програму модернізації піхоти, відому як «Система футуристичної піхоти», а також модернізує та придбає нові засоби для бронетанкових, артилерійських та авіаційних підрозділів.
Див. також
Армія Британської Індії
Примітки
Література
Wilkinson, Steven I. 2015. Army and Nation: The Military and Indian Democracy since Independence. Harvard University Press.
Посилання
Indian Army в
Засновані в Індії 1895
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feronia%20%28mythology%29
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Feronia (mythology)
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Feronia (mythology)
In Etruscan and Sabine religion, Feronia was a goddess associated with wildlife, fertility, health, and abundance, also venerated by the Faliscans and later adopted into ancient Roman religion. As the goddess who granted freedom to slaves or civil rights to the most humble part of society, she was especially honored among plebeians and freedmen. Her festival, the Feroniae, was November 13 (the ides of November) during the Ludi Plebeii ("Plebeian Games"), in conjunction with Fortuna Primigenia; both were goddesses of Praeneste.
Note that the similar-sounding Feralia on February 21 is a festival of Jupiter Feretrius, not Feronia.
Etymology
Feronia's name is derived from a Sabine adjective corresponding to Latin fĕrus, but with a long vowel, i.e. Fērōnǐa. The root fer has cognate words in every Indo-European language (e.g. Greek , , English feral.) Latin fĕrus means "not cultivated, untamed" (Thesaurus Linguae Latinae), "of the field, wood", "untamed", "not mitigated by any cultivation" (Forcellini Totius Latinitatis Lexicon) which fits the environment of the sanctuaries of Feronia and is very close to rudis (rude).
Feronia is one of the Roman and Italic goddesses whose name is formed by a root ending with the suffix -ona or -onia. This form of a noun denotes a difficult or dangerous state or condition: The deity is a sovereign of that danger, only to help man to best avoid damage or get the greatest advantage, such as Angerona for the angusti dies near the winter solstice.
Myths and functions
Many versions of Feronia's cult have been supposed, and it is not quite clear if she was only one goddess or if she had only one function in ancient times. Some Latins believed Feronia to be a harvest goddess, and honoured her with the harvest firstfruits in order to secure a good harvest the following year.
Festus's entry on the picus Feronius
of Trebula Mutuesca testifies the goddess had also prophetic qualities among the Sabines, as did the picus martius of Tiora Matiena ascribed to the Aborigines. Feronia also served as a goddess of travellers, fire, and waters.
Freedmen and Libertas
Varro identified Feronia with Libertas, the goddess who personified Liberty.
According to Servius, Feronia was a tutelary goddess of freedmen (dea libertorum). A stone at the Terracina shrine was inscribed "let deserving slaves sit down so that they may stand up free." Livy notes that in 217 freed women collected money as a gift for Feronia.
Some sources state that slaves were set free at her temple near Terracina.
Sabine tribal matron
She was among the deities that Sabine moneyers placed on their coins to honor their heritage. She may have been introduced into Roman religious practice when Manius Curius Dentatus conquered Sabinum in the early 3rd century .
Insistence on wild places
Two stories about her sanctuary of Terracina highlight the character of Feronia as goddess of the wilderness: Servius writes that when a fire destroyed her wood and the locals were about moving the statues to another location, the burnt wood suddenly turned green.
Pliny states that all attempts at building towers in times of war between Terracina and the sanctuary of Feronia have been abandoned because all are without exception destroyed by lightning.
The goddess thus refused any continuity and linkage with the nearby town.
Role in the Aeneid
In Vergil's Aeneid, troops from Feronia's grove fight on the side of Turnus against Aeneas. The Arcadian king Evander recalls how in his youth he killed a son of Feronia, Erulus, who like Geryon had a triple body and a triple soul; Evander thus had to kill him three times.
Vergil identifies Erulus as the king of Praeneste, but he is otherwise unknown in literature.
Dumézil's interpretation
Dumézil considers Feronia to be a goddess of wilderness, of untamed nature, and of nature's vital forces – but honoured because she offers the opportunity to put those forces to good use in acquiring nurture, health, and fertility. She fecundates and heals, and therefore despite her being worshipped only in the wild, she receives the first-fruits of the harvest. Because she permits the people to domesticate the wild forces of vegetation, she could be seen as favouring the transformation of that which is uncouth into that which is cultivated.
Dumézil compares her to Vedic god Rudra: He and Feronia are similar in that Rudra represents that which has not yet been transformed by civilization – he is the god of the rude, of the jungle; at one time dangerous and uniquely useful: Healer, thanks to the herbs within his domain, protector of the freed slaves and of the outcast. Feronia, though, has only the positive or useful function of putting the forces of wild nature at the service of the people.
Cult and cult sites
Inscriptions to Feronia are found mostly in central Italy. Feronia's shrines were all located in the wild, far from human settlements. Varro, however, places Feronia in his list of Sabine gods who had altars in Rome.
Feronia's cults at Aquileia and Terracina were near springs that were used in her rites. The Augustan poet Horace speaks of the water (lympha) of Feronia, in which "we bathe our face and hands."
Capena, Etruria
Her lucus at Capena was a place where everybody was allowed to come for worship and trade, attracting people from different nations, Sabines, Latins, Etruscans, and others from even farther away. The grove provided everybody with a neutral territory in which peace must not be perturbed.
Feronia's temple at the base of Mt. Soracte which was near Capena. The Lucus Feroniae, or "grove of Feronia" (Fiano Romano) was the site of an annual festival in her honour,
which was in the nature of a trade fair.
The place, in the territory of Capena in southwestern Etruria, was plundered of its gold and silver by Hannibal's retreating troops in 211 , when he turned aside from the Via Salaria to visit the sanctuary; later it became an Augustan colonia. Its status as a colony is recorded in a single inscription, copied in a manuscript of the rule of the Farfa Abbey as colonia Iulia Felix Lucoferonensis.
Anxur, Terracina
Another important site was near Anxur (Terracina, southern Latium), in a wood three Roman miles from the town, where Servius recorded a joint cult of "the boy Jupiter" (puer Iuppiter) under the name of Anxyrus and "Juno the Virgin" (Iuno virgo), whom he identifies as Feronia. According to another tradition, slaves who had just been freed might go to the shrine at Terracina and receive upon their shaved heads the pileus, a hat that symbolized their liberty.
Campus Martius, Rome
Her temple in the Campus Martius, in what is now Largo di Torre Argentina, was probably also located in a grove, according to an inscription found on the site.
It was established before 217 BCE. It may have been dedicated by Curtius Dentatus following his victory over the Sabines. His building program also included the Anio Vetus, a major new aqueduct, and a number of fountains near the temple.
Late continuation
Charles Godfrey Leland reported surviving traditions of the "witch" Feronia in 19th century Tuscany.
Namesakes
The asteroid 72 Feronia is named for her.
Footnotes
References
External links
Agricultural goddesses
Fertility goddesses
Health deities
Health goddesses
Nature goddesses
Water goddesses
Roman goddesses
Personifications in Roman mythology
Abundance goddesses
Sabine goddesses
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Six of Crows
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Six of Crows is a fantasy novel written by Israeli–American author Leigh Bardugo and published by Henry Holt and Co. in 2015. The story follows a thieving crew and is primarily set in the city of Ketterdam, which is loosely inspired by Dutch Republic–era Amsterdam. The plot is told from third-person viewpoints of eight different characters.
The novel is the first of a duology, completed in Crooked Kingdom (2016). The series is part of Bardugo's Grishaverse. Nina's storyline continues in the King of Scars duology: King of Scars (2019) and Rule of Wolves (2021), with the other Crows making brief cameos in the latter. They are also featured in the Netflix television series Shadow and Bone (2021–2023), the series' first season giving them an original storyline.
Plot
In Ketterdam, the capital of Kerch, Councilman Hoede tests a drug called jurda parem on a Grisha Healer. The drug enhances her abilities, allowing her to control and manipulate human minds. She escapes after paralyzing Hoede and some guards, but is found dead days later.
Wealthy merchant Jan Van Eck divulges the results of Hoede's experiment to criminal prodigy Kaz Brekker and tasks him with rescuing its inventor, Bo Yul-Bayur, from the Ice Court, an unbreachable military stronghold in Fjerda, and preventing the drug's existence from being exposed to the world.
Kaz agrees for a hefty price and starts recruiting a crew: Inej Ghafa, his right-hand spy he had saved from a pleasure house two years before; Nina Zenik, a Grisha Heartrender, who joins upon learning of his intention to employ Matthias Helvar, a former Fjerdan drüskelle (Grisha-hunter) detained at Hellgate Prison because of Nina; and Jesper Fahey, a Zemeni sharpshooter with a gambling addiction. Together, they break Matthias out of prison, who agrees to help in exchange for a pardon that would enable his reinstatement as a drüskelle. Kaz also enlists Wylan Van Eck, Jan Van Eck's runaway son, as a demolitions expert and leverage if Van Eck reneges on their deal.
As they are about to sail from Ketterdam, the crew repels an ambush by rival gangs; after torturing a gangster, Kaz learns that gang leader Pekka Rollins, the man responsible for his brother Jordie's death, is also after the scientist. Kaz explains his rescue plan to the crew: they will enter the Ice Court as prisoners, cross to the embassy sector through the roof, and disguise themselves as foreign dignitaries during a festival. After finding and freeing Yul-Bayur from the White Island, on the inner ring, they will exit from the embassy sector.
Upon reaching Fjerda, Nina and Matthias are finally able to talk about her betrayal. Nina had been a Grisha soldier captured by Matthias with his Fjerdan drüskelle party and put on a ship to Fjerda for trial and eventual execution. The ship sank during a storm, and Matthias and Nina fell in love while trying to find civilization. When they arrived at a city, Nina was questioned by Grisha spies and, to save Matthias from her compatriots, Nina reported him as a slave trader to a Kerch citizen in the harbor, unaware that Matthias would be imprisoned in Hellgate. Instead of returning to Ravka, Nina stayed in Ketterdam to try and free him. Matthias reconciles with Nina upon learning the truth, and they agree to kill Yul-Bayur, both acknowledging that jurda parem is a threat to Grisha and Fjerdans alike.
The crew intercept a cart of prisoners being taken to the Ice Court and take the place of six of them. Due to the constant feeling of bodies pressing against him, Kaz loses consciousness, and more of his past is revealed. After he and his brother were conned by Pekka Rollins, a plague had swept through Ketterdam, killing many of its residents, including Jordie. Kaz was mistakenly thought dead and tossed in the Reaper's Barge with the bodies for burning. He was only able to survive by swimming to shore using Jordie's corpse as a buoy. The experience created an intense aversion to any sort of physical contact with human skin, prompting him to wear gloves constantly.
Kaz wakes up as they enter the Ice Court and the crew is split up. Kaz goes with Nina to search the holding cells for Yul-Bayur, but he deviates from the plan and goes on his own to find Pekka Rollins in a cell. Nina is spotted by guards, who manage to raise the alarm before she can kill them. With the prison alarm triggered, their plan is ruined, so they improvise to get to the center of the Ice Court. Inej and Nina get in by taking the place of two Menagerie girls, but only Nina gets through the guards; Inej is held back. Matthias and Kaz get in through a secret bridge known only to drüskelle. Jesper and Wylan move to destroy the ringwall gate and trigger the Ice Court's alarm.
While trying to coax information from a Fjerdan official, Nina is surprised to see Jarl Brum, leader of the drüskelle and the former commander of the ship that she was held captive in. Brum lures Nina into touring prison cells specifically constructed to detain Grisha and locks her in a cell. Matthias shows up, appearing to have betrayed her, but turns against his old commander and frees Nina, making a sacred drüskelle vow to keep her safe until he dies. They look for Bo Yul-Bayur, but learn of his death. His son, Kuwei Yul-Bo, is alive and is being forced to replicate his father's research. Matthias and Nina forgo killing him, as he is only fifteen and a Grisha. They take the boy and leave, blowing up the lab as they go. They meet up with Kaz and escape through a waterfall he unearthed.
Meanwhile, Inej is spotted by her former employer Heleen van Houden, who informs the guards of Inej's true identity. Jesper and Wylan rescue her and hijack a Fjerdan tank, using it to ram through the walls and escape. They head toward the dock to rendezvous with their ship and find a large Fjerdan party waiting for them, a Heartrender using parem at the fore. With no other choice, Nina takes jurda parem and subdues the army.
The crew safely reaches Ketterdam, with Nina already suffering from withdrawals. They leave her with Wylan, while the rest of the crew take Kuwei to Jan Van Eck. Van Eck, however, reveals that he only wanted the formula for jurda parem to profit from the fallout of its release to the world. He sinks the crew's ship despite Kaz's warning that Wylan is aboard. Van Eck reveals that he deems his son unfit to inherit his business empire, as Wylan is dyslexic. Kaz, however, reveals that the boy Van Eck thinks is Kuwei Yul-Bo is actually Wylan, tailored by Nina to look exactly like the scientist's son. Furious, Van Eck kidnaps Inej and gives them seven days to bring him the real Kuwei. Unwilling to endanger Inej, Kaz lets the merchant go. Kaz and his remaining crew go to Pekka Rollins, revealed to have been set free by Kaz at the Ice Court, and Kaz sells his shares in the Crow Club and the Fifth Harbour to raise the money he needs. He then hatches a plan to rescue Inej and redeem the money they were promised.
Characters
Kaz Brekker, also known as Dirtyhands and the "Bastard of the Barrel", is seventeen and a master thief with a reputation for doing anything for the right price. He is second-in-command of the Dregs, and, as the mastermind of the group, the de facto leader of the Crows. He is haphephobic due to a traumatizing incident in his childhood and has a limp in his right leg from an improperly healed break. He is described as very pale, with dark hair and dark brown eyes. He uses a cane with a crow's head top as a mobility aid and, occasionally, as a weapon.
Inej Ghafa is a sixteen-year-old Suli girl known as the Wraith. She is a spy for the Dregs, working directly under Kaz. She is religious, and her preferred weapons are knives, which she names after different saints. Her family was a travelling troupe and her act was tightrope walking, making her extremely agile and light-footed. She was kidnapped by slavers when she was fourteen and forced into working in a brothel before Kaz bought her indenture. She's described as short, with bronze skin and black hair, worn in a braid.
Wylan Van Eck is a sixteen-year-old disowned merchant's son with a penchant for chemistry and demolition. He is dyslexic, and an excellent mathematician, chemist, and musician. He is described as having curly red-blonde hair, blue eyes, and pale skin.
Matthias Helvar is an eighteen-year-old former drüskelle (Grisha-hunter) from Fjerda, who is conflicted between his hatred for Grisha and his feelings for Nina. He is the oldest, tallest, and most muscular of the group, with pale skin, shaved blond hair, and blue eyes. He is religious and follows Djel, the Fjerdan god.
Nina Zenik is seventeen, and is a powerful Grisha Heartrender and former soldier and spy for the Ravkan Second Army. She has fair skin, thick brown hair and green eyes, and is described as round and voluptuous.
Jesper Fahey is a seventeen-year-old Zemeni sharpshooter with a gambling problem. He is described as being tall and lanky, with dark skin, and grey eyes. He is a Grisha but hides it to avoid being kidnapped or killed.
Jan Van Eck is a rich man and a prominent merchant who sits on Ketterdam's Merchant Council. He is Wylan's abusive father.
Pekka Rollins is the leader of the Dime Lions gang and Kaz's main adversary.
Reception
The New York Times recommends Six of Crows in the YA Crossover shortlist: "There’s conflict between morality and amorality and an appetite for sometimes grimace-inducing violence that recalls the "Game of Thrones" series. But for every bloody exchange there are pages of crackling dialogue and sumptuous description. Bardugo dives deep into this world, with full color and sound. If you’re not careful, it’ll steal all your time." It was also included in their "7 Great Fantasy Novels for Teenagers" list. The Hollywood Reporter likened the duology to a blend of Ocean's 11 and Game of Thrones."
The Guardian opined the plot was "bursting with action and overflowing with suspense right from the beginning...fast-paced...transitions between chapters and points of view were immaculate and really provided a sense of urgency and impact to the most significant scenes."
Although NPR books criticized the characters, claiming that the characters do not behave or think like adolescents, but rather display the wisdom and traits of much older people, it also comments "Six of Crows is a well-turned heist tale....[It] has a muscle car's drive and a cast that hangs with you like they were made of magnets"
According to The Times of India, different perspectives in the book each provide an in-depth view of each character's traits and backgrounds. It further says, "Bardugo's language and her intelligent storytelling effectively makes The Six of Crows a white-knuckle page-turner."
It has been praised by various media for its inclusivity and diversity, with characters who are LGBT, disabled, have different body types, and religious backgrounds, and are of different races.
Accolades
Awards and nominations
The awards and nominations are as follows:
Adaptations
In January 2019, Netflix greenlit an eight-episode series based on Shadow and Bone (The Grisha Trilogy Book 1) and Six of Crows with Eric Heisserer as showrunner. Bardugo is also serving as an executive producer on this series. Production began in October 2019 with Freddy Carter as Kaz Brekker, Amita Suman as Inej Ghafa, Kit Young as Jesper Fahey, Danielle Galligan as Nina Zenik, and Calahan Skogman as Matthias Helvar. Wylan Van Eck did not appear in the first season but debuted in the second season, played by Jack Wolfe. The first season follows the plot of Book 1 of Shadow and Bone and acts as a prequel to Six of Crows, setting up a future adaptation of the novel. The second season adapts elements of Crooked Kingdom and sets up the Ice Court Heist plotline from Six of Crows.
References
External links
Leigh Bardugo's Website
2015 American novels
2015 fantasy novels
American novels adapted into television shows
Amsterdam in fiction
Heist fiction
Henry Holt and Company books
Novels about theft
Novels by Leigh Bardugo
Young adult fantasy novels
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C
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Маскулінність
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Маскулінність — набір характерних рис, ознак, способів поведінки та ролей, що широко визнаються притаманними чоловічому гендеру у межах певного суспільства у визначений історичний період. Модель маскулінності формується на підставі характеру соціальних відносин, особистих самоідентифікації та орієнтацій, а також біологічних характеристик. Кожному суспільству притаманна своя модель маскулінності, яка набуває нормативну функцію й стає орієнтиром у процесі соціалізації індивідів, що ідентифікують себе чоловіками. Як інший гендер маскулінності зазвичай протиставляють фемінність, однак, дослідники сходяться на думці, що існує більше, ніж два гендери, а також на тому, що можливі різні моделі маскулінності, через що цей термін не варто універсалізувати.
Історія питання
Академічні дослідження беруть початок у 70-х рр. XX ст. у Сполучених Штатах Америки й здобувають поширення в американських та європейських академічних колах до середини 80-х рр. Ця проблематика стає інтересом одразу декількох дисциплін. Зокрема йдеться про історію, соціологію, антропологію, етнографію, гендерну теорію, філософію та ін.
Зацікавленість дослідженнями маскулінності значною мірою пов'язується з розвитком феміністичних та гендерних студій у XX ст., які поставили під питання традиційний уклад та поділ праці у західних суспільствах через звернення до гендерного аспекту. Розвиток феміністичної теорії виявив історичну й культурну обумовленість гендерних ролей та варіативність гендерних відносин. Підваження універсальності гендерного укладу західних суспільств викликає сумнів щодо його необхідної природної заданості й відтак актуалізує запитування про те, що означає бути «чоловіком» поруч з раніше піднесеним питанням про «жінку».
Одними з перших питання маскулінності в академічному середовищі Сполучених Штатів підняли Пітер Філен та Пітер Стернс (Peter Filene «Him/Her/Self: Sex Roles in Modern America», Peter Stearns «Be a Man! Males in Modern Society»). Ці праці мали риси «маніфестів» чоловічої емансипації й покеровувались цінностями індивідуалізму та егалітарності. Історія стала об'єктом нових досліджень, зорієнтованих на реконструкцію формування та трансформації маскулінності. Розвідки з цих питань почали набирати обертів на сторінках соціально-політичних журналів (Changing Men in US and Achiles Heel in UK). Почали ставати помітними обмеження та колізії, що супроводжують нав'язування патріархального соціального ладу. В обговореннях навколо цих публікацій було підкреслено проблемність та штучність деяких стереотипних очікувань від чоловіків. Історичні розвідки продемонстрували історичність та ситуативність дисфункцій тодішньої моделі маскулінності. Публічне обговорення на сторінках друкованих видань підняло рівень обізнаності публіки та накреслило проблеми для досліджень.
Перші спроби дослідити історію маскулінності, її еволюцію та мутації було здійснено Дональдом Белом (Donald Bell, «Up from Patriarchy» article 1981), Ентоні Ротундо (Anthony Rotundo «American Manhood» 1993), Майклом Кімелом (Michael Kimmel «Manhood in America»). Однак у роботі над історією маскулінності дослідники дійшли висновку про неможливість виокремити її з-поміж інших контекстів. Відтак поступово відбувався відхід від спроби побудови єдиного наративу маскулінності крізь історичні епохи. Натомість цей концепт набуває аналітико-інструментального характеру для історичних, культурних та інших досліджень. Тобто реконструкція моделі маскулінності й відповідних соціально-економічних наслідків стає частиною більш широких історичних досліджень.
Початок досліджень маскулінності значною мірою йшов аналогічним жіночим студіям шляхом. Важливим орієнтиром була перспектива подолання патріархальних утисків у суспільстві через викриття історичності такого способу організації соціальних і владних відносин. Однак поступово було виявлено принципові відмінності між проєктами чоловічої та жіночої історій. Жіночі студії суттєво підживлювались і підтримувались прагненням вивільнення жінки з-під соціальних обмежень. Натомість для більшості чоловіків така потреба здебільшого не відчувалась. Окремі примуси й соціальні вимоги до чоловіків привернули на себе увагу, але базові права на політичну участь, створення кар'єри та ін. не потребували виправдання. Відтак наратив «чоловічих студій як звільнення» не зовсім виправдовував себе, як це було з феміністичними дослідженнями. Академічні розвідки з цього питання не стали політичним проєктом. Єдиним винятком стали гей-рухи, для яких перегляд нормативної моделі маскулінності розцінювались як спосіб історичної та політичної легітимації.
Іншою суттєвою відмінністю між «чоловічою» та «жіночою» історією було те, що жінки здебільшого були виключені з традиційного історичного наративу. Феміністичні дослідження фокусувались на включенні жінок як історичних осіб у канву оповідей, імена яких раніше було ігноровано. Натомість перед чоловічими студіями такого завдання не стояло, адже не було потреби заново створювати уже існуючі біографії й шукати для них місце в історії.
Ситуація суттєво змінилась у 80-х рр. разом зі зміною термінології й відповідно методології досліджень. Замість «чоловічої» та «жіночої» історій виникає гендерна історія, яка поєднує вищеокреслені дослідження у єдиний, взаємопов'язаний проєкт.
Див. також
Емаскуляція
Примітки
Література
Маскулінність. Шевченко, З.В. (Уклад.). (2016). Словник ґендерних термінів. Черкаси: видавець Чабаненко Ю.
Риси особистості
Чоловік
Гендер
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5034209
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian%20agile%20frog
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Italian agile frog
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Italian agile frog
The Italian agile frog (Rana latastei), also known as Lataste's frog, is a species of frog in the family Ranidae (true frogs). The species is native to southern Europe, primarily found in the Po River Basin of Italy. It is one of the most endangered amphibian species in Europe, with its populations declining sharply in recent years, and has been the focus of multiple conservation plans.
Etymology
The specific name, latastei, is in honor of French herpetologist Fernand Lataste.
Description
Rana latastei may attain a head-body length of . Females tend to be slightly larger than males. Most frogs have pointed snouts, though rounded snouts have been observed in some individuals. Like many European common frogs, R. latastei is primarily gray or brownish-red with white bellies, with almost no color variation by geographic location. The throat is dark, with a light narrow central stripe that reaches down to the chest. Some sexually active males have dark red or brown spots on their throats, orange-red coloration on the underside of their thighs, and thumb pads on their forelimbs.
Habitat and distribution
Habitat
R. latastei is a decidedly lowland species and rarely occurs above 400 m a. s. l., only going up to the lower foothills of mountains, where the colder climate delays larval development and metamorphosis. The Italian agile frog inhabits oak and hornbeam-dominated plain woods, hygrophilous woods and riparian woods characterized by white poplar and white willow trees. This types of woods may regularly be inundated by floods. It has also been reported from open habitats like wet meadows or peat bogs, as well as cottonwood plantations or ditches in agricultural areas that have sufficient vegetation.
There have also been records of R. latastei living in caves in Italy and Croatia, though they may move between the caves and forests. Researchers have suggested the frogs were either washed into the cave by floods – which are fairly common in most habitats preferred by the Italian agile frog – or they intentionally moved to the caves to avoid predators, find food, or seek humidity. It is unknown whether the Italian agile frog breeds in these subterranean habitats.
The Italian agile frog prefers humid regions with lots of rotting plant material and remains close to rivers, streams, lakes, and other sources of freshwater, which are required for the species' breeding and reproduction. They are most active early in the morning and at dusk and tend to avoid dry weather, during which the frogs will stay closer to sources of water and reduce activity until the evening. Adults are found closer to bodies of water during the breeding season between February and April, and are more commonly found in the forests when it becomes more humid during late spring and summer. Activity tends to be highest in the summer and early autumn once the spring breeding season has concluded. Hibernation on land begins in October, and frogs will emerge in the spring to breed.
Geographic distribution
Rana latastei is endemic to the plains of northern Italy, the extreme southern tip of Switzerland, the Istrian region of Slovenia, and adjacent Croatia. In Italy, populations are reported from four regions: Lombardy, Venetia, Piedmont and Friuli-Venezia Giulia, but the species is most abundant in the former two. Its distribution mainly follows the Po River plains and tributaries.
Conservation
The IUCN lists this species as Vulnerable (VU). A 2006 report indicated there were only about 250 populations of R. latastei in the wild, with western populations being smaller and at higher risk of extinction. The remaining 250 populations were small, isolated, and suffer from loss of genetic diversity. Major threats to the survival of the species include habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation, as it is highly adapted to the floodplain woods of the Po River basin.
Habitat loss
Water pumping for crop irrigation has been especially harmful because it makes habitats less suitable for breeding. The Italian agile frog does not engage in long-distance movement and rarely strays far from the nearest breeding site, so fragmentation of forest habitats has also led to reduced genetic diversity among this species. This has been predicted to make the species more vulnerable to infection by Ranaviruses and other pathogens. Genetic isolation is also thought to cause significant variation in size between different populations of R. latastei. The introduction of invasive predatory species – including Percottuss glenii, the American bullfrog, and crayfish – have further endangered the Italian agile frog.
The increased deposition of microplastics into the environment has also become a recent concern for the survival of the Italian agile frog. Tadpoles feed in an indiscriminate manner, which puts them at greater risk of ingesting these small plastic particles. Increased microplastic exposure has been associated with reduced growth, activity, and survival rates in R. latastei tadpoles. Smaller microplastic fragments have been associated with the strongest negative effects on the species. This may be because small pieces and fibers of plastic can form blockages and tangled clumps in the tadpoles' intestines. Some researchers have suggested that larger, more developed tadpoles are more resistant to the negative effects of microplastics on growth and activity. It is currently unknown how microplastics affect R. latastei adults.
Conservation efforts
To enhance the protection of this species, several conservation areas were proposed in Italy, and frog tadpoles bred and translocated to suitable sites. The Regione Lombardia began a conservation effort for the species between 1999 and 2001, which entailed restoration of damaged and heavily polluted ponds as well as the repatriation of tadpoles to pre-existing and manmade ponds. However, these repatriation efforts were only somewhat successful because many tadpoles were placed in ponds lacking the vegetation preferred by the Italian agile frog. Human disturbances such as agriculture, water pollution, and tourism, as well as new predators in repatriated habitats like red crayfish, are additional factors that have negatively affected conservation efforts for R. latastei.
A 2006 action plan by the Standing Committee of the Bern Convention called for protection and improved management of R. latastei habitats, as well as the eradication of invasive predators. Other conservation efforts include habitat restoration, mapping of potential future habitats in Europe, expanded research, distribution surveys, and evaluation of existing legal protections for the Italian agile frog.
Diet
Adult frogs search the forest litter, burrows, and riverbanks for their food, which includes insects like beetles, bugs, and earwigs, as well as worms, snails, centipedes, and several arachnids. The tadpoles feed on algae and other edible and inedible particles.
Reproduction and life cycle
Fertilization
Reproduction activities occur in small permanent or temporal water bodies with extensive aquatic vegetation or submerged plant material, such as ponds, ditches or floodplain puddles. The Italian agile frog uses breeding sites different from other frogs in their geographic range, which tend to prefer areas with more sunlight and less forest cover. Females lay eggs in a single, compact clump within 50 cm of the water surface, typically within 2 to 15 days of mating. Only one clutch of eggs is deposited per breeding season, typically away from areas prone to frequent flooding. There are usually between 676 and 2720 eggs in a single clutch, with an average of about 1278 eggs per clump. The Italian agile frog's eggs have thinner gelatinous layers – only 6 to 7 mm (about 0.24 in) – than those of other species of frogs. The minimum water temperature for egg deposition is reported as 2 °C, and eggs hatch after 10 to 15 days. The number of clutches laid per year varies substantially due to fluctuations in temperature, humidity, and other environmental factors.
As with other European frogs of the genus, metamorphosis is completed after 2 to 3 months. Froglets are between 13 and 15 mm (about 0.55 in) in length and leave the water in late June or July. Females leave the breeding site immediately after spawning, whereas males and juveniles remain there for up to 5 weeks. Both males and females are able to reproduce in the first breeding season after completing metamorphosis, but do not reach complete sexual maturity until the second year after metamorphosis. Males have a lifespan of about 3 years, while females live 4 years, making the Italian agile frog one of the shortest-lived European common frogs. While other species of common frog tend to live longer at higher altitudes and latitudes, it is currently unknown whether this holds true for the Italian agile frog. This short lifespan and explosive breeding pattern mean that sizes of Italian agile frog populations vary greatly from year to year.
Mating
Between late February and mid-April, males and females gather at breeding sites, although some males have been reported to spend winters inside ponds in order to occupy an ideal breeding site before their counterparts arrive. Males arrive at the breeding sites first and attract females with a species-specific call, which they repeat every 20 to 60 seconds underwater until a female arrives. This call can be one of two distinct sounds: the first is a short, high-pitched "mew" that lasts about half a second, and the second is a harsh, guttural "brum" that lasts about one second. The "mew" call is used for long-distance communication (which can be heard up to 4 m away from the frog), while the lower-frequency "brum" is for short-distance communication (no more than 30 cm away). Some research indicates males call not just to attract females, but also to communicate their dominance over other males within the social hierarchy. Specifically, the "mew" may primarily be used by males to attract potential mates, while the "brum" may be used for courting females or threatening rival males. It is unknown whether males of this species display other territorial behaviors towards one another, despite the high levels of competition for mates. In larger populations, it is more common for a small number of males to mate with many females. Polygyny is less frequently observed in smaller populations, suggesting there are more opportunities for male competition and breeding site monopolization in larger populations.
Enemies
Predators
The Italian agile frog's primary predators include snakes, herons, pheasants, ducks, and egrets. Tadpoles are preyed upon by waterfowl as well as fish and some invertebrates, such as crayfish. Tadpoles will either freeze in place to avoid detection by predators or "zig-zag" back and forth to prevent predators from accurately predicting their next location. They have also been shown to reduce activity level upon sensing the odor of dragonfly larvae, one of their most common predators. This ability to flexibly modify behavior in response to the presence of dragonflies distinguishes the Italian agile frog from other Rana species.
Tadpoles will modify their behavior less strongly in response to alien predators like crayfish. It is controversial as to whether the presence of predators influences hatching time. However, alien predator crayfish have been shown to induce faster embryonic development: embryos exposed to alien predators will reach Stage 25 of the Gosner development earlier than those which are left in environments without invasive predator species. Tadpoles also tend to metamorphosize earlier in response to invasive predators, which helps meet the energetic requirements for escaping and evading predators. However, this faster development may result in some drawbacks as well: froglets which develop faster tend to have smaller tibiofibular bones than their slower-developing counterparts, likely due to the earlier time of metamorphosis. Smaller tibiofibulas – and, as a result, smaller hindlegs – impair jumping performance, so the frogs which take the longest to fully develop end up with the longest hindlegs and best jumping performance. This decreased jumping performance may make adult frogs less able to escape predators while reducing their ability to catch food.
Competitors
R. latastei often shares habitats with the closely related Rana dalmatina, but does not often compete with it for resources or shelter due to having more specialized habitats and breeding behaviors. However, the Italian agile frog does experience some reduced reproductive success in environments with large numbers of R. dalmatina. This is likely because R. latastei females which mate with R. dalmatina males fail to produce viable offspring. R. latastei tadpoles will also flexibly increase their behavior if they detect the presence of competitors – namely, R. dalmatina tadpoles, which do not modify their behavior in the presence of their R. latastei counterparts to the same degree.
References
Further reading
Boulenger GA (1879). "Étude sur les grenouilles rousses, Ranæ temporariæ et description d'espèces nouvelles ou méconnues ". Bull. Soc. Zool. France 4: 158–193. (Rana latastei, new species, pp. 180–183). (in French).
External links
Amphibians of Europe
Amphibian Species of the World
Rana (genus)
Amphibians of Europe
Endemic fauna of Italy
Amphibians described in 1879
Habitats Directive species
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer%20Hebrides
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Outer Hebrides
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Outer Hebrides
The Outer Hebrides or Western Isles (or ), sometimes known as the Long Isle or Long Island, is an island chain off the west coast of mainland Scotland. The islands are geographically coextensive with , one of the 32 unitary council areas of Scotland. They form part of the archipelago of the Hebrides, separated from the Scottish mainland and from the Inner Hebrides by the waters of the Minch, the Little Minch, and the Sea of the Hebrides.
Most of the islands have a bedrock formed from ancient metamorphic rocks, and the climate is mild and oceanic. The 15 inhabited islands have a total population of and there are more than 50 substantial uninhabited islands. The distance from Barra Head to the Butt of Lewis is roughly .
There are various important prehistoric structures, many of which pre-date the first written references to the islands by Roman and Greek authors. The Western Isles became part of the Norse kingdom of the , which lasted for over 400 years, until sovereignty over the Outer Hebrides was transferred to Scotland by the Treaty of Perth in 1266. Control of the islands was then held by clan chiefs, principal amongst whom were the MacLeods, MacDonalds, Mackenzies and MacNeils. The Highland Clearances of the 19th century had a devastating effect on many communities, and it is only in recent years that population levels have ceased to decline. Much of the land is now under local control, and commercial activity is based on tourism, crofting, fishing, and weaving.
Sea transport is crucial for those who live and work in the Outer Hebrides, and a variety of ferry services operate between the islands and to mainland Scotland. Modern navigation systems now minimise the dangers, but in the past the stormy seas in the region have claimed many ships. Religion, music and sport are important aspects of local culture, and there are numerous designated conservation areas to protect the natural environment.
Etymology
The earliest surviving written references relating to the islands were made by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History, in which he states that there are 30 , and makes a separate reference to Dumna, which Watson (1926) concludes is unequivocally the Outer Hebrides. Writing about 80 years later, in 140–150 AD, Ptolemy, drawing on the earlier naval expeditions of , also distinguished between the , of which he writes there were only five (and thus possibly meaning the Inner Hebrides) and . is cognate with the Early Celtic dumnos and means the "deep-sea isle". Pliny probably took his information from Pytheas of Massilia who visited Britain sometime between 322 and 285 BC. It is possible that Ptolemy did as well, as Agricola's information about the west coast of Scotland was of poor quality. Breeze also suggests that might be Lewis and Harris, the largest island of the Outer Hebrides although he conflates this single island with the name "Long Island". Watson (1926) states that the meaning of Ptolemy's is unknown and that the root may be pre-Celtic. Murray (1966) claims that Ptolemy's was originally derived from the Old Norse , meaning "isles on the edge of the sea". This idea is often repeated but no firm evidence of this derivation has emerged.
Other early written references include the flight of the Nemed people from Ireland to Domon, which is mentioned in the 12th-century and a 13th-century poem concerning , then the heir to the throne of Mann and the Isles, who is said to have "broken the gate of ". means "the plain of Domhna (or Domon)", but the precise meaning of the text is not clear.
In Irish mythology the islands were the home of the Fomorians, described as "huge and ugly" and "ship men of the sea". They were pirates, extracting tribute from the coasts of Ireland and one of their kings was (i.e. Indech, son of the goddess Domnu, who ruled over the deep seas).
Geography
The islands form an archipelago whose major islands are Lewis and Harris, North Uist, Benbecula, South Uist, and Barra. Lewis and Harris has an area of and is the largest island in Scotland and the third-largest in the British Isles, after Great Britain and Ireland. It incorporates Lewis in the north and Harris in the south, both of which are frequently referred to as individual islands, although they are connected by land. The island does not have a single name in either English or Gaelic, and is referred to as "Lewis and Harris", "Lewis with Harris", "Harris with Lewis" etc.
The largest islands are deeply indented by arms of the sea such as Loch Ròg, Loch Seaforth and Loch nam Madadh. There are also more than 7,500 freshwater lochs in the Outer Hebrides, about 24% of the total for the whole of Scotland. North and South Uist and Lewis, in particular, have landscapes with a high percentage of fresh water and a maze and complexity of loch shapes. Harris has fewer large bodies of water but has innumerable small lochans. Loch Langavat on Lewis is long, and has several large islands in its midst, including Eilean Mòr. Although Loch Suaineabhal has only 25% of Loch Langavat's surface area, it has a mean depth of and is the most voluminous on the island. Of Loch Sgadabhagh on North Uist it has been said that "there is probably no other loch in Britain which approaches Loch Scadavay in irregularity and complexity of outline." Loch Bì is South Uist's largest loch and at long it all but cuts the island in two.
Much of the western coastline of the islands is machair, a fertile low-lying dune pastureland. Lewis is comparatively flat, and largely consists of treeless moors of blanket peat. The highest eminence is Mealisval at in the south west. Most of Harris is mountainous, with large areas of exposed rock and Clisham, the archipelago's only Corbett, reaches in height. North and South Uist and Benbecula (sometimes collectively referred to as The Uists) have sandy beaches and wide cultivated areas of machair to the west and virtually uninhabited mountainous areas to the east. The highest peak here is Beinn Mhòr at . The Uists and their immediate outliers have a combined area of . This includes the Uists themselves and the islands linked to them by causeways and bridges. Barra is in extent and has a rugged interior, surrounded by machair and extensive beaches.
The scenic qualities of the islands are reflected in the fact that three of Scotland's forty national scenic areas (NSAs) are located here. The national scenic areas are defined so as to identify areas of exceptional scenery and to ensure its protection from inappropriate development, and are considered to represent the type of scenic beauty "popularly associated with Scotland and for which it is renowned". The three NSA within the Outer Hebrides are:
South Lewis, Harris and North Uist National Scenic Area covers the mountainous south west of Lewis, all of Harris, the Sound of Harris and the northern part of North Uist.
An area of the south west coast of South Uist is designated as the South Uist Machair National Scenic Area.
The archipelago of St Kilda is also listed as an NSA, alongside many other conservation designations.
Flora and fauna
Much of the archipelago is a protected habitat, including both the islands and the surrounding waters. There are 53 Sites of Special Scientific Interest of which the largest are Loch an Duin, North Uist and North Harris. South Uist is considered the best place in the UK for the aquatic plant Slender Naiad, which is a European Protected Species.
There has been considerable controversy over hedgehogs on the Uists. Hedgehogs are not native to the islands but were introduced in the 1970s to reduce garden pests. Their spread posed a threat to the eggs of ground-nesting wading birds. In 2003 Scottish Natural Heritage undertook culls of hedgehogs in the area, but these were halted in 2007; trapped animals are now relocated to the mainland.
Nationally important populations of breeding waders are present in the Outer Hebrides, including common redshank, dunlin, lapwing and ringed plover. The islands also provide a habitat for other important species such as corncrake, hen harrier, golden eagle and otter. Offshore, basking shark and various species of whale and dolphin can often be seen, and the remoter islands' seabird populations are of international significance. St Kilda has 60,000 northern gannets, amounting to 24% of the world population; 49,000 breeding pairs of Leach's petrel, up to 90% of the European population; and 136,000 pairs of puffin and 67,000 northern fulmar pairs, about 30% and 13% of the respective UK totals. Mingulay is an important breeding ground for razorbills, with 9,514 pairs, 6.3% of the European population.
The bumblebee Bombus jonellus var. hebridensis is endemic to the Hebrides and there are local variants of the dark green fritillary and green-veined white butterflies. The St Kilda wren is a subspecies of wren whose range is confined to the islands whose name it bears.
Population
The islands' total population was 26,502 at the 2001 census, and the 2011 figure was 27,684. During the same period Scottish island populations as a whole grew by 4% to 103,702. The largest settlement in the Outer Hebrides is Stornoway on Lewis, which has a population of about 8,100.
The population estimate for 2019 was 26,720 according to a Comhairle nan Eilean Siar report which added that "the population of the Outer Hebrides is ageing" and that "young adults [...] leave the islands for further education or employment purposes". Of the total population, 6,953 people reside in the "Stornoway settlement Laxdale (Lacasdal), Sandwick (Sanndabhaig) and Newmarket" with the balance distributed over 280 townships.
In addition to the major North Ford and South Ford causeways that connect North Uist to Benbecula via the northern of the Grimsays, and another causeway from Benbecula to South Uist, several other islands are linked by smaller causeways or bridges. Great Bernera and Scalpay have bridge connections to Lewis and Harris respectively, with causeways linking Baleshare and Berneray to North Uist; Eriskay to South Uist; , and the southern Grimsay to Benbecula; and the Vatersay Causeway linking Vatersay to Barra. This means that all the inhabited islands are now connected to at least one other island by a land transport route.
Uninhabited islands
There are more than fifty uninhabited islands greater in size than in the Outer Hebrides, including the Barra Isles, Flannan Isles, Monach Islands, the Shiant Islands and the islands of . In common with the other main island chains of Scotland, many of the more remote islands were abandoned during the 19th and 20th centuries, in some cases after continuous habitation since the prehistoric period. More than 35 such islands have been identified in the Outer Hebrides alone. On Barra Head, for example, Historic Scotland have identified eighty-three archaeological sites on the island, the majority being of a pre-medieval date. In the 18th century, the population was over fifty, but the last native islanders had left by 1931. The island became completely uninhabited by 1980 with the automation of the lighthouse.
Some of the smaller islands continue to contribute to modern culture. The "Mingulay Boat Song", although evocative of island life, was written after the abandonment of the island in 1938 and Taransay hosted the BBC television series Castaway 2000. Others have played a part in Scottish history. On 4 May 1746, the "Young Pretender" Charles Edward Stuart hid on with some of his men for four days whilst Royal Navy vessels patrolled the Minch.
Smaller isles and skerries and other island groups pepper the North Atlantic surrounding the main islands. Some are not geologically part of the Outer Hebrides, but are administratively and in most cases culturally, part of . to the west of Lewis lies St Kilda, now uninhabited except for a small military base. A similar distance to the north of Lewis are North Rona and , two small and remote islands. While Rona used to support a small population who grew grain and raised cattle, is an inhospitable rock. Thousands of northern gannets nest here, and by special arrangement some of their young, known as , are harvested annually by the men of Ness. The status of Rockall, which is to the west of North Uist and which the Island of Rockall Act 1972 decreed to be a part of the Western Isles, remains a matter of international dispute.
Settlements
A 2018 development plan, divides the Outer Hebrides settlements into four types: Stornoway Core, Main Settlements, Rural Settlements and Outwith Settlements. The Main Settlements are: Tarbert, Lochmaddy, Balivanich, Lochboisdale/Daliburgh, Greater Castlebay and Greater Stornoway (excluding Stornoway core).
Combining with data from the National Records of Scotland, the principal settlements are:
The dispersed settlements consisting of Rural Settlements and Outwith Settlements account for ca. two thirds of the population of the council area since the total population of the table is about 9,000.
Geology
Most of the islands have a bedrock formed from Lewisian gneiss. These are amongst the oldest rocks in Europe, having been formed in the Precambrian period up to three billion years ago. In addition to the Outer Hebrides, they form basement deposits on the Scottish mainland west of the Moine Thrust and on the islands of Coll and Tiree. These rocks are largely igneous in origin, mixed with metamorphosed marble, quartzite and mica schist and intruded by later basaltic dykes and granite magma. The gneiss's delicate pink colours are exposed throughout the islands and it is sometimes referred to by geologists as "The Old Boy".
Granite intrusions are found in the parish of Barvas in west Lewis, and another forms the summit plateau of the mountain Roineabhal in Harris. The granite here is anorthosite, and is similar in composition to rocks found in the mountains of the Moon. There are relatively small outcrops of Triassic sandstone at Broad Bay near Stornoway. The Shiant Islands and St Kilda are formed from much later tertiary basalt and basalt and gabbros respectively. The sandstone at Broad Bay was once thought to be Torridonian or Old Red Sandstone.
Climate
The Outer Hebrides have a cool temperate climate that is remarkably mild and steady for such a northerly latitude, due to the influence of the North Atlantic Current. The average temperature for the year is 6 °C (44 °F) in January and 14 °C (57 °F) in summer. The average annual rainfall in Lewis is and sunshine hours range from 1,100 to 1,200 per year. The summer days are relatively long and May to August is the driest period. Winds are a key feature of the climate and even in summer there are almost constant breezes. According to the writer W. H. Murray if a visitor asks an islander for a weather forecast "he will not, like a mainlander answer dry, wet or sunny, but quote you a figure from the Beaufort Scale." There are gales one day in six at the Butt of Lewis and small fish are blown onto the grass on top of 190 metre (620 ft) high cliffs at Barra Head during winter storms.
Prehistory
The Hebrides were originally settled in the Mesolithic era and have a diversity of important prehistoric sites. in on North Uist was constructed around 3200–2800 BC and may be Scotland's earliest crannog (a type of artificial island). The Callanish Stones, dating from about 2900 BC, are the finest example of a stone circle in Scotland, the 13 primary monoliths of between one and five metres high creating a circle about in diameter. on South Uist, the only site in the UK where prehistoric mummies have been found, and the impressive ruins of Dun Carloway on Lewis both date from the Iron Age.
History
In Scotland, the Celtic Iron Age way of life, often troubled but never extinguished by Rome, re-asserted itself when the legions abandoned any permanent occupation in 211 AD. Hanson (2003) writes: "For many years it has been almost axiomatic in studies of the period that the Roman conquest must have had some major medium or long-term impact on Scotland. On present evidence that cannot be substantiated either in terms of environment, economy, or, indeed, society. The impact appears to have been very limited. The general picture remains one of broad continuity, not of disruption ... The Roman presence in Scotland was little more than a series of brief interludes within a longer continuum of indigenous development." The Romans' direct impact on the Highlands and Islands was scant and there is no evidence that they ever actually landed in the Outer Hebrides.
The later Iron Age inhabitants of the northern and western Hebrides were probably Pictish, although the historical record is sparse. Hunter (2000) states that in relation to King Bridei I of the Picts in the sixth century AD: "As for Shetland, Orkney, Skye and the Western Isles, their inhabitants, most of whom appear to have been Pictish in culture and speech at this time, are likely to have regarded Bridei as a fairly distant presence." The island of Pabbay is the site of the Pabbay Stone, the only extant Pictish symbol stone in the Outer Hebrides. This 6th century stele shows a flower, V-rod and lunar crescent to which has been added a later and somewhat crude cross.
Norse control
Viking raids began on Scottish shores towards the end of the 8th century AD and the Hebrides came under Norse control and settlement during the ensuing decades, especially following the success of Harald Fairhair at the Battle of Hafrsfjord in 872. In the Western Isles Ketill Flatnose was the dominant figure of the mid 9th century, by which time he had amassed a substantial island realm and made a variety of alliances with other Norse leaders. These princelings nominally owed allegiance to the Norwegian crown, although in practice the latter's control was fairly limited. Norse control of the Hebrides was formalised in 1098 when Edgar, King of Scotland formally signed the islands over to Magnus III of Norway. The Scottish acceptance of Magnus III as King of the Isles came after the Norwegian king had conquered Orkney, the Hebrides and the Isle of Man in a swift campaign earlier the same year, directed against the local Norwegian leaders of the various islands‘ petty kingdoms. By capturing the islands Magnus imposed a more direct royal control, although at a price. His skald Bjorn Cripplehand recorded that in Lewis "fire played high in the heaven" as "flame spouted from the houses" and that in the Uists "the king dyed his sword red in blood". Thompson (1968) provides a more literal translation: "Fire played in the fig-trees of Liodhus; it mounted up to heaven. Far and wide the people were driven to flight. The fire gushed out of the houses".
The Hebrides were now part of Kingdom of the Isles, whose rulers were themselves vassals of the Kings of Norway. The Kingdom had two parts: the or South Isles encompassing the Hebrides and the Isle of Man; and the or North Isles of Orkney and Shetland. This situation lasted until the partitioning of the Western Isles in 1156, at which time the Outer Hebrides remained under Norwegian control while the Inner Hebrides broke out under Somerled, the Norse-Celtic kinsman of the Manx royal house.
Following the ill-fated 1263 expedition of Haakon IV of Norway, the Outer Hebrides along with the Isle of Man, were yielded to the Kingdom of Scotland a result of the 1266 Treaty of Perth. Although their contribution to the islands can still be found in personal and placenames, the archaeological record of the Norse period is very limited. The best known find from this time is the Lewis chessmen, which date from the mid 12th century.
Scots rule
As the Norse era drew to a close the Norse-speaking princes were gradually replaced by Gaelic-speaking clan chiefs including the MacLeods of Lewis and Harris, the MacDonalds of the Uists and MacNeil of Barra. This transition did little to relieve the islands of internecine strife although by the early 14th century the MacDonald Lords of the Isles, based on Islay, were in theory these chiefs' feudal superiors and managed to exert some control.
The growing threat that Clan Donald posed to the Scottish crown led to the forcible dissolution of the Lordship of the Isles by James IV in 1493, but although the king had the power to subdue the organised military might of the Hebrides, he and his immediate successors lacked the will or ability to provide an alternative form of governance. The House of Stuart's attempts to control the Outer Hebrides were then at first desultory and little more than punitive expeditions. In 1506 the Earl of Huntly besieged and captured Stornoway Castle using cannon. In 1540 James V himself conducted a royal tour, forcing the clan chiefs to accompany him. There followed a period of peace, but all too soon the clans were at loggerheads again.
In 1598 King James VI authorised some "Gentleman Adventurers" from Fife to civilise the "most barbarous Isle of Lewis". Initially successful, the colonists were driven out by local forces commanded by Murdoch and Neil MacLeod, who based their forces on in . The colonists tried again in 1605 with the same result but a third attempt in 1607 was more successful, and in due course Stornoway became a Burgh of Barony. By this time Lewis was held by the Mackenzies of Kintail, (later the Earls of Seaforth), who pursued a more enlightened approach, investing in fishing in particular. The historian W. C. MacKenzie was moved to write:
The Seaforth's royalist inclinations led to Lewis becoming garrisoned during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms by Cromwell's troops, who destroyed the old castle in Stornoway and in 1645 Lewismen fought on the royalist side at the Battle of Auldearn. A new era of Hebridean involvement in the affairs of the wider world was about to commence.
British era
With the implementation of the Treaty of Union in 1707 the Hebrides became part of the new Kingdom of Great Britain, but the clans' loyalties to a distant monarch were not strong. A considerable number of islandmen "came out" in support of the Jacobite Earl of Mar in the "15" although the response to the 1745 rising was muted. Nonetheless the aftermath of the decisive Battle of Culloden, which effectively ended Jacobite hopes of a Stuart restoration, was widely felt. The British government's strategy was to estrange the clan chiefs from their kinsmen and turn their descendants into English-speaking landlords whose main concern was the revenues their estates brought rather than the welfare of those who lived on them. This may have brought peace to the islands, but in the following century it came at a terrible price.
The Highland Clearances of the 19th century destroyed communities throughout the Highlands and Islands as the human populations were evicted and replaced with sheep farms. For example, Colonel Gordon of Cluny, owner of Barra, South Uist and Benbecula, evicted thousands of islanders using trickery and cruelty, and even offered to sell Barra to the government as a penal colony. Islands such as were completely cleared of their populations and even today the subject is recalled with bitterness and resentment in some areas. The position was exacerbated by the failure of the islands' kelp industry, which thrived from the 18th century until the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and large scale emigration became endemic. For example, hundreds left North Uist for Cape Breton, Nova Scotia. The pre-clearance population of the island had been almost 5,000, although by 1841 it had fallen to 3,870 and was only 2,349 by 1931.
The Highland potato famine (Gaiseadh a’ bhuntàta, in Scottish Gaelic), caused by a blight, started in 1846 and had a serious impact, because many islanders were crofters; potatoes were a staple of their diet. Violent riots became common. Charities, encouraged by George Pole and others in the Commissariat (a military agency) encouraged charities to come to the rescue. The Free Church was particularly helpful, "delivering oatmeal to famine-affected families all across the West Highlands and Islands", according to one report. Another report states that the Church "was prompt in organising an efficient system of private charity across the Hebrides and on the Western seaboard. It cooperated with the Edinburgh and Glasgow Relief Committees".
An interdenominational charity was in place by early 1847 and took the most significant role in famine relief. Some landowners also provided a great deal of assistance, according to one history of the region: "MacLeod of Dunvegan bought in food for his people, some eight thousand of them" ... MacLean of Ardgour provided food, and introduced new crops into the area - peas, cabbages and carrots ... Sir James Matheson on Lewis spent £329,000 (Equivalent to £37,000,000 in 2024) on improving his lands, hoping to provide a more secure future for his people". The government of Britain provided some assistance, thanks to Sir Charles Trevelyan, who arranged for food distribution at Portree and Tobermory. The British Association for the Relief of Distress in Ireland and the Highlands and Islands of Scotland also helped as did donations received from North America. The blight struck again over the next two years, requiring an extra tax on landowners to help feed the population. The British government began encouraging mass emigration.
For those who remained new economic opportunities emerged through the export of cattle, commercial fishing and tourism. During the summer season in the 1860s and 1870s five thousand inhabitants of Lewis could be found in Wick on the mainland of Scotland, employed on the fishing boats and at the quaysides. Nonetheless emigration and military service became the choice of many and the archipelago's populations continued to dwindle throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries. By 2001 the population of North Uist was only 1,271.
The work of the Napier Commission and the Congested Districts Board, and the passing of the Crofting Act of 1886 helped, but social unrest continued. In July 1906 grazing land on Vatersay was raided by landless men from Barra and its isles. Lady Gordon Cathcart took legal action against the "raiders" but the visiting judge took the view that she had neglected her duties as a landowner and that "long indifference to the necessities of the cottars had gone far to drive them to exasperation". Millennia of continuous occupation notwithstanding, many of the remoter islands were abandoned — Mingulay in 1912, Hirta in 1930, and in 1942 among them. This process involved a transition from these places being perceived as relatively self-sufficient agricultural economies to a view becoming held by both island residents and outsiders alike that they lacked the essential services of a modern industrial economy.
There were gradual economic improvements, among the most visible of which was the replacement of the traditional thatched blackhouse with accommodation of a more modern design. The creation of the Highlands and Islands Development Board and the discovery of substantial deposits of North Sea oil in 1965, the establishment of a unitary local authority for the islands in 1975 and more recently the renewables sector have all contributed to a degree of economic stability in recent decades. The Arnish yard has had a chequered history but has been a significant employer in both the oil and renewables industries. , the local authority, employs 2,000 people, making it the largest employer in the Outer Hebrides. See also the " area plan 2010" and the 's "Factfile – Economy".
Economy
Modern commercial activities centre on tourism, crofting, fishing, and weaving including the manufacture of Harris tweed. Crofting remains popular especially on Lewis and Harris (population 21,000) with over 920 active crofters according to a 2020 report: "with crofts ranging in size from as small as a single hectare to having access to thousands of hectares through the medium of community grazing". Crofters can apply for subsidy grants; some of these are intended to help them find other avenues to supplement their incomes. Some of the funding schemes available to crofters in the Hebrides include the "Basic Payment Scheme, the suckler beef support scheme, the upland sheep support scheme and the Less Favoured Area support scheme and the Crofting Agricultural Grant Scheme (CAGS), as of March 2020.
According to the Scottish Government, "tourism is by far and away the mainstay industry" of the Outer Hebrides, "generating £65m in economic value for the islands, sustaining around 1000 jobs" The report adds that the "islands receive 219,000 visitors per year".
Some of the larger islands have development trusts that support the local economy and, in striking contrast to the 19th and 20th century domination by absentee landlords, more than two thirds of the Western Isles population now lives on community-owned estates. However the economic position of the islands remains relatively precarious. The Western Isles, including Stornoway, are defined by Highlands and Islands Enterprise as an economically "Fragile Area" and they have an estimated trade deficit of some £163.4 million. Overall, the area is relatively reliant on primary industries and the public sector, and fishing and fish farming in particular are vulnerable to environmental impacts, changing market pressures, and European legislation.
There is some optimism about the possibility of future developments in, for example, renewable energy generation, tourism, and education, and after declines in the 20th century the population has stabilised since 2003, although it is ageing. A 2019 report, using key assumptions, (mortality, fertility and migration) was less optimistic. It predicted that the population is "projected to fall to 22,709 by 2043"; that translates to a 16% decline, or 4,021 people, between 2018 and 2043.
The UK’s largest community-owned wind farm, the 9MW Beinn Ghrideag, a "3 turbine, 9MW scheme" is located outside Stornoway and is operated by Point and Sandwick Trust (PST).
The Isle of Lewis web site states that Stornoway's sheltered harbour has been important for centuries; it was named Steering Bay by Vikings who often visited. A December 2020 report stated that a new deep water terminal was to be developed, the Stornoway Deep Water Terminal, using a £49 million investment. The plan included berths for cruise ships as long as 360 meters, berths for large cargo vessels, and a freight ferry berth.
Politics and local government
From the passing of the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889 to 1975 Lewis formed part of the county of Ross and Cromarty and the rest of the archipelago, including Harris, was part of Inverness-shire.
The Outer Hebrides became a unitary council area in 1975, although in most of the rest of Scotland similar unitary councils were not established until 1996. Since then, the islands have formed one of the 32 unitary council areas that now cover the whole country, with the council officially known by its Gaelic name, under the terms of the Local Government (Gaelic Names) (Scotland) Act 1997. The council has its base in Stornoway on Lewis and is often known locally simply as "the " or . The is one of only three Councils in Scotland with a majority of elected members who are independents. The other independent-run councils are Shetland and Orkney. Moray is run by a Conservative/Independent coalition.
The name for the British Parliament constituency covering this area is , the seat being held by Angus MacNeil MP since 2005, while the Scottish Parliament constituency for the area is , the incumbent being Alasdair Allan MSP.
During the 2014 Scottish independence referendum the area voted against independence by a margin of 53.42% (10,544) to 46.58% (9,195) in favour on a turnout of 86.2%
In 2022, as part of the Levelling Up White Paper, an "Island Forum" was proposed, which would allow local policymakers and residents in the Outer Hebrides to work alongside their counterparts in Shetland, Orkney, Anglesey and the Isle of Wight on common issues, such as broadband connectivity, and provide a platform for them to communicate directly with the government on the challenges island communities face in terms of levelling up.
Scottish Gaelic language
The Outer Hebrides have historically been a very strong Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) speaking area. Both the 1901 and 1921 census reported that all parishes were over 75% Gaelic speaking, including areas of high population density such as Stornoway. However, the Education (Scotland) Act 1872 mandated English-only education, and is now recognised as having dealt a major blow to the language. People still living can recall being beaten for speaking Gaelic in school. By 1971 most areas were still more than 75% Gaelic speaking – with the exception of Stornoway, Benbecula and South Uist at 50–74%. However, this has fallen drastically year on year. In the 2022 Census, the islands were only around 45% Gaelic speaking - a 4% fall on the 2011 Census, which was itself a 10% fall on the 2001 Census. In no electoral ward did more than 56% of respondents claim an ability to speak Gaelic. In Stornoway, only around a third of respondents said they could speak Gaelic. Only in 4 of the 11 wards did a majority of respondents say they could speak Gaelic.
In the 2001 census, each island overall was over 50% Gaelic speaking – South Uist (71%), Harris (69%), Barra (68%), North Uist (67%), Lewis (56%) and Benbecula (56%). With 59.3% of Gaelic speakers or a total of 15,723 speakers, this made the Outer Hebrides the most strongly coherent Gaelic speaking area in Scotland.
Most areas were between 60-74% Gaelic speaking and the areas with the highest density of over 80% are Scalpay near Harris, Newtonferry and Kildonan, whilst Daliburgh, Linshader, Eriskay, Brue, Boisdale, West Harris, Ardveenish, Soval, Ness, and Bragar all have more than 75%. The areas with the lowest density of speakers are Stornoway (44%), Braigh (41%), Melbost (41%), and Balivanich (37%).
The Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act was enacted by the Scottish Parliament in 2005 to provide continuing support for the language. However, by 2011 the overall percentage of Gaelic speakers in the Outer Hebrides had fallen to 52%.
In modern Gaelic the islands are sometimes referred to collectively as (the Long Island) or (the Outer Isles). (islands of the foreigners or strangers) is also heard occasionally, a name that was originally used by mainland Highlanders when the islands were ruled by the Norse.
The individual island and place names in the Outer Hebrides have mixed Gaelic and Norse origins. Various Gaelic terms are used repeatedly:
There are also several islands called from the Norse meaning "tidal" or "ebb island".
Transport
Scheduled ferry services between the Outer Hebrides and the Scottish Mainland and Inner Hebrides operate on the following routes:
Oban to Castlebay on Barra
Oban to Lochboisdale on South Uist (Winter Only)
Mallaig to Lochboisdale on South Uist
Uig on Skye to Tarbert on Harris
Uig on Skye to Lochmaddy on North Uist
Ullapool to Stornoway on Lewis
Tiree to Castlebay, Barra (summer only).
Other ferries operate between some of the islands.
National Rail services are available for onward journeys, from stations at Oban and Mallaig, which has direct services to Glasgow. However, parliamentary approval notwithstanding, plans in the 1890s to lay a railway connection to Ullapool were unable to obtain sufficient funding.
There are scheduled flights from Stornoway, Benbecula and Barra airports both inter-island and to the mainland. Barra's airport is claimed to be the only one in the world to have scheduled flights landing on a beach. At high water the runways are under the sea so flight times vary with the tide.
Bus na Comhairle
Bus na Comhairle (meaning "Bus of the Council") is the council-owned local bus company of the Western Isles of Scotland. The company serves the Broadbay area of Lewis with 7 buses - 6 Optare Solos and 1 ADL Enviro 200.
Shipwrecks
The archipelago is exposed to wind and tide, and lighthouses are sited as an aid to navigation at locations from Barra Head in the south to the Butt of Lewis in the north. There are numerous sites of wrecked ships, and the Flannan Isles are the location of an enduring mystery that occurred in December 1900, when all three lighthouse keepers vanished without trace.
Annie Jane, a three-masted immigrant ship out of Liverpool bound for Montreal, Canada, struck rocks off the West Beach of Vatersay during a storm on Tuesday 28 September 1853. Within ten minutes the ship began to founder and break up casting 450 people into the raging sea. In spite of the conditions, islanders tried to rescue the passengers and crew. The remains of 350 men, women and children were buried in the dunes behind the beach and a small cairn and monument marks the site.
The tiny Beasts of Holm off the east coast of Lewis were the site of the sinking of during the first few hours of 1919, one of the worst maritime disasters in United Kingdom waters during the 20th century. Calvay in the Sound of Barra provided the inspiration for Compton Mackenzie's novel Whisky Galore after the ran aground there with a cargo of single malt in 1941.
Culture
Christianity has deep roots in the Western Isles, but owing mainly to the different allegiances of the clans in the past, the people in the northern islands (Lewis, Harris, North Uist) have historically been predominantly Presbyterian, and those of the southern islands (Benbecula, South Uist, Barra) predominantly Roman Catholic.
At the time of the 2001 Census, 42% of the population identified themselves as being affiliated with the Church of Scotland, with 13% Roman Catholic and 28% with other Christian churches. Many of this last group belong to the Free Church of Scotland, known for its strict observance of the Sabbath. 11% stated that they had no religion. This made the Western Isles the Scottish council area with the smallest percentage of non-religious in the population. There are also small Episcopalian congregations in Lewis and Harris and the Outer Hebrides are part of the Diocese of Argyll and The Isles in both the Episcopalian and Catholic traditions.
Gaelic music is popular in the islands and the Lewis and Harris Traditional Music Society plays an active role in promoting the genre. Fèis Bharraigh began in 1981 with the aim of developing the practice and study of the Gaelic language, literature, music, drama and culture on the islands of Barra and Vatersay. A two-week festival, it has inspired 43 other feisean throughout Scotland. The Lewis Pipe Band was founded in 1904 and the Lewis and Harris Piping Society in 1977.
Outdoor activities including rugby, football, golf, shinty, fishing, riding, canoeing, athletics, and multi-sports are popular in the Western Isles. The Hebridean Challenge is an adventure race run in five daily stages, which takes place along the length of the islands and includes hill and road running, road and mountain biking, short sea swims and demanding sea kayaking sections. There are four main sports centres: Ionad Spors Leodhais in Stornoway, which has a 25 m swimming pool; Harris Sports Centre; Lionacleit Sports Centre on Benbecula; and Castlebay Sports Centre on Barra. The Western Isles is a member of the International Island Games Association.
South Uist is home to the Askernish Golf Course. The oldest links in the Outer Hebrides, it was designed by Old Tom Morris. Although it was in use until the 1930s, its existence was largely forgotten until 2005 and it is now being restored to Morris's original design.
See also
Constitutional status of Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles
Hebridean Myths and Legends
Leod
List of Category A listed buildings in the Western Isles
List of places in the Western Isles
List of rulers of the Kingdom of the Isles
List of islands of Scotland
Ljótólfr
Solar eclipse of 1 May 1185
2012 Comhairle nan Eilean Siar election
Virtual Hebrides
Notes
References
Sources
Armit, Ian (1998) Scotland's Hidden History. Tempus (in association with Historic Scotland).
Ballin Smith, B. and Banks, I. (eds) (2002) In the Shadow of the Brochs, the Iron Age in Scotland. Stroud. Tempus.
Ballin Smith, Beverley; Taylor, Simon; Williams, Gareth (eds) (2007) West Over Sea: Studies in Scandinavian Sea-Borne Expansion and Settlement Before 1300. Leiden. Koninklijke Brill.
Benvie, Neil (2004) Scotland's Wildlife. London. Aurum Press.
Buxton, Ben (1995) Mingulay: An Island and Its People. Edinburgh. Birlinn.
Downham, Clare (2007) Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland: The Dynasty of Ívarr to A.D. 1014. Edinburgh. Dunedin Academic Press.
Gillen, Con (2003) Geology and landscapes of Scotland. Harpenden. Terra Publishing.
Gregory, Donald (1881) The History of the Western Highlands and Isles of Scotland 1493–1625. Edinburgh. Birlinn. 2008 reprint – originally published by Thomas D. Morrison.
Hanson, William S. "The Roman Presence: Brief Interludes", in Edwards, Kevin J. & Ralston, Ian B.M. (Eds) (2003) Scotland After the Ice Age: Environment, Archaeology and History, 8000 BC – AD 1000. Edinburgh. Edinburgh University Press.
Haswell-Smith, Hamish. (2004) The Scottish Islands. Edinburgh. Canongate.
Hunter, James (2000) Last of the Free: A History of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland. Edinburgh. Mainstream.
Keay, J. & Keay, J. (1994) Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland. London. HarperCollins.
McKirdy, Alan Gordon, John & Crofts, Roger (2007) Land of Mountain and Flood: The Geology and Landforms of Scotland. Edinburgh. Birlinn.
Maclean, Charles (1977) Island on the Edge of the World: the Story of St. Kilda. Edinburgh. Canongate.
Malhotra, R. (1992) Anthropology of Development: Commemoration Volume in Honour of Professor I.P. Singh. New Delhi. Mittal.
Li, Martin (2005) Adventure Guide to Scotland. Hunter Publishing. Retrieved 19 May 2010.
Miers, Mary (2008) The Western Seaboard: An Illustrated Architectural Guide. The Rutland Press.
Murray, W.H. (1966) The Hebrides. London. Heinemann.
Murray, W.H. (1973) The Islands of Western Scotland: the Inner and Outer Hebrides. London. Eyre Methuen.
Ross, David (2005) Scotland – History of a Nation. Lomond.
Rotary Club of Stornoway (1995) The Outer Hebrides Handbook and Guide. Machynlleth. Kittiwake.
Thompson, Francis (1968) Harris and Lewis, Outer Hebrides. Newton Abbot. David & Charles.
Watson, W. J. (1994) The Celtic Place-Names of Scotland. Edinburgh; Birlinn. . First published 1926.
External links
Stornoway Port Authority
Comhairle nan Eilean Siar
2001 Census Results for the Outer Hebrides
MacTV
Reefnet
Hebrides.com Photographic website from ex-Eolas Sam Maynard
www.visithebrides.com Western Isles Tourist Board site from Reefnet
Virtual Hebrides.com Content from the VH, which went its own way and became Virtual Scotland.
hebrides.ca Home of the Quebec-Hebridean Scots who were cleared from Lewis to Quebec 1838–1920s
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Archipelagoes of Scotland
Archipelagoes of the Atlantic Ocean
Council areas of Scotland
Lieutenancy areas of Scotland
Regions of Scotland
Former Norwegian colonies
Gaelic culture
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Ventricular assist device
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Ventricular assist device
A ventricular assist device (VAD) is an electromechanical device that provides support for cardiac circulation, which is used either to partially or to completely replace the function of a failing heart. VADs can be used in patients with acute (sudden onset) or chronic (long standing) heart failure, which can occur due to coronary artery disease, atrial fibrillation, valvular disease, and other conditions.
Categorization of VADs
VADs may be used to manage a variety of cardiac diseases and can be categorized based on which ventricle the device is assisting, and whether the VAD will be temporary or permanent.
Ventricular Assistance
First, VADs can be categorized based on whether they are designed to assist the right ventricle (RVAD) or the left ventricle (LVAD) or to both ventricles (BiVAD). The type of VAD implanted depends on the type of underlying heart disease (e.g. patients with right ventricular failure from pulmonary arterial hypertension may require an RVAD, versus those with left ventricular failure from a myocardial infarction may require an LVAD). The LVAD is the most common device applied to a defective heart (it is sufficient in most cases; the right side of the heart is then often able to make use of the heavily increased blood flow), but when the pulmonary arterial resistance is high, then an (additional) right ventricular assist device (RVAD) might be necessary to resolve the problem of cardiac circulation. If both an LVAD and an RVAD are needed a BiVAD is normally used, rather than a separate LVAD and RVAD.
Duration
VADs can further be divided by the duration of their use (i.e. temporary versus permanent). Some VADs are for short-term use, typically for patients recovering from myocardial infarction (heart attack) and for patients recovering from cardiac surgery; some are for long-term use (months to years to perpetuity), typically for patients with advanced heart failure
Temporary use of VADs may vary in scale (e.g. days to months) depending on a patient's condition. Certain types of VADS may be used in patients with signs of acute (sudden onset) heart failure or cardiogenic shock as a result of an infarction, valvular disease, among other causes. In patients with acute signs of heart failure, small percutaneous (introduced to the heart through the skin into a blood vessel rather than through an incision) VADs such as the Impella 5.5, Impella RP, and others can be introduced to either the left or right ventricle (depending on the patient-specific needs) using a wire and that is introduced through the arteries or veins of the neck, axilla, or groin.
Long-term use of VADs may also vary in its scale (i.e. months to permanently). VADs that are intended for long term use are also termed "durable" VADS, due to their design to function for longer periods of time compared to short term VADs (e.g. Impella, etc.). The long-term VADs can be used in a variety of scenarios. First, VADs may be used as bridge to transplantation (BTT) – keeping the patient alive, and in reasonably good condition, and able to await heart transplant outside of the hospital. Other "bridges" include bridge to candidacy (used when a patient has a contraindication to heart transplantation but is expected to improve with the VADs support) , bridge to decision (used to support a patient while their candidacy status is decided), and bridge to recovery (used until patients native heart function improves after which the device would be removed). In some instances, VADs are also used as destination therapy (DT) which indicates that the VAD will remain implanted indefinitely. VADs as destination therapy are used in circumstances where patients are not candidates for transplantation and will thus rely on the VAD for the remainder of their life.
Other Cardiac Support Devices
Some devices are designed to support the heart and its various components/function but are not considered VADs, below are some common examples.
Pacemakers and Internal Cardiac Defibrillators (ICDs) – the function of a VAD differs from that of an artificial cardiac pacemaker in that a VAD pumps blood, whereas a pacemaker delivers electrical impulses to the heart muscle.
Total Artificial Heart – VADs are distinct from artificial hearts, which are designed to assume cardiac function, and generally require the removal of the patient's heart.
Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (ECMO) – is a form of mechanical circulatory support typically used in critically ill patients in cardiogenic shock that is established by introducing cannula into the arteries and or veins of the neck, axilla or groin. Generally, a venous cannula pulls deoxygenated blood from the patient's veins into an oxygenating device at the patient's bedside, after which a motor powered pump moves the oxygenated blood is back to the body (either into a vein or the arterial system, typically the aorta). There are different ECMO configurations (venoarterial ECMO, venovenous ECMO, etc.) the end goal remains the same; to oxygenate blood and return it to the body. In this sense, the ECMO circuit bypasses one or both ventricles and is therefore not in contact with the patient's native ventricle and is generally not considered a type of VAD.
Design
Pumps
The pumps used in VADs can be divided into two main categories – pulsatile pumps, which mimic the natural pulsing action of the heart, and continuous-flow pumps. Pulsatile VADs use positive displacement pumps. In some pulsatile pumps (that use compressed air as an energy source), the volume occupied by blood varies during the pumping cycle. If the pump is contained inside the body then a vent tube to the outside air is required.
Continuous-flow VADs are smaller and have proven to be more durable than pulsatile VADs. They normally use either a centrifugal pump or an axial flow pump. Both types have a central rotor containing permanent magnets. Controlled electric currents running through coils contained in the pump housing apply forces to the magnets, which in turn cause the rotors to spin. In the centrifugal pumps, the rotors are shaped to accelerate the blood circumferentially and thereby cause it to move toward the outer rim of the pump, whereas in the axial flow pumps the rotors are more or less cylindrical with blades that are helical, causing the blood to be accelerated in the direction of the rotor's axis.
An important issue with continuous flow pumps is the method used to suspend the rotor. Early versions used solid bearings; however, newer pumps, some of which are approved for use in the EU, use either magnetic levitation ("maglev") or hydrodynamic suspension.
History
The first left ventricular assist device (LVAD) system was created by Domingo Liotta at Baylor College of Medicine in Houston in 1962. The first LVAD was implanted in 1963 by Liotta and E. Stanley Crawford. The first successful implantation of an LVAD was completed in 1966 by Liotta along with Dr. Michael E. DeBakey. The patient was a 37-year-old woman, and a paracorporeal (external) circuit was able to provide mechanical support for 10 days after the surgery. The first successful long-term implantation of an LVAD was conducted in 1988 by Dr. William F. Bernhard of Boston Children's Hospital Medical Center and Thermedics, Inc. of Woburn, MA, under a National Institutes of Health (NIH) research contract which developed HeartMate, an electronically controlled assist device. This was funded by a three-year $6.2 million contract to Thermedics and Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, a program of the NIH. The early VADs emulated the heart by using a "pulsatile" action where blood is alternately sucked into the pump from the left ventricle then forced out into the aorta. Devices of this kind include the HeartMate IP LVAS, which was approved for use in the US by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in October 1994. These devices began to gain acceptance in the late 1990s as heart surgeons including Eric Rose, O. H. Frazier and Mehmet Oz began popularizing the concept that patients could live outside the hospital. Media coverage of outpatients with VADs underscored these arguments.
More recent work has concentrated on continuous-flow pumps, which can be roughly categorized as either centrifugal pumps or axial flow impeller driven pumps. These pumps have the advantage of greater simplicity resulting in smaller size and greater reliability. These devices are referred to as second-generation VADs. A side effect is that the user will not have a pulse,
or that the pulse intensity will be seriously reduced.
A very different approach in the early stages of development was the use of an inflatable cuff around the aorta. Inflating the cuff contracts the aorta and deflating the cuff allows the aorta to expand – in effect the aorta becomes a second left ventricle. A proposed refinement is to use the patient's skeletal muscle, driven by a pacemaker, to power this device – which would make it truly self-contained. However, a similar operation (cardiomyoplasty) was tried in the 1990s with disappointing results.
At one time Peter Houghton was the longest surviving recipient of a VAD for permanent use. He received an experimental Jarvik 2000 LVAD in June 2000. Since then, he completed a 91-mile charity walk, published two books, lectured widely, hiked in the Swiss Alps and the American West, flew in an ultra-light aircraft, and traveled extensively around the world. He died of acute kidney injury in 2007 at the age of 69. Since then, patient Lidia Pluhar has exceeded Houghton's longevity on a VAD, having received a HeartMate II in March 2011 at age 75, and currently continues to use the device. In August 2007 the International Consortium of Circulatory Assist Clinicians (ICCAC) was founded by Anthony "Tony" Martin, a nurse practitioner (NP) and clinical manager of the mechanical circulatory support (MCS) program at Newark Beth Israel Medical Center, Newark, N.J. The ICCAC was developed as a 501c3 organization, dedicated to the development of best practices and education related to the care of individuals requiring MCS as a bridge to heart transplantation or as destination therapy in those individuals who don't meet the criteria for heart transplantation.
Studies and outcomes
Recent developments
In August 2007 The International Consortium of Circulatory Assist Clinicians (ICCAC) was founded by Anthony "Tony" Martin. A nurse practitioner (NP) and clinical manager of the mechanical circulatory support (MCS) program at Newark Beth Israel Medical Center, Newark, N.J..
In July 2009 in England, surgeons removed a donor heart that had been implanted in a toddler next to her native heart, after her native heart had recovered. This technique suggests mechanical assist device, such as an LVAD, can take some or all the work away from the native heart and allow it time to heal.
In July 2009, 18-month follow-up results from the HeartMate II Clinical Trial concluded that continuous-flow LVAD provides effective hemodynamic support for at least 18 months in patients awaiting transplantation, with improved functional status and quality of life.
Heidelberg University Hospital reported in July 2009 that the first HeartAssist5, known as the modern version of the DeBakey VAD, was implanted there. The HeartAssist5 weighs 92 grams, is made of titanium and plastic, and serves to pump blood from the left ventricle into the aorta.
A phase 1 clinical trial is underway (as of August 2009), consisting of patients with coronary artery bypass grafting and patients in end-stage heart failure who have a left ventricular assist device. The trial involves testing a patch called Anginera which contains cells that secrete hormone-like growth factors stimulating other cells to grow. The patches are seeded with heart muscle cells and then implanted onto the heart with the goal of getting the muscle cells to start communicating with native tissues in a way that allows for regular contractions.
In September 2009, a New Zealand news outlet, Stuff, reported that in another 18 months to two years, a new wireless device will be ready for clinical trial that will power VADs without direct contact. If successful, this may reduce the chance of infection as a result of the power cable through the skin.
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) awarded a $2.8 million grant to develop a "pulse-less" total artificial heart using two VADs by Micromed, initially created by Michael DeBakey and George Noon. The grant was renewed for a second year of research in August 2009. The total artificial heart was created using two HeartAssist5 VADs, whereby one VAD pumps blood throughout the body and the other circulates blood to and from the lungs.
HeartWare International announced in August 2009 that it had surpassed 50 implants of their HeartWare Ventricular Assist System in their ADVANCE Clinical Trial, an FDA-approved IDE study. The study is to assess the system as bridge-to-transplantation for patients with end-stage heart failure. The study, Evaluation of the HeartWare LVAD System for the Treatment of Advanced Heart Failure, is a multi-center study that started in May 2009.
On 27 June 2014 Hannover Medical School in Hannover, Germany performed the first human implant of HeartMate III under the direction of Professor Axel Haverich M.D., chief of the Cardiothoracic, Transplantation and Vascular Surgery Department and surgeon Jan Schmitto, M.D., PhD
On 21 January 2015 a study was published in Journal of American College of Cardiology suggesting that long-term use of LVAD may induce heart regeneration.
Hall-of-Fame Baseball Player Rod Carew had congestive heart failure and was fitted with a HeartMate II. He struggled with wearing the equipment, so he joined efforts to help supply the most helpful wear to assist the HeartMate II and HeartMate III.
In December 2018, two clinical cases were performed in Kazakhstan and a fully wireless LVAD system of Jarvik 2000 combine with Leviticus Cardio FiVAD (Fully Implantable Ventricular Assist Device) were implanted in humans. The Wireless power transfer technology based on technique called Coplanar Energy Transfer (CET) which is capable of transferring energy from an external transmitting coil to a small receiving coil that is implanted in the human body. In the early postoperative phase, CET operation was accomplished as expected in both patients, which powered the pump and maintained the battery charged to allow medical and nursing procedures. The Leviticus Cardio FiVAD System with wireless, coplanar energy transfer technology which ameliorates infection risk by driveline elimination while providing successful energy transmission allowing for a substantial (approximately 6 hours) unholstered support of the LVAD.
On June 3, 2021, Medtronic issued an urgent medical device notice stating that their HVAD devices should no longer be implanted due to higher rates of neurological events and mortality with the HVAD vs. other available devices
The majority of VADs on the market today are somewhat bulky. The smallest device approved by the FDA, the HeartMate II, weighs about and measures . This has proven particularly important for women and children, for whom alternatives would have been too large. As of 2017, HeartMate III has been approved by the FDA. It is smaller than its predecessor HeartMate II and uses a full maglev impeller instead of the cup-and-ball bearing system found in HeartMate II.
The HeartWare HVAD works similarly to the VentrAssist—albeit much smaller and not requiring an abdominal pocket to be implanted into. The device has obtained CE Mark in Europe, and FDA approval in the U.S. The HeartWare HVAD could be implanted through limited access without sternotomy, however in 2021 Medtronic discontinued the device.
In a small number of cases left ventricular assist devices, combined with drug therapy, have enabled the heart to recover sufficiently for the device to be able to be removed (explanted). Several surgical approaches, including interventional decommissioning, off-pump explantation using a custom-made plug and complete LVAD removal through redo sternotomy, have been described with a 5-year survival of up to 80%.
HeartMate II LVAD pivotal study
A series of studies involving the use of the HeartMate II LVAD have proven useful in establishing the viability and risks of using LVADs for bridge-to-transplantation and destination therapy.
The HeartMate II pivotal trial began in 2005 and included the evaluation of HeartMate II for two indications: Bridge to transplantation (BTT) and destination therapy (DT), or long-term, permanent support. Thoratec Corp. announced that this was the first time the FDA had approved a clinical trial to include both indications in one protocol.
A multicenter study in the United States from 2005 to 2007 with 113 patients (of which 100 reported principal outcomes) showed that significant improvements in function were prevalent after three months, and a survival rate of 68% after twelve months.
Based on one-year follow up data from the first 194 patients enrolled in the trial, the FDA approved HeartMate II for bridge-to-transplantation. The trial provided clinical evidence of improved survival rates and quality of life for a broad range of patients.
Eighteen-month follow up data on 281 patients who had either reached the study end-point or completed 18 months of post-operative follow-up showed improved survival, less frequent adverse events and greater reliability with continuous flow LVADS compared to pulsatile flow devices. Of the 281 patients, 157 patients had undergone transplant, 58 patients were continuing with LVADs in their body and seven patients had the LVAD removed because their heart recovered; the remaining 56 had died. The results showed that the patients' NYHA Class of heart failure had significantly improved after six months of LVAD support compared to the pre-LVAD baseline. Although this trial involved bridge-to-transplant indication, the results provide early evidence that continuous flow LVADs have advantages in terms of durability and reliability for patients receiving mechanical support for destination therapy.
Following the FDA approval of HeartMate II LVAD for bridge-to-transplantation purposes, a post-approval ("registry") study was undertaken to assess the efficacy of the device in a commercial setting. The study found that the device improved outcomes, both compared to other LVAD treatments and baseline patients. Specifically, HeartMate II patients showed lower creatinine levels, 30-day survival rates were considerably higher at 96%, and 93% reached successful outcomes (transplant, cardiac recovery, or long-term LVAD).
HARPS
The Harefield Recovery Protocol Study (HARPS) is a clinical trial to evaluate whether advanced heart failure patients requiring VAD support can recover sufficient myocardial function to allow device removal (known as explantation). HARPS combines an LVAD (the HeartMate XVE) with conventional oral heart failure medications, followed by the novel β2 agonist clenbuterol. This opens the possibility that some advanced heart failure patients may forgo heart transplantation.
REMATCH
The REMATCH (Randomized Evaluation of Mechanical Assistance for the Treatment of Congestive Heart Failure) clinical trial began in May 1998 and ran through July 2001 in 20 cardiac transplant centers around the USA. The trial was designed to compare long-term implantation of left ventricular assist devices with optimal medical management for patients with end-stage heart failure who require, but do not qualify to receive cardiac transplantation. As a result of the clinical outcomes, the device received FDA approval for both indications, in 2001 and 2003, respectively.
According to a retrospective cohort study comparing patients treated with a left ventricular assist device versus inotrope therapy while awaiting heart transplantation, the group treated with LVAD had improved clinical and metabolic function at the time of transplant with better blood pressure, sodium, blood urea nitrogen, and creatinine. After transplant, 57.7% of the inotrope group had kidney failure versus 16.6% in the LVAD group; 31.6% of the inotrope group had right heart failure versus 5.6% in the LVAD group; and event-free survival was 15.8% in the inotrope group versus 55.6% in the LVAD group.
Complications and side effects
There are a number of potential risks associated with VADs. The most common of these are bleeding events, stroke, pump thrombosis, and infections.
Bleeding
Because the VADs generally result in blood flowing over a non-biologic surface (e.g. metal, synthetic polymers, etc.) this can result in formation of blood clots, also referred to as thrombosis. Due to these clotting abnormalities, anticoagulation medications are used to decrease the risk of thrombosis. One device, the HeartMate XVE, is designed with a biologic surface derived from fibrin and does not require long term anticoagulation (except aspirin); unfortunately, this biologic surface may also predispose the patient to infection through selective reduction of certain types of leukocytes, however this device was phased out of use starting in 2009 in favor of newer devices.
Due to the use of anticoagulation, bleeding is the most common postoperative early complication after implantation or explantation of VADs, necessitating reoperation in up to 60% of recipients. Most commonly bleeding occurs in the gastrointestinal tract resulting in dark or bright red stools, however if trauma to the head occurs, intracranial bleeding may also occur. Bleeding events may require massive blood transfusions and incur certain risks including infection, pulmonary insufficiency, increased costs, right heart failure, allosensitization, and viral transmission, which can prove fatal or preclude transplantation. When bleeding occurs, it impacts the one year Kaplan-Meier mortality. In addition to complexity of the patient population and the complexity of these procedures contributing to bleeding, the devices themselves may contribute to the severe coagulopathy that can ensue when these devices are implanted.
Ischemic Stroke and Pump Thrombosis
In patients with VADs, ischemic strokes and pump thrombosis occur when there is inadequate anticoagulation to counter act the blood's tendency to form blood clots when exposed to the foreign materials in a VAD. Stroke risk varies based on the type of VAD in place and other risk factors. Both atrial fibriliation and high blood pressure may increase risk of stroke and high blood pressure can increase a patient's risk of stroke in the setting of VAD use. However, it is difficult to measure blood pressure in LVAD patients using standard blood pressure monitoring and the current practice is to measure by Doppler ultrasonography in outpatients and invasive arterial blood pressure monitoring in inpatients.
Infections
Infections in VAD patients occur because the artificial surfaces of the devices serve as a surface for bacterial and or fungal growth. Most infections are classified as driveline infections, which are infections that occur where the device's power cord enters the skin (usually in the upper abdomen)
VAD-related infection can be caused by a large number of different organisms:
Gram positive bacteria (Staphylococci, especially Staph. aureus, Enterococci)
Gram negative bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter species, Klebsiella species)
Fungi, especially Candida species
Other immune system related problems include immunosuppression. Some of the polyurethane components used in the devices cause the deletion of a subset of immune cells when blood comes in contact with them. This predisposes the patient to fungal and some viral infections necessitating appropriate prophylactic therapy.
Considering the multitude of risks and lifestyle modifications associated with ventricular assist device implants, it is important for prospective patients to be informed prior to decision making. In addition to physician consult, various Internet-based patient directed resources are available to assist in patient education.
List of implantable VAD devices
This is a partial list and may never be complete
Referenced additions are welcome
See also
Intra-aortic balloon pump
Pump thrombosis
References
External links
MyLVAD.com—Non-branded site with information on various LVADs
DECIDE-LVAD Patient Decision Aid - Non-branded site with information on decision making for LVAD
Implants (medicine)
Cardiology
Prosthetics
Interventional cardiology
Medical devices
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical%20nationalism
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Musical nationalism
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Musical nationalism refers to the use of musical ideas or motifs that are identified with a specific country, region, or ethnicity, such as folk tunes and melodies, rhythms, and harmonies inspired by them.
History
As a musical movement, nationalism emerged early in the 19th century in connection with political independence movements, and was characterized by an emphasis on national musical elements such as the use of folk songs, folk dances or rhythms, or on the adoption of nationalist subjects for operas, symphonic poems, or other forms of music. As new nations were formed in Europe, nationalism in music was a reaction against the dominance of the mainstream European classical tradition as composers started to separate themselves from the standards set by Italian, French, and especially German traditionalists.
More precise considerations of the point of origin are a matter of some dispute. One view holds that it began with the war of liberation against Napoleon, leading to a receptive atmosphere in Germany for Weber's opera Der Freischütz (1821) and, later, Richard Wagner's epic dramas based on Teutonic legends. At around the same time, Poland's struggle for freedom from the three partitioning powers produced a nationalist spirit in the piano works and orchestral compositions such as Chopin's Fantasy on Polish Airs or Revolutionary Etude; slightly later Italy's aspiration to independence from Austria resonated in many of the operas of Giuseppe Verdi. Countries or regions most commonly linked to musical nationalism include Russia, Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, Hungary, Scandinavia, Spain, the United Kingdom, Latin America and the United States.
Ethnomusicological perspective
Ethnomusicological inquiries frequently involve a focus on the relationship between music and nationalist movements across the world, necessarily following the emergence of the modern nation-state as a consequence of globalization and its associated ideals, in contrast to a pre-imperialist world.
Modern studies of instances of music used in nationalist movements include Thomas Turino's research of Zimbabwe's independence movement of the 1970s and 80s. ZANU nationalists and their ZANLA guerrillas used political songs as a means for engaging a wider variety of socioeconomic classes; traditional Shona cultural practices, including music, were cited as areas of common ground. Revolutionary leader Robert Mugabe formed the Youth League, which regularly organized and performed tribal dances as part of party meetings. The Youth League utilized pre-colonial African tribal music through association with the independence movement to ignite popular desire for a return to pre-colonial African rule. However, Turino also explains that "cosmopolitan" musical styles as well as traditional music intersect to ultimately define national Zimbabwean music.
Other research has focused on recording and broadcasting technology as conducive to the dissemination of nationalist ideals. In early twentieth-century Afghanistan, music played on Afghan radio blended Hindustani, Persian, Pashtun, and Tadjik traditions into a single national style, blurring ethnic lines at the behest of nationalist "ideologues." Around the same time, the nationalist Turkish state failed in its attempt to make Turkey a "Western" nation by broadcasting European classical music to rural areas when these areas instead simply tuned in to Egyptian radio.
Modern perspectives and critiques
According to some authors, musical nationalism involves the appropriation of music necessarily originating from distinct ethnic, cultural, and class hierarchies for the express purpose of furthering the political goals of nationalist movements. Postmodernist critiques of musical nationalism regard ethnicity in terms of opposition and relativities, especially as it relates to the dominant culture. As ethnomusicology moves in step with anthropology and other disciplines' trends to "decolonize" their respective fields, recent research surrounding the role of music in nationalist movements tends to surface in ethnomusicologists' now essential tradition of long-term field research. Katherine Hagedorn's account of post-revolutionary Cuban national music, compiled after repeated stays in the country in the 1990s, concludes that the government's designation of Afro-Cuban music and dance traditions as folklore and dramatized national theater performances of the tradition for the sake of theatrics is harmful to the tradition's religious legitimacy.
Identity and authenticity
Numerous analysis inside and outside the ethnomusicological discipline finds that music contributes significantly to perceptions of national identity. Peter Wade argues that the amorphous, fluid nature of music allows for similar music to constitute aspects of differing and even contrasting identities. As an example, Wade points to Colombia's specific nationalist music identity originating from its position on the Caribbean Sea. As modes of globalization penetrated the country, Colombians began to consume increasingly diverse types of music, which set the stage for Carlos Vives's 1993 album featuring modernized versions of vallenato songs from the 1930s from the Caribbean coastal region. World beat can be considered contrary to nationalism, designed to appeal to a more global audience by mixing styles of disparate cultures. This may compromise cultural authenticity while commodifying cultural tradition. (see Ethnomusicology#Globalization)
Belgium
Henri Vieuxtemps
Henri Vieuxtemps (1820–1881) was a composer and violinist.
Guillaume Lekeu
Guillaume Lekeu (1870–1894) was a composer who studied with Cesar Franck and Vincent d'Indy.
Brazil
Carlos Gomes
The most representative composer of Brazilian romanticism, Carlos Gomes (1836–1896) used several references from the country's folk music and traditional themes, chiefly in his opera Il Guarany (1870).
Chiquinha Gonzaga
Chiquinha Gonzaga (1847-1935) was a Brazilian composer, pianist, and the first woman conductor in Brazil. She was the first pianist of choro.
Heitor Villa-Lobos
Heitor Villa-Lobos (1887–1959) traveled extensively throughout Brazil in his youth and recorded folksongs and tunes that he later used in his series Bachianas Brasileiras and all of his Chôros (amongst them, his Chôros No. 10, subtitled Rasga o coração after the song with words by Catulo da Paixão Cearense and music by Anacleto de Madeiros, which Villa-Lobos quotes in the second half of this choral-orchestral piece, which employs native percussion).
Francisco Mignone
Francisco Mignone (1897–1986) incorporated folk rhythms and instruments into his suites Fantasias Brasileiras nos.1–4 (1929–1936), his 12 Brazilian Waltzes (1968–1979), Congada (1921) and Babaloxá (1936), besides composing ballets based on major literary works from Brazilian literature.
Canada
Joseph Quesnel
Joseph Quesnel (1746–1809) was a French Canadian composer. He wrote two operas, Colas et Colinette and Lucas et Cécile, the first of their kind in North America.
Czech Republic
Bedřich Smetana
Bedřich Smetana (1824–1884) pioneered the development of a musical style that became closely identified with his country's aspirations to independent statehood. He is widely regarded in his homeland as the father of Czech music. He is best known for the symphonic cycle Má vlast ("My Homeland"), which portrays the history, legends, and landscape of his native land, and for his opera The Bartered Bride.
Antonín Dvořák
After Smetana, Antonín Dvořák (1841–1904) was the second Czech composer to achieve worldwide recognition. Following Smetana's nationalist example, Dvořák frequently employed aspects, specifically rhythms, of the folk music of Moravia and his native Bohemia. Dvořák's own style creates a national idiom by blending elements of the classical symphonic tradition and extraneous popular musical traditions, absorbing folk influences and finding effective ways of using them. Dvořák also wrote nine operas, which, other than his first, have librettos in Czech and were intended to convey Czech national spirit, as were some of his choral works.
Leoš Janáček
Leoš Janáček (1854–1928) was a Czech composer, musical theorist, folklorist, publicist and teacher, best known for his operas and his Sinfonietta.
Bohuslav Martinů
Bohuslav Martinů (1890–1959) is compared with Prokofiev and Bartók in his innovative incorporation of Central European ethnomusicology into his music. He continued to use Bohemian and Moravian folk melodies throughout his oeuvre, usually nursery rhymes—for instance in Otvírání studánek ("The Opening of the Wells").
Denmark
Niels Gade
Niels Gade (1817–1890) was a Danish composer, conductor, violinist, organist and teacher.
Carl Nielsen
Carl Nielsen (1865–1931) was a Danish composer, conductor and violinist.
Finland
Jean Sibelius
Jean Sibelius (1865–1957) had strong patriotic feelings for Finland. He composed Finlandia and the Karelia Suite, both of which emulate the rough culture and folk music of Finland. Both works also have nationalist programmatic elements; for instance, Finlandia describes the struggle of the Finnish people in the early 20th century.
France
The Société nationale de musique was an important organisation in late 19th/early 20th century France to promote French music. Members included Romain Bussine, Camille Saint-Saëns, Alexis de Castillon, Théodore Dubois, Henri Duparc, Gabriel Fauré, César Franck, Jules Garcin, Ernest Guiraud, Jules Massenet, and Paul Taffanel. One of its goals was to further the cause of French music in contrast to the Germanic tradition.
Germany
Carl Maria von Weber
Carl Maria von Weber (1786–1826) was the composer the first German romantic opera, Der Freischütz. It was seen as a reaction to "years of war and foreign occupation" of the "repressive regimes of the post-Napoleonic German Confederation" that awakened "a sense of the Germans as a nation rooted in a shared language, folklore, history, and geography". However, he also composed an English-language opera, Oberon.
Richard Wagner
Richard Wagner (1813–1883) composed many epic operas that were pro-German. He had been a supporter of the unification of Germany throughout his life. His anti-Semitic views have sometimes been seen as inspiring Adolf Hitler.
Greece
Nikolaos Mantzaros
Nikolaos Mantzaros (1795–1872) was a composer and founder of the Ionian School of music.
Pavlos Carrer
Pavlos Carrer (1829–1896) was a composer and member of the Ionian School.
Hungary
Franz Liszt
Franz Liszt (1811–1886) gave successful performances in Vienna, which started his virtuoso career, and was invited back to Hungary to perform in 1839. Verbunkos style had an impact on his music and his Hungarian Rhapsodies contained Hungarian folk music.
Béla Bartók
Béla Bartók (1881–1945) collaborated with fellow Hungarian composer Zoltán Kodály to document Hungarian folk music, which they both incorporated in their musical pieces.
Zoltán Kodály
Zoltán Kodály (1882–1967) studied at the Academy of Music in Hungary and had an interest Hungarian folk songs and would often take prolonged trips to the Hungarian countryside to study the melodies which were then incorporated into his music compositions.
Italy
Giuseppe Verdi
Giuseppe Verdi (1813–1901) instills a sense of nationalism into some of his music. This is evident in Nabucco with the lyrics, "Oh mia Patria sì bella e perduta" (Oh my Fatherland so beautiful and lost). "Viva VERDI" would also be written as a way to support the unification of Italy. This is an acronym for "Viva Vittorio Emanuele Re d'Italia" (Long Live Victor Emmanuel King of Italy) in support of King Victor Emmanuel II.
Ottorino Respighi
Ottorino Respighi (1879–1936) was an Italian composer whose orchestral music unabashedly celebrates Italian culture. His Ancient Airs and Dances suites and The Birds suite were orchestral arrangements of early instrumental works by predominantly Italian composers, such as Bernardo Pasquini and Simone Molinaro. His Roman Trilogy depicts different scenes of the city: Fountains of Rome has movements illustrating different fountains in the city, Pines of Rome depicts different pine trees throughout the day, and Roman Festivals dedicates movements to different celebrations in Rome's history. Respighi also composed his Trittico Botticelliano based on paintings by the namesake Sandro Botticelli.
Japan
Akira Ifukube
Akira Ifukube (伊福部 昭, Ifukube Akira, 31 May 1914 – 8 February 2006) was Japanese composer.
Fumio Hayasaka
Fumio Hayasaka (早坂 文雄 Hayasaka Fumio; August 19, 1914 – October 15, 1955) was a Japanese composer of classical music and film scores.
Mexico
A nationalistic renascence in the arts was produced by the Mexican Revolution of 1910–1920. Álvaro Obregón's regime, inaugurated in 1921, provided a large budget for the Secretariat of Public Education, under the direction of José Vasconcelos, who commissioned paintings for public buildings from artists such as José Clemente Orozco, Diego Rivera, and David Alfaro Siqueiros. As part of this ambitious programme, Vasconcelos also commissioned musical compositions on nationalistic themes. One of the first such works was the Aztec-themed ballet El fuego nuevo (The New Fire) by Carlos Chávez, composed in 1921 but not performed until 1928.
Manuel M. Ponce
Manuel M. Ponce (1882–1948) was a composer, educator and scholar of Mexican music. Among his works are the lullaby La Rancherita (1907), Scherzino Mexicano (1909) composed in the style of sones and huapangos, Rapsodía Mexicana, No 1 (1911) based on the jarabe tapatío, and the romantic ballad Estrellita (1912).
Carlos Chávez
Carlos Chávez (1899–1978) was a Mexican composer, conductor, educator, journalist, and founder and director of the Mexican Symphonic Orchestra and the National Institute of Fine Arts (INBA). Some of his music was influenced by indigenous Mexican cultures. A period of nationalistic leanings initiated in 1921 with the Aztec-themed ballet El fuego nuevo (The New Fire), followed by a second ballet, Los cuatro soles (The Four Suns), in 1925.
Netherlands
Bernard Zweers
Norway
Edvard Grieg
Edvard Grieg (1843–1907) was an important Romantic era composer whose music helped establish a Norwegian national identity.
Agathe Backer Grøndahl
Agathe Backer Grøndahl (1847-1907) was a Romantic era pianist, composer, and a close friend of Edvard Grieg.
Johan Halvorsen
Johan Halvorsen (1864-1935) was a Romantic era composer, conductor, and violinist.
Poland
Jan Stefani
(1746–1829) composed the Singspiel Cud mniemany, czyli Krakowiacy i górali (The Supposed Miracle, or the Cracovians and the Highlanders), which premiered in 1794 and contains krakowiaks, polonaises, and mazurkas that were adopted as if they were Polish folk music by audiences at the 1816 revival with new music by Karol Kurpiński. The suggestive lyrics of many of the songs could scarcely have been interpreted by the Polish audiences at the verge of the outbreak of the Kościuszko Uprising as anything other than a call for revolution, national unity, and independence. In this sense, despite his obscurity today, Stefani must be regarded as a precursor and founder of nineteenth-century musical nationalism.
Frédéric Chopin
Frédéric Chopin (1810–1849) was one of the first composers to incorporate nationalistic elements into his compositions. Joseph Machlis states, "Poland's struggle for freedom from tsarist rule aroused the national poet in Poland. ... Examples of musical nationalism abound in the output of the romantic era. The folk idiom is prominent in the Mazurkas of Chopin". His mazurkas and polonaises are particularly notable for their use of nationalistic rhythms. Moreover, "During World War II the Nazis forbade the playing of ... Chopin's Polonaises in Warsaw because of the powerful symbolism residing in these works."
Stanisław Moniuszko
Stanisław Moniuszko (1819–1872) has become associated above all with the concept of a national style in opera. Moniuszko's opera and music as a whole is representative of 19th-century romanticism, given the extensive use by the composer of arias, recitatives and ensembles that feature strongly in his operas. The source of Moniuszko's melodies and rhythmic patterns often lies in Polish musical folklore. One of the most visibly Polish aspects of his music is in the forms he uses, including dances popular among upper classes such as polonaise and mazurka, and folk tunes and dances such as kujawiak and krakowiak.
Henryk Wieniawski
Henryk Wieniawski (1835–1880) was another important composer using Polish folk melodies—he wrote several mazurkas for solo violin and piano accompaniment, one of which being the popular "Obertass" in G major.
Ignacy Jan Paderewski
Ignacy Jan Paderewski (1860–1941) was a Polish pianist, composer, diplomat, and spokesman for Polish independence, who also became Prime Minister of the newly independent Poland in 1919. He wrote several pieces inspired by Polish folk music, such as polonaises and mazurkas for solo piano or his Polish Fantasy for piano and orchestra. His last work, the monumental Symphony in B minor "Polonia", is a programme symphony representing the Polish struggle for independence in the early 20th century.
Romania
Ion Ivanovici
Ion Ivanovici (1845 - 1902) was a Serbian-born Romanian military band conductor and composer. He is best remembered for his waltz Waves of the Danube.
George Enescu
George Enescu (1881–1955) is considered Romania's most important composer. Amongst his best-known compositions are his two Romanian Rhapsodies and his Violin Sonata No. 3 (in Romanian Folk Style), Op. 25.
Russia
Mikhail Glinka
Mikhail Glinka (1804–1857) was a Russian composer and founder of the Russian nationalist school.
The Five
The Five (also known as the Mighty Handful and the New Russian School) were five prominent 19th-century Russian composers who worked together to create a distinct Russian classical music: Mily Balakirev (the leader), César Cui, Modest Mussorgsky, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov and Alexander Borodin.
Spain
Isaac Albéniz
Isaac Albéniz (1860–1909) was a Spanish virtuoso pianist, composer, and conductor.
Enrique Granados
Enrique Granados (1867–1916) composed his work Goyescas (1911) based on the etchings of the Spanish painter, Goya. Also of a national style are his Danzas españolas and his first opera María del Carmen.
Manuel de Falla
Manuel de Falla (1876–1946) was a Spanish composer.
Joaquín Turina
Joaquín Turina (1882–1949) was a Spanish composer.
Joaquín Rodrigo
Joaquín Rodrigo (1901–1999) was a Spanish composer and a virtuoso pianist.
Sweden
Hugo Alfvén
Hugo Alfvén (1872–1960) studied at the music conservatory in his hometown, Stockholm. In addition to being a violinist, conductor, and composer, he was also a painter. He is perhaps best known for his five symphonies and three Swedish Rhapsodies.
Taiwan
Chiang Wen-yeh
Chiang Wen-yeh or Jiang Wenye (Chinese: 江文也; pinyin: Jiāng Wényě, June 11, 1910 – October 24, 1983) was a Taiwanese composer, active mainly in Japan and later in China.
Ukraine
In Ukraine the term "Music nationalism" was coined by Stanyslav Lyudkevych in 1905. The article under this title is devoted to Mykola Lysenko who is considered to be the father of Ukrainian classical music. Ludkevych concludes that Lysenko's nationalism was inspired by those of Glinka in Russian music, though western tradition, particularly German, is still significant in his music, especially instrumental.
V. Hrabovsky assumes that Stanyslav Lyudkevych himself could be considered as significant nationalistic composer and musicologist thanks to his numerous composition under Ukraine-devoted titles as well as numerous papers devoted to use of Ukrainian folk songs and poetry in Ukrainian classical music.
Inspiration by Ukrainian folklore could be observed even earlier, particularly in compositions by Maxim Berezovsky (1745–1777), Dmitry Bortniansky (1751–1825), and Artemy Vedel (1767–1808). Semen Hulak-Artemovsky (1813–1873) is considered to be the author of the first Ukrainian opera (Zaporozhets za Dunayem, premièred in 1863). Lysenko's traditions were continued by, among others, Kyrylo Stetsenko (1882–1922), Mykola Leontovych (1877–1921), Yakiv Stepovy (1883–1921), Alexander Koshetz (1877–1944), and later, Levko Revutsky (1889–1977).
At the same time the term "nationalism" is not used in Ukrainian musicology (see for example , where such term is missing). Moreover, the article "Music Nationalism" by Ludkevych was prohibited in the USSR and was not widely known until its publication in 1999.
United Kingdom
Joseph Parry
Joseph Parry (1841–1903) was born in Wales, but moved to the United States as a child. In his adulthood, he traveled between Wales and America, and performed Welsh songs and glees with Welsh texts in recitals. He composed the first Welsh opera, Blodwen, in 1878.
Alexander Mackenzie
Alexander Mackenzie (1847–1935) wrote a Highland Ballad for violin and orchestra (1893), and the Scottish Concerto for piano and orchestra (1897). He also composed the Canadian Rhapsody. In his life, MacKenzie witnessed both the survivals of Jacobite culture, and the Red Clydeside Era. His music is heavily influenced by Jacobite art.
Charles Villiers Stanford
Charles Villiers Stanford (1852–1924) wrote five Irish Rhapsodies (1901–1914). He published volumes of Irish folk song arrangements, and his third symphony is titled the Irish symphony. In addition to being heavily influenced by Irish culture and folk music, he was particularly influenced by Johannes Brahms.
Edward Elgar
Edward Elgar (1857–1934) is best known for the Pomp and Circumstance Marches, the most famous of which is played every year as part of the "Last Night of the Proms" concert.
Ralph Vaughan Williams
Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872–1958) collected, published, and arranged many folksongs from across the country, and wrote many pieces, large and small scale, based on folk melodies, such as the Fantasia on Greensleeves and the Five Variants on "Dives and Lazarus. Vaughan Williams helped define musical nationalism, writing that "The art of music above all the other arts is the expression of the soul of a nation."
United States
Francis Hopkinson
Francis Hopkinson (1737-1791) was not only a composer but a lawyer, author, jurist, and most importantly, an American Founding Father. He also composed the first American opera, Temple of Minerva (1781).
Edward MacDowell
Edward MacDowell (1860–1908)'s Woodland Sketches, Op. 51 (1896) consists of ten short piano pieces bearing titles referring to the American landscape. In this way, they make a claim to MacDowell's identity as an American composer.
Henry Cowell
Henry Cowell (1897–1965) was an American avant-garde composer who wrote music inspired by American folk tunes.
Horatio Parker
Horatio Parker (1863–1919) was an American composer, organist and teacher.
Charles Ives
Charles Ives (1874–1954) was an American modernist composer, being one of the first American composers of international renown. He frequently employed quotation of popular American songs and referenced the holidays and landscapes of New England, such as in Three Places in New England, Central Park in the Dark, and A Symphony: New England Holidays.
Aaron Copland
Ironically, Aaron Copland (1900–1990) composed "Mexican" music such as El Salón México in addition to his American nationalist works.
References
Sources
Further reading
Apel, Willi. 1968. Harvard Dictionary of Music. Boston: Harvard University Press.
Applegate, Celia. 1998. 'How German Is It? Nationalism and the Idea of Serious Music in the Early Nineteenth Century', 19th-Century Music, 21, no. 3 (Spring): 274–296.
Castellanos, Pablo. 1969. El nacionalismo musical en México. México, D. F.: Seminario de Cultura Mexicana.
Dibble, Jeremy. 1997. "Musical Nationalism in Ireland in the Twentieth Century: Complexities and Contradictions". In Music and Nationalism in 20th-century Great Britain and Finland, edited by Tomi Mäkelä, 133–144. Hamburg: Bockel. .
Eichner, Barbara. 2012. History in Mighty Sounds. Musical Constructions of German National Identity, 1848–1914. Woodbridge: Boydell. .
Garmendia Paesky, Emma. 2007. "El nacionalismo musical de Alberto Williams en sus obras para piano: Milonga, vidalita y huella". Inter-American Music Review 17, nos. 1–2 (Summer): 293–306.
Grout, Donald J. 1960. A History of Western Music. New York: W. W. Norton.
Hebert, D. G. & Kertz-Welzel, A. (eds.). 2012. Patriotism and Nationalism in Music Education. Aldershot: Ashgate Press.
Kolt, Robert Paul. 2009. Robert Ward's The Crucible: Creating an American Musical Nationalism. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. .
Labonville, Marie Elizabeth. 2007. Juan Bautista Plaza and Musical Nationalism in Venezuela. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. .
Leersen, Joep (ed.). 2018. Encyclopedia of Romantic Nationalism in Europe, 2 vols. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. , online here.
Limón, José Eduardo. 2011. "'This Is Our Música, Guy!': Tejanos and Ethno/Regional Musical Nationalism". In Transnational Encounters: Music and Performance at the U.S.-Mexico Border, edited by Alejandro L. Madrid, 111–128. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. (cloth); (pbk).
Milin, Melita. 2004. "Socialist Realism as an Enforced Renewal of Musical Nationalism". In Socialist Realism and Music, edited by Mikuláš Bek, Geoffrey Chew, and Petr Macek, 39–43. Proceedings of the 36th Brněnské Hudebněvědné Kolokvium (2001), Brno. Prague: kpk: Koniasch Latin Press. . Poland".
Murphy, Michael. 2001. "Moniuszko and Musical Nationalism". In Musical Constructions of Nationalism: Essays on the History and Ideology of European Musical Culture, 1800–1945, edited by Harry M. White and Michael Murphy, 163–180. Cork: Cork University Press. (cloth); (pbk).
Otaola González, Paloma. 2008. "Oscar Esplá y el nacionalismo musical". Revista de Musicología 31, no. 2 (December): 453–497.
Porter, Cecelia Hopkins. 1977. "The Rheinlieder Critics: A Case of Musical Nationalism". The Musical Quarterly 63, no. 1 (January): 74–98.
Southern, Eileen. 1997. The Music of Black Americans, 3rd Edition. New York: W. W. Norton.
Stolba, K. Marie. 1990. The Development of Western Music: A History. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown.
Turino, Thomas R. 2000. "Race, Class, and Musical Nationalism in Zimbabwe". In Music and the Racial Imagination, edited by Ronald Michael Radano, Houston A. Baker Jr., and Philip V. Bohlman, 554–584. Chicago Studies in Ethnomusicology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (cloth); (pbk).
Villanueva, Carlos. 2008. "El nacionalismo musical en la obra de Alejo Carpentier: Variaciones sobre la lira y el bongó". Cuadernos de Música Iberoamericana, no. 15:119–131.
Romantic music
Nationalism
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call%20Me%20%28Blondie%20song%29
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Call Me (Blondie song)
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Call Me (Blondie song)
"Call Me" is a song by the American new wave band Blondie and the theme to the 1980 film American Gigolo. Produced and composed by Italian musician Giorgio Moroder, with lyrics by Blondie singer Debbie Harry, the song appeared in the film and was released in the United States in early 1980 as a single. "Call Me" was No. 1 for six consecutive weeks on the Billboard Hot 100, where it became the band's biggest single and second No. 1. It also hit No. 1 in the UK and Canada, where it became their fourth and second chart-topper, respectively. In the year-end chart of 1980, it was Billboards No. 1 single and RPM magazine's No. 3 in Canada.
Record World called it a "stirring electronic dance cut".
Composition and recording
"Call Me" was composed by Italian disco producer Giorgio Moroder as the main theme song of the 1980 film American Gigolo. It is played in the key of D minor with a tempo of 143 beats per minute, with Blondie's vocals ranging from C4 to E5. Moroder originally asked Stevie Nicks from Fleetwood Mac to perform a song for the soundtrack, but she was prevented because of a recently signed contract with Modern Records. Moroder turned to Debbie Harry of Blondie, presenting Harry with an instrumental track called "Man Machine". Harry was asked to write the lyrics, a process that Harry states took a mere few hours. The lyrics were written from the perspective of the main character in the film, a male prostitute.
Harry said the lyrics were inspired by her visual impressions from watching the film and that "When I was writing it, I pictured the opening scene, driving on the coast of California." The completed song was then recorded by the band, with Moroder producing. The bridge of the original English-language version also includes Harry saying "call me" in two European languages: and .
In 2014, keyboardist-composer Harold Faltermeyer remembered the recording process as having three main sections: first Moroder and his music crew recorded an instrumental version of the song at Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles, with the tape locked to SMPTE timecode so that it would synchronize with the film. Then the project moved to New York for the Blondie recording session, at which the band surprised Moroder by insisting they would play their own parts. Faltermeyer was engineering when Harry sang and Chris Stein played electric guitar. Stein's guitar and amplifier were buzzing and noisy, so his setup was repaired to get a clean recording. The band had difficulty locking to sync, so Moroder stopped the unfinished sessions to save time, and took the project back to Los Angeles to more quickly add the final parts with his own picked musicians, including a keyboard solo by Faltermeyer.
On the American Gigolo soundtrack album, Blondie the band is credited only for vocals, with other credits naming Moroder's crew of Keith Forsey on drums/percussion and Faltermeyer on keyboards and arrangements. Faltermeyer said the band was angry about being replaced by session players, but the song turned out to be very successful, so they took it in stride. Blondie keyboard player Jimmy Destri was obligated to play Faltermeyer's solo in concerts.
Release
In the US, the song was released by three record companies: the longest version (at 8:06) on the soundtrack album by Polydor, the 7" and 12" on Blondie's label Chrysalis, and a Spanish-language 12" version, with lyrics by Buddy and Mary McCluskey, on the disco label Salsoul Records. A Spanish-language version, titled "Llámame", was meant for release in Mexico and some South American countries. This version was also released in the US and the UK and had its CD debut on Chrysalis/EMI's rarities compilation Blonde and Beyond (1993). In 1988, a remixed version by Ben Liebrand taken from the Blondie remix album Once More into the Bleach was issued as a single in the UK. In 2001, the "original long version" appeared as a bonus track on the Autoamerican album re-issue.
In 2014, Blondie re-recorded the song for their compilation album Greatest Hits Deluxe Redux. The compilation was part of a 2-disc set called Blondie 4(0) Ever which included their tenth studio album Ghosts of Download and marked the 40th anniversary of the forming of the band.
Harry recorded an abbreviated version of the song that was backed by the Muppet Band for her guest appearance on The Muppet Show in August 1980. It was first broadcast in January 1981.
Popularity and acclaim
The single was released in the United States in February 1980. It spent six consecutive weeks at number one and was certified Gold (for one million copies sold) by the RIAA. It also spent four weeks at No. 2 on the US dance chart. The single was also No. 1 on Billboard magazine's 1980 year-end chart. The song lists at No. 57 on Billboard's All Time Top 100. It was released in the UK two months later, where it became Blondie's fourth UK No. 1 single in little over a year. The song was also played on a British Telecom advert in the 1980s.
25 years after its original release, "Call Me" was ranked at No. 283 on the [[list of Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time|list of Rolling Stone'''s 500 Greatest Songs of All Time]]. In 1981, the Village Voice ranked "Call Me" as the third-best song of the year 1980 on its annual year-end critics' poll, Pazz & Jop. In 2017, Billboard ranked the song number three on their list of the 10 greatest Blondie songs, and in 2021, The Guardian ranked the song number four on their list of the 20 greatest Blondie songs.
In 1981, the song was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal, as well as for a Golden Globe for Best Original Song.
Music video
There were two videos made:
One was clips and video footage of Debbie Harry in New York City. The video can be found on the 1991 UK video compilation The Complete Picture: The Very Best of Deborah Harry and Blondie.
The other, which came out in 1981, did not feature any of the band. It depicted a New York City taxi driver (who had appeared in several other Blondie music videos) driving his Checker Taxi through Manhattan traffic. This version was part of the 1981 "Best of Blondie" compilation video.
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
End-of-decade charts
All-time charts
1988 Remix charts
Sales and certifications
Release history
1980 release
US, UK 7" (CHS 2414)
"Call Me (Theme from American Gigolo)" (7" edit) — 3:32
"Call Me" (7" instrumental) — 3:27
UK 12" (CHS 12 2414)
"Call Me" (7" edit) — 3:32
"Call Me" (Spanish version – 7" edit) — 3:32
"Call Me" (7" instrumental) — 3:27
US 12" (Polydor PRO 124) [promo only]
"Call Me" (Theme from American Gigolo) — 8:04
"Night Drive" (Reprise) - by Giorgio Moroder — 3:52
US 12" (Salsoul SG 341)
"Call Me" (Spanish version, extended) — 6:23
"Call Me" (Instrumental) — 6:10
1989 release
UK 7" (CHS 3342-1)
"Call Me" (Ben Liebrand Remix edit) — 3:48
"Call Me" (Original Version) — 3:31
UK 12" (CHS 12 3342)
"Call Me" (Ben Liebrand Remix) — 7:09
"Backfired" (Bruce Forrest And Frank Heller Remix) — 6:03
"Call Me" (Original Version) — 3:31
UK CD (CHSCD 3342)
"Call Me" (Ben Liebrand Remix) — 7:09
"Backfired" (Bruce Forrest And Frank Heller Remix) — 6:03
Performed by Debbie Harry
"Call Me" (Original Version) — 3:31
"Hanging on the Telephone" — 2:23
In September 2023, U2's single Atomic City credited Harry/Moroder as co writers on the track given the clear inspiration of Call Me
A version of this song appeared on the 1980 album Chipmunk Punk'' by the Chipmunks.
In 2022, electronic dance music producers Gabry Ponte, R3hab and Timmy Trumpet released a cover of the song. It peaked at No. 80 on the Dutch Single Top 100.
See also
List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 1980
References
External links
1979 songs
1980 singles
Blondie (band) songs
In This Moment songs
Century Media Records singles
Chrysalis Records singles
Dance-rock songs
Polydor Records singles
Song recordings produced by Giorgio Moroder
Songs about prostitutes
Songs about telephone calls
Songs written for films
Songs with feminist themes
Songs written by Giorgio Moroder
Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles
Cashbox number-one singles
RPM Top Singles number-one singles
UK Singles Chart number-one singles
Macaronic songs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug%20cartel
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Drug cartel
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Drug cartel
A drug cartel is a criminal organization composed of independent drug lords who collude with each other in order to improve their profits and dominate the illegal drug trade. Drug cartels form with the purpose of controlling the supply of the illegal drug trade and maintaining prices at a high level. The formations of drug cartels are common in Latin American countries. Rivalries between multiple drug cartels cause them to wage turf wars against each other.
The basic structure of a drug cartel is as follows:
Falcons: Considered as the "eyes and ears" of the streets, the "falcons" are the lowest rank in any drug cartel. They are scouts, who are responsible for conducting reconnaissance, such as reporting the activities of the police, the military and rival groups.
Hitmen: The armed group within the drug cartel, responsible for carrying out assassinations, kidnappings, thefts and extortions, operating protection rackets, as well as defending their plaza (turf) from rival groups and the military.
Lieutenants: The second highest position in the drug cartel organization, responsible for supervising the hitmen and falcons within their own territory. They are allowed to carry out low-profile murders without permission from their bosses.
Drug lords: The highest position in any drug cartel, responsible for supervising the entire drug industry, appointing territorial leaders, making alliances, in addition to planning high-profile murders.
There are other operating groups within the drug cartels. For example, the drug producers and suppliers, although not considered in the basic structure, are critical operators of any drug cartel, along with the smugglers, distributors, sales representatives, accountants and money launderers. Furthermore, the arms suppliers operate in a completely different circle; they are technically not considered part of the cartel's logistics.
Africa
Cape Verdean organized crime
Mungiki
Organized crime in Nigeria
Confraternities in Nigeria
Black Axe (organized crime group)
Anini gang
Mai-Mai militia gangs
Moroccan hashish smugglers
Ahmed organization
Americas
North America
Canada
Rivard organization
Red Scorpions
Bacon Brothers
United Nations gang
Montreal
West End Gang
Blass gang
Dubois Brothers
Indo-Canadian organized crime
Punjabi Mafia ਜੌਹਲ ਗਿਰੋਹ (Canada)
Canadian mafia families
Rizzuto crime family
Cuntrera-Caruana Mafia clan
Cotroni crime family
Musitano crime family
Papalia crime family
Luppino crime family
Perri crime family
Siderno Group
Commisso 'ndrina
Mexico
Mexican cartels (also known in Mexico as: la Mafia (the mafia or the mob), La Maña (the skill / the bad manners), narcotraficantes (narco-traffickers), or simply as narcos usually refers to several, rival, criminal organizations that are combated by the Mexican government in the Mexican War on Drugs (List sorted by branches and heritage):
Mexican academic Oswaldo Zavala, in his book Drug Cartels Do Not Exist argues that academics, officials, journalists and writers are mistaken to label the criminal gangs as cartels, noting that they do not meet the definition due to the competitive nature of the drugs trade, and the lack of hierarchal structure. He states that the Mexican state perpetuates the label to justify their militarised response.
Note: As of 2020 the DEA considered the cartels of Sinaloa-Beltran, Juarez-Linea, Jalisco, Golfo-Noreste-Zetas, La Familia and Rojos-Guerreros to be the most influential cartels in Mexico.
Gulf Cartel (The oldest Mexican criminal syndicate, started as Prohibition-era bootlegging gang)
Los Zetas (Formerly part of the Gulf Cartel, now independent)
La Familia Michoacana (Formerly a branch of the Gulf Cartel, then went independent)
Knights Templar Cartel (Splintered from La Familia Cartel)
Sinaloa Cartel (Spawned from the Guadalajara Cartel)
Colima Cartel (members are now a branch of the Sinaloa Cartel)
Sonora Cartel (was reformed in 2018 and is still a branch of the Sinaloa Cartel)
Los Ántrax (enforcer squad)
La Resistencia (Splintered from the Milenio Cartel; disbanded)
Jalisco New Generation Cartel (Independent remnants of the Milenio Cartel.
Los Negros (Beltran-Leyva enforcement squad; disbanded)
South Pacific Cartel (branch of the Beltran Leyva Cartel in Morelos)
Independent Cartel of Acapulco (Splinter from the Beltran-Leyva Cartel)
La Barredora (gang)
La Mano Con Ojos (gang) (small cell of Beltran-Leyva members in the State of Mexico) (Disbanded)
La Nueva Administración (Splintered from the Beltran-Leyva Cartel) (Disbanded)
La Oficina (gang) (cell of the Beltran-Leyva Cartel in Aguascalientes) (Disbanded)
Cártel de la Sierra (cell in Guerrero)
Cártel de La Calle (cell in Chiapas)
Los Chachos (gang in Tamaulipas) (Disbanded)
Tijuana Cartel (Spawned from the Guadalajara Cartel)
Oaxaca Cartel (Was a branch of the disbanded Tijuana Cartel, its regional leader was captured in 2007)
Juárez Cartel (Spawned from the Guadalajara Cartel)
La Línea (Juárez Cartel enforcer squad)
Barrio Azteca (U.S. street gang) (Allied with La Linea)
Santa Rosa de Lima Cartel
Caborca Cartel
Lesser-known small-criminal organizations:
Los Mexicles (U.S. street gang)
Los Texas (street gang) (disbanded)
Government officials: Other organizations that have been involved in drug trade or traffic in Mexico:
Mexican officials:
Municipal, state, and Federal Police forces in Mexico
Mexican Armed Forces (Army and Navy)
Mexico City International Airport
Club Xoloitzcuintles (football)
United States officials:
U.S. Customs and Border Protection
United States
The United States of America is the world's largest consumer of cocaine and other illegal drugs. This is a list of American criminal organizations involved in illegal drug traffic, drug trade and other related crimes in the United States:
National Crime Syndicate
Seven Group
Murder, Inc.
Polish Mob
Saltis-McErlane Gang
Kielbasa Posse
The Greenpoint Crew
Flats Mob
The Flathead gang
Prohibition-era gangs
Galveston
Downtown Gang
Beach Gang
The Maceo syndicate
Shelton Brothers Gang
Sheldon Gang
Broadway Mob
The Lanzetta Brothers
Circus Cafe Gang
Wandering Family
Remus organization
Hispanic-American
Marielitos
The Corporation
Paisas
Nuestra Familia
Surenos or SUR 13
Nortenos or Norte 14
Puerto Rican mafia
Agosto organization
La ONU
Martinez Familia Sangeros
Solano organization
Negri organization
Márquez gambling ring
Polanco-Rodriguez organization
Los Angeles (See also Rampart scandal)
Nash gang
Wonderland Gang
Crips or Locs
Bloods or B Dogs
Dixie Mafia
Cornbread Mafia
Greek-American organized crime
Philadelphia Greek Mob
Velentzas Family
Assyrian/Chaldean mafia
Hawaii
The Company
Leota mob
Wall gang
Elkins mob
The Chickens and the Bulls
Binion mob
Johnston gang
American Mafia
Italian immigrants to the United States in the early 19th century formed various small-time gangs which gradually evolved into sophisticated crime syndicates which dominated organized crime in America for several decades. Although government crackdowns and a less-tightly knit Italian-American community have largely reduced their power, they remain an active force in the underworld.
Active crime families
American Mafia
The Commission
The Five Families of New York City
Bonanno
Indelicato crew
The Motion Lounge Crew
Colombo
Scarpa crew
Genovese
116th Street Crew
Greenwich Village Crew
New Jersey Crew
Gambino
Ozone Park Boys
DeMeo crew
Baltimore Crew
South Florida faction
New Jersey faction
The Bergin Crew
Cherry Hill Gambinos
Lucchese
The Jersey Crew
The Vario Crew
107th Street gang
Magaddino crime family
DeCavalcante crime family
The Chicago Outfit (see also Unione Siciliane)
Las Vegas crew (defunct)
Philadelphia crime family
Pittsburgh crime family
Patriarca crime family
Angiulo Brothers crew
Cleveland crime family
Los Angeles crime family
Kansas City crime family
Trafficante crime family
Detroit Partnership
Milwaukee crime family
New Orleans crime family
Defunct mafia families
Morello crime family
Genna crime family
Porrello crime family
St. Louis crime family
Rochester Crime Family
Bufalino crime family
Dallas crime family
Denver crime family
San Francisco crime family
San Jose crime family
Seattle crime family
Omaha crime family
Licavoli Mob
Cardinelli gang
New York Camorra
East Harlem Purple Gang
Jewish mafia
New York City
Schultz gang
The Bugs and Meyer Mob
Shapiro Brothers
Yiddish Black Hand
Rothstein organization
Kaplan gang
Rosenzweig gang
Boston
69th Street Gang
Sagansky organization
Solomon organization
Los Angeles
Mickey Cohen gang (mix between Jewish and Italian members)
The Purple Gang
Zwillman gang
Kid Cann's gang
Birger mob
Cleveland Syndicate
African-American organized crime
New York City
The Council
Harlem numbers racket
Bumpy Johnson gang
Supreme Team
The Bebos
The Country Boys
Matthews Organization
The Family
Detroit
Black Mafia Family
Young Boys, Inc.
Chambers Brothers
Philadelphia
Black Mafia
Junior Black Mafia
Oakland, California
69 Mob
Baltimore
Williams organization (drug trafficking)
Washington, D.C.
Rayful Edmond organization
Chicago
Theodore Roe's gambling ring
Stokes organization
Atlantic City
Aso Posse
Miami
Miami Boys
Rosemond Organization
Irish Mob
Prohibition-era Chicago gangs
North Side Gang
James Patrick O'Leary organization
John Patrick Looney gang
Valley Gang
Ragen's Colts
Touhy gang
Boston
Mullen Gang
Winter Hill Gang
Gustin Gang
Charlestown Mob
Killeen gang
Danny Hogan's gang
Danny Walsh gang
Tom Dennison empire
Danny Greene's Celtic Club
Nucky Johnson's Organization
K&A Gang
Enright gang
New York
Dwyer gang
The Westies
White Hand Gang
Higgins gang
St Louis
Hogan Gang
Egan's Rats
Caribbean
Chadee gang (Trinidad and Tobago)
Jamaican Yardies & Posses
Shower Posse
POW Posse
Tottenham Mandem
Star Gang
Klans Massive
No Limit Soldiers (Curaçao)
Phantom death squad (Guyana)
Suri-kartel (Suriname)
Zoe Pound (Haitian, see also Tonton Macoute)
Dominican drug cartels
Paulino organization
Féliz organization
South America
Brazil
Primeiro Comando da Capital, based in São Paulo
Comando Vermelho, based in Rio de Janeiro
Terceiro Comando, based in Rio de Janeiro (disbanded)
Terceiro Comando Puro, based in Rio de Janeiro
Amigos dos Amigos, based in Rio de Janeiro
Família do Norte, based in Amazonas
Guardiões do Estado, based in Ceará
Bolivia
Bolivian drug cartels (See also García Meza regime drug trafficking)
Chapare Cartel
La Corporación
Santa Cruz Cartel
Colombia
Colombia is the largest producer of cocaine in the world, and cocaine production in Colombia reached an all-time high in 2017.
Active Colombian drug cartels:
The Black Eagles
Clan del Golfo
Oficina de Envigado
National Liberation Army (Colombia)
FARC dissidents
Los Rastrojos
Historical Colombian drug cartels:
Medellín Cartel
Cali Cartel
Norte del Valle Cartel
North Coast Cartel
United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia
Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia
Peru
Peruvian drug cartels (see also Vladimiro Montesinos)
Zevallos organisation
Venezuela
Historically Venezuela has been a path to the United States for illegal drugs originating in Colombia, through Central America and Mexico and Caribbean countries such as Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico.
According to the United Nations, there has been an increase of cocaine trafficking through Venezuela since 2002. In 2005, Venezuela severed ties with the United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), accusing its representatives of spying. Following the departure of the DEA from Venezuela and the expansion of DEA's partnership with Colombia in 2005, Venezuela became more attractive to drug traffickers. Between 2008 and 2012, Venezuela's cocaine seizure ranking among other countries declined, going from being ranked fourth in the world for cocaine seizures in 2008 to sixth in the world in 2012.
The cartel groups involved include:
The Cuntrera-Caruana Mafia clan moved to Venezuela, which became an important hideout as the clan bought hotels and founded various businesses in Caracas and Valencia, as well as an extended ranch in Barinas, near the Colombian border. "Venezuela has its own Cosa Nostra family as if it is Sicilian territory," according to the Italian police. "The structure and hierarchy of the Mafia has been entirely reproduced in Venezuela." The Cuntrera-Caruana clan had direct links with the ruling Commission of the Sicilian Mafia, and are acknowledged by the American Cosa Nostra.
Pasquale, Paolo and Gaspare Cuntrera were expelled from Venezuela in 1992, "almost secretly smuggled out of the country, as if it concerned one of their own drug transports. It was
imperative they could not contact people on the outside who could have used their political connections to stop the expulsion." Their expulsion was ordered by a commission of the Venezuelan Senate headed by Senator Cristobal Fernandez Dalo and his money laundering investigator, Thor Halvorssen Hellum. They were arrested in September 1992 at Fiumicino airport (Rome), and in 1996 were sentenced to 13–20 years.
Norte del Valle Cartel : In 2008 the leader of the Colombian Norte del Valle Cartel, Wilber Varela, was found murdered in a hotel in Mérida in Venezuela.
The Cartel of the Suns According to Jackson Diehl. Deputy Editorial Page Editor of The Washington Post, the Bolivarian government of Venezuela shelters "one of the world's biggest drug cartels". There have also been allegations that former president Hugo Chávez and Diosdado Cabello being involved with drug trafficking.
In May 2015, The Wall Street Journal reported from United States officials that drug trafficking in Venezuela increased significantly with Colombian drug traffickers moving from Colombia to Venezuela due to pressure from law enforcement. One United States Department of Justice official described the higher ranks of the Venezuelan government and military as "a criminal organization", with high ranking Venezuelan officials, such as National Assembly President Diosdado Cabello, being accused of drug trafficking. Those involved with investigations stated that Venezuelan government defectors and former traffickers had given information to investigators and that details of those involved in government drug trafficking were increasing.
Central America
Honduras
Honduran drug cartels
Matta organization
Cachiros
El Salvador
Mara Salvatrucha
Nicaragua
Nicaraguan drug cartels (see also Contras)
Oscar Danilo Blandón
Asia
East Asia
Korea
Korean criminal organizations (see also North Korea's illicit activities)
Japan
Japanese criminal organizations
The yakuza of Japan are similar to the Italian mafias in that they originated centuries ago and follow a rigid set of traditions, but have several aspects that make them unique, such as their full-body tattoos and their fairly open place in Japanese society. Many yakuza groups are umbrella organizations, smaller gangs reporting to a larger crime syndicate.
Active yakuza groups
Roku-daime Yamaguchi-gumi 六代目山口組
Yon-daime Yamaken-gumi 四代目山健組
Ni-daime Kodo-kai 二代目弘道会
Ni-daime Takumi-gumi 二代目宅見組
Go-daime Kokusui-kai 五代目國粹会
Inagawa-kai 稲川会
Sumiyoshi-kai 住吉会
Sumiyoshi-ikka Shinwa-kai 住吉一家親和会
Kansuke Juni-daime 勘助十二代目
Kobe Yamaguchi-gumi
Matsuba-kai 松葉会
Kyokuto-kai 極東会
Dojin-kai 道仁会
Kitamura-gumi
Yon-daime Kudo-kai 四代目工藤會
Roku-daime Aizu-Kotetsu-kai 六代目会津小鉄会
Okinawa Kyokuryu-kai 沖縄旭琉会
Kyushu Seido-kai 九州誠道会
Go-daime Kyosei-kai 五代目共政会
San-daime Fukuhaku-kai 三代目福博会
Soai-kai 双愛会
Yon-daime Kyokuryu-kai 四代目旭琉会
San-daime Kyodo-kai 三代目俠道会
Taishu-kai 太州会
Shichi-daime Goda-ikka 七代目合田一家
Toa-kai 東亜会
Ni-daime Azuma-gumi 二代目東組
Yon-daime Asano-gumi 四代目浅野組
Hachi-daime Sakaume-gumi 八代目酒梅組
Yon-daime Kozakura-ikka 四代目小桜一家
Ni-daime Shinwa-kai 二代目親和会
Defunct yakuza groups
Kantō-kai 関東会
Ni-daime Honda-kai 二代目本多会
Yamaguchi-gumi
Goto-gumi 後藤組
Suishin-kai 水心会
Ichiwa-kai 一和会
San-daime Yamano-kai 三代目山野会
Nakano-kai 中野会
Kyokuto Sakurai-soke-rengokai 極東桜井總家連合会
Chinese
The Triads is a popular name for a number of Chinese criminal secret societies, which have existed in various forms over the centuries (see for example Tiandihui). However, not all Chinese gangs fall into line with these traditional groups, as many non-traditional criminal organizations have formed, both in China and the Chinese diaspora.
Hong Kong-based Triads
14K Group 十四K
Wo Group 和字頭
Wo Shing Wo 和勝和
Wo On Lok (Shui Fong) 和安樂(水房)
Wo Hop To 和合圖(老和)
Sun Yee On 新義安(老新)
Luen Group 聯字頭
Big Circle Gang 大圈
Sio Sam Ong (小三王)
Chinese-American gangs (See also Tongs)
Wah Ching 華青
Ping On
Black Dragons 黑龍
Jackson Street Boys 積臣街小子
Taiwan-based Triads
United Bamboo Gang 竹聯幫
Four Seas Gang 四海幫
Celestial Alliance
Mainland Chinese crime groups (see also Hanlong Group)
Chongqing group 重慶組
Defunct
Honghuzi gangs
Green Gang 青帮
Triads in Cholon
Wu Bang
Southeast Asia
Golden Triangle
Burmese drug cartels (see also Myanmar Nationalities Democratic Alliance Army)
Khun Sa cartel (see also Mong Tai Army)
Red Wa (see also United Wa State Army and National Democratic Alliance Army)
Hawngleuk Militia
Han cartel
Laotian drug cartels (see also Ouane Rattikone)
Chao pho
Red Wa
Filipino crime gangs (See also Abu Sayyaf and New People's Army)
Kuratong Baleleng
Waray-Waray gangs
Bahala Na Gang
Sigue Sigue Sputnik
Putik gang (defunct)
Cambodian crime gangs
Teng Bunma organization
Malaysian crime gangs
Mamak Gang
Secret societies in Singapore
Ang Soon Tong 洪順堂
Ghee Hin Kongsi 義興公司
Hai San 海山
Wah Kee華記
Ah Kong 阿公
Vietnamese Xã Hội Đen
Bình Xuyên
Đại Cathay's mafia during the 60s
Năm Cam's mafia of the 90s
Khánh Trắng's "Đồng Xuân Labor Union", a crime syndicate under the guise of a legal entity
Dung Hà's gang
Vũ Xuân Trường's gang: a crime syndicate led by Vũ Xuân Trường, a government official and also a drug lord.
South Asia
Mafia Raj
Dacoit gangs
India
Indian mafia (See also Insurgency in Northeast India)
Mumbai
D-Company डी कंपनी
Chhota Rajan gang राजन गिरोह
Gawli gang गवली गिरोह
Bada Rajan gang
Surve gang
Mudaliar gang
Mastan gang
Budesh gang
Kalani gang
Kala Kaccha Gangs
Chaddi Baniyan Gangs
Singh gang
Veerappan gang
Devi gang
Pathan mafia
Lala gang
Uttar Pradesh
Ansari gang
Yadav gang
Bangalore
Rai gang
Ramachandra gang
Jayaraj gang
Sri Lanka
Sri Lankan criminal groups
Pakistan
Pakistani mafia (See also Peoples' Aman Committee, Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan, Muttahida Qaumi Movement and ISI involvement with drugs)
Chotu gang
Lyari Gang
Afridi Network
Afghanistan
Golden Crescent
Afghan drug cartels (see also Taliban)
Noorzai Organization
Khan organization
Karzai organization (alleged)
Bagcho organization
Middle East
Israeli mafia (see also Stern Gang)
Abergil Crime Family משפחת הפשע אברג'יל
Alperon crime family משפחת הפשע אלפרון
Zeev Rosenstein organization ארגון זאב רוזנשטיין
Palestinian organized crime (See also Abu Nidal Organization)
Doghmush clan
Turkish mafia
Crime groups in Turkey (see also Deep state and Yüksekova Gang)
Kılıç gang
Çakıcı gang
Yaprak Family
Topal organisation
Söylemez Gang
Kurdish clans (see also Kurdistan Workers' Party#Involvement in drug trafficking)
Baybaşin clan
Cantürk crime family
Turkish organised crime in Great Britain
Arifs
Turkish organised crime in Germany
Arabacı clan
İmaç clan (Netherlands)
Iranian organized crime (see also Jundallah and illegal activities of the IRGC)
Tahvili crime family
Lebanese mafia (See also Lebanese Civil War militias)
Arab crime clans
Miri-Clan
Al-Zein Clan
Ibrahim clan
Central Asia
Uzbek mafia (See also Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan)
Rakhimov organization
Kyrgyz mafia
Erkinbayev group
Akmatbayev group
Kolbayev group
Eurasia
Russia
Although organized crime existed in the Soviet era, the gangs really gained in power and international reach during the transition to capitalism. The term Russian Mafia, 'mafiya' or mob is a blanket (and somewhat inaccurate) term for the various organized crime groups that emerged in this period from the 15 former republics of the USSR and unlike their Italian counterparts does not mean members are necessarily of Russian ethnicity or uphold any ancient criminal traditions, although this is the case for some members.
Russian-Jewish mafia
Brighton Beach
Agron gang
Nayfeld gang
Balagula gang
Mogilevich organization
Brothers' Circle (Existence is debatable)
Russian mafia (See also Lubyanka Criminal Group, Three Whales Corruption Scandal and Sergei Magnitsky)
Moscow
Izmaylovskaya gang
Solntsevskaya bratva
New York branch
Orekhovskaya gang
St Petersburg (See also Baltik-Eskort)
Tambov Gang
Togliatti mafia
Uralmash gang
Lazovsky gang
Vladivostok gang
Kurganskaya group
Tsapok gang
'Elephants' group
Kazan gang
North Caucasia
See also Caucasus Emirate
Chechen mafia (See also Special Purpose Islamic Regiment and Kadyrovtsy)
Obschina
Labazanov gang
Georgia
Georgian mafia (See also Mkhedrioni and Forest Brothers)
Kutaisi clan
Tbilisi clan
21st Century Association
Armenia
Armenian mafia
Mirzoyan-Terdjanian organization
Armenian Power
Azerbaijan
Azeri mafia
Janiev organization
Europe
Sweden
Original Gangsters
Fucked For Life
Uppsalamaffian
Chosen Ones
Werewolf Legion
Asir
Vårvädersligan
Netherlands
Organized crime in the Netherlands
Bruinsma drug gang
Holleeder gang
Moroccan mafia
France
French Milieu (See also Service d'Action Civique)
Corsican mafia (see also National Liberation Front of Corsica)
Unione Corse
Brise de Mer gang
Les Caïds Des Cités
Faïd gang
The Barbarians
Wigs gang
North African Brigade (see also Carlingue)
Tractions Avant gang
Bande des Trois Canards
French gypsy gangs
Hornec gang
Greece
Greek mafia
Ireland
Ireland
Dublin
Cahill gang
Gilligan gang
Foley gang
Hyland gang
Dunne gang
The Westies
Limerick
McCarthy-Dundon
Keane-Collopy
Rathkeale Rovers
Kinahan Organised Crime Group
Spain
Spain
Galician mafia
Romani clans
El Clan De La Paca
Poland
Poland (See also Group 13)
Pruszków mafia
Wołomin mafia
Slovakia
Slovak mafia
Hungaro-Slovak mafia
Hungary
Raffael clan
Sztojka clan
Czech Republic
Mrázek organization
Krejčíř organization
Italy
Sicilian Mafia
Sicilian Mafia Commission
Mandamenti
See also List of Sicilian Mafia clans
Cuntrera-Caruana Mafia clan
Inzerillo Mafia clan
Corleonesi
Greco Mafia clan
Motisi Mafia clan
'Ndrangheta
La Provincia
See also List of 'ndrine
Honoured Society (Melbourne)
Mammoliti 'ndrina
Bellocco 'ndrina
Cataldo 'ndrina
Commisso 'ndrina
Cordì 'ndrina
De Stefano 'ndrina
Pesce 'ndrina
Barbaro 'ndrina
Piromalli 'ndrina
Serraino 'ndrina
Siderno Group
Camorra
Secondigliano Alliance
Licciardi clan
Contini clan
Lo Russo clan
Mallardo clan
Di Lauro Clan
Casalesi clan
Fabbrocino clan
Vollaro clan
Scissionisti di Secondigliano
La Torre clan
Polverino clan
Rinaldi clan
De Luca Bossa clan
Aprea-Cuccaro clan
Cesarano clan
Puca clan
Sacra Corona Unita
Società foggiana
Stidda
Mala del Brenta
Banda della Magliana
Mafia Capitale
Sinti Casamonica clan
Clan Spada di Ostia
Milanese gangs
Banda della Comasina
Turatello crew
Balkans
Balkan organized crime gained prominence in the chaos following the communist era, notably the transition to capitalism and the wars in former Yugoslavia.
Albanian mafia
Kosovan mafia
Albania
Gang of Çole
Gang of Gaxhai
Gang of Pusi i Mezinit
Lazarat marijuana growers
Rudaj Organization (New York City)
Gang of Ismail Lika
Dobroshi gang (International)
Naserligan (Sweden)
K-Falangen (Sweden)
Bosnian mafia
Prazina gang
Bajramović gang
Delalić gang
M-Falangen (Sweden)
Bulgarian mafia (see also Multigroup)
VIS
SIC
Karamanski gang
TIM
Naglite
Rashkov clan
Serbian mafia
Arkan clan
Zemun Clan
Joca Amsterdam gang
Magaš clan
Giška gang
Pink Panthers
Serb mafia in Scandinavia
Kotur mob
Yugoslav Brotherhood
Montenegrin mafia (see also allegations of Milo Đukanović's involvement in cigarette smuggling)
Macedonian mafia
Frankfurt mafia
Bajrush klan
Nezim klan'
Romanian mafia
Băhăian organisation
Great Britain
London
Adams crime family
The Richardson Gang
The Firm
The Syndicate
Comer gang
Buttmarsh Boys
Interwar era mobs
Messina Brothers
Sabini syndicate
Hoxton Gang
Elephant and Castle Mob
Birmingham Boys
Essex Boys
Manchester
Quality Street Gang
Noonan firm
Cheetham Hillbillies
The Gooch Close Gang
Liverpool
Curtis Warren's drug empire
Whitney gang
Aggi Crew
Glasgow
McGraw firm
Thompson firm
Delta Crime Syndicate
Bestwood Cartel
Ukraine
Ukrainian mafia
Donetsk Clan
Salem gang
Lithuania
Lithuanian mafia
Vilnius Brigade
Estonia
Estonian mafia/Obtshak
Linnuvabriku group
Transnistria
Transnistrian mafia
Australia
Sydney
5T gang (1985–1999)
Freeman gang (defunct)
Lenny's gang (1960s)
Mr Sin's gang
Razor gangs (1920s)
Melbourne
Carlton Crew
Moran family
Williams family
Pettingill family
Richmond gang
Perth
Salvator cartel
References
Further reading
"Drug Wars". Frontline. 2006. PBS.
External links
"Mexico: Drug Cartels a Growing Threat"—Worldpress, 2006
Illegal drug trade
Organized crime groups
Organized crime terminology
Smuggling
Transnational organized crime
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Павленко
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Павленко — українське прізвище, походить від імені Павло.
Відомі носії прізвища Павленко
Павленко — одне з псевдо Ростислава Волошина;
А
Павленко Анатолій
Павленко Анатолій Єгорович (1956—2018) — військовий державний діяч України, генерал-лейтенант.
Павленко Анатолій Михайлович — доктор технічних наук, професор;
Павленко Анатолій Олександрович (1942) — перекладач, письменник;
Павленко Анатолій Федорович (1940—2016) — доктор економічних наук, професор, член-кореспондент АПНУ; завідувач кафедри маркетингу, член президії ВАК України; президент Української асоціації маркетингу;
Павленко Андрій Олексійович (1984—2017) — прапорщик Збройних сил України, учасник російсько-української війни.
В
Павленко Вадим Іванович (1955—2000) — радянський футболіст, що грав на позиції нападника. Майстер спорту СРСР.
Павленко Валентина Василівна (* 1951) — — українська поетка, членкиня Національної спілки письменників України.
Павленко Василь Артемович (1894 — після 1957). Народився у Чернігові. Закінчив вчительську семінарію, згодом Чугуївське військове училище. Учасник Першої світової війни, декілька разів був поранений і контужений. Звільнений від військової служби у 1916 як інвалід першої групи в чині поручика. Активний учасник українського військового руху навесні 1917 у Чернігові. Його дії викликали незадоволення як місцевої влади, так і київської. 11 липня 1917 за розпорядженням генерального секретаря внутрішніх справ Винниченка його було заарештовано «яко людину хвору і славолюбну і загрожуючу спокою населення губернії і не підлягаючу центральному українському урядові» під конвоєм відправлено до Києва. Відбувши декілька місяців у в'язниці, Павленко повернувся до Чернігова і більше не брав участі в політичному житті. В подальшому під прізвищем Чарівний-Павленко учителював. Двічі заарештовувався: у 1937 з посади завідувача школи у с. Півці Чернігівського району. Після відбуття 10-ти річного ув'язнення в таборі на Далекому Сході у 1949 працював робітником у Чернігові й знову був заарештований. Реабілітований у 1957.
Павленко Василь Васильович (1911—1943) — український радянський військовий діяч, танкіст, підполковник. Депутат Верховної Ради СРСР 1-го скликання.
Павленко Віктор Вікторович (* 1966) — український політик. Народний депутат України.
Павленко Віталій Миколайович (* 1975) — український науковець; доктор технічних наук.
Павленко Віра Іванівна (1912—1991) — українська художниця, майстриня петриківського розпису;
Павленко Владислав Віталійович (1994) — український футболіст;
Павленко Владлен Вячеславович (1971—2011) — російський артист музичного театру;
Павленко Володимир Володимирович (1946) — український архітектор;
Павленко Володимир Петрович (1960) — український державний службовець.
Г
Павленко Ганна Іванівна (Павленко-Черниченко) (1919—2008) — українська художниця, майстриня петриківського розпису;
Павленко Георгій Євстафійович (1898—1970) — радянський науковець-гідромеханік, академік АН УРСР;
Павленко Георгій Миколайович (1929—2005) — український радянський діяч, машиніст обертових печей, новатор виробництва. Герой Соціалістичної Праці.
Павленко Григорій Григорович (1912—1995) — радянський економіст. Керуючий Української республіканської контори Держбанку СРСР.
Павленко Григорій Олексійович (1925—1992) — український художник;
Д
Павленко Дмитро Петрович (1984—2016) — сержант Збройних сил України, учасник російсько-української війни.
Павленко Дмитро Полікарпович (1917—1986) — радянський залізничник, Герой Соціалістичної Праці.
Е; Є
Павленко Едуард Іванович (1947) — депутат ВР України, член фракції Партії регіонів (з 11.2007);
Павленко Євген Сергійович — капітан Збройних сил України, учасник російсько-української війни.
І
Павленко Іван Анатолійович — полковник Збройних сил України, учасник російсько-української війни, що відзначився під час російського вторгнення в Україну в 2022 році.
Павленко Іван Васильович (1914—2010) — український військовик. Ветеран Другої світової війни.
Павленко Ірина Яківна (* 1959) — фольклорист, літературознавець, доктор філологічних наук, професор.
Й
Павленко Йосип Дмитрович (1922–1972) — радянський снайпер, Герой Радянського Союзу (1944).
К
Павленко Катерина Анатоліївна (* 1988) — українська співачка, фольклористка, композиторка, солістка гурту Go_A.
Павленко Катерина Василівна — старший матрос Збройних Сил України, учасниця російсько-української війни.
Павленко Катерина Юріївна (* 1997) — українська лижниця. Кандидат у майстри спорту України.
Л
Павленко Леонід Іванович (* 1934) — 1-й секретар Волинського обласного комітету КПУ. Депутат Верховної Ради СРСР 11-го скликання.
Павленко Людмила Володимирівна (1981) — майстер спорту України міжнародного класу з лижних гонок (2005 рік);
М
Павленко Максим Михайлович (* 1975) — український футзальний тренер і колишній футзаліст, що грав на позиції нападника.
Павленко Марина Степанівна (1973) — українська поетеса, письменниця, художниця, науковець, педагог;
Павленко Марія Григорівна (* 1944) — українська письменниця, поетеса.
Павленко Марія Михайлівна — український лікар;
Павленко Мар'яна Дементіївна (1898 — ?) — українська радянська діячка, педагог, директор школи. Депутат Верховної Ради УРСР 2—3-го скликань.
Павленко Меланія Григорівна (1920—1997) — налагоджувальниця верстатів. Герой Соціалістичної Праці. Депутат Верховної Ради СРСР 6-го скликання.
Павленко Микола Іванович (1916) — російський історик і письменник;
Павленко Микола Карпович (* 1943) — радянський та російський цирковий артист (дресирувальник). Народний артист Росії.
Павленко Микола Микитович (1920–1997) — радянський військовий льотчик, Герой Радянського Союзу (1945).
Павленко Микола Миколайович (* 1979) — український футболіст, воротар.
Павленко Микола Михайлович (1935) — радянський вчений в галузі хімії і біохімії виноробства.
Н
Павленко Наталія Митрофанівна (1951—2008) — українська художниця;
Павленко Ніна Явтухівна (1932) — українська бандуристка, народний артист УРСР (з 1977);
О
Павленко Оксана Трохимівна (1896—1991) — українська радянська художниця;
Павленко Олег Анатолійович (1971—2014) — гвардії старший лейтенант Збройних сил України, учасник російсько-української війни;
Павленко Олександр Георгійович (1941—1995) — радянський та український футболіст, що виступав на позиціях півзахисника та захисника. Відомий завдяки грі у чернівецькій «Буковині» та одеському «Чорноморці».
Павленко Олександр Євгенович (* 1985) — російський футболіст, півзахисник клубу «Шинник».
Павленко Олександра Сергіївна (1982) — адвокат, з 25 грудня 2014 перший заступник Міністра охорони здоров'я України;
Павленко Олексій Володимирович (* 1954) — професор, доктор медичних наук, заслужений діяч науки та техніки України.
Павленко Олексій Михайлович (1977) — український політик, підприємець, з 2 грудня 2014 Міністр аграрної політики та продовольства у другому уряді Арсенія Яценюка;
Павленко Олена Григорівна (* 1977) — українська письменниця;
Павленко Олена Петрівна (* 1951) — українська астрономка, спеціалістка з катаклізмічних змінних зір, лауреатка Премії НАНУ імені М. П. Барабашова.
П
Павленко Павло Леонідович (1978—2022) — солдат Збройних сил України, учасник російсько-української війни
Павленко Павло Павлович (1902—1993) — російський актор українського походження. Заслужений артист РРФСР.
Павленко Параска Миколаївна (1881—1983) — українська художниця, майстриня петриківського розпису;
Павленко Петро Андрійович (1899—1951) — російський радянський письменник, сценарист і журналіст, військовий кореспондент. Лауреат чотирьох Сталінських премій першого ступеня.
Р
Павленко Раїса Іванівна (* 1937) — генеральний директор Національної наукової медичної бібліотеки України, Заслужений працівник культури України.
Павленко Роман Віталійович (1987—2015) — солдат Збройних сил України, учасник російсько-української війни;
Павленко Ростислав Миколайович (* 1976) — український політик, політолог, політтехнолог, викладач. Народний депутат України IX скликання від партії «Європейська Солідарність».
С
Павленко Сергій Автономович (1904—1983) — 2-й секретар Волинського обласного комітету КП(б)У, заступник голови Дрогобицького облвиконкому.
Павленко Сергій Васильович (1952—2012) — радянський російський композитор симфонічних та музично-камерних жанрів.
Павленко Сергій Григорович (1956) — народний депутат України 1998—2002 і 2007—2012, член фракції «Блок Литвина»; батько Олександри Павленко;
Павленко Сергій Михайлович (* 1951) — український радянський футболіст, захисник.
Павленко Сергій Олегович (1955) — головний редактор наукового журналу «Сіверянський літопис» (Чернігів);
, 1953) — сучасний художник-портретист російського походження, зараз працює у Великій Британії;
Т
Павленко Тадеуш Андрійович (1934—2004) — український кінорежисер, член Національної Спілки кінематографістів України;
Павленко Тарас Васильович — солдат Збройних сил України, учасник російсько-української війни;
Павленко Тарас Олегович — приватний лікар, заслужений лікар України.
Ф
Павленко Федір Іванович (1919 — ?) — голова колгоспу. Депутат Верховної Ради УРСР 9—10-го скликань.
Павленко Фелікс Омелянович (* 1940) — генеральний директор НВО «Олександрійський електромеханічний завод», 1-й заступник міністра економіки України. Народний депутат України 1-го скликання.
Ю
Павленко Юлія Сергіївна (* 1991) — українська легкоатлетка. Член збірної команди України з легкої атлетики серед спортсменів з ураженнями опорно-рухового апарату. Срібна призерка чемпіонату світу 2019 року.
Павленко Юрій Віталійович (1957—2012) — філософ, історик, культуролог, поет, кандидат історичних наук, доктор філософських наук, професор;
Павленко Юрій Олексійович (1975) — український державний діяч, політик, колишній Міністр України у справах сім'ї, молоді та спорту, Уповноважений Президента України з прав дитини;
Я
Павленко Яків Володимирович (* 1954) — український астроном, дослідник зір малих мас, лауреат Державної премії України в галузі науки і техніки.
Павленко Яніна Петрівна (1976) — гендиректор ВК «Масандра», активний колаборант з російською окупаційною владою, фігурант гучної кримінальної справи.
Омелянович-Павленко
Омелянович-Павленко Іван Володимирович (1881—1962) — український військовий діяч, генерал-хорунжий Армії УНР;
Омелянович-Павленко Михайло Володимирович (1878—1952) — визначний український діяч, генерал-полковник Армії УНР, український воєначальник;
Див. також
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gears%20of%20War%202
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Gears of War 2
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Gears of War 2 — відеогра жанру шутера від третьої особи, розроблена компанією Epic Games і видана Microsoft Game Studios ексклюзивно для консолі Xbox 360. Вихід відбувся 7 листопада 2008 року в Північній Америці, Європі, і Австралії, і 30 липня 2009 року в Японії.
Сюжет продовжує події Gears of War: хоча наступ Сарани на поверхню планети Сера вдалося зупинити, міста починають провалюватись під землю. Маркус Фенікс, Домінік Сантьяго та їхній загін отримують завдання знайти та зупинити джерело лих.
Ігровий процес
Основи
Як і в Gears of War, гравець керує бійцем Маркусом Феніксом, що бореться з численними ворогами шляхом стрілянини та командування своїм загоном. Гра зосереджена на позиційних перестрілках, де персонажі повинні переміщуватися від укриття до укриття та здійснювати короткочасні вилазки. При кооперативній грі другий гравець керує його напарником Домініком Сантьяго.
В Gears of War 2 розширився набір зброї — додалися скорострільний кулемет, вогнемет, пістолет «Горгона», мортира і чорнильна граната, що отруює територію. З'явилась можливість прикриватися пораненими ворогами.
Багатокористувацька гра
«Зона бойових дій» — гравці поділяються на команди людей та монстрів Сарани. Загиблі не відроджуються до кінця раунду. Метою є знищити всіх бійців протиборчої команди.
«Страж» — гравці поділяються на команди, кожна з яких отримує лідера. Метою є знищити всіх бійців протиборчої команди. Коли команда втрачає лідера, її учасники втрачають здатність відроджуватись.
«Напарник» — до п'яти команд з двох учасників змагаються в наборі очок за знищення противників. Убивства можливі лише в ближньому бою, або єдиним смертельним пострілом. У випадку нічиєї грається додатковий раунд.
«Покора» — метою команд є перемогти та захопити озброєного ворога, після чого доставити його у вказане місце. При цьому ворога можна використати як щит, але коли він поглине певну кількість атак, то виривається і продовжує боротьбу з повним запасом здоров'я.
«Страта» — те саме, проте застрелені бійці певний час вважаються пораненими та можуть бути повернені в бій іншими учасниками команди. З першого разу вбити бійця можна тільки в ближньому бою.
«Анексія» — команди змагаються за володіння точками, що приносять переможні очки. Перемагає команда, що першою набере потрібну кількість очок. Тут палі бійці можуть одразу повернутися в бій, не чекаючи завершення раунду.
«Цар гори» — команди змагаються за володіння єдиною точкою. Що довше команда нею володіє, то більше отримує переможних очок на свій рахунок. Точка вважається у власності команди, якщо біля неї лишається принаймні один ворожий боєць. Тут палі бійці також можуть одразу повернутися в бій, не чекаючи завершення раунду.
«Орда» — до п'яти учасників разом протистоять 50 хвилям Сарани. З кожною хвилею кількість і сила ворогів зростає. Між хвилями боєзапас зброї та припаси в ящиках поповнюються.
Сюжет
Після підриву світломасової бомби у вузлі тунелів Сарани чудовиська втратили мобільність. Та після цього по планеті почали поширюватись отруйні випари імульсії, спричиняючи «легеневе іржавіння». Міста почали загадковим чином провалюватись під землю, в чому вбачаються підступи Сарани. У загін «Дельта», де служить Маркус Фенікс, прибуває поповнення — Бен Кармайн, брат зниклого Ентоні Кармайна. Їхньою першою місією є захист лікарні міста Хасінто, що стоїть на міцній гірській породі. Бійцям вдається змусити Сарану тікати, скориставшись цим Домінік Сантьяго намагається розшукати свою дружину, Марію, в чому йому допомагає Аня Штрауд, зв'язкова загону «Дельта» в Штабі Коаліції. У цей момент Голова Коаліції Річард Прескот оголошує, що розроблено план контрнаступу на вцілілі тунелі Сарани.
Загін «Дельта» зустрічає Діззі Валлін, колишнього вигнанця, водія землерийних машин. Біля кладовища, де ґрунт м'який, бійці планують сісти в бурові капсули і проникнути до ворожих тунелів. Але Сарана виривається на поверхню, тож «Дельта» встряє у бій проти генерала Скорджа, наступника Раама. «Триби» сідають у капсули, не дочекавшись Тая Калісо. Після спуску загін «Дельта», що складається з Маркуса Фенікса, Домініка Сантьяго і Бенджаміна Кармайна, виявляє, що Сарана використовує гігантського черва для обвалення людських міст під землю. Хасінто це втім не загрожує, бо місто стоїть на гранітному щиті. Досліджуючи провал на місці міста Іліма, загін потрапляє в засідку Сарани, але їх рятує Август Коул. Розшукуючи загін Деймона Бейрда, вони бачать, що Сарана забирає під землю полонених. Незабаром вони знаходять і звільняють Бейрда. Піднявшись на борт тюремної баржі Сарани, вони виявляють закатованого Тая, що здійснює самогубство. Під час спроби евакуюватися на вертольоті їх проковтує черв. Опинившись всередині, загін Фенікс, придумує вразити серце черва, чим зупинити його назавжди. Сердець, однак, виявляється три. Прокладаючи собі шлях нутрощами черва, «Триби» врешті знаходять обпеченого шлунковими соками Ентоні, вбивають черва та прорізають вихід в його боку.
Загін отримує повідомлення про виявлення Нексуса — місця, звідки керується Сарана. Домініку та Маркусу вдається проникнути на покинуту військову базу, обійшовши системи безпеки. Досягнувши головної лабораторії, вони дізнаються, що на базі утримували істот, схожих на сарану. Нападає Сарана, Домінік з Маркусом обороняються, поки Беард лагодить танк, на якому загін і покидає базу.
Герої вирушають на гору Кадар, де знаходиться таємний вхід до Нексуса. Подолавши охорону, загін зустрічає Франкліна та війська Коаліції. Франклін повідомляє, що дружина Домініка може бути в концтаборі, тож Домінік змінює маршрут. Дорогою обоє проходить через озера, де вбиває велетенську рибу Левіафана. Вони зауважують, що Сарана остерігається імульсії.
Проникнувши в концтабір, Домінік виявляє там свою дружину Марію, але вона поранена та знесилена. Домінік прощається з нею і застрелює аби позбавити від страждань. Домінік з Маркусом входять до тунелів Нексуса, звідки передають свої координати командуванню. Возз'єднавшись з Коулом і Бердом, загін «Дельта» дізнається, що Сарана веде під землею війну з Сяйливими — мутованою під дією імульсії Сараною. Лігво цих чудовиськ знаходиться саме під Хасінто. Зламавши термінал, загін розкриває, що батько Маркуса — професор Адам Фенікс, співпрацював з королевою Сарани. Він розробив план пожертвувати Хасінто, щоб морська вода з його берегів залила мережу тунелів Сарани. Та зайнятий розробкою орбітального супутника «Молот світанку», Адам відклав цей задум. Намагаючись врятувати свій народ від Сяйливих, королева почала вторгнення на поверхню.
Досягнувши тронного залу королеви Сарани Мірри, загін знищує її охорону. Королева каже, що штурм Нексуса приречений на провал, адже починається штурм Хасінто. Королева кличе на допомогу Скорджа та тікає. Маркус наказує Коулу і Берду переслідувати її, а сам лишається з Домініком зупинити Скорджа. Після бою генерал Сарани тікає, «Дельта» чимдуж вирушає врятувати Хасінто.
«Дельта» допомагає полковнику Хоффману відбитися від Сарани, та основні ворожі сили вже на підході. Загін вирішує обвалити місто раніше королеви з допомогою ядерної бомби та «Молота світанку». Коул і Берд готують бомбу, а Маркус і Домінік захоплюють чудовисько Брумака, щоб дістатись у порожнини під містом, де бомба буде закладена. Та Брумак під дією підземної імульсії швидко мутує і збиває гелікоптер з запалом для бомби. Тож Маркус використовує «Молот світанку», щоб підірвати Брумака та озеро імульсії навколо. Вибух обрушує місто, котловину на його місці швидко затоплює море, заливаючи і тунелі разом з Сараною та Сяйливими. Маркус намагається зв'язатися з Анею Штрауд, а згодом бачить її на гелікоптері. Вцілілі на катерах і гелікоптерах вирушають на пошуки нового дому.
Королева Сарани коментує ці події словами, що героям навряд чи вдасться вижити, бо вони самі знищили все, що їм було дороге. Після титрів Адам Фенікс шле сину повідомлення про те, що знищення Хасінто, можливо, створило ще більшу загрозу людству.
Оцінки й відгуки
Gears of War 2 здобула загальне визнання критиків, отримавши середню оцінку 93.32 % на агрегаторі GameRankings, і 93/100 на Metacritic.
IGN та Eurogamer особливо високо оцінили режим «Орди». X-Play відзначили гру за «вдосконалену систему укриттів» і кооперативний сюжетний режим, а також розширення арсеналу та виконання багатокористувацької гри. Game Informer назвали однокористувацьку кампанію «заворожливою», крім того відзначивши кооперативну гру та різноманітність режимів мультиплеєру
Примітки
Посилання
Сторінка гри на сайті серії Gears of War
Відеоігри 2008
Відеоігри, розроблені в США
Ігри Epic Games
Ігри для Xbox 360
Ігри лише для Xbox 360
Шутери від третьої особи
Ігри Microsoft
Gears of War
Покращені ігри для Xbox One X
Відеоігри Xbox Cloud Gaming
Продовження відеоігор
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burbank%2C%20California
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Burbank, California
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Burbank, California
Burbank is a city in the southeastern end of the San Fernando Valley in Los Angeles County, California, United States. Located northwest of downtown Los Angeles, Burbank has a population of 107,337. The city was named after David Burbank, who established a sheep ranch there in 1867. Burbank consists of two distinct areas: a downtown/foothill section, in the foothills of the Verdugo Mountains, and the flatland section.
Often called the "Media Capital of the World" and only a few miles northeast of Hollywood, numerous media and entertainment companies are headquartered or have significant production facilities in Burbank, including Warner Bros. Entertainment, The Walt Disney Company, Nickelodeon Animation Studio, The Burbank Studios, Cartoon Network Studios with the West Coast branch of Cartoon Network, and Insomniac Games. The broadcast network The CW is also headquartered in Burbank. "Beautiful Downtown Burbank" was stated often as a joke on Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In and The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, as both shows were taped at NBC's former studios. The Hollywood Burbank Airport was the location of Lockheed's Skunk Works, which produced some of the most secret and technologically advanced airplanes, including the U-2 spy planes. In addition, the city contains the largest IKEA in the U.S.
History
Indigenous peoples and Spanish era
The history of the Burbank area can be traced back to the Tongva people, the indigenous people of the area, who lived in the region for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans. In the late 1700s and early 1800s, Spanish explorers and mission priests arrived in the Los Angeles area. The city of Burbank occupies land that was previously part of two Spanish and Mexican-era colonial land grants, the Rancho San Rafael, granted to Jose Maria Verdugo by the Spanish Bourbon government in 1784, and the Rancho Providencia created in 1821. This area was the scene of a military skirmish which resulted in the unseating of the Spanish Governor of California, and his replacement by the Mexican leader Pio Pico.
Mexican rancho era and early American era
New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, and from 1824, Rancho San Rafael existed within the new Mexican Republic.
Dr. David Burbank purchased over of the former Verdugo holding and another of the Rancho Providencia in 1867 and built a ranch house and began to raise sheep and grow wheat on the ranch. By 1876, the San Fernando Valley became the largest wheat-raising area in Los Angeles County. But the droughts of the 1860s and 1870s underlined the need for steady water supplies.
A professionally trained dentist, Burbank began his career in Waterville, Maine. He joined the great migration westward in the early 1850s and, by 1853 was living in San Francisco. At the time the American Civil War broke out, he was again well established in his profession as a dentist in Pueblo de Los Angeles. In 1867, he purchased Rancho La Providencia from David W. Alexander and Francis Mellus, and he purchased the western portion of the Rancho San Rafael (4,603 acres) from Jonathan R. Scott. Burbank's property reached nearly at a cost of $9,000. Burbank would not acquire full titles to both properties until after a court decision known as the "Great Partition" was made in 1871 dissolving the Rancho San Rafael. He eventually became known as one of the largest and most successful sheep raisers in southern California, and as a result, he closed his dentistry practice and invested heavily in real estate in Los Angeles.
When the area that became Burbank was settled in the 1870s and 1880s, the streets were aligned along what is now Olive Avenue, the road to the Cahuenga Pass and downtown Los Angeles. These were largely the roads the Native Americans traveled and the early settlers took their produce down to Los Angeles to sell and to buy supplies along these routes.
Railroad drives growth (1876–1888)
At the time, the primary long-distance transportation methods available to San Fernando Valley residents were stagecoach and train. Stagecoaching between Los Angeles and San Francisco through the Valley began in 1858. The Southern Pacific Railroad arrived in the Valley in 1876, completing the route connecting San Francisco and Los Angeles.
A shrewd businessman, foreseeing the value of rail transport, Burbank sold Southern Pacific Railroad a right-of-way through the property for one dollar. The first train passed through Burbank on April 5, 1874. A boom created by a rate war between the Santa Fe and Southern Pacific brought people streaming into California shortly thereafter, and a group of speculators purchased much of Burbank's land holdings in 1886 for $250,000. One account suggests Burbank may have sold his property because of a severe drought that year, which caused a shortage of water and grass for his livestock. Approximately 1,000 of his sheep died due to the drought conditions.
The group of speculators who bought the acreage formed the Providencia Land, Water, and Development Company and began developing the land, calling the new town Burbank after its founder, and began offering farm lots on May 1, 1887. The townsite had Burbank Boulevard/Walnut Avenue as the northern boundary, Grandview Avenue as the southern boundary, the edge of the Verdugo Mountains as the eastern boundary, and Clybourn Avenue as the western border. The establishment of a water system in 1887 allowed farmers to irrigate their orchards and provided a stronger base for agricultural development. The original plot of the new townsite of Burbank extended from what is now Burbank Boulevard on the north, to Grandview Avenue in Glendale, California on the south, and from the top of the Verdugo Hills on the east to what is now known as Clybourn Avenue on the west.
At the same time, the arrival of the railroad provided immediate access for the farmers to bring crops to market. Packing houses and warehouses were built along the railroad corridors. The railroads also provided access to the county for tourists and immigrants alike. A Southern Pacific Railroad depot in Burbank was completed in 1887.
The boom lifting real estate values in the Los Angeles area proved to be a speculative frenzy that collapsed abruptly in 1889. Much of the newly created wealthy went broke. Many of the lots in Burbank ended up getting sold for taxes. Vast numbers of people would leave the region before it all ended. The effects of the downturn were felt for several years, as the economy struggled to recover and many businesses closed. However, the region eventually rebounded and continued to grow and develop in the decades that followed.
Before the downturn, Burbank built a hotel in the town in 1887. Burbank also later owned the Burbank Theatre, which opened on November 27, 1893, at a cost of $200,000. Burbank, who came to California in his early thirties, died in 1895 at the age of 73. The theater continued to operate but struggled for many years and by August 1900 had its thirteenth manager. The new manager's name was Oliver Morosco, who was already known as a successful theatrical impresario. He put the theater on the path to prosperity for many years. Though the theater was intended to be an opera house, instead it staged plays and became known nationally. The theatre featured leading actors of the day, such as Fay Bainter and Marjorie Rambeau, until it deteriorated into a burlesque house.
Rapid growth and modernization (1900–1940)
In August 1900, Burbank established its first telephone exchange, making it the first in the San Fernando Valley. Within five years, several other telephone exchanges were established in the Valley, and a company known as the San Fernando Valley Home Telephone Company was formed, based in Glendale. This company provided telephone service to the entire Valley, connecting communities and facilitating growth. Home Telephone competed with Tropico, and in 1918 both were taken over by Pacific Telephone Company. At this time, there were an estimated 300 hand-cranked telephones in Burbank. The telephone network helped to connect the sprawling metropolis of Los Angeles and its surrounding areas such as Burbank, making it easier for people to move around and do business.
By 1904, Burbank gained worldwide recognition when the renowned heavyweight boxing champion James J. Jeffries became a significant landowner in the town. Jeffries acquired of land along Victory Boulevard to establish his ranch. He ventured into cattle farming and exported his livestock to Mexico and South America, becoming one of the pioneering residents to participate in foreign trade. Eventually, he constructed a sizable ranch house and barn near the present-day intersection of Victory Boulevard and Buena Vista Street. Subsequently, the barn was relocated and reconstructed at Knott's Berry Farm in Buena Park, California.
The town's first bank was formed in 1908 when Burbank State Bank opened its doors near the corner of Olive Avenue and San Fernando Blvd. On the first day, the bank collected $30,000 worth of deposits, and at the time the town had a population of 300 residents. In 1911, the bank was dissolved; it would then become the Burbank branch of the Security Trust & Savings Bank.
In 1911, wealthy farmer Joseph Fawkes grew apricots and owned a house on West Olive Avenue. He was also fascinated with machinery, and soon began developing what became known as the "Fawkes Folly" aerial trolley. He and his wife Ellen C. Fawkes secured two patents for the nation's first monorail. The two formed the Aerial Trolley Car Company and set about building a prototype they believed would revolutionize transportation.
Joseph Fawkes called the trolley his Aerial Swallow, a cigar-shaped, suspended monorail driven by a propeller that he promised would carry passengers from Burbank to downtown Los Angeles in 10 minutes. The first open car accommodated about 20 passengers and was suspended from an overhead track and supported by wooden beams. In 1911, the monorail car made its first and only run through his Burbank ranch, with a line between Lake and Flower Streets. The monorail was considered a failure after gliding just a foot or so and falling to pieces. Nobody was injured but Joseph Fawkes' pride was badly hurt as Aerial Swallow became known as "Fawkes' Folly." City officials viewed his test run as a failure and focused on getting a Pacific Electric Streetcar line into Burbank.
Laid out and surveyed with a modern business district surrounded by residential lots, wide boulevards were carved out as the "Los Angeles Express" printed:
Burbank, the town, being built in the midst of the new farming community, has been laid out in such a manner as to make it by and by an unusually pretty town. The streets and avenues are wide and, all have been handsomely graded. All improvements being made would do credit to a city ... Everything done at Burbank has been done right.
The citizens of Burbank had to put up a $48,000 subsidy to get the reluctant Pacific Electric Streetcar officials to agree to extend the line from Glendale to Burbank. The first Red Car rolled into Burbank on September 6, 1911, with a tremendous celebration. That was about two months after the town became a city. The "Burbank Review" newspaper ran a special edition that day advising all local residents that:
On Wednesday, the first electric car running on a regular passenger-carrying schedule left the Pacific Electric station at Sixth and Main streets, Los Angeles, for Burbank at 6:30 a.m. and the first car from Burbank to Los Angeles left at 6:20 a.m. the same day. Upon arrival of this car on its maiden trip, many citizens gave evidence of their great joy by ringing bells and discharging firearms. A big crowd of both men and women boarded the first car and rode to Glendale and there changed to a second car coming from Los Angeles and rode home again. Every face was an expression of happiness and satisfaction.
The Burbank Line was completed through to Cypress Avenue in Burbank, and by mid-1925 this line was extended about a mile further along Glenoaks Boulevard to Eton Drive. A small wooden station was erected in Burbank in 1911 at Orange Grove Avenue with a small storage yard in its rear. This depot was destroyed by fire in 1942 and in 1947 a small passenger shelter was constructed.
On May 26, 1942, the California State Railroad Commission proposed an extension of the Burbank Line to the Lockheed plant. The proposal called for a double-track line from Arden Junction along Glenoaks to San Fernando Boulevard and Empire Way, just northeast of Lockheed's main facility. But this extension never materialized and the commission moved on to other projects in the San Fernando Valley. The Red Car line in Burbank was abandoned and the tracks removed in 1956.
The city marshal's office was changed to the Burbank Police Department in 1923. The early department consisted of only a handful of officers who were responsible for maintaining law and order in a rapidly growing community. The first police chief was George Cole, who later became a U.S. Treasury prohibition officer. Through the decades, the department has grown and evolved, adapting to the changing needs of the city. Today, the Burbank Police Department is a well-respected agency, known for its professionalism and commitment to serving the community. The department has a diverse range of specialized units, including a SWAT team, K-9 unit, air support, and a detective bureau.
In 1928, Burbank was one of the first 13 cities to join the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, one of the largest suppliers of water in the world. This contrasted with other San Fernando Valley communities that obtained water through political annexation to Los Angeles. By 1937, the first power from Hoover Dam was distributed over Burbank's own electricity lines. The city purchases about 55% of its water from the MWD.
City of Burbank
The town grew steadily, weathering the drought and depression that hit Los Angeles in the 1890s and in 20 years, the community had a bank, newspaper, high school and a thriving business district with a hardware store, livery stable, dry goods store, general store, and bicycle repair shop. The city's first newspaper, Burbank Review, was established in 1906.
The populace petitioned the State Legislature to incorporate as a city on July 8, 1911, with businessman Thomas Story as the mayor. Voters approved incorporation by a vote of 81 to 51. At the time, the Board of Trustees governed the community which numbered 500 residents. With the action of the Legislature, Burbank thus became the first independent city in the San Fernando Valley.
The establishment of Burbank as a city was a crucial milestone in the area's progress, triggering a fresh phase of growth and advancement. This cityhood meant that Burbank gained the ability to govern itself, making decisions independently regarding its development and expansion. It also granted the city greater authority over its valuable resources, such as land, water, and other assets. With this newfound control, Burbank could shape its own future and manage its local affairs more effectively.
The first city seal adopted by Burbank featured a cantaloupe, which was a crop that helped save the town's life when the land boom collapsed. In 1931, the original city seal was replaced and in 1978 the modern seal was adopted. The new seal shows City Hall beneath a banner. An airplane symbolizes the city's aircraft industry, the strip of film and stage light represent motion picture production. The bottom portion depicts the sun rising over the Verdugo Mountains.
In 1915, major sections of the valley were annexed, helping Los Angeles to more than double its size that year. But Burbank was among a handful of towns with their own water wells and remained independent. By 1916, Burbank had 1,500 residents. In 1922, the Burbank Chamber of Commerce was organized. In 1923, the United States Postal Service reclassified the city from the rural village mail delivery to city postal delivery service. Burbank's population had grown significantly, from less than 500 people in 1908 to over 3,000 citizens. The city's business district grew on the west side of San Fernando Blvd. and stretched from Verdugo to Cypress avenues, and on the east side to Palm Avenue. In 1927, five miles (8 km) of paved streets had increased to .
The Wall Street Crash of 1929 set off a period of hardship for Burbank where business and residential growth paused. The effects of the Depression also caused tight credit conditions and halted home building throughout the area, including the city's Magnolia Park development. Around this time, major employers began to cut payrolls and some plants closed their doors.
The Burbank City Council responded by slashing 10% of the wages of city workers. Money was put into an Employee Relief Department to help the unemployed. Local civic and religious groups sprang into action and contributed with food as homeless camps began to form along the city's Southern Pacific railroad tracks. Hundreds began to participate in self-help cooperatives, trading skills such as barbering, tailoring, plumbing or carpentry, for food and other services.
By 1930, as First National Studios, Andrew Jergens Company, The Lockheed Company, McNeill and Libby Canning Company, the Moreland Company, and Northrop Aircraft Corporation opened facilities in Burbank and the population jumped to 16,662.
In the 1930s, Burbank and Glendale prevented the Civilian Conservation Corps from stationing African American workers in a local park, citing sundown town ordinances that both cities had adopted. Sundown towns were municipalities or neighborhoods that practiced racial segregation by excluding non-white individuals, especially African Americans, from living within the city limits after sunset.
Following a San Fernando Valley land bust during the Depression, real estate began to bounce back in the mid-1930s. In Burbank, a 100-home construction project began in 1934. By 1936, property values in the city exceeded pre-Depression levels. By 1950, the population had reached 78,577. From 1967 to 1989, a six-block stretch of San Fernando Blvd. was pedestrianized as the "Golden Mall".
Early manufacturing
In 1887, the Burbank Furniture Manufacturing Company was the town's first factory. In 1917, the arrival of the Moreland Motor Truck Company changed the town and resulted in growing a manufacturing and industrial workforce. Within a few years, Moreland trucks were seen bearing the label, "Made in Burbank." Watt Moreland, its owner, had relocated his plant to Burbank from Los Angeles. He selected at San Fernando Blvd. and Alameda Avenue. Moreland invested $1 million in the factory and machinery and employed 500 people. It was the largest truck maker west of the Mississippi.
Within the next several decades, factories would dot the area landscape. What had mainly been an agricultural and ranching area would get replaced with a variety of manufacturing industries. Moreland operated from 1917 to 1937. Aerospace supplier Menasco Manufacturing Company would later purchase the property. Menasco's Burbank landing gear factory closed in 1994 due to slow commercial and military orders, affecting 310 people. Within months of Moreland's arrival, Community Manufacturing Company, a $3 million tractor company, arrived in Burbank.
In 1920, the Andrew Jergens Company factory opened at Verdugo Avenue near the railroad tracks in Burbank. Andrew Jergens Jr.—aided by his father, Cincinnati businessman Andrew Jergens Sr. and business partners Frank Adams and Morris Spazier—had purchased the site and built a single-story building. They began with a single product, coconut oil soap, but would later make face creams, lotions, liquid soaps, and deodorants. In 1931, despite the Depression, the Jergens company expanded, building new offices and shipping department facilities. In 1939, the Burbank corporation merged with the Cincinnati company of Andrew Jergens Sr. becoming known as the Andrew Jergens Company of Ohio. The Burbank plant closed in 1992, affecting nearly 90 employees.
Aviation
The establishment of the aircraft industry and a major airport in Burbank during the 1930s set the stage for major growth and development, which was to continue at an accelerated pace into World War II and well into the postwar era. Brothers Allan Loughead and Malcolm Loughead, founders of the Lockheed Aircraft Company, opened a Burbank manufacturing plant in 1928 and, a year later, aviation designer Jack Northrop built his Flying Wing airplane in his own plant nearby.
Dedicated on Memorial Day Weekend (May 30 – June 1), 1930, the United Airport was the largest commercial airport in the Los Angeles area until it was eclipsed in 1946 by the Los Angeles Municipal Airport (now Los Angeles International Airport) in Westchester when that facility (the former Mines Field) commenced commercial operations. Amelia Earhart, Wiley Post and Howard Hughes were among the notable aviation pioneers to pilot aircraft in and out of the original Union Air Terminal. By 1935, Union Air Terminal in Burbank ranked as the third-largest air terminal in the nation, with 46 airliners flying out of it daily. The airport served 9,895 passengers in 1931 and 98,485 passengers in 1936.
In 1931, Lockheed was then part of Detroit Aircraft Corp., which went into bankruptcy with its Lockheed unit. A year later, a group of investors acquired assets of the Lockheed company. The new owners staked their limited funds to develop an all-metal, twin-engine transport, the Model 10 Electra. It first flew in 1934 and quickly gained worldwide notice.
A brochure celebrating Burbank's 50th anniversary as a city touted Lockheed payroll having "nearly 1,200" by the end of 1936. The aircraft company's hiring contributed to what was a favorable employment environment at the time.
Moreland's truck plant was later used by Lockheed's Vega Aircraft Corporation, which made what was widely known as "the explorer's aircraft." Amelia Earhart flew one across the Atlantic Ocean. In 1936, Lockheed officially took over Vega Aircraft in Burbank.
During World War II, the entire area of Lockheed's Vega factory was camouflaged to fool an enemy reconnaissance effort. The factory was hidden beneath a rural neighborhood scenes painted on canvas. Hundreds of fake trees and shrubs were positioned to give the entire area a three-dimensional appearance. The fake trees and shrubs were created to provide a leafy texture. Air ducts disguised as fire hydrants made it possible for the Lockheed-Vega employees to continue working underneath the huge camouflage umbrella designed to conceal their factory.
The growth of companies such as Lockheed, and the burgeoning entertainment industry drew more people to the area, and Burbank's population doubled between 1930 and 1940 to 34,337. Burbank saw its greatest growth during World War II due to Lockheed's presence, employing some 80,800 men and women producing aircraft such as the Lockheed Hudson, Lockheed P-38 Lightning, Lockheed PV-1 Ventura, Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, and America's first jet fighter, the Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star. Lockheed later created the U2, SR-71 Blackbird and the F-117 Nighthawk at its Burbank-based "Skunk Works". The name came from a secret, ill-smelling backwoods distillery called "Skonk Works" in cartoonist Al Capp's Li'l Abner comic strip.
Dozens of hamburger stands, restaurants and shops appeared around Lockheed to accommodate the employees. Some of the restaurants operated 24 hours a day. At one time, Lockheed paid utility rates representing 25% of the city's total utilities revenue, making Lockheed the city's cash cow. When Lockheed left, the economic loss was huge. At its height during World War II, the Lockheed facility employed up to 98,000 people. Between the Lockheed and Vega plants, some of manufacturing space was located in Burbank at the peak in 1943. Burbank's growth did not slow as war production ceased, and over 7,000 new residents created a postwar real estate boom. Real estate values soared as housing tracts appeared in the Magnolia Park area of Burbank between 1945 and 1950. More than 62% of the city's housing stock was built before 1970.
Following World War II, homeless veterans lived in tent camps in Burbank, in Big Tujunga Canyon and at a decommissioned National Guard base in Griffith Park. The government also set up trailer camps at Hollywood Way and Winona Avenue in Burbank and in nearby Sun Valley. But new homes were built, the economy improved, and the military presence in Burbank continued to expand. Lockheed employees numbered 66,500 and expanded from aircraft to include spacecraft, missiles, electronics and shipbuilding.
Lockheed's presence in Burbank attracted dozens of firms making aircraft parts. One of them was Weber Aircraft Corporation, an aircraft interior manufacturer situated adjacent to Lockheed at the edge of the airport. Throughout the 1950s and into the late 1960s, Weber Aircraft became a leading supplier of seats for a variety of aircraft, including the Boeing 707, the Douglas DC-8, and the Lockheed L-1011. In 1988, Weber closed its Burbank manufacturing plant, which then employed 1,000 people. Weber produced seats, galleys, lavatories and other equipment for commercial and military aircraft. Weber had been in Burbank for 36 years.
In 1987, Burbank's airport became the first to require flight carriers to fly quieter "Stage 3" jets. By 2010, Burbank's Bob Hope Airport had 4.5 million passengers annually. The airport also was a major facility for FedEx and UPS, with 96.2 million pounds of cargo that year.
Entertainment industry
The motion picture business arrived in Burbank in the 1920s. In 1926, First National Pictures bought a site on Olive Avenue near Dark Canyon. The property included a hog ranch and the original David Burbank house, both owned by rancher Stephen A. Martin.
In 1928, First National was taken over by a company founded by the four Warner Brothers. Notably, First National had produced and released many of the early "talkie" films of the late 1920s. By 1929, Warner Bros.-First National Pictures was dissolved and the First National name was retired. However, Warner Bros. continued to operate on the site as a standalone studio.
Columbia Pictures purchased property in Burbank as a ranch facility, used primarily for outdoor shooting. Walt Disney's company, which had outgrown its Hollywood quarters after success of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film), bought in Burbank. Disney's million-dollar studio, designed by Kem Weber, was completed in 1939 on Buena Vista Street. Disney originally wanted to build "Mickey Mouse Park," as he first called it, next to the Burbank studio. But his aides finally convinced him that the space was too small, and there was opposition from the Burbank City Council. One council member told Disney: "We don't want the carny atmosphere in Burbank." Disney later built his successful Disneyland in Anaheim.
Wartime effort
During World War II, many of the movie studios in Burbank were used for war-related production, including civil defense-related films, and the city experienced a population boom as a result of the increased job opportunities. From Disney Studios alone, more than 70 hours of film was produced during the wartime effort. This included films that were used to boost morale on the home front and others that were used to educate and inform the public about the war. Burbank, which was previously known primarily as a center of the entertainment industry, became a major player in the war effort and a thriving community as a result. As the war came to an end, the movie studios in Burbank returned to their primary function of producing entertainment films, but the city had permanently changed as a result of its wartime experience.
Labor strife
Burbank saw its first real civil strife as the culmination of a six-month labor dispute between the set decorator's union and the studios resulted in the Battle of Burbank on October 5, 1945, a confrontation that led to the largest wave of strikes in American history. For six months, the union had been negotiating for better pay and working conditions, but the studios refused to budge. Frustrated and desperate, the set decorators decided to take action. The studios responded by hiring non-union workers to replace the striking decorators, but the union was not about to back down. They organized picket lines and rallies, drawing support from other unions in the area. The studios, in turn, called in police and private security to break up the protests. Streets were filled with striking workers, non-union replacements, and security personnel, all engaged in a violent confrontation. Cars were overturned, windows were smashed, and tear gas was used to disperse the crowds. In the end, studios forced to negotiate with the union, and the decorators eventually won their demands for better pay and working conditions.
Hub of Hollywood
By the 1960s and 1970s, more of the Hollywood entertainment industry was relocating to Burbank. NBC moved its west coast headquarters to a new location at Olive and Alameda avenues. The Burbank studio was purchased in 1951, and NBC arrived in 1952 from its former location at Sunset and Vine in Hollywood. Although NBC promoted its Hollywood image for most of its West Coast telecasts (such as Ed McMahon's introduction to The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson: "from Hollywood"), comedians Dan Rowan and Dick Martin began mentioning "beautiful downtown Burbank" on Laugh-in in the 1960s. By 1962, NBC's multimillion-dollar, state-of-the-art complex was completed.
One of the biggest productions to come out of the Burbank studios during this time was the hit television series Batman. The show, which aired from 1966 to 1968, was filmed entirely on the Warner Bros. lot in Burbank and was a huge success, both critically and commercially. It was instrumental in launching other superhero shows and movies, and its popularity helped to establish the studio as a major player in the television industry. As the 1970s came to a close, the Burbank studios had firmly established themselves as a major player in the industry.
Studio Corridor
Warner Bros., NBC, Disney and Columbia TriStar Home Video (now Sony Pictures Home Entertainment) all ended up located very close to each other along the southern edge of Burbank (and not far from Universal City to the southwest), an area now known as the Media District, Media Center District or simply Media Center. In the early 1990s, Burbank imposed growth restrictions in the Media District. Since then, to house its growing workforce, Disney has focused on developing the site of the former Grand Central Airport in the nearby city of Glendale. Only Disney's most senior executives and some film, television, and animation operations are still based at the main Disney studio lot in Burbank.
Rumors surfaced of NBC leaving Burbank after its parent company General Electric Corporation acquired Universal Studios and renamed the merged division NBC Universal. Since the deal, NBC has been relocating key operations to the Universal property located in Universal City. In 2007, NBC Universal management informed employees that the company planned to sell much of the Burbank complex. NBC Universal would relocate its television and cable operations to the Universal City complex. When Conan O'Brien took over hosting The Tonight Show from Carson's successor Jay Leno in 2009, he hosted the show from Universal City. However, O'Brien's hosting role lasted only 7 months, and Leno, who launched a failed primetime 10pm show in fall 2009, was asked to resume his Tonight Show role after O'Brien controversially left NBC. The show returned to the NBC Burbank lot and had been expected to remain there until at least 2018. However, in April 2013 NBC confirmed plans for The Tonight Show to return to New York after 42 years in Burbank, with comic Jimmy Fallon replacing Leno as host. The change became effective in February 2014.
The relocation plans changed following Comcast Corp.'s $30 billion acquisition of NBC Universal in January 2011. NBC Universal announced in January 2012 it would relocate the NBC Network, Telemundo's L.A. Bureau, as well as local stations KNBC and KVEA to the former Technicolor building located on the lower lot of Universal Studios in Universal City. The former NBC Studios were renamed The Burbank Studios.
In 2019, the Conan O'Brien moved his TBS talk show, Conan, to Stage 15 on the Warner Bros. studios lot in Burbank, where it continued to tape until 2021 when the show ended. Stage 15, constructed in the late 1920s, was used to shoot films such as Calamity Jane (1953), Blazing Saddles (1974), A Star Is Born (1976) and Ghostbusters (1984).
In the early 1990s, Burbank tried unsuccessfully to lure Sony Pictures Entertainment, the Columbia and TriStar studios owner based in Culver City, and 20th Century Fox, which had threatened to move from its West Los Angeles lot unless the city granted permission to upgrade its facility. Fox stayed after getting Los Angeles city approval on its $200 million expansion plan. In 1999, the city managed to gain Cartoon Network Studios which took up residence in an old commercial bakery building located on North 3rd St. when it separated its production operations from Warner Bros. Animation in Sherman Oaks.
Cinema history
Hundreds of major feature films have been filmed in the studios in Burbank including Casablanca (1942), starring Humphrey Bogart. The movie began production a few months after the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor. Due to World War II, location shooting was restricted and filming near airports was banned. As a result, Casablanca shot most of its major scenes on Stage 1 at the Warner Bros. Burbank Studios, including the film's airport scene. It featured a foggy Moroccan runway created on the stage where Bogart's character does not fly away with Ingrid Bergman. Bonnie and Clyde (1967) was also filmed at the Warner Bros. Burbank Studios.
The Gary Cooper film High Noon (1952) was shot on a western street at the Warner Brothers "Ranch", then known as the Columbia Ranch. The ranch facility is situated less than a mile north of Warner's main lot in Burbank. 3:10 to Yuma (1957) was also filmed on the old Columbia Ranch, and much of the outdoor filming for the Three Stooges took place at Columbia Ranch, including most of the chase scenes. In 1993, Warner Bros. bulldozed the Burbank-based sets used to film High Noon and Lee Marvin's Oscar-winning Western comedy Cat Ballou (1965), as well as several other features and television shows. A $500-million redevelopment of the Warner Bros. Ranch Lot is currently underway, which will add new offices and soundstages to the historic production facility.
While filming Apollo 13 (1995) and Coach Carter (2005), the producers shot scenes at Burbank's Safari Inn Motel. True Romance (1993) also filmed on location at the motel. Back to the Future (1985) shot extensively on the Universal Studios backlot but also filmed band audition scenes at the Burbank Community Center. San Fernando Blvd. doubled for San Diego in The Lost World: Jurassic Park (1997) while much of Christopher Nolan's Memento was shot in and around Burbank with scenes on Burbank Blvd., at the Blue Room (a local bar also featured in the 1994 Michael Mann feature Heat), the tattoo parlor, as well as the character Natalie's home.
The city's indoor shopping mall, Burbank Town Center, is often used as a backdrop for shooting films, television series and commercials. Over the years, it was the site for scenes in Bad News Bears (2005) to location shooting for Cold Case, Gilmore Girls, ER and Desperate Housewives. The ABC show Desperate Housewives also frequently used the Magnolia Park area for show scenes, along with the city's retail district along Riverside and adjacent to Toluca Lake, California. Also, Universal Pictures' Larry Crowne shot exterior scenes outside Burbank's Kmart, the store doubled for 'U Mart', and in The Hangover Part II (2011) a breakfast scene was filmed at the IHOP restaurant across the street.
The Burbank Airport is also an important part of the city's cinematic history. In the early days of Hollywood, many stars and filmmakers used the airport to travel to and from Los Angeles. The airport has also been featured in a number of films and television shows over the years, including The Hindenburg (film), Wonder Woman (TV series), and Perry Mason (1957 TV series).
In 2012, an international filmmaking and acting academy opened its doors in Burbank. The school, the International Academy of Film and Television, traces its roots to the Philippines. The first class will include students from 30 countries.
Burbank today
Burbank, like other cities in California, has been facing many economic, political and social challenges in recent years. One of the main issues is the lack of affordable housing in the city. The cost of single-family homes in Burbank topped $1 million by early 2021. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the average rent price in Burbank is around $1,800 and 29% of Burbank residents spend over half of their income on rent. These high housing costs are putting a strain on many residents, and as a result, a rent-control ordinance known as Measure RC was put on the ballot in 2021 to cap rent increases at 7% annually on at least 24,000 residential units; the measure failed to pass 36 to 64%. California law bars communities in the state from putting rent control on complexes built after February 1995. Rising housing costs in California in the last decade have contributed to a shortage of affordable housing in large metropolitan areas. Rent control is seen as a way to keep housing costs affordable but some economists have suggested ordinances limiting rent only contribute to California's chronic housing problem.
Burbank has taken the initiative in various anti-smoking ordinances in the past decade. In late 2010, Burbank passed an ordinance prohibiting smoking in multi-family residences sharing ventilation systems. The rule went into effect in mid-2011. The new anti-smoking ordinance, which also prohibits smoking on private balconies and patios in multi-family residences, is considered the first of its kind in California. Since 2007, Burbank has prohibited smoking at all city-owned properties, downtown Burbank, the Chandler Bikeway, and sidewalk and pedestrian areas.
The murder of Burbank police officer Matthew Pavelka in 2003 by a local gang known as the Vineland Boys sparked an intensive investigation in conjunction with several other cities and resulted in the arrest of a number of gang members and other citizens in and around Burbank. Among those arrested was Burbank councilwoman Stacey Murphy, implicated in trading guns in exchange for drugs. Pavelka was the first Burbank police officer to be fatally shot in the line of duty in the department's history, according to the California Police Association officials.
The city's namesake street, Burbank Boulevard, started getting a makeover in 2007. The city spent upwards of $10 million to plant palm trees and colorful flowers, a median, new lights, benches and bike racks. Additionally, various utility boxes throughout the city were painted in 2020 with original art inspired by the theme of "A World of Entertainment." Artists were selected through a committee consisting of City of Burbank representatives and members of art communities.
Today, an estimated 100,000 people work in Burbank. The physical imprints of the city's aviation industry remain. In late 2001, the Burbank Empire Center opened with aviation as the theme. The center, built at a cost of $250 million by Zelman Development Company, sits on Empire Avenue, the former site of Lockheed's top-secret "Skunk Works", and other Lockheed properties.
In a real estate deal announced in April 2019 Warner Bros. plans to open a series of two new Frank Gehry-designed office towers on the new site that have been described as "like icebergs floating alongside the 134 freeway."
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, Burbank has a total area of . of it is land and of it (0.12%) is water. It is bordered by Glendale to the east, North Hollywood and Toluca Lake on the west, and Griffith Park to the south. The Verdugo Mountains form the northern border.
Elevations in the city range from in the lower valley areas to about near the Verdugo Mountains. Most of Burbank features a water table more than deep, more than the measures found in the 1940s when the water table was within of the ground surface in some areas of Burbank.
Geology
The geology of the Burbank area is primarily composed of sedimentary rocks, including sandstone, siltstone, and shale. These rocks were formed by sediment deposited by ancient rivers and seas, and have been uplifted and folded due to tectonic activity. Burbank is located within a seismically active area. At least eight major faults are mapped within of Burbank's civic center. The San Fernando Fault, located northwest of Burbank's downtown, caused the 6.6 magnitude 1971 San Fernando earthquake.
The Verdugo Fault, which can reach a maximum estimated 6.5 magnitude earthquake on the Richter Scale, is about from the city of Burbank's civic center. This fault extends throughout the city and is located in the alluvium just south of the Verdugo Mountains. The fault is mapped on the surface in northeastern Glendale, and at various locations in Burbank. Other nearby faults include the Northridge Hills Fault (northwest of Burbank), the Newport–Inglewood Fault, Whittier Fault, and lastly the San Andreas Fault with its 8.25 magnitude potential on the Richter Scale.
The 1971 San Fernando earthquake, with a magnitude of 6.6, caused some damage in Burbank. Poorly reinforced and unreinforced masonry fences were damaged as well as masonry chimneys. Pacific Manor care facility on Glenoaks, which was later razed and replaced with a new care facility, was badly damaged and had to be evacuated. Some factories, including Lockheed, had spills of hazardous materials. There were also small fires from electrical or fuel gas-related sources. Lastly, there were cases of flooding in buildings due to broken pipes and risers used for fire sprinklers.
Burbank suffered $66.1 million in damage from the 1994 Northridge earthquake, according to the city's finance department. There was $58 million in damage to privately owned facilities in commercial, industrial, manufacturing and entertainment businesses. Another $8.1 million in losses included damaged public buildings, roadways and a power station in Sylmar that is partly owned by Burbank. The Burbank Fire Department responded to 292 calls for damage inspections and reports of natural gas leaks. It is to be noted that the damage caused was more extensive than the 1971 San Fernando earthquake but still relatively moderate in nature.
Climate
Burbank has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa) with hot summers and mild winters. The highest recorded temperature was which occurred on July 6, 2018, and again on September 6, 2020. The lowest recorded temperature was on December 8, 1978, and again on January 29, 1979. Average annual precipitation is just over , but is highly variable from year to year. Wet years (with well over 20 inches of rainfall) are generally associated with El Niño conditions, and dry years with La Niña. The driest water year (October to September of the next year) on record was the 2013–14 season with , while the wettest was 1940–41 with . The months that receive the most precipitation are February and January, respectively. It rarely snows in Burbank, as it is located in a Mediterranean climate zone, which typically experiences mild winters. However, the city has experienced snow several times, including in December 1931, January 1932, January 1949, January 1950, and February 2011.
Extremes
Highest recorded temperature:
Lowest recorded temperature:
Warmest month: August
Coolest month: December
Highest precipitation: February
Lowest precipitation: July/August
Neighborhoods
Magnolia Park area
Magnolia Park, established on Burbank's western edge in the early 1920s, had 3,500 houses within six years after its creation. When the city refused to pay for a street connecting the subdivision with the Cahuenga Pass, real estate developer and daily farmer Earl L. White did it himself and called it Hollywood Way. White was the owner of KELW, the San Fernando Valley's first commercial radio station, which went on the air on February 13, 1927. KELW, a 1,000-watt station, could be heard by listeners up and down the Pacific Coast. Some reports suggest it also could be heard as far away as New Zealand. The 1,000-watt radio station was sold in 1935 to the Hearst newspaper company. KELW was a short-lived radio station, operating for just a decade out of Burbank between 1927 and 1937.
The city's Magnolia Park area, bordered by West Verdugo Avenue to the south, Chandler Boulevard to the north, Hollywood Way to the west and Buena Vista Street to the east is known for its small-town feel, shady streets and Eisenhower-era storefronts. Most of the homes in the area date to the 1940s, when they were built for veterans of World War II. Central to the community is Magnolia Boulevard, known for its antique shops, boutiques, thrift shops, corner markets, and occasional chain stores. The neighborhood is in constant struggle with developers looking to expand and update Magnolia Boulevard. Independent merchants and slow-growth groups have fought off new construction and big-box stores. The neighborhood remains quiet despite being beneath the airport flight path and bordered by arterial streets.
One of the centerpieces of the area's comeback has been Porto's Bakery at the old Albin's drug store site located at 3606 and 3614 West Magnolia Boulevard. As part of the project, Burbank loaned Porto's funds for building upgrades. Under the agreement, a portion of the loan will be forgiven over a 10-year period. East of Porto's is Antique Row, a hub for shopping in the city.
Other enhancements include converting the disused railroad right-of-way along Chandler Boulevard into a landscaped bikeway and pedestrian path. This project was part of a larger bike route linking Burbank's downtown Metrolink station with the B Line subway in North Hollywood. The bike-friendly neighborhood and vintage shops has made this a part of the San Fernando Valley that is frequented by Hipsters.
Rancho Equestrian area
Perhaps the most famous collection of neighborhoods in Burbank is the Rancho Equestrian District, flanked roughly by Griffith Park to the south, Victory Boulevard to the east, Olive Avenue to the west and Alameda Avenue to the north. Part of the Rancho community extends into neighboring Glendale.
The neighborhood zoning allows residents to keep horses on their property. Single-family homes far outnumber multifamily units in the Rancho, and many of the homes have stables and horse stalls. There are about 785 single-family homes, 180 condos and townhomes, and 250 horses.
The Rancho has traditionally been represented by the Burbank Rancho Homeowners, which was formed in 1963 by Floran Frank and other equestrian enthusiasts and is the oldest neighborhood group in the city.
Rancho real estate sells at a premium due to its equestrian zoning, numerous parks, connection to riding trails in Griffith Park and its adjacency to Warner Bros. and Disney Studios. Riverside Drive, its main thoroughfare, is lined with sycamore and oak trees, some more than 70 years old. It is quite common to see people on horseback riding along Riverside Drive's designated horse lanes. Of historical note, the Rancho was the home to TV star Mister Ed, the talking horse of the show of the same name. Other notable former Rancho residents included Ava Gardner and Tab Hunter, as well as Bette Davis in the adjoining Glendale Rancho area.
The rancho is especially known for its parks and open space. This includes centrally located Mountain View Park, Johnny Carson Park, Los Angeles' Griffith Park and Equestrian Center, Bette Davis Park (in the adjoining Glendale Rancho) and the neighborhood's beloved Polliwog, extending along Disney's animation building and used by local residents to exercise their horses.
In the 1960s, General Motors Corporation opened training facilities on Riverside Drive in the Rancho area, but in 1999 decided to contract out dealer-technician training to Raytheon Company and dismissed a dozen employees. In 2006, GM confiscated EV1 electric-powered cars from drivers who had leased them and moved them to the GM facility in Burbank. When environmentalists determined the location of the cars, they began a month-long vigil at the facility. To challenge the company's line that they were unwanted, they found buyers for all of them, offering a total of $1.9 million. The vehicles were loaded on trucks and removed, and several activists who tried to intervene were arrested. The property was sold in 2012 to Lycée International de Los Angeles (LILA), a dual French-English language school, which opened a private high school in August 2013. The new school includes 23 classrooms, four labs, an auditorium, an art room, an indoor sports rooms, two outdoor volleyball courts and basketball courts, according to the school's website.
Notable locations
Burbank Public Library
Burbank City Hall
Buena Vista Branch Burbank Public Library
De Bell Municipal Golf Course
Providence Saint Joseph Medical Center
Northwest Park Branch Burbank Public Library
Southern California Genealogical Society Library
Gordon R. Howard Museum
Martial Arts History Museum
New York Film Academy
Valhalla Memorial Park
Nickelodeon Animation Studio
The Burbank Studios
Walt Disney Studios
Cartoon Network Studios
Warner Bros. Ranch
Warner Bros. Studios
Stoopid Buddy Stoodios
Columbia TriStar Home Video (now Sony Pictures Home Entertainment) 1978 to 1995
New Normal Studios/The Tom Leykis Show
Providencia Ranch area – 1911 to 1960
Nestor Ranch 1911
Universal City 1912 to 1914
Lasky Ranch
Hasbro Studios
Hudkins Stables of Hollywood (Providencia)
Orby TV
Warner Bros. Studios
Warner Bros. Studios, Burbank is a major filmmaking facility owned and run by Warner Bros. Entertainment Inc. in Burbank, California. First National Pictures built the studio lot in 1926 as it expanded from a film distributor to film production. The financial success of The Jazz Singer and The Singing Fool enabled Warner Bros. to purchase a majority interest in First National in September 1928 and it began moving its productions into the Burbank lot. The First National studio, as it was then known, became the official home of Warner Bros.–First National Pictures with four sound stages. By 1937, Warner Bros. had all but closed the Sunset studio, making the Burbank lot its main headquarters—which it remains to this day. Eventually, Warner dissolved the First National company and the site has often been referred to as simply Warner Bros. Studios since. The studio runs public backlot tours that offer visitors the chance to glimpse behind the scenes of one of the oldest film studios in the world (Warner Bros. Studio Tour Hollywood).
In 1999, Cartoon Network Studios, a division of Warner Bros. took up residence in an old commercial bakery building located on North 3rd Street when it separated its production operations from Warner Bros. Animation in Sherman Oaks. On April 15, 2019, it was announced that Warner Bros. will sell Warner Bros. Ranch, another one of its facilities to Worthe Real Estate Group and Stockbridge Real Estate Fund as part of a larger real estate deal to be completed in 2023 which will see the studio get ownership of The Burbank Studios in time to mark its 100th anniversary.
Walt Disney Studios
The Walt Disney Studios in Burbank serve as the international headquarters for media conglomerate The Walt Disney Company. Disney staff began the move from the old Disney studio at Hyperion Avenue in Silver Lake on December 24, 1939. Designed primarily by Kem Weber under the supervision of Walt Disney and his brother Roy, the Burbank Disney Studio buildings are the only studios to survive from the Golden Age of film. Disney is the only remaining major studio company to remain independent from a larger conglomerate and whose parent entity is still located in the Los Angeles area. Disney is also the only major film studio that does not run public backlot tours.
Providencia Ranch
Filmmaking began in the Providencia Ranch area (marked in yellow on the Providencia Land, Water & Development Co. map in this section). Nestor Studios began using the ranch location in 1911. The Providencia Ranch became part of the Universal Film Manufacturing operations on the Pacific/West Coast in 1912. From 1912 to 1914 Universal's ranch studio was also referred to as the Oak Crest Ranch. Carl Laemmle called the ranch "Universal City" as recorded in issues of The Moving Picture World Volume: 16 (April – June 1913). Universal City existed on the Providencia Land and Water property from 1912 to 1914. In 1914, the Oak Crest studio ranch and Hollywood studio operation would move to the new Universal City located on the Lankershim Land and Water property. The official public opening occurred on March 15, 1915, on the Lankershim Property. The new Universal City (three tracts of land) was much larger than the old Universal (Oak/Providencia) Ranch. The Universal Ranch tract of land became smaller after the 1914 move to the Taylor Ranch. The leased land surrounding the Universal ranch would soon become the Lasky Ranch. The Providencia property was used as a filming location by other motion picture companies, most notably for battle scenes in the silent classic about the American Civil War, The Birth of a Nation (1915).
Olive Memorial Park
From 1949 to 1952, the St. Louis Browns, a Major League Baseball team, selected Burbank as their destination for spring training to escape the harsh winters of the Midwest. As the players donned their uniforms and stepped onto the field at Olive Memorial Park, they not only honed their baseball skills but also forged a special bond with Burbank and its Hollywood luminaries. Workers in Burbank came by during their lunch hour to watch the game. Additionally, well-known entertainment figures such as Bing Crosby, Bob Hope, and Nat King Cole would gather to witness the action. Marilyn Monroe herself even joined the Browns for promotional photos. Over time, the St. Louis Browns would evolve into the Baltimore Orioles. The Los Angeles Rams also used the stadium from 1958 to 1962 as a practice field. While the stadium, originally dedicated in 1947 to commemorate the soldiers lost in World War II, saw its stands razed in 1995, the fields themselves endure as an integral part of the Olive Recreation Center. In 1984, the park underwent a name change and became known as George Izay Park.
Demographics
Burbank experienced a 4.8% increase in population between 2000 and 2016, bringing its total population in 2016 to 105,110. Population growth was influenced by Burbank's expanding employment base, high-quality public schools, and access to regional transportation routes and metropolitan Los Angeles. According to the Southern California Association of Government's 2016 Demographic and Growth Forecast, the population of Burbank is expected to reach about 118,700 by 2040, an increase of 15% from 2012.
2020
2010
The 2010 United States Census reported that Burbank had a population of 103,340. The population density was . The racial makeup of Burbank was 75,167 (72.7%) White (58.3% Non-Hispanic White), 2,600 (2.5%) African American, 486 (0.5%) Native American, 12,007 (11.6%) Asian, 89 (0.1%) Pacific Islander, 7,999 (7.7%) from other races, and 4,992 (4.8%) from two or more races. There were 25,310 people of Hispanic or Latino origin, of any race (24.5%).
The Census reported that 102,767 people (99.4% of the population) lived in households, 291 (0.3%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 282 (0.3%) were institutionalized.
There were 41,940 households, out of which 12,386 (29.5%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 18,388 (43.8%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 4,984 (11.9%) had a female householder with no husband present, 2,050 (4.9%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 2,177 (5.2%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 396 (0.9%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 12,823 households (30.6%) were made up of individuals, and 4,179 (10.0%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.45. There were 25,422 families (60.6% of all households); the average family size was 3.13.
The population was spread out, with 20,488 people (19.8%) under the age of 18, 8,993 people (8.7%) aged 18 to 24, 32,513 people (31.5%) aged 25 to 44, 27,552 people (26.7%) aged 45 to 64, and 13,794 people (13.3%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38.9 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.6 males.
There were 44,309 housing units at an average density of , of which 18,465 (44.0%) were owner-occupied, and 23,475 (56.0%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.6%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.3%. 50,687 people (49.0% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 52,080 people (50.4%) lived in rental housing units.
According to the 2010 United States Census, Burbank had a median household income of $66,240, with 9.4% of the population living below the federal poverty line.
2000
While white residents continue to comprise the majority of Burbank's population, this proportion has decreased substantially from almost 80% in 1980 to approximately 72% in 2000. In contrast, the share of Hispanic residents increased steadily over the past two decades, growing from 16% in 1980 to 25% in 2000. Although Asian residents represent a smaller segment of the population, the share of Asian residents more than tripled since 1980, increasing from 3% in 1980 to 9% in 2000. The black population remained limited, rising from less than 1% in 1980 to almost 2% in 2000.
As of the census of 2000, there were 100,316 people, 41,608 households, and 24,382 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 42,847 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 72.2% White, 2.1% Black or African American, 0.6% Native American, 9.2% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 9.9% from other races, and 6.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 24.9% of the population.
There were 41,608 households, out of which 28.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.8% were married couples living together, 11.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.4% were non-families. 33.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 3.14.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 22.3% under the age of 18, 7.7% from 18 to 24, 35.4% from 25 to 44, 21.8% from 45 to 64, and 12.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.7 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $72,347, and the median income for a family was $78,767. Males had a median income of $59,792 versus $41,273 for females. The per capita income for the city was $29,713. About 6% of families and 9.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24.4% of those under age 18 and 12.2% of those age 65 or over.
According to Mapping L.A., Mexican and Armenian were the most common ancestries in 2000. Mexico and Iran were the most common foreign places of birth.
Crime
Burbank's overall crime rate for violent and property crimes during 2018 fell by about nearly 11% compared with 2017 levels, according to the statistics from the city police department. It represented the first decline in three years, with property and violent crimes in the city falling from 3,197 in 2017 to 2,852 in 2018. Rapes also were down in 2018, according to the police data. There were no murders listed in Burbank during 2018, 2017 and 2016. Three bodies were found in Burbank in 2018, but these homicides were later determined to have occurred in Riverside County. Niche, a national online database that publishes city rankings, listed Burbank in 2018 as one of the top 15 "safest cities in America" and number 63 in terms of the "best cities to live."
Burbank's violent crime rate was approximately 2.34 per 1,000 people in 2009, well below the national average of 4.29 per 1,000 people as reported by the U.S. Department of Justice in the Bureau of Justice Statistics. Furthermore, Burbank was named again in 2010 as One of the Nation's 100 Best Communities for Young People by America's Promise Alliance.
As of December 2011, Burbank police began for the first time posting arrest information online. The website contains archives from the start of the program.
Criminal offenses are charged and locally prosecuted in the Burbank Courthouse. The Los Angeles District Attorney handles all of the felony violations which occur within Burbank city limits. The Burbank City Attorney, through its Prosecution Division, handles the remaining violations, which include all misdemeanors and municipal code violations, as well as traffic offenses. The Burbank Superior Court is a high-volume courthouse, which is part of the Los Angeles County Superior Court system. The City Prosecutor files approximately 5,500 cases yearly, and the Burbank Police Department directly files approximately 12,000 to 15,000 traffic citations per year. Burbank Court, Division Two, handles all of the misdemeanor arraignments for Burbank offenses. A typical arraignment calendar is between 100 and 120 cases each day, including 15 to 25 defendants who are brought to court in custody. Many cases are initiated by arrests at the Hollywood Burbank Airport. Common arrests include possession of drugs such as marijuana, weapons, prohibited items, as well as false identification charges.
Economy
The second-largest office space market in the San Fernando Valley is located in Burbank. Much of the space is utilized by the entertainment industry, which has among the highest office lease rates in the region. In 2017, two entities owned about 70% of Burbank's office Cities and Census Designated Places by Individual Countyspace.
About 150,000 people work in Burbank each day, or more than live in the city. As of 2016, only 25% of the city's employed residents worked in Burbank. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, in 2012 there were 17,587 companies within the city of Burbank and with combined payroll totaling in excess of $13.4 billion.
Nearby Hollywood is a symbol of the entertainment industry and much of the production occurs in Burbank. Many companies have headquarters or facilities in Burbank, including Warner Bros. Entertainment, Warner Music Group, Legendary Pictures, The Walt Disney Company, ABC, The CW, Cartoon Network Studios with the West Coast headquarters of Cartoon Network, Nickelodeon Animation Studios, New Wave Entertainment, Insomniac Games and West Coast Customs.
Many ancillary companies from Arri cameras, to Cinelease, Entertainment Partners, JL Fisher, and Matthews Studio Equipment also maintain a presence in Burbank. Xytech Systems Corporation, a business software and services provider to the entertainment industry, is headquartered in Burbank.
Local IATSE union offices for the Stagehands Local 33, Grips Local 80, Make-up and Hairstylist Local 706, Set Painters Local 729 and Animation Guild Local 839 also make their home in Burbank with Teamsters Local 399, IBEW Local 40 and many other IATSE locals nearby.
Burbank's economy felt stress as a result of the recession. From 2007 to 2016, the city had more than 1,200 home foreclosures, with about three-fourths of them happening from 2007 to 2011. City officials prepared for cutbacks going into 2009. Burbank's City Manager, Mike Flad, estimated the city's 2009–10 fiscal budget would suffer a 5% shortfall. In fact, the city's budget woes continued well into 2017. At the beginning of the budget development process for fiscal 2016–17, the city's staff was projecting a recurring budget deficit of $1.3 million for the year. That followed several years of across-the-board budget cuts by various city departments, according to budget documents. Even so, the city still managed to add some new positions and increase fire staffing. One of the increased costs Burbank and many other California cities are coping with is unfunded pension liability.
The city manager's budget message in 2016-17 identified Burbank's aging infrastructure as one of the top priorities of city officials but also one of its biggest financial challenges. The city's 2017 budget documents indicated Burbank should be spending at least $5 million more annually to address the backlog of maintenance on infrastructure and update Burbank's facilities. Regardless, the city forecasts it will post a deficit for at least the next five years, projecting about $9.4 million in red ink in fiscal year 2017-18 and a deficit of about $27.4 million by 2022–23.
As of April 2012, unemployment in the Burbank area stood at 8.4%, or below the state's jobless rate of 10.9%, according to the California Employment Development Department. Back in January 2011, the unemployment rate in Burbank had reached 10.7%, according to EDD. By November 2017, though, the unemployment rate in Burbank was just 3.4%, below the 4.1% rate in Los Angeles County, according to EDD data. In November 2022, Burbank's unemployment was at 5.40%, compared to 7.2% in November 2021.
One bright spot in the otherwise bleak job market during the late 2007 into 2009 recession was Kaiser Permanente's decision to relocate some administrative offices near the Burbank airport. The relocation from Kaiser's Glendale and Pasadena administrative offices to Burbank was completed in 2009. Additionally, KCET television announced plans in 2012 to relocate to Burbank's Media District. KCET is a former PBS station and the largest independent station in southern and central California. Hasbro Studios also is located in Burbank just east of the airport in a commercial complex previously occupied by Yahoo.
Top employers
According to the city's 2021 Annual Comprehensive Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:
Shopping
The revitalized downtown Burbank provides an urban mix of shopping, dining, and entertainment. The San Fernando Strip is an exclusive mall designed to be a modern urban village, with apartments above the mall. An upscale shopping district is located in the state-of-the-art Empire Center neighborhood. The Burbank Town Center is a retail complex adjacent to the downtown core that was built in two phases between 1991 and 1992.
In 1979, the Burbank Redevelopment Agency entered into an agreement with San Diego-based Ernest Hahn Company to build a regional mall known as Media City Center. It would later get renamed Burbank Town Center and undergo a $130 million facelift starting in 2004, including a new exterior streetscape façade. The agency, helped out with its powers of eminent domain, spent $52 million to buy up the land in the area bounded by the Golden State Freeway, Burbank Boulevard, Third Street and Magnolia Boulevard.
Original plans were for Media City Center included four anchor tenants, including a J.W. Robinson's. But May Co. Department Stores later bought the parent company of Robinson's and dropped out of the deal. The other stores then dropped out as well and Hahn and the agency dropped the project in March 1987. Within months, Burbank entered into negotiations with the Walt Disney Company for a shopping mall and office complex to be called the "Disney MGM Backlot." Disney had estimated that it could spend $150 million to $300 million on a complex of shops, restaurants, theaters, clubs and hotel, and had offered to move its animation department and Disney Channel cable network operation to the property as well. These plans ended in failure in February 1988 when Disney executives determined that the costs were too high.
In January 1989, Burbank began Media City Center project negotiations with two developers, the Alexander Haagen Co. of Manhattan Beach and Price Kornwasser Associates of San Diego. Eight months later, Haagen won the contract and commenced construction, leading to the $250 million mall's opening in August 1991. Under terms of the agreement with Haagen, the city funded an $18 million parking garage and made between $8 and $12 million in improvements to the surrounding area. Plans by Sheraton Corporation to build a 300-room hotel at the mall were shelved because of the weak economy.
The new mall helped take the strain off Burbank's troubled economy, which had been hard hit by the departure of several large industrial employers, including Lockheed Corp. The center was partially financed with $50 million in city redevelopment funds. Construction had been in doubt for many years by economic woes and political turmoil since it was first proposed in the late 1970s. In 2003, Irvine-based Crown Realty & Development purchased the Burbank Town Center from Pan Pacific Retail Properties for $111 million. Crown then hired General Growth Properties Inc., a Chicago-based real estate investment trust, for property management and leasing duties. At the time, the Burbank mall ranked as the No. 6 retail center in Los Angeles County in terms of leasable square footage, with estimated combined tenant volumes in excess of $240 million.
In 1994, Lockheed selected Chicago-based Homart Development Company as the developer of a retail center on a former Lockheed P-38 Lightning production facility near the Burbank Airport that was subject to a major toxic clean-up project. A year later, Lockheed merged with Martin Marietta to become Lockheed Martin Corp. Lockheed was ordered to clean up the toxics as part of a federal Superfund site. The northern Burbank area also became identified as the San Fernando Valley's hottest toxic spot in 1989 by the South Coast Air Quality Management District, with Lockheed identified among major contributors. Lockheed always maintained the site was never a health risk to the community.
The Lockheed toxic clean-up site, just east of the Golden State Freeway, later became home to the Empire Center. Four developers competed to be selected to build the $300 million outdoor mall on the site. In 1999, Lockheed picked Los Angeles-based Zelman Cos. from among other contenders to create the retail-office complex on a site. Zelman purchased the land in 2000 for around $70 million. As part of the sales agreement, Lockheed carried out extensive soil vapor removal on the site. Lockheed had manufactured planes on the site from 1928 to 1991. Together with $42 million for demolition and $12 million for site investigation, Lockheed would eventually spend $115 million on the project.
Warner Bros. proposed building a sports arena there for the Kings and the Clippers on the former B-1 bomber plant site. Price Club wanted it for a new store. Disney considered moving some operations there too. The city used the site in its failed attempt to lure DreamWorks to Burbank. Phoenix-based Vestar Development Company planned a major retail development and spent more than a year in negotiations to buy the property from Lockheed before pulling out late in 1998.
Less than eight months after breaking ground, the Empire Center's first stores opened in October 2001. Local officials estimated the complex would generate about $3.2 million a year in sales tax revenue for the city, and as many as 3,500 local jobs. Within a year of completion, the Empire Center was helping the city to post healthy growth in sales tax revenues despite a down economy. Alone, the Empire mall generated close to $800,000 in sales tax revenues in the second quarter of 2002. The outdoor mall's buildings hark back to Lockheed's glory days by resembling manufacturing plants. Each of the outdoor signs features a replica of a Lockheed aircraft, while the mall design brings to mind an airport, complete with a miniature control tower.
In 2009, work was finished on a $130-million office project adjacent to the Empire Center. The completion of the seven-story tower marked the final phase of the mixed-use Empire development near Bob Hope Airport.
In late 2012, IKEA announced plans to relocate to a new site in Burbank. Its original location was situated north of the Burbank Town Center mall. The new location was approved by the city in 2014 and is just north of Alameda Avenue and east of the Golden State Freeway. The new 456,000-square-foot store was completed in February 2017, and when it opened was the largest IKEA in the United States.
Meanwhile, the old IKEA site north of the mall is getting its own makeover and will feature residential and retail space. Also, the Burbank Town Center mall itself is getting a facelift of its own. The two projects together are expected to cost more than $350 million. The redevelopment reportedly includes using some of the land just north of the old IKEA site, including the Office Max location.
Government
Burbank is a charter city which operates under a council–manager form of government. In 1927, voters approved the council–manager form of government. The five-member City Council is elected for four-year overlapping terms, with the Mayor appointed annually from among the council. The City Clerk and the City Treasurer are also elected officials.
Burbank is a full-service, independent city, with offices of the City Manager and City Attorney, and departments of Community Development, Financial Services, Fire, Information Technology, Library Services, Management Services, Police, Parks-Recreation & Community Services, Public Works, and Burbank Water and Power (BWP).
Burbank opened its first library in 1913 as a contracted branch of the Los Angeles County Library. In 1938, the Burbank Public Library began operation separately from the county as a city department. Today, there are three public library locations in Burbank. The newest location is the Buena Vista Branch Library, which opened in 2022. In March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic caused normal life to come to a standstill. The staff at Burbank Public Library adapted and transitioned services to meet the new circumstances. They implemented curbside pickup and virtual programming to connect the community and provide access to resources. They also provided homework help for students and ensured that all students had access to online resources.
In October 2023, Burbank received a grant of $9.95 million from the California State Library. This funding is set to breathe life into the vision of a new Central Library. This planned state-of-the-art library is an integral component of the ambitious Burbank Civic Center Project, a project including the development of affordable and workforce housing, new open space, parking, and city office space in downtown Burbank. The upcoming library will serve as a replacement for the existing facility, a 60-year-old building that faces limitations due to its age and condition. This new library is designed to better cater to the educational, workforce development, technology training, and information and culture access needs of the Burbank community.
The first power was distributed within the city limits of Burbank in 1913, supplied then by Southern California Edison Company. Today, the city-owned BWP serves 45,000 households and 6,000 businesses in Burbank with water and electricity. Additionally, the $382-million annual revenue utility offers fiber optic services. Burbank's city garbage pickup service began in 1920; outhouses were banned in 1922.
Most of Burbank's current power comes from the Magnolia Power Project, a 310-megawatt natural gas-fired combined cycle generating plant located on Magnolia Boulevard near the Interstate 5 freeway. The municipal power plant, jointly owned by six Southern California cities (Burbank, Glendale, Anaheim. Pasadena, Colton, and Cerritos), began generating electricity in 2005. It replaced a 1941 facility that had served the customers of Burbank for almost 60 years.
At the height of California's 2001 energy crisis, BWP unveiled a mini-power plant at its landfill. It marked the world's first commercial landfill power plant using Capstone microturbine technology. Ten microturbines run on landfill gas, producing 300 kilowatts of renewable energy for Burbank. That is enough energy to serve the daily needs of about 250 homes. The landfill is located in the Verdugo Mountains in the northeastern portion of the city. In 2015, Burbank reached its 2007 goal of providing 33% renewable energy to the city five years ahead of schedule. As of 2017, the city was getting 35% of its power from renewables.
Like other cities in California, Burbank has a long history of facing drought conditions and water cutbacks mandated by the state. In September 2021, as the drought worsened, Burbank proactively moved to Stage II in an effort to comply with the governor's challenge to reduce water use by 15% from 2020 levels. Despite these efforts, the drought continued to worsen, and by June 2022, Burbank was forced to adopt Stage III of their Sustainable Water Use Ordinance. With heavy rains in January 2023, the drought conditions eased, even though Burbank remains 100% dependent on imported water purchased from the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California. The Sustainable Water Use Ordinance sets specific targets for water conservation and requires businesses and residents to comply with certain water-saving measures.
According to Burbank Water and Power, over the last 10 to 15 years, Burbank residents have successfully decreased their water consumption by 22%, from 170 gallons per person to 132 gallons per person. Previously, the 2015 drought in Burbank lasted for several years and led to a reduced water supply for the city and its residents, causing a focus on water conservation and the long-term sustainability of the area's water resources. Burbank was required to lower water use by 28% of 2013 levels. The state threatened stiff fines for non-compliance.
The Burbank City Council lost a court case in 2000 involving the right to begin meetings with a sectarian prayer. A Los Angeles County Superior Court judge ruled that prayers referencing specific religions violated the principle of separation of church and state in the First Amendment. While invocations were still allowed, Burbank officials were required to advise all clerics that sectarian prayer as part of Council meetings was not permitted under the Constitution.
In 1977, Californians passed Proposition 13, a property tax initiative, and Burbank and other cities in the state soon experienced constrained revenues. Burbank dealt with the ramifications of maintaining service levels expected by the community but still with impacts on city finances. As a result, Burbank officials opted to cut some services and implement user fees for specialized services and residents in special zoned areas. One fee was an equine license fee for owners of horse property, even if they no longer owned a horse just to keep from losing their rural zoning.
City Hall
In 1916, the original Burbank City Hall was constructed after bonds were issued to finance the project and pay for fire apparatus. Burbank's current City Hall was constructed from 1941 to 1942 in a neo-federalist Moderne style popular in the late Depression era. The structure was built at a total cost of $409,000, with funding from the Federal Works Agency and Works Project Administration programs. City Hall was designed by architects William Allen and W. George Lutzi and completed in 1943.
Originally, the City Hall building housed all city services, including the police and fire departments, an emergency medical ward, a courthouse and a jail. One of the most distinctive features of the cream-colored concrete building is its tower, which serves as the main lobby. The lobby interior features more than 20 types of marble, which can be found in the city seal on the floor, the trim, walls and in the treads and risers of the grand stairway. Artist Hugo Ballin created a "Four Freedoms" mural in Burbank's City Council chambers during World War II, although it was covered up for decades until art aficionados convinced the city to have the mural fully revealed. Ballin's work illustrates the "Four Freedoms" outlined in President Franklin Roosevelt's 1941 speech at the signing of the Atlantic Charter.
In 1996, the City Hall was added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places, becoming the second building in Burbank to be listed on the register. The first was Burbank's main post office just blocks away from City Hall on Olive Avenue. In 1998, Burbank's state-of-the-art Police/Fire facility opened.
List of mayors
The current Mayor of the City of Burbank is Nick Schultz. Mayor Schultz was elected to Burbank City Council in 2020 and assumed office as Mayor on December 18, 2023.
Burbank Mayor Will Rogers led the city from May 1, 2017, until his death on April 19, 2018. Rogers had served as a council member since 2015. Rogers' term had been scheduled to end May 1, 2019. Emily Gabel-Luddy was elected as the new mayor on April 30, 2018. Prior to that, she had served as the city's vice mayor and acting mayor following the death of Rogers.
The Mayor is appointed annually from among the city council serving a one-year term.
County representation
In the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors, Burbank is in the Fifth District, represented by Kathryn Barger.
The Los Angeles County Department of Health Services operates the Glendale Health Center in Glendale, serving Burbank.
State and federal representation
In the state legislature, Burbank is in , and in . In the United States House of Representatives, Burbank is split between California's 28th and 30th congressional districts, which are represented by and , respectively. In the United States Senate, Burbank is represented by California's senators Alex Padilla and Laphonza Butler, both Democrats.
The United States Postal Service (USPS) operates the Burbank Downtown Post Office. Previously the USPS also operated the Glenoaks Post Office in Burbank. Due to area businesses getting postal services, traffic at Glenoaks declined and in 2011 the USPS began considering closing the branch. In 2013 the agency announced that it will close that branch. Congressperson Adam Schiff opposed the closure. The closure occurred in 2014. The USPS hoped to save $740,270 over a ten-year period from the closure. Burbank Downtown absorbed the functions of Glenoaks.
Education
Burbank is within the Burbank Unified School District. The district was formed on June 3, 1879, following a petition filed by residents S.W. White and nine other citizens. First named the Providencia School District, Burbank's district started with one schoolhouse built for $400 on a site donated by Dr. Burbank, the area's single largest landholder. The first schoolhouse, a single redwood-sided building serving nine families, is on what is now Burbank Boulevard near Mariposa Street. In 1887, a new schoolhouse was constructed at San Fernando Blvd. and Magnolia Boulevard, which was in Burbank's center of commerce.
In 1908, citizens passed a bond measure to raise money to build a high school. At the time, Burbank-area high school students were attending schools in Glendale. When it opened on September 14, 1908, the original Burbank High School had 42 students and two instructors.
Burbank is home to several California Distinguished Schools including the Luther Burbank Middle School and David Starr Jordan Middle School. Both its public and private K–12 schools routinely score above state and national average test scores. According to U.S. News Best High Schools rankings, the district contains three schools that received gold, silver or bronze medals in the publication's latest rankings.
The largest university in Burbank is Woodbury University. Woodbury has a number of undergraduate and graduate programs, including business, architecture, and several design programs. A number of smaller colleges are also located in Burbank, including several makeup and beauty trade schools serving the entertainment industry. The nearest community college to Burbank is Los Angeles Valley College, which is west of the city.
During the early 1920s, Burbank was a contender to become the location for the southern branch of the University of California. Planners were considering locating the university in the Ben Mar Hills area near Amherst Drive and San Fernando Boulevard. The seaside community of Rancho Palos Verdes was also considered for the campus. Both sites were eventually bypassed when the Janss Investment Company donated property now known as Westwood to build the University of California, Los Angeles.
PUC Schools has its administrative offices in Burbank.
The Concordia Schools Concordia Burbank, a K–6 private school, is in the city.
In April 2012, Lycee International de Los Angeles, a bilingual French American college preparatory school, submitted an application with the city of Burbank to operate a private school for grades 6–12 on the site of the former General Motors Training Center on Riverside Drive. The school opened in August 2013 and now features 23 classrooms.
Infrastructure
Transportation
Air
The Hollywood Burbank Airport, until late 2017 known as Bob Hope Airport, serves over 4 million travelers per year with six major carriers and over 70 flights daily. The airport, located in the northwestern corner of the city, is the source of most street traffic in the city. Noise from the airport has been a source of concern for nearly decades. There was even a report in 2018 that a new satellite air-traffic control system may be responsible for some of the noise by putting jets on a path that includes certain neighborhoods. A bill introduced in May 2013 by two California congressmen would put into law an overnight curfew on flights from 10 p.m. to 7 a.m. The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration had rejected the airports' applications for a curfew. However, the airport still suggests a volunteer curfew of 10 p.m. to 7 a.m., where airlines are strongly encouraged not to schedule any arrivals or departures, to respect the surrounding neighborhoods.
In December 2008, a slowdown in passenger traffic led the Burbank-Glendale-Pasadena Airport Authority to curtail spending plans, including deferring multimillion-dollar construction projects. The weak economy continued to affect the airport in 2010, with figures showing a 6% decline in passengers for the fiscal year ending June 30. The slowdown is one reason the airport authority scrapped plans to spend $4 million to erect barriers at the west end of the runway. In 2000, a Southwest Airlines Boeing 737 flight with 142 persons aboard overshot the runway and went through the east fence, coming to a stop on Hollywood Way near a Chevron gas station.
Roads and highways
The construction of major freeways through and around the city of Burbank starting in the 1950s both divided the city from itself and linked it to the rapidly growing Los Angeles region. Burbank is easily accessible by and can easily access the Southern California freeways via the Golden State Freeway (I-5), which bisects the city from northwest to southeast, and the Ventura Freeway which connects Burbank to U.S. Route 101 on the south and the nearby Foothill Freeway to the east. The Ventura Freeway was completed in 1960.
In May 2012, the state Transportation Commission approved $224.1 million in funding for the improvements to the Golden State Freeway (I-5) in the Burbank area along with safety improvements to the railroad tracks at Buena Vista Street. The allocation will fund most of the effort to build a new interchange at Empire Avenue, giving greater access to the nearby Empire Center shopping center as it prepares to get a Walmart store. Construction is expected to start in early 2013 and be completed in early 2016 with an estimated cost of $452 million. The state-backed project will include elevating the railroad crossing at Buena Vista Street to prevent people from getting in harm's way when a train is coming. The crossing has been the site of at least two fatalities in recent years.
Burbank contains about of streets, nearly of paved alleys, of sidewalks, 181 signalized intersections and 10 intersections with flashing signals, according to city figures. Many of the current signals date back to the late 1960s, when voters passed a major capital improvement program for street beautification and street lighting. The funding also helped upgrade dated park and library facilities. The Burbank Chandler Bike Path is popular with cyclist and pedestrians alike.
Transit
Metro operates public transport throughout Los Angeles County, including Burbank. Commuters can use Metrolink and Amtrak for service south into Downtown, west to Ventura and north to Palmdale and beyond. Burbank has three rail stations: Burbank Airport–North station, served by the Antelope Valley Line, Burbank Airport–South station, served by the Ventura County Line, and the Amtrak Pacific Surfliner, and Downtown Burbank station, served by both Metrolink lines but not Amtrak. Burbank has its own public transportation system known as the Burbank Bus. In 2006, Burbank opened its first hydrogen fueling station for automobiles.
The projected California High-Speed Rail route will pass through the city and include a stop near Burbank. The train will connect the San Francisco area to Los Angeles, traveling at speeds up to at some points.
Public safety
Fire department
At the time of cityhood, Burbank had a volunteer fire department. Fire protection depended upon the bucket brigade and finding a hydrant. It wasn't until 1913 that the city created its own fire department. By 1916, the city was installing an additional 40 new fire hydrants but still relying on volunteers for fire fighting. In 1927, the city switched from a volunteer fire department to a professional one.
The department consists of six strategically located fire stations, consisting of 6 fire engines (type 1); 2 aerial ladder trucks (tractor-drawn) and 3 paramedic ambulances.
In the late 1970s, Burbank became part of the Verdugo Fire Communications Center under a joint agreement with Glendale and Pasadena. All three cities were experiencing issues with fire dispatching at the time. Like a lot of cities, dispatching was done by law enforcement due to cost-effectiveness. A "tri-city" joint dispatching center was created to solve the issue and fill the void. Under the contract, Burbank provided a Hazardous Materials team, Glendale provided an Air-Light unit as well as the dispatch center, and Pasadena provided an Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) Type Heavy team. Today, both Glendale and Pasadena offer USAR Type 1 Heavy teams. The three city fire departments are all dispatched from the Verdugo Fire Communications Center, located in Glendale. Each of the three cities shares the cost of operating and maintaining this dispatch facility. Today, Verdugo is a regional dispatch center, providing communications for all 13 fire departments in California's OES "Area C" mutual aid area and the 14th agency which is the Burbank Airport Fire Department.
Hospitals
In 1907, Burbank's first major hospital opened under the name "Burbank Community Hospital". The 16-bed facility served the community during a deadly smallpox epidemic in 1913 and helped it brace for possible air raids at the start of World War II. The two-story hospital was located at Olive Avenue and Fifth Street. By 1925, the hospital was expanded to 50 beds and in the mid-1980s operated with 103 beds and a staff of over 175 physicians. For years, it also was the only hospital in Burbank where women could receive abortions, tubal ligations and other procedures not offered at what is now Providence St. Joseph Medical Center. A physicians group acquired the hospital for $2 million in 1990 and renamed it Thompson Memorial Medical Center, in honor of the hospital's founder, Dr. Elmer H. Thompson. He was a general practitioner who made house calls by bicycle and horseback. In 2001, Burbank Community Hospital was razed to make way for a Belmont Village Senior Living community. Proceeds from that sale went to the Burbank Health Care Foundation, which assists community organizations that cater to health-related needs.
In 1943, the Sisters of Providence Health System, a Catholic non-profit group, founded Providence St. Joseph Medical Center. Construction of the hospital proved difficult due to World War II restrictions on construction materials, and in particular the lack of structural steel. But the challenges were met and the one-story hospital was erected to deal with wartime restrictions. During the baby boom of the 1950s, the hospital expanded from the original 100 beds to 212. By 2012, the hospital featured 431 licensed beds and ranked as the second-largest hospital serving the San Fernando and Santa Clarita Valleys. The hospital employs about 2,500 employees and 600-plus physicians.
In the mid-1990s, Seattle-based Sisters of Providence Health System, which owns St. Joseph in Burbank, renamed the hospital Providence St. Joseph Medical Center. The medical center has several centers on campus with specialized disciplines. Cancer, cardiology, mammogram, hospice and children's services are some of the specialty centers. The newest addition to the medical center's offerings is the Roy and Patricia Disney Family Cancer Center, which opened in February 2010. The cancer center features four stories of the latest in high-tech equipment to treat cancer patients and provide wellness services. The center, estimated to cost in excess of $36 million, was built with money from the family of Roy E. Disney, the nephew of Walt Disney. Roy E. Disney died in December 2009 of stomach cancer.
Notable people
John F. Aiso (1909–1987), Japanese-American WW2 Army Colonel, US
Samuel J. Aquila (b. 1950), Roman Catholic Archbishop of Denver
Marla Penington (b. 1954), actress
Manny Ayulo (1921–1955), Formula One driver for Lesovsky
Sterling Beaumon (b. 1995), actor, musician
Tyler Blackburn (b. 1986), actor, singer
Kelly Blatz (b. 1987), actor, model
Scott Borchetta (b. 1962), president/CEO of Big Machine Records
Tim Burton (b. 1958), film director, producer
Paul Cameron (b. 1932), football player
Mark Cerny (b. 1964), video game programmer
Eddie Cibrian (b. 1973), actor
Royce Clayton, Major League Baseball shortstop
Glenn Davis (1924–2005), football player, Heisman Trophy winner
Doug DeCinces (b. 1950), Major League Baseball third baseman
Debbe Dunning (b. 1966), actress
Carrie Fisher (1956–2016), actress, writer, humorist
Max Homa (born 1990), professional golfer on the PGA Tour
Andrew Gold (1951–2011), singer-songwriter, born in Burbank
Namrata Singh Gujral, actress, producer
Mark Harmon (b. 1951), actor
Jason Hirsh (b. 1982), professional baseball player
Clint Howard (b. 1956), actor
Ron Howard (b. 1954), actor, director
Jeremy Howard (b. 1981), actor
Ashley Johnson (b. 1983), actress, voice actress
Edmund Kemper (born 1948), serial killer
William M. Kramer (1920–2004), rabbi
Ryan Lavarnway (b. 1987), Major League Baseball catcher
Blake Lively (b. 1987), actress
Masiela Lusha (b. 1985), actress, writer, humanitarian
Chris Marquette (b. 1984), actor
Remy Martin (b. 1998), basketball player
Larry Maxam (1948–1968), Medal of Honor
Cady McClain (b. 1969), actress
Sean McNamara (b. 1962), filmmaker
Hayley McFarland (b. 1991), actress
Katie Meyer (2000–2022), soccer player
Erin Moran (1960–2017), actress
Sandy Neilson (b. 1956), Olympic swimming gold medalist
Jeff Nelson (b. 1961), athlete (held high school two-mile record 1979–2014)
Sean Penn (b. 1960), actor
Greg Plitt (1977–2015), fitness model, actor
Eve Plumb (b. 1958), actress
Bonnie Raitt (b. 1949), blues singer-songwriter, musician and activist
Debbie Reynolds (1932–2016), actress, singer
Randy Rhoads (1956–1982), musician, guitarist
Jason Ritter (b. 1980), actor, raised in Burbank, son of John Ritter
John Ritter (1948–2003), actor, TV personality, born and raised in Burbank, son of Tex Ritter, father of Jason Ritter
Tex Ritter (1905–1974), actor, country singer, father of John Ritter
Kerry Rossall (b. 1947), stuntman and actor
Todd Sand (b. 1963), figure skater, 3-time national champion, born in Burbank
Adam Schiff (b. 1960), U.S. congressman
Kendall Schmidt (b. 1990), actor, singer, formed band Heffron Drive – part of Big Time Rush
Ben Shapiro (b. 1984), conservative talk show host
Ryan Shore (b. 1974), film composer
Daniel Steres (b. 1990), professional soccer player
Frank Sullivan (1930–2016), Major League baseball pitcher, active 1953–1963
Vic Tayback (1930–1990), actor
Wil Wheaton (b. 1972), actor
Mara Wilson (b. 1987), playwright, author, actress
Anton Yelchin (1989–2016), actor
Rob Zabrecky (b. 1968) actor, magician, musician
Marcel Nahapetian (b. 2011) voice actor
Sister cities
Burbank is currently twinned with:
Gaborone, Botswana
Hadrut, Republic of Artsakh (2014–2020)
Incheon, South Korea
Ōta, Japan
Paterna, Spain
Solna, Sweden
References
External links
Burbank Chamber of Commerce
Burbank Community Book, 1944
A History of Burbank, 1968
Burbankia, History and Lore of Burbank
1887 establishments in California
1911 establishments in California
Cities in Los Angeles County, California
Communities in the San Fernando Valley
Incorporated cities and towns in California
Populated places established in the 1870s
Populated places established in 1911
Sundown towns in California
Armenian diaspora communities in the United States
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/1879
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1879
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1879
Промислова революція Колоніальні імперії Націнально-визвольні рухиРобітничий рух
Геополітична ситуація
У Росії царює імператор Олександр II (до 1881). Російській імперії належить більша частина України, значна частина Польщі, Бесарабія, Закавказзя, Фінляндія, Бухарське ханство, Хівинське ханство. Україну розділено між двома державами — Королівство Галичини та Володимирії належить Австрії, Правобережжя, Лівобережжя та Крим — Російській імперії.
В Османській імперії править султан Абдул-Гамід II (до 1909). Під владою османів перебувають Близький Схід та Єгипет, Середземноморське узбережжя Північної Африки частина Балкан, автономна Болгарія.
В Австро-Угорщині править Франц-Йосиф I (до 1916). Імперія охоплює, крім австрійських та угорських земель, Хорватію, Трансильванію, Богемію. Німецьку імперію очолює Вільгельм I (до 1888). Королівство Баварія — Людвіг II (до 1886).
У Франції при владі Третя французька республіка. Франція має колонії в Алжирі, Карибському басейні, Південній Америці в Індокитаї та Індії. Королівство Іспанія очолює Альфонс XII (до 1885). Іспанії належать частина островів Карибського басейну, Філіппіни. У Португалії править Луїш I (до 1889). Португалія має володіння в Африці, Індії, Індійському океані й Індонезії.
У Великій Британії триває Вікторіанська епоха — править королева Вікторія (до 1901). Британська імперія має колонії в Північній Америці, на Карибах, в Африці та Індії. Королівство Нідерланди очолює Віллем III (до 1890). Король Данії та Норвегії — Кристіан IX (до 1906), Оскар II сидить на шведському троні (до 1907), на троні Королівства Італія — Умберто I (до 1900).
Бразильську імперію очолює Педру II (до 1889). Посаду президента США обіймає Резерфорд Гейз. Територію на півночі північноамериканського континенту займає Канадська конфедерація (домініон Великої Британії), територія на півдні континенту належить Мексиці.
В Ірані при владі Каджари. Владу над Індостаном утримує Британська корона. У Бірмі править династія Конбаун, у В'єтнамі — династія Нгуєн, у Сіамі — династія Чакрі. У Китаї володарює Династія Цін. В Японії триває період Мейдзі.
Події
В Україні
Побудована залізниця Хацапетівка — Єнакієве — Ясинувата.
У Львові закладено парк Кілінського (тепер Стрийський парк).
Засновано Харківське математичне товариство.
У світі
11 січня почалася Англо-Зулуська війна.
22 січня зулуси здобули перемогу в битві при Ісандлвані.
23 січня британці виграли битву при Роркс-Дрифт (відбили напад зулусів).
3 березня засновано Геологічну службу США.
11 березня Японія анексувала Рюкю-хан, включивши його до префектури Окінава.
5 квітня спалахнула Тихоокеанська війна.
26 травня укладено Гандамакську угоду щодо Афганістану.
2 жовтня Росія й Китай уклали Лівадійський договір.
7 жовтня підписано Австро-німецький договір.
В суспільному житті
Джеймс Рітті винайшов касовий апарат.
Мослі-стрит в Ньюкаслі стала першою вулицею, освітленою лампами розжарювання.
Листоноша Фердінан Шеваль почав будувати свій ідеальний палац.
Вільгельм Марр запровадив термін антисеміт та організував антисемітську лігу.
В Австралії організовано Королівський національний парк.
Пабло Іглесіас організував Іспанську соціалістичну робітничу партію.
Генрі Джордж видав на свої кошти працю «Прогрес і бідність».
Оксфордський університет почав приймати студенток.
Вільгельм Вундт заснував першу лабораторію психологічних досліджень.
Засновано
Хімічну компанію Linde у Німеччині.
Релігійний журнал «Вартова башта» у США
У науці
Едвард Майбрідж вигадав зоопраксископ.
Генріх Антон де Барі запровадив термін симбіоз.
Пер Теодор Клеве відкрив хімічні елементи Гольмій і Тулій.
Ларс Фредрік Нільсон відкрив хімічний елемент Скандій.
Едвін Голл відкрив ефект Голла.
Йозеф Стефан сформулював Закон Стефана — Больцмана.
У мистецтві
Відбулася прем'єра п'єси Генріка Ібсена «Ляльковий дім».
Побачив світ роман Жюля Верна «П'ятсот мільйонів Бегуми».
Завершилося будівництво Вотівкірхе у Відні.
Зведено палац Ліндергоф у Баварії.
Народились
Дивись також: :Категорія:Народились 1879
5 січня — Конрад Аденауер, німецький політик
8 січня — Васильченко Степан Васильович, український письменник
31 січня — Савінков Борис Вікторович, російський політичний діяч, есер-терорист, письменник
1 лютого — Капустянський Микола Олександрович, військовий та політичний діяч (пом. 1969)
4 лютого — Королів Василь Костянтинович (1879—1943), письменник і художник
1 березня — Стамболійський Александр Стоїменов, болгарський політичний і державний діяч, прем'єр-міністр Болгарії (1919—1923 рр.)
8 березня — Отто Ган, німецький радіохімік і фізик
14 березня — Альберт Ейнштейн, видатний німецький і американський фізик-теоретик, один з основоположників сучасної фізики, автор теорії відносності
17 травня — Петлюра Симон Васильович, український військовий діяч і політичний діяч
28 травня — Милутин Миланкович, сербський цивільний інженер, кліматолог, геофізик, астроном і математик
5 липня — Двайт Девіс, американський тенісист
19 липня — Ян Карнік, чеський письменник, поет, прозаїк, публіцист і лікар.
22 липня — Барвінок Володимир Іванович, український історик, письменник, діяч УНР
8 серпня — Еміліано Сапата, керівник Мексиканської революції (1910—1917 рр.)
4 листопада — Леонід Федоров, екзарх Російської греко-католицької церкви, мученик за віру
21 грудня — Йосип Сталін, керівний діяч КПРС і диктатор СРСР, генералісимус Радянського Союзу
Померли
Дивись також :Категорія:Померли 1879
10 лютого — Оноре Дом'є, французький художник
6 серпня — Йоганн фон Ламонт, шотландсько-німецький астроном і геофізик
16 жовтня — Сергій Соловйов, російський історик
1870-ті
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie%20Irvine
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Willie Irvine
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Willie Irvine
William John Irvine (born 18 June 1943) is a Northern Irish former professional footballer who played as a centre forward. Born in Eden, County Antrim, into a large family, he grew up in the nearby town of Carrickfergus. He did well at school, but chose to pursue a career in professional football and initially played for local club Linfield. After a spell in amateur football, Irvine travelled to England for a trial with Burnley at the age of 16. He was offered a professional deal and spent three years playing for the youth and reserve teams, before making his senior debut at the end of the 1962–63 season. Over the following seasons, Irvine became a regular feature of the Burnley team and in the 1965–66 campaign, he scored 29 goals and was the highest goalscorer in the Football League First Division.
Irvine lost his place in the Burnley team after suffering a broken leg during a cup tie in 1967, and never properly regained his form for the club. He was later transfer listed, and joined local rivals Preston North End in March 1968. In the Football League Second Division, he began to score goals again and was Preston's top goalscorer in the 1968–69 season despite suffering a serious leg injury which forced him to miss much of the campaign. When Alan Ball was named Preston manager in the summer of 1970, Irvine found himself out of the team. He joined Brighton & Hove Albion in July 1971 after impressing during a loan spell earlier in the year. He moved to Halifax Town midway through the 1972–73 season, but left the club after six months. Irvine ended his football career with a spell at semi-professional Great Harwood, before retiring at the age of 29.
In addition to playing club football, Irvine also represented the Northern Ireland national football team. He won 23 caps for his country, scoring eight goals. After retiring from football, he ran his own do-it-yourself shop but suffered from severe depression when the business collapsed. Irvine spent time in hospital after taking an overdose of medication, but recovered and later worked as a community worker before becoming a window cleaner. He later worked full-time in an aerospace factory, and also gave guided tours of Burnley's stadium, Turf Moor, on matchdays.
Early life
Willie Irvine was born on 18 June 1943 in the village of Eden, County Antrim, on the east coast of Northern Ireland. He was born to Alex and Agnes Irvine, and had 17 half-brothers and half-sisters from his mother's previous marriages. Irvine was 11 months old when his father, who had played football for Distillery, died after being involved in a motorcycle accident. He came from a poor background and when he was young the family resided in a small wooden bungalow that had neither electricity nor running water. His mother worked often, and Irvine was looked after by his elder siblings. At the age of one, he started to attend Eden School so that he could be looked after by the teachers while his sisters earned money. When he was seven years old, the family moved to the Sunnylands estate in nearby Carrickfergus after his mother was sent to Omagh Prison for falsely claiming benefits.
Irvine soon warmed to his new neighbourhood; he enjoyed visiting Carrickfergus Castle and often spent time at the harbour. In 1950, he moved to Sunnylands Primary School and began to play football seriously. He initially concentrated on playing as a goalkeeper for the school team. In 1953, the team reached the final of the County Cup, but were defeated 0–3 by an older side from Carrick Technical School. Irvine's elder brother Bobby, who went on to represent Stoke City and was also a Northern Ireland international, played for the opposition. Along with his schoolmate William Donnelly, Irvine often frequented Windsor Park to watch the Northern Ireland national team, and he idolised players such as Jimmy McIlroy and Danny Blanchflower.
At 14, Irvine enrolled at Carrick Technical School, where he studied German, physics, chemistry and woodwork. He excelled in his studies and was urged to go to university, but his family could not afford the fees. His interest in football increasing, he started to play in a midfielder position for the Carrickfergus-based Barn United and was selected to represent the East Antrim Schoolboys as well as the Irish Schools team. His performances while playing for Northern Ireland in the Victory Shield led to him signing junior terms with Belfast-based club Linfield, where his brother Bobby was the first-team goalkeeper. Several months later, Irvine left Linfield and joined local men's team Barn United, who competed in the Northern Ireland Amateur League. Several clubs, including Manchester United, Arsenal and Wolverhampton Wanderers showed an interest in him and in 1959, Jimmy McIlroy invited Irvine to a trial at English side Burnley.
Club career
Burnley
Irvine joined the Burnley youth team initially on a month's trial, along with other young players including Brian O'Neil and Willie Morgan. He suffered an injury to his ankle but recovered in time for the final trial match against local rivals Blackburn Rovers. His performances during the month had sufficiently impressed manager Harry Potts, and Irvine was offered a permanent contract. He became a full member of the youth team and was an understudy to the team that won the Football League First Division in the 1959–60 season. As an apprentice footballer he earned a basic wage of £7 per week. While in the youth squad, Irvine was converted into a centre forward and in his first match in the position scored a hat-trick for the Burnley C team. He scored more than 40 goals for the A team in the Lancashire League during the 1961–62 season, including 6 in an 8–3 win against a Blackburn Rovers representative team. On 14 October 1961, Irvine made his debut for the Burnley reserve side, scoring a hat-trick in the 6–1 victory over Barnsley. Both the A team and the reserves were crowned champions of their respective divisions at the end of the season, and Potts singled out Irvine for particular praise, stating that Burnley had not "had a more consistent goal getter than Willie for a very long time."
Going into the 1962–63 campaign, Irvine returned to the Burnley A team and scored a hat-trick against Bury early in the season. After Andy Lochhead was promoted to the first team in October 1962, Irvine became the reserve side's first-choice centre forward. He continued to score regularly, netting 8 goals in 15 appearances, although he was forced to stop playing for a period in the winter of 1963 when adverse weather caused the postponement of several matches. After his Northern Ireland debut in April that year, he made several more appearances for the reserves, and his goal against Blackpool was described by journalist Keith McNee as "the finest goal [he had] seen". On 11 May 1963, Irvine was asked by manager Potts to travel with the first team for their final away fixture of the season at Arsenal. He was a boot boy, and was originally only intended to assist Ray Bennion in transporting the team kit to and from the game. It was reported in the Burnley Express the day before the match that he would be making his professional debut against Arsenal, although Irvine himself only found out just before the match. He started at centre forward in place of Lochhead, who was unable to play because of a leg injury. Irvine had a successful introduction to senior football and scored a headed goal after 20 minutes of play, the first goal in a 3–2 win for Burnley. He was again selected three days later for the last game of the campaign at home to Birmingham City and scored a hat-trick as Burnley ended the season with a 3–1 victory.
Irvine started the first match of the 1963–64 campaign, a 1–3 defeat away to Ipswich Town. However, he suffered a broken hand during the game, which left him unable to play throughout the following months. Even after recovery, he remained sidelined, unable to regain his place in the starting eleven. Irvine did not play again for Burnley until 30 March 1964, when he was chosen to play at inside-right in the away tie against Bolton Wanderers. Despite Irvine's fifth goal in four league starts, Burnley were beaten 1–2. He retained his place in the team for the next two matches, before returning to his more preferred centre forward position for the 0–3 loss at home to Liverpool on 14 April 1964. He scored three more goals in the final two matches of the season, including two in the 7–2 win against Tottenham Hotspur. His frequent goalscoring led to him becoming a more integral part of the Burnley side during the following campaign, in which he scored three goals in the first six matches, although the team achieved only four draws and two losses. He was dropped from the starting line-up for the away match at Birmingham City on 12 September 1964. The team suffered three defeats in the following four fixtures, and Irvine was reinstated to the team for the trip to West Bromwich Albion two weeks later. He immediately marked his return with both Burnley goals in a 2–1 win, the team's first away victory of the season. Irvine retained his place in the side for most of the remainder of the campaign, and in December he scored seven goals in four games, including a hat-trick in the 4–0 win over Fulham. Despite missing a small portion of the campaign through injury, Irvine ended the season with a total of 22 goals in 37 league and cup matches, one more goal than centre forward partner Lochhead.
The Irvine–Lochhead partnership continued into the 1965–66 campaign. Irvine scored a goal in a 2–1 win against Lausanne Sports on a pre-season tour of Switzerland, and his first competitive goal of the season came on 24 August 1965 in the 3–1 home victory against Blackpool. He scored two in the return match at Bloomfield Road the following week, and two matches later he netted a hat-trick in the 4–1 defeat of Northampton Town. Between the 1–1 draw away at Leeds United on 30 October 1965 and the 5–2 win against Fulham on 11 December 1965, Irvine scored in seven consecutive league matches. In the 3–1 win against West Ham United, Irvine and Lochhead both scored in the same match for the first time, despite having played together for almost three seasons. Irvine took his goalscoring form into the cup competitions, netting five times in three FA Cup ties, and scoring the winning goals against Southampton and Stoke City as the team reached the fifth round of the EFL Cup before being knocked out by Peterborough United. During the second half of the season, he went through a somewhat barren spell, failing to score in the league between 8 January 1966 and 26 March 1966. He ended his poor run of form with a hat-trick in the 4–1 win over Nottingham Forest at Turf Moor. He subsequently got on the scoresheet in the next six league games, including two goals against Sheffield Wednesday which took him to 27 league goals, the joint-highest total since George Beel's 30 in the 1928–29 season. Irvine's 29th and final goal of the season came on 23 April 1966 in the 2–0 home victory against Liverpool. He was the highest scorer in the Football League First Division that season, the first, and to date only, time a Burnley player had achieved the feat.
In June 1966, Irvine had an altercation with Burnley chairman Bob Lord after returning late from a Northern Ireland match. Nevertheless, he retained his place in the starting line-up at the start of the 1966–67 campaign, and scored in the first match of the season against Sheffield United. After a pre-season tour of Austria, throughout which Burnley remained undefeated, the team were confident of a successful season and especially looked forward to European competition in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup. On 20 September 1966, Irvine scored the sole Burnley goal in the 1–1 draw against German side VfB Stuttgart. The following month, he scored in consecutive league matches against Leicester City and Manchester City at Turf Moor. Irvine was on the scoresheet again in the next round of the Fairs Cup as Swiss team Lausanne Sports were beaten 5–0 in Burnley on 25 October 1966. By the middle of the season, Irvine had scored 13 goals in the league, four fewer than the same stage of the previous campaign. He scored his first goal of the new year on 31 January 1967 in the FA Cup third round replay against Everton at Goodison Park. However, early in the second half, Irvine was tackled by Everton defender Johnny Morrissey. The challenge—not deemed a foul by the referee—broke his shin bone, and Irvine was immediately substituted and replaced by fellow Irishman Sammy Todd. The injury meant that he did not play again for Burnley for the remainder of the season. He was forced to remain on the sidelines as Burnley finished 14th in the First Division and reached the fourth round of the Fairs Cup before being knocked out by Eintracht Frankfurt.
Irvine regained his place in the Burnley team at the start of the 1967–68 campaign, and scored in the first two league matches of the season. However, he was dropped from the starting eleven after four games. On 7 October 1967, in the 1–1 draw with Nottingham Forest, he became the first ever Burnley player to score after coming on as a substitute, after replacing Martin Dobson. Irvine made six consecutive starts throughout October and November 1967, before again being dropped following the 2–0 home win against Newcastle United. After this, he played less often and scored his final goal for the club on 5 December 1967 in the 1–2 defeat to Arsenal in the fifth round of the League Cup. Just over two months later, on 24 February 1968, Irvine made his last appearance for Burnley when he played in an unfamiliar inside-right position in the 0–1 loss away at Nottingham Forest. In the same month, he formally requested to be placed on the transfer list after becoming increasingly unhappy at Burnley. The request was granted by Potts, who set a price of £60,000 for Irvine. Altogether, he had scored 97 goals in a total of 148 first-team matches for Burnley during his eight years with the club.
Preston North End
In March 1968, Irvine signed for Preston North End, who were struggling at the bottom of the Football League Second Division, for a transfer fee of £45,000 and a signing-on fee of £5,000. He was one of five Burnley first-team players to leave the club during that year. Irvine made his debut for Preston North End on 14 March 1968 in the 0–4 defeat away at Ipswich Town. He scored his first goal for the club in the following match, a 2–1 win against Aston Villa at Deepdale. The team subsequently went on a run of eight games without defeat in the league, including a 3–1 win over Huddersfield Town in which Irvine scored a hat-trick. On the morning of 27 April 1968, the Preston North End team were each offered £2,500 to purposely lose the match against Bristol City in order that Bristol City could improve their chances of avoiding relegation. Irvine, along with teammate Derek Temple, refused, saying: "I'm a professional. I want no part of this". Irvine scored the team's only goal in a 1–4 defeat that day, and by the end of the 1967–68 season he had scored six times in eleven matches for his new side. He carried his goalscoring form into the new campaign, scoring the winner against Oldham Athletic in the first round of the League Cup, and netting a consolation goal in the 1–3 defeat to Crystal Palace.
After 16 matches of the 1968–69 season, Irvine had scored 13 goals. However, he suffered a knee injury midway through the season in the FA Cup fourth round tie against Chelsea. He was injured ten minutes into the match but played for most of the first half before being substituted. He had a chipped bone and ligament damage, requiring him to undergo an operation in February 1969 that forced him to miss the rest of the campaign. Despite missing many games, he was Preston's top scorer that season with 20 goals in all competitions. Irvine never fully recovered from the injury, and played only 16 games the following season, scoring five goals. Preston North End were relegated to the Football League Third Division in 1970 after finishing bottom of the league. Manager Bobby Seith was dismissed following the relegation, and replaced by former Halifax Town coach Alan Ball in May 1970. Ball was reluctant to play Irvine after discovering the knee injury from the previous season. Nevertheless, he appeared in the first three matches of the 1970–71 campaign, scoring in the 1–0 win against Stockport County in the first round of the League Cup. He was dropped from the team after missing several chances in the 1–3 defeat to Torquay United on 22 August 1970. After this, Irvine did not feature regularly for Preston North End and from October 1970, he played mostly for the reserve team. He made his final senior appearance for the club on 26 December 1970 in the 3–3 draw with Tranmere Rovers at Deepdale. During a three-year spell, he played 81 league games for Preston North End, scoring 27 goals in the process.
Later career
In March 1971, Ball offered Irvine the opportunity of a three-month loan spell at fellow Third Division side Brighton & Hove Albion. Irvine made his debut for Brighton on 10 March 1971 in the 3–2 win against Fulham. He scored in the match, and manager Pat Saward was effusive in his praise of his new signing. Irvine became a regular starter for Brighton, and scored again in the 1–1 draw with Plymouth Argyle at the Goldstone Ground on 28 April 1971. During the loan spell, he played 14 league games and scored six goals. At the end of the season, Irvine temporarily returned to Preston but a transfer fee of £7,000 took him to Brighton on a permanent deal in July 1971. Irvine became known as "late-goal Willie" after scoring a succession of last-minute goals. On 11 December 1971, he scored against Walsall in the second round of the FA Cup to take the tie to a replay. He scored the equaliser in the 2–2 draw away at Bristol Rovers on 22 January 1972, followed by a late winner in the 2–1 defeat of Wrexham two weeks later.
Irvine added to his tally with home and away goals against Halifax Town, where he would go on to play the next season, and a strike against Aston Villa that was named as runner-up in a Goal of the Season competition by television programme Match of the Day. With the forward partnership of Irvine and Kit Napier, Brighton performed better than expected in the 1971–72 season. At the end of the campaign, following a 1–1 draw with Rochdale the team was promoted to the Second Division, after finishing as runners-up behind Aston Villa. Irvine continued to score in a higher division, netting five times in the first eleven matches of the season. However, he was then dropped from the team and never regained his place in the starting line-up. Several clubs became interested in his services, including West Ham United, a number of American teams, and Scottish side Heart of Midlothian, where Bobby Seith was the manager. Irvine played his last match for Brighton on 18 November 1972, when the team lost 0–1 at home to his former club Burnley.
After turning down potential transfers to West Ham and Torquay, because neither he nor his wife wanted to live in either place, Irvine decided to sign for Third Division outfit Halifax Town in December 1972. Despite taking a considerable pay cut, he chose Halifax to enable his family to return to live near Burnley. Irvine made a total of 11 first-team appearances for Halifax Town, scoring one goal for the club. He played his last competitive game for the club in the 1–0 win against York City on 13 March 1973, after manager George Mulhall accused Irvine of not trying and not deserving his wage. At the end of the 1972–73 season, the team avoided relegation to the Fourth Division on goal difference. After failing to report for the away game at Walsall on 1 May 1973, to play in a testimonial match for Burnley defender John Angus, he was fined two weeks' wages and forced into extra training sessions. In the summer of 1973, Irvine left Halifax Town by mutual consent, his professional football career over at the age of 29. Despite having the option to sign for Rochdale, he joined semi-professional side Great Harwood, who played in the Northern Premier League. At Great Harwood, he played alongside two former Burnley teammates; goalkeeper Adam Blacklaw and midfielder Les Latcham. Irvine remained at the club for a number of months, before leaving midway through the 1973–74 season and retiring from football altogether.
International career
Irvine's first taste of international football came in 1958, when he represented the Northern Ireland schoolboy team in the Victory Shield. Five years later, he made his debut for the Northern Ireland national under-23 football team, when he played alongside his brother Bobby in the 1–5 defeat to Wales on 27 February 1963. During the next two years, he played twice more for the under-23 team, scoring three goals for the side. Irvine received his first call-up to the Northern Ireland senior team in April 1963, one month before he made his professional debut for Burnley. He went straight into the team and won his first cap on 3 April 1963 in the 1–4 loss to Wales in the British Home Championship. He received his next cap the following month and scored his first international goal on 30 May 1963 in the 1–1 draw with Spain in the first round of the 1964 European Nations Cup. It was over a year before Irvine was selected to represent his country again, when he was included in the squad for the 1–2 defeat to Switzerland in a qualification match for the 1966 FIFA World Cup. On 25 November 1964, he scored his second Northern Ireland goal in the loss to Scotland in the British Home Championship. Irvine was involved in his first win with the Northern Ireland team when they defeated the Netherlands in a World Cup qualifying game on 17 March 1965. During the remainder of the 1964–65 season, he won a further three caps for his country.
Between 2 October 1965 and 30 March 1966, Irvine scored in four consecutive international fixtures. The run started with a goal against Scotland in the British Home Championship, followed by a goal in the 1–2 loss to England on 10 November 1965. Two weeks later, he netted in a World Cup qualifier against Albania before scoring in the 4–1 win against Wales to complete the run. Irvine continued to play for Northern Ireland, winning caps against Mexico, England and Scotland, but it was almost two-and-a-half years before he scored again in international football. His two goals in a friendly match against Israel were his last for Northern Ireland, although he did win another five caps for his country. After leaving Burnley in 1968, his inclusion in the Northern Ireland squad became less frequent and between 1969 and 1972 he did not make an appearance for the team. After three years out of the side, he returned for the 0–2 loss to Scotland on 20 May 1972. He played against England three days later before winning his 23rd and final cap in the goal-less draw with Wales, the team against which he had made his international debut, on 27 May 1972.
Style of play
As a youngster, Irvine played as a goalkeeper until his elder brother Bobby, who went on to keep goal for the Northern Ireland national team, threatened to "batter" him. He subsequently moved into a midfield position, before becoming a centre forward during his time in the Burnley youth team. Described as a natural and instinctive goalscorer, Irvine stated that one of his main strengths as a striker was the ability to anticipate where the ball was going to land.
Outside football
Irvine is married to wife Rita, whom he met in a public house in Burnley. The couple were wed on 3 October 1966 and have three sons; Darren, Stephen and Jonathan, who played semi-professional football for Nelson and Colne. He has lived in the village of Worsthorne since retiring from football in 1974. Following his retirement he rented a warehouse from a friend and started a do-it-yourself retail business in the centre of Burnley. The shop was reasonably successful, and Irvine opened a second branch in Keighley, West Yorkshire. However, the business became untenable after several years and left Irvine owing £44,000 to the bank after a potential buyer for the shop pulled out of the deal. Following the collapse of the business, Irvine suffered severe depression and at one stage attempted suicide by taking an overdose of paracetamol tablets. He was discovered in time by his wife and admitted to Burnley General Hospital, where he underwent an emergency procedure to pump his stomach. After the attempt, he got a part-time job with Burnley Borough Council, working with young people at local community centres. He later worked as a window cleaner for 12 months before selling the round for a profit. Irvine then took a job in an engineering factory, where he worked for 14 years, before joining electrical firm LED. From there, he moved to Aeropia, an aircraft parts manufacturer, where he worked as a stores manager. On matchdays at Turf Moor, he gave guided tours of the ground to supporters.
Career statistics
Under–23
Scores and results list Northern Ireland U23's goal tally first.
Senior team
Scores and results list Northern Ireland's goal tally first.
Notes
A. The Northern Premier League is a semi-professional league; individual players' appearances and goals are not available in either contemporary or modern sources.
References
General
Specific
External links
Willie Irvine career stats at the Post War Players Database
Willie Irvine biography at ClaretsMad
1943 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Carrickfergus
Men's association football forwards
Association footballers from County Antrim
Men's association footballers from Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland men's international footballers
Burnley F.C. players
Preston North End F.C. players
Brighton & Hove Albion F.C. players
Halifax Town A.F.C. players
Great Harwood F.C. players
English Football League players
First Division/Premier League top scorers
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353859
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidentiality
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Confidentiality
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Confidentiality involves a set of rules or a promise usually executed through confidentiality agreements that limits the access to or places restrictions on distribution of certain types of information.
Legal confidentiality
By law, lawyers are often required to keep confidential anything pertaining to the representation of a client. The duty of confidentiality is much broader than the attorney–client evidentiary privilege, which only covers communications between the attorney and the client.
Both the privilege and the duty serve the purpose of encouraging clients to speak frankly about their cases. This way, lawyers can carry out their duty to provide clients with zealous representation. Otherwise, the opposing side may be able to surprise the lawyer in court with something he did not know about his client, which may weaken the client's position. Also, a distrustful client might hide a relevant fact he thinks is incriminating, but that a skilled lawyer could turn to the client's advantage (for example, by raising affirmative defenses like self-defense). However, most jurisdictions have exceptions for situations where the lawyer has reason to believe that the client may kill or seriously injure someone, may cause substantial injury to the financial interest or property of another, or is using (or seeking to use) the lawyer's services to perpetrate a crime or fraud. In such situations the lawyer has the discretion, but not the obligation, to disclose information designed to prevent the planned action. Most states have a version of this discretionary disclosure rule under Rules of Professional Conduct, Rule 1.6 (or its equivalent). A few jurisdictions have made this traditionally discretionary duty mandatory. For example, see the New Jersey and Virginia Rules of Professional Conduct, Rule 1.6.
In some jurisdictions, the lawyer must try to convince the client to conform his or her conduct to the boundaries of the law before disclosing any otherwise confidential information. These exceptions generally do not cover crimes that have already occurred, even in extreme cases where murderers have confessed the location of missing bodies to their lawyers but the police are still looking for those bodies. The U.S. Supreme Court and many state supreme courts have affirmed the right of a lawyer to withhold information in such situations. Otherwise, it would be impossible for any criminal defendant to obtain a zealous defense.
California is famous for having one of the strongest duties of confidentiality in the world; its lawyers must protect client confidences at "every peril to himself [or herself]" under former California Business and Professions Code section 6068(e). Until an amendment in 2004 (which turned subsection (e) into subsection (e)(1) and added subsection (e)(2) to section 6068), California lawyers were not even permitted to disclose that a client was about to commit murder or assault. The Supreme Court of California promptly amended the California Rules of Professional Conduct to conform to the new exception in the revised statute. Recent legislation in the UK curtails the confidentiality professionals like lawyers and accountants can maintain at the expense of the state. Accountants, for example, are required to disclose to the state any suspicions of fraudulent accounting and, even, the legitimate use of tax saving schemes if those schemes are not already known to the tax authorities.
Breach of confidence in English law
The "three traditional requirements of the cause of action for breach of confidence" were identified by Megarry J in Coco v A N Clark (Engineers) Ltd (1968) in the following terms:
The 1896 case featuring the royal accoucheur Dr William Smoult Playfair showed the difference between lay and medical views. Playfair was consulted by Linda Kitson; he ascertained that she had been pregnant while separated from her husband. He informed his wife, a relative of Kitson's, in order that she protect herself and their daughters from moral contagion. Kitson sued, and the case gained public notoriety, with huge damages awarded against the doctor.
Medical confidentiality
Confidentiality is commonly applied to conversations between doctors and patients. Legal protections prevent physicians from revealing certain discussions with patients, even under oath in court. This physician-patient privilege only applies to secrets shared between physician and patient during the course of providing medical care.
The rule dates back to at least the Hippocratic Oath, which reads in part: Whatever, in connection with my professional service, or not in connection with it, I see or hear, in the life of men, which ought not to be spoken of abroad, I will not divulge, as reckoning that all such should be kept secret.
Traditionally, medical ethics has viewed the duty of confidentiality as a relatively non-negotiable tenet of medical practice.
United States
Confidentiality is standard in the United States by HIPAA laws, specifically the Privacy Rule, and various state laws, some more rigorous than HIPAA. However, numerous exceptions to the rules have been carved out over the years. For example, many American states require physicians to report gunshot wounds to the police and impaired drivers to the Department of Motor Vehicles. Confidentiality is also challenged in cases involving the diagnosis of a sexually transmitted disease in a patient who refuses to reveal the diagnosis to a spouse, and in the termination of a pregnancy in an underage patient, without the knowledge of the patient's parents. Many states in the U.S. have laws governing parental notification in underage abortion. Confidentiality can be protected in medical research via certificates of confidentiality.
European Union
Due to the EU Directive 2001/20/EC, inspectors appointed by the Member States have to maintain confidentiality whenever they gain access to confidential information as a result of the good clinical practice inspections in accordance with applicable national and international requirements.
A typical patient declaration might read:
HIV confidentiality
In the United Kingdom information about an individual's HIV status is kept confidential within the National Health Service. This is based in law, in the NHS Constitution, and in key NHS rules and procedures. It is also outlined in every NHS employee's contract of employment and in professional standards set by regulatory bodies. The National AIDS Trust's Confidentiality in the NHS: Your Information, Your Rights outlines these rights. All registered healthcare professionals must abide by these standards and if they are found to have breached confidentiality, they can face disciplinary action.
A healthcare worker shares confidential information with someone else who is, or is about to, provide the patient directly with healthcare to make sure they get the best possible treatment. They only share information that is relevant to their care in that instance, and with consent.
There are two ways to give consent: explicit consent or implied consent. Explicit consent is when a patient clearly communicates to a healthcare worker, verbally or in writing or in some other way, that relevant confidential information can be shared. Implied consent means that a patient's consent to share personal confidential information is assumed. When personal confidential information is shared between healthcare workers, consent is taken as implied.
If a patient doesn't want a healthcare worker to share confidential health information, they need to make this clear and discuss the matter with healthcare staff. Patients have the right, in most situations, to refuse permission for a health care professional to share their information with another healthcare professional, even one giving them care—but are advised, where appropriate, about the dangers of this course of action, due to possible drug interactions.
However, in a few limited instances, a healthcare worker can share personal information without consent if it is in the public interest. These instances are set out in guidance from the General Medical Council, which is the regulatory body for doctors. Sometimes the healthcare worker has to provide the information – if required by law or in response to a court order.
The National AIDS Trust has written a guide for people living with HIV to confidentiality in the NHS.
Clinical and counseling psychology
The ethical principle of confidentiality requires that information shared by a client with a therapist isn't shared without consent, and that the sharing of information would be guided by ETHIC Model: Examining professional values, after thinking about ethical standards of the certifying association, hypothesize about different courses of action and possible consequences, identifying how it and to whom will it be beneficial per professional standards, and after consulting with supervisor and colleagues. Confidentiality principle bolsters the therapeutic alliance, as it promotes an environment of trust. There are important exceptions to confidentiality, namely where it conflicts with the clinician's duty to warn or duty to protect. This includes instances of suicidal behavior or homicidal plans, child abuse, elder abuse and dependent adult abuse. Information shared by a client with a therapist is considered as privileged communication, however in certain cases and based on certain provinces and states they are negated, it is determined by the use of negative and positive freedom.
Commercial confidentiality
Some legal jurisdictions recognise a category of commercial confidentiality whereby a business may withhold information on the basis of perceived harm to "commercial interests". For example: soft drink giant Coca-Cola's main syrup formula remains a trade secret.
Banking confidentiality
Public policy concerns
Confidentiality agreements that "seal" litigation settlements are not uncommon, but this can leave regulators and society ignorant of public hazards. In the U.S. state of Washington, for example, journalists discovered that about two dozen medical malpractice cases had been improperly sealed by judges, leading to improperly weak discipline by the state Department of Health. In the 1990s and early 2000s, the Catholic sexual abuse scandal involved a number of confidentiality agreements with victims. Some states have passed laws that limit confidentiality. For example, in 1990 Florida passed a 'Sunshine in Litigation' law that limits confidentiality from concealing public hazards. Washington state, Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana have laws limiting confidentiality as well, although judicial interpretation has weakened the application of these types of laws. In the U.S. Congress, a similar federal Sunshine in Litigation Act has been proposed but not passed in 2009, 2011, 2014, and 2015.
See also
Bank secrecy
Classified information
Confidentiality club
Confidential reporting system
Data Protection Act 1998
Fiduciary
Integrity
Mature minor doctrine
Media transparency
Mental reservation (a form of deception that does not involve outright lying)
Non-disclosure agreement, also called confidentiality agreement
Physician–patient privilege for Medical confidentiality
Privacy law
Privilege (evidence)
Protection of sources, also called confidentiality of (journalistic) sources
Seal of the confessional
Secrecy
Trade secret
Under seal (lat. obsignato)
References
External links
Applications of cryptography
Sources (journalism)
Secrecy
Professional ethics
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28819911
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenIndiana
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OpenIndiana
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OpenIndiana is a free and open-source illumos distribution descended from UNIX System V Release 4 via the OpenSolaris operating system. Forked from OpenSolaris after OpenSolaris was discontinued by Oracle Corporation, OpenIndiana takes its name from Project Indiana, the internal codename for OpenSolaris at Sun Microsystems before Oracle’s acquisition of Sun in 2010.
Created by a development team led by Alasdair Lumsden, the OpenIndiana project is now stewarded by the illumos Foundation, which develops and maintains the illumos operating system. The project aims to make OpenIndiana "the de facto OpenSolaris distribution installed on production servers where security and bug fixes are provided free of charge."
History
Origins
Project Indiana was originally conceived by Sun Microsystems, to construct a binary distribution around the OpenSolaris source code base. Project Indiana was led by Ian Murdock, founder of the Debian Linux distribution.
OpenIndiana was conceived after negotiations of a takeover of Sun Microsystems by Oracle were proceeding, in order to ensure continued availability and further development of an OpenSolaris-based OS, as it is widely used. Uncertainty among the OpenSolaris development community led some developers to form tentative plans for a fork of the existing codebase.
These plans came to fruition following the announcement of discontinuation of support for the OpenSolaris project by Oracle.
Initial reaction
The formal announcement of the OpenIndiana project was made on September 14, 2010, at the JISC Centre in London. The first release of the operating system was made available publicly at the same time, despite being untested. The reason for the untested release was that the OpenIndiana team set a launch date ahead of Oracle OpenWorld in order to beat the release of Solaris 11 Express.
The announcement of OpenIndiana was met with a mainly positive response; over 350 people viewed the online announcement, the ISO image was downloaded over 2000 times, the Twitter account obtained over 500 followers, and numerous notable IT press websites wrote about the release. The broadcast bandwidth of the announcement was substantial, noted to top 350 Mbit/second. The network package depot server experienced 20x as much traffic interested in their distribution than they originally planned for, resulting in more threads later being provisioned.
Not all reporting was positive, though, as some online articles questioned the relevance of Solaris given the market penetration of Linux. One article was critical of the OpenIndiana launch, citing a lack of professionalism with regard to releasing an untested build, and the project's lack of commitment to a release schedule. The initial OpenIndiana release was advertised as experimental and directly based on the latest OpenSolaris development build, preliminary to the OpenSolaris 2010 release.
Community building
With the OpenSolaris binary distribution moved to SolarisExpress and the real-time feed of OpenSolaris updates discontinued, concerns abounded over what would happen to OpenIndiana if Oracle decided to stop feeding source code back into the community. The OpenIndiana team mitigated these concerns when they announced their intention to move the source code feed to the illumos Foundation.
Concerns were raised about possible discontinuation of free access to the Oracle-owned compiler being used to produce OpenIndiana. In response, OpenIndiana was modified to be able to compile under the open source GNU Compiler Collection.
The Hardware Compatibility List (HCL) remains somewhat informal, fragmented and uncentralized, requiring much end-user research for hardware selection. The lack of a comprehensive centralized HCL follows from the fact that the OpenSolaris HCL was hosted on Oracle server infrastructure and the server-side code for the Device Driver Utility submission was not made available.
In August 2012, founding project lead Alasdair Lumsden stepped down from the project, citing personal reasons and frustration with the lack of progress made on the project. Among the reasons for lack of progress were lack of developers and resources. In his resignation, Lumsden wrote, "For many of us this was the first open source project we had ever contributed to, myself included. The task at hand was vast, and we were ill equipped to deal with it."
Since Lumsden's resignation, the project is developed by a team of volunteers and is a completely horizontal and participative community effort.
Media reception
A September 2013 DistroWatch review stated that the OpenIndiana project has "seemingly been in steady decline for the last couple of years." The same review concluded that OpenIndiana had not progressed significantly from the state of OpenSolaris five years before:
A May 2015 DistroWatch review of OpenIndiana similarly concluded that little major progress had been made to the system over the years. The review stated that the package selection and hardware support seemed to lag behind other systems, while many of the system administration features have either replicated or ported to Linux and BSD. The review concludes that:
Claims about lack of package support may be mitigated by the fact that the 3500+ software packages provided by OpenIndiana Hipster are not split into several packages, which would artificially increase the package count (e.g. like in Linux distributions): the Image Packaging System is a file-based package management providing incremental updates and package facets, making such splitting an unnecessary burden. In the course of the first two years of its existence, the Hipster project has migrated and updated over 1500 packages: it maintains a collection of selected software packages while relying on third-party repositories like SFE for add-ons. For extended selection, the pkgsrc system supported by Joyent readily provides 20000+ packages for illumos systems.
Relation to other operating systems
OpenIndiana is a fork in the technical sense but it is a continuation of OpenSolaris in spirit. The project intends to deliver a System V family operating system which is binary-compatible with the Oracle products Solaris 11 and Solaris 11 Express. However, rather than being based on the OS/Net consolidation like OpenSolaris was, OpenIndiana is based on illumos. The project does use the same Image Packaging System (IPS) package management system as OpenSolaris.
While the OpenIndiana codebase was initially based on the majority of publicly available code from Oracle, this is not the case since the oi_151a Development Builds which are based on illumos from September 2011 onwards. The project has effectively moved away from Oracle-owned tools such as Sun Studio: all builds since 2013, including the active Hipster branch, use the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) as sole compiler. The illumos project itself is built with GCC since June 15, 2012.
Release schedule
Experimental builds
The first experimental release of OpenIndiana, Build 147, was released on September 14, 2010; the second experimental release, Build 148, was released on December 17, 2010.
Development builds
A first development release, Build 151 was released on September 14, 2011. This is the first release to be based upon illumos. MartUX 151a0 was released as the first SPARC build for OpenIndiana. Build 151a7 for Intel/AMD architectures was released on October 6, 2012. Build 151a8 was released August 10, 2013. OpenSXCE 2013.01 SPARC Build 151a, formerly MartUX, was released through OpenIndiana on February 1, 2013, as the second and possibly last OpenIndiana SPARC build, with subsequent releases based upon DilOS.
Hipster
Since the development model inherited from the OpenSolaris project was unsuitable for a community project, the Hipster initiative was created late 2013 to reboot and modernize OpenIndiana.
The Hipster project is a fast development branch of OpenIndiana based on a rolling-release model and a horizontal contribution scheme through the oi-userland build system and the use of continuous integration.
Hipster is actively maintained: the repository receives software updates as well as security fixes, and installation images are published twice a year.
Every snapshot release is announced via mailing list and Twitter.
The first snapshot release was delivered on February 14, 2014, and subsequent snapshots were based on a six-month development cycle.
Some notable features of Hipster:
MATE as the default desktop environment (since Hipster 2016.10)
Update to newer illumos KVM
Update of the graphic stack with newer Xorg and DRM support
Support for FUSE and NTFS-3G
Support for multimedia software
Support for third-party SFE repository providing LibreOffice
Migration to GCC as default compiler
Migration of legacy software consolidations to unified build system
The list of features is updated for each development cycle on the Roadmap page of the issue tracker.
References
External links
List of supported hardware
OpenIndiana Officially Announced Announcement on OSNews
OpenSolaris-derived software distributions
Software forks
Solaris software
X86-64 operating systems
2010 software
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2878703
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BA%20%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%20%D0%9B%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87
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Соловейчик Симон Львович
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Соловейчик Симон Львович
Симон Львович Соловейчик (1 жовтня 1930 року, Сімферополь — 18 жовтня 1996 року, Москва) — радянський і російський публіцист і журналіст, теоретик педагогіки.
Працював у педагогічній журналістиці з початку 1960-х років і до кінця свого життя. У статтях, книгах, колективних маніфестах Симон Соловейчик узагальнив і представив ключові ідеї «педагогіки співпраці». У 1984—1988 роки був (поряд з головним редактором Володимиром Матвєєвим) ідейним керівником «Учительській газети», а у 1992 році створив газету «Перше вересня».
Автор книги «Педагогіка для всіх» (1977—1986), в якій виклав свої погляди на педагогіку.
Біографія
Симон Соловейчик народився в родині літературного працівника газети «Червона зірка» Льва Ізомеровича Соловейчика (1905—1989), згодом редактора Воєніздата та письменника, автора книги «Дім сержанта Павлова» (під псевдонімом Л. Савельєв). Мати, Х. І. Соловейчик, під час німецько-радянської війни була головним лікарем санітарного поїзда, у повоєнні роки — керівник медичними складами Московського військового гарнізону, пізніше — керівник однієї з московських аптек.
Середню школу Симон Соловейчик закінчив у Москві в 1946 році. У війну два роки провів на Уралі в евакуації. У 1953 році закінчив філологічний факультет МДУ. Викладав російську мову та літературу в бібліотечному технікумі міста Зубцова. Тоді ж почав друкуватися в центральній пресі. Після повернення до Москви працював у газеті «Будівельник стадіону». З 1958 року — кореспондент журналу «Піонер». З 1956 по 1977 рік — кореспондент «Комсомольської правди».
У 1960—1970-ті роки — автор великої кількості публікацій на суспільні, сімейні, шкільні, музикознавчі теми як в «Комсомольській правді», так і в «Літературній газеті», «Тижні», журналах «Піонер», «Сім'я і школа» та інших.
Симон Соловейчик — член Спілки журналістів з 1965 року і Спілки письменників з 1972 року.
Вів передачі на радіостанції «Маяк» під назвою «Я купив платівку», в різні роки вів на центральному телебаченні щоденні передачі «Час учнівства» і «Педагогіка для всіх».
У другій половині 1970-х років Симон Соловейчик йде з усіх газет і працює вдома. В цей період написана книга «Педагогіка для всіх» та ряд інших книг.
У 1985—1988 роки працює спеціальним кореспондентом «Учительської газети», очолюваної Володимиром Федоровичем Матвєєвим. Також Симон Соловейчик виступає організатором зустрічей педагогів-експериментаторів і редактором чотирьох маніфестів, що резюмували ці зустрічі.
У 1988 році після фактичного розгрому матвіївської команди в «Учительській газеті», Соловейчик стає браузером-колумністом тижневика «Новий час», де веде рубрику «Молодший світ». В цей період він побував у багатьох зарубіжних школах і відбив свої враження у великій серії нарисів шкільного життя різних країн світу.
У 1992 році Симон Соловейчик заснував і очолив газету і видавничий дім «Перше вересня».
Симон Соловейчик помер 18 жовтня 1996 року у Москві. Він похований на Востряковському кладовищі.
Бібліографія
(В порядку виходу першого видання)
Книга про тебя. М., 1965.
Алый парус: О ребятах 16-17 лет. Сб. статей из газ. «Комсомольская правда». М., 1966.
Отчаюха: Повесть. М., 1969.
Десять тысяч уроков: Школа: какая она, какой станет в девятой пятилетке. М., 1971.
Про пионеров: [Кн. для октябрят / С. Соловейчик ; Рис. В. Винокура], 83, [5] с. цв. ил. 27 см, 2-е изд. М. Дет. лит., 1974 г. Переизд. в 1981 и 1984 г.
Мокрые под дождём. Москва: Детская литература, 1968 г.
Фрунзенская коммуна: Книга о необычной жизни обыкновенных ребят, написанная ими самими, с рисунками, которые сделала Галина Скотина, тоже коммунарка. Книгу сост. и подгот. к печати С. Соловейчик. 1969.
Сухомлинский, В.А. О воспитании [печатный текст] / В.А. Сухомлинский; сост., авт. вступ. очерков: Симон Львович Соловейчик; Яковлева. - Издание 4-е. - Москва : Политиздат, 1982. - 269, [3] с.: портр.; 20 см.- Библиографический список: с. 267, 268 (35 названий).- Библиография в подстрочных примечаниях.- 200000 экземпляров
Воспитание творчеством, 95 c. ил. 17 см, М. Знание, 1978.
Ватага «Семь ветров». Л.: Детская литература, 1979 г.
Резервы детского «я» / С. Л. Соловейчик, 96 с. ил. 16 см. М.: Знание, 1983
Учение с увлечением: Роман. [Для детей] / С. Соловейчик; [Перевёл с рус. П. Венцлова], 224 с. ил. 17 см, Каунас Швиеса 1983. Изд. на русс. языке М., 1986 г.
Вечная радость: Очерки жизни и шк. / Симон Соловейчик, 366,[2] с. портр. 21 см, М.: Педагогика, 1986
Час ученичества: [Для сред. и ст. возраста] / С. Соловейчик; [Худож. Б. А. Шляпугин], 381,[2] с. ил. 22 см. М.: Дет. лит., 1986.
Педагогика для всех: Кн. для будущих родителей: [Для ст. возраста] / С. Соловейчик, 365,[2] с. ил. 22 см. М.: Дет. лит., 1987. Переиздания в 1989 и 2001 г.
Воспитание по Иванову: [Сб. о методике коллектив. творч. воспитания, разраб. педагогом И. П. Ивановым] / Симон Соловейчик, 348,[2] с. ил. 21 см. М.: Педагогика, 1989
Революция: Размышления перед очередной годовщиной Октября. М., 1995.
Последняя книга. М., 1999.
Пушкинские проповеди: О нашей жизни, измеренной строками Пушкина. М., 2001 г. ISBN 5-8246-0029-5
Непрописные истины воспитания: избранные статьи. М.: "Издательство «Первое сентября», 2011. ISBN 978-5-8246-0158-9
Примітки
Посилання
Преловская И. Парадокси виховання
Мисюк А. Трель Соловейчика.
Соловейчик А. Виховання без виховання
«Видеть лишь хорошее…» //(к 80-летию С. Л. Соловейчика на портале библио-Псков, 2010 г.) В конце заметки приведён Манифест С. Л. Соловейчика «Человек свободный».
Елена Мушкина (кор. газ. «Неделя»). Спогади про С.Л.Соловейчика // Портал «1 сентября»
Именная аудитория в Институте образования НИУ ВШЭ
Випускники філологічного факультету Московського університету
Журналісти XX століття
Російські журналісти
Радянські журналісти
Персоналії за алфавітом
Поховані на Востряковському кладовищі
Публіцисти XX століття
Російські публіцисти
Публіцисти СРСР
Народились 1 жовтня
Народились 1930
Уродженці Сімферополя
Померли 18 жовтня
Померли 1996
Померли в Москві
Члени Спілки журналістів СРСР
Члени Спілки письменників СРСР
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737603
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota%20Camry
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Toyota Camry
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Toyota Camry
The Toyota Camry (Japanese: トヨタ・カムリ Toyota Kamuri) is an automobile sold internationally by the Japanese auto manufacturer Toyota since 1982, spanning multiple generations. Originally compact in size (narrow-body), the Camry has grown since the 1990s to fit the mid-size classification (wide-body)—although the two widths co-existed in that decade. Since the release of the wide-bodied versions, Camry has been extolled by Toyota as the firm's second "world car" after the Corolla. , the Camry is positioned above the Corolla and below the Avalon or Crown in several markets.
In Japan, Camry was once exclusive to Toyota Corolla Store retail dealerships. Narrow-body cars also spawned a rebadged sibling in Japan, the Toyota Vista (トヨタ・ビスタ)—also introduced in 1982 and sold at Toyota Vista Store locations. Diesel fuel versions have previously retailed at Toyota Diesel Store. The Vista Ardeo was a wagon version of the Vista V50.
Etymology
The name "Camry" derives from the Japanese word (:ja:冠, かんむり), meaning "crown". This follows Toyota's naming tradition of using the crown name for primary models starting with the Toyota Crown (1955), continuing with the Toyota Corona (1957) and Corolla (1966); the Latin words for "crown" and "small crown", respectively. Maintaining this theme was the Toyota Tiara (1960) named after the "tiara" form of crown. The Atara trim level name used on the Camry in Australia since 2011 means "crown" in Hebrew. The rebadged Camry variant for Japan, the Toyota Scepter (1991)—took its name from "scepter", a royal accessory to a crown. In 1980 the Toyota Cresta was introduced to Japan only, and was based on the Toyota Mark II. 'Cresta' is latin for a decorative, ceremonial feature added to the top of a helmet.
History
Between 1979 and 1982, the Camry nameplate was delegated to a four-door sedan model in Japan, known as the Celica Camry. When Camry became an independent model line in 1982 with the V10 series, Toyota made it available as a five-door liftback in addition to the sedan. The subsequent Camry V20 series, debuted in 1986 with a station wagon substituting the liftback body variant and Japan-only hardtop sedans making their debut. The company replaced the V20 in 1990 with the V30 sedan and hardtop, but this model series was exclusive to Japan. Automotive tax regulations in that country dictated the retention of a narrower body as used in previous Camry generations. However, overseas demand for a larger Camry resulted in the development of a wide-body XV10 sedan and station wagon that arrived in 1991. Japan also received the wider XV10 as the Toyota Scepter (トヨタ・セプター). The company then issued an XV10-bodied coupé in 1993 that was spun off in 1998 as an independent model line, titled Camry Solara.
When the Japanese market received a new narrow-body V40 series in 1994 to replace V30, the wide-body XV10 continued unchanged. Its replacement, the XV20, arrived in 1996—named Camry Gracia in Japan. It was not until the narrow V40 ended manufacture in 1998 that the Camry in Japan was to again mirror the cars sold internationally. Japanese sedans dropped the Gracia suffix in 1999, although it was retained by the wagon until its 2001 demise. From 1998, the Vista ended its Camry alignment, and instead branched into an independent model line with the V50 series for an extra generation before the nameplate was withdrawn in 2003.
The next wide-body model, the XV30, came in 2001. Now sold only as a sedan, it now offered two different front- and rear-end design treatments. Japan and most global markets received one style; a separate, more conservative version covered markets in East and Southeast Asia. With the XV40 of 2006, the Camry-derived Aurion become the donor model for the more conservative Camry sold in this region. The subsequent XV50 series, sold from 2011 until 2019, has resulted in even more markets adopting the alternative body panels, such as Japan and Eastern Europe. The current generation is called the XV70.
When Toyota launched their luxury Lexus brand in 1989, it offered a close derivative of the Camry/Vista hardtop sedan as the Lexus ES. The relationship continues to this day, but over the generations, the ES—sold as the Toyota Windom in Japan from 1991 through to 2005—gravitated further away from its Camry brethren. Between 2000 and 2010, and then 2012 and 2023, Daihatsu had offered a badge engineered Camry as the Daihatsu Altis (ダイハツ・アルティス) sold only in Japan. Badge engineering has also occurred in Australia with the Holden Apollo between 1989 and 1996. From 1993, Toyota Australia badged V6-engined versions as Camry Vienta, becoming Toyota Vienta in 1995 until the badge's departure in 2000. Between 2006 and 2017, the Toyota Aurion model from Australia was derived from the V6 Camry, but with revised front-end and rear-end styling treatment and a partially refurbished cabin.
Sales of the Camry ended in late 2023 for the Japanese market after 43 years as the result of poor sales.
Timeline
Narrow-body
Celica Camry (A40/A50; 1979–1982)
The "Camry" nameplate originated on a four-door sedan approximate to the Toyota Celica called the Celica Camry. Toyota designated this initial application of the Camry name as the A40/A50 series. Celica Camry made its sales debut in January 1980 at Toyota Corolla Store retail dealerships in Japan. Production had earlier commenced in December 1979 at the Tsutsumi plant at Toyota, Aichi. Despite the marketing position, Celica Camry shares few components with its namesake—but rather the Carina (A40/A50). Toyota modified the Carina by elongating its front-end and incorporating styling cues such as the T-bar grille motif that resembled the Celica XX/Supra (A40). Strictly speaking, Celica Camry is not the first generation of Camry, but rather its predecessor.
Celica Camry uses the front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout and in A40 guise, a standard four-link rigid axle suspension system with gasoline inline-four engines displacing 1.6 liters for the 12T-U (TA41) and 1.8 liters with the 13T-U (TA46). Initial model grades comprised: 1600 LT, 1600 XT, 1800 LT, 1800 XT, and 1800 XT Super Edition. In August 1980, Toyota released high-end models with four-wheel independent suspension, denoted A50 (front MacPherson struts, rear semi-trailing arm setup; four-wheel disc brakes). For the TA57 series 1800 SX, Toyota fitted the 1.8-liter 3T-EU engine. Toyota designated the new 2.0-liter grades, the 21R-U powered 2000 SE and 18R-GEU-based 2000 GT as RA56 and RA55, respectively.
The Celica Camry was available in six exterior colors with contrasting blue, gray, or brown interiors, and the XT Super Edition offered two-tone exterior paint in dark brown over light brown. Power steering with adjustable tilt steering, air conditioning, two stereo choices, a choice of a digital or electric analog clock, rear window defroster, and rear child door lockout were available. The side-view mirrors installed on the fenders ahead of the front wheels were electrically adjustable on higher trim packages and manually adjustable on entry-level models. The aluminum alloy wheels were shared with the Celica and Supra on higher trim packages.
V10 (1982–1986)
Toyota started production of the first generation series Camry in March 1982 at the Tsutsumi plant. Designated the model code V10, when fitted with S-series gasoline engines it was known as the SV10, SV11, or SV12 depending on the exact version. Likewise, the C-series diesel versions are identified by the CV10 and CV11 codes. Released to the Japanese market on 24 March 1982, Toyota issued the V10 series as a four-door notchback sedan retailing at the Toyota Corolla Store dealerships. At the same time, a twinned model—the Toyota Vista—launched as a rebadged Camry sold at separate Toyota Vista Store locations. Five-door liftback versions of the Vista came to the market in August 1982, although outside of export markets the Camry remained exclusively a sedan. These cars served above the comparably sized Toyota Carina and Corona in the Toyota hierarchy. Unlike the preceding Celica Camry, exports were achieved with the first generation Camry to Australia, Europe and North America.
Development of the V10 series Camry and Vista began in August 1977 following the 1973 oil crisis and would later cover the 1979 crisis. Automobile manufacturers were making the inexorable move to downsized, lighter, more fuel efficient cars with better aerodynamic performance. The industry also began wide-scale switching from the rear-wheel-drive layout to the lighter and more compact front-wheel-drive in the interest of increased fuel economy. With a development focus on exports, particularly to the US, Toyota designed Camry to replace the Toyota Corona (T130) in many overseas markets. It needed to compete with the compact, front-drive Honda Accord sedan from Japan. Via one-upmanship, Camry exceeded the Accord's wheelbase by and offered larger engines. The design brief also established the compact front-wheel-drive X platform vehicles by General Motors in the US as competitors. In light of this competition—and a first for Toyota—the V10 adopted front-wheel drive with the engine transversely mounted. Between this layout that reduced the size of the engine compartment, the notchback sedan and liftback bodies with rear quarter windows, and the longer wheelbase of —the V10 series was considered spacious for its time and class. Furthermore, by situating the fuel tank underneath the back seat, luggage space is increased. The styling of the V10 followed the box-shaped trends characteristic of the early 1980s. Wind tunnel testing led to the fitment of drag-reducing flush pillars, a flat roofline to reduce wind buffeting, and one-piece front bumper with air dam to direct air flow. Drag coefficient is quoted at for the sedan and for the liftback.
Coil spring independent suspension features by way of a MacPherson strut type with stabilizer and strut bar up front, and a MacPherson rear setup with parallel lower arms. Steering uses a rack and pinion design; braking hardware is made up of front ventilated discs and rear drums with a double proportioning valve to suppress lock-up. Innovatively, a sensor is fitted to detect worn-out brake pads, alerted by use of an audible chime.
Powertrain design was reassessed for front-wheel-drive and this generated a foundation for which other models were developed. The transaxle is connected inline with the engine, and to create a simple and compact structure, a single rail system that replaces the three shafts normally used for each gear range with a single shaft, was adopted. In addition, automatic transmission fluid was used for the lubricating oil in order to reduce friction. Existing gasoline S- and diesel C-series engines were converted for use in transverse applications. Initially, the V10 featured the 1.8-liter 1S-LU engine good for and an S50 five-speed manual transmission. From July 1982, four-speed automatic with overdrive became available after starting manufacture the previous month. The 2.0-liter 2S-ELU engine with an improved S51 five-speed manual transmission and four-speed automatic followed in August. August 1983 saw the 1.8-liter 1C-TL turbocharged diesel offered exclusive to Japanese dealerships called Toyota Diesel Store. June 1984 introduced the twin-cam 2.0-liter 3S-GELU engine offered on higher trims with depending on the version. For lower trims, the "Ci" 1.8-liter 1S-iLU arrived. The diesel was upgraded to the 2.0-liter 2C-TL specification in August 1985.
Japanese trims levels initially comprised LT, XT, SE, and ZX for Camry sedan. Lumiere and XE grades came to the market in June 1984, and the GLi TwinCam in May 1985. Vista sedan and liftback specification levels were at first VC (sedan only), VL, VE, and VX. The VF arrived in August 1982, and VR and VS models in June 1984 at the expense of the departing VE. Special edition models comprised: VE Extra (December 1982), VL Extra (January 1983), VL Super Extra (January 1985), VF-II (April 1985 and April 1986), and VL Grand Extra (December 1985 and April 1986). Wing mirrors became door-mounted as opposed to fender-mounted in May 1983. Facelifted models arrived in June 1984 featuring a new grille, redesigned bumpers, revised tail-lamps, updated dashboard, enlarged glovebox, and general trim alterations.
The shift to smaller cars amid the oil crises doubled Japanese automobile market share from 10 to 20 percent in the United States between 1970 and 1980; thus, causing economic tensions between the two nations. Toyota then began investigating the option of building a US production facility, following the announcements in January and April 1980 by Honda and Nissan, respectively, to manufacture automobiles locally. As investigations proceeded, Toyota proposed entering a joint venture with Ford in May 1980 to produce a compact car. Toyota advocated that its Camry be manufactured at a Ford factory and sold through the sales channels of both brands, but Ford deemed Camry to be in competition with a model it was developing, which became the Ford Tempo, leading to an impasse and then the cessation of negotiations in July 1981. Increasing Japan–United States unease culminated with the Japanese government, at the urging of its US counterpart, imposing a voluntary cartel in May 1981 with a threshold for the export of motor vehicles to the US. Toyota would eventually pursue circumvention; firstly by entering into venture by forming NUMMI with General Motors in 1984 to manufacture the Toyota Corolla, and then by setting up its own facility at Georgetown, Kentucky in 1988 for the next generation Camry.
Sales of the V10 Camry in the US began in March 1983 after exports commenced in January, and by 1985 it had sold 128,000 units. Unlike other markets, federalized quad headlamps were fitted for the 1983 and 1984 model years. Buyers could specify sedan or liftback bodies with a five-speed manual transmission or extra-cost four-speed automatic paired to the 2.0-liter gasoline 2S-ELC motor rated at . Toyota then offered DX (deluxe) and LE (luxury edition) trim levels, the latter adding standard features such as body-colored bumpers, tachometer, tilt steering wheel, upgraded stereo, electric mirrors and variable intermittent windshield wipers. Updates for the 1984 model year included an overdrive lockout switch for the automatic transmission. Also optional was the manual-only 1.8-liter 1C-TLC turbo diesel for the DX with , a special gauge cluster, and quieter exhaust system. Changes for 1985 involved the facelift (now with one-piece headlamps), the transfer of the optional cruise control's switchgear from the dashboard to the wiper stalk, and wider LE-type tires for the DX trim (from ). 1985 cars received gas-charged front shock absorbers and stiffer rear springs, an anti-theft alarm system was now optional on both grades, automatic became an option for the diesel, the DX added a standard tilt steering wheel, and the LE models offered an optional electronic instrument cluster. For 1986, a replacement diesel engine, the automatic-only 2.0-liter 2C-TLC arrived for the DX and LE, and the gasoline model increased power by around . Other revisions for this model year were a revised powered brake system and new cloth seat and door trim for LEs.
For Australia, the Camry range—based on the Vista front styling—was limited to a single-grade GLi liftback variant between April 1983 and April 1987. Sold as an upmarket alternative to the locally produced Toyota Corona (T140), the sole powertrain offered was the gasoline 2.0-liter 2S-EL engine with coupled with the five-speed manual or four-speed automatic transmission. Optional extras included powering steering, air conditioning, electric moonroof, power doors and windows, plus an upgraded stereo. Facelifted models with more standard appointments arrived in August 1984, and the unleaded version from early 1986 reduced power output by .
Europe and the United Kingdom received both body variants when released there in mid 1984—these were available in the gasoline DX trim (1.8- 1S-L) and 2.0-liter GLi (2S-EL) or the GLD turbo diesel (1.8- 1C-TL in early models; later models upgraded to the 2.0-liter 2C-TL).
V20 (1986–1992)
The second generation, V20 series Camry went on sale during August 1986 in Japan. As with the previous series, there was again a parallel Vista model for the home market that Toyota released simultaneously. V20 Camry and Vista sedans continued with the four-door sedan configuration. For overseas markets, Toyota issued a station wagon for the first time. The Vista also launched with a four-door pillared hardtop sedan with unique body panels all-round in lieu of the liftback offered with the previous car—a body extended to the Camry in August 1988. To attain a sportier appearance with lower and wider proportions, Toyota reduced the height of the hardtop by over the sedan. Not intended for export, this hardtop body with few changes would later form the basis of the upscale but hastily conceived Lexus ES 250 produced for North American customers from June 1989 through to 1991. Toyota rushed the ES 250 as a stopgap measure to flesh out the fledgling Lexus lineup so as not to launch the flagship LS 400 as a stand-alone model.
The V20 Camry originated from a time at Toyota when considerable cost and attention to detail was engineered into its cars such as high-quality materials and build quality to transcend the competition. Sedans retained the V10's rear quarter glass with styling less angular than before. To appease export customers, styling lost some of its Japanese legacy in its transition to a more Americanized design, with a softer and sleeker silhouette. Toyota designed the body with aerodynamics in mind, with performance of for the sedan. V20 also features headlamps and a grille that are sculptured into a gently curved hood that partially conceal the windshield wipers, wind splitters up the ends of the windshield, near-flush glass, and a third door seal to close the gap between the body and window frames. Body dimensions were largely unchanged from the previous model, including an identical wheelbase, although length increases . Basic sub-skin hardware is also closely related, including the platform and the fully independent suspension with a strut and a coil spring at each corner and an anti-roll bar at each end. Noise isolation is improved by mounting the rear suspension on a subframe akin to the Toyota Celica (T160) that had now switched to Camry-based mechanicals. As before, the braking package encompasses ventilated discs up front, conventional drums in the rear, upgraded to rear discs in some cars. The braking system has a tandem-type booster and diagonally divided hydraulic circuits. Wagons receive a load-sensing proportioning valve that grants greater braking pressure when laden and prevents wheel lockup under light payloads. Entry-level V20 wheel size increases from 13 to 14 inches.
All engines now use fuel injection exclusively and were common to Camry and Vista. Entry-level customers were offered the carry-over "Ci" 1.8-liter 1S-i (designated 1S-iLU in the V10) inline-four with five-speed manual or an automatic with four gears. Stepping up from this were the new 3S-FE and GT high-performance 3S-GE (designated 3S-GELU for V10s) 2.0-liter twin-cam four-cylinder cars. Turbo-diesel models were again limited to the 2C-T motor displacing 2.0 liters (labeled 2C-TL for V10s). Transmission were either a five-speed manual or an electronically controlled automatic with four gears. When launched in Japan, the V20 series Camry (sedan only) offered the following trim levels: LT, XT, XT Saloon, ZE, ZT, ZX, and GT.
For the Vista sedan, Toyota offered: VC, VL, VE, VR, and VX. Hardtop versions comprised: VE, VR, VX, and GT. Flagship models of the Japanese specification Camry sedan, the Camry Prominent and Prominent G arrived in April 1987 with the 2.0-liter 1VZ-FE V6 engine, a protruding chrome grille, larger North American-type bumpers, wood grain interior highlights, an electric seat function, plus electronic instrument cluster. All-Trac full-time four-wheel-drive became an option in October 1987 with select 3S-FE manual variants (VL Extra, VR); automatics equipped with an electronic front- and rear-wheel torque distribution optimizer followed in August 1988. The Vista was not available with the V6, but in April 1987, the special edition Vista VL Extra sedan and hardtop arrived, followed by the Etoile in August and again in January 1989; limited edition Etoile V cars were offered in September 1989 and January 1990. Toyota discontinued the Vista VC in December 1989 and released a special edition VX Limited in May 1989 and then again for January 1990.
When the Camry Prominent hardtop variant arrived in August 1988, it offered base, G, and E-Type levels of trim alongside a new sedan-only Camry Lumière. Also in August 1988, a diesel version of the Vista hardtop made its debut, and the 1.8-liter gasoline engine was upgraded to the twin-cam 4S-Fi specification. Special editions for the Camry comprised: Lumière S sedan (January 1989), Prominent X hardtop (May 1989), Lumière G sedan (June 1989), and XT Saloon Special sedan (January 1990).
North American market V20 series Camry sedan and wagons came to the market in late 1986 for the 1987 model year. Toyota Motor Manufacturing Kentucky, the first wholly owned Toyota plant in the US, began producing the Camry in May 1988. The country of manufacture can be found by looking at the first character of the VIN; a Camry manufactured in Japan has a VIN starting with "J", a model made in the US starts with "4" and a model made in Australia starts with "6". All Camry station wagons for the United States originated from Japan, while sedans were a mix of Japanese built and American built, with the ratio of American-built sedans increasing yearly. Three trim levels of the V20 Camry were made: the unbadged base model, the DX, and the LE. The four-wheel-drive Camry, dubbed All-Trac was introduced for 1988 and a 2.5-liter V6 engine was also added as an option, though notably not in combination with the All-Trac option. The V6 was fuel-injected with 24 valves, and dual overhead camshafts. The 1989 model year saw the Camry's mid-life update which included new front and rear bumper covers that were one piece instead of two, new taillight design, along with a few interior styling updates. The 1990 model year saw a slight upgrade in horsepower for V6 models, from 153 to 156. North American 1990 Camrys built from February 1990-August 1990 also saw another refresh that included Toyota's new logo introduced that year onto the front grille. Color-keyed door handles and grille also appeared on DX and LE models, along with a new ignition chime. In 1989, anti-lock brakes became optional on the LE V6 sedan and wagon, and LE All-Trac.
1991 model year Camrys began production in August 1990, and can be identified by a newly redesigned front valence panel under the front bumper. In addition, the DX model gains new standard color keyed bumpers, new interior cloth that replaces the older tweed, and new hubcap designs on both DX and LE models.
Toyota Australia released the second generation Camry in April 1987. Local manufacture of the V20 had begun earlier in February at its recently acquired Australian Motor Industries facility at Port Melbourne, Victoria as a replacement for the Toyota Corona (T140) and the Camry before it. Four-cylinder engine production and panel-stamping was undertaken at the Toyota Australia Altona Plant all part of a model localization and factory upgrades investment totaling . In fact, it was the first Camry made outside Japan, and is notable for being the most localized Toyota Australia product thus far with a lead time of less than six months, the shortest yet between start of Japanese and Australian manufacture. Higher levels of specification were fitted with the locally built 2.0-liter 3S-FE motor, but the imported 1.8-liter 1S-i unit distinguished base SE and CS cars. Both sedans and wagons were offered and either engine offered standard five-speed manual transmission, upgradeable to the four-speed automatic. Features standard at the base level SE comprised: AM/FM radio, center console storage compartment, remote fuel filler release, intermittent windshield wipers, digital clock. CS cars added a tilt steering column to which the CS-X adds a key lock warning system. The CS driver's seat has front height adjustment; the CS-X's front and rear height adjustment. The CS gets a two speaker AM/FM radio cassette player; the CS-X a four-speaker system and automatic electric antenna, plus central locking, variable intermittent wipers and center rear arm rest. The sedan-only Ultima grade gains power windows, cruise control, automatic transmission as standard, velour trim, and a nine-stage graphic equalizer for the audio system. A fleet-focused Executive pack based on the SE arrived in May 1988, adding automatic transmission, power steering, and air conditioning. In June 1988, the 2.5-liter V6 was introduced, being an imported fully optioned model from Japan sold in limited numbers and distinguished from local four-cylinder cars by its unique bumpers and trim. Coinciding with the August 1989 facelift, the 2.0-liter 3S-FC engine with carburetor superseded the imported 1.8. The updates brought minor adjustments inside and out, including improved suspension, steering, and headlights. In May 1991, Toyota made the fuel-injected 3S-FE version standard upon the carbureted engine's deletion, and the CS trim level became CSi. Coinciding with this change, power steering became standard fitment and Toyota Australia refreshed badging, including the attachment of the new corporate logo consisting of three overlapping ellipses to form the letter "T". With the May 1991 update, the Ultima models gained a CD player, the first Australian-built car to offer this. Towards the end of the series, special editions were released, starting with the Spirit of February 1991. Then in September 1992, value-added CSi Limited and Olympic Spirit cars came onto the scene. Australian production ended in late November 1992, in time for production of the XV10 to commence on 2 December. The Used Car Safety Ratings, published in 2008 by the Monash University Accident Research Centre, found that V20 Camry models provide an "average" (3/5 stars) level of occupant safety protection in the event of an accident.
Holden Apollo (JK, JL)
The Holden Apollo, a rebadged variant to the Toyota Camry, retailed in Australia alongside the facelifted Camry V20 series from August 1989. Production had started in July. This model sharing occurred due to the United Australian Automobile Industries (UAAI) joint venture between Toyota Australia and General Motors-Holden's starting in 1987 that resulted in model sharing between both automakers from August 1989. Known as the JK series, the Apollo differentiated itself by way of a redesigned grille, rehashed tail lamps and other minor trim items. This rebranding scheme was the result of the Button car plan, introduced in May 1984 to rationalise and make the Australian automotive industry more competitive on a global scale by means of reducing import tariffs. Offered in sedan and wagon guises, Apollo replaced the Camira.
Powertrains were verbatim of the Camry, with the 3S-FC for the entry-level SL, and higher-end SLX and SLE models graced with the 3S-FE engine. An SLX option pack, known as the Executive was also available. The SL opened up the Apollo range with remote exterior mirrors, intermittent windshield wipers, heated rear screen demister, remote trunk release for sedans and fuel filler door, a two-speaker radio cassette player and tinted side and rear glass. SLX variants were distinguished by their full wheel covers, as opposed to the SL model's steel wheels with center caps. The Executive variant was not a stand-alone model, but an option pack for the SLX, adding power steering and automatic transmission. SLE equipment included the four-wheel disc brakes, variable intermittent windshield wipers, a four-speaker stereo, body-colored bumpers, dual odometers, automatic headlamp cut-off system, velour seat upholstery, center back-seat armrest, power antenna, central locking with illuminated driver's door lock and front map lamps. As per the Camry, in May 1991, the EFI version of the engine was made standard.
In August 1991, there was a small Apollo facelift, given the designation JL, with an altered model range. The SL and SLX continued, with the SLE now available only as a sedan. The Executive pack was now no longer offered, and a sports version, dubbed GS was introduced in both body variants. Equipment levels mostly mirrored the previous JK, although the SLX was now similar in specification to the discontinued Executive and the GS to the JK SLE, albeit without standard automatic transmission. GS specification cars also added body stripes, red highlights, a tachometer and upgraded audio. Appearance-wise, the JK and JL are very similar, with the JL's grille treated with bolder chrome highlighting and slightly altered tail lamps on sedans. The XV10 Camry-based JM Apollo replaced the JL in March 1993.
Model codes
V30 (1990–1994)
Introduced exclusively to Japan in July 1990, the Camry V30 carried forward the four-door sedan and a differently styled hardtop sedan. Like before, either shape could be had in a Vista branded variety with revised styling. Both bodies would also form the basis of enlarged wide-body XV10 versions from September 1991, aimed primarily at international markets. The V30 remained smaller than the XV10 to offer buyers a vehicle within the "five-number" registration category concerning exterior dimensions and engine displacement for Japanese vehicle size regulations. The rules required a body width under , length under , and engines at or below 2,000 cc. Sedans in the wide-body format would sell overseas as the Camry XV10—identical to the smaller V30 in most respects except for the front- and rear-end styling grafted to an otherwise unchanged body and interior. Hardtop sedans would engender the luxury Lexus ES 300 (XV10), which again would couple the existing side profile with rehashed front, rear, and interior designs. The export-oriented ES 300 would sell as the Toyota Windom in Japan.
Dimensions grew slightly with sedan body length extended to , and for the Vista and Camry hardtops to , respectively. Penned by Osamu Shikado, the V30's design is much rounder when compared to the V20 series. Rather than the V20's six-window greenhouse, the V30 sedans have a four-part setup with integrated window sashes. Up front, the sedan's curved headlamps converge with a slimline grille insert; hardtops get a thinner front assembly with narrower lights, and the C-pillar is raked more sharply. Base cars gain full body-color coding of peripheral exterior components.
The four-wheel strut/coil suspension carried over from the V20, although as option on high-end front-drive trims, Toyota added a wheel-stroke-sensitive Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension (TEMS) and speed sensitive four-wheel steering. The available powerplants were three twin-cam inline-four engines—the 1.8-liter 4S-FE, plus the 3S-FE and higher-performance 3S-GE 2.0-liter units. Toyota also offered the 2.0-liter 2C-T turbo-diesel inline-four known from the previous generations, and for the flagship Camry Prominent only, the 2.0-liter 1VZ-FE gasoline V6. In May 1991 a 2.5-liter V6 engine also became available on the Camry Prominent, while the earlier 2-liter V6 became the "Prominent E".
An updated model appeared in July 1992. The scope of changes ranged from a new, larger grille and a revised air conditioning unit. At the same time the ZX Touring package appeared in place of the GT, which Toyota discontinued in conjunction with the sporting 3S-GE engine option. The 2.0 V6 engine was removed from the lineup at the same time, leaving the 2.5-liter unit as the only offering in the Camry Prominent.
V40 (1994–1998)
The Camry V40 appeared in July 1994 exclusively for the Japanese market. The Toyota Vista twin continued on, although the Camry Prominent hardtop was no longer offered; only the Vista was available as a hardtop. As before in previous generations, the Camry was exclusive to Toyota Corolla Store, while the Vista was only available at Toyota Vista Store locations.
V40 continued to be built around the x length-width bracket, legacy of a Japanese taxation law. The car is taller than its predecessor.
Engines for the V40 were a 1.8-liter (4S-FE type) and 2.0-liter (3S-FE type), and a 2.2-liter turbo-diesel (3C-T type). At launch only the 2.0-liter model was available in all-wheel drive mode, although afterwards the 2.2-liter turbodiesel could be optioned with this system.
Toyota updated the V40 in June 1996. In the update anti-lock brakes and dual air bags became standard equipment. After 1998, the Japanese market Camry and international Camry became in-line with each other, with the Vista taking over the V30 and V40 Camry roles.
V50 (1998–2003)
The V50 generation was not available as a Camry—only as a Vista—as a sedan, plus a station wagon called Vista Ardeo. 1.8 L and 2.0 L engines were available. The interior features a center instrument panel/navigation display.
Vista V50 is significant because it's one of the first fruits of Toyota's company-wide platform renewal efforts known as the MC. Studies for new front-wheel drive (FWD) platform and packaging layout began in 1993 and appeared on market in December 1997 in the Toyota Prius, but the Vista is the first mass-production, FWD Toyota with a new platform. Toyota claims this is the first true redesign and rethink of its FWD platforms since the 1982 Camry/Vista. With this platform, Toyota trades the rear MacPherson struts for a torsion beam axle setup. A double-wishbone setup is available for all-wheel drive. Toyota also flipped the engine orientation so that the intake manifold is in front, improving space efficiency.
Vista production ended in September 2003, as Toyota prepared to rename the Vista dealership network as Toyota Netz. In October 2003, the Vista was replaced by the second generation Avensis. The move to simplify Toyota's dealership organization came in light of the pending (August 2005) launch of Lexus in Japan. In April 2005 the process was complete and all Vista dealers became Netz dealers.
Wide-body
XV10 (1991–1996)
Toyota replaced the compact V20 Camry with the Japanese market-only V30 series in 1990. However, international markets such as Australia and North America received a widened version of the V30, known as the XV10 series. While marginally larger than the V20, the V30 had to comply with Japanese dimension regulations, which restricted the car's width to and length to for a lower tax obligation. Particularly in the United States, this narrower model was seen as compromised, thus limiting its sales potential. As a result, the "wide-body" mid-size Camry (XV10) released to North America in 1991 was developed from early 1988 and the final design frozen later that year. It was with the XV10 that Toyota upgraded the Camry's status to its second "world car" after the Corolla, with exports starting from Australia to Southeast Asia. Japan also received the wider XV10 model, although it was sold under the Toyota Scepter name there. Toyota chose the name "Scepter" as a reference to the Camry/Crown naming tradition, as a "scepter" is a symbolic ornamental staff held by a ruling monarch, a prominent item of royal regalia.
A notable point of the "Wide body" SXV10 Camry is the influence of engineering developed from the launch of Lexus and the LS400, which came to market just a few years prior to its public debut. The kinship to Lexus models in engineering standards (such as CMM and GD&T development standards) and tolerances on the SXV10 is often perceived to be closer than any prior or latter iterations of the Camry. In an interview with Automotive News, Chris Hostetter, group vice president for Toyota NA, admitted that the 1992 Camry was considered by many company insiders to be more of a "Lexus product" than most Toyota badge cars, going on to mention that it borrowed technologies such as hydraulically powered cooling fans directly developed from the ES300. However, the Lexus standards of the SXV10 created a division in product development philosophies in the company. Also according to Automotive News, some company insiders considered it too upscale for its price point and the market segment it was set to compete within (mid-sized, mid-segment).
It was Robert McCurry in conjunction with Dave Illingworth and Jim Press, who, with great initial opposition from the Japanese executives, convinced the Japanese company that the 1992 Camry be re-designed, enlarged, and shaped to resemble a scaled-down LS400 with a more affordable FWD format, to help establish the reputation of Lexus, which at the time was still in its infancy and lacked brand heritage. The intensive platform and component sharing with the 1992 ES300 allowed Toyota to leverage costs better to allow the SXV10 Camry's high level of specification at a reasonable price. The 1992 Camry also took more resemblance to the LS400 in the sloped roofline, wide C pillar and framed windows, where as the ES300 featured a hardtop design with an upgraded/stiffened suspension. However, the LS400 and the SXV10 Camry featured no sharing of powertrain layout nor design. Many insiders of Toyota argued even after critical acclaim that the SXV10 Camry overlapped too greatly with Lexus, even though Chris Hostetter, current vice president of advanced technology research at Toyota, believed the model had to be developed to develop buyers who would become interested in Lexus. This division as well as cost-cutting led to the Camry and Lexus line to become more distinctive, as the Camry became a more economical, affordable, spacious sedan typical of the segment.
The smaller V30 Camry varied in other areas besides the size. Although the underpinnings, doors and fenders, and overall basic design cues were common between the two cars, the smaller Camry sported harder, more angular front- and rear-end styling treatment, with the wide-body model presenting a more curvaceous silhouette. This was a departure from the V20 generation Camry which, although had many more rounded panels than the V10 series, was nevertheless generally slab-sided in shape. A two-door Camry coupé was added to compete with the Honda Accord coupé. However, the Camry Coupé was never popular and was dropped in 1996. A two-door Camry would not be reintroduced until 1999, with the Toyota Camry Solara.
The Japanese V30 model was replaced by the Camry V40 in 1994, however, this was also a Japan-only model. International markets instead retained the wider XV10 until it was replaced by the XV20 in 1996. The V40 and XV20 models were sold alongside one another in the Japanese market until 1998. At this time, the Vista V50 took the place of the V40, ending the period of separate Camrys for the Japanese and international markets.
The XV10, at its most basic level, offered a 2.2-liter 5S-FE four-cylinder engine, up from 2.0 liters in the V20 and V30 Camrys. This unit produced of power and of torque, although the exact figures varied slightly depending on the market. Power and displacement increases were also received for the V6 engine. The 3.0-liter 3VZ-FE unit was rated at and . An all-new aluminum 1MZ-FE V6 debuted in North American models from 1993 for the 1994 model year, with other markets retaining the 3VZ-FE V6. Power and torque rose to and , respectively.
In Australia, the V6 engine Camry was badged "Camry Vienta" when launched in 1993, later becoming the Toyota Vienta in 1995. In South Africa, the XV10 Camry was manufactured by Toyota SA in Durban from 1992 to 2002, offering both the 2.2-liter and 3.0-liter engines, as well as a 2.0-liter engine derived from the Celica. Only a sedan configuration was available. These were also marketed and sold into Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe.
A variant of the UK market V6 model - detuned to run on 91 rather than 95 octane unleaded gasoline - was launched in New Zealand in 1991. These Japanese-built models were replaced with an Australian-made line, with unique New Zealand specification, in 1993 at which point the 2.2-liter I4 was offered as well.
XV20 (1996–2002)
In late 1991, development on the XV20 commenced after launch of the XV10 under the 415T program. Design work was frozen in early 1994 and later launched in the United States in September 1996 and Japan in December 1996. It continued as a sedan and station wagon (called the Camry Gracia in Japan), though the wagon was not sold in the United States. This was the first generation where it was sold in Japan as the Daihatsu Altis, replacing the Daihatsu Applause.
In August 1999 for the 2000 model year, the sedan models received a mid-model upgrade to the front and rear fascias, but remained otherwise similar to the 1997 to 1999 models.
In the United States, the Camry SE was dropped and the base model was renamed the CE for the 1997 model year. Both the LE and the XLE trims were carried over from the previous series. All trim levels were available with either the 2.2-liter I4 or the 3.0-liter V6 engine except the Solara SLE, which was only available with the V6. TRD offered a supercharger kit for 1997 through to 2000 V6 models raising power to and of torque. A coupe was added in 1999, and then a convertible form in 2000. In contrast to the coupe from the XV10 generation Camrys, the new two-door cars were given a separate nameplate Camry Solara, or simply Solara. They were also a significant styling departure from the sedan. The Solara was available in SE and SLE trims, corresponding roughly to the sedan's LE and XLE trims.
Power was increased slightly to SAE for the 5S-FE 2.2 L I4 and SAE for the 1MZ-FE V6. Manual transmissions (model: S51) were only available on the CE trim level, LE V6, and any Solara model. Camrys and Solaras equipped with the 5S-FE 4 cylinder engine and appropriate trim package received the S51 manual transmission, while those equipped with the 1MZ-FE 6 cylinder engine received the E153 manual transmission.
XV30 (2001–2006)
Regular
Released in September 2001 for the 2002 model year, Toyota released the Camry XV30 series as a larger sedan, but without a station wagon for the first time. The wagon's demise occurred due to its sales erosion to minivans and crossover SUVs.
Toyota redesigned this series from the ground up for the first time since the launch of the Camry nameplate. Through efficiency gains such as increased computerization, and by having the XV30 ride on the K platform introduced with the Toyota Highlander (XU20) of 2000, Toyota expedited the XV30 production development stage to 26 months, down from 36 months with the XV20. As a consequence, Toyota claimed the XV30 to have cost 30 percent less to design and develop than its predecessor. XV30 also had increased parts content over the XV20, but did not cost any more to manufacture.
Until the 2003 model year, the Camry Solara remained on the XV20 series chassis, and received only minor styling upgrades to the front and rear ends. However, the Solara did receive the same 2.4-liter 2AZ-FE I4 engine that was available on the Camry sedan. The US received three engine options, a 2.4-liter inline-four, a 3.0-liter V6, and a 3.3-liter version of the same. The 3.3-liter was only available for the Camry's sportier "SE" model.
Prestige
Compared to the international version with a less conservative design (styled by Hiroyuki Metsugi, approved 1999), the Southeast Asian and Taiwanese "prestige" Camry had a different distinctive design with more chrome, larger head lamps and tail lamps and a general greater emphasis on its width.
XV40 (2006–2012)
Regular
This generation of Camry saw even greater differentiation between "regular" model sold internationally (including Japan) and the "prestige" Camry sold in the rest of Asia. The regular Camry, fitted with four-cylinder engines sold alongside the V6-engined prestige Camry in Oceania and the Middle East as the Toyota Aurion. Between 2006 and 2010, the regular Camry was also rebadged as the Daihatsu Altis model, which sold alongside the Camry in Japan. The Daihatsu differed only in badging, with no cosmetic changes.
The XV40 Camry was introduced at the 2006 North American International Auto Show alongside a hybrid version and went on sale in March 2006 for the 2007 model year.
Power comes from a choice of four and six-cylinder engines. The 2.4-liter 2AZ-FE I4 engine was carried over and produced . It came with a five-speed manual or five-speed automatic transmission. The 3.5-liter 2GR-FE V6 in contrast came with a new six-speed automatic and produced .
The Camry was facelifted in early 2009 for the 2010 model year with a redesigned fascia, taillights, and an all-new 2.5-liter 2AR-FE four-cylinder engine with a new six-speed automatic transmission. The 2.5-liter engine produces for the base, LE, XLE models, and for the SE. Power locks, stability control, traction control and tires were also made standard for 2010. A six speed manual transmission was available on the base model.
The XV40 series Camry is the first in which the Camry has been available as a gasoline/electric hybrid. The Camry Hybrid uses Toyota's second-generation Hybrid Synergy Drive (HSD) and a 2AZ-FXE four-cylinder with in conjunction with a electric motor for a combined output of .
Prestige
The Asian market Camry features different front and rear styling, plus a revised interior. In Asia, the Camry occupied a higher end of the market, priced just below entry-level German luxury models. The Asian Camry lineup includes a 3.5-liter V6 model and is sold as the Toyota Aurion (XV40) in Australia, competing against large Australian sedans like the Ford Falcon and Holden Commodore.
XV50 (2011–2019)
Regular
The XV50 Camry was produced from 21 August 2011, introduced on 23 August 2011, and began U.S. sales in September 2011. The interior received a major restyling, while the exterior received all-new sheet metal and more angular styling.
The US Camry carried over three different engine choices from the previous model. Starting with a 2.5-liter four-cylinder hybrid model rated at , a 2.5-liter four-cylinder gasoline engine rated at and , and a 3.5-liter V6 rated at and . Power output has been increased mostly by switching to electro-hydraulic power steering. The trim levels include the L, LE, SE, XLE, SE V6, XLE V6, Hybrid LE, Hybrid XLE and for 2014 a Hybrid SE model. All models except for the hybrids are standard with six-speed automatic transmissions. For the first time, the manual transmission was not available. Hybrids are equipped with an eCVT transmission. The SE model gets paddle shifters, and a stiffer suspension. The new model has increased fuel economy due to lighter weight, a sleeker body, and low rolling-resistance tires.
A major facelift released to North America in April 2014 for the 2015 model year updated most of the exterior panels.
The US-built Toyota Camry took the top spot in 2015 and 2016 as the most American-made car with over 75 percent of its parts and manufacturing coming from the United States.
Prestige
In this generation, the Camry line-up for the Japanese domestic market was reduced to being just a single variant (hybrid only). The Japanese market will now share the same Camry model as the Asian market "prestige" Camry—a design also adopted by the Toyota Aurion (XV50), albeit with minor visual changes. The Brazilian market also carries the Prestige variant instead of the one sold in North America (only in the 3.5L V6 configuration). Prior to the XV50, the Japanese and Brazilian markets wide-body Camry were similar to the US models. The "prestige" Camry was discontinued in Southeast Asia and India in late 2018, but continued to be sold in Vietnam until April 2019.
XV70 (2017–2024)
The XV70 Camry was introduced at the January 2017 North American International Auto Show. It was launched in Japan on 10 July 2017, and in Australia on 21 November 2017. North American production started in June 2017, and sales began in late July 2017. It is built on GA-K platform.
Engine choices include a base 2.5 L inline four-cylinder (I4) that now produces in base form (when equipped with the optional quad exhaust), the same 2.5 L inline four-cylinder (I4) engine with an electric motor (Hybrid) that produces , or the top-of-the-line 3.5 L V6 that produces . In some markets the old 2.5 L 2AR-FE engine is carried over from the previous generation which produces .
The only major components shared with the previous generation are the Toyota emblem on the front grille and rear trunk lid.
XV80 (2023–present)
The ninth-generation Camry (XV80) was unveiled on 14 November 2023. Unlike the previous generations, the XV80 Camry is not available with a pure gasoline engine for markets like North America and Europe.
The XV80 Camry is underpinned by the same GA-K platform as the XV70, retaining the underlying body structure, front doors and roofline, with some changes such as revised dampers and revised tuning for improved comfort. Its front clip design adopts Toyota's 'hammerhead' grille which was used by the latest generation Prius, Crown Sport, and C-HR, all launched in 2023.
The XV80 Camry is not available in Japan, due to the declining sales of the previous generations.
Markets
North America
The Camry will be available in four trim levels in North America: LE, SE, XLE and XSE. In the market, for the first time, all grades of the Camry come standard with a hybrid powertrain and an optional all-wheel-drive; a V6 is no longer available. Toyota made the Camry all-hybrid, to help keep the nameplate and its internal combustion engine relevant, as they transition to electrification and become carbon neutral.
The touchscreen sizes for the audio multimedia system have been increased. LE and SE grades comes standard with a 8.0-inch touchscreen, while a 12.3-inch touchscreen is available on SE, and standard on XLE and XSE grades. The vehicle is equipped Toyota's updated audio multimedia system that debuted on the XK70 series Tundra, and the Toyota Safety Sense (TSS) 3.0 suite of advanced driver-assistance systems.
China
For the Chinese market, the XV80 Camry was unveiled at the November 2023 Guangzhou Auto Show, with different designs for the front headlights, front bumper for the regular model, dashboard design, and internal center console compared to the North American model. In addition to offering a 2.5-liter hybrid engine in the local market, this model offers a 2.0-liter pure gasoline and hybrid two types of engines.
Europe
The new Camry was confirmed to arrive in June 2024 to the Czech market. The design is based on North America's XLE model and will feature the fifth generation hybrid powertrain along with 2.5 L engine, modernized infotainment, improved suspension and upgraded Toyota Teammate and Toyota Safety Sense safety packages. In contrast with the previous generation, the new model was only confirmed to be sold in selected countries within Toyota Central Europe region (Czechia, Slovakia, Poland, Hungary), Baltic countries and Israel.
Sales
Competing with mainstream and more affordable models in Western markets, for other export markets in Asia and Latin America, the Camry is seen as a luxury car where it sells strongly (and serves as Toyota's flagship vehicle along with the Land Cruiser). In the United States, except for 2001, the Camry was the best-selling passenger car from 1997 through 2020. Despite international success, and early success in Japan, the later wide-body models have been a low-volume model in its home market. However, since the introduction of the XV50 Camry in 2011, sales of the wide-body models in Japan have resurged, thanks, in large part, to the inclusion of Toyota's Hybrid Synergy Drive system.
The Camry is also a prolific seller within Australia. The Camry has profited within its medium-sized class, where it has been its best selling since 1993, beating traditional competitors including the Mazda 6, as well as contemporary ones in that of the Ford Mondeo and Skoda Superb. The Middle East, as well as Eastern Europe, each have seen the Camry sell well, with Western Europe previously having small amounts exported.
Hybrid sales
References
Bibliography
External links
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustavo%20Dudamel
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Gustavo Dudamel
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Gustavo Dudamel
Gustavo Adolfo Dudamel Ramírez (born 26 January 1981) is a Venezuelan conductor and violinist. He is currently the music director of the Simón Bolívar Symphony Orchestra and the Los Angeles Philharmonic. He is scheduled to become the Music and Artistic Director of the New York Philharmonic in 2026.
Early life
Dudamel was born in Barquisimeto, Venezuela, the son of a trombonist and a voice teacher. He studied music from an early age. In 1986 he became involved with El Sistema, the famous Venezuelan social action music programme, initially learning the violin. He soon began to study composition. He attended the Jacinto Lara Conservatory, where José Luis Jiménez was among his violin teachers. He then went on to work with José Francisco del Castillo at the Latin-American Violin Academy.
Dudamel began to study conducting in 1995, first with Rodolfo Saglimbeni, then later with José Antonio Abreu. In 1999, he was appointed music director of the Simón Bolívar Symphony Orchestra, the national youth orchestra of Venezuela, and toured several countries. He attended Charles Dutoit's master class in Buenos Aires, Argentina in 2002, and worked as assistant conductor to Simon Rattle in Berlin, Germany and Salzburg, Austria in 2003.
Career
Conducting
Dudamel won a number of competitions, including the Gustav Mahler Conducting Competition in Germany in 2004. His reputation began to spread, attracting the attention of conductors such as Simon Rattle and Claudio Abbado, who accepted invitations to conduct the Simón Bolívar Orchestra in Veneite. In April 2006 Dudamel was appointed as principal conductor of the Gothenburg Symphony for the 2007/2008 season.
Dudamel made his debut at La Scala, Milan, with Don Giovanni in November 2006. On 10 September 2007, he conducted the Vienna Philharmonic for the first time at the Lucerne Festival. On 16 April 2007 he conducted the Stuttgart Radio Symphony Orchestra at the Vatican's Paul VI Audience Hall in a concert in commemoration of the 80th birthday of Pope Benedict XVI, with Hilary Hahn as solo violinist, with the Pope and many other Church dignitaries among the audience.
In 2013, El Sistema arranged for Dudamel to conduct the Simon Bolivar Symphony Orchestra during the funeral of Hugo Chávez, which was attended by nearly two dozen heads of state.
In 2015, Dudamel conducted both the opening and end titles, at the request of John Williams, for the official motion picture soundtrack and film of Star Wars: The Force Awakens. At the 2016 Super Bowl, Dudamel and Youth Orchestra Los Angeles (YOLA) accompanied Coldplay and sang along with Chris Martin, Beyoncé, and Bruno Mars.
On 1 January 2017, Dudamel conducted the Vienna Philharmonic in the New Year's Day Concert, the youngest conductor to lead this event. In December 2018, he made his debut at the Metropolitan Opera in New York City, conducting Verdi's Otello.
Dudamel served as the 2018–2019 artist-in-residence at Princeton University in New Jersey near New York, in celebration of Princeton University Concerts' 125th anniversary. This engagement included cross-disciplinary and cross-cultural panels & discussions, chamber concerts featuring musicians from his associated orchestras (the Met, in NYC; Los Angeles; and Berlin), and in April 2019, Dudamel conducted the Princeton University Orchestra and the Princeton University Glee Club as the culmination of his year-long residency.
Dudamel first guest-conducted at the Opéra national de Paris in 2017. In April 2021, the Opéra National de Paris announced the appointment of Dudamel as its next music director, effective 1 August 2021, with an initial contract of six seasons. In May 2023, Dudamel announced his resignation as music director of the Opéra National de Paris, effective August 2023.
Dudamel conducted the Simón Bolívar Symphony Orchestra during its appearance at the 2023 Edinburgh International Festival. It was the first time he had conducted the orchestra since 2017.
Los Angeles Philharmonic
Dudamel made his US conducting debut with the Los Angeles Philharmonic (LAP) at the Hollywood Bowl on 13 September 2005 in a program consisting of "La Noche de los Mayas" by Silvestre Revueltas and Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 5. Dudamel was subsequently invited back to conduct the orchestra at Walt Disney Concert Hall in January 2007 in performances of "Dances of Galánta" by Zoltán Kodály, the third piano concerto of Sergei Rachmaninoff with Yefim Bronfman as soloist, and Béla Bartók's Concerto for Orchestra (the latter of which was recorded live and subsequently released by Deutsche Grammophon).
In April 2007, the LAP announced the appointment of Dudamel as its next music director, effective with the 2009–2010 season. His initial contract in Los Angeles was for five years, beginning in September 2009. In February 2011, the orchestra announced the extension of Dudamel's contract through the end of the 2018–2019 season. In March 2015, the orchestra announced a further extension of his Los Angeles Philharmonic contract through the 2021–2022 season. In January 2020, the LAP announced a further extension of his contract through the 2025–2026 season. In February 2023, the LAP announced that Dudamel is to conclude his music directorship of the orchestra at the close of the 2025–2026 season.
New York Philharmonic
Dudamel first guest-conducted the New York Philharmonic in 2007. Following 26 additional guest-conducting appearances with the orchestra, the New York Philharmonic announced the appointment of Dudamel as its next Music and Artistic Director, the first Latin American named to the post, effective with the 2026–2027 season, with an initial contract of 5 years. Dudamel will first serve as Music Director Designate during the 2025–2026 season, leading up to his official start in his role as Music and Artistic Director the following year.
Awards and media
Dudamel is featured in the documentary film Tocar y Luchar, which covers El Sistema. Dudamel and the Orquesta Sinfónica Simón Bolívar received the WQXR Gramophone Special Recognition Award in New York City in November 2007. Another US television news feature on Dudamel was on 60 Minutes in February 2008, entitled "Gustavo the Great."
On 23 July 2009, Dudamel was selected by the Eighth Glenn Gould Prize laureate José Antonio Abreu as winner of the prestigious The City of Toronto Glenn Gould Protégé Prize.
Dudamel was named one of Time magazine's most influential 100 people in 2010.
Dudamel is featured in the 2011 documentary Let the Children Play, a film which focuses on his work advocating for music as a way to enrich children's lives.
Gramophone named Dudamel its 2011 Gramophone Artist of the Year. Also in 2011, he was inducted into the Royal Swedish Academy of Music. In February 2012, Dudamel won a Grammy Award for Best Orchestral Performance, for his recording of Brahms Symphony No. 4 for the label Deutsche Grammophon. In 2013, Dudamel was named Musical America's Musician of the Year and was inducted into the Gramophone Hall of Fame. Dudamel received the Leonard Bernstein Lifetime Achievement Award for the Elevation of Music in Society from the Longy School in 2014 and the Americas Society Cultural Achievement Award in 2016.
The character of Rodrigo in Amazon's Mozart in the Jungle was based, in part, on Dudamel. In the first episode of the show's second season, in which Rodrigo appears as a guest conductor for the Los Angeles Philharmonic, Dudamel appears as a guest actor, playing the part of a stage manager.
In June 2018, Dudamel received Chile's Pablo Neruda Order of Artistic and Cultural Merit. Also in June, the Venezuelan American Endowment for the Arts (VAEA) awarded Dudamel the Paez Medal of Art 2018.
On 18 October 2018, Dudamel was announced as the 25th recipient of the Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize.
Dudamel received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on 22 January 2019.
At the 64th Annual Grammy Awards the Grammy Award for Best Choral Performance was given to the Dudamel-conducted 2019 recording of Mahler's Symphony No. 8.
In the summer of 2019, Dudamel conducted the orchestra during the recording sessions for Steven Spielberg's 2021 film adaptation of West Side Story.
In 2020, Dudamel made a cameo appearance as Trollzart in Dreamworks' Trolls World Tour.
In April 2023, Dudamel was elected into the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
On 23 May 2024, Dudamel was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of Music from Harvard University.
Political views
Writing for an op-ed in the Los Angeles Times in 2015, he argued that taking sides in Venezuela's conflict could politicize El Sistema, which could be a threat to the institution, saying: "For those who think I've been silent too long, I say, don't mistake my lack of a political stance for a lack of compassion or ideals." After the killing of El Sistema violist Armando Cañizales during the 2017 Venezuelan protests, Dudamel condemned Nicolás Maduro's response to the demonstrations for the first time, writing in social media: "I raise my voice against violence and repression. Nothing can justify bloodshed. Enough of ignoring the just clamor of a people suffocated by an intolerable crisis."
In 2019, in a speech accepting his star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, he said that it should belong to Venezuela, and that "tomorrow [23 Jan. 2019] is a crucial day [and] the voice of the masses must be heard and respected", referring to the planned national protest on that date and the Venezuelan presidential crisis. In 2022, he returned to Venezuela and reconnected with family and friends as well as students and teachers at El Sistema. Speaking about El Sistema, Dudamel said, "I have made it my personal mission not to rest until music is truly a fundamental human right for everyone. El Sistema has endured through seven different governments in Venezuela. It is not about politics. It is about the shared belief that art must be a part of the fabric of society". He considered that the political situation in the country had improved but that there were still problems that needed to be addressed, saying: "People have the desire to get out of this unrest — this political, ideological unrest — and really make things move forward" and that “There has been a change, but we need to keep working to make things better because they are still very difficult.”
Personal life
Dudamel has been married twice. His first marriage, in 2006, was to Eloísa Maturén in Caracas. Maturén, also a Venezuelan native, is a classically trained ballet dancer and a journalist. The two had a son, Martín Dudamel Maturén, on 1 April 2011. In March 2015, Dudamel and Maturén divorced. In February 2017, Dudamel secretly married Spanish actress María Valverde, whom he had first met in 2016, in Las Vegas, Nevada. He became a Spanish citizen in 2018.
Discography
2006
Beethoven: Symphonies Nos. 5 & 7 [w/ the Simón Bolívar Youth Orchestra of Venezuela] CD
2007
Birthday Concert for Pope Benedict XVI [w/ Hilary Hahn & the Radio-Sinfonieorchester Stuttgart] DVD
Mahler: Symphony No. 5 [w/ the Simón Bolívar Youth Orchestra of Venezuela] CD
Bartók: Concerto for Orchestra [w/ the Los Angeles Philharmonic] Digital Download only
2008
The Promise of Music [w/ the Simón Bolívar Youth Orchestra of Venezuela] DVD
Fiesta [w/ the Simón Bolívar Youth Orchestra of Venezuela] CD
Berlioz: Symphonie Fantastique [w/ the Los Angeles Philharmonic] Digital Download only
2009
Gustavo Dudamel and the Los Angeles Philharmonic: The Inaugural Concert [w/ the Los Angeles Philharmonic] DVD; e-Video
Mahler: Symphony No. 1 (From the Inaugural Concert) [w/ the Los Angeles Philharmonic] Digital Download only
Discoveries [w/ the Simón Bolívar Youth Orchestra of Venezuela] CD
Live from Salzburg [w/ the Simón Bolívar Youth Orchestra of Venezuela] DVD
Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 5; Francesca da Rimini [w/ the Simón Bolívar Youth Orchestra of Venezuela] CD
Piotr Anderszewski: Voyageur intranquille; a film by Bruno Monsaingeon. Credited: with the artistic participation of Philharmonia Orchestra London – conducted by Gustavo Dudamel] Blu-ray
2010
Celebración – Opening Night Concert & Gala [w/ Juan Diego Flórez and the Los Angeles Philharmonic] DVD; Digital Download
John Adams: City Noir (From the Inaugural Concert) [w/ the Los Angeles Philharmonic] Digital Download only
Rite [w/ the Simón Bolívar Youth Orchestra of Venezuela] CD
2011
Sibelius: Symphony No. 2 – Nielsen: Symphonies Nos. 4 & 5 – Bruckner: Symphony No. 9 [w/ the Gothenburg Symphony Orchestra] CD
Tchaikovsky & Shakespeare [w/ the Simón Bolívar Symphony Orchestra of Venezuela] CD
New Year's Eve Concert 2010 [w/ Elīna Garanča and the Berliner Philharmoniker] DVD
John Adams: Slonimsky's Earbox – Bernstein: Symphony No. 1 "Jeremiah" [w/ the Los Angeles Philharmonic] Digital Download only
Brahms: Symphony No. 4 [w/ the Los Angeles Philharmonic] Digital Download only
2012
An American in Paris [w/ the Los Angeles Philharmonic] e-Video only
Dances and Waves [w/ the Vienna Philharmonic] CD; DVD; Digital Download
Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 3 [w/ the Vienna Philharmonic] Vinyl only (LP)
Beethoven: Symphony No. 3, "Eroica" [w/ the Simón Bolívar Symphony Orchestra of Venezuela] CD
Discoveries [w/ Simón Bolívar Symphony Orchestra of Venezuela, Berliner Philharmoniker, Wiener Philharmoniker, Gothenburg Symphony Orchestra] CD+DVD; Digital Download
Mahler: Symphony No. 8 [w/ Los Angeles Philharmonic and the Simón Bolívar Symphony Orchestra of Venezuela] DVD; Blu-ray; e-Video
Summer Night Concert (Sommernachtskonzert) 2012: Dances and Waves; Wiener Philharmoniker; DVD; Deutsche Grammophon
2013
Mahler: Symphony No. 9 [w/ Los Angeles Philharmonic] CD
Verdi: Messa da Requiem [w/ Los Angeles Philharmonic and Los Angeles Master Chorale] Blu-ray
Rachmaninov: Piano Concerto No. 3; Prokofiev: Piano Concerto No. 2 [w/ Yuja Wang, piano and Simon Bolivar Symphony Orchestra of Venezuela] CD
Richard Strauss: Also Sprach Zarathustra; Till Eulenspiegels lustige Streiche; Don Juan [w/ Berliner Philarmoniker]
2014
Mahler: Symphony No. 7. [w/ Símon Bolívar Symphony Orchestra of Venezuela] CD
Gustavo Dudamel: The Liberator (Libertador); Original Soundtrack [w/ Orquesta Sinfónica Simón Bolívar de Venezuela] CD
John Adams: The Gospel According to the Other Mary, a passion oratorio in two acts [w/ Los Angeles Philharmonic and Los Angeles Master Chrale] CD
2015
Wagner [w/ Símon Bolívar Symphony Orchestra of Venezuela] Digital Download
Philip Glass: Double Piano Concerto [w/ Katia and Marielle Labeque (Piano), Los Angeles Philharmonic] Only at iTunes
John Williams: Star Wars: The Force Awakens. [Special guest conductor for four tacks] CD, DVD, Blu-ray, Digital Download
2017
New Year Concert [w/ Vienna Philharmonic] CDs and Digital download.
2018
The Nutcracker and the Four Realms original soundtrack CD and Digital Download
2022
Dvořák: Symphonies Nos. 7–9 w/ Los Angeles Philharmonic Digital Download
References
Further reading
External links
1981 births
21st-century conductors (music)
21st-century male musicians
City of Toronto's Glenn Gould Protégé Prize winners
Deutsche Grammophon artists
Grammy Award winners
Living people
Venezuelan male conductors (music)
Naturalised citizens of Spain
People from Barquisimeto
Venezuelan classical musicians
Venezuelan conductors (music)
Venezuelan expatriates in the United States
|
414448
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hal%20Rogers
|
Hal Rogers
|
Hal Rogers
Harold Dallas Rogers (born December 31, 1937) is an American lawyer and politician serving his 22nd term as the U.S. representative for , having served since 1981. He is a member of the Republican Party. Upon Don Young's death in 2022, Rogers became the dean of the House of Representatives.
Born in Barrier, Kentucky, Rogers graduated from the University of Kentucky with a Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Laws degree. He entered private practice after serving in the National Guard for the states of Kentucky and North Carolina. In 1969, he became the commonwealth's attorney for the counties of Pulaski and Rockcastle, an office he would hold until his election to Congress. In 1979 he was the Republican nominee for lieutenant governor.
After incumbent U.S. Representative Tim Lee Carter announced his retirement in 1980, Rogers launched a campaign for Kentucky's 5th congressional district. He won the primary with a plurality of the vote and went on to easily win the general election. As his district is considered a Republican stronghold, Rogers has won reelection with over 65% of the vote in every election since 1980, with the sole exception of 1992.
Early life and education
Rogers was born in Barrier, Kentucky. After attending Western Kentucky University in Bowling Green, he earned a Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Laws from the University of Kentucky. Rogers served in the Kentucky Army National Guard and North Carolina Army National Guard.
Early career
As a lawyer Rogers was in private practice and was elected to serve as commonwealth's attorney for Pulaski and Rockcastle counties in Kentucky, an office he held from 1969 to his election to Congress in 1980.
Rogers was the Republican nominee for lieutenant governor of Kentucky in 1979. He was on the ballot with former Governor Louie B. Nunn. He lost to Democratic nominee John Y. Brown Jr. 59%–41%. The following year, Rogers won election to Congress.
U.S. House of Representatives
Elections
In 1980, incumbent Republican U.S. Congressman Tim Lee Carter of Kentucky's 5th congressional district decided to retire. Rogers won the Republican primary with a plurality of 23 percent. The losing candidates included the 1971 gubernatorial nominee, Tom Emberton. He won the general election with 67% of the vote. He has won reelection with at least 65% of the vote since then, except in 1992, when he defeated Democratic candidate John Doug Hays, a former member of the Kentucky State Senate with 55% of the vote to Hays' 45% of the vote.
Tenure
Rogers is the longest-serving Kentucky Republican ever elected to federal office. He represents one of the few ancestrally Republican districts south of the Ohio River. South-central Kentucky, historically the heart of the district, is very similar demographically to East Tennessee. Its voters identified with the Republicans after the Civil War and have supported the GOP ever since. Rogers served as a delegate to nine Republican National Conventions from 1976 to 2008.
The Center for Rural Development––a 501c(3) nonprofit organization established in Somerset, Kentucky, in March 1996––was Rogers's idea.
In 2001 the City of Williamsburg, Kentucky named their new water park and miniature golf facility the Hal Rogers Family Entertainment Center as a "thank-you for the federal money he has brought back to Whitley County, the City of Williamsburg, and the other 40 counties he represents".
On the House/Senate conference decision to bolster the Department of Commerce and support the Clinton Administration priorities, President Clinton remarked, "I commend the congressional leadership, Senator Ernest Hollings, Senator Pete Domenici, Congressman Neal Smith, and Congressman Harold Rogers, for their foresight and support in revitalizing this country through these programs. It is a dramatic step forward for the United States toward a solid economic future."
Kentucky state biographer Amy Witherbee commented: "Rogers's multiple roles on the Appropriations Committee have honed his skills as a bipartisan negotiator, and his economically challenged district often prompts him to stray from hard-line conservative stances. Although voting with his party against raising environmental standards on sports utility vehicles and against a controversial amendment that would have prohibited oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Rogers has been the creator and leading proponent of large environmental protection and clean-up programs throughout the Appalachian region.... [His] reluctance to involve the federal government in local issues has not deterred him from supporting a multitude of economic development programs aimed at creating new job bases in economically disadvantaged areas, and particularly in Appalachia. In 1993, Rogers was one of only three Republicans to vote for then-President Bill Clinton's economic stimulus package. In March 2003, Rogers's ability to work through the bipartisan tangles of the Appropriations Committee won him the chairmanship on the subcommittee designated to control funding for the new Department of Homeland Security."
Ready evidence is found on March 20, 2008, when the invitation to testify in support of environmental legislation by Democratic House Majority Leader Rocky Adkins, and, on the same day, a rare invitation to speak from the Senate floor was afforded by Republican Senate Majority Leader Senator David L. Williams of Cumberland County as part of the Senate's unanimously passed bipartisan resolution honoring Rogers for his service.
Rogers called a bill to reduce funding for law enforcement "the result of this new Republican majority's commitment to bring about real change in the way Washington spends the people's money".
In 2011 Rogers voted for the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012, which included a controversial provision that allowed the government and the military to indefinitely detain American citizens and others without trial.
In December 2017 Rogers voted for the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017.
Rogers, along with all other congressional Republicans, voted against the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021.
Criticism
Rogers has been widely criticized by both liberal and conservative pundits for his priorities when it comes to national security. National Review called him "a national disgrace" and Rolling Stone named him one of America's "Ten Worst Congressmen", calling him "Bin Laden's Best Friend" for steering federal homeland security money away from large cities to his home district, which critics claim is one of the least likely terrorist targets in America because of its lack of any notable monuments or population centers. In 2007 Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington named Rogers to its list of the Most Corrupt Members of Congress.
On May 14, 2006, the New York Times reported that Rogers had used his legislative position, as chair of the House subcommittee that controls the Homeland Security budget, to create "jobs in his home district and profits for companies that are donors to his political causes".
The Lexington Herald-Leader in 2005 called Rogers the "Prince of Pork". The Times article reported that Rogers had inserted language ("existing government card issuance centers") into appropriations bills that effectively pushed the federal government into testingat a cost of $4millionolder, inappropriate technology for a new fraud-resistant green card for permanent legal immigrants, at a production plant in Corbin, Kentucky, within Rogers's district. The study concluded that the smart card approach was far superior. The New York Times found that Rogers had received about $100,000 in contributions from parties with at least some ties to the identification card effort.
In response to these critics, Rogers said, "It should surprise no one that this article from Rolling Stone regarding my activity in connection with the Transportation Worker Identity Card (TWIC) is grossly incorrect, and highly slanderous ... A true and honest analysis would reveal that my sole interest in TWIC is simply to protect America's seaports, airports, and other transportation facilities from terrorist penetration. To purport that my actions have compromised national security in an effort to bring jobs to Kentucky or for personal gain is an absolute lie."
After Iran objected to the interim deployment of an Afloat Forward Staging Base to counter their threats to close the Persian Gulf, Rogers cut the funding for the project.
Rogers faced some criticism after he reportedly poked his colleague and Congressional Black Caucus Chair Joyce Beatty in the back and told her to "kiss my ass" after she asked him to put on a mask, as required on the United States Capitol subway system where the incident occurred. Rogers soon issued an apology to Beatty.
MilCon/VA Bill
On June 12, 2013, the White House threatened to veto the MilCon/VA spending bill because Republicans did not agree with the Senate's number of $1.058trillion intended for military operations and research, after the MilCon/VA bill received 421 bipartisan votes in House. "We're marking up to $967billion, the top line under current law," said Rogers, as chair of United States House Committee on Appropriations.
Legislation
On January 15, 2013, Rogers introduced H.R. 298, officially titled "To direct the Secretary of the Interior to conduct a special resource study to evaluate the significance of the Mill Springs Battlefield located in Pulaski and Wayne Counties, Kentucky, and the feasibility of its inclusion in the National Park System, and for other purposes". The bill would direct the Secretary of the Interior to conduct a special resource study to evaluate the significance of the Mill Springs Battlefield in Kentucky (relating to the Battle of Mill Springs fought on January 19, 1862, in Pulaski and Wayne Counties during the Civil War) and the feasibility of its inclusion in the National Park System (NPS). Rogers said, "the Battle of Mill Springs is a source of great pride and interest to the people I serve." Rogers argued that the Battlefield was a "jewel" and would be "an excellent addition to the National Park Service".
On March 5, 2014, Rogers introduced the To provide for the costs of loan guarantees for Ukraine (H.R. 4152; 113th Congress) into the House. The bill would provide loan guarantees to Ukraine of up to $1billion, part of the American response to the 2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine. The bill passed in the House on March 6, 2014.
In 2014 Rogers's committee called for cuts in the National Nuclear Security Administration budget that cast doubt on the Navy's ability to provide an Ohio Replacement Submarine class.
On July 29, 2014, Rogers introduced the Making supplemental appropriations for the fiscal year ending September 30, 2014 (H.R. 5230; 113th Congress), a bill that would provide supplemental FY2014 appropriations to several federal agencies for expenses related to the rise in unaccompanied alien children and alien adults accompanied by an alien minor at the southwest border. The bill would also change the procedures for screening and processing unaccompanied alien children who arrive at the border from certain countries. The bill would provide $659million in supplemental funding. Rogers urged members to pass the bill, arguing that "more and more immigrants will continue to flood across the border if you fail to act" because resources were running out.
Committee assignments
For the 118th Congress:
Committee on Appropriations
Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies (Chair)
Subcommittee on Defense
Subcommittee on State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs
Caucus memberships
Congressional Coal Caucus
Congressional Prescription Drug Abuse Caucus (co-chair)
United States Congressional International Conservation Caucus
Sportsmen's Caucus
Tennessee Valley Authority Caucus
House Republican Steering Committee
Political positions
Throughout his congressional tenure, Rogers has sometimes been regarded as a bipartisan negotiator, although his views are staunchly conservative. He is anti-abortion, scoring a 100 percent rating from the National Right to Life Committee, opposes LGBT rights, and supports a balanced budget amendment for the United States. Currently in his 22nd term in Congress, Rogers is the longest-serving Republican from Kentucky ever elected to federal office.
Budget and economy
Rogers is in favor of dismantling the Home Affordable Modification Program. He opposed the GM and Chrysler bailout in 2009. He opposes regulating the subprime mortgage industry. He supports a balanced budget amendment.
Domestic issues
Gun control
In 2018, Rogers co-sponsored a bill to "strengthen school safety and security", which required a two-thirds vote for passage, given it was brought up under an expedited process. The House voted 407–10 to approve the bill, which would "provide $50million a year for a new federal grant program to train students, teachers and law enforcement on how to spot and report signs of gun violence". Named STOP (Students, Teachers, and Officers Preventing) School Violence Act, it would "develop anonymous telephone and online systems where people could report threats of violence". At the same time, it would authorize $25 million for schools to improve and harden their security, such as installing new locks, lights, metal detectors and panic buttons. A separate spending bill would be required to provide money for the grant program.
Crime
Rogers supports expanding the juvenile justice system, including renovating and hiring additional prosecutors. Rogers supports the death penalty.
Environment
Rogers has a 13 percent rating from the Humane Society for his anti-animal welfare voting record.
Technology
Rogers is in favor of ending federal funding for National Public Radio. He opposes net neutrality.
International issues
Immigration
Rogers supports efforts to make the English language the official language of the US. He supports building a fence along the Mexico-US border.
Russian interference
In July 2018, while serving temporarily as chair of the House Rules committee, Rogers rejected requests to increase federal funding for election security. The U.S. intelligence community had concluded that Russia interfered in the 2016 election and that it was continuing to interfere in election systems as of July 2018.
Social issues
Abortion
Rogers is anti-abortion. He has a 100 percent rating from the National Right to Life Committee and a zero percent rating from NARAL Pro-Choice America for his abortion-related voting record. He is in favor of banning federal funding from supporting organizations that provide abortions, as well as federal health insurance covering abortions, unless the pregnancy is the result of rape, incest, or threatens the mother's life. He opposes embryonic stem cell research. He opposes human cloning.
Cannabis
Rogers has a "D" rating from NORML for his voting history regarding cannabis-related causes. Rogers opposes veterans having access to medical marijuana if recommended by their Veterans Health Administration doctor and if it is legal for medicinal purposes in their state of residence.
Civil rights
Rogers has a 28 percent rating from the NAACP for his civil rights voting record. He opposes affirmative action.
LGBT rights
Rogers has a 92 percent rating from the Christian Coalition for his socially conservative voting record. He has a zero percent rating from the Human Rights Campaign regarding his voting record on LGBT rights. Rogers opposes same-sex marriage. He opposes prohibiting job discrimination based on sexual orientation. He opposes single people and same-sex couples being allowed to adopt children. Rogers opposes classifying crimes motivated by the victim's sexual orientation as hate crimes.
Personal life
Rogers had three children with his first wife, Shirley Rogers. She died of cancer in 1995. Rogers remarried. His current wife is Cynthia Doyle.
In January 2024, Rogers was involved in a car crash in the Washington, D.C. area. According to a statement released by his office, he was in "good condition” after he was admitted to a nearby hospital. By the next month, Rogers was expected to return to Capitol Hill and resume his duties.
Electoral history
|+ : Results 1980–2022
! Year
!
! Republican
! Votes
! %
!
! Democratic
! Votes
! %
!
! Third Party
! Party
! Votes
! %
|-
|1980
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |112,093
| |67%
|
| |Ted Marcum
| |54,027
| |33%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|1982
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |52,928
| |65%
|
| |Doye Davenport
| |28,285
| |35%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|1984
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |125,164
| |76%
|
| |Sherman McIntosh
| |39,783
| |24%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|1986
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |56,760
| |100%
|
| |No candidate
| |
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|1988
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |104,467
| |100%
|
| |No candidate
| |
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|1990
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |64,660
| |100%
|
| |No candidate
| |
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|1992
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |115,255
| |55%
|
| |John Hays
| |95,760
| |45%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|1994
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |82,291
| |79%
|
| |Walter Blevins
| |21,318
| |21%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|1996
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |117,842
| |100%
|
| |No candidate
| |
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|1998
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |142,215
| |78%
|
| |Sidney Jane Bailey
| |39,585
| |22%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2000
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |145,980
| |74%
|
| |Sidney Jane Bailey
| |52,495
| |26%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2002
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |137,986
| |78%
|
| |Sidney Jane Bailey
| |38,254
| |22%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2004
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |177,579
| |100%
|
| |No candidate
| |
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2006
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |147,201
| |74%
|
| |Kenneth Stepp
| |52,367
| |26%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2008
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |177,024
| |84%
|
| |No candidate
| |
| |
|
| |Jim Holbert
| |Independent
| |33,444
| |16%
|-
|2010
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |151,019
| |77%
|
| |Jim Holbert
| |44,034
| |23%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2012
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |195,408
| |78%
|
| |Kenneth Stepp
| |55,447
| |22%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2014
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |171,350
| |78%
|
| |Kenneth Stepp
| |47,617
| |22%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2016
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |221,242
| |100%
|
| |No candidate
| |
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2018
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |172,093
| |78%
|
| |Kenneth Stepp
| |45,890
| |21%
|
| |Billy Ray Wilson
| |Independent
| |34
| |1%
|-
|2020
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |250,914
| |84%
|
| |Matthew Best
| |47,056
| |16%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2022
||
| |Hal Rogers
| |177,714
| |82%
|
| |Conor Halbleib
| |38,549
| |18%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
References
External links
Congressman Hal Rogers official U.S. House website
Biography at Our States: Kentucky, 2007
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
1937 births
21st-century American legislators
American prosecutors
Baptists from Kentucky
Baptists from the United States
Kentucky Commonwealth's Attorneys
Kentucky lawyers
Living people
People from Somerset, Kentucky
People from Wayne County, Kentucky
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Kentucky
United States Army soldiers
Opposition to affirmative action
|
1642427
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution%20of%20Texas
|
Constitution of Texas
|
Constitution of Texas
The Constitution of the State of Texas is the document that establishes the structure and function of the government of the U.S. state of Texas, and enumerates the basic rights of the citizens of Texas.
The current document was adopted on February 15, 1876, and is the seventh constitution in Texas history (including the Mexican constitution). The previous six were adopted in 1827 (while Texas was still part of Mexico and half of the state of Coahuila y Tejas), 1836 (the Constitution of the Republic of Texas), 1845 (upon admission to the United States), 1861 (at the beginning of the American Civil War), 1866 (at the end of the American Civil War), and 1869.
The constitution is the second-longest state constitution in the United States (exceeded only by the Constitution of Alabama, even with the latter being recompiled as a new document in 2022) and is also the third-most amended state constitution (only the Alabama and California constitutions have been amended more often). From 1876 to 2022 (the end of the 87th Legislature), the Texas Legislature proposed 700 constitutional amendments. Of that total, 517 were approved by the electorate, 180 were defeated, and three never made it on the ballot. Most of the amendments are due to the document's highly restrictive nature: the constitution stipulates that the State of Texas has only those powers explicitly granted to it; there is no counterpart of the federal necessary and proper clause.
As with many state constitutions, it explicitly provides for the separation of powers and incorporates its bill of rights directly into the text of the constitution (as Article I). The bill of rights is considerably lengthier and more detailed than the federal Bill of Rights, and includes some provisions not included in the federal Constitution.
Articles of the Texas Constitution of 1876
Article 1: "Bill of Rights"
Article 1 is the Texas Constitution's bill of rights. The article originally contained 29 sections; five sections have since been added. Some of the article's provisions concern specific fundamental limitations on the power of the state. The provisions of the Texas Constitution apply only against the government of Texas. However, a number of the provisions of the U.S. Constitution are held to apply to the states as well, under the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
Differences with the US Bill of Rights
While the bill of rights contains many similar rights as the United States Bill of Rights, it is considerably lengthier and more detailed and includes some provisions unique to Texas.
Section 12 recognizes the writ of Habeas Corpus as a right and prohibits its suspension under any circumstance whatsoever. This differs slightly from the U.S. Constitution, which allows its suspension "in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public security shall require it".
Section 21 prohibits corruption of blood and forfeiture of estates (including in cases of suicide), extending beyond the federal limitation (Article III, Section 3) which applies only in cases of Treason and even permits forfeiture during the life of the attained (but not after).
Section 34 guarantees the right to hunt, fish and harvest wildlife, subject to wildlife conservation laws. However, the section explicitly states that it does not affect "any provision of law relating to trespass, property rights or eminent domain".
Invalidated sections
Section 32, added in 2005, denies state recognition of same-sex marriage, a practice which was invalidated by the US Supreme Court ruling in Obergefell v. Hodges.
Section 4 purports to prohibit officeholders from the requirements of any religious test, provided they "acknowledge the existence of a Supreme Being". This conflicts with the U.S. Constitution's No Religious Test Clause, and would be held unenforceable if challenged, as was a similar South Carolina requirement in Silverman v. Campbell, and a broader Maryland restriction in Torcaso v. Watkins.
Other rights
Section 11 guarantees that every person detained prior to trial are bailable by sufficient sureties, save for Capital offenses, subject to specific exceptions.
Article 2: "The Powers of Government"
Article 2 provides for the separation of powers of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of the state government, prohibiting each branch from encroaching on the powers of the others.
Article 3: "Legislative Department"
Article 3 vests the legislative power of the state in the "Legislature of the State of Texas", consisting of the state's Senate and House of Representatives. It also lists the qualifications required of senators and representatives, and regulates many details of the legislative process. The article contains many substantive limitations on the power of the legislature and a large number of exceptions to those limitations.
Two-thirds (2/3) of the elected members in either chamber constitutes a quorum to do business therein (Section 10), contrary to the provision for the United States Congress requiring only a majority (this larger requirement has resulted in occasions where a significant number of members from one political party, in an attempt to stop legislation, have in the past left the state so as to deny a quorum). A smaller number in each chamber is empowered to adjourn from day to day and compel the attendance of absent members.
As with the United States Constitution, either house may originate bills (Section 31), but bills to raise revenue must originate in the House of Representatives (Section 33).
Section 39 allows a bill to take effect immediately upon the Governor's signature if the bill passes both chambers by a two-thirds vote, unless otherwise specified in the bill. If the bill does not pass by this majority it takes effect on the first day of the next fiscal year (in Texas, the fiscal year runs from September 1 until August 31).
The largest Section within this article is Section 49 ("State Debts"), which includes 30 separate sub-sections (including two sub-sections both added in 2003 and both curiously numbered as "49-n", along with two other sub-sub-sections numbered "49-d-14"). Section 49 limits the power of the Legislature to incur debt to only specific purposes as stated in the Constitution; in order to allow the Legislature to incur debt for a purpose not stated numerous amendments to this section have had to be added and voted upon by the people.
In addition, Section 49a requires the Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts to certify the amount of available cash on hand and anticipated revenues for the next biennium; no appropriation may exceed this amount (except in cases of emergency, and then only with a four-fifths vote of both chambers), and the Comptroller is required to reject and return to the Legislature any appropriation in violation of this requirement.
Section 49-g (one of two such sections numbered as such, the other -- now repealed -- dealt with funding for the later-cancelled Superconducting Supercollider Project) created the state's "Rainy Day Fund" (technically called the "Economic Stabilization Fund").
Article 4: "Executive Department"
Article 4 describes the powers and duties of the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, Comptroller, Commissioner of the General Land Office, and Attorney General. With the exception of the Secretary of State the above officials are directly elected in what is known as a "plural executive" system. (Although the Texas Agriculture Commissioner is also directly elected, that is the result of Legislative action, not a Constitutional requirement.)
The qualifications of the Governor of Texas is that he is at least thirty years of age, a citizen of the United States, and had resided in the State for at least five years preceding his election. The Governor is prohibited from holding any other office, whether civil, military or corporate, during his tenure in office, nor may he practice (or receive compensation for) any profession.
The Governor is the "Chief Executive Officer of the State" and the "Commander in Chief of the military forces of the State, except when they are called in actual service of the United States". He is vested with power to call forth the Militia, convene the Legislature for special session in extraordinary occasions, to execute the laws of the State, and to fill up vacancies not otherwise provided for by law, if consented to by two-thirds of the Senate. The Governor has a qualified negative on all bills passed by the Legislature, which may be overridden by two-thirds of both Houses of the Legislature by votes of the yeas and nays. Finally, the Secretary of State (who has the constitutional duty of keeping the Seal of the State) is appointed by the Governor, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate.
All commissions are signed by the Governor, being affixed with the State Seal and attested to by the Secretary of State.
Under Section 16 of this article, the Lieutenant Governor automatically assumes the power of Governor if and when the Governor travels outside of the state, or is subject to impeachment by the Texas House of Representatives.
Article 5: "Judicial Department"
Article 5 describes the composition, powers, and jurisdiction of the state's Supreme Court, Court of Criminal Appeals, and District, County, and Commissioners Courts, as well as the Justice of the Peace Courts.
Article 6: "Suffrage"
Article 6 denies voting rights to minors, felons, and people who are deemed mentally incompetent by a court (though the Legislature may make exceptions in the latter two cases). It also describes rules for elections.
Qualified voters are, except in treason, felony and breach of peace, privileged from arrest when attending at the polls, going and returning therefrom.
Article 7: "Education"
Article 7 establishes provisions for public schools, asylums, and universities. Section 1 states, "it shall be the duty of the Legislature of the State to establish and make suitable provision for the support and maintenance of an efficient system of public free schools". This issue has surfaced repeatedly in lawsuits involving the State's funding of education and the various restrictions it has placed on local school districts.
This Article also discusses the creation and maintenance of the Permanent University Fund (Sections 11, 11a, and 11b) and mandates the establishment of "a University of the first class" (Section 10) to be called The University of Texas, as well as "an Agricultural, and Mechanical department" (Section 13, today's Texas A&M University, which opened seven years prior); it also establishes Prairie View A&M University in Section 14. The University of Texas was originally created in the Constitution of 1858, and Texas A&M University was created from the Morrill Act. In 1915 and 1919, Constitutional Amendments were proposed to separate the two university systems, although both failed.
Article 8: "Taxation and Revenue"
Article 8 places various restrictions on the ability of the Legislature and local governments to impose taxes. Most of these restrictions concern local property taxes.
Section 1-e prohibits statewide property taxes. This Section has been the subject of numerous school district financing lawsuits claiming that other Legislative restrictions on local property taxes have created a de facto statewide property tax; the Texas Supreme Court has at times ruled that the restrictions did in fact do so (and thus were unconstitutional) and at other times ruled that they did not.
Texas has never had a personal income tax. In 2019, the constitution was amended to ban any future income tax, which has the effect of requiring a 2/3 majority of the legislature to vote to repeal the ban. Previously, the requirement to pass any future income tax was passage by a statewide referendum, which requires a simple majority vote of the legislature to add the question to a referendum.
In May 2006 the Legislature replaced the existing franchise tax with a gross receipts tax.
Article 9: "Counties"
Article 9 provides rules for the creation of counties (now numbering 254) and for determining the location of county seats. It also includes several provisions regarding the creation of county-wide hospital districts in specified counties, as well as other miscellaneous provisions regarding airports and mental health.
Article 10: "Railroads"
Article 10 contains a single section declaring that railroads are considered "public highways" and railroad carriers "common carriers". Eight other sections were repealed in 1969.
Article 11: "Municipal Corporations"
Article 11 recognizes counties as legal political subunits of the State, grants certain powers to cities and counties, empowers the legislature to form school and other special districts.
Texas operates under Dustin's Rule: counties and non-school special districts are not granted home rule privileges, while cities and school districts have those privileges only in the limited instances specified below.
Sections 4 and 5 discuss the operation of cities based on population. Section 4 states that a city with a population of 5,000 or fewer has only those powers granted to it by general law; Section 5 permits a city, once its population exceeds 5,000, to adopt a charter under home rule provided the charter is not inconsistent with limits placed by the Texas Constitution or general law (the city may amend to maintain home rule status even if its population subsequently falls to 5,000 or fewer).
School districts may adopt home rule regardless of size, but none have chosen to do so.
Article 12: "Private Corporations"
Article 12 contains two sections directing the Legislature to enact general laws for the creation of private corporations and prohibiting the creation of private corporations by special law. Four other sections were repealed in 1969, and a fifth section in 1993.
Article 13: "Spanish and Mexican Land Titles"
Article 13 established provisions for Spanish and Mexican land titles from the Mexican War Era to please the Mexican government. This article was repealed in its entirety in 1969.
Article 14: "Public Lands and Land Office"
Article 14 contains a single section establishing the General Land Office (the office of Commissioner of the General Land Office is discussed under Article IV). Seven other sections were repealed in 1969.
Article 15: "Impeachment"
Article 15 describes the process of impeachment and lists grounds on which to impeach judges. The House of Representatives is granted the power of impeachment, while the Senate has power to try all impeachments.
No person may be convicted save by the consent of two-thirds of the Senators present, who have taken an oath or affirmation to impartially try the impeached. Judgement in impeachment cases does not extend beyond removal from office and disqualification from public office. The convicted remains subject to trial, indictment and punishment according to law.
All officers while subject to impeachment charges are suspended until the verdict by the Senate has been delivered.
Article 16: "General Provisions"
Article 16 contains miscellaneous provisions, including limits on interest rates, civil penalties for murder, and the punishment for bribery.
Section 14 All civil officers shall reside within the State; and all district or county officers within
their districts or counties, and shall keep their offices at such places as may be
required by law; and failure to comply with this condition shall vacate the office
so held.
Section 28 prohibits garnishment of wages, except for spousal maintenance and child support payments (however, this does not limit Federal garnishment for items such as student loan payments or income taxes).
Section 37 provides for the constitutional protection of the mechanic's lien.
Section 50 provides for protection of a homestead against forced sale to pay debts, except for foreclosure on debts related to the homestead (mortgage, taxes, mechanic's liens, and home equity loans including home equity lines of credit). This section also places specific restrictions on home equity loans and lines of credit (Texas being the last state to allow them), the section:
limits the amount of a home equity loan, when combined with all other loans against a home, to no more than 80 percent of the home's fair market value at the time of the loan,
requires that the advance on a home equity line of credit be at least $4,000 (even if the borrower wants to borrow less than that amount, though nothing prohibits a borrower from immediately repaying the credit line with a portion of said advance),
requires a 14-day waiting period before any loan or line of credit is effective (at the initial borrowing; later borrowings against a line of credit can still be made in less time), and
places restrictions on where closing can take place.
Although Texas is a right-to-work state, such protections are governed by law; the state does not have a constitutional provision related to right-to-work.
Article 17: "Mode of amending the Constitution of this State"
Notwithstanding the large number of amendments (and proposed amendments) that the Texas Constitution has had since its inception, the only method of amending the Constitution prescribed by Article 17 is via the Legislature, subject to voter approval. The Constitution does not provide for amendment by initiative or referendum, constitutional convention, or any other means. A 1974 constitutional convention required the voters to amend the Constitution to add a separate section to this Article; the section was later repealed in 1999.
The section also prescribes specific details for notifying the public of elections to approve amendments. It requires that the legislature publish a notice in officially approved newspapers that briefly summarizes each amendment and shows how each amendment will be described on the ballot. It also requires that the full text of each amendment be posted at each county courthouse at least 50 days (but no sooner than 60 days) before the election date.
Once an amendment passes it is compiled into the existing framework (i.e., text is either added or deleted), unlike the United States Constitution.
Attempts at revision
Because of the unwieldiness of the state constitution, there have been attempts to draft a new constitution or to significantly revise the existing one:
The most successful of the attempts took place in 1969, when 56 separate obsolete provisions (including the entirety of Article 13, and 22 entire sections from Articles 10, 12, and 14) were successfully repealed.
In 1971 the Texas Legislature placed on the November 1972 ballot an Amendment which called for the Legislature to meet in January 1974 for 90 days as a constitutional convention, for purposes of drafting a new state Constitution. The measure passed (thus adding Section 2 to Article 17; the section was later repealed in November 1999) and the Legislature met. However, even with an additional 60 days added to the session, the convention failed by a mere three votes to propose a new constitution.
In 1975, the Legislature, meeting in regular session, revived much of the work of the 1974 convention and proposed it as a set of eight amendments to the existing constitution. All eight of the amendments were overwhelmingly rejected by the voters (in 250 the state's 254 counties, all eight amendments were defeated; only in Duval and Webb counties did all eight amendments pass).
In 1979 the Legislature placed on the ballot four amendments which had their origins in the 1974 convention; of which three were approved by the voters:
One amendment created a single property tax "appraisal district" in each county for purposes of providing a uniform appraised value for all property in a county applicable to all taxing authorities (previously, each taxing authority assessed property individually and frequently did so at dissimilar values between the authorities)
Another amendment gave to the Texas Court of Appeals criminal appellate jurisdiction (previously, the Courts had jurisdiction over civil matters only; though death penalty cases still bypass this level)
The last amendment gave the Governor of Texas limited authority to remove appointed statewide officials
In 1995, Senator John Montford drafted a streamlined constitution similar to the 1974 version. However, Montford resigned his seat to become chancellor of the Texas Tech University System, and his initiative subsequently died. Later that year, though, voters approved an amendment abolishing the office of State Treasurer and moving its duties to the Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts office.
In 1998, a bipartisan effort (led by Republican Senator Bill Ratliff and Democratic Representative Rob Junell) produced a rewritten constitution, with the help of students from Angelo State University (Junell's district included the San Angelo area). The second draft was submitted to the 76th Legislature, but failed to gain support in committee.
History
On March 1, 1845, the US enacted a congressional joint resolution proposing the annexation of Texas to the United States (Joint Resolution for annexing Texas to the United States, J.Res. 8, enacted March 1, 1845). On June 23, 1845, the Texan Congress accepted the US Congress's joint resolution, and consented to President Jones' calling of a convention to be held on July 4, 1845. A Texas convention debated the annexation offer and almost unanimously passed an ordinance assenting to it on July 4, 1845. The convention debated through August 28, and adopted the Constitution of the State of Texas on August 27, 1845. The citizens of Texas approved an annexation ordinance and new constitution on October 13, 1845. On December 29, 1845, the United States admitted the State of Texas to the Union (Joint Resolution for the admission of the state of Texas into the Union, J.Res. 1, enacted December 29, 1845).
On June 17, 1865, President Andrew Johnson appointed Andrew Jackson Hamilton as the provisional civilian governor of the state and directed him to convene a constitutional convention restricted to loyal Americans. A referendum was held on June 25, 1866, pursuant to the laws then in force on March 29, for the ratification of the amendments proposed by the convention.
Texas adopted yet a new constitution document in 1866 once the United States accepted Texas back into the Union. Then, delegates met in 1869 and drafted a new constitution once again. This time, the newly modified law of the land aimed to protect rights for former slaves, and placed more power on centralized state power (p. 57, Practicing Texas Politics, 2015).
See also
Texas Declaration of Independence
Constitution of the Republic of Texas
Law of Texas
The Constitution of India, the world's longest national constitution
The California Constitution, known for its length and frequent revision due to ballot initiatives
The Constitution of Alabama, also known for its length and inclusion of unusual provisions
References
Hill, John L., ed. (1976). Constitution of the State of Texas. Austin: [Office of the Attorney General of Texas].
Includes the text of the constitution as of November 2, 1976, along with a brief informational introduction.
External links
Text of all amendments added to the Texas Constitution since 1876.
Part of a larger website about Texas government and politics.
Constitution text as of April 22, 1975, including "information regarding the origins, historical development, and contemporary meaning of each section" along with "interpretive comments" (annotations completed 1973–1976).
Historic constitutions and constitutional convention materials, 1824–1876, including the original, unamended text of the 1876 constitution.
32-volume "compilation of the laws and political documents of Texas" covering 1822–1939; includes the 1836 Constitution of the Republic of Texas, as well as the state constitutions of 1861 and 1866.
1876 in American law
Texas
Constitution
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need%20for%20Speed%3A%20Hot%20Pursuit%202
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Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2
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Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2 is a 2002 racing video game, the sixth installment in the Need for Speed series and the sequel to 1998's Need for Speed III: Hot Pursuit. It was developed by EA Black Box for the PlayStation 2, and by EA Seattle for GameCube, Xbox, and Microsoft Windows. It features cars from various high-performance and exotic car manufacturers. Players can compete in races using these cars, or opt to play as a police officer and pursue speeders.
The game features several popular recording artists from its time such as Uncle Kracker, The Humble Brothers and Hot Action Cop. Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2 received "generally favorable" reviews on the PS2 and Xbox, while the PC and GameCube versions received "mixed or average" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. In 2002, the game was awarded Console Racing Game of the Year at the 6th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards.
Gameplay
Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2 is a racing game with an emphasis on evading the police and over-the-top courses featuring lengthy shortcuts. It draws primarily from the gameplay and style of one of its predecessors, Need for Speed III: Hot Pursuit. Two primary game modes are offered: World Racing Championship, in which the player competes against other drivers in a series of races, and Hot Pursuit Ultimate Racer, which adds police to the races. In the latter players must complete the races while also evading capture.
There are several a la carte race types in Hot Pursuit 2. Delivery is a timed point-to-point dash, with the police in pursuit. This is similar to the delivery mission in Porsche Unleashed while the police pursuit makes it more challenging. Sprint is a point-to-point race where competitors try to get from one end to the other before their opponent. Time Trial gives players three laps on a level with the goal being to beat the required time to get the gold, silver, or bronze medal. Lap Knockout eliminates the last racer in each lap until one player remains the victor. Knockout follows a similar principle, but eliminations are made to the last racer at the end of each race. Races are usually restricted to a certain class of cars. Faster cars are used near the end of the Championship and Ultimate Racer modes.
The player also has the option to play as a police officer trying to arrest speeders. The player must disable speeders by ramming the speeding vehicle multiple times to disable it, akin to a PIT maneuver. The player must turn on their lights and sirens while in pursuit. As a police officer, the player can call for a barricade, additional units, spike strips, and request help from a helicopter to assist in chasing the target vehicle. At the end of each event, the player is awarded for the number of arrests. In the PlayStation 2 version, this mode is called "You're the Cop" mode while in the Windows, GameCube, and Xbox versions, it is called "Be the Cop".
The game features cars from a variety of manufacturers. One or more cars are available from the following manufacturers: Aston Martin, BMW, Chevrolet, Dodge, Ferrari, Ford, HSV, Jaguar, Lamborghini, Lotus, McLaren, Mercedes-Benz, Opel, Porsche, and Vauxhall Motors. Many vehicles have an unlockable police variant for their respective mode. Hot Pursuit 2 also contains Need for Speed Edition cars, which are upgraded versions of some of the stock vehicles.
Races take place in four environments that differ in atmosphere, each with a few unique courses. The courses in an environment are formed by different roads being connected or separated by roadblocks:
The Tropical environment, reminiscent of the Oahu island of Hawaii, is the most varied environment; the track traverses a city as well as near a volcano, waterfall, beach, rainforest, and two villages
The Coastal environment, reminiscent of the Washington or Maine coast because of its forest and nature
The Mediterranean environment, reminiscent of the Greek coast because of the stadium, a building which resembles Parthenon and architecture that resembles Santorini
The so-called Alpine environment, which is more similar to Colorado, Idaho or Wyoming than its namesake, is more homogeneous, with little variation except for the occasional shortcut
The PlayStation 2 version also includes a Desert environment that resembles the Sonoran Desert of Arizona and occasionally has thunderstorms in the North American Monsoon.
The PlayStation 2 version did not feature a career mode. Instead, there is a point system where cars are purchased from winning races. Points are determined by laps led and finishing position. In the Championship and Hot Pursuit trees, extra points are awarded if a medal is won. If the tree is completed, extra bonus races are unlocked. These races include the hardest competitors and the hardest courses. For the multiplayer mode of the Windows version, players can host a game server for LAN or internet-based playing. In addition to this, the GameSpy internet matchmaking system can be used to publish and locate such servers.
Development
Different versions of the game were produced for each game platform; the Xbox, GameCube, and Microsoft Windows versions were developed in EA Seattle, a subsidiary of EA Canada, while the PlayStation 2 version was developed by EA Black Box in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The PlayStation 2 was the lead console during development, and due to this several differences exist between it and other versions of the game. It is powered by EA Graphics Library (EAGL), which was used in several other Need for Speed games, as well as the driving sequences for James Bond 007: Nightfire and James Bond 007: Agent Under Fire. It was unveiled in October 2001. Hot Pursuit 2 also was present at the Electronic Arts booth during E3 2002.
Many of the cars featured in the game were not available to the world market until close to the game's release. Because of this cars were modeled by mapping photographs to a front, top, and side plane of the art program used. 3D artists then extrapolated the shape from those references. Consultants, such as stunt drivers, were brought in to help the team understand how drivers and vehicles would behave in given situations. This in turn allowed the team to more effectively set up the AI racers. Motion capture was used to animate characters during the arrest sequences. Near the end of development Electronics Arts revealed that only the PlayStation 2 version would receive features such as the desert courses and mirrored tracks, as these were added late in development and there was not enough time for EA Canada to prepare these assets on the other platforms.
Soundtrack
Hot Pursuit 2 is the first Need for Speed game to feature licensed rock music, along with techno music composed by contract artists. The game features several popular recording artists from its time such as Uncle Kracker, The Humble Brothers, and Hot Action Cop. The game's soundtrack consists of eight vocal rock songs and seven instrumental rock and electronic songs, all fast-paced with elements of grunge, hip-hop, and rap. The vocal songs are also featured in a second, instrumental version. In the Be the Cop and Hot Pursuit game modes, the instrumental versions replace the vocal ones, which avoids obscuring the police radio messages by the song lyrics. In the PlayStation 2 version, there is the option to change whether or not certain songs are played in normal races, hot pursuit races, the game menus, or if they are not to be played at all. The Xbox version also allows custom soundtracks.
Reception
Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2 received "generally favorable" reviews on the PlayStation 2 and Xbox, while the Windows and GameCube versions received "mixed or average" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. In 2003, the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences awarded Hot Pursuit 2 with "Console Racing Game of the Year". It was a runner-up for GameSpots annual "Best Driving Game on GameCube" award, which went to NASCAR: Dirt to Daytona.
The game received praise during its E3 debut and prior to its release. GameSpot's Jeff Gerstmann noted that "fans of the original Hot Pursuit will likely find a whole lot to like in Hot Pursuit 2 when it ships". David Smith of IGN lauded the return to the police chase action. He stated that Black Box "went right back to the best game in the Need for Speed series (c'mon, it was) and decided to create a sequel to it."
Maxim gave the PlayStation 2 version a perfect five out of five stars and stated that it "not only gives you the keys to more than 20 exotic cars, it also gives you the unsurpassed joy of leaving traffic cops in the dust." Entertainment Weekly gave the game a B+ and stated, "Killer aerial shots, intense chases, and a rock-infused soundtrack make for a heart-pounding ride." BBC Sport gave the GameCube version a score of 80% and stated that "With plenty of racing challenges it should have a decent amount of longevity but their repetitive nature might grate for some." AllGame also gave the PlayStation 2 version a score of four stars out of five and said that it "offers an impressive amount of arcade-style fun bolstered by the number and variety of courses, challenging Hot Pursuit mode, and excellent lineup of vehicles."
Legacy
A reboot of the Hot Pursuit sub-series, Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit, was developed by Criterion Games, which previously created the Burnout franchise. The game was released in November 2010.
References
Differences between the PlayStation 2 version of the game and all other versions are described in the Gameplay section
External links
2002 video games
EA Black Box games
Electronic Arts games
GameCube games
Manley & Associates games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
06
PlayStation 2 games
Video games about police officers
Video games developed in Canada
Video games scored by Rom Di Prisco
Video games set in Greece
Video games set in the United States
Video games with custom soundtrack support
Windows games
Xbox games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauk%20City%2C%20Wisconsin
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Sauk City, Wisconsin
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Sauk City, Wisconsin
Sauk City is a village in Sauk County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 3,518 as of the 2020 census. The first incorporated village in the state, the community was founded by Agoston Haraszthy and his business partner, Robert Bryant.
History
Impressed by the beautiful scenery, Agoston Haraszthy, a charismatic Hungarian sometimes called "Count" Haraszthy, purchased a small plot of land along the Wisconsin River in 1840. Later, with his English-born business partner, Robert Bryant, Haraszthy bought additional land and founded the town of Haraszthy (originally called Széptáj, Hungarian for "beautiful place").
In 1849, the name of the town was changed to Westfield. Three years later, in 1852, it was changed again, this time to the current name of Sauk City. The community was incorporated as a village in 1854, making Sauk City the oldest incorporated village in the state.
In 1852, German immigrants founded the Sauk City Free Congregation (Freie Gemeinde). This group, a liberal religious society, celebrated German music, literature, and culture. It met in a private home until 1884, when Park Hall was built as a meeting house. The building is now home to the Sauk County Free Congregation, a Unitarian Universalist fellowship.
In the Harper's Weekly magazine of November 21, 1914, Sauk City was named "America's Foremost City". The article cited a pageant, attended by 4000 people, which enacted scenes from the village's history, and concluded with the naming of the school principal as the Civic Secretary, charged with making the school the center of the life of the town. To that end, the ballot box was transferred from the town hall to the school house.
Geography
Sauk City is located at (43.274130, -89.728310). It is on U.S. Route 12, approximately northwest of suburban Madison.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , of which is land and is water.
Demographics
2020 census
As of the census of 2020, the population was 3,518. The population density was . There were 1,572 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 89.3% White, 0.5% Black or African American, 0.5% Asian, 0.4% Native American, 3.3% from other races, and 6.0% from two or more races. Ethnically, the population was 6.2% Hispanic or Latino of any race.
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 3,410 people, 1,431 households, and 871 families living in the village. The population density was . There were 1,508 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 94.6% White, 0.2% African American, 0.9% Native American, 0.4% Asian, 2.8% from other races, and 1.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.0% of the population.
Out of a total of 1,431 households, 31.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.2% were married couples living together, 10.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 39.1% were non-families. 32.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 2.93.
The median age in the village was 39.3 years. 23.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.2% were from 25 to 44; 24.9% were from 45 to 64; and 17.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 47.2% male and 52.8% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 3,109 residents, 1,285 households, and 796 families living in the village. The population density was 2,078.0 people per square mile (800.3/km2). There were 1,314 housing units at an average density of 878.3 per square mile (338.2/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 97.01% White, 0.39% African American, 0.23% Native American, 0.19% Asian, 1.45% from other races, and 0.74% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.76% of the population.
Out of a total of 1,285 households, 30.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.8% were married couples living together, 8.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.0% were non-families. 32.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.99.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 24.2% under the age of 18, 7.5% from 18 to 24, 29.9% from 25 to 44, 19.2% from 45 to 64, and 19.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.3 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $36,378, and the median income for a family was $45,156. Males had a median income of $29,908 versus $22,996 for females. The per capita income for the village was $17,705. About 10.0% of families and 12.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.4% of those under age 18 and 17.6% of those age 65 or over.
Economy
Sauk City is the site of the first Culver's restaurant, which opened July 18, 1984. Culver's corporate headquarters are located in neighboring Prairie du Sac.
In 1939, Arkham House, a firm devoted to preserving in print the work of H. P. Lovecraft and other dark fantasists, was founded by August Derleth and Donald Wandrei in Sauk City, where the firm continues to be headquartered.
Cuca Records was founded by James Kirchstein in 1959 and was located on Water Street next to Kirchstein's Super Market (founded by James's father, Frank Kirchstein, which was in business from the 1930s to 1982 and featured polka music on 8-track tapes in the store). Cuca Records produced records until the early 1970s, including polka, folk, and jazz.
Sauk City is also where Jacob Leinenkugel of the Leinenkugel Brewing Company was born and raised.
Other information
Sauk City is adjacent to Prairie du Sac, located directly to the north. Both communities are located on the west bank of the Wisconsin River. They share a municipal boundary, as well as a school system, police department, and hospital, but have separate fire departments and libraries. The Sauk City Fire Department is the oldest organized volunteer department in the state of Wisconsin, having been founded in 1854. Efforts have been made to join the two villages into a single entity, Sauk Prairie, but these have failed because of tax differences between the communities.
Sauk Prairie High School, located in Prairie du Sac, serves the villages of Sauk City and Prairie du Sac. The school's mascot is the eagle, so named because of the population of eagles found on the Wisconsin River adjacent to Sauk Prairie.
Notable people
August Derleth, author and publisher
Agoston Haraszthy, traveler, writer, and pioneer winemaker
Greg Jensen, former NFL player
Robert J. Keller, former Wisconsin State Representative
Cyrus Leland, attorney and state assemblyman
Emanuel L. Philipp, former Governor of Wisconsin
John B. Quimby, former Wisconsin State Senator
Mark Schorer, author, professor
Scott Schutt, former NFL player
Images
Buildings and structures
Cuca Records
Freethinkers' Hall
Lachmund Family House
See also
Sauk County, Wisconsin
References
External links
Village of Sauk City website
Sauk Prairie Area Historical Society
Sauk Prairie Chamber of Commerce
Sanborn fire insurance maps: 1892 1900 1915
Villages in Sauk County, Wisconsin
Villages in Wisconsin
1840 establishments in Wisconsin Territory
Populated places established in 1840
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357574
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C
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Продукційна модель
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Продукційна модель, або модель, базована на правилах — одна з моделей представлення знань, вона дозволяє представити знання у вигляді речень виду «Якщо (умова) то (дія)».
Умовна (антецедент) та дієва (консеквент) частини продукції
Умовна частина продукції — Умова1, Умова2, …, УмоваN ще інакше називається антецедент або засновок (англ. відповідники premise, antecedent).
Дієва частина продукції або дія — Дія ще інакше називається консеквент або висновок (англ. result, conclusion, consequence). Умовою (антецедентом) є деяке речення-зразок, за яким здійснюється пошук в базі знань, а дією (консеквентом) — дії, що виконуються при успішних результатах пошуку. Умови, що описують поточний стан бази знань, розміщуються в робочій пам'яті. Виконувані дії можуть бути проміжними, що визначають умови для наступних дій, які утворюють конфліктну множину продукційної системи. Вивід в такій базі знань може бути прямим (від даних), або зворотним (від цілі до даних). Даними є вихідні факти, що надходять в робочу пам'ять (базу фактів), на основі яких запускається машина виводу, що здійснює цикл «розпізнавання-дія» перебираючи правила з продукційної бази знань.
База знань у продукційній моделі
База знань у продукційній моделі — це сукупність бази фактів і бази правил. Кожне продукційне правило в БЗ втілює автономну частину експертних знань одержаних від експерта при набутті знань вручну або використовуючи методи автоматичного видобування знань. Окреме продукційне правило може бути розроблене та модифіковане незалежно від інших правил. При спільному застосуванні правил та наданні машині виведення (частині ЕС, котра відповідає за виведення нових знань з існуючих) правила синергетично виробляють нові знання, видаючи кращий результат, ніж результати застосування окремих правил. В дійсності правила бази знань не є незалежні. Вони швидко стають взаємозалежні. Наприклад, додавання нового правила може конфліктувати з існуючими правилами і може вимагати перегляду атрибутів або правил. Правила можна розглядати, в певному сенсі, як симуляцію когнітивної поведінки експерта в певній проблемній області. Згідно з цим поглядом, правила є не лише чистим формалізмом для представлення знань в комп'ютері; швидше вони представляють модель фактичної людської поведінки.
Використання продукційної моделі
Продукційна модель найчастіше використовується в промислових експертних системах. Наприклад, у медичній експертній системі правила «якщо, то» можуть використовуватися для встановлення взаємозв'язків між симптомами і діагнозами. Під час виведення реальний симптом зіставляється з тим, які є в лівих частинах правил і в разі збігу права частина відповідного правила вважається можливим діагнозом. Якщо є інші правила, що містять у лівих частинах отриманий можливий діагноз, то він розглядається як проміжний симптом. У цьому випадку здійснюється подальше виведення, яке триває доти, доки не буде отримано результат, з якого вже нічого не можна вивести. Якщо більше немає правил, на основі яких можна зробити виведення з отриманого можливого діагнозу, то він розглядається як «остаточний». На будь-якому кроці такого виведення може виявитися кілька застосовних правил і тоді породжується дерево виведення, що визначає множину діагнозів.
Переваги продукційної моделі
Продукційна модель приваблює користувачів відносною простотою, наочністю, високою модульністю, легкістю до внесення змін та доповнень, простотою схеми логічного виводу. Існує велика кількість програмних засобів, що реалізують продукційну модель. Це так звані оболонки, або «пусті» бази знань. Прикладами таких баз знань є EXSYS, RuleBook, ЭКО та ін.
Продукційна система, або система правил продукцій
ім'я продукції
Ім'я продукції — унікальний ідентифікатор, що надається сукупністю букв або дозволених мовою представлення знань символів та дозволяє єдиним образом визначати продукцію у системі. Найбільш часто продукція задається за допомогою ідентифікаційного номера.
Умова застосування ядра продукції
Умова застосування ядра продукції — логічний вираз (як правило, предикат), за допомогою якого активізується ядро продукції : якщо — істина ядро активізується, у протилежному випадку — ні. У багатьох випадках відсутня у продукції, або об'єднується з ядром продукції.
Ядро продукції
Ядро продукції — центральний компонент продукції. Як правило, ядро продукції має вигляд речення-правила «ЯКЩО a ТО b», де a і b, — деякі логічні вирази. Знак логічної секвенції має зміст логічного випливання із істинного. Якщо a не істинне, то про істинність b не можна зробити ніяких висновків. У базах знань інтелектуальних систем умова ядра виступає також як деяке речення-зразок, логічний вираз, за яким здійснюється пошук у базі знань. Заключення ядра виступає як дія, процедура, яка виконується при успішному завершенні пошуку.
Післяумова продукції
Післяумова продукції містить опис процедур, які необхідно виконати у разі реалізації ядра продукції (тобто при істинності). В нечітких продукційних системах представлення знань кожне з правил продукцій може додатково мати параметризовану кількісну оцінку ступеня істинності правила, яка формально знаходиться в . Приклади побудови нечітких продукційних систем будемо розглядати далі у наступних розділах за допомогою пакету програм Fuzzy Logic Toolbox середовища MAT-LAB.
Джерела
Субботін С. О. Подання й обробка знань у системах штучного інтелекту та підтримки прийняття рішень: Навчальний посібник. — Запоріжжя: ЗНТУ, 2008. — 341 с.
Вступ до штучного інтелекту
Штучний інтелект
Пізнання
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27255055
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band-e%20Kaisar
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Band-e Kaisar
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Band-e Kaisar
The Band-e Kaisar, Pol-e Kaisar ("Caesar's bridge"), Bridge of Valerian or Shadirwan was an ancient arch bridge in the city of Shushtar, Khuzestan province, Iran, and the first in the country to combine it with a dam. Built by the Sassanids during the 3rd century CE, using Roman prisoners of war as the workforce, it is the easternmost example of Roman bridge design and Roman dam. Its dual-purpose design exerted a profound influence on Iranian civil engineering and was instrumental in developing Sassanid water management techniques.
The approximately 500m long overflow dam over the Karun, Iran's most effluent river, was the core structure of the Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System (سازههای آبی شوشتر) from which the city derived its agricultural productivity. The arched superstructure carried across the important road between Pasargadae and the Sassanid capital Ctesiphon. Repaired repeatedly throughout the Islamic period, the dam bridge remained in use until the late 19th century. In 2009, it was designated by UNESCO as Iran's 10th World Heritage Site.
History
According to Persian tradition, the Band-e Kaisar is named after the Roman emperor Valerian (253–260 AD), who was captured with his entire army by the Sassanid ruler Shapur I after having been defeated in the Battle of Edessa (260). This vast labour force, which may have numbered up to 70,000 men and included the Roman engineering corps, was employed by the victors for construction work in Shushtar, an important agricultural center in south-western Iran. To service its large stretches of arable land, altogether some 150,000 hectares, the Romans set out to construct three structures: a canal called Ab-i Gargar, and the two dams of Band-e Kaisar and Band-e Mizan, which directed the water flow of the Karun river into the artificial watercourse.
The story is related by the Muslim historians Tabari and Masudi in the 9th and 10th centuries. Although their novelistic narrative cannot be blindly trusted, the historical presence of the Romans is corroborated by modern local names, such as "Roumischgan" for a nearby village, and a Lurs tribe by the name of "Rumian". Moreover, local tradition ascribes to Roman settlers the origin of a number of trades, like the production of brocade, and several popular customs.
The dam bridge at Shushtar belonged to the important road connection between the Sassanid centres of Pasargadae and Ctesiphon. Two further Sassanid dam bridges on this road, the Pa-i-Pol across the Karkheh and the one at Dezful over the Ab-i Diz, are also assumed to be the contemporary work of Roman prisoners of war. Both exhibit typically Roman masonry bound with mortar, a technique completely foreign to indigenous architecture.
Modelled on the Roman example, the integration of a bridge superstructure into dam design became a standard practice of Iranian hydraulic engineering which lasted until about 1000 AD, when it culminated in the still existing Band-e Amir at Shiraz.
Construction
Shushtar lies on a rocky plateau above the Karun, Iran's most effluent river. An early dam, built by the Sassanids to divert water for the town and its extensive irrigable hinterland, did not work properly. The irrigation scheme put into effect after the arrival of the Roman labour force included three steps: First, the river was redirected towards the Ab-i Gargar, a channel which branches off the Karun at a point upstream of the dam construction site, rejoining the main river some 50 km south; the island it forms, called Mianâb ("Paradise"), is known for its orchard plantations.
Then, the Band-e Kaisar was built across the dried-up riverbed, with its foundations following a winding course in search for solid strata of sandstone. As the water flowed permanently over the top, the hydraulic structure conforms to the definition of a weir rather than a dam. Estimations of the raised water level range from a few feet to 7–10 m, but was most likely in the order of 3–4 m, which was enough to supply water for the irrigation conduits on both banks during the dry season. Despite its modest height, the weir wall was quite thick (9–10 m) to accommodate the arcaded superstructure.
On top of the weir, a roadway originally supported by at least forty arches ran along its entire length of around 500 m. The pointed arches which visually dominate the present-day structure, or rather its remains, are testimony to numerous reconstruction and maintenance works executed in Islamic times. The typical clear span of the Pol-e Kaisar was between 6.6 and 9 m.
The piers, protected on their upstream side by pointed cutwaters, were of rectangular shape and pierced by high-set floodways; their considerable thickness of 5 to 6.4 m restricted the waterway by nearly one-half. By comparison, pier thicknesses of Roman bridges located within the empire’s frontiers commonly made up one-fourth of the length of the bridge and did not exceed a maximum of one-third.
The facing of the piers and the foundation consists of cut sandstone blocks bonded by mortar and joined by iron clamps; the interior was filled with Roman concrete, a building technique also observed in the Pa-i-pol bridge. On the upstream face, the river-bed was paved with large stone slabs, probably to prevent the current from undermining the dam base. One former Persian name of the dam, "Shadirwan", derives from this paving.
Finally, another smaller barrage, the Band-e Mizan, whose construction may postdate the Roman works, was erected upstream to control the flow of water into the Ab-i Gargar canal. The time it took the Roman labour force to complete the ancient Shushtar hydraulic complex is variously reported as spanning three to seven years.
The site has been referred to as "a masterpiece of creative genius" by UNESCO. Along with the hydraulic works, it also includes Selastel Castle and a tower for water level measurement, as well as a series of water mills.
Gallery
See also
List of Roman bridges
List of Roman dams
Romans in Persia
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Livius.org: Shushtar
UNESCO: World heritage site
Bridges in Iran
Roman bridges
Bridges completed in the 3rd century
Dams in Iran
Ancient Roman dams
Weirs
World Heritage Sites in Iran
Persian words and phrases
Buildings and structures in Khuzestan province
Tourist attractions in Khuzestan province
Shapur I
Stone arch bridges
National works of Iran
Buildings and structures demolished in 1885
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2300939
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen%20of%20Greece%20and%20Denmark
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Helen of Greece and Denmark
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Helen of Greece and Denmark (Eleni; ; 2 May 1896 – 28 November 1982) was the queen mother of Romania during the reign of her son King Michael I (1940–1947). She was noted for her humanitarian efforts to save Romanian Jews during World War II, which led to her being awarded by the State of Israel with the honorific of Righteous Among the Nations in 1993.
Daughter of King Constantine I of Greece and his wife, Princess Sophia of Prussia, Helen spent her childhood in Greece, the United Kingdom and Germany. The outbreak of World War I and the overthrow of her father by the Allies in 1917 permanently marked her and also separated her from her favorite brother, the young Alexander I of Greece. Exiled in Switzerland along with most members of the royal family, Helen then spent several months caring for her father, plagued by disease and depression. In 1920, the princess met Carol, Crown Prince of Romania, who quickly asked her hand in marriage. Despite the bad reputation of the prince, Helen accepted and moved to Romania, where she soon gave birth to their only son, Prince Michael, in 1921.
The situation of her family, however, continued to worry Helen, who made several trips abroad to visit her parents when they did not simply reside with her in Bucharest. In doing this, she distanced herself from her husband, whose multiple affairs ended when he fell in love with Magda Lupescu in 1924. Finally, in 1925, Crown Prince Carol abandoned his wife and renounced the throne in order to live openly with his mistress. Distraught, Helen tried to persuade her husband to return to her but eventually she accepted the divorce in 1928. In the meanwhile, Helen was proclaimed "Queen Mother of Romania" in 1927, as her son Michael ascended to the throne under the regency of his uncle Prince Nicolae. However, the political situation in Romania was complicated and Carol took advantage of the increased instability to return to Bucharest in 1930 and be acclaimed as king. Soon, the new ruler forced his ex-wife into exile and only authorized her to see their son two months per year.
In these circumstances, Helen moved to Villa Sparta at Fiesole, Tuscany. Always close to her family, she hosted her sisters Irene and Katherine and brother Paul, who stayed with her intermittently until the restoration of the Greek monarchy in 1935. The outbreak of World War II, the deposition of Carol II and the subsequent dismemberment of Greater Romania in 1940, however, brought Helen back to be with her son in Bucharest. Subject to the dictatorship of General Antonescu and vigilance of Nazi Germany, the king and his mother were cautious in their dealings with the fascist regime. They did not show their opposition to the participation of Romania in the invasion of the Soviet Union and the deportation of Jews. Finally, King Michael organized a coup against Antonescu on 23 August 1944 and Romania turned against the Axis powers; however, the country was, in the end, occupied by the Red Army.
For Helen and her son, the post-war period was marked by the interference of the Soviet Union in Romanian political life. In March 1945, the king was forced to accept a communist government headed by Petru Groza while the following year, the rigged general elections confirmed the hegemony of the PCR in the country. Finally, Michael I was forced to abdicate on 30 December 1947 and the royal family took the path of exile. She then returned to the Villa Sparta, where she divided her time among her family, gardening and the study of Italian art. Increasingly concerned about her finances, Helen finally left Italy for Switzerland in 1979 and died three years later with her son at her side.
Princess of Greece and Denmark
A Greek childhood
The third child and eldest daughter of Crown Prince Constantine of Greece and Princess Sophia of Prussia, Helen was born on 2 May 1896 in Athens during the reign of her grandfather, King George I. From birth, she received the nickname "Sitta" as her brother Alexander failed to correctly pronounce the English word "sister". Growing up, Helen developed a special affection for Alexander, only three years her senior.
Helen spent most of her childhood in the Greek capital. Every summer, the princess and her family travelled to the Hellenic Mediterranean aboard the royal yacht Amphitrite or visited Sophia's mother, the Dowager Empress Victoria in Germany. From the age of 8, Helen began to spend part of the summer in Great Britain, in the regions of Seaford and Eastbourne. The princess grew up in a strongly anglophile environment, among a cohort of British tutors and governesses, including Miss Nichols, who took special care of her.
From the Goudi coup to the Balkan Wars
On 28 August 1909 a group of Greek officers, known as the "Military League", organized a coup d'état (called the Goudi coup) against the government of King George I, Helen's grandfather. While declaring to be monarchists, the League members, led by Nikolaos Zorbas, asked the king to dismiss his son from military posts. Officially, this was to protect the Diadochos from the jealousy that could stem from his friendship with some soldiers. But the reality was quite different: the officers blamed Constantine for the defeat of Greece against the Ottoman Empire during the Thirty Days' War of 1897.
The situation was so tense that the sons of George I were finally forced to resign from their military posts to save their father from the shame of their being expelled. The Diadochos also decided to leave Greece with his wife and children. For several months, the family moved to the Schloss Friedrichshof at Kronberg in Germany. It was the first of many times that the 14-year-old Helen would have to go into exile.
After much tension, the political situation eventually subsided in Greece and Constantine and his family were allowed to return to their homeland. In 1911, the Diadochos was restored in his military duties by the Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos. A year later, the First Balkan War broke out, which allowed Greece to annex large territories in Macedonia, Epirus, Crete and the North Aegean. It was also at the end of this conflict that King George I was assassinated in Thessaloniki on 18 March 1913 and Helen's father succeeded him on the Hellenic throne as King Constantine I.
After these events, Helen spent long weeks touring Greece, of which she previously only knew the main towns and the island of Corfu. With her father and brother Alexander, she travelled in Greek Macedonia and the various battlefields of the First Balkan War. However, this period of calm was short-lived as the Second Balkan War broke out in June 1913. Once again, Greece emerged victorious from the conflict, allowing it to significantly expand its territory, which grew by 68% after the signing of the Treaty of Bucharest.
World War I
During World War I, King Constantine I first sought to maintain Greece in a position of neutrality. He considered that his country was not yet ready to participate in a new conflict after the Balkan Wars. But, educated in Germany and linked to Emperor William II (who was his brother-in-law), Constantine I was quickly accused of supporting the Triple Alliance and wishing for the defeat of the Allies. The king quickly fell out with his Prime Minister Venizelos, who was convinced of the need to support the countries of the Triple Entente to fulfill the so-called Megali Idea. In October 1916, Venizelos, protected by the Entente countries, and in particular by the French Republic, formed a parallel government in Thessaloniki. Central Greece was occupied by the allied forces and the country was soon in the middle of a civil war, the so-called National Schism.
Weakened by all these tensions, Constantine I became seriously ill in 1915. Suffering from pleurisy aggravated by a pneumonia, he remained in bed for several weeks and nearly died. In Greece, public opinion was affected by the rumor, spread by Venizelists, that the king was not sick but that Queen Sophia in fact injured him in the course of an argument where she tried to force him to fight alongside the emperor. The health of the sovereign declined so much, that a ship was sent to the Island of Tinos in order to seek the miraculous Icon of the Virgin and Child, which was supposed to heal the sick. After kissing the holy picture, the king partially recovered his health. But the situation remained worrying and the king was in need of surgery before he could reassume his duties. These events had a special impact on Princess Helen, who was very close to her father: impressed by his recovery, she developed a deep religiosity, a trait that she would retain throughout her life.
Despite these difficulties, Constantine I refused to change his policies and was faced with the increasingly clear opposition of the Triple Entente and Venizelists. Thus, on 1 December 1916 the so-called Greek Vespers took place where the Allied soldiers fought against Greek reservists in Athens and the French fleet bombarded the Royal Palace. On this occasion, Helen was nearly killed by a gunfire from the Zappeion. After hearing the gunshots and worried for the life of her father, the princess ran to the gardens of the royal palace but was saved by the royal Garde du Corps which took her back inside the palace.
Finally, on 10 June 1917, Charles Jonnart, the Allied High Commissioner in Greece, asked the king for his abdication. Under the threat of an invasion in Piraeus, the king agreed and went into exile, but without formally abdicating. The Allies did not wish to establish a Republic in Greece, so one of the members of the royal family had to stay and succeed him. Because the Diadochos George was also considered pro-German like his father, they wanted someone considered malleable, as a puppet ruler of Constantine I's enemies. Finally the younger brother of the Diadochos, Prince Alexander, was chosen by Venizelos and the Triple Entente as the new king.
From exile to the Romanian wedding
Life in Switzerland
On 11 June 1917 the Greek royal family secretly fled from their palace, surrounded by a loyalist mob that refused to see them go. In the days that followed, Constantine I, Queen Sophia and five of their children left Greece from the port of Oropos and took the road to exile. This was the last time that Helen saw her favorite brother. In fact, on their return to power, the Venizelists prohibited any contact between King Alexander I and the rest of the royal family.
After crossing the Ionian Sea and Italy, Helen and her family settled in Switzerland, mainly among the cities of St. Moritz, Zürich and Lucerne. In exile, Helen's parents were soon followed by almost all members of the royal family, who left their country with the return of Venizelos as Prime Minister and the entry of Greece to the war alongside the Triple Entente. However, the financial position of the royal family was precarious and Constantine I, haunted by a deep sense of failure, soon fell ill. In 1918, he contracted Spanish flu and again was close to death.
Very concerned about the fate of their father, Helen and her sisters Irene and Katherine spent a long time with him to distract him from his worries. Helen also sought to reconnect with Alexander I. She tried to take advantage of the visit of her brother to Paris in 1919 to call him by phone. However, the officer who escorted the king in the French capital refused to pass along either her communications or those of other members of the royal family.
Meeting with Crown Prince Carol of Romania
In 1920, the Greek exiles were visited in Lucerne by Queen Marie of Romania (Sophia's first cousin) and her daughters Elisabeth, Maria and Ileana. Worried about the future of her eldest and still single son, the Diadochos George, who had already proposed to Princess Elisabeth a few years earlier, Queen Sophia was anxious for him to marry. Homeless, penniless and without any real political value since his exclusion from the Greek throne in 1917, Helen's elder brother reiterated his request of marriage to Princess Elizabeth, who, despite her initial reticence, finally decided to accept. Pleased with the union, the Queen of Romania then invited her future son-in-law and his sisters Helen and Irene to go to Bucharest in order to publicly announce the royal engagement. The princesses accepted and the departure was set to 2 October. In the meanwhile, another member of the Romanian royal family arrived to Lucerne. This was Elisabeth's brother, the Crown Prince Carol, who had just completed a trip around the world which he had undertaken in order to forget his morganatic wife Zizi Lambrino and their son Carol.
In Romania George, Helen and Irene were received with pomp by the royal family. Housed at Pelișor Castle, they were a central part of the celebrations for the return of Crown Prince Carol to his country (10 October) and the announcement of the engagement of Elisabeth with the Diadochos (12 October). The stay of the Greek princes, however, was brief. On 24 October, a telegram arrived which announced the death in Zurich of the Dowager Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, who was the mother of the queen of Romania. The very next day, another message arrived informing the Greek princes that Alexander I had suddenly died in Athens, following a monkey bite.
Under these circumstances, the three Greek princes and Queen Marie of Romania decided to make an emergency return to Switzerland. Moved by the situation and probably pushed by his mother, Crown Prince Carol at the last moment decided to travel along with them. After being cold and distant to Helen during her stay at Romania, the crown prince suddenly turned very attentive to the princess. During the train journey, the two told their life stories to each other and Carol confided in Helen about his affair with Zizi Lambrino. Helen likewise told him of her life and of family matters, including her great grief for her brother Alexander's death and how she did not want to return to Greece now that her only real friend, her beloved brother, was dead. This opening of the hearts to each other had the result that Helen fell in love with the heir to the Romanian throne.
Restoration and marriage
Soon after their arrival in Switzerland, Crown Prince Carol asked for Helen's hand in marriage, much to the joy of the queen of Romania, but not to the princess' parents. Helen was determined to accept the marriage proposal, therefore King Constantine I assented to the engagement, but only after the marriage of Carol and Zizi Lambrino could be quickly dissolved. For her part, Queen Sophia was much less favorable to her daughter's wedding. Having no confidence in the Romanian crown prince, she tried to convince Helen to reject the proposal. However, Helen insisted, and despite the doubts of her mother, the engagement was announced in Zürich in November 1920.
Meanwhile, in Greece, the Venizelists lost the election in favor of Constantine I's supporters on 14 November 1920. Desiring to resolve the dynastic question, on 5 December the new cabinet organized a referendum, the disputed results of which showed that 99% of the population demanded the restoration of the sovereign. Under these conditions, the royal family returned to Athens and Helen was accompanied by her fiancé on her return. For two months, the two traveled discovering inner Greece and its ancient ruins. They then went to Bucharest to attend the wedding of Diadochos George with Elisabeth of Romania (27 February 1921) before returning to Athens to celebrate their own wedding in the Metropolitan Cathedral on 10 March 1921. Being the first Greek princess to marry in Athens, Helen wore the Romanian 'Greek Key' tiara, a gift from her mother-in-law. The newlyweds then spent their honeymoon in Tatoi, where they remained for two months before returning to Romania, on 8 May 1921.
Crown Princess of Romania
Installation in Bucharest
Upon her return to Romania, Helen was already pregnant. She spent some time with Carol at the Cotroceni Palace, where the pomp and protocol of the Court both impressed and bored her at the same time. The couple then took up residence at the Foișor, an elegant Swiss-style chalet built in the surroundings of Peleș Castle, at Sinaia. It was there that the crown princess gave birth after only seven and a half months after her wedding. Her only child, Prince Michael, named in honor to Michael the Brave, the first unifier of the Danubian Principalities, was born on 25 October 1921; the childbirth was difficult and required surgery. The ordeal significantly weakened Helen, and the doctors forbade her from having a second pregnancy.
Once Helen had recovered, in December 1921 the couple moved to Bucharest, in a large villa at the Șoseaua Kiseleff. Despite their significantly different points of interest, Carol and Helen managed, for some time, to lead a bourgeois and happy existence. In the mornings, the heir performed his official duties and in the afternoons, they enjoyed their favorite past times. While the crown prince engaged in reading and his stamp collections, she spent her time engaged in horseback riding or on the decoration of their residences. The crown princess was very involved in social work and founded a nursing school in the capital. She was also appointed an Honorary Colonel of the 9th Cavalry Regiment, the Roșiori.
Reunion with family
In the meantime, the political situation was deteriorating in Greece. The Hellenic Kingdom endured a period of unrest during the Greco-Turkish War, and by 1919 the health of King Constantine I was deteriorating once again. Worried about the future of her father, Helen asked for her husband's permission to return to Greece. The couple and their child thus left for Athens at the end of January 1922. But while Carol left Greece in February to attend the betrothal of his sister Maria to King Alexander I of Yugoslavia, Helen remained with her parents until April, when she returned to Romania, bringing her sister Irene. By that time, the crown prince had resumed his affair with his former mistress, the actress Mirella Marcovici.
In June 1922, Carol and Helen went to Belgrade with the whole Romanian royal family to attend the wedding of Alexander I and Maria. Back in Bucharest, the crown princess then resumed her role as wife of the heir to the throne. She participated in official acts and supported the sovereign and her husband during ceremonies that punctuated the life of the monarchy. Like many women of her rank, Helen was also interested in social works. Nevertheless, she continued to be worried for her family, and even visited her sister Irene, her aunt Maria and her Greek cousins in an futile attempt to console herself about the remoteness of her parents.
In September 1922, a military coup forced King Constantine I to abdicate in favor of his son George II, and to go into exile. Without any real power and dominated by the revolutionaries, after a failed coup of a pro-royalist group (the so-called Leonardopoulos–Gargalidis coup d'état) in October 1923, the new sovereign in turn was forced to abdicate after only fifteen months of reign. Devastated by these events, Helen immediately went to Italy to be with her parents in their exile. Shortly after the coronation of King Ferdinand I and Queen Marie of Romania in Alba Iulia on 15 October 1922, Helen left for Palermo, where she remained until the death of her father, on 11 January 1923.
Bored by the absence of his wife, Carol finally invited his mother-in-law to stay in Bucharest. However, the dowager queen did not arrive alone: with her, and without warning, came no fewer than 15 Greek princes and princesses, to his home. Increasingly irritated by the invasive presence of his wife's family, Carol also was hurt by Helen's attitude because she refused to fulfil her marital duties. Jealous, the crown prince suspected that his wife had begun an affair with the charming Prince Amedeo of Savoy, Duke of Aosta, a regular guest of the Greek royal couple in Sicily. It was due to these circumstances that Helen and Carol began their separation, though the crown princess saved appearances by devoting more time to the education of her son, Prince Michael.
Abandonment of Crown Prince Carol
In the summer of 1924, Carol met Elena Lupescu (better known under the name of "Magda" Lupescu), with whom he began an affair in or around 14 February 1925. This was not the first extramarital relationship of the crown prince since his marriage. However, for Carol, this time there was a serious bond, a fact that would soon worry not only Helen (always of a conciliatory and tolerant disposition with her husband's infidelities) but also the rest of the Romanian royal family, which feared that Lupescu could turn into a new Zizi Lambrino. In November 1925, Carol was sent to the United Kingdom to represent the royal family at the funeral of the Dowager Queen Alexandra. Despite several promises made to his father, King Ferdinand I, he took advantage of traveling abroad to find his mistress and openly live out their relationship. Refusing to return to Bucharest, Carol finally officially renounced the throne and prerogatives as crown prince on 28 December 1925.
In Romania, Helen was distraught by Carol's attitude, especially as Queen Marie made her partly responsible for the failure of her marriage. The crown princess wrote to her husband to convince him to return. She also attempted to convince politicians to delay Carol's exclusion to the royal succession and proposed to her in-laws that she herself take a trip to meet with her husband. However, the Prime Minister Ion Brătianu, who despised the crown prince because of his sympathy to the National Peasants' Party, categorically opposed. The head of government even accelerated the exclusion procedures by summoning both Houses of the Parliament to register the act of renunciation and appoint little Prince Michael as the new heir to the throne.
On 4 January 1926, the Romanian Parliament ratified the acceptance of Carol's renunciation and a royal ordinance was issued giving Helen the title princess of Romania; in addition, she was included in the Civil list, a privilege previously reserved to the sovereign and the heir to the throne. After King Ferdinand I was diagnosed with cancer, a Regency Council was also formed during Michael's minority with Prince Nicholas as the Head, assisted by Patriarch Miron and the magistrate Gheorghe Buzdugan, replaced after his death in 1929 by Constantine Sărățeanu. Despite this, Helen continued to hope for the return of her husband and obstinately refused requests for a divorce that he sent to her from abroad.
In June 1926, shortly before the death of her father-in-law, Helen went to Italy to attend the funeral of her paternal grandmother, Dowager Queen Olga of Greece, and moved with her mother to the Villa Bobolina in Fiesole. The princess took advantage of her stay in Italy and to try to arrange for an encounter with her husband but, having initially accepted to see her, Carol canceled the meeting at the last minute.
First reign of Michael I and Italian exile
Crown Princess of Romania
In the spring of 1927, Queen Marie made an official visit to the United States. During her absence, Helen and her sister-in-law Elisabeth took care of King Ferdinand I, whose health declined rapidly. The king died on 20 July 1927 at Peleș Castle and his 5-year-old grandson succeeded him under the name of Michael I while the Regency Council took over the direction of the country. However, in Romania, Carol retained many supporters (soon nicknamed "Carlists") and the National Liberal Party began to fear the return of the Prince.
After trying to convince her husband to go to Bucharest, Helen gradually changed her attitude towards him. Anxious to preserve the rights of her son and probably convinced by Prime Minister Barbu Știrbey, the princess requested a divorce, which she easily obtained. On 21 June 1928, the marriage was dissolved by the Romanian Supreme Court on the grounds of incompatibility. Helen also distanced herself from her mother-in-law, who complained of being separated from the young king and criticized more openly the Greek entourage of the Princess. Under these circumstances, the dowager queen approached her eldest son and built ties with the Carlist movement.
After the Regency Council failed to govern the country, Carol appeared increasingly as a providential man who could solve the problems of Romania. Still, his supporters (as Prime Minister Iuliu Maniu, leader of the National Peasants' Party) continued to demand his separation from Magda Lupescu and his reconciliation with Helen, which he refused. Thanks to his many supporters in the country, the prince finally organized his return to Bucharest on the night of 6–7 June 1930. Joyfully welcomed by the population and the political class, he then proclaimed himself king under the name of Carol II.
Impossible reconciliation with Carol II
When he came to power, Carol II initially refused to see Helen though he expressed his desire to meet his son, demoted to the rank of heir-apparent to the throne with the title of Grand Voivod of Alba Iulia by the Romanian Parliament (8 June 1930). In order to be reunited with Michael, the king therefore resolved to meet his former wife. Accompanied by his brother Nicholas and his sister Elizabeth, he visited the princess in her villa in the Șoseaua Kiseleff. At the sight of her former husband, Helen showed coldness but she had no other alternative than to offer him her friendship for the sake of their child.
In the following weeks, Helen suffered the combined pressures of politicians and the Romanian Orthodox Church, who were trying to persuade her to resume her conjugal life with Carol II and accept to be crowned along with him at a ceremony in Alba Iulia, scheduled on 21 September 1930. Despite her reluctance, the princess agreed to a reconciliation and reconsidered the annulment of her divorce, but under the condition of having a separate residence. These were the circumstances under which the former spouses lived and while Carol II sometimes went to Helen for lunch with her, the princess would, from time to time, have tea with him in the royal palace. In July, the king, his former wife and son traveled together in Sinaia but while Carol II moved to Foișor, Helen and Michael stayed at Peleș Castle. Each day, the family gathered for tea and, on 20 July, Carol II and Helen appeared publicly together on the occasion of a ceremony in memory of King Ferdinand I.
In August 1930, the government presented a decree to Carol II for his signature officially confirming Helen as Her Majesty, the Queen of Romania. The king, however, crossed this out and declared Helen to be Her Majesty Helen (i.e. with the style Majesty, but not the title Queen). Helen refused to allow anyone to use this style in her presence. Due to these circumstances, the proposed coronation of the two former spouses was postponed. The return of Magda Lupescu to Romania finally put an end to the reconciliation efforts of the pair. Soon the king was able to get Michael moved to his side, and Helen was allowed to see her son every day in exchange for her political silence. Increasingly isolated, the princess was forced into exile by her former husband, she consented to a separation agreement in October 1931. In exchange for her silence, and through the mediation of her brother, the former King George II of Greece, and her sister-in-law Elisabeth, Helen then obtained a substantial monetary compensation. With the approval of Carol II, she obtained the right to stay four months a year in Romania and to receive her son abroad during two months of the year. She retained her residence in Bucharest and the king agreed to fund its maintenance during his absence. Especially, Helen received a sum of thirty million lei to buy a home abroad and in addition she obtained an annual pension of seven million lei.
Between scandal and exile
In November 1931, Helen left Romania for Germany, where she went to the bedside of her mother, the Dowager Queen Sophia of Greece, seriously ill with cancer. After her death on 13 January 1932, Helen bought her house in Fiesole, Tuscany, which she used as her main residence. In this large house, that she renamed Villa Sparta, the princess received the visit of her sisters Irene and Katherine and her brother Paul, who remained with Helen on long stays.
Despite the distance, the friction between Helen and Carol II continued. In September 1932, a visit from Michael and his mother to the United Kingdom was used by Helen as an opportunity for a new, very public conflict, which soon made the headlines of the international press, just as Helen wanted. The king wanted the crown prince not to wear shorts in public, and that he not be photographed in the company of his mother. Helen was incensed at the second stipulation and, as was her wont, took the trouble to aggravate the situation by defying the first stipulation as well. She made sure her son was dressed in shorts and posed for the cameras with him at her side for an extended photo opportunity. After seeing the spectacle of the crown prince in shorts published in the newspapers, the king demanded that the heir to the throne be brought back to Bucharest. Helen now decided to grant an interview to the Daily Mail "in the hope," she said, "that public opinion would help to preserve her parental rights". This was followed by a violent press campaign, which enraged the king. Despite these events, Helen chose to return to Romania for Michael's birthday and threatened to go to the International Court of Justice if Carol II did not allow her to see their son.
Back in Bucharest, the princess tried, without much success, to get the government involved in a case against the king. She then turned again to her sister-in-law, the former queen of the Hellenes. However, the latter was deeply shocked by the interview given to the Daily Mail, and the two women had a violent fight during their reunion, where Elisabeth slapped Helen. Carol II then considered his former wife as a political opponent, and in order to undermine her prestige, the king initiated a campaign in the press against her, claiming that she had tried to commit suicide twice. After only a month in the country, Carol II imposed a new separation agreement (1 November 1932), under which Helen was denied the right to return to Romania and the next day, finally forced her into permanent exile in Italy. During the following years, she had no contact with her former husband, who only briefly told her by telephone of the death of Queen Marie in 1938. Despite the tensions, Prince Michael was able to see his mother every year in Florence for two months.
In Fiesole, the life of Helen and her sisters was relatively retired, even though they were frequently visited by the Italian House of Savoy, which had always been welcoming to the Greek royal family during its exile. The Greek princesses also used their connections to find a wife for Diadochos Paul, who remained single. In 1935, they took advantage of the presence in Florence of Princess Frederica of Hanover to arrange an encounter between her and their brother. Their good efforts paid off and Frederica quickly fell in love with the Diadochos. However, the princess' parents were reluctant to approve this relationship and it was not until 1937 that Paul and Frederica were finally allowed to get engaged. In the meantime, the Greek monarchy was restored and George II once again became King of Greece, but his wife Elisabeth, who filed for divorce on 6 July 1935, remained in Romania.
Queen Mother of Romania
World War II and the dictatorship of Antonescu
In Tuscany, Helen found real stability, despite the absence of her son most of the year. However, the outbreak of World War II again disrupted her daily routine. In accordance with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Union forced Romania to cede Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to them on 26 June 1940, and a few weeks later, the country was also forced to surrender Northern Transylvania to Hungary (Second Vienna Award, 30 August 1940) and the Southern Dobruja to Bulgaria (Treaty of Craiova, 7 September 1940); these territorial losses ended the Greater Romania, created at the end of World War I. Unable to maintain the territorial integrity of his country and under pressure from the Iron Guard, a fascist party supported by Nazi Germany, Carol II became increasingly unpopular and finally was forced to abdicate on 6 September 1940. His son Michael, aged 18, became king while General Ion Antonescu established a dictatorship with the support of members of the Iron Guard.
Eager to obtain the favor of the new sovereign (and some legitimation to his dictatorship), Antonescu granted Helen the title of "Queen Mother of Romania" (Regina-mamă Elena) with the style "Her Majesty" on 8 September 1940 and sent the diplomat Raoul Bossy to Fiesole to persuade her to return to Bucharest (12 September 1940). Back in Romania (14 September 1940), Helen found herself, however, subject to the whim of the dictator, determined to keep the royal family in a purely ceremonial role. Indeed, in the years that followed, Antonescu systematically excluded the king and his mother from political responsibility and didn't even bother to warn them of his decision to declare war on the Soviet Union in June 1941.
In this difficult context, Michael I was at times prone to bouts of depression and Helen then concentrated all of her efforts to make him more active. Aware of his shortcomings, the queen mother appealed to historians of the right to train her son in his role as sovereign. She also guided the king in his talks and pushed him to oppose Antonescu when she deemed that his policies endangered the crown. Alerted by the Rabbi Alexandru Șafran about the anti-Jewish persecutions, Helen personally appealed to the German ambassador Manfred Freiherr von Killinger and Antonescu to convince them to halt the deportations, being supported in her efforts by Patriarch Nicodim. For his part, the king vigorously protested to the Conducător at the time of the Odessa massacre and notably obtained the release of Wilhelm Filderman, president of the Romanian Jewish community.
Despite these few attempts of emancipation, Helen and her son spent most of the conflict playing as hosts of the German officers passing through Bucharest. The queen mother even met Hitler twice: firstly informally, with her sister Irene, to discuss the fate of Greece and Romania within the new Europe (December 1940) and secondly formally with Michael I during a trip in Italy (winter of 1941). Above all, Helen and her son had no choice but to officially support the dictatorship of Antonescu. Thus, it was Michael I who gave the Conducător the title of Marshal (21 August 1941) after the reconquest of Bessarabia by the Romanian Army.
In the fall of 1942, Helen played a major role in stopping Antonescu from his plans to deport all of the Jews of the Regat to the German death camp of Bełżec in Poland. According to SS Hauptsturmführer Gustav Richter, the counselor for Jewish Affairs at the German legation in Bucharest in a report sent to Berlin on 30 October 1942: "The queen mother told the king that what was happening...was a disgrace and that she could not bear it any longer, all the more so because [their names] would be permanently associated...with the crimes committed against the Jews, while she would be known as the mother of "Michael the Wicked". She is said to have warned the king that, if the deportations were not immediately halted, she would leave the country. As a result the King...telephoned Prime Minister Ion Antonescu and...a meeting of the Council of Ministers took place."
Coup of Michael I and end of the war
From 1941, the participation of the Romanian army in the invasion of the Soviet Union further damaged the relations between Antonescu and the royal family, who disapproved of the conquests of Odessa and Ukraine. However, it was the Battle of Stalingrad (23 August 1942 – 2 February 1943) and the losses incurred by the Romanian side that finally forced Michael I to organize around him a resistance against the dictatorship of the Conducător. During an official speech on 1 January 1943, the sovereign publicly condemned the participation of Romania in the war against the Soviet Union, triggering the wrath of both Antonescu and the Nazi Germany, who accused Helen of being behind the royal initiative. In retaliation, Antonescu tightened his control over Michael I and his mother, and threatened the royal family with the abolition of the monarchy if any further provocation were to occur.
Over the next few months, the suspicious death of Tsar Boris III of Bulgaria (28 August 1943) and the successive arrests of princesses Mafalda of Savoy (23 September 1943) and Irene of Greece (October 1943) after the overthrow of Mussolini by King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy (25 July 1943), proved to Michael I and his mother just how dangerous opposition to the Axis powers was. The return of the Soviets in Bessarabia and the American bombing over Bucharest forced the king, despite everything, to break with the regime of Antonescu. On 23 August 1944 Michael I organized a coup d'état against the Conducător, who was imprisoned. In the process, the king and his new government declared war on the Axis powers and asked the Romanian forces not to resist the Red Army, which nevertheless continued its invasion into the country.
In retaliation against this betrayal, the Luftflotte bombed Bucharest and Casa Nouă, the main residence of the sovereign and his mother since 1940, which was largely destroyed (24 August 1944). Nevertheless, the Romanian forces gradually managed to push the Germans out of the country and also attacked Hungary in order to liberate Transylvania (Siege of Budapest, 29 December 1944 – 13 February 1945). However, the Allies did not immediately recognize the reversal of Romania and the Soviets entered the capital on 31 August 1944. An armistice was finally signed with Moscow on 12 September 1944, which forced the kingdom to accept the Soviet occupation. A climate of uncertainty swept the country while the Red Army increased their demands.
Visiting Sinaia at the time of the royal coup d'état, Helen found her son the next day at Craiova. Back in Bucharest on 10 September 1944, the king and his mother moved into the residence of Princess Elizabeth, whose relations with Helen remained tense despite their reconciliation in 1940. With the increased instability in Romania, the queen mother was extremely concerned about the safety of her son, fearing that he could eventually be killed, like Prince-Regent Kiril of Bulgaria, shot by the Communists on 1 February 1945. The queen mother also disapproved of the influence of Ioan Stârcea over the sovereign and, following information from one of the palace servants, accused him of espionage on behalf of Antonescu. She was also concerned about the machinations of Carol II, who apparently waited for the end of the war to return to Romania, and observed with anxiety the political crisis that prevented King George II from regaining power in Greece. In this difficult context, Helen had the joy of learning that her sister Irene and her little nephew Amedeo were alive, although still in German hands.
Despite these political and personal concerns, the queen mother continued her charitable activities. She provided support to Romanian hospitals, and managed to save some of the equipment of the Red Army requisitions. On 6 November 1944 she inaugurated a soup kitchen in the ballroom of the Royal Palace, which served not less than 11,000 meals to children in the capital over the next three months. Finally, despite Moscow's opposition, the queen mother sent aid to Moldavia, where a terrible epidemic of typhus was raging.
Imposition of a communist regime
With the Soviet occupation, the staff of the Romanian Communist Party, which counted only a few thousand members during the coup of Michael I, exploded and demonstrations against the government of Constantin Sănătescu multiplied. At the same time, acts of sabotage were occurring all over the country, preventing the Romanian economy from recovering. Faced with the combined pressures of the representative of the Soviet Union, Andrey Vyshinsky, and the People's Democratic Front (offshoot of the Communist Party), the king needed to build a new government and named Nicolae Rădescu as the new Prime Minister (7 December 1944). Nevertheless, the situation remained tense in the country and when the new head of the government called for municipal elections on 15 March 1945, the Soviet Union resumed its destabilizing operations in order to impose a government of their liking. The refusal of the United States and United Kingdom to intervene on his behalf led the sovereign to consider abdication but he abandoned the idea on the advice of representatives of the two major democratic political forces, Dinu Brătianu and Iuliu Maniu. On 6 March 1945 Michael I finally called Petru Groza, leader of the Ploughmen's Front, as the new head of a government which had no association with any representative of either the Peasants and the Liberal parties.
Satisfied with this appointment, the Soviet authorities were more conciliatory with Romania. On 13 March 1945 Moscow transferred the administration of Transylvania to Bucharest. A few months later, on 19 July 1945, Michael I was decorated with the Order of Victory, one of the most prestigious Soviet military orders. Still, the Sovietization of the kingdom was accelerated. The purge of "fascist" personalities continued while censorship was strengthened. A land reform was also implemented, causing a drop in production which ruined agricultural exports. The king, however, managed to temporarily prevent the establishment of People's Tribunals and the restoration of the death penalty.
After the Potsdam Conference and the reaffirmation by the Allies of the need to establish democratically elected governments in Europe, Michael I demanded the resignation of Petru Groza, who refused. Faced with this insubordination, the sovereign began a "royal strike" on 23 August 1945 during which he refused to countersign the acts of the government. With his mother, he locked himself in the Elisabeta Palace for six weeks before departing to Sinaia. The resistance of the monarch, however, was not supported by the West, who after the Moscow Conference of 25 December 1945, asked Romania to allow two opposition figures to enter the government. Disappointed by the lack of courage of London and Washington, the sovereign was shocked by the attitudes of Princesses Elisabeth and Ileana, who openly supported the communist authorities. Disgusted by all these betrayals, Helen, in turn, encouraged fewer meetings with Soviet officials and worried every day for the life of her son.
The year 1946 was marked by the strengthening of the Communist dictatorship, despite active resistance of the sovereign. After several months of waiting, the parliamentary elections were held on 19 November 1946 and were officially won by the Ploughmen's Front. After that date, the situation of the king and his mother became more precarious. In their palace, they had no access to running water for three hours a day and the electricity was off most of the day. This did not prevent Helen from maintaining her charitable activities and continuing to send food and clothing to Moldavia. In early 1947, the queen mother also obtained permission to travel abroad to visit her family. She then reunited with her sister Irene, weakened after her deportation to Austria, attended the funeral of her elder brother, King George II, and participated in the marriage of her youngest sister, Princess Katherine, with British Major Richard Brandram.
The signing of the Paris Peace Treaties, on 10 February 1947, marked a new stage in the sidelining of the royal family by the Communist regime. Deprived of any official duties, the king was found even more isolated than during the "royal strike". Under these conditions, the queen mother considered exile with more determination but she was concerned that they did not possess any foreign resources, because her son refused to save money outside of Romania. As guests to the marriage of Princess Elizabeth of the United Kingdom with Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark (Helen's first-cousin) on 20 November 1947, Michael I and his mother were provided with an opportunity to travel together abroad. During this stay, the king fell in love with Princess Anne of Bourbon-Parma, with whom he became engaged much to Helen's delight. This trip was also an opportunity for the queen mother to place two small paintings of El Greco from the royal collections in a Swiss bank.
Abolition of the Romanian monarchy and Michael I's wedding
Deposition of Michael I and the first months of exile
Despite the advice of their relatives, who urged them not to return to Romania in order to escape the communists, the king and his mother returned to Bucharest on 21 December 1947. They were coldly greeted by the government, which secretly hoped to see them stay abroad in order to abolish the monarchy. Their plan did not work, so Prime Minister Petru Groza and General Secretary of the Romanian Communist Party Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej decided to compel the sovereign to abdicate. On 30 December 1947 they asked for an audience with the king, who received them along with his mother. The two politicians asked Michael I to sign a declaration of abdication. The king refused, stating that, for such a thing, the Romanian population must be consulted. The two men threatened that if he persisted, over 1000 students arrested would be executed in retaliation. Thousands of people, including many students, were arrested in November 1946, after clashes with the Communist forces. The pro-democracy and freedom population defeated the Communist forces which were sent to the protests by the Communist government, but in return, many protesters were arrested by Communist authorities, with the help of the Red Army. The heavy clashes ensued in Bucharest and other big cities in Romania after the Communist Party falsified the votes for the 1946 Parliament elections, which the National Peasant's Party (PNȚ) had won with over 70%. Forced with this blackmail, Michael I renounced the crown. Only hours after the announcement, the Romanian People's Republic was proclaimed. Michael I and Helen left Romania with some partisans on 3 January 1948. Despite their close links with the Communists, Princesses Elisabeth and Ileana were also forced to leave the country a few days later, on 12 January.
In exile, Michael I and Helen settled for some time in Switzerland, where the deposed sovereign bitterly observed the Western acceptance of the establishment of a communist republic in Romania. For her part, Helen was mostly concerned with the state of their finances because the Communists allowed them to part with almost nothing. Despite their promises, the new Romanian authorities nationalized the properties of the former royal family (20 February 1948) and deprived the former monarch and his relatives of their nationality (17 May 1948). At the same time, the king and his mother had to deal with the intrigues of Carol II, who still considered himself the only legitimate sovereign of Romania and accused his ex-wife of keeping him away from their son. To achieve his ends, Carol II did not hesitate to involve Frederick, Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (Head of the dynasty) and Prince Nicholas of Romania in his intrigues. These concerns did not prevent Michael I and his mother from undertaking several political trips to the United Kingdom, France and the United States to meet with government leaders and representatives of the Romanian diaspora.
Marriage of Michael I and Anne of Bourbon-Parma
Another source of concern from Michael I and his mother during their first months of exile was his marriage with Princess Anne of Bourbon-Parma. To discredit the former monarch, the Romanian authorities promoted rumors that Michael I gave up his dynastic rights in order to marry the woman of his heart, as his father did in 1925.
Added to this, the most serious difficulties were related to religion. Being a Roman Catholic, Princess Anne had to obtain a papal dispensation to marry an Orthodox. However, the Vatican had been extremely reluctant to grant consent because, for dynastic reasons, the couple's children would have to be raised in Michael I's religion. After Prince René of Bourbon-Parma, father of the bride, failed in his negotiations with the Vatican, Helen decided to go to Rome with Princess Margaret of Denmark (Anne's mother) to meet Pope Pius XII. However, the meeting ended badly and the Pope refused to agree to the marriage. Under these circumstances, Princess Anne had no choice but to override the pontifical will and abandon a Catholic marriage. In doing so, she incurred the wrath of her uncle, Prince Xavier of Bourbon-Parma, who forbade the members of his family to attend the royal wedding under threat of being excluded from the House of Bourbon-Parma. Once again, the queen mother tried to mediate, this time with Anne's family, but without success.
Helen had better luck with her own family. Her brother, King Paul I of Greece, offered to organize Michael's wedding in Athens, despite official protests from the Romanian government. The wedding was finally celebrated in the Greek capital on 10 June 1948 with Archbishop Damaskinos himself officiating the ceremony. Celebrated in the throne room of the Royal Palace, the wedding brought together most of the members of the Greek dynasty but no representative of the Houses of Bourbon-Parma or Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. In fact, Carol II was not invited to the wedding, despite Helen having written to him about the marriage.
Exile and later years
Return to Villa Sparta
After the marriage of Michael I and Anne, Helen returned to Villa Sparta in Fiesole. Through 1951, she hosted her son and his family, who visited with her at least twice a year. Over the years, the family of the former king grew with the successive births of princesses Margareta (1949), Elena (1950), Irina (1953), Sophie (1957) and Maria (1964). From 1949 to 1950, Helen also housed her sister Irene and her nephew Amedeo, who later settled in a neighboring residence. Over the years, the two Greek princesses retained a strong bond, which ended with the death of the duchess of Aosta in 1974. Throughout her life, Helen also remained deeply attached to Amedeo and his first wife, Princess Claude of Orléans.
Helen also made many trips abroad to visit her relatives. She traveled regularly to the United Kingdom to see her granddaughters, who were schooling there. Despite her sometimes stormy relationship with her sister-in-law, Queen Frederica, Helen also spent long periods in Greece and participated in the Cruise of the Kings in 1954, the marriage of Princess Sophia with the future King Juan Carlos I of Spain (1962) and the events organized to mark the centenary of the Greek dynasty (1963).
Despite this, Helen's life was not solely devoted to her family. Passionate about Renaissance architecture and painting, she spent much of her time visiting monuments and museums. She also dedicated herself to creating artistic objects, for example an engraving made with a dentist's drill on an ivory billiard ball. A gardening enthusiast, she devoted long hours to the flowers and shrubs of her residence. A regular guest of the British Consulate, she also frequented the intellectuals who, like Harold Acton, had settled in the region of Florence. From 1968 to 1973, Helen had a romantic relationship with the twice-widower King Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden, with whom she shared a love of art and plants. At one point, the Scandinavian sovereign asked her to marry him, but she refused.
In 1956 Helen consented for Arthur Gould Lee to publish her biography. At this point, her life was marked by financial difficulties which continued to worsen over time. Despite still being deprived of income by the Romanian authorities, the queen mother economically supported her son, and also helped him to find jobs, first as a pilot in Switzerland, then as a broker on Wall Street. Helen also supported the studies of her eldest granddaughter Margareta, and even welcomed her at Villa Sparta for a year before she entered a British university. To do this, Helen was forced to sell her assets one by one and in the early 1970s, she hardly had anything left. In 1973, she mortgaged her residence and three years later, she sold the two Greco paintings that she had brought with her from Romania in 1947.
Life in Switzerland and death
Becoming too old to live alone, Helen finally left Fiesole in 1979. She then moved to a small apartment in Lausanne, located 45 minutes from the residence of Michael I and Anne, before moving in with them at Versoix in 1981. Helen, queen mother of Romania, died one year later on 28 November 1982, aged 86. She was buried without pomp in the Bois-de-Vaux Cemetery and the funerals were celebrated by Damaskinos Papandreou, the first Greek Orthodox Metropolitan of Switzerland.
Eleven years after her death, in March 1993, the State of Israel gave Helen the title of Righteous Among the Nations in recognition for her actions during World War II towards Romanian Jews, several thousands of whom she managed to save from 1941 to 1944. The announcement was made to the royal family by Alexandru Șafran, then Chief Rabbi of Geneva.
In January 2018, it was announced that the remains of King Carol II would be moved to the new Archdiocesan and Royal Cathedral, along with those of Queen Mother Helen. In addition, the remains of Prince Mircea would also be moved to the new cathedral. His remains are currently interred at the Bran Castle's Chapel.
Queen Mother Helen of Romania was reburied at the New Episcopal and Royal Cathedral in Curtea de Argeș on 19 October 2019.
Archives
Queen Helen's correspondence with the Romanian diplomat George I. Duca between 1940 and 1982 is preserved in the "George I. Duca Papers" collection in the Hoover Institution Archives (Stanford, California, USA).
Honours
House of Hohenzollern-Signaringen-Romania: Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Royal Order of Carol I
Ancestry
Notes
References
Bibliography
Besse, Jean-Paul (2010), Ileana, l'archiduchesse voilée, Versailles, Via romana
Gelardi, Julia (2006), Born to Rule : Granddaughters of Victoria, Queens of Europe, Headline Review
Marcou, Lilly (2002), Le Roi trahi : Carol II de Roumanie, Pygmalion
Mateos Sainz de Medrano, Ricardo (2004), La Familia de la Reina Sofía : La Dinastía griega, la Casa de Hannover y los reales primos de Europa, Madrid, La Esfera de los Libros
Pakula, Hannah (1996), The Last Romantic : A Biography of Queen Marie of Roumania, Weidenfeld & Nicolson History
"Queen Helen of Rumania", The Times (30 November 1982): 12.
Van der Kiste, John (1994), Kings of the Hellenes : The Greek Kings, 1863–1974
External links
Royal House of Greece
Royal House of Romania
Helen of Greece and Denmark – description of her activity at Yad Vashem website
1896 births
1982 deaths
19th-century Greek people
20th-century Greek people
19th-century Greek women
20th-century Greek women
House of Glücksburg (Greece)
Romanian queen mothers
Princesses of Greece
Princesses of Denmark
Romanian women in World War II
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Crown (Romania)
Recipients of the Military Virtue Medal
Greek Righteous Among the Nations
Romanian Righteous Among the Nations
Romanian people of German descent
Romanian people of Greek descent
Eastern Orthodox Righteous Among the Nations
Members of the Church of Greece
Members of the Romanian Orthodox Church
Nobility from Athens
Daughters of kings
Royal reburials
Burials at Curtea de Argeş Cathedral
Exiled royalty
Children of Constantine I of Greece
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Aline Brosh McKenna
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Aline Brosh McKenna (born August 2, 1967) is an American screenwriter, producer and director. Her credits include writing The Devil Wears Prada (2006), 27 Dresses (2008), Morning Glory (2010), We Bought a Zoo (2011) and co-creating The CW's Crazy Ex-Girlfriend.
Early life
Brosh was born to a Jewish family in France and, at the age of six months, moved with her family to New Jersey, where she lived variously in Fort Lee, Demarest and Montvale, and attended Saddle River Day School in Saddle River. She graduated magna cum laude from Harvard University.
Career
After graduating, McKenna moved to New York City to seek a job in publishing. While there, she did some freelance writing work.
A script she wrote during a six-week course in screenwriting at New York University helped her get an agent, and, in 1991, she moved to Los Angeles. By age 26, she had sold a comedy feature and a television pilot, and continued to write a number of feature and television scripts. She also wrote an episode of Margaret Cho's sitcom All American Girl.
However, it would be eight years until her first movie, 1999's Matthew Perry-Neve Campbell romantic comedy Three to Tango, was produced.
In 2004, she wrote Laws of Attraction, starring Pierce Brosnan and Julianne Moore.
She adapted Lauren Weisberger’s novel The Devil Wears Prada into the 2006 film of the same name, directed by David Frankel and starring Meryl Streep, Anne Hathaway and Emily Blunt. Though her first two produced features were both romantic comedies, McKenna has reiterated that The Devil Wears Prada is not, and has instead described it as 'competence porn', noting: 'The real love story is, she ends up with that newspaper, having understood the world better and having understood her naiveté better'. The film earned McKenna a BAFTA nomination for Best Adapted Screenplay.
McKenna explored the nuances of the characters of Miranda (Meryl Streep's character) and Andy (Anne Hathaway's character) in The Devil Wears Prada in a 2006 interview with Jan Huttner:"I wanted to make sure the audience understood why she had so much power in her world; and then understand that there was a cost for her, because we wanted Andy to walk away from a life as opposed to walking away from a person. She sees how much Miranda has sacrificed in her personal life, and that’s just not what Andy wants to do. Miranda’s held to a different standard than male executives might be held to, and she lives under a microscope."She wrote 27 Dresses starring Katherine Heigl in 2008. The film took its place quickly as a classic romantic comedy, telling the story of a bridesmaid of twenty-seven weddings finding her own love.
Her next produced movie was 2010's Morning Glory, starring Rachel McAdams, Harrison Ford and Diane Keaton, followed shortly after by 2011's adaptation I Don't Know How She Does It, with Sarah Jessica Parker and Pierce Brosnan. McKenna has jokingly referred to The Devil Wears Prada, Morning Glory and I Don't Know How She Does It as 'The Blackberry 3', a thematically-linked trio of films featuring women who see their Blackberries more than they see their own families. In an interview for The Ringer, McKenna compared that lifestyle to her own as a showrunner: "Striving for perfection, you can easily end up having it fill all the gaps in your life because that’s the kind of job, like being a showrunner, that you’re never done, you’re never finished, you could always be doing something else."
In the same year, McKenna wrote Cameron Crowe's We Bought a Zoo, an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Benjamin Mee. The film received positive reviews overall, with a London Evening Standard critic commenting, "You have to admire the thoroughness with which We Bought a Zoo--which is the film Disney would make if they still knew how--caters to the whole family."
In 2014, she wrote the musical comedy-drama Annie, directed by Will Gluck and with Quvenzhané Wallis in the title role. The film was a contemporary adaptation of the 1977 Broadway musical of the same name.
McKenna returned to television in 2015, when she teamed up with singer and comedian Rachel Bloom to create the romantic musical comedy-drama Crazy Ex-Girlfriend. The show was originally developed for Showtime, with a half hour pilot produced. When Showtime opted not to proceed, McKenna and Bloom reworked the series for The CW, including expanding it into an hour-long format. The CW renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on October 21, 2016, and a third season, which premiered on October 13, 2017. McKenna is the series' showrunner and an executive producer.
In a 2018 interview for Deadline, when asked about Crazy Ex-Girlfriend's commentary on gender, she said:I mean it’s so fun to poke fun at. There are also still lots of things that haven’t been talked about. You still have to fight to get the word clitoris on the air and people still freak out when you talk about periods. We’re taking on some other gynecology because it’s always fun for us and threatening to the patriarchy.In March 2017, McKenna inked a two-year overall deal with CBS Television Studios, the studio behind Crazy Ex-Girlfriend, to develop new projects for network and cable through her production company Lean Machine. The following October, she teamed up with Rene Gube, a producer and recurring guest star on Crazy Ex-Girlfriend, for a single-camera comedy called Big Men that has been set up at CBS.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://deadline.com/2017/10/cbs-big-men-comedy-crazy-ex-girlfriend-aline-brosh-mckenna-rene-gube-1202189955/|title=CBS Buys 'Big Men' Comedy FromCrazy Ex's Aline Brosh McKenna & Rene Gube|last=Andreeva|first=Nellie|date=October 17, 2017|work=Deadline|access-date=January 9, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref>
McKenna made her graphic novel debut in late 2017, working with artist Ramon Perez on Jane, a modern retelling of Charlotte Brontë's 1847 novel Jane Eyre. The graphic novel was published by Boom! Studios.
Scriptnotes
McKenna was the first ever guest on the screenwriting podcast Scriptnotes, hosted by John August and Craig Mazin. She made her debut on the show's 60th episode, a live event at the Austin Film Festival in October 2012. She is, by a long distance, the podcast's most frequent guest, having made over two dozen appearances in subsequent years. In recognition, Mazin christened her 'the Joan Rivers of Scriptnotes'''. McKenna guest-hosted the podcast for an episode in January 2014, filling in for Mazin.
Filmography
Film
Television
References
External links
Aline Brosh McKenna: Screenwriting Lecture part of the BAFTA Screenwriters on Screenwriting series
If Cinderella Had a Blackberry..., nytimes.com, August 25, 2011
Aline Brosh McKenna on Twitter
1967 births
Living people
20th-century American Jews
20th-century American screenwriters
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American Jews
21st-century American screenwriters
21st-century American women writers
American television writers
American women television producers
American women television writers
American women film directors
American women screenwriters
Film directors from New Jersey
French emigrants to the United States
Harvard University alumni
Jewish American screenwriters
Jewish women writers
People from Demarest, New Jersey
People from Fort Lee, New Jersey
People from Montvale, New Jersey
New York University alumni
Screenwriters from New Jersey
Showrunners
Television producers from New Jersey
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Дучимінська Ольга Василівна
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Дучимінська Ольга Василівна
Ольга-Олександра Василівна Решетилович, у шлюбі Дучимінська (8 червня 1883, с. Миколаїв, нині Пустомитівського району Львівської области — 24 вересня 1988, м. Івано-Франківськ) — українська письменниця, поетеса, літературний критик, перекладачка (з чеської, німецької, російської), журналістка, народна вчителька, культурно-освітня діячка, одна з активних організаторок жіночого руху в Галичині, дослідниця фольклору, етнографії та мистецтва Гуцульщини й Бойківщини. Співробітниця журналу «Жіноча Доля». Діячка ОУН під псевдо «Ірма Остапівна», жертва сталінських репресій.
Сучасниця і знайома Івана Франка, приятелька Ольги Кобилянської, Наталії Кобринської, Іванни Блажкевич, Олени Кисілевської, Олени Кульчицької, Богдана Лепкого, Олександра Олеся, Михайла Яцківа, Дениса Лукіяновича, Олекси Новаківського, Івана Огієнка, Софії Русової, Ірини Вільде, Наталени Королеви, Станіслава Вінценза, Єжи Єнджеєвича, Осипа Маковея, Соломії Крушельницької, Петра Обаля, Гната Мартинця, Антіна Лотоцького, Миколи Угрина-Безгрішного.
Життєпис
Ранні роки
Ольга-Олександра Решетилович народилася першою дитиною 8 червня 1883 року в селі Миколаєві Бібрського повіту (нині Пустомитівського району Львівської області) в сім'ї директора школи Василя Решетиловича і Броніслави, до шлюбу Литвин. Молодші сестри Ярослава та Северина невдовзі після народження померли від дизентерії (наразі називають шигельозом).
1887 року батька перевели працювати вчителем у село Лопушна того ж Бібрського повіту. 1888-го у народилась сестра Володимира. 1892 року сім'я перебралася до села Хороброва Сокальського повіту, куди батько був скерований на роботу, а 1894-го в село Кунин Жовківського повіту.
Початкову освіту Ольга отримала вдома. Продовжувала навчання в п'ятому класі жіночої виділової школи в місті Станиславові. Закінчити навчання тут не вдалося, бо 1897 року помер батько, якого вона дуже любила.
Як напівсироту завдяки опіці маминого брата, катехита станиславівських шкіл Йосипа-Мар'яна Литвина, Ольгу влаштували у школу сестер-василіянок у Яворові, де вона закінчила восьмий клас. Тут вона почала займатися літературною творчістю. Ще в школі, прочитавши деякі твори Ольги Кобилянської, відважилася висловити про них свої думки у листі до «буковинської орлиці».
1899 Ольга поїхала до Перемишля, де продовжила навчання на вчительському семінарі, який закінчила 1902 року.
Ольга Решетилович захоплювалася письмом. Прагнула стати вчителькою, самовіддано служити народові: «Я так гаряче бажала бути вчителькою! (Навіть Христос був тільки вчителем). […] Я хотіла бути вчителькою, і то не тільки в школі, але й поза школою, займатися дітворою, цікавитися селом — народом (заповіт мого батька) і працювати для них».
Вчительська праця
1902 року Ольга Решетилович стала вчителькою і працювала на педагогічній ниві майже 30 років у різних населених пунктах нинішніх Львівської та Івано-Франківської областей: у селі Залозах Жовківського повіту (1902—1903), Бутинах Сокальського (1903—1904), Лисовичах (1904—1905), Задеревачі (1905—1906), Тяпчому (1906—1919, 1925—1930), Ценяві (1919—1925) Долинського повітів.
У с. Кунин 1905 року одружилася з Петром Дучимінським, який вчителював у різних школах Жовківського повіту. У березні того ж року їх послали на роботу в Задеревач, а потім у Тяпче Долинського повіту. У цей період народила двох синів, які дуже рано померли. 8 липня 1908 народила доньку Оксану. 1914 року чоловік пішов на фронт. Пізніше як член Української галицької армії виїхав і не повернувся. Жив і помер у Чехословаччині.
Літературна робота
Літературну діяльність Олена Решетилович почала в 16 років, коли з'явилися її перші поезії. Тоді познайомилася з Іваном Франком, який допоміг їй увійти у великий світ літератури.
Дебютувала як поетеса 1905 року, коли у львівській газеті «Діло» під псевдонімом «Ірма Остапівна» було видрукувано її поезію «Послідні звуки». Пізніше «Літературно-науковий вісник» (Львів) надрукував «Іронію долі!».
1911 року вийшла перша (і єдина за життя поетеси) збірока із п'ятнадцяти віршів Ірми Остапівни «Китиця незабудьків». Збірку уклав і написав передмову до неї Микола Венгжин. Книжечка дістала схвальні відгуки критиків О. Коваленка у Києві, І. Нечуя-Левицького в Катеринославі, Н. Кобринської, С. Чарнецького і В. Ющишина у Львові.
Ольга Дучимінська володіла шістьма мовами: українською, польською, німецькою, російською, чеською, французькою (у такій послідовності подавала знання мов сама письменниця) і перекладала з чеської, німецької, російської.
Феміністична діяльність
Ольга Решетилович-Дучимінська відома як феміністка. Жіночий рух захопив її з першого року вчительської праці. У 1906 р. познайомилася з Наталією Кобринською, яку вважала своєю духовною матір'ю. Кобринській присвятила новелу «Сніг» та низку літературознавчих статей: «Жіночий рух у Західній Україні», «Тернистим шляхом», «Борець за долю жінок», які друкувались у виданнях Варшави 1967, 1968, 1970 рр.
Тривала дружба єднала Дучимінську з Ольгою Кобилянською. Присвятила їй новели «Співачка» (1927), «Сумний Христос» (1927), «Дзвони» (1917), спогад «Мої розмови з Кобилянською» (1937). 1963 року написала спогади «Поранкова душа».
Ольга Дучимінська належала до тієї ж когорти жінок-письменниць, що й Уляна Кравченко, Віра Лебедова (Костянтина Малицька), Ольга Рошкевич, Олена Кисілевська, Ольга Ціпановська. З Кобринською і Малицькою 1912 року започаткувала видання в Коломиї «Жіночої бібліотеки», у якому пропагувалися найкращі зразки світової літератури.
Провадила активну громадську діяльність серед галицького жіноцтва, особливо сільського. По селах організовувала так звані жіночі курси, на яких навчала жінок читати і писати, економно вести господарство, допомогти хворому. Ця праця принесла їй визнання і популярність у Галичині 30-х років.
Після 1939-го Ольга Дучимінська — серед організаторів музею етнографії та художнього промислу у Львові. Їздила у наукові експедиції, збирала матеріали про духовну та матеріальну культуру бойків і гуцулів, досліджує етнографічну діяльність І. Франка, Ф. Колесси.
Кілька разів їздила до Чехії, де її цікавив жіночий рух. Тут виголошувала реферати з життя українського жіноцтва. В цей час написала ряд статей та досліджень про народні звичаї, збирала матеріал про духовну й матеріальну культуру гуцулів і бойків, готувала до друку кілька монографій, але ця робота залишилась незавершеною.
Друкувалася під різними псевдонімами й криптонімами (Барвінок Олег, Лучинська Ольга, Ольга Д., Остапівна Ірма, Поважна, Поважна О., Рута, Рута О., О. Д., О. Д-ка) у різних виданнях: часописи «Бджола», «Дажбог», «Діло», «Жіноча доля», «Жіноча воля», «Літературно-науковий вісник», «Мета», «Народна справа», «Наш світ», «Нова хата», «Новий час», «Нові шляхи», «Рідна школа», «Самостійна думка», «Час», «Шляхи» (до Другої світової війни), журнал «Наша страна» (1939—1941), «Львівські вісті», «Наші дні» (1941—1944), журнал «Радянський Львів», газета «Вільна Україна» (1945—1949).
Діяльність в ОУН
Водомо, що Ольга Дучимінська була діячкою ОУН під псевдо «Ірма Остапівна». Працювала у державному апараті ЗУНР (1918—1919).
Арешт і заслання
1949 рік Олена Дучимінська зустріла в розпалі творчої роботи.
23 листопада 1949 року 66-річну Дучимінську заарештували, нібито у справі замаху на Ярослава Галана. Два роки, які тривало слідство, перебувала у в'язниці. 25–26 травня 1951 року її судив військовий трибунал. Вирок — 25 років таборів за статтями 54-1а та 54-11 Карного кодексу УРСР.
Багато знущань зазнала в сибірських спецтаборах ГУЛАГу. За клаптик паперу та олівець передбачався карцер. Тому складені в таборі вірші Дучимінської вивчали напам'ять і разом із звільненими вони потрапляли на волю.
Після смерті Сталіна, 19 червня 1956 року, справа Ольги Дучимінської була переглянута. Строк скоротився до 10 років. 19 грудня 1958 року напівжива 75-річна Ольга Дучимінська вийшла на волю. Деякий час самотньо жила у Львові, не маючи свого місця. Тихо переносила періодичні безпідставні образи преси, яка навішувала на неї всякі ярлики.
Після звільнення
На повернення додому була накладена заборона. До Львова приїхала нелегально восени 1959 року. Її прихистила у себе Ірина Вільде. Згодом їй вдалось приписатись у Самборі в Ірини Турчан — родички Катрі Гриневичевої. Після Самбора Дучимінська знайшла притулок у Чернівцях у родині Ольги Кобилянської, чи, як сама казала, «у паньства Панчуків».
Після звільнення друкувалася рідко, лише в коломийській газеті «Червоний прапор» і варшавських українських виданнях («Український календар 1967 року», «Наше слово»).
4 грудня 1972 року померла в Мюнхені дочка Оксана Дучимінська-Мигул. Похована на українському кладовищі в Баунд-Бруку, Нью-Джерсі, США.
Наприкінці життя (1977—1988) проживала у Мирослави Антонович — двоюрідної сестри Степана Бандери, яка опікувалась нею до смерти, оточила її любов'ю і родинним теплом, хоч була цілком чужою їй людиною. Але цькування тривали і тут. Постійно погрожували виселити, не прописували. Мізерну пенсію нарахували аж у Самборі — по неї їздила М. Антонович.
В останні роки мріяла віднайти всі друковані та рукописні вірші і видати збірку поезій.
24 вересня 1988 року, на 106-му році життя Ольга Решетилович-Дучимінська померла. Похована на цвинтарі в Чукалівці, біля Івано-Франківська.
За період її творчості (1905—1988) окремими виданнями вийшли, на жаль, лише поетична збірка «Китиця незабудьків», нарис «Наталія Кобринська як феміністка» і невелика повість «Еті».
Реабілітована лише посмертно в 1992 році.
Пам'ять
Громада села Тяпче та педагогічний колектив прийняли рішення найменувати школу іменем Ольги Дучимінської. У Львові та Івано-Франківську названо вулиці на честь Ольги Дучимінської.
Видання
Збірка віршів «Китиця незабудьків» (1911, вірші з цієї збірки включені в наступну).
Наталія Кобринська як феміністка (1934).
Збірка новел «Сумний Христос» (1992).
Збірка віршів «Чую… молитву Землі» (1996).
Збірка віршів «Вибрані поезії» (1996).
Вибрані твори (2014).
Джерела
Післямова Романа Горака до збірки новел «Сумний Христос». — Львів, 1992.
Див. також
Жінки в ОУН та УПА
Примітки
Посилання
Автор прозової збірки «Сумний Христос» Ольга Дучимінська
Володимир Пахомов. Гуцульщина у творчості Ольги Дучимінської // Галичина. — 2011. — Ч. 18–19. — С. 343—350 .
Володимир Пахомов. Творча спадщина Ольги Дучимінської. — Івано-Франківськ, 2001.
Життя болю і мужності.
Роман Горак. Скромна трудівниця культури.
Відбулась літературна година «По кременистій дорозі з терновим вінком» .
Ірина Ханик. Я ціле життя любила…
Оксана Івах. Я зелом родилась…
Українські письменниці
Українські громадські діячки
Українські політв'язні
Жінки-в'язні ГУЛАГу
Діячі «Сільського господаря»
Уродженці Пустомитівського району
Померли в Івано-Франківську
Сторічні довгожителі
Люди, на честь яких названо вулиці
Репресовані українки
Репресовані українські письменники
Українські перекладачки
Письменниці-феміністки
Українські феміністки
Діячки ОУН
Реабілітовані
Реабілітовані в Україні
Поховані на Івано-Франківському міському кладовищі у Чукалівці
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108754
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Preston%2C%20Connecticut
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New Preston, Connecticut
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New Preston, Connecticut
New Preston is a rural village and census-designated place (CDP) in the northwestern corner of the town of Washington, Litchfield County, Connecticut, United States. As of the 2010 census, the population of the New Preston CDP was 1,182, out of 3,578 in the entire town of Washington.
Geography
The New Preston CDP includes the entire northwestern quadrant of the town of Washington, including the villages of New Preston and Marbledale, as well as Mount Bushnell and Meeker Swamp. The CDP has a total area of , of which are land and , or 6.47%, are water. The dominant geographic feature of New Preston is Lake Waramaug, which is situated just north of the New Preston village center and is the headwaters of the East Aspetuck River, which runs through the village center and over New Preston Falls. The terrain is characterized by steep hills and narrow valleys, with a preponderance of talus slopes and ledge rock.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,110 people, 439 households, and 303 families residing in the CDP. The population density was . There were 563 housing units at an average density of 76.1 per square mile (29.4/km). The racial makeup of the CDP was 97.84% White, 0.36% African American, 0.09% Native American, 0.18% Asian, 0.27% from other races, and 1.26% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.17% of the population.
There were 439 households, out of which 30.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.6% were married couples living together, 5.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.8% were non-families. 26.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 3.00.
In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 23.4% under the age of 18, 5.3% from 18 to 24, 26.6% from 25 to 44, 27.7% from 45 to 64, and 17.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.9 males.
The median income for a household in the CDP was $55,962, and the median income for a family was $69,000. Males had a median income of $45,673 versus $28,333 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $36,566. About 3.4% of families and 3.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under age 18 and 19.9% of those age 65 or over.
Many of New Preston's inhabitants are part-time residents who principally reside in New York City, so census data may not accurately reflect the population's actual demography.
Transportation
The two main roads in New Preston are U.S. Route 202 and Connecticut Route 45. US 202 leads northeast to Litchfield and southwest to New Milford, while Route 45 leads north to Warren. There is no public transportation.
History
Pre-colonial
Archeological evidence suggests that Native Americans first settled in the area around 10,000 years ago, following the retreat of the glaciers at the conclusion of the last ice age. What is now known as New Preston came to be inhabited by the Wyantenock tribe of Native Americans, who spent summers at Lake Waramaug, establishing a pattern of seasonal residence that is widely repeated by New Preston's present-day occupants.
Colonial
The signature of Chief Waramaug, who led the Wyantenock tribe in the early 18th century, appears on several local colonial-era property records, including the "New Milford North Purchase", which encompassed a substantial swath of southern Litchfield County, including contemporary New Preston. Colonists settled New Preston in 1741, and the General Assembly of the Connecticut Colony granted a petition for the establishment of the New Preston Ecclesiastical Society in 1753. In April 1778 the 270 families living in the area petitioned the General Assembly to be incorporated as a town. The petition was granted in January of the following year, incorporating the Town of Washington from the parishes of Judea and New Preston and taking from the towns of Woodbury, Litchfield, Kent, and New Milford. The action marked the first establishment of a municipality in Connecticut after the Declaration of Independence was signed. The town was named after George Washington, who, in his capacity as Commander of the Continental Army during the American Revolution, passed through the area several times. In May 1781, George Washington slept in New Preston at the Cogswell Tavern, which still stands on present-day Christian Street and is used as a private residence.
19th century
In the early decades of the 19th century (the era of the Industrial Revolution), numerous mills and modestly scaled factories were constructed along the East Aspetuck River, which drops precipitously between its source at Lake Waramaug and the New Preston village center, providing a robust source of water power. New Preston housed an iron works, as well as manufacturers of twine, hats, cheese boxes, ax handles, shoes, and harnesses. However, with the advent of electricity, expansion of national rail networks, and the rise of larger, more accessible manufacturing centers during the latter part of the 19th century, industrial activity in New Preston decreased, eventually disappearing altogether.
In the latter decades of the 19th century, New Preston began its transformation to a summer colony. With the arrival of the Shepaug Railroad in 1872, passenger service was introduced between New Preston Station and New York City, which gave rise to the construction of summer homes and inns around the perimeter of Lake Waramaug.
20th century
The railroad ceased operation in 1948, and many of the large inns on the lake closed, giving way to single-family residences used primarily as vacation homes.
By the 1970s, much of New Preston's diminutive village center had fallen into decline, with many shops left vacant and in various states of disrepair. Several buildings and locations in New Preston were used in the filming of the 1981 horror movie Friday the 13th, Part 2.
In the mid-1980s, a transformation of the village center began with the opening of a store specializing in antique gardening books and horticultural prints. Antique shops and other upscale retail establishments soon followed, and many of New Preston's historic commercial structures underwent renovation. The village's only grocery store, pharmacy, and gas station closed, leaving New Preston largely devoid of essential services.
By the mid-1990s, the village center had been completely made over into a picturesque, high-end retail destination catering primarily to weekend residents and out-of-town visitors.
Contemporary
During the booming economy of the late 1990s and early first decade of the 21st century, the gentrification of New Preston shifted into high gear. Modest lake cottages around Lake Waramaug were torn down and replaced with larger, more luxurious homes, and other lake houses underwent substantial renovation and expansion. Two of the four remaining inns on the lake—The Inn at Lake Waramaug and The Birches Inn—were converted into lavish single-family residences.
Architecture
New Preston is known for its traditional rural New England architecture, which includes many well-preserved 18th and 19th century homes built in the Georgian, Greek Revival, Italianate, and Shingle styles, as well as several 19th century mill structures along the East Aspetuck River. Antique barns and other agricultural outbuildings are also widely prevalent.
Because New Preston's steep, rocky terrain presents significant constraints to development, most viable development sites were utilized prior to 1900, making contemporary construction of new homes and businesses rare. As a consequence, New Preston exhibits a high degree of architectural and aesthetic cohesion. When new construction does occur, it generally follows—or attempts to follow—the historic vernacular. Portions of New Preston Hill Road and Findlay Road, three quarters of a mile west of the village center, are included in the New Preston Hill Historic District, which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985. The more prominent buildings in that district include Hill Congregational Church, the Rev. Samuel Whittlesey House (1808), and the John Ferris House (1800).
Open space
A substantial portion of the land in and around New Preston is permanently protected open space, which consists of state parks, local land trust holdings, and privately owned parcels under conservation easement. Public open space areas include the Macricostas Preserve, Mount Bushnell State Park, and a parcel adjacent to the New Preston village center, which the town of Washington purchased in 2010 with money from its open space fund.
Scenic roads
In 1996, the Connecticut Department of Transportation designated the of perimeter roads around Lake Waramaug as state scenic roads, affording them a legal status that discourages maintenance or improvements that would detract from the roads' scenic qualities. In 2010, New Preston's main commercial thoroughfare, East Shore Road (also known as Connecticut Route 45), was designated a state scenic road, together with a portion of Route 202 extending northeast from the junction with Route 45 to Rabbit Hill Road.
The town of Washington has also given municipal scenic road designations in New Preston to Rabbit Hill Road, Couch Road, Gunn Hill Road, and Whittlesey Road.
Postal addresses, municipalities, and nomenclature
Although the village of New Preston and the New Preston CDP are entirely within the town of Washington, U.S. Postal Service addressing practices result in the name being applied to the Marble Dale section of Washington, and to portions of the adjacent town of Warren. While New Preston village once had its own post office, it is now served by a combined New Preston-Marble Dale post office, which is located in Marble Dale, and also serves the southern portion of Warren. Further confusing matters, there are three separate post offices in the town of Washington, each with a unique ZIP code: Washington (06793), Washington Depot (06794), and New Preston-Marble Dale (06777).
Notable people
Many high-profile New York City residents and expatriates maintain homes in New Preston. Current inhabitants of note include Graydon Carter, the editor of the magazine Vanity Fair, actress Christine Baranski, and bandleader Peter Duchin. Past notable residents include the fashion designer Bill Blass, comedian Joan Rivers, and theologian Horace Bushnell.
Former US Congressman Frederick Whittlesey was born here.
References
Washington, Connecticut
Census-designated places in Litchfield County, Connecticut
Villages in Connecticut
Villages in Litchfield County, Connecticut
Census-designated places in Connecticut
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29105
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signature%20block
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Signature block
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Signature block
A signature block (often abbreviated as signature, sig block, sig file, .sig, dot sig, siggy, or just sig) is a personalized block of text automatically appended at the bottom of an email message, Usenet article, or forum post.
Email and Usenet
An email signature is a block of text appended to the end of an email message often containing the sender's name, address, phone number, disclaimer or other contact information.
"Traditional" internet cultural .sig practices assume the use of monospaced ASCII text because they pre-date MIME and the use of HTML in email. In this tradition, it is common practice for a signature block to consist of one or more lines containing some brief information on the author of the message such as phone number and email address, URLs for sites owned or favoured by the author—but also often a quotation (occasionally automatically generated by such tools as fortune), or an ASCII art picture.
Among some groups of people it has been common to include self-classification codes.
|\_/| **************************** (\_/)
/ @ @ \ * "Purrrfectly pleasant" * (='.'=)
(> º < ) * Poppy Prinz * (")_(")
`>>x<<´ * ([email protected]) *
/ O \ ****************************
Example of a signature block using ASCII art.
Most email clients, including Mozilla Thunderbird, Opera Mail, Microsoft Outlook, Outlook Express, and Eudora, can be configured to automatically append an email signature with each new message. A shortened form of a signature block (sometimes called a "signature line"), only including one's name, often with some distinguishing prefix, can be used to simply indicate the end of a post or response. Most email servers can be configured to append email signatures to all outgoing mail as well.
Email signature generator
An email signature generator is an app or an online web app that allows users to create a designed email signature using a pre-made template (with no need for HTML coding skills).
Signatures in Usenet postings
Signature blocks are also used in the Usenet discussion system.
Email signatures in business
Businesses often automatically append signature blocks to messages—or have policies mandating a certain style. Generally they resemble standard business cards in their content—and often in their presentation—with company logos and sometimes even the exact appearance of a business card. In some cases, a vCard is automatically attached.
In addition to these standard items, email disclaimers of various sorts are often automatically appended. These are typically couched in legal jargon, but it is unclear what weight they have in law, and they are routinely lampooned.
Business emails may also use some signature block elements mandated by local laws:
Germany requires companies to disclose their company name, registration number, place of registration etc. in email signatures, in any business-related emails.
Ireland's Director of Corporate Enforcement requires all limited companies operating websites to disclose such information in their emails.
The UK's ECommerce Regulations (reflecting EU law) require this information in all emails from limited companies. In England and Wales the case of Mehta v J Pereira Fernandes clarified that an email address header added to an email by the email application did not count as a signature for legal purposes, but
While criticized by some as overly bureaucratic, these regulations only extend existing laws for paper business correspondence to email.
Standard delimiter
The Usenet news system standards say that a signature block is conventionally delimited from the body of the message by a single line consisting of exactly two hyphens, followed by a space, followed by the end of line (i.e., in C-notation: "-- \n"). This latter prescription goes by many names, including “dash dash space”, "sig dashes", "signature cut line", "sig-marker", "sig separator" and "signature delimiter". It allows software to automatically mark or remove the sig block as the receiver desires.
Most Usenet clients (including, for example, Mozilla Thunderbird) will recognize the signature block delimiter in a news article and will cut off the signature below it when inserting a quote of the original message into the composition window for a reply. Although the Usenet standards strictly apply only to Usenet news articles, this same delimiter convention is widely used in email messages as well, and email clients (such as K-9, Opera Mail, and Gmail commonly use it for recognition and special handling of signatures in email.
Internet forums
On web forums, the rules are often less strict on how a signature block is formatted, as Web browsers typically are not operated within the same constraints as text interface applications. Users will typically define their signature as part of their profile. Depending on the board's capabilities, signatures may range from a simple line or two of text to an elaborately constructed HTML piece. Images are often allowed as well, including dynamically updated images usually hosted remotely and modified by a server-side script. In some cases avatars or hackergotchis take over some of the role of signatures.
FidoNet
With FidoNet, echomail and netmail software would often add an origin line at the end of a message. This would indicate the FidoNet address and name of the originating system (not the user). The user posting the message would generally not have any control over the origin line. However, single-line taglines, added under user control, would often contain a humorous or witty saying. Multi-line user signature blocks were rare.
However, a tearline standard for FidoNet was included in FTS-0004 and clarified in FSC-0068 as three dashes optionally followed by a space optionally followed by text.
See also
Acknowledgment (creative arts and sciences)
Attribution (copyright)
Byline
Credit (creative arts)
Kibo, a Usenet poster famous for his absurdly long signature
Signature tag
Notes and references
External links
, "Netiquette Guidelines" (section 2.1.1 contains guidelines on mail)
, (4.3 Usenet Signature Convention)
What are the restrictions for a proper signature?
Information Release from Ireland's ODCE (pdf)
Internet culture
Internet forum terminology
Signature
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1303651
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%96%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0
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Піровиноградна кислота
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Піровиноградна кислота — органічна кислота, перша із ряду α-кетокислот, тобто містить кетогрупу у α-положенні стосовно карбоксильної. Аніон піровиноградої кислоти називається піруват і є однією із ключових молекул у багатьох метаболічних шляхах. Зокрема піруват утворюється як кінцевий продукт гліколізу, і за аеробних умов може бути далі окиснений до ацетил-коферменту А, який вступає в цикл Кребса. В умовах нестачі кисню піруват перетворюється у реакціях бродіння.
Піровиноградна кислота також є вихідною речовиною для глюконеогенезу — процесу зворотного до гліколізу. Вона є проміжним метаболітом в обміні багатьох амінокислот, а в бактерій використовується як попередник для синтезу деяких із них.
Фізичні та хімічні властивості
Піровиноградна кислота — це безбарвна рідина із запахом схожим до запаху оцтової кислоти, змішується із водою у будь-яких пропорціях.
Для піровиноградної кислоти характерні всі реакції карбонільної та карбоксильної груп. Через їх взаємний вплив одна на одну реакційна здатність обох груп підсилюється, також це призводить до полегшеної реакції декарбоксилювання (відщеплення карбоксильної групи у формі вуглекислого газу) у присутності сульфатної кислоти або при нагріванні.
Піровиноградна кислота може існувати у формі двох таутомерів енольного та кето, перетворення яких одне в одного легко відбувається без участі ферментів. При pH середовища 7 переважає кетонна форма.
Біохімія
Реакції утворення пірувату
Значна частина пірувату в клітинах утворюється як кінцевий продукт гліколізу. В останній (десятій) реакції цього метаболічного шляху фермент піруваткіназа каталізує перенесення фосфатної групи фосфоенолпірувату на АДФ (субстратне фосфорилювання), внаслідок чого утворюється АТФ та піруват в енольній формі, яка швидко таутомеризується у кетонну. Реакція відбувається у присутності іонів калію та магнію або мангану. Процес виражено екзергонічний, стандартна зміна вільної енергії ΔG0 = −61,9 кДж/моль, внаслідок чого реакція є незворотною. Приблизно половина вивільненої енергії запасається у формі фосфодіестерного зв'язку АТФ.
Також до пірувату метаболізмують шість амінокислот:
Аланін — в реакції трансамінування з α-кетоглутаратом, що каталізується аланінамінотрансферазою у мітохондріях;
Триптофан — у 4 кроки перетворюється до аланіну, потім відбувається переамінування;
Цистеїн — у два кроки: на першому відщеплюється сульфгідрильна група, другий — переамінування;
Серин — в реакції, що каталізується сериндегідратазою;
Гліцин — тільки один із трьох можливих шляхів деградації, тільки один закінчується піруватом. Перетворення відбувається через серин у два етапи;
Треонін — утворення пірувату один із двох шляхів деградації, здійснюється через перетворення у гліцин, а потім — серин).
Ці амінокислоти належать до глюкогенних, тобто таких, з яких в організмі ссавців із них може синтезуватись глюкоза в процесі глюконеогенезу.
Перетворення пірувату
За аербних умов у клітинах еукаріот піруват, утворений в гліколізі та інших метаболічних реакціях, транспортується до мітохондрій (якщо не синтезується відразу в цій органелі, як у випадку переамінування аланіну). Тут він перетворюється одним із двох можливих шляхів: або вступає в реакцію окисного декарбоксилювання, продуктом якої є ацетли-кофермент А, або каброксилюється до оксалоацетату, який є вихідною молекулою для глюконеогенезу.
Окисне декарбоксилювання пірувату здійснюється піруватдегідрогеназним мультиензимним комлпексом, до складу якого входять три різні ферменти та п'ять коферментів. В цій реакції від молекули пірувату відщеплюється карбоксильна група у формі CO2, утворений залишок оцтової кислоти переноситься на кофермент А, також відновлюється одна молекула НАД:
Сумарна стандартна зміна вільної енергії становить ΔG0= −33,4 кДж/моль. Утворений НАДН переносить пару електронів в електронтранспортний ланцюг, що дає в кінцевому результаті енергію для синтезу 2,5 молекул АТФ. Ацетил-КоА вступає у цикл Кребса або використовується для інших потреб, наприклад для синтезу жирних кислот.
Більшість клітин за умов достатньої кількості жирних кислот використовують їх, а не глюкозу, як джерело енергії. Внаслідок β-окснення жирних кислот концентрація ацетил-КоА у мітохондріях значно підвищується, і ця речовина діє як негативний модулятор піруватдекарбоксилазного комплексу. Схожий ефект спостерігається у випадку, коли енергетичні потреби клітини низькі: в такому разі збільшується концентрація НАДН у порівнянні із НАД+, що призводить до пригнічення циклу Кребса і накопичення ацетил-КоА.
Ацетил-кофермент А одночасно діє як позитивний алостеричний модулятор для піруваткарбоксилази, яка каталізує перетворення пірувату до оксалоацетату із гідролізом однієї молекули АТФ:
Оскільки оксалоацетат не може транспортуватись через внутрішню мембрану мітохондрій внаслідок відсутності відповідного переносника, він відновлюється до малату, переноситься у цитозоль, де знову окиснюється. На оксалоацетат діє фермент фосфоенолпіруваткарбоксикіназа, що перетворює його у фосфоенолпіруват, використовуючи для цього фосфатну групу ГТФ:
Як видно, ця складна послідовність реакцій є зворотною до останньої реакції гліколізу, і відповідно першою реакцією глюконеогенезу. Такий обхідний шлях використовується, через те, що перетворення фосфоенолпірувату до пірувату дуже екзергонічна необорона реакція.
В еукаріотичних клітинах за анаеробних умов (наприклад в дуже активних скелетних м'язах, занурених у воду рослинних тканинах та солідних пухлинах), а також в молочнокислих бактерій, відбувається процес молочнокислого бродіння, за якого піруват є кінцевим акцептором електронів. Приймаючи пару електронів та протонів від НАДН піровиноградна кислота відновлюється до молочної, каталізує реакцію лактатдегідрогеназа (ΔG0=-25,1 кДж/моль).
Ця реакція необхідна для регенерації НАД+, необхідного для протікання гліколізу. Не зважаючи на те, що сумарно в процесі молочнокислого бродіння не відбувається окиснення глюкози (співвідношення C:H як для глюкози, так і для молочної кислоти рівне 1:2), виділеної енергії достатньо для синтезу двох молекул АТФ.
Піруват є вихідною речовиною і для інших типів бродіння, таких спиртове, маслянокисле, пропіоновокисле тощо.
В організмі людини піруват може використовуватись для біосинтезу замінної амінокислоти аланіну шляхом переамінування із глутамату (зворотна реакція до описаної вище переамінування між аланіном та α-кетоглутаратом). У бактерій він бере участь в метаболічних шляхах утворення таких незамінних для людини амінокислот як валін, лейцин, ізолейцин а також лізин.
Рівень пірувату в крові
У нормі рівень пірувату в крові коливається в межах 0,08—0,16 ммоль/л. Саме по собі збільшення чи зменшення цього значення не є діагностичною ознакою. Зазвичай вимірюють співвідношення між концентрацією лактату та пірувату (Л:П). Зачення Л:П > 20 може свідчити про вроджені розлади електронтранспортного ланцюга, циклу Кребса, або нестачі піруваткарбоксилази. Л:П < 10 може бути ознакою дефектності піруватдегдрогеназного комплексу. Також проводять вимірювання Л:П у спинномозковій рідині, як один із тестів для діагностики нейрологічних порушень.
Джерела
Test ID: PYR Pyruvic Acid, Blood каталог аналізів на сайті Mayo Medical Laboratories — Процитовано 4 травня 2012.
Карбонові кислоти
Гліколіз
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1817824
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0%20%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8F
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Новгородська сотня
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Новгородська сотня (Новгород-Сіверська сотня) - територіально-адміністративна і військова одиниця різних полків Гетьманщини. Заснована 1649 у складі Ніжинського полку (адміністративного), з 1663 - у Стародубському полку (адміністративний).
Центр - місто Новгород-Сіверський.
Історія
Сформувалася між 1649-1653 pp. в складі Ніжинського полку як військовий підрозділ, на основі якого у 1653 р. утворено окремий Новгородський полк, теж суто військовий. Полковником його був Юхим Коробка (1653-1654 pp.). Після Переяславської угоди 1654 року полк включили як сотню до складу Ніжинського полку разом з селами Бирине, Глазове, Горбове, Івот, Кам`янка, Рихлів, Скирта, Шептаки, Смяч, Блистова.
Сотенна старшина: писар Іван Васильович, осавул Федір Оникійович, хорунжий Іван Федорович Горобець.
Друга сотня знаходилася в Шептаках. 1663 року Іван Брюховецький включив Новгородську сотню до створеного ним Стародубського полку. Петро Дорошенко, під час походу на Лівобережжя у 1668 p., знову виділив із Стародубського полку Новгород-Сіверський, на чолі з Олександром Урбановичем (1668 p.). Але Д. Многогрішний ліквідував це утворення і знову Новгородська сотня відійшла до Стародубського полку, у якому й перебувала до ліквідації. У 1782 р, Новгород-Сіверський став губернським центром відкритого Катериною II Новгород-Сіверського намісництва.
Сотенний центр: місто Новгород-Сіверський, нині - райцентр Чернігівської області.
Географія та населення
Новгородська сотня була найпівденнішою в Стародубському полку, займала місцевість по обох берегах Десни (переважно по правому березі), нижче гирла Судості. Деякі з сіл цієї сотні, мабуть, існували вже в давньоруський час, але літописних відомостей про це не збереглося. Найстарші села цієї місцевості виникли на пагорбах правого берега Десни; лівий же берег заселений був набагато пізніше: заселення його почалося в XVI столітті і тривало до середини XVIII століття.
На долю населення цієї місцевості дуже впливав Новгородський Спасо-Преображенський монастир; виразився цей вплив, головним чином, в применшенні тут козачого населення, значну частину якого ченці тими чи іншими способами переписали в кріпацтво.
Сотники
Андрійович Василь (? - 1649.5.04 - ?)
Коробка Юхим (? - 1653.07. - ?)
Горбовецький Михайло Степанович (? - 1654.01. - 1660.15.01. - ?)
Бабак (Лисий) Іван Васильович (1656.04., наказний)
Маленовський Семен Федорович (? - 1661.08. - 1662.05. - ?)
Рожинський Лаврін (1661.10., нак.)
Запаревський Павло (? - 1663 - ?)
Стремницький (Стремниченко) Павло (? - 1663.09. - ?)
Маленовський Семен Федорович (? - 1666.01. - 1668 - ?)
Севастянович Захар Степанович (? - 1669.11. - 1672.05. - ?)
Чарнацький Михайло (? - 1673.11. - ?)
Чернявський (Черняй) Василь (? - 1675.12. - ?)
Севастянович Захар Степанович (? - 1676.02. - ?)
Холодович Іван (раніше 1683)
Пушкаренко Давид Трохимович (? - 1679.і.07.1072- ?)
Севастянович Захар Степанович (? - 1680.04. - ?)
Опанас Григорович (1681)
Карнаух Костянтин Мартинович (1680.26.05. - 1683 - 1685.09. - ?)
Пушкаренко Давид Трохимович (? - 1686.06.-08.)
Іванович Андрій (1687.06 наказний)
Стягайло Іван (1686.09. - 1687.07.)
Пушкаренко Давид Трохимович (1687.08. - 1691.18.05. - ?)
Бучковець Федір Іванович (1687.07., наказний)
Карнаух Констянтин Мартинович (1691.07, наказний)
Стягайло Іван (? - 1691.08. - 1692 - ?)
Журавка Лук'ян Іванович (? - 1693.11. - 1709.02. - ?)
Антіох-Вербицький Михайло Олексійович (1696, наказний)
Стягайло Іван (1698.06., 1699.08., наказний)
Пушкаренко Давид Трохимович (1703,1704.04., наказний)
Опанасович Василь (1709.07., наказний)
Березовський Семен (? - 1710.03. - 1712)
Кутневський-Гаращенко Данило Герасимович ((1712.15.01. - 1715.03.)
Лісовський Федір (1715.10.03. -1718.06. - ?)
Шепеленко Григорій (? -1718.11. - ?)
Пекалицький Парфен (1718, наказовий).
Лісовський Федір (? - 1719 - 1722)
Зенович Мануйло (1721, 1723, наказовий)
Онопрієнко-Шовковий Федір (1722, наказовий)
Галецький Семен Якович (1722.22.05. -1725)
Зенович Данило (1724,1725, наказовий)
Судієнко Іван Андрійович (1724, наказовий).
Христичевський-Глаза Василь Тимофійович (1725-1727)
Нестерович Дем'ян (1728, наказний)
Кутневський-Гаращенко Данило Герасимович (? - 1729.06. - ?)
Поморанський Петро (1725, 1728, 1729, 1734, наказний)
Христичевський-Глаз Василь Тимофійович (1729-1738).
Зіневич Данило (1730, наказний).
Нестерович Дем'ян (1730, 1733-1735; 1737, наказний).
Судієнко Степан Іванович (1730, 1732, 1736, наказний; повний: 1739.31.10. - 1744).
Хома Петрович (1742; наказний; повний: 1744.12.05. - 1745).
Судієнко Степан Іванович (1745- 1763)
Сорока Федір (1752, наказний)
Хома Петрович (1764, наказний)
Рачинський Андрій Андрійович (1763.7.08. - 1782)
Сотенні отамани
Баран Роман (? -1654.02.- ?)
Черннацький (Черник) Михайло (? -1661-1663.09.)
Стрельниченко Павло (1663.09.- ?)
Чернацький Михайло (? -1666.01.-06.- ?)
Іванович Андрій (?-1669.01.-08.- ?)
Базилевич Опанас Григорович (? -1671- -ран.1672.27.09.)
Стукаленко (Стукало)-Кириленко Лаврін Іванович (?-1675.06.- ?)
Базилевич Опанас Григорович (? -1676.02.- ?)
Семенович Остап (1676, наказовий)
Стукаленко (Стукало)-Кириленко Лаврін Іванович (? -1678.09.- ?)
Карнаух Костянтин Мартинович (? -1679.07.- ?)
Базилевич Опанас Григорович (? -1680.01.-1682.06.- ?)
Кам'яний Омелян (? -1682.09.- ?)
Стукаленко (Стукало)-Кириленко Лаврін Іванович (? -1683.10.-1685.09.- ?)
Бучковець Федір Іванович (?-1686.08.-1688.07.- ?)
Онопрієнко-Шовковий Микита (? -1689.07.- ?)
Нехороший Семен (1694, наказовий)
Карнаух Костянтин Мартинович (? -1690.07.- 1694.08.- ?)
Єрусалим Ярема (? -1698.04.-1700.05.- ?)
Журавчєнко Іван Тимофійович (? -1705- ?)
Базилевич Василь Опанасович (?-1705.07.-1709.07.- ?, раніше 1710.03.)
Судієнко Іван Андрійович (? -1710.03.- ?)
Онуфрійович Іван (? -1710.05.- ?)
Судієнко Іван Андрійович (? -1714.10.-1722.05.- ?)
Базилевич Василь Опанасович (?-1720.03.- ?)
Нестерович Дем'ян (1721, наказовий)
Зенович Мануйло (? -1723.07.- ?)
Судієнко Іван Андрійович (? -1724.03.-1725.03.- ?)
Судієнко Степан Іванович (? -1727.03.-06.- ?)
Колько Степан (?-1728.01.- ?)
Янович Василь (?-1728.12.- ?)
Судієнко Степан Іванович (?-1730.09.-1733.07.- ?)
Нестерович Дем'ян (? -1734.01 -03.- ?)
Воронець Василь (1734, наказовий)
Судієнко Степан Іванович (? -1736.06.- ?)
Нестерович Дем'ян (?-1737.09.-?)
Судієнко Степан Іванович (1737.10.-1739)
Помаранський Петро (? -1741. 03-1748.09.- ?)
Кисловський Яким (раніше 1755)
Григорович Трохим (? -1756.02.- ?)
Криксин Роман (? -1757.12.-І764.01.- ?)
Овсієнко Федір (1771.11.02. - 1782)
Сотенні писарі
Бабак (Лисий) Іван Васильович (? -1654.02.-1676.02.- ?)
Антіох-Вербицький Михей (Мойсей) Олексійович (? -1679.07.- ?)
Юркевич Іван (? -1690.07 )
Антіох-Вербицький Михей Олексійович (1690.07.-1695.09.- ?)
Березовський Семен (?-1700.08.-1708.09.- ?)
Люба(р)тович Матвій (?-1712.05.21 - ?)
Пекалицький Парфен (?-1715.03.-?)
Косачинський Михайло (? -1721.06.- ?)
Помаранський Петро (?-1721.07.-1734.03.- ?)
Картель Марко (раніше 1733)
Кисловський Яким (? -1744- ?)
Маньковський Михайло Васильович (? -1763.06.24- ?)
Сухотин Григорій Феодосійович (ран .1765)
Клименко Гаврило (1766 - 1780 - ?)
Сотенні осавули
Оникієвич Федір (? -1654.02.- ?)
Яцькович (?-1676.02.- ?)
Ревенко Хома (?-1680.04.- ?)
Данило (?-1682.06.- ?)
Посох Михайло (? -1686.08.- ?)
Нехорошко Семен (? -1690.10.-1694.08.- ?)
Яснопольський Лаврін Кипріянович, Жоравка Макар (? -1725.10.- ?)
Пашинський Лук'ян (? - 1725-1728- ?)
Журавко Макар (? -1732- ?)
Кононович Іосиф (? -1741.03.- ?)
Манжула, Биковський Захар (?-1743-1746- ?)
Лавриненко Терентій Григорович (? -1768-1770 - ?)
Худорба Архип Михайлович (1770 -1772)
Клюєвський Максим Романович (? - до 1777)
Бедренцов Петро Андрійович, Тужало, Менпольський, Короткевич-Більський Іван Микитович (1779 - ?)
Сотенні хорунжі
Воробей Іван Федорович (? -1654.02.- ?)
Парфененко Петро (?-1676.02.- ?)
Бакланець Родіон Степанович (? - 1687 - ?)
Картель Марко (? - 1709 - ран. 1728)
Кривицький Тиміш (? - 1715 - ?)
Смардовський Тимофій Іванович (? -1721.06.-1728.11.- ?)
Картеленко Захар (раніше 1728)
Пашинський Лук'ян (?-1732- ?)
Ревенко Іван Якович
Налягака Григорій Герасимович
Тимченко-Кривицький Мартин Матвійович (? - 1782 - ?)
Сотенні возні
Сухота Василь Георгійович (? - 1777 - ?)
Адміністративний поділ
Новгородська сотня складалася з наступних куренів:
Арапівський (село Араповичі, село Дробишів, село Комань);
Гірківський (село Гірки, село Горбове, село Юхнове);
Городовий (місто Новгород-Сіверський);
Дегтярівський (село Дегтярівка, село Гнатівка, село Кудлаївка);
Знобівський (село Зноб-Новгородське, село Мефедівка, село Кренидівка);
Івотський (село Івот);
Лісконізький (село Лісконоги, село Леньків);
Погребський (село Погребки, село Остроушки);
Риківський (село Рикове);
Серединський (містечко Середина-Буда, село Чернацьке, село Ромашкове);
Стахорський (село Стахорщина, село Бугринівка);
Фаївський (село Фаївка, село Блистова);
Хильчанський (село Хильчичі, село Кривоносівка);
Шатринський (село Шатрище).
В самому місті Новгород-Сіверському, існували ще наступні квартирні сотні:
Заручейська;
Кляшторна;
Ринкова.
Населені пункти
На середину XVIII століття:
Міста: Новгород-Сіверський, Середина-Буда.
Села: Антонівка; Араповичі; Бугринівка; Велика Берізка; Блистова; Боровичі; Глазове; Голубівка; Горбове; Гірки; Чулатів; Дегтярівка; Домотканів; Дробишів;Жихове; Журавка; Зноб-Новгородське; Гнатівка; Каліївка; Карасівка; Ковпинка; Комань; Красичка; Кренидівка; Кривоносівка; Кролевець-Слобідка; Кудлаївка; Курилівка; Леньків; Лісконоги; Лоска; Мефедівка; Мезин; Нова Гута; Ображіївка; Олтар; Остроушки; Очкине; Пигарівка; Погребки; Прокопівка; Протопопівка; Радомка; Риків; Рудня; Свірж; Собич; Стара Гута; Стахорщина; Сухомлинівка; Ушівка; Фаївка; Хильчичі.
Хутори: Короткевича Антона, священика; Стожевського Михайла; Юшкова, майора.
За сотнею в "Генеральному описі Малоросії" 1765-1769 pp. також значиться кілька нових хуторів і села та слободи: Афанасівка, Берин, Вовна, Гудове, Киселівка, Коробеничі, Красички, Новий Кривець, Підмеєнська, Суражичі, Чорноводка, Шкрябине. Водночас відсутні підкреслені населені пункти.
Джерела
ЦДІА України в м. Києві, фонд 51, опис 3, далі - справа №:
- 7967 - 1740-1741 рр. - Справа про організацію ревізії та ревізькі відомості Новгородської сотні Стародубського полку,
- 8015 - 1740 р. - Ревізькі відомості Новгородської сотні,
- 8078 - 1740-1742 рр. - Справа про розслідування зловживань під час ревізії підданих Новгородського Спаського монастиря у 1740 р.,
- 8118 - 1741-1742 рр. - Справа про звинувачення військовим канцеляристом Михайлом Федоровичем колезького радника Постельникова та військового товариша Івана Дем"яновича в подачі неправильних відомостей про ревізію в Новгородській сотні,
- 8239 - 1740-1743 рр. - -"- про подачу неправильних відомостей в ревізії Новгородської сотні,
- 8263 - 1741-1742 рр. - -"- про подачу неправильних відомостей в ревізії Новгородської сотні,
- 8331 - 1742 р. - Справа про розшук ревізії складеної військовим канцеляристом Михайлом Федоровичем у Новгородській сотні,
- 8387 - 1742 р. - Про розслідування донесення військової канцелярії Михайла Федоровича про приховування козацьких дворів під час ревізії у с.Журавка Новгородської сотні,
- 8419 - 1742 р. - Ревізькі відомості про кількість населення його соціальний і майновий стан у Новгородській сотні Стародубського полку та в Сорочинській Миргородського,
- 8435 - 1740 р. - Про роботу комісії по розслідуванні незаконного скуповування козацьких ґрунтів у Новгородській сотні,
- 8436 - 1742 р. - Про роботу комісії по розслідуванні ревізії 1740 р. в Новгородській сотні,
- 8538 - 1742-1743 рр. - Матеріали про звинувачення військової канцелярії Михайлом Федоровичем козацької старшини та офіцерів у подачі фіктивних даних про ревізію у Новгородській сотні.
О. Лазаревський. Описание старой Малороссии. Том I. Полк Стародубский. – Киев, 1888.
Полкові сотні Гетьманщини
Стародубський полк
Ніжинський полк
Новгородський полк
Історія Новгород-Сіверська
Засновані в Україні 1649
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Черниця (роман)
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Черниця (роман)
(також називається «Мемуари черниці») — французький роман XVIII століття, написаний Дені Дідро. Завершений приблизно в 1780 році. Вперше опублікований у 1792 році (через вісім років після смерті Дідро) у його журналі Correspondance littéraire у Саксонії, а згодом у 1796 році у Франції.
Українською романи «Черниця» та «Небіж Рамо» вперше опублікувало видавництво «Дніпро» в 1963 році у перекладі з французької І. Ковтунової. У 2024 році видавництво «Ще одну сторінку» опублікувало ці романи вже в перекладі В. Підмогильного.
Підґрунтя
Роман починався не як твір для літературного споживання, а як складний практичний жарт, спрямований на те, щоб заманити маркіза де-Круамара, супутника Дідро, назад до Парижа. Роман складається з низки листів нібито від черниці Сюзанни, яка благає маркіза допомогти їй відмовитися від обітниць і описує своє нестерпне життя в монастирі, до якого її віддали проти її волі.
У 1758 році маркіз втягнувся в суперечливу справу, коли черниця Маргарет де-Ламар намагалася звільнитися від своїх обітниць і повернутися до суспільства. Маркіз жалів Маргариту і безуспішно силкувався використати свій політичний вплив для її звільнення. Програвши справу в 1758 році, Маргарет була змушена залишитися в монастирі до кінця свого життя. Дідро використав Маргарет де-Ламар як прототип для Сюзанни, думаючи, що йому вдасться переконати Круамара повернутися до Парижа, щоб врятувати Сюзанну від її страждань у монастирі.
Згодом цей розіграш перетворився на пристрасний проєкт для Дідро, у якому він ідентифікує себе як жінку. Пізніше Дідро переробив листи в роман, який описує корупцію, яка нібито поширена серед духовенства та релігійних установ. Коли Дідро публічно визнав свою роль у шахрайстві, маркіз посміявся над цим викриттям, що не дивно, оскільки він зі зразковим співчуттям і великодушністю був готовий допомогти уявній Сюзанні.
Сюжет
Марія-Сюзанна Сімонен, яка живе у вісімнадцятому столітті, — розумна й чутлива шістнадцятирічна француженка, яку батьки змушують проти її волі відправитися в католицький монастир. Батьки Сюзанни спочатку повідомляють, що відправляють її до монастиря з фінансових причин, заявляючи, що для неї дешевше стати черницею, ніж давати за неї придане. Однак, перебуваючи в монастирі, Сюзанна дізнається, що насправді вона там тому, що вона позашлюбна дитина, оскільки її мати вчинила перелюб з іншим чоловіком. Відправляючи Сюзанну до монастиря, її мати вважала, що зможе загладити свої гріхи, використавши доньку як жертву для свого спасіння.
У монастирі Сюзанна зазнає принижень, переслідувань і насильства, оскільки відмовляється скласти обітницю релігійної громади. Сюзанна погоджується вступити в сестринство, однак її поміщають в ізоляцію на шість місяців за її небажання прийняти обітницю. Зрештою Сюзанна починає товаришувати з настоятелькою, сестрою де-Моні, яка вислуховує страждання Сюзанни. За кілька днів до її смерті сестра де-Моні втішає Сюзанну молитвою та своїм розумінням мук Сюзанни в монастирі.
Сестру де-Моні змінила сестра Сент-Крістін, яка не поділяє такого співчуття до Сюзанни, як її попередниця. Насправді нова настоятелька звинувачує Сюзанну у смерті сестри де-Моні та у заворушеннях, з якими стикається монастир під новим керівництвом. Сестра Сент-Крістін фізично та психічно цькує Сюзанну майже до смерті.
Сюзанна зв'язується зі своїм адвокатом, месьє Манурі, який намагається законним шляхом спекатися її обітниць. Вона програє судову справу, однак мосьє Манурі вдається перевести Сюзанну в інший монастир, Сент-Етроп, звільнивши її від переслідувань сестри Сент-Крістін. У монастирі Сент-Етроп виявляється, що настоятелька є лесбійкою, і вона стає прихильною до Сюзанни. Настоятелька намагається спокусити Сюзанну, але її невинність і цнотливість зрештою доводять настоятельку до божевілля, що призводить до її смерті.
Сюзанна втікає з монастиря Сент-Етроп за допомогою духівника. Після звільнення вона живе в страху, що її схоплять і повернуть до монастиря, чекаючи на допомогу маркіза де-Круамара.
Тематика
Найімовірніше, Дідро був атеїстом, тому він використав роман, щоб привернути увагу до ймовірної корумпованості інституцій католицької церкви, які сприяли ієрархічній динаміці влади між настоятелькою та дівчатами, які змушені складати обітниці. Дідро зображує життя в монастирі нестерпним, негуманним і сексуально репресивним. Події в романі відбуваються у Франції, коли уряд примушував дотримуватись релігійних обітниць.
Екранізації
Роман був кілька разів екранізований: в 1966 році як «Черниця» Жака Ріветта, у головних ролях ― Анна Каріна та Лізелотта Пульвер, і в 2013 році як «Черниця» з Полін Етьєн у головній ролі. Роман також був натхненням для фільму «Собор грішників» 1986 року Джо Д'Амато.
Примітки
Посилання
Черниця (український переклад В. Підмогильного 1933 р.) в електронній бібліотеці Чтиво
Черниця (український переклад В. Підмогильного 1933 р.) на платформі УкрЛіб
La religieuse французькою мовою в проекті Гутенберг
Джерела
Дідро Д. Черниця : вибрані твори. Київ : Ще одну сторінку, 2024. 320 с.
Дідро Д. Черниця. Небіж Рамо. Дніпро : Держлітвидав України, 1963. 260 с.
Французька література
Романи
Екранізовані романи
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciega%2C%20Sordomuda
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Ciega, Sordomuda
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Ciega, Sordomuda
"Ciega, Sordomuda" is a song by Colombian singer Shakira from her fourth studio album, Dónde Están los Ladrones? (1998). A pop rock track, it utilizes mariachi trumpets and lyrically equates total love to a person being blind, deaf, and mute. It was released as the album's lead single on 4 September 1998 by Columbia Records and Sony Discos. The lyrics were written by Shakira. Its music was co-composed by Shakira and Estéfano, while produced by the singer and Lester Méndez.
"Ciega Sordomuda" received positive reactions from music critics, who praised the instruments used and compared it to Shakira's breakout hit "Estoy Aquí". The song was nominated in the category of Pop Song of the Year at the 1999 Lo Nuestro Awards and was a recipient of a Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI) Latin Award in 2000. An accompanying music video was filmed in Los Angeles, CA and directed by Gustavo Garzón. The film depicts Shakira and her partner being chased by cyber police after escaping jail. The song was included in the set list for the Tour Anfibio, Tour of the Mongoose, the Oral Fixation Tour, and The Sun Comes Out World Tour. Shakira also performed an acoustic version of the song for her first live album, MTV Unplugged (2000). Commercially, the track topped the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Latin Pop Airplay charts in the United States; it also became a number-one hit in Costa Rica, Panama and her native Colombia; and reached the top-ten in five other countries.
Background and composition
After rising to prominence with the success of her major-label debut album Pies Descalzos (1995), Shakira was introduced to Emilio Estefan, the most important producer in the Hispanic market at the time, by her promoter and longtime friend, Jairo Martínez. Estefan was renowned for launching the careers of several Hispanic singers, including Enrique Iglesias, Thalía, and his wife Gloria Estefan. He decided to work with Shakira as he identified her potential to break into the US Latin market, though one of Shakira's concerns about working with Estefan was creative control over her music. Before signing their contract, the roles and duties were finalized: Estefan would be her manager and executive producer, but she would be in charge of all material and arrangements and have final approval over her records. She later stated about Estefan, "He had a great respect for me as an artist and trusted me totally on this project." Since then, they started working on Estefan's Crescent Moon Studios in Miami. She insisted on perfection, working on the material to the point of exhaustion. "I made two or three demos of each song. I became a human being so demanding of myself that until the song made my hair stand on end, I wouldn't stop".
Equipment for the recording of Dónde Están los Ladrones? included old amplifiers to achieve a better sound, a 40-year-old German microphone, and several innovations in the instrumental mixes. Dónde Están los Ladrones? took nine months to produce, more than Shakira's previous records since more people were involved on this album. Shakira commented, "To me it's a normal time, the gestation period for a baby. But many people wag their finger and tell me that the next one cannot take so long..." Shakira was involved with the compositions for all the tracks in the album, including "Ciega, Sordomuda", which she co-wrote with Colombian musician Estéfano, with productions being handled by the singer and Lester Méndez. Musically, "Ciega, Sordomuda" is a pop rock song that equates "total love to being blind, deaf, and mute" and incorporates mariachi trumpets at various points. Lyrically, Shakira describes herself as "brute, blind, deaf, dumb, clumsy, fretful, stubborn" to a love who has her "haggard, skinny, ugly, disheveled, clumsy, dumb, slow, foolish, unhinged, completely out of control".
Reception
John Lannert of Billboard noted that the track "strongly resembles" to her breakout hit, "Estoy Aquí" (1995). The Dallas Morning News critic Mario Tarradell regarded "Ciega, Sordomuda" as "an obvious first single" with its "jittery pop-rock feel" and also made a comparison to "Estoy Aquí". Mark Kemp, writing for the book The New Rolling Stone Album Guide, felt that the artist "pays tribute to her Latin roots in the Spanish guitars and trumpets". The Latin Beat Magazine editor Franz Reynold called the song a "mid-tempo rocker dedicated to the horrors of emotional co-dependency-with mariachi-style brass flitting in and out of the spare vocal and the airy strum of guitars." Ramiro Burr of the San Antonio Express-News found it to be one of the album's "catchy tunes", while a writer for The Asahi Shimbun found the track to be "especially addictive". On the review of the album for Newsday, Richard Torres observed the "cry of individuality" in the song.
"Ciega, Sordomuda" was nominated in the category of Pop Song of the Year at the 11th Annual Lo Nuestro Awards in 1999, but ultimately lost to "La Copa de la Vida" by Ricky Martin. It was acknowledged as an award-winning song at the 2000 BMI Latin Awards. "Ciega, Sordomuda" ranked number 89 on Billboards "The 98 Greatest Songs of 1998", with Leila Cobo noting that the song "broke completely with everything popular Latina musicians had been doing up to that point". It was listed among Shakira's 26 Best Songs by HipLatina.
In the US, "Ciega Sordomuda" debuted at number seven on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart on the week of 24 October 1998. It reached the summit a month later, spending three weeks at this spot. The song also topped the Latin Pop Airplay chart and peaked at number seven in Spain. In November 1999, it was labeled as one of the "hottest tracks" for Sony Discos in a list including the most successful songs released by the label since the launching of the Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart in 1986.
Promotion and live performances
"Ciega, Sordomuda" was released to radio stations worldwide as the album's lead single on 4 September 1998. It was later included on her greatest hits album Grandes Éxitos (2002). The music video for the song was directed by Gustavo Garzón and filmed in Miami. The film depicts Shakira being jailed and escaping with her partner. They are then chased by several policemen, who are revealed to be robots at the end. Various scenes include the couple driving blindfolded and Shakira performing with guests dancing in the background. The video was nominated in the category of Video of the Year at the 1999 Lo Nuestro Awards, but ultimately lost to "Esperanza" by Enrique Iglesias.
"Ciega, Sordomuda" was included on the set list for the following tours: Tour Anfibio (2000), Tour of the Mongoose (2002–03), the Oral Fixation Tour (2006–07), and The Sun Comes Out World Tour (2010–11), The Los Angeles Times writer Ernesto Lechner noted Shakira's "disjointed robotic movements" while she performed the track at the Arrowhead Pond in 2000. For The Sun Comes Tour, a Stroh violin was used to replace the horn sections of the original recording. David Hardwick from Spinning Platters said the use of the instrument was "impressive". She also sung the track during the 11th Annual Lo Nuestro Awards and Miss Colombia 1999. In August 1999, Shakira sang an acoustic version of "Ciega, Sordomuda" during an episode of MTV Unplugged in New York City as a mariachi tune, where she was accompanied by El Mariachi Los Mora Arriaga. The performance was included on her first live album, MTV Unplugged (2000). As part of The Latin Recording Academy tribute to Shakira, who was presented with the Person of the Year accolade in 2011, Mexican singer Alejandro Guzmán and Spanish musician Natalia Jiménez performed "Ciega, Sordomuda" as a duet.
Formats and track listings
Promo CD
"Ciega, Sordomuda"4:28
Spanish Maxi CD
"Ciega, Sordomuda" (12" full mix)10:51
"Ciega, Sordomuda" (12" single edit)4:36
"Ciega, Sordomuda" (dub mix)8:01
"Ciega, Sordomuda" (radio edit)4:37
Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of "Ciega, Sordomuda".
Marcelo Acevedoacoustic guitar
Tommy Anthonybacking vocalist
Estéfanosongwriting
Julio Hernándezbass guitar
Sebastian Krysmixing
Lester Mendezproducer, keyboards, programmer
Shakirasongwriting, producer, lead vocals
Claudio Speiwakacoustic guitar
Nicolás Tovarbacking vocalist
Teddy Mulettrumpet
Adam Zimmonelectric guitar
Charts
Certifications
Covers
The song was covered by Croatian singer Vesna Pisarović under the title "Da je meni (oko moje)". This version served as the second single from Pisarović's sophomore album Za tebe stvorena.
See also
List of number-one Billboard Hot Latin Tracks of 1998
List of Billboard Latin Pop Airplay number ones of 1998
References
1998 singles
1998 songs
Songs in Spanish
Shakira songs
Songs written by Shakira
Songs written by Estéfano
Pop rock songs
Columbia Records singles
Sony Discos singles
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Духовне училище (Ромни)
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Духовне училище (Ромни) — архітектурна пам'ятка, колишнє духовне училище, яке було призначене для підготовки служителів культу нижчого рангу для Полтавської єпархії. Засноване 1886 року. Знаходиться по вулиці Монастирській № 4.
Історія духовного училища
Будівля була зведена спеціально для духовного училища в 1886 році. Це перша кам'яна триповерхова будівля в місті, яка була збудована в Ромнах. Розміщений по вулиці Щучки (тепер вулиця Монастирська) неподалік Святодухівського собору і Василівської церкви. Червоний триповерховий будинок, який червонів над Сулою, вражав кожного, хто наближався до міста з боку Засулля. Після закриття Духовного училища в будівлі певний час знаходилось танкове училище. Пізніше у приміщенні розміщувався штаб ракетної частини частини, яка дислокувалася в Ромнах в роки СРСР.
Роменське духовне училища було призначене «для початкової освіти і підготовки дітей до служіння православній церкві». Навчальний заклад перебував у живому зв'язку з Полтавською семінарією. Училище утримувалося на кошти, які вишукувало духовенство Полтавської єпархії, і перебували у віданні єпархіального архієрея, під загальним управлінням [Священний Синод[|Священного Синоду]]. Безпосереднє піклування було ввірене місцевому духовенству. Навчально-виховна частина здійснювалася під керівництвом місцевих семінарських правлінь, a безпосередньо училищем управляв доглядач і його помічнику та правління у складі доглядача і вчителі. В училище приймали дітей духовних осіб безкоштовно, a з інших станів — з платнею. Роменське духовне училище пропонувало учням чотирикласну освіту, програма якої наближалась до програми чотирьох класів гімназій. За словами письменника Капельгородського, у школі навчалось більше 250 дітей віком від 9 до 18 років, яких «напихали переважно стародавніми мовами, святою історією, катехізисом, церковнослав'янщиною, чистописанням, морили в церкві довжелезними службами, улаштовували в свята нуднющі читання житій святих і туманні картини з біблійних тем…»
Тут навчався, а пізніше, з 1913 року кілька років викладав латинську мови і Григорій Григорович Ващенко, письменник, творець української національної системи виховання. Духовне училище було закрите після революційних подій у 1918 році.
Архітектурні особливості
В архітектурі будівлі прослідковується вплив готичного стилю. Будинок має чіткі, симетричні форми, великі арочні вікна з вузьким западаючим обрамленням. Усі три поверхи подібні, між ними знаходяться карнизи, акцентовані зубчиками. Вхід знаходиться по центру будівлі. По боках фасаду — два ризаліти, які завершені високими парапетами вертикальної орієнтації. Центральна частина парапету оформлена декоративними арочними і зубчатими елементами. На табличці напис: «У цьому будинку з 1893 року вчився в духовній школі і 1897 року був вигнаний за бунтарство визначний український письменник Пилип Капельгородський»
Учні
В училищі навчалися:
Пилип Капельгородський(14 (26) листопада 1882, с. Городище (нині Недригайлівський район Сумської області — † 19 травня 1938, Полтавщина) — український письменник. За протекцією священника Василя Флоренського батько багатодітної родини (одинадцять дітей було в Йосипа Михайловича Капельгородського, колишнього кріпака князя Щербатова, та біднячки Уляни Федорівни) відвіз Пилипа з «маленького і убогого» Городища в Роменську духовну школу. "Ти пойми, чудак ти такий: вічний предстатель буде за тебе перед престолом Божим, " — переконав отець Василь. 16 серпня 1893 року одинадцятилітній Пилип розпочав чотирирічний курс навчання в бурсі. Учився добре і невдовзі посів перше місце, однак перевагу надавав товариським обов'язкам. Бурсацька система виховання так допекла майбутнього «заступника Христа на землі», що він пожбурив у вікно ненависного наставника нічного горщика. Другого дня,15 січня 1897 року «за бунтарство» він був виключений зі школи: йому видали свідоцтво, де у графі дисциплін стояла цифра «5», а в графі поведінки — «1». У травні-вересні 1909 р. в армавірській тюрмі Капельгородський написав автобіографічну повість-хроніка «Записки семінариста», в якій розповів про Ручилище, дав характеристики вихователям-наглядачам.
За його словами, учням «животи підводило від довгого посту», вони все «ламали голову, яким способом наситити голодний бурсацький шлунок», учиняли набіги на базарні ряди. Більшість учителів поводилися з учнями бездушно, гордували ними та знущалися з них і відбивали всякий смак до науки, калічили душі дітей, виховували рабів лукавих і лінивих… На щастя, було кілька людей, які привчали учнів до художньої літератури. Таким був учитель О. В. Навроцький, під впливом якого добрий десяток хлопців почав писати вірші, а Пилип на чотирнадцятому році мав уже грубенький зшиток власних творів. Наглядач Демчинський замість обов'язкового читання житій святих познайомив з творами Гоголя, Пушкіна, Помяловського…
Ващенко Григорій Григорович — письменник, творець української національної системи виховання.
Чаленко Іван Якович — український філософ, педагог, основоположник модерної української філософської науки етики.
Римаренко Адріан Адріанович (1893—1978)– Єпископ Роклендський Андрій — син відомого роменського тютюнового промисловця. Адріан навчався в Роменському духовному училищі, на вищих богословських курсах. Служив у церкві с. Овлаші, був настоятелем Олександрівської церкви, яка знаходилась на Гостиннодвірській площі до закриття храму. Через переслідування духовенства в радянські часи переїхав до Києва, де був репресований. В період окупації Києва фашистами служив у Володимирському соборі. Після смерті сина і дружини, перебуваючи в еміграції в США прийняв чернецтво, спорудив монастир у честь Серафима Саровського, продовжував службу до останнього дня. Синод РПЦ за кордоном прилучив його до лику святих.
Див. також
Духовне училище
Пилип Капельгородський
Ващенко Григорій Григорович
Чаленко Іван Якович
Джерела
http://encyclosights.com/object_details.php?ln=2&dm=1&id=16770
Вечерський В. В. Втрачені святині/В. В. Вечерський.- Техніка, 2004.
Курилов І. О. Роменська старина. Історичні, статистичні і побутові записки про місто Ромни і його жителів від початку міста до нашого часу. — Ромни, 1897.
Кам'яна симфонія. Дослідження архітектури Роменщини. –ТОВ "Торговий дім «Папірус», Суми, 2011. — 132 с. Автор-упорядник Ольга Лобода
Основні об'єкти туризму Сумської області: в 3 томах/редколегіяО. М. Маринич. — К., 1993
Навчальні заклади, засновані 1886
Православні навчальні заклади
Засновані в Україні 1886
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9356415
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret%20of%20Nevers
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Margaret of Nevers
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Margaret of Nevers (December 1393 – February 1442), also known as Margaret of Burgundy, was Dauphine of France and Duchess of Guyenne as the daughter-in-law of King Charles VI of France. A pawn in the dynastic struggles between her family and in-laws during the Hundred Years' War, Margaret was regarded as the future Queen of France at two separate times, as a result of her two marriages: first to the Dauphin and second to the Duke of Brittany.
Early life
Born in late 1393, Margaret was the eldest child and the first of six daughters of John the Fearless and Margaret of Bavaria. Her father was, at the time, Count of Nevers and heir apparent to the Duchy of Burgundy ruled by his father, Philip the Bold. On 9 July 1394, Duke Philip and his mentally unstable nephew, King Charles VI of France, agreed that the former's first grandchild would marry the latter's son and heir apparent, Dauphin Charles. Following their formal betrothal in January 1396, Margaret was known as "madame la dauphine". She and her sisters, described by a contemporary as "plain as owls", grew up in an "affectionate family atmosphere" in the ducal residences of Burgundy, and were close to their paternal grandmother, Countess Margaret III of Flanders.
First marriage
The death of her eight-year-old fiancé in early 1401 forced Margaret's grandfather and Charles' mother, Isabeau of Bavaria, to arrange a new union in the wake of Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War. In Paris in May 1403, it was agreed that Margaret would marry the new Dauphin of France, Duke Louis of Guyenne. A double marriage took place at the end of August 1404, as part of Philip the Bold's efforts to maintain a close relationship with France by ensuring that the next Queen of France would be his granddaughter. Margaret married Dauphin Louis, while her only brother, Philip the Good, married Louis' sister Michelle. Philip the Bold did not live long enough to see his grandchildren's marriages consummated. He died in 1404, and was succeeded by Margaret's father. The French Italian author Christine de Pizan dedicated The Treasure of the City of Ladies to the young Dauphine, in which she advised her about what she had to learn and how she should behave; the manuscript may have even been commissioned by the Dauphine's father.
It was not until June 1409 that the marriages were consummated, according to Jean Juvénal des Ursins, after which Margaret moved to the court of her mother-in-law. Margaret soon became a pawn in the struggle between two belligerent fractions, the Armagnacs and the Burgundians, who aspired to control her husband. Their childless marriage ended with Louis' death in 1415. The young widow was rescued with some difficulty from Armagnac-controlled Paris. She then returned to Burgundy, living there for a few years with her unmarried sisters alongside their mother. Upon their father's assassination in 1419, Philip the Good became Duke of Burgundy.
Second marriage
Margaret's father-in-law died in 1422, and the English occupied a part of France in the name of his infant grandson, King Henry VI of England, who was to succeed him according to the Treaty of Troyes. At the same time, Margaret's brother-in-law Charles VII claimed the crown for himself. In early 1423, Philip the Good entered into an alliance with Duke John V of Brittany and Henry's regent, John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford. He intended to reinforce the alliance by arranging marriages of his sisters, Anne and Margaret, with the Duke of Bedford and the Duke of Brittany's younger brother Arthur, Count of Richmond, respectively.
Margaret was far from enthusiastic about remarrying and attempted to postpone or prevent the marriage by complaining that Arthur was still imprisoned by the English and that all her sisters had married dukes. As the former Dauphine of France who still used the title of Duchess of Guyenne, she claimed that a count was too far beneath her in rank. Philip had to send his trusted servant, Renier Pot, as a special ambassador to Margaret. Pot explained to her the necessity of an alliance with Brittany and told her that Bedford had created Arthur Duke of Touraine. Per Philip's instructions, Pot told Margaret that, still being a fairly young widow, she ought to marry and have children soon, more so because Philip himself was now a childless widower. She eventually yielded, and the marriage was celebrated on 10 October 1423.
Arthur soon became a very influential person at the royal court in Paris, and staunchly worked in the interests of Burgundy, especially during his marriage to Margaret. Burgundy and Brittany eventually changed sides, joining Charles VII in his fight against the English. Margaret proved to be a devoted wife, protecting her husband when he fell out with Charles VII and managing his estates while he was at the battlefield. She returned with him to Paris when the French regained control of the city in 1436. Little is known about her life after 1436. She died childless in Paris in February 1442. In her will, a copy of which is preserved in the archives of Nantes, she asked that her heart be buried at a Picardy shrine called Notre-Dame de Liesse. Both her widower and brother, however, were too busy to carry out her final request. Arthur remarried within a year; both his subsequent marriages were also childless.
Ancestry
References
Further reading
Autrand, Françoise. Charles VI le roi fou.
1393 births
1442 deaths
House of Valois
Dauphines of Viennois
Dauphines of France
Duchesses of Aquitaine
15th-century French nobility
15th-century French women
Daughters of dukes
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64233674
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20the%20Byzantine%20Empire
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Women in the Byzantine Empire
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Women in the Byzantine Empire
The situation of women in the Byzantine Empire is a subject of scientific research that encompasses all available information about women, their environments, their networks, their legal status, etc., in the Byzantine Empire.
This field of study experiences debates within it on various important questions. For a long time, the attention of historians was attracted only by individual prominent Byzantine women, mainly the Empress, especially the wife of Emperor Justinian I Theodora, who had a significant influence on the events of the first half of the 6th century. Numerous sources (chronicles, legal texts, hagiographic literature) however paint a picture of the Byzantine patriarchal society in which women in general did not have independent significance and upper class women were imprisoned in a gynaeceum.
The scientific study of the legal and economic status of women in the Byzantine Empire began in the second half of the 19th century and is currently intensively ongoing. The subject of study is both women in general and related issues of family and property law. The scarcity of surviving sources leads to diverse assessments of the place of women in Byzantine society. With the development of gender studies in the 1970s, there is a tendency to revise early views, according to which this role was not significant. The historian Ioli Kalavrezou provides a more positive description of the lives of Byzantine women. Several authors today assume that Byzantine women enjoyed significantly more privileges in comparison to women in Western Europe and the Islamic world.
Education
The general view of women's education was that it was sufficient for a girl to learn domestic duties and to study the lives of the Christian saints and memorize psalms, and to learn to read so that she could study Bible scriptures – though literacy among women was sometimes discouraged because it was believed it could encourage vice. However, there were individual Byzantine women, who famed for their educational accomplishments, such as Kassia, Anna Komnene and Dobrodeia of Kiev.
Sexuality
Marriage
Byzantine women were married usually by the age of fourteen, though some women married later, as for instance Thomais of Lesbos who married aged twenty-four. Marriage was regarded as the ideal state for a woman, and only convent life was seen as a legitimate alternative. Within marriage, sexual activity was regarded only as the means of reproduction. The Roman right to actual divorce was gradually erased after the introduction of Christianity and replaced with legal separation and annulation. A woman had the right to appear before court, but her testimony was not regarded as equal to that of a man, and could be contradicted on the basis of her sex if put against that of a man. On the other hand, women were not entirely subordinated to the will of men. According to the Early Byzantine diplomat and political thinker Priscus of Pannion, '[a]mongst the Romans it was not right to betroth a woman to a man against her will'. Theodore of Sykeon in his Life 'depicts a household of strong women, with no male head, who converge to spoil and promote the one young male child in the family. The women have some choice in their lives, they are able to make a living through the proceeds of the inn, and later, Theodore's grandmother chooses the religious life while his mother marries into a prominent family.'
Ascetic ideal of a woman
According to Judith Herrin, sexuality in the Byzantine Empire was saturated with hypocritical double standards, as in any other medieval society. On the one hand, men appreciated female charm and resorted to the services of prostitutes and mistresses, on the other hand, demanded moral purity from their relatives. Moreover, in Byzantium, the Christian church played a huge role, whose ideas about the relationship of the sexes were formed in the period Early Christianity. Christianity has inherited beliefs from Classical antiquity that women are physically and morally weaker than men, more prone to the needs and desires of their bodies, and therefore less able to understand what is good, and if they understand, to adhere to it. Finally with rare exceptions, Byzantine literature was created by men and reflects their views.
Until the 12th century, in the Byzantine Empire there was no erotic literature and erotic art in general, and the subject of expression of feelings was the attitude of ascetic to God, which implied the complete elimination of sexuality. According to the general idea, a woman was responsible for the desire arising to her in a man, and even for a monk, the best way was not to look at women. There was no general consensus on whether disgusting sexual desire is always dangerous. Some Christian authors of the 4th century agreed that the desire was given by God for the purpose of procreation, and a married person can lead a Christian life no less than one who adheres to celibacy. Some believed that a chaste man and woman could live in the same house without risk to their souls, however, the practical experience of ascetics indicated that sexual desire was almost impossible to contain. In this sense, even a mother or sister could become a reminder to the ascetic of all the other women and the rejected worldly life in general. In this regard, for an ascetic woman, it was necessary to abandon an attractive appearance, wear clothes hiding the figure, and abandon her social status. The washing was condemned, as it once again attracted attention to the rejected body.
Prostitution
The prostitutes were at the bottom of the social ladder and were known by a variety of names – hetairai, "public women", "(women) from the attic". They are more known from hagiographic literature (where they appear under the designation "humiliated" or "miserable") or in civil or church law attempting to limit this phenomenon. Probably, prostitution has always been prevalent in Byzantium. However, the word referred not only to communication with prostitutes, but to many other deviations from the recommended sexual behavior. Prostitution flourished in the capital and the largest cities of the empire – Alexandria, Antioch, Berytus and Edessa, later in Thessalonica and ports of Asia Minor.
Engaging in this activity was relatively voluntary when the daughters of actors or artisans were seduced by tales spread by the brothel holders about the luxurious life of getters; also prostitutes could become slaves and prisoners. Mistresses of brothels also went to the provinces to find suitable girls, buying them in poor families. However, such transactions were illegal, and the found father of the family was deprived of parental rights and could be sent as a punishment to the mines; for the members of the Church, the punishment was excommunication. But, obviously, these measures were applied without much success, and at least in the 12th century, prostitution was not only voluntary. Attempts to limit prostitution geographically were also futile even in Constantinople – founded even under Constantine the Great Lupanar was empty, and under the emperor Theophilos (829–843) the building was transferred to the hospital. Yet, under Justinian's reign, the empire saw a plethora of reforms directed to females working in prostitution, both to pursue rights and protection from forced work, as well as welfare efforts to encourage repentance and reformation.
Women whose activities involved the trading of their bodies also included mime artists, performers on flute, singers at weddings or banquets, and actresses on stage that were considered by audience members to be sexually available. According to the Byzantines, engaging in secular art is not befitting an honest man, and women of these professions were considered prostitutes of a separate kind. The lower class prostitutes were considered to be maidservants in taverns and xenodochiums, about which, according to the tradition dating from ancient times.
A frequent topos of Byzantine hagiographic literature was the spiritual degeneration of the “harlot," who, repenting, "acquired holiness for herself." So, for example, this happened with a saint of the 5th century Pelagia of Antioch or a saint of the 6th century Mary of Egypt. According to the suggestion of Judith Herrin, the mother of Constantine the Great Saint Helena was a prostitute in the tavern.
Public role
Gender segregation
From the 6th century there was a growing ideal of gender segregation, which dictated that women should wear veils and only be seen in public when attending church, and while the ideal was never fully enforced, it influenced society. However, Arabic testimonies on Byzantine women (according to El Cheikh) depict a different reality: 'Byzantine women are not veiled; even when married, they pass the people in the market with heads/faces uncovered, showing all their beauty'. The laws of emperor Justinian I made it legal for a man to divorce his wife for attending public premises—such as theatres or public baths—without his permission, and Emperor Leo VI banned women from witnessing business contracts with the argument that it caused them to come into contact with men. In Constantinople, upper class women were increasingly expected to keep to a special women's section (gynaikonitis), and by the 8th century it was described as unacceptable for unmarried daughters to meet unrelated men. While imperial women and their ladies appeared in public alongside men, women and men at the Imperial Court attended royal banquets separately until the rise of the Comnenus dynasty in the 12th century. According to Averil Cameron, '[t]he message of the prevailing ideology' in Byzantium 'was that women should stay at home, be good mothers and confine their activity to acts of pious charity. Yet the reality was somewhat different. For example, women could inherit, the dowry system was a protection for them ... Many non-aristocratic women also found ways of exercising influence outside the home, and at lower levels, as in all agrarian societies, and in pre-industrial towns generally, their labour was essential.' The freedom of movement might have also depended upon the social status and the location; whereas Mary the Younger had to curtail her activities outside the house once she moved into a larger town from a village, the lower-born Thomais of Lesbos moved freely in Constantinople by day and night.
While it is commonly assumed that in Byzantine society modesty and shyness best suited the female nature and temperament, there is no strict consensus throughout the entire Byzantine millennia of what truly 'modest norms' stand for. For example, Byzantine women were considered 'sexually promiscuous' in the eyes of Arabs; Byzantine women, they assumed, who had no husband and choose not to marry, preferred adultery and they were free to do what they pleased.
Economy and professional life
Eastern Roman and later Byzantine women retained the Roman woman's right to inherit, own, and manage their property and sign contracts, rights which were far superior to the rights of married women in Medieval Catholic Western Europe, as these rights included not only unmarried women and widows, but married women as well. A significant reform enabled women to reclaim their dowry and obtain an extent of financial independence. Women's legal right to handle their own money made it possible for rich women to engage in business, however, women who actively had to find a profession to support themselves normally worked as domestics or in domestic fields such as the food or textile industries. Women could work as medical physicians and attendants of women patients and visitors at hospitals and public baths with government support.
As prostitution was rampant in the Byzantine empire due to poverty, reforms were introduced by Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora concerning welfare and exoneration from their previous professions. This included a 'championing' of rights for sex workers rather than the common practice exile, alongside building a convent for repentance for women to escape poverty and prostitution.
After the introduction of Christianity, women could no longer become priestesses, but it became common for women to found and manage nunneries, which functioned as schools for girls as well as asylums, poor houses, hospitals, prisons and retirement homes for women, and many Byzantine women practiced social work as lay sisters and deaconesses.
Political participation
The Byzantine Empire was a monarchy, and as in many other monarchies, the royal system allowed for women to participate in politics as monarchs in their own name or as regents in place of a husband or son. Many royal women are known to have participated in politics during the centuries. Among them were female monarchs like Pulcheria, Irene of Athens and Theodora Porphyrogenita, as well as female regents such as Theodora, Theophano and Eudokia Makrembolitissa. There were also empresses who engaged in the political arena both alongside and autonomous to their husbands, most famously Theodora (wife of Justinian I), known for her cunning in court and pursuit of reform, most especially females in poverty and sex work. The royal system allowed for women to participate in politics because they were royal, but this was reserved for royal women and did not apply to women in general, nor did it signify acceptance for female participation in politics as such. At the time Irene of Athens was a sole Empress, Pope Leo III considered Irene's alleged unprecedented status as a female ruler of the Roman Empire and proclaimed Charlemagne emperor of the Holy Roman Empire on Christmas Day of 800. He assumed that a woman could not rule and so the throne of the Roman Empire was actually vacant.
In regard to the historiography of women's political activity in the Byzantine Empire, there are two main points of view. According to one of them, women were isolated from the rest of society in a gynaeceum. In this case, historians refer to the relevant statements of Michael Psellos, Kekaumenos and Michael Attaleiates. Another point of view, more common at the present time, is that the isolation of women in the sources does not reflect the real state of affairs, but the ideal idea of Byzantine men. Since the 12th century, numerous examples of the opposite have been known. Talking about how her mother accompanied Alexios I on campaigns, Anna Komnene, the first female historian of Europe, speaks not only about how she took care of the emperor’s sore legs, but also was his adviser, who helped identify the conspirators. According to the writer, "these were the reasons that overpowered the natural shame of this woman and gave her the courage to appear before the eyes of men". The wife of Emperor John VI, Irene Asanina, ruled the city of Didymoteicho during the absence of her husband during the second civil war (1341–1347). Their daughter Maria ruled the fortress of Ainos a few years later, in place of her husband Nikephoros, who was the Despotate of Epirus.
According to Angeliki Laiou, the role of Byzantine women in the political life of the country was significant in the late period of its history in connection with the consolidation of the aristocracy, whose position became dominant. Within this ruling class, women were important because they possessed significant property and had influence over their children. The importance of family ties in the Komnenos period was noted by the Soviet-American Byzantinist Alexander Kazhdan.
References
Citations
Bibliography
in English
in German
in French
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canoe%20polo
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Canoe polo
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Canoe polo, also known as kayak polo, is one of the competitive disciplines of kayaking. The sport is also known simply as "polo" by its players and supporters.
Each team has five players on the pitch (and up to three substitutes), who compete to score in their opponent's goal, which is suspended two meters above the water. The ball can be thrown by hand or flicked with the paddle to pass between players and shoot at the goal. Pitches can be set up in swimming pools or any stretch of flat water, which should measure 35 meters by 23 meters.
Kayak polo combines boating and ball-handling skills with a contact team game, where tactics and positional play are as important as the speed and fitness of the individual athletes. The game requires excellent teamwork and promotes both general canoeing skills and a range of other techniques unique to the sport.
The kayaks are specifically designed for polo and are faster and lighter than typical kayaks which give them superior maneuverability. The blades of a polo paddle have thick rounded edges to prevent injury. Paddles are also very lightweight and designed with both pulling power and ball control in mind. Nose and tail boat bumpers, body protection, helmets, and faceguards are all compulsory.
In International Canoe Federation nomenclature used in some European countries, chiefly the United Kingdom, the term canoe can refer to a kayak too. The boats in this game are paddled with a double-bladed paddle and are called "kayaks".
History
The sport originated in the late nineteenth century in Great Britain, with Punch magazine publishing a picture entitled 'Polo on the Sea' in 1875. However, the birth of the modern sport could be considered to be the demonstration event held at the National Canoe Exhibition at the Crystal Palace National Sports Centre, London, in 1970.
In response to the interest created at the Crystal Palace event, the first National Canoe Polo subcommittee of the British Canoe Union was formed, and it was this committee that developed the modern framework of the game. The National Championships were held every year at the National Canoe Exhibition, and this activity led to the inclusion of Canoe Polo in the demonstration games at Duisburg, Germany in 1987.
In India, Canoe Polo was initiated by the University of Kashmir, Srinagar in 2008 when the University Aquatics Coach Muhammad Yusuf conducted a promotional match between the University of Kashmir and Islamia College on the waters of Nigeen Lake in Srinagar. Later this event was included in the annual water sports calendar of the university. The J&K Water Sports Association is also promoting this sport in Jammu and Kashmir on a larger scale.
Features
The game is now played in many countries throughout all inhabited continents, for recreation and serious sport. The sport has World Championships every two years and European, Asian, African, and Pan American Continental Championships held every year in between World Championship years. Internationally the sport is organized by the Canoe Polo committee of the International Canoe Federation, as one of the disciplines of the sport of canoeing.
The game is often described as a combination of water polo, basketball and kayaking. The tactics and playing of the game are not unlike basketball or water polo but with the added complexity of the boats, which can be used to tackle an opposition player in possession of the ball, or jostle for position within 6 meters of the goal.
Officials
There are two referees (one on each side-line) and they are on foot rather than in boats. The score is kept by the scorekeeper and the timekeeper monitors the playing time and sending-off times. The goal lines are monitored by two line judges. Before play commences scrutineers check all kit for compliance with regulations.
Pitch
Canoe polo is played either indoors in swimming pools or outdoors on a pitch which should measure 35 meters by 23 meters. The boundaries of the pitch are ideally marked using floating ropes (similar to lane markers in swimming), although for smaller venues the edges of the pool are frequently used.
The area approximately 6 meters in front of each the goal can be defined as the Zone. This area is where defending players create formations to defend the goal from attackers.
Timing
The game is officially played as a 14- to 20-minute game consisting of two 7- to 10-minute halves. The teams change ends at the half-time period, which is 1 to 3 minutes long. Each half begins with a "sprint" where each team lines up against its goal-line and the ball is thrown into the middle of the pitch by the referee. One player from each team sprints to win possession of the ball.
Shot clock
A shot clock may be used to speed up the game. The attacking team have 60 seconds to have a shot on the goal or they lose possession. The shot clock is reset when the ball is intercepted by the opposing team or the attacking team loses possession. The shot clock is a recent addition to the rules, and due to the expense and complexity of the equipment is not used universally.
Tactics
There are several attacking and defensive tactics all with different variations.
Offensive
Overload: 1 or 2 players attack the side of the zone, pushing the defensive players together and creating space for a 3rd player to sprint into the newly created space, receive a pass from the 4th player and take a direct shot on the goal.
Box player: A player positions themselves directly under the goal, next to the keeper. The aim is to keep this position and to receive a quick pass and then have a short, direct shot at the goal or pass to another player who takes the opportunity to break through the defence.
Star: The players position themselves around the zone and sprint in consecutively, a defensive player moves to block each player as they sprint in, the attacking team move the ball around as the players sprint in, threatening to take a shot. If done correctly the fifth player is able to sprint into the zone, will have no defensive player to block them, receive the pass from the 4th player and be able to take a direct shot on goal.
Defensive
3–1: Three players form a row above the goal keeper, 1 to each side and 1 directly above the keeper. This formation can provide a very solid defensive line, by protecting the sides and the middle. The remaining player patrols the top of the zone with the aim of pressuring the ball and stopping players running into gaps in the defensive line.
2–2: Two players position themselves in front, and to the side of the goal keeper, and block attacking players threatening the goal from the side. The two other players go further forward and towards the middle with the aim of stopping players running in to the zone and to place pressure of the attackers. Looked on from above, it is not dissimilar to a Christmas tree formation. The aim is to force long-shots and errors from the attackers to win the ball back, while protecting the goal.
Five out: Every player, including the goal keeper, marks a player and pressures the ball and every pass, trying to force a mistake or gain an interception.
Fouls
Most of the rules concern the safety of the players involved or are designed to keep the game fast-paced and exciting to play and watch.
Illegal substitution and entry into the playing area: Only 5 players are allowed in the playing area at once. During a substitution a player must be completely off the pitch (including all kit) before another player can come on.
Illegal possession: A player must dispose of the ball within five (5) seconds of gaining possession, either by passing it to another player or by performing one throw causing the ball to travel by at least one metre measured horizontally from the point of release.
Illegal hand tackle: Types of hand tackle include any hand-tackle where the tackled player does not have possession of the ball or is sharing possession of the ball with another player or any body-contact other than one open hand to the opponents' back, upper arm or side or any hand tackle which endangers the tackled player.
Illegal kayak tackle: Any kayak-tackle that results in significant contact between the tackler's kayak and the head or body of an opposing player, or endangering a player, tackling a player not within 3 metres of the ball or who is not competing for the ball.
Illegal use of the paddle: Playing, or attempting to play, the ball with a paddle when the ball is within arm's reach of an opponent, contacting an opponent's person or any use of a paddle that endangers a player.
Illegal jostle: When a player is stationary or attempting to maintain a position and their body is moved by more than half a metre by sustained contact from an opponent's kayak or jostling the player behind the goal line.
Illegal screen/obstruction: A player actively or deliberately impeding the progress of an opponent when neither player is within three metres of the ball or a player who is not competing for the ball who actively impedes the progress of an opponent who is competing for the ball on the water and not in the air.
Illegal holding: A player gaining support or propulsion by placing their hand, arm, body or paddle on an opponent's kayak, or holding the opposing player or their equipment or using surrounding pitch equipment (goal, side-lines, pool wall), fending off an opponent.
Unsporting behaviour: Players showing dissent, retaliation, foul or abusive language, delaying tactics, interference with opponents equipment, bouncing the ball out of play or any action that the referees consider detrimental to the game.
Three general principles can be applied when determining the severity of a foul.
Deliberate foul – A foul where no effort was made to avoid the illegal play. Any deliberate foul should receive a minimum of a green card- either immediately or at the next break in play if playing advantage.
Dangerous foul – Is significant contact with the opponent's arm, head or body that may result in personal injury and is illegal.
Significant contact – Any high impact or continuous contact, that may result in equipment damage or personal injury.
Equipment
Specialized equipment is needed to play Canoe polo. Items required are:
Ball: A water polo ball is constructed of buoyant material to allow it to float on the water. The cover is textured to give players additional grip. The size of the ball is different for men's, women's and junior games.
Buoyancy aids: A buoyancy aid is used to protect the players' torso from injury, and must provide an inch of foam on the front, sides and back of the player. All buoyancy aids are numbered to make the player identifiable to the other players, referees and spectators. Buoyancy aids are reversible and are colored with the team's primary and secondary colors on each side. This allows opponents to reverse their buoyancy aids and play in their away colors if the opposing team's primary color is the same or similar.
Helmet and face guard: Helmets and face-guards are compulsory to protect players head and face from injury caused by accidental contact from paddles or other kayaks.
Goals: The goals (measuring 1 meter high by 1.5 meters wide) are a frame with a net, suspended 2 meters above the water. A player, acting as goal keeper, defends the goal with their paddle by sticking it up vertically. Special rules concern the goal keeper, such as: the attacking team not being allowed to interfere with or jostle them. The length of the paddles used by the goal keepers are often longer than those used by other players.
Kayak: A special kayak is used. They are constructed from carbon-Kevlar or a similarly lightweight material. This makes them faster and more manoeuvrable than other kayaks. They are fitted with an inch of protective foam around both ends of the kayak to prevent injury and damage at high speeds.
Paddle: A paddle is used to propel the players during the game. The paddle can be used to flick and play the ball. Paddles are strictly forbidden of being played within an arms reach of an opposing player to reduce the risk of injury.
Spray deck: A spray deck is used to secure the cockpit of the kayak and prevent water filling the kayak during play.
ICF Canoe Polo at the World Games
Men
Women
See also
International Canoe Federation
British Canoe Union
References
External links
Official 2016 World Championship page
CanoePolo.com —a canoe polo forum
PoloPage.com – Canoe Polo Videos
Technical Information and rules from the International Canoe Federation
—International Canoe Federation clip
Governing bodies
Official site of Paddle Australia
Official site of British Canoe Polo
Official site of Canadian Canoe Polo
Official site of Irish Canoe Polo
Official site of the New Zealand Canoe Polo Association
Official site of German Canoe Polo
Official site of Iran Canoe Polo
Official site of Russian Canoe Polo
Persian site about canoe polo training
Official site of Ukrainian canoe polo
Canoeing disciplines
Team sports
Ball games
Sports originating in the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla%20Model%20S
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Tesla Model S
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Tesla Model S
The Tesla Model S is a battery electric executive car with a liftback body style built by Tesla, Inc. since 2012. The Model S features a battery-powered dual-motor, all-wheel drive layout, although earlier versions featured a rear-motor and rear-wheel drive layout.
Development of the Model S began prior to 2007, under the codename "WhiteStar". The Model S was officially announced on June 30, 2008, and a prototype vehicle was unveiled in March 2009. The Model S debuted on June 22, 2012. A revised, dual-motor, all-wheel-drive version, known as the 60D, debuted on October 9, 2014. The 60D was followed by the 70D, which made dual-motor and all-wheel drive the standard, followed by the 85D, P85D, and P90D. Along with these updates, Tesla offered the Autopilot driving assistance system. The first major design refresh came in April 2016 when the Model S was updated with a new front hood design. In October of the same year, hardware became standard that supports Tesla's Full Self Driving (FSD) capability. As part of the update, integrated standard cameras around the car were added. In February 2017 the Tesla Model S P100D debuted, which included a revised motor and was the first electric vehicle to have an EPA estimated range exceeding . The second major design refresh, codenamed "Palladium", was introduced in June 2021, offering a new "Plaid" performance model, along with a revised interior, powertrain, and suspension.
The Model S became the first electric car to top the monthly new-car-sales ranking in any country, leading twice in Norway, in September and December 2013 and in Denmark in December 2015. Sales passed 250,000 units in September 2018. The Model S was the top-selling plug-in electric car worldwide in 2015 and 2016, although it was later surpassed by the Model 3. Upon its release, the Model S received positive reviews, with praise for its acceleration and range, although initial models received criticism for their high cost and braking issues.
Development
The Model S was developed by a team led by Franz von Holzhausen, who previously worked for Mazda North American Operations. Holzhausen drew upon the design of the CLS series of cars. Codenamed "WhiteStar" prior to its official unveiling, the Model S was designed with an electric powertrain in mind, unlike other electric vehicles where the manufacturer swaps out an internal combustion engine with an electric motor. As a result, the Model S offers features such as a front trunk ("frunk") in addition to a rear trunk and an enlarged crumple zone.
In January 2007, Tesla announced plans to build consumer-level sedans starting in 2009; production was later delayed to 2011. The Model S was officially announced on June 30, 2008, and a prototype vehicle was displayed on March 26, 2009. In May 2010, Tesla announced it would produce the Model S at the former NUMMI plant in Fremont, California.
The Model S officially launched on June 22, 2012. Production grew from 15–20 cars completed per week in August 2012 to about 1,000 cars per week in 2015. Upon its release, United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) rated the range for the base model at while the longer range model was estimated to have a range of . Musk claimed that the Model S battery offered twice the energy density of the Nissan Leaf's, with more than double the range, increased by a low drag coefficient, motor efficiency and rolling resistance. The original battery was made up of cells similar to the Panasonic NCR18650B that offered an energy density of 265 Wh/kg. Analysts estimated battery costs to be around 21–22% of the car cost. The 60 kWh battery was guaranteed for eight years or 125,000 miles (200,000 km), while the 85 kWh was guaranteed for eight years and unlimited miles. Throughout 2012, Tesla began building a network of 480-volt charging stations, called Tesla Superchargers, to facilitate long-distance travel.
Subsequent changes
On October 9, 2014, Tesla introduced all-wheel drive (AWD) versions of the Model S 60, 85, and P85 models, designated by a D at the end of the model number (the P represents performance). Deliveries of the P85D started in December 2014, with the 85D models following in February 2015, and the 70D models in April 2015.
In September 2014, the Model S began to be equipped with cameras, forward looking radar and ultrasonic acoustic location sensors that provided a 360-degree view, to be used with Tesla Autopilot. Autopilot later arrived in October 2015, as part of a software update.
In June 2015, Tesla stated that the Model S had traveled over 1 billion miles (1.6 billion km), the first all-electric car to reach that total. Globally, Model S sales passed 100,000 units that year, and 150,000 in November 2016. The 200,000 milestone was achieved by early in the fourth quarter of 2017.
Throughout 2015, Tesla would make various changes to the Model S, including an enhanced powertrain that would last for one million miles. An update that year introduced electromechanical brakes. That same year, Tesla introduced a 70 kWh battery to replace the existing 60 kWh batteries and base 60 kWh Model S vehicles. Tesla also introduced a 90 kWh battery as a "range upgrade" and explained that the 6% energy increase was due to "improved cell chemistry" and the introduction of silicon into the cell's graphite anode. After being discontinued the year prior, the 60 and 60D returned in 2016 with a software-limited, upgradeable 75 kWH battery and a new air filter, dubbed "Bioweapon Defense Mode".
In April 2016, Tesla removed the black nose cone and added a body colored fascia. The front fascia has a similar design as the Model X, adding adaptive LED headlights. A HEPA cabin air filtration system was added. The standard charger increased from 40 to 48 amps, speeding charging at higher power outlets. Two ash wood interior options were added. In August of that year, Tesla announced the P100D with a "Ludicrous" mode option, a 100 kWh battery with of range, weighing 625 kg in a 0.40 m3 volume, a density of 160 Wh/kg.
In 2017 Tesla introduced "ludicrous mode plus", which includes "launch mode", claiming that with both modes the car can accelerate in 2.3 seconds.
In April 2017, Tesla discontinued the 60 kWh software-limited battery option. The lowest-capacity option subsequently became the 75 kWh battery. Additionally, Tesla significantly reduced the software upgrade options for the facelifted 60 and 70 models to be upgraded over-the-air to 75 (and rebadged at their next visit to a Tesla service center). In August 2017, Tesla announced that HW2.5 included a secondary processor node to provide more computing power and additional wiring redundancy to improve reliability; it also enabled dashcam and sentry mode capabilities.
In March 2018, the Media Control Unit (MCU) was updated, improving the performance of the center screen and adding games to the MCU such as Cuphead and streaming services such as Netflix to the MCU. In May of that year, in collaboration with the Software Freedom Conservancy, Tesla released some of the internal source code of Model S on a GitHub repository as part of their software license compliance process.
In May 2019, as part of an engineering refresh, the range of the Model S was increased to and smart air suspension was added. The range would be increased further in February 2020 to of range. In August 2020, the EPA updated the results of their range test of the Model S to .
On October 15, 2020, the U.S. price of the long-range version was lowered to $69,420, a reduction of $2,570 from two days prior.
In early 2021, with the introduction of an entirely new interior, now with landscape orientation of the MCU, more rear seat room, and a lightly modified exterior, Tesla changed the "Performance" and "Long Range" Model S branding in favor of "Plaid" and "Long Range," respectively. On June 10, 2021, the Model S Plaid was released at a delivery event at the factory with nearly 30 new owners taking delivery that evening; the Plaid version notably featured a return of the third-row seating, allowing a total of seven passengers, although third-row seating is not present within the consumer version of the car. The Long Range version was EPA-rated to a new high of when equipped with the standard 19" wheels, making it the longest range EV in the world at the time; the Plaid was listed at of range.
Design
The Model S is classified as a full-size luxury sedan in the United States, although the EPA refers to the Model S as a "Large Car" (greater than or equal to ) or "Luxury Sedan". The Euro Car Segment classifies the Model S as a S-segment (sports car); in Germany, the Model S is classified as "Oberklasse" (F-segment).
Powertrain
The rear axle has a traditional open differential. Models with Dual Drive dual motors also have an open differential on the front axles. The front and rear axles have no mechanical linkage—with dual motors, the power distribution among them is controlled electronically. With the introduction of the tri-motor Plaid version in mid-2021, new performance levels were achieved, making the Model S Plaid the fastest accelerating production car in the world until the debut of Rimac’s Nevera in mid-2022.
Battery
The battery pack includes thousands of identical cylindrical 18650 battery cells 18 mm in diameter and 65 mm in height. These cells use a graphite/silicon anode and a nickel-cobalt-aluminum cathode with an aqueous electrolyte and lithium ions as charge carriers. The battery capacity within the Model S has changed numerous times since its debut, ranging from 60–100 kWh. The batteries are the heaviest component within the Model S; the 85 kWh battery pack weighed .
Cell, group, module, pack
The P85 pack contains 7,104 lithium-ion battery cells in 16 modules wired in series (14 in the flat section and two stacked on the front). Each module contains 6 groups of 74 cells wired in parallel; the 6 groups are then wired in series within the module.
The motor, controller and battery temperatures are controlled by a liquid cooling/heating circuit, and the battery is uninsulated. Waste heat from the motor heats the battery in cold conditions, battery performance is reduced until heated by motor generated heat until a suitable battery temperature is reached, in contrast to using an electric battery heater. The battery can be pre-heated by a 6 kW internal heater, either from itself using battery power, or from a charger.
Placement
In contrast to most earlier battery electric vehicles including the Tesla Roadster, the battery pack of the Model S forms the floor of the vehicle between the axles, with several advantages:
The center of gravity height is (about the same as a Lotus Elise), helping it to achieve a lateral acceleration of 0.9 g and rollover protection.
The bulk of the mass is between the axles, which lowers rotational inertia and allows it to turn more quickly for its weight.
The battery cage increases the rigidity of the passenger compartment, improving passive safety.
Energy consumption
Under its five-cycle testing protocol, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) rated the 90 kWh version at a combined fuel economy equivalent of 104 MPGe (or ), with an equivalent in city driving and on highways.
Vehicle energy consumption is highly dependent on speed; the Model S requires at , and at . Ancillary equipment (climate control, battery conditioning, etc.) may consume 15–25%, depending on outside temperature.
Charger
The charge port is located behind a door in the left taillight. During charging, the charge port pulses green. The pulse frequency slows as the charge level approaches full. When charging is complete, the light turns solid green. The Model S comes equipped with a different charger and connector in North America versus other markets.
The Mobile Connector allows charging at up to 72 amps.
North America
Charging times depend on the battery pack's state-of-charge, its capacity, the available voltage, and the available amperage. From a 120 volt/15 amp household outlet, the range increases by for every hour of charging. From a , NEMA 14–50 240 V/50 A outlet (like those used by RVs or stoves), the charge rate is per hour. Using Tesla's , High Power Wall Connector increases the rate to per hour if the car is configured with dual chargers.
Suspension
While some Model S's were built with a base, steel spring, suspension, the vast majority have a self-leveling, height-adjustable air suspension. This is accomplished via adjustable Bilstein shock absorbers controlled by the driver. The car lowers itself at highway speeds and can be set to a higher level to traverse steep driveways and rough terrain, mitigating the default ground clearance and relatively long wheelbase.
The suspension system has evolved via "over-the-air" software updates. The height adjustment feature remembers locations where the driver has requested higher clearance and automatically adjusts each time the car returns to that location.
In early 2019, as part of the "Raven" update, the Model S was upgraded to feature an enhanced "Smart Air Suspension" with automatic, dynamic suspension adjustments.
Autopilot
Autopilot uses cameras, radar and ultrasound to detect road signs, lane markings, obstacles, pedestrians, cyclists, traffic lights, and other vehicles. Additionally, Autopilot includes adaptive cruise control and lane centering and supports semi-autonomous drive and parking capabilities.
Instrument panel
The instrument panel is located directly in front of the driver. It includes a liquid-crystal display electronic instrument cluster that indicates speed, charge level, estimated range and active gear, as well as navigation directions. The Model S's touchscreen display was originally powered by a Nvidia Tegra 3 3D Visual Computing Module (VCM), while the instrument cluster was driven by a separate Nvidia Tegra 2 VCM. The Tegra system on a chip (SoC) integrated eight specialized processors, including a multi-core ARM CPU, a GPU, and dedicated audio, video and image processors.
Touchscreen
The map display requires a constant Internet connection, limiting navigation in areas without service. Automatic navigation to charging stations is included. The operating system powering the touchscreen runs Linux.
Interior material
As of 2023, the materials used within the seats are animal-free, made of synthetic fiber, with the steering wheel covers shifting to an animal-free material in late 2019 as well. The original impetus for this years-long transition to animal-free interiors may have been two shareholder proposals presented at an annual Tesla shareholders meeting in 2015, in which the substantial environmental damage caused by animal agriculture was highlighted, along with the obvious conflict with Tesla's stated mission.
Versions
The Model S exists in several versions, differing in energy capacity, motor size and power, and equipment.
Signature/Signature Performance
Tesla allocated its first 1,000 units to its Signature and Signature Performance limited edition configurations, equipped with the 85 kWh battery pack.
60/85/P85
The base Model S 60 was released with 60 kWh battery capacity and used a , motor.
The model 85 was a RWD 85 kWh battery with and .
The Performance variant (P85) offered a three-phase, four-pole AC induction rear-mounted electric motor with a copper rotor.
The company claimed a , lower than any other production car when released. Independent measurements by Car and Driver in May 2014 confirmed the figure.
70D
The 70D replaced the 60, 60D, and P85, offering all-wheel drive and an improved range of .
In January 2019, Tesla made the 100D the base version and discontinued the 75D version.
85D
The 85D replaced the rear drive unit with a smaller motor, while a second motor of similar size was added to the front wheels. The resulting AWD car offered comparable power and acceleration to the rear wheel drive. The 85D offered a 2% (5-mile) range increase and 11% increase in top speed over the 85.
P85D
The P85D was a dual-motor, all-wheel-drive vehicle. The high-power rear-drive unit was retained, while the additional front-drive motor increased power by about 50%, increasing acceleration and top speed.
Tesla originally said the total output could reach . However, the battery was unable to supply both motors with their maximum power at the same time, so total power is limited to .
It had a governed top speed of and it accelerated from in (tested to ), under "Insane Mode", with 1g of acceleration.
P90D
The P90D had a top speed of and it could accelerate from in , despite the lower total motor power, in part due to the improved traction of the all-wheel drive powertrain. An optional "Ludicrous Mode" hardware package improved the time to at 1.1g.
The P90D combined a front axle power of and rear axle power of for a time of 2.8 seconds. The acceleration of the P90D can reach 1.1g, described by Tesla as "faster than falling".
In June 2017, Tesla discontinued selling the 90 kWh battery pack option.
P100D
The P100D outputs and torque on a dynamometer.
As of March 2017, P100D was the world's quickest production vehicle with a NHRA rolling start to in Motor Trend tests in 2.28 seconds (acceleration clock started after 0.26 seconds at ) in Ludicrous mode.
Owing to overheating issues (the radiator has no blower), multiple uses of Ludicrous mode required rest periods to protect the battery. According to Motor Trend, selecting the "Yes, bring it on!" option for maximum acceleration "initiates a process of battery and motor conditioning, wherein the battery temperature is raised slightly and the motors are cooled using the air-conditioning system. It usually takes just a few minutes, longer in extreme ambient temperatures or after repeated runs. You should expect to wait a minimum of 10 minutes in-between runs."
It offered an EPA estimated range of . It was the first electric vehicle to have an EPA estimated range greater than .
Raven
In 2019, the Performance and Long Range Plus variants offered the "Raven" powertrain. It included the permanent magnet synchronous reluctance motor from the Tesla Model 3 as the front motor. The motor was more powerful and more efficient than its predecessor. The Raven powertrain included a new adaptive air suspension.
Palladium (Plaid)
The Palladium refresh was announced in January 2021 with initial deliveries in June 2021. The refresh included a new interior, new powertrain, suspension and thermal management among other improvements. The refresh originally consisted of three models, the Long Range (LR), the Plaid, and the Plaid+, although the Plaid+ was cancelled shortly before deliveries began. The "Plaid" name is applied to the performance model and is a reference to the only speed faster than "Ludicrous" in the movie Spaceballs.
The Plaid model includes one motor for the front axle and two motors for the rear axle; the starting price was $131,100. At the core of the Plaid's performance are innovative new motors featuring a carbon-wrapped rotor to allow much higher motor RPM. Musk said that this presented challenges, because carbon and copper (the rotor material) have different thermal expansion rates. The Long Range model includes the front motor and a single rear motor; its starting price was $80k, but it was raised to $85k soon after deliveries began. "Track Mode" allows for adjustment from 100% FWD to 100% RWD in 5% increments, traction control strength in 21 stages and regenerative braking strength from 0% to 100% in 5% increments.
At its debut, the Palladium models had the lowest drag coefficient of any production car, with . The new HVAC system uses a heat pump that Tesla says provides 30% longer range and requires 50% less energy in cold weather conditions than the previous Model S. Charging was said to increase by in 15 minutes (on a 250 kW supercharger). The interior features a non-circular yoke steering wheel, a landscape-oriented center screen, a screen for the rear passengers, increased headroom and legroom, particularly in the rear seat area, lower noise via acoustic glass, a new, customization user interface, and improved gaming (via the AMD RDNA 2 GPU). The company estimated that deliveries will reach 1000/week in Q3 of 2021.
The Plaid has and of torque. It was independently tested by Motor Trend to go in 2.07 seconds (1.98 on a prepped drag strip, ex. with PJ1 TrackBite) and cover a quarter-mile (400 m) in 9.34 seconds at . Tesla stated it will reach a top speed.
Charging
For charging outside the home, Tesla has partnered with businesses to install Tesla Wall Connectors to provide a charging network called Tesla Destination. The units are provided to the businesses by Tesla for free or at a discounted price. The business is responsible for the cost of electricity. Not all destination chargers are available to the public, as some businesses limit them to customers, employees, or residents only.
Tesla operates a global network of 480-volt charging stations. The Tesla network is usable only by Tesla vehicles apart from select countries in Europe where Tesla is currently running their Non-Tesla Supercharging Pilot. Supercharging hardware is standard on all new vehicles and most earlier editions.
Tesla originally designed the Model S to allow fast battery swapping, which also facilitated vehicle assembly. In 2013, Tesla demonstrated a battery swap operation taking around 90 seconds, about half the time it takes to refill an empty gas tank. Tesla originally planned to support widespread battery swapping, but supposedly abandoned the plan due to perceived lack of interest by customers. Tesla has been accused of gaming the California Air Resources Board system for zero-emission vehicle credits by launching the "battery swap" program that was never made available to the public. Tesla announced in 2020 that it would integrate the batteries into the body to increase strength and reduce weight and cost.
Sales and markets
U.S. deliveries began June 2012. Tesla reported 520 reservations for the Model S during the first week they were available and by December 2012, a total 15,000 net reservations (after deliveries and cancellations) had been received by year-end.
The special edition Model S Signature model was sold out before deliveries began in June 2012, and according to Tesla all models were sold out for that year shortly after. A total of 2,650 cars were delivered in North America in 2012.
Tesla delivered 50,658 Model S/X units in 2015. Tesla sold more than 50,000 Model S cars globally in 2016, making it the world's top selling plug-in electric that year. In 2017, it became only the second EV to sell more than 200,000 units behind the Nissan Leaf.
The Model S was released in Europe in early August 2013, and the first deliveries took place in Norway, Switzerland and the Netherlands. By November 2013, the Model S was on sale in 20 countries. By the end of 2013, Norway and Switzerland became the company's largest per capita sales markets.
Retail deliveries in China began in April 2014. The right-hand-drive model was released in the UK in June 2014, followed by Hong Kong in July 2014 and Japan in September 2014. Deliveries in Australia began in December 2014.
The Model S ranked as the world's second best selling plug-in electric vehicle after the Nissan Leaf. About 55% of deliveries went to North America, 30% to Europe, and 15% to the Asia-Pacific market.
, the Model S was sold in 30 countries. The Model S was the world's best-selling plug-in electric car in 2015, ahead of the Nissan Leaf (about 43,000 units).
2016–2020
The Model S was the world's top selling plug-in car for the second year running. As of 2018, the Model S rank fell to second place after the BAIC EC-Series city car, which sold over 78,000 units in China.
The Model S continued to rank as the second most-sold electric car in history after the Nissan Leaf. , cumulative global sales totaled about 263,504 units.
Sales by country
Asia/Pacific
The first nine Australian units were delivered in Sydney on December 9, 2014. Tesla opened its first store and service centre in St Leonards, and its first Supercharger station at Pyrmont in December 2014.
The Model S was the top selling all-electric car in the country for the first quarter of 2015.
The first Chinese deliveries took place on April 22, 2014. The standard equipment was the same as the European version, with larger back seats because the car was expected to be driven by a chauffeur. By mid-2018, China ranked as Tesla’s second largest market. Sales began in Hong Kong in July 2014.
Europe
European retail deliveries began in August 2013, in Norway, Switzerland and the Netherlands. Europe's first delivery took place in Oslo on August 7, 2013. By the end of August, Europe's first six charging stations opened, in Lyngdal, Aurland, Dombås, Gol, Sundebru and Lillehammer. Sales rose most rapidly in Norway. In April 2014 the Schiphol Group announced that three companies were selected to provide all-electric taxi service in Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. The Model S topped the European luxury car segment in 2015, ahead of the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (14,990), the traditional leader.
Sales in 2015 totaled 1,805 units, and declined to 1,693 in 2016. , combined registrations of the Model S (5,681) and the Model X (250) represented 48.6% of the 12,196 all-electric cars on Dutch roads at the end of that month. The Model S was the all-time top selling all-electric car in the Netherlands with 12,394 cars registered at the end of March 2021, however it has since been overtaken by the Tesla Model 3, with 38,745 cars registered in March 2021.
In the UK from 2021 to 2022, deliveries of Model S vehicles dropped significantly to almost zero. In 2023, Tesla also stated that the Model S will not be sold in the UK or Ireland in right-hand drive for the 'foreseeable future'. In July 2023, the Plaid model was launched in the UK, and the standard Model S was relaunched, but both are only available in left-hand drive Unlike most cars sold in the country.
North America
The world's first delivery took place on June 1, 2012 in California, to a Tesla board member, while formal deliveries to the public began at a large ceremony on June 22, 2013.
The first Model S sedans were delivered in Canada in December 2012.
Retail sales began in Mexico City in December 2015. Initially, no Supercharger stations are available in the country.
Retail sales model
Tesla sells its cars directly to consumers without a dealer network, as other manufacturers have done and as many states require by legislation. In support of its approach, the company fought legal and legislative battles in Ohio, New Jersey, New York and other states. The Tesla direct sales model was permitted in 22 states as of March 2015. In other states the Tesla salesperson is not allowed to discuss prices, and the ultimate sale must be made online.
Safety
Tesla has made many claims about the safety of its vehicles, encompassing vehicle structure and driver assist software.
Features
In 2014, the Model S had a 5-star safety rating from both Euro NCAP and the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). At that time, only two other cars had earned the same recognition since 2011 (when the NHTSA introduced its latest rating scheme).
Incidents
Initial battery fire incidents
The first widely reported fire occurred several minutes after the vehicle hit metal debris on the Washington State Route 167 highway on October 1, 2013. The driver "was able to exit the highway as instructed by the onboard alert system, bring the car to a stop and depart the vehicle without injury". He then contacted authorities and, while awaiting their arrival, smoke began coming out the front of the vehicle. The driver stated that he hit something while exiting the HOV lane. Tesla stated that the fire was caused by the "direct impact of a large metallic object to one of the 16 battery modules", and that by design, the modules were separated by firewalls, limiting the fire to "a small section in the front of the vehicle".
The module was evidently punctured by a "curved section" that fell off a truck and was recovered near the accident. Tesla stated that the debris punched a diameter hole through the armor plate under the vehicle, applying force of some 25 tons. Built-in vents directed the flames away from the vehicle so that the fire did not enter the passenger compartment. According to Tesla, the firefighters followed standard procedure; using water to extinguish the fire was correct, however, puncturing the metal firewall to gain access to the fire also allowed the flames to spread to the front trunk. Tesla also stated that because the battery pack contains "only about 10% of the energy contained in a gasoline tank", the effective combustion potential of a single module is only about 1% that of a conventional vehicle.
NHTSA reported, "After reviewing all available data, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration has not found evidence at this time that would indicate the recent battery fire involving a Tesla Model S was the result of a vehicle safety defect or noncompliance with federal safety standards." The following month, the NHTSA opened a preliminary evaluation to determine "the potential risks associated with undercarriage strikes on model year 2013 Tesla Model S vehicles". On March 28, 2014, NHTSA closed its investigation, claiming that the (new) titanium under body shield and aluminum deflector plates, along with increased ground clearance, "should reduce both the frequency of under body strikes and the resultant fire risk".
Subsequent fires
On November 6, 2013, a fire broke out after a Model S struck a tow hitch on the roadway, causing damage beneath the vehicle. The incidents led Tesla to extend its warranty to cover fire damage and to apply a software update to increase ground clearance when operating at highway speed.
Another fire took place in Toronto, Canada, in February 2014. The Model S was parked in a garage and was not charging when the fire started. The origin of the fire is undetermined. According to Tesla "in this particular case, we don't yet know the precise cause, but have definitively determined that it did not originate in the battery, the charging system, the adapter or the electrical receptacle, as these components were untouched by the fire".
Starting with vehicle bodies manufactured , all units were outfitted with a triple underbody shield. Existing cars were retrofitted upon request or as part of routine service.
On January 1, 2016, a 2014 Model S caught fire while supercharging unsupervised in Brokelandsheia, Norway. The vehicle was destroyed but nobody was injured. The fire was slow, and the owner had time to unplug the car and retrieve possessions. An investigation by the Norwegian Accident Investigation Board (AIBN) indicated that the fire originated in the car, but was otherwise inconclusive. In March 2016, Tesla stated that their own investigation into the incident concluded that the fire was caused by a short circuit in the vehicle's distribution box, but that the amount of damage prevented them from determining the exact cause. Tesla stated that the Supercharger detected the short circuit and deactivated, and a future Model S software update would stop the vehicle from charging if a short circuit is detected.
NTSB stated that Teslas are not more prone to fires than other vehicles.
Recalls
, Tesla had had seven Model S recalls:
On June 14, 2013, Tesla recalled Model S vehicles manufactured between May 10, 2013, and June 8, 2013, due to improper methods for aligning the left hand seat back striker to the bracket, which could weaken the weld between the bracket and frame.
On January 13, 2014, Tesla recalled Model S vehicles manufactured in 2013, because the adapter, cord, or wall outlet could overheat during charging.
On November 20, 2015, Tesla announced a voluntary recall of all of its 90,000 Model S vehicles, in order to check for a possible defect in the cars' front seat belt assemblies. The problem was raised by one customer in Europe. Tesla's resulting investigation was unable to identify a root cause for the failure, and the company decided to examine every car. Tesla reported that no accidents or injuries were related to the problem.
On January 20, 2017, Tesla recalled Model S made from 2012 in January 2017 due to defective Takata airbags. Cars manufactured later (until 2017) had smaller risk.
On April 20, 2017, Tesla issued a worldwide recall of 53,000 of the 76,000 Model S and Model X vehicles sold in 2016 due to faulty parking brakes.
On March 30, 2018, all 123,000 Model S cars manufactured before April 2016 were recalled due to excessive corrosion of the bolts which secure the power steering, particularly those cars used in cold countries where roads are salted.
In December 2021, 119,009 Model S vehicles were recalled because of the possibility of latch failure allowing front hoods to open unexpectedly.
Autopilot
The first known fatal accident when Autopilot was active occurred in Williston, Florida on May 7, 2016. In June 2016, the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) opened a formal investigation into the accident, working with the Florida Highway Patrol. According to NHTSA, preliminary reports indicate the crash occurred when a tractor-trailer made a left turn in front of the Tesla at an intersection on a non-controlled access highway, and the driver and the car failed to apply the brakes. NHTSA's preliminary evaluation examined the design and performance of automated driving systems, which involved an estimated 25,000 cars.
According to Tesla, "neither autopilot nor the driver noticed the white side of the tractor-trailer against a brightly lit sky, so the brake was not applied." The car attempted to drive full speed under the trailer, "with the bottom of the trailer impacting the windshield of the Model S." Tesla also stated that this was Tesla's first known Autopilot-related death in over driven by its customers while Autopilot was activated. According to Tesla a fatality occurred every among all type of vehicles in the U.S. In January 2017, NTSB concluded Tesla was not at fault since the driver in the crash had seven seconds to see the truck and take action; the investigation revealed that the Tesla car crash rate dropped by 40 percent under autopilot.
NHTSA safety
On August 19, 2013, based on NHTSA safety ratings, a Tesla press release claimed that the Model S had achieved the best safety rating of any car ever tested. Tesla stated, "NHTSA does not publish a star rating above 5, however safety levels better than 5 stars are captured in the overall Vehicle Safety Score (VSS) provided to manufacturers, where the Model S achieved a new combined record of 5.4 stars." However, a few days later NHTSA rebutted Tesla's claim, explaining that the rating for the Model S was equal to any other car receiving 5-stars, and claiming that the carmaker did not follow its advertising guidelines.
In July 2017, the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) found that during front crash tests, the Model S safety belts let the driver's torso move too far forward, resulting in the head striking the steering wheel hard through the airbag. This problem was already pointed out in one of the IIHS's earlier tests, to which Tesla responded they would improve their safety belt design, which, according to the IIHS's latest tests, has not been done. The IIHS also gave the Model S the worst possible rating for its headlights. The report caused Tesla to lose 6.4% of its stock value.
Issues and criticism
Range limitation
On February 8, 2013, The New York Times published a review by John M. Broder about a trip between Washington, D.C., and Boston using Tesla's Supercharger network. At the time it included only two stations on the East Coast. Broder made a variety of critical claims about the battery's performance in cold weather and the distance between charging stations. The trip ended with the Model S carried on a flatbed truck to the Milford, Connecticut, station.
Tesla responded by publishing logs of the vehicle's charge levels and driving speed that contradicted Broder's account. Tesla implied that Broder's behavior forced the car to fail. Broder replied to the criticism, suggesting that the speed discrepancies may have been because the car had been equipped with 19-inch wheels rather than the specified 21-inch wheels. In the midst of the controversy, a CNN reporter recreated Broder's trip without exhausting the battery. However, two differences distinguished the journeys. The weather was about warmer and CNN completed the trip in one day; the Times let the car sit overnight while not plugged in. A reporter from CNBC also recreated the trip in one day without incidents. One week later, a group of Tesla owners recreated Broder's trip without problems.
On February 18, 2013, The New York Times Public Editor Margaret Sullivan published an editorial stating that Broder took "casual and imprecise notes" and used poor judgment, but she maintained that the article was written in good faith. She admitted that Broder's vehicle logs were "sometimes quite misleading."
In July and September 2014 tests performed by an independent German car magazine in cooperation with the TÜV (German Association for Technical Inspection) and Tesla owners seemed to reveal issues with the battery's performance. According to the magazine, Tesla did not take up the invitation to repeat the test, and seemed to refuse to offer vehicles for a second test. A test performed by another German publication ("Die Welt") supported the findings.
Power dissipation when not in use
Older versions of the system software suffered from power drain issues when the car wasn't being used, with the batteries losing 4.5 kWh overnight (known commonly as "vampire drain"). System software v5.8 (v1.49.30), released December 12, 2013, reduced overnight energy loss substantially, to 1.1 kWh per night, or around 3 miles.
Consumer Reports' recommendation
In October 2015, two months after naming the Tesla 'the best car ever tested,' Consumer Reports declined to give the Tesla Model S a "recommended" designation, citing too many complaints from owners. Complaints ranged from misaligned doors and squeaky body, to total drive train failure and inoperable door handles. Tesla's shares dropped 15%, both because of the magazine's cut and because of concerns over the Tesla Model X luxury SUV. Similarly, Edmunds.com found quality and safety issues in their long-term road test and "amassed quite the repair résumé during the last 17 months." Both Edmunds and Consumer Reports reported the vehicle stalling while driving.
In their 2016 Annual Auto Reliability Survey, Consumer Reports improved the Model S rating to average reliability. The magazine raised "serious concerns about how some automakers, including Tesla, have designed, deployed, and marketed semi-autonomous technology." By 2017, in the Consumer Reports Car Reliability Survey, Tesla's position on the list moved up four spots; and the predicted reliability rating for Model S reached "above average" for the first time. In 2018, the annual Consumer Reports reliability survey found Tesla cars among the worst, with the brand falling six spots from 2017 and third worst among the brands surveyed. The Model S dropped "below average" in reliability with suspension problems and other issues that included the extending door handle. In 2019, the model S achieved a Consumer Reports "recommended" designation due to improved reliability, with the Model S as the second-most reliable out of four ultra-luxury cars tested.
Power discrepancy
The P85D "insane mode" was widely reported to have 691 horsepower, but some owners reported 20% less power on the dynamometer in various circumstances. , Tesla website showed battery-limited combined for P85D (for "Ludicrous"). A lawsuit by 126 owners in Norway was settled in December 2016.
Power consumption
In early March 2016, a report by Stuff magazine revealed that a test performed by VICOM, Ltd on behalf of Singapore's Land Transport Authority had found a 2014 Tesla Model S to be consuming , which was greater than the reported by EPA and the reported by Tesla. As a result, a carbon surcharge was imposed on the Model S, making Singapore the only country in the world to impose an environmental surcharge on a fully electric car. The Land Transport Authority justified this by stating that it had to "account for emissions during the electricity generation process" and therefore "a grid emission factor of 0.5 g/watt-hour was also applied to the electric energy consumption". Tesla countered that when the energy used to extract, refine, and distribute gasoline was taken into account, the Model S produced approximately one-third the of an equivalent gasoline-powered vehicle.
Later that month, the Land Transport Authority released a statement stating that they and the VICOM Emission Test Laboratory would work with Tesla engineers to determine whether the test was flawed, and a Tesla statement indicated that the discussions were "positive" and that they were confident of a quick resolution.
Plaid+ reservation issues
After it was announced that Plaid+ was canceled, some reservation holders discovered their reservations had been converted into a full order for the regular Plaid version and with no refund included for their Plaid+ deposit.
Awards
The Model S has received numerous awards, including:
2013 AutoGuide.com Reader's Choice Car of the Year
2013 World Green Car of the Year
Automobile Magazines 2013 Car of the Year, a unanimous decision
CNET Tech Car of the Year for 2012
Consumer Reports gave the Model S a score of 103 out of 100, its highest ever. The Model S broke the rating scale of Consumer Reports during its test. A Consumer Reports''' 2013 survey of owner satisfaction produced a score of 99 out of 100, "the highest the magazine has seen in years." In 2014, the Model S topped for the second year in a row Consumer Reports survey of owner satisfaction. The Model S scored 98 out of 100.
Consumer Reports found the Model S to be 'Best Overall' for 2014 across all 10 categories of cars, light trucks and SUVs, chosen from more than 260 vehicles the organization has recently tested. The magazine considers the Model S a "technological tour de force, while pricey, is brimming with innovation." In 2015, they rated the Model S at 103 (breaking the scale).
Green Car Reports' Best Car To Buy 2013
Hagerty Greatest Car of the Decade (2010s)
Motor Trend 2013 Car of the Year, also a unanimous decision and the first winner in the award's history to not be powered by an internal combustion engine
Natural Resources Canada 2013 EcoENERGY for Vehicles Awards in the full-size category
Popular Sciences Auto Grand Award Winner Best of What's New list 2012
The Telegraph included the Model S in its list of the top 10 cars that changed the world published in December 2014, and also named the electric sedan the most important car of the last 20 years.
Time magazine Best 25 Inventions of the Year 2012 award. In 2019, the Model S was included in Times list of best gadgets of the 2010s.
Yahoo! Autos 2013 Car of the Year
American Automobile Association Green Car Guide 2015, top spot (P85D). The Model S also won the 2014 AAA Green Car Guide.
2019 Green Car Reports Car of the Decade
Records
All of these records used hypermiling techniques such as front motor only, low speed , no air conditioning and minimal use of the brakes. These attempts were inspired by a blog written by Elon Musk about the planned range and efficiency of the Tesla Model S, offering a prize for anyone exceeding on a single charge, where it was estimated the 85 kWh model could do it by driving at a constant under ideal conditions.
In early September 2019, a prototype ("plaid" tri motor) Model S went faster than the official record for the fastest "four-door electric sports car" at the Laguna Seca Raceway, beating a previous time held by the Tesla Performance.
See also
Electric car use by country
Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles
List of electric cars currently available
List of fastest production cars by acceleration
List of production cars by power output
List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles
List of production battery electric vehicles
List of Easter eggs in Tesla products
References
Further reading
See book review:
See book review:
External links
2012 Tesla Model S test and range verification at Motor Trend Should Battery Fires Drive Electric Cars Off the Road?, Scientific American'', November 12, 2013.
Model S
Cars introduced in 2012
2020s cars
Electric car models
Executive cars
Luxury vehicles
Hatchbacks
Sports sedans
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
All-wheel-drive vehicles
Euro NCAP executive cars
Production electric cars
Police vehicles
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford%20Puma
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Ford Puma
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Ford Puma (укр. Форд Пума) — легковий автомобіль, що вироблявся компанією Ford з 1997 року по 2002 рік, призначався для продажу в Європі. Конвеєр для виробництва розташовувався в Німеччині, в Кельні. Він став другим автомобілем, після Ford Ka, виконаним відповідно до дизайнерської філософії «New Edge». Покупцям автомобіль подобався обтічними лініями, лупатими фарами та спортивним шасі. По механічному начинню Puma майже повністю повторював Fiesta. Випуск купе припинився у 2002 році.
В 2019 році дебютував компактний кросовер з аналогічною назвою.
Ford Puma купе (1997-2002)
Ідея створення спортивного автомобіля малого класу виникла ще в кінці 1993 року. Конструктори побудували на масовій платформі спортивне купе, дизайн якого був повністю розроблений на комп'ютері за 135 днів. Для порівняння, звичайний термін становив не менше року.
За базу взяли Ford Fiesta IV, яку подовжили, повністю змінили кузов, допрацювали підвіску до спортивної, посилені пружини, доданий більш потужний стабілізатор поперечної стійкості спереду, на 30% було збільшено жорсткість скручуємо балки ззаду, збільшили звіси і збільшили кут нахилу вітрового скла. В цілому вийшов цікавий автомобіль у фірмовому стилі New Edge, а створення Ford Puma обійшлося компанії більш ніж в $ 66 млн.
На торпедо і панелі приладів встановлені білі шкали приладів і вставки під алюміній. Передні сидіння зручні, з бічною підтримкою, але ззаду місця вийшло мало, навіть для людей середнього зросту.
Ford Puma комплектувався 4-х циліндровим 16-клапанним інжекторним двигуном Zetec SE об'ємом від 1,4; 1,6 і 1,7 л., Потужністю від 90 до 125 к.с. (Форсований 1,7 л., що стояв на Racing Puma був потужністю 155 к.с.). Обсяг збільшили розточкою циліндрів (83,5 замість 76,5 мм). Вперше Ford використовував в двигуні механізм газорозподілу із змінними фазами, розроблений спільно з INA Motorenele-mente Schaeffler KG. Варто відзначити і 5-ти ступінчасту механічну короткоходную КПП, яка видавала плоску характеристику крутного моменту, 85% якого забезпечуються в діапазоні 1500-6750 об./хв. Напівосі приводу передніх коліс мали рівну довжину, що покращувало стійкість Ford Puma при різких прискореннях, особливо в поворотах і при зміні смуги. Зчеплення обладнано гідравлічним приводом. Витрата палива становив 7,4 л/100 км.
Особливу увагу конструктори приділили стійкості Puma на вологому покритті при високій швидкості. Між крайніми положеннями керма - 2,9 обороту, діаметр розвороту - 10 метрів. Гальма спереду дискові вентильовані, ззаду залишилися барабанні. Низькопрофільна гума на широких дисках пропонується тільки одного розміру - 195/50, а в стандартну комплектацію входить чотирьохканальна ABS.
Обсяг багажника 240 літрів, і зі складеними задніми сидіннями - 750 літрів.
У базу останніх моделей Ford Puma увійшли протибуксувальна система, подушка безпеки водія, підсилювач керма, литі диски коліс, хромовані вихлопні труби, тоновані вікна, задній склоочисник, бампери, пофарбовані у колір кузова, шкіряне рульове колесо, складні задні сидіння, радіо, касетний програвач та спортивні сидіння у моделях з 1.7-літровим двигуном. Версії з 1.4-літровим силовим агрегатом мали майже ідентичне оснащення, за винятком протибуксувальної системи. За додаткову плату до бази автомобіля можна було додати: антиблокувальну гальмівну систему, передні подушки безпеки, кондиціонер, бортовий комп’ютер для моделей з 1.6 та 1.7-літровим двигунами, люк даху, функції електроприводу та підігріву дзеркал, протитуманні вогні та 16-дюймові литі диски коліс.
Двигуни
1.4 (1388) Zetec-SE 16V 91 к.с.
1.6 (1596) Zetec-SE 16V 104 к.с.
1.7 (1679) Zetec-SE 16V VCT 125 к.с.
1.7 (1679) Zetec-SE 16V VCT 155 к.с.
Ford Puma кросовер (2019-)
26 червня 2019 року дебютував кросовер Ford Puma. Модель використовує платформу Ford B-car. На Пумі з'явилася одна з найцікавіших силових установок: EcoBoost Hybrid 1.0, причому в двох версіях на 125 і 155 к.с. Трохи пізніше в набір агрегатів увійде 7-ст. "робот" з двома зчепленнями, а ще дизелі з нового сімейства Ford EcoBlue.
Оскільки Puma базується на Fiesta, ведучими є лише передні колеса, але протибуксовочну систему і алгоритм реакції силового агрегату можна налаштувати вручну під різні покриття.
Випуск кросовера стартував в жовтні 2019 року на заводі Ford Romania в Крайова, де модель буде випускається паралельно з Ford EcoSport, іншим субкомпактним кросовером марки, який використовує той же двигун EcoBoost 1.0. Puma продається на ринках Європи, Австралії та Нової Зеландії з кінця 2019 року.
За перші три місяці 2020 року було випущено і продано в Європі 18 713 автомобілів Ford Puma.
У січні 2020 року англійський автомобільний журнал What Car? назвав Ford Puma «Автомобілем року-2020», автомобіль обійшов як і прямих конкурентів Skoda Kamiq і Audi Q2 в заліку кросоверів, так і переміг в загальному заліку, обійшовши такі моделі, як Tesla Model 3, Skoda Scala і Alfa Romeo Giulia Quadrifoglio.
В Україні кросовер представлений у чотирьох комплектаціях: Titanium, Lux, ST-Line і ST-Line Plus.
Двигуни
Бензинові:
1.0 л Ecoboost I3 125 к.с. 170 Нм
1.0 л Ecoboost I3 125 + 15,6 к.с. 210 Нм (Hybrid)
1.0 л Ecoboost I3 155 + 15,6 к.с. 240 Нм (Hybrid)
1.5 л Ecoboost I3 200 к.с. 320 Нм (Ford Puma ST)
Дизельні:
1.5 л TDCi І4 125 к.с.
Продажі
Примітки
Посилання
Puma Conversion To AutoGrass Race Car
Puma Web Puma Information site
ProjectPuma Puma Owners and Enthusiasts Club
Автомобілі Ford
Автомобілі B-класу
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Бадді Деппеншмідт
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Бадді Деппеншмідт
Вільям Генрі «Бадді» Деппеншмідт (16 лютого 1936 — 20 березня 2021) — американський джазовий барабанщик, відомий своєю участю у створенні 1962 року альбому Jazz Samba разом з Стеном Гетцем, Чарлі Бердом, Кітером Беттсом, Джо (Джином) Бердом та Біллі Райхенбахом.
Музична кар'єра
Бадді Деппеншмідт народився 16 лютого 1936 у Філадельфії, штат Пенсільванія. Його батько був саксофоністом, грав в оркестрах Пола Вайтмена, Томмі Дорсі та Гленна Міллера, а потім керував власним музичним гуртом під псевдонімом «Бадді Вільямс». 1940 року Бадді Деппеншмідт і його мати переїхали до Річмонда, штат Вірджинія. Бадді ще підлітком почав професійно грати на барабанах, і врешті приєднався до оркестру Ронні Бартлі, з яким подорожував західними штатами. Після повернення до Ричмонда він грав з багатьма місцевими колективами, поки не приєднався до тріо Ньютона Томаса (1954—1959), що також було ритм-секцією у квінтеті Біллі Баттерфілда. Тріо гастролювало з Баттерфілдом на Північному Сході і Середньому Заході США у 1958–1959 роках. Виступ тріо Ньютона Томаса на джазовому фестивалі у Вірджинія-Біч мав надзвичайний успіх, на рівні з квартетом Дейва Брубека і тріо Чарлі Берда. За два дні Чарлі Берд прийшов у джазовий клуб Jolly Roger, де грав Бадді, запропонував йому постійну роботу у своєму тріо, на що отримав згоду. З 1959 по 1962 рік Бадді Деппеншмідт грав у складі тріо Берда у клубі Showboat Lounge, Вашингтон.
В лютому 1961 року, тріо у складі Чарлі Берд (гітара), Кітер Беттс (контрабас), Бадді Деппеншмідт (барабани), вирушило на гастролі Центральною та Південною Америкою. Цей тримісячний культурний обмін був туром доброї волі, спонсорованим державним департаментом США, і охоплював 18 країн. Зокрема в Бразилії Бадді проводив свій вільний час у спілкуванні з місцевими музикантами, демонстрував їм американські джазові стилі й навчався в них специфічному ритму босанови. За його тверрдженням, саме йому належить ідея створити альбом, що поєднує джаз і босанову і залучити до проекту Стена Гетца, одного з його джазових кумирів. Альбом Jazz Samba був записаний 13 лютого 1962 року і дав поштовх розповсюдженню босанови на національному і міжнародному рівні. Він став єдиним джазовим альбомом, що посів перше місце в чартах Billboard і тримався на високих місцях чартів впродовж 70 тижнів. Хіт альбому «Desafinado» був обраний до Зали слави Греммі 2000 року, а 2010 року до Зали слави Греммі увійшов весь альбом Jazz Samba. Незвичайні й тривалий час невідомі деталі цих подій, включно з участю Деппеншмідта, задокументовані Девідом Адлером у статті «Give The Drummer Some» в часописі Jazz Times в червні 2004 року., а також у серії статей та інтерв'ю Жосмара Лопеса.
Після співпраці з Чарлі Бердом Деппеншмідт в 1963-1964 роках виступав в клубі Marquis Lounge у тріо піаніста Доналда Ті Карсона. Потім він переїхав до округу Бакс, штат Пенсильванія, створив власний гурт Jazz Renaissance і грав у нічних клубах, на концертах і фестивалях з різним виконавцями. Бадді був барабанщиком тріо Джона Коута (1964—78), тріо Бернарда Пейффера (1967).
З середини 1960-х років він є штатним членом Newtown School of Music. Зараз Бадді викладає і виступає в Community Conservatory of Music, розташованій в окрузі Бакс, штат Пенсильванія. Він навчався у Дейва Левіна у Філадельфії, у класичного перкусіоніста Артура Декстрайера та Джо Морелло, легендарного барабанщика квартету Дейва Брубека. Впродовж своєї довготривалої та активної кар'єри викладача Бадді Деппеншмідт навчив безліч студентів, його роботи були занотовані в Modern Drummer Magazine та Creative Coordination for the Modern Drummer Кейтом Копландом. Його біографія викладена у «The Encyclopedia of Jazz in the Sixties» і «The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz».
Бадді Деппеншмідт грав у саундтреках наступних фільмів: «A Thousand Clowns» (1965), «Wall Street» (1987), «Bossa Nova» (2000), «The Lake House» (2006), «Whatever Works» (2009).
Впродовж багаторічного перебування на джазовій сцені Бадді Деппеншмідт грав з такими джазовими зірками, як: Моуз Еллісон, Чет Бейкер, Кітер Беттс, Біллі Баттерфілд, Чарлі Берд, Джон Кот молодший, Аль Кон, Метт Денніс, Боб Доро, Герб Елліс, Тал Фарлоу, Стен Гетц, Аль Гейг, Лайонел Гемптон, Баррі Гарріс, Коулмен Гокінс, Ширлі Горн, Дж. Дж. Джонсон, Ларрі Маккенна, Джеймс Муді, Кінг Плеже, Максін Салліван, Кларк Террі, Джо Венаті та Філ Вудс.
Дискографія
Студійні альбоми
1961: Charlie Byrd at the Village Vanguard (Riverside RS 9452)
1961: Blues Sonata (Riverside RS 9453)
1962: The Guitar Artistry Of Charlie Byrd (Riverside RM 451)
1962: Jazz Samba (Verve V6-8432)
1962: Bossa Nova Pelos Pessaros (Riverside RS 9436)
1962: Latin Impressions (Riverside RS 9427)
1963: Once More! Charlie Byrd's Bossa Nova (Riverside RS 9454)
Компіляції
1973: Latin Byrd (Milestone MSP-47005)
1978: Charlie Byrd in Greenwich Village (Milestone M-47049)
2009: Guitar/Guitar (Wounded Bird Records WOU 9130)
Примітки
Джерела
Kernfeld, Barry (1988, 1991) The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz (вид. 4). St. Martins Press, New York. с. 284
Feather, Leonard (1966). The Encyclopedia of Jazz in the Sixties (вид. 3) Horizon Press, New York. с. 107
Джазові ударники США
Джазові перкусіоністи США
Уродженці Філадельфії
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Перехресний розум
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Перехресний розум (англ. The Cross-Wits) - американське синдиковане ігрове шоу, прем'єра якого відбулася 15 грудня 1975 року, і тривала протягом п'яти сезонів до скасування 12 вересня 1980 року. Ведучий шоу - Джек Кларк, господиня - Джеррі Фіала. Оголошення обов’язків виконували Джон Харлан, Джей Стюарт та Джеррі Бішоп. Шоу було продюсероване Ralph Edwards Productions та розповсюджене корпорацією Metromedia Producers Corporation .
Друга версія почала виходити в ефір 8 вересня 1986 року під назвою The All-New Crosswits, і її проводив Девід Спаркс, а Мішель Рот була дикторкою. Ця версія була випущена Crossedwits Productions спільно з Outlet Communications, Inc. та розповсюджена ABR Entertainment.
Обидві версії випускалися як щоденні шоу, хоча оригінал Cross-Wits виходив у ефір на багатьох ринках як серіал раз або два рази на тиждень.
Головна гра
Дві команди, кожна з яких складалася з двох знаменитостей та одного учасника змагань, змагались, щоб розгадати підказки для кросвордів. Кожне слово в головоломці також було підказкою для головної головоломки.
Версія 1975–80
Категорія головної головоломки була вказана на початку кожного раунду. Капітан учасника змагань вибирав, яку позицію в кросворді ідентифікувати, та яка зірка гратиме в цій позиції. Потім прочиталася підказка кросворду до цього слова. Якщо зірка не змогла відповісти на підказку протягом семи секунд, учасник змагань міг відповісти. Однак, якщо ні знаменитість, ні учасник не відповіли правильно, контроль передався команді суперників. За кожну правильну відповідь присуджується 10 балів за літеру у слові (наприклад, якби слово було "учений", правильно розв’язання слова коштувало б 60 балів).
Після правильного розв’язання слова учасник міг вибрати інше слово для іншої знаменитості в своїй команді, щоб відгадати або спробувати визначити предмет головної головоломки. Якщо він/вона вирішить спробувати вгадати тему, учасник запитує у Кларка «конференцію» зі знаменитостями, і йому дають сім секунд для обговорення відповіді. Після того, як конференція закінчилася, учасники пропонували відповідь.
Команда, яка правильно розгадала головну головоломку, заробляла додатково 100 балів, тоді як неправильне рішення передало контроль іншій команді. Команда, що відставала, починала кожен наступний раунд.
Починаючи з 1976 року, учасникам конкурсу було присуджено приз за вирішення головоломки на додаток до 100 балів. З 1976–79 рр., якщо головоломка вирішувалася лише одним підказним словом в одному з перших двох раундів, не знаючи категорії, учасник вигравав нову машину (невдача розв’язання після того, як одне підказне слово виявило категорію). У 1979 році це було змінено на лише нагородження автомобілем під час другого туру кожного дня і без конференції між знаменитостями та учасницею, хоча учаснику все ж було дано п'ять секунд для роздумів, перш ніж дати свою відповідь, не знаючи категорії. Команда, яка розгадала головоломку в першому раунді, також розпочала другий раунд, коли правила змінилися, щоб запропонувати автомобіль лише у другому раунді; ця зміна була зроблена для того, щоб команда навмисно не програла перший раунд, щоб краще розграти машину.
Гра тривала протягом незгаданого обмеження часу, і учасник, який набрав найбільше очок, коли закінчився час, виграв гру. Починаючи з 1979 року, капітан, команда якого набрала 1000 очок, також виграв бонус в 1000 доларів.
Ця версія була записана на відео до ери комп'ютеризованої графіки та мала ігрову дошку з ручним управлінням, яка використовувала підсвічувані плитки, які підсвічувались, щоб показувати літери в кожному слові. Господиня Фіала використовувала довгий покажчик для позначення місця кожного слова на дошці, оскільки цифри на квадратах були замалі, щоб їх могли побачити домашні глядачі.
Версія 1986–87
Гра проводилася подібно до версії 1975 року із модифікаціями формату підрахунку очок. Кожне слово в першій головоломці набирало 5 балів за літеру, а розв’язування головоломки набирало 50 балів. Оцінка у другому турі подвоїлася до 10 балів за літеру та 100 балів за рішення головоломки. За третю головоломку бали збільшились до 20 балів за літеру та 200 балів за вирішення головоломки. На відміну від версії 1975 року, ігрова дошка цієї версії була повністю створена комп’ютером; забарвлення ігрового поля також змінюватиметься залежно від рішення, чи буде це людина, місце чи річ.
Раунд перехресного вогню (обидві версії)
Учасник, який набрав найбільше очок в кінці гри, зіграв у Crossfire Round разом зі своїм вибором партнера зі знаменитостей (вибір лише партнерів гравця-переможця у 1975 році та вибір усіх чотирьох у 1986 році). Команді показали останній кросворд із десятьма словами, жодне з яких не було підказкою для головної головоломки. Команда називала слова за номером, а ведучий прочитав підказку для цього слова. Якщо команда могла розв’язати всі десять слів за 60 секунд або менше, учасник виграв головний приз.
У версії 1975 року кожна правильна відповідь вигравала все більш цінні призи, і якщо учасник розв’язував усі десять, то вигравав головний приз, яким зазвичай був автомобіль, але іноді поїздка чи шуба. У версії 1986 року учасники, які розгадали всі десять слів, виграли поїздку та можливість виграти машину. Учасники, які не змогли виграти бонусний раунд у версії 1986 року, виграли втішний призовий пакет.
Автомобільний раунд (версія 1986–87)
Трьом знаменитостям, які не грали в Crossfire Round, дали коробки, кожна з яких називалась однією з трьох доступних машин. Вибравши, за яку машину грати, учасник конкурсу вибрав знаменитість. Якщо модель обраного автомобіля відповідала картці в коробці обраної знаменитості, учасник змагань вигравав машину. Деякий час четверта знаменитість також була учасницею автомобільного туру, і відповідна четверта коробка була додана до суміші; якщо обрано, то конкурсанту це коштувало 1000 доларів.
Для перших двох записаних на плівку епізодів автомобільний тур проводився по-різному: замість того, щоб тримати коробки, в яких були названі три запропоновані машини, знаменитості тримали ключі від кожного з трьох автомобілів. Після вибору знаменитості ця особа спробувала розблокувати обраний автомобіль своїм ключем.
Статус епізоду
Оригінальна версія ціла і зберігається компанією Ralph Edwards Productions, але не повторювалася з моменту оригінальних ефірів. Відродження було показано на каналі The Family Channel з 7 червня по 27 серпня 1993 р. та на неіснуючій Американській незалежній мережі з 1997 по 1998 рр. 26 жовтня 2014 року кабельна мережа GSN випустила в ефір дві серії відродженої версії, обидві з грудня 1986 року, в яких брали участь Розі О'Доннелл та Арсеніо Холл, відповідно.
Джерела
Зовнішні посилання
Video summary of the show, from the Ralph Edwards Productions website
The Cross-Wits on IMDb
Crosswits on IMDb
Телесеріали англійською мовою
Сторінки з неперевіреними перекладами
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564798
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon%20%28Book%20of%20Mormon%20prophet%29
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Mormon (Book of Mormon prophet)
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Mormon (Book of Mormon prophet)
Mormon is believed by members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints to be a prophet-historian and a member of a tribe of indigenous Americans known as the Nephites, one of the four groups (including the Lamanites, Jaredites, and Mulekites) described in the Book of Mormon as having settled in the ancient Americas.
According to the Book of Mormon, the prophet Mormon engraved an abridgement of his people's history on golden plates. Based on the chronology described in the book, Mormon lived during the 4th century AD. As a narrator in the text, Mormon presents himself as a redactor. He quotes and paraphrases other writers, collects and includes whole texts by other authors, contributes running commentary, and also writes his own narrative. He writes about the process of making the book, both in terms of compiling the works of other prophets and also in terms of engraving the words on metal plates. He alludes to content that is left out of the book, and refers to a larger collection of records at his disposal.
The Book of Mormon states that Mormon was instructed by the prophet Ammaron where to find the records that had been passed down from their ancestors. It also says that Mormon later abridged the near-millennium-long history of his ancestors, and added additional revelations into the Book of Mormon. Divisions of the book relating to Mormon's personal history are the Words of Mormon and the first seven chapters of the larger book. The book says that Mormon eventually passed all of the records on to his son Moroni.
Life history
According to Mormon's record in the Book of Mormon, he was born to a father whose name was also Mormon, but was named "after the land of Mormon, the land in which Alma did establish the church among the people". At about the age of ten, he was visited by Ammaron and given instructions on where to find the sacred engravings of the Nephite prophets and what to engrave upon them. At the age of eleven, Mormon was taken to the land of Zarahemla by his father.
Mormon writes that at age fifteen he was visited by Jesus Christ.
In his "sixteenth year," being young but "large in stature", Mormon "was appointed by the people of Nephi" to be the leader of their armies, and fought against the Lamanites in many battles thereafter.
Mormon went to the hill Shim at about the age of 24, as instructed by Ammaron, to take and abridge the Nephite records.
Mormon writes that he "utterly refuse[d]...to be a commander and a leader" to the Nephites "because of their wickedness and abomination". However, about thirteen years later, Mormon decided to return as commander of the Nephite armies as they were being badly beaten by the Lamanites.
Upon returning, Mormon again led them in battle against the Lamanites until the entire destruction of the Nephite nation, which took place as a result of a huge battle fought between the two groups in 385. As the last prophet and keeper of the record, Moroni is said to have become the angel or messenger who revealed the location of the golden plates to Joseph Smith in 1823.
Mormon witnesses the destruction of the Nephite people and their armies as they battle against the Lamanites (Mormon 6:1). 15 years later (Mormon 8), Moroni finishes his father's record (Mormon 8:1) and mentions that his father was killed after the battle against the Lamanites at the Hill Cumorah (Mormon 8:3).
Mormon as editor
The emphasis of several themes in Helaman leads some scholars to draw conclusions about Mormon. Mormon is the narrator the Book of Mormon presents as the final editor of the latter part of the Book of Mormon called the Plates of Nephi, which includes Helaman. In an article published by Brigham Young University (BYU)'s Religious Studies Center, Thomas W. Mackay, a professor of classical and medieval studies at BYU, outlines Mormon's philosophy of history. Mormon's editorial decisions reveal his attitudes about history, life, and theology. Mormon chooses to include incidents that fulfill earlier prophecies, indicating that he wishes to call attention to them. Additionally, Helaman 12 contains a long digression from Mormon where he explicitly states that people tend to become rebellious, causing God to respond with punishment until they repent. Lacking more information about Nephite and Lamanite history, readers are left to come to a similar conclusion as Mormon based on the evidence he presents. Mormon states that Satan influenced the Nephites to create secret combinations like the Gadianton robbers.
Meaning of the name
Mormon scholar Hugh Nibley noted the prevalence of names in the Book of Mormon with the root "mor" and suggested that the root may be of Egyptian origin with the meaning of "beloved". However, in the 15 May 1843 issue of the Times and Seasons, Joseph Smith explained the name as being a contraction of the English word "more" and "mon", a word that Smith claimed was Egyptian for "good", making the name literally mean "more good".
See also
Book of Mormon prophets
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Notes
Works cited
Further reading
External links
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Official information about The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Official Scriptures of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Book of Mormon prophets
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Evolutionary economics
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Evolutionary economics is a school of economic thought that is inspired by evolutionary biology. Although not defined by a strict set of principles and uniting various approaches, it treats economic development as a process rather than an equilibrium and emphasizes change (qualitative, organisational, and structural), innovation, complex interdependencies, self-evolving systems, and limited rationality as the drivers of economic evolution. The support for the evolutionary approach to economics in recent decades seems to have initially emerged as a criticism of the mainstream neoclassical economics, but by the beginning of the 21st century it had become part of the economic mainstream itself.
Evolutionary economics does not take the characteristics of either the objects of choice or of the decision-maker as fixed. Rather, it focuses on the non-equilibrium processes that transform the economy from within and their implications, considering interdependencies and feedback. The processes in turn emerge from the actions of diverse agents with bounded rationality who may learn from experience and interactions and whose differences contribute to the change.
Roots of evolutionary economics
Early ideas
The idea of human society and the world in general as subject to evolution has been following mankind throughout its existence. Hesiod, an ancient Greek poet thought to be the first Western written poet regarding himself as an individual, described five Ages of Man – the Golden Age, the Silver Age, the Bronze Age, the Heroic Age, and the Iron Age – following from divine existence to toil and misery. Modern scholars consider his works as one of the sources for early economic thought. The concept is also present in the Metamorphoses by an ancient Roman poet Ovid. His Four Ages include technological progress: in the Golden Age, men did not know arts and craft, whereas by the Iron Age people had learnt and discovered agriculture, architecture, mining, navigation, and national boundaries, but had also become violent and greedy. This concept was not exclusive to the Greek and Roman civilizations (see, for instance, Yuga Cycles in Hinduism, the Three Ages of Buddhism, Aztecs’ Five Suns), but a common feature is the path towards misery and destruction, with technological advancements accompanied by moral degradation.
Medieval and early modern times
Medieval views on society, economics and politics (at least in Europe and Pax Islamica) were influenced by religious norms and traditions. Catholic and Islamic scholars debated on the moral appropriateness of certain economic practices, such as interest. The subject of changes was thought of in existential terms. For instance, Augustine of Hippo regarded time as a phenomenon of the universe created by God and a measure of change, whereas God exists outside of time.
A major contribution to the views on the evolution of society was Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes. A human, according to Hobbes, is a matter in motion with one's own appetites and desires. Due to these numerous desires and the scarcity of resources, the natural state of a human is a war of all against all:
“In such condition there is no place for industry, because the fruit thereof is uncertain, and consequently no culture of the earth, no navigation nor the use of commodities that may be imported by sea, no commodious building, no instruments of moving and removing such things as require much force, no knowledge of the face of the earth, no account of time, no arts, no letters, no society, and which is worst of all, continual fear and danger of violent death, and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”
In order to overcome this natural anarchy, Hobbs saw it necessary to impose an ultimate restraint in the form of a sovereign.
Economic development and socialism
Further theoretical developments relate to the names of prominent socialists of the 19th century, who viewed economic and political systems as products of social evolution (in contrast to the notions of natural rights and morality). In his book What is Property?, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon noted:
“Thus, in a given society, the authority of man over man is inversely proportional to the stage of intellectual development which that society has reached.”
The approach was also employed by Karl Marx. In his view, over the course of history superior economic systems would replace inferior ones. Inferior systems were beset by internal contradictions and inefficiencies that made them impossible to survive in the long term. In Marx's scheme, feudalism was replaced by capitalism, which would eventually be superseded by socialism.
Emergence and development
The term "evolutionary economics" might have been first coined by Thorstein Veblen. Veblen saw the need for taking into account cultural variation in his economic approach; no universal "human nature" could possibly be invoked to explain the variety of norms and behaviours that the new science of anthropology showed to be the rule rather than an exception. He also argued that social institutions are subject to selection process and that economic science should embrace the Darwinian theory.
Veblen's followers quickly abandoned his evolutionary legacy. When they finally returned to the use of the term “evolutionary”, they referred to development and change in general, without its Darwinian meaning. Further researchers, such as Joseph Schumpeter, studied entrepreneurship and innovation using this term, but not in the Darwinian sense. Another prominent economist, Friedrich von Hayek, also employed the elements of the evolutionary approach, especially criticizing “the fatal conceit” of socialists who believed they could and should design a new society while disregarding human nature. However, Hayek seemed to see the Darwin theory not as a revolution itself, but rather as an intermediary step in the line of evolutionary thinking. There were other notable contributors to the evolutionary approach in economics, such as Armen Alchian, who argued that, faced with uncertainty and incomplete information, firms adapt to the environment instead of pursuing profit maximization.
An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change and beyond
The publication of An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change by Richard R. Nelson and Sidney G. Winter in 1982 marked a turning point in the field of evolutionary economics. Inspired by Alchian's work about the decision-making process of firms under uncertainty and the behavioural theory of the firm by Richard Cyert and James March, Nelson and Winter constructed a comprehensive evolutionary theory of business behavior using the concept of natural selection. In this framework, firms operate on the basis of organizational routines, which they evaluate and may change while functioning in a certain selection environment. Since then, evolutionary economics, as noted by Nicolai Foss, has been concerned with “the transformation of already existing structures and the emergence and possible spread of novelties.” Economies have been viewed as a complex system, a result of causal interactions (non-linear and chaotic) between different agents and entities with varied characteristics. Instead of perfect information and rationality, Herbert Simon's concept of bounded rationality has become prevailing.
By the 1990s, as put by Geoffrey Hodgson,
“it was possible to write of an international network or ‘invisible college’ of ‘evolutionary economists’ who, despite their analytical differences, were focusing on the problem of analyzing structural, technological, cultural and institutional change in economic systems… They were also united by their common dislike of the static and equilibrium approaches that dominated mainstream economics.”
In 2020, Yoshinori Shiozawa published a paper "A new framework for analyzing technological change" Journal of Evolutionary Economics 30: 989-1034, in which the author proved that (1) technological change induces the economic growth in the sense that real wage rate increases for all workers and (2) it is the major source
of economic growth.
Evolutionary economics and the Unified Growth Theory
The role of evolutionary forces in the process of economic development over the course of human history has been further explored during the past few decades, primarily by Oded Galor and his colleagues. A pioneer of the Unified Growth Theory, Galor depicts economic growth and development throughout human history as a continuous process driven by technological progress and the accumulation of human capital as well as by the accumulation of those biological, social and cultural features that favour further development. In Unified Growth Theory (2011), Galor presents a dynamic system capable of describing economic development in this way.
According to Galor's model, technological advancements in the early eras of the mankind (during the Malthusian epoch, with limited resources and near-subsistence levels of income) would lead to increases in the size of population, which in turn would further accelerate technological progress due to the production of new ideas and the increase in demand for them. At some point technological advancements would require higher levels of education and generate the demand for educated labour force. After that, an economy would move into a new phase characterised by demographic transition (given that investment into less children, although more costly, would yield higher returns) and sustained economic growth. The process is accompanied by improvements in living standards, the position of the working class as necessary in order to complement technological progress (contrary to Marx and his followers, who predicted its further impoverishment), and the position of women, paving the way for further social and gender equality improvements. Interdependent, these elements facilitate each other, creating a unified process of growth and development, although the pace may be different for different societies.
Galor's theory also refers to other fields of science, including evolutionary biology. He invokes, among other things, the sophisticated human brain and the anatomy of the human hand as key advantages that bolstered the development of humans (both as a species and as a society). In The Journey of Humanity: The Origins of Wealth and Inequality (2022) Galor provides some statements that exemplify his evolutionary approach:
“Consider… two large clans: the Quanty and the Qualy…
Suppose that Quanty households bear on average four children each, of whom only two reach adulthood and find a reproductive partner. Meanwhile, Qualy households bear on average only two children each, because their budget does not allow them to invest in the education and health of additional offspring [sic!], and yet, thanks to the investment that they do make, both children not only reach adulthood and find a reproductive partner but they also find jobs in commercial and skill-intensive occupations… Now suppose the society in which they live is one where technological development boosts the demand for the services of blacksmiths, carpenters and other trades who can manufacture tools and more efficient machines. This increase in earning capacity would place the Qualy clan at a distinct evolutionary advantage. Within a generation or two, its families are likely to enjoy higher incomes and amass greater resources.”
Galor, his colleagues and contemporaries have also used the evolutionary approach in order to explain the origins of more particular elements of economic and social behavior. Using the genealogical record of half a million people in Quebec during the period 1608-1800, it was suggested that moderate fertility, and hence the tendency towards investment in child quality, was beneficial for the long-run reproductive success, reflecting the quality-quantity tradeoff observed and discussed in earlier works. A natural experiment regarding the expansion of the New World crops into the Old World and vice versa during the Columbian exchange led to the conclusion that beneficial pre-industrial agro-climatic characteristics may have positively affected the formation of a future-oriented mindset in corresponding contemporary societies. Key concepts related to behavioural economics, such as risk aversion and loss aversion, were also studied through evolutionary lenses. For instance, Galor and Savitsky (2018) provided empirical evidence that the intensity of loss aversion may be correlated with historical exposure to climatic shocks and their effects on reproductive success, with greater climatic volatility in some regions leading to more loss-neutrality among contemporary individuals and ethnic groups originating from there. As for risk aversion, Galor and Michalopoulos (2012) suggested there was a reversal in the course of human history, with risk-tolerance presenting an evolutionary advantage during early stages of development by promoting technological advancements, and with risk-aversion being an advantage during later stages, when risk-tolerant individuals channel less resources towards children and natural selection favours risk-averse individuals.
Adaptive market hypothesis
Andrew Lo proposed the adaptive market hypothesis, a view that financial systems may follow principles of the efficient market hypothesis as well as evolutionary principles such as adaption and natural selection.
Criticism
The emergence of modern evolutionary economics was welcomed by the critics of the neoclassical mainstream. However, the field, especially the approach by Nelson and Winter, has also drawn critical attitude from other heterodox economists. A year after An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change was published, Philip Mirowski expressed his doubts that this framework represented genuine evolutionary economics research (i.e., in the vein of Veblen) and not just a variant of neoclassical methodology, especially since the authors admitted their framework could include neoclassical orthodoxy. Some Veblenian institutionalists claim this framework is only a “protective modification of the neoclassical economics and is antithetical to Veblen's evolutionary economics.” Another possible shortcoming recognized by the proponents of modern evolutionary economics is that the field is heterogenous, with no convergence on an integrated approach.
Related fields
Evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary psychology is a theoretical approach in psychology that examines cognition and behaviour from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify human psychological adaptations with regards to the ancestral problems they evolved to solve. In this framework, psychological traits and mechanisms are either functional products of natural and sexual selection or non-adaptive by-products of other adaptive traits. Economic concepts can also be viewed through these lenses. For instance, apparent anomalies in decision-making, such as violations of the maximization principle, may be a result of the human brain evolution. Another concept suitable for evolutionary analysis is the utility function, which may essentially be represented as the fitness evolutionary function.
Evoltunionary Psychology and Economic Behavior
There have been efforts to apply the insights of evolutionary psychology to understand economic behavior. An important part of this effort has been to use evolutionary psychology to analyze and add structure to the human utility function.
Paul H. Rubin has made significant contributions to this area of resesrch. His influential book, "Darwinian Politics," delves into the intersection of evolutionary theory and political and economic behavior, exploring how evolutionary principles shape human political preferences. This book shows that many errors in political decision making, such as a dislike of free trade, are based in our evolved mental architecture. This analysis is extended in "Folk Economics" which shows that our evolved brains are subject to zero-sum thinking.
Rubin, P. H. (2002). "Darwinian Politics." Rutgers Uuniverdity Press.
"Rubin, P. H. (2008). "Folk Economics." Southern Evonomic Journal
Evolutionary game theory
Evolutionary game theory is the application of game theory to evolving populations in biology. It defines a framework of contests, strategies, and analytics into which Darwinian competition can be modelled. It originated in 1973 with John Maynard Smith and George R. Price's formalisation of contests, analysed as strategies, and the mathematical criteria that can be used to predict the results of competing strategies.
Evolutionary game theory differs from classical game theory in focusing more on the dynamics of strategy change. This is influenced by the frequency of the competing strategies in the population.
Evolutionary game theory has helped to explain the basis of altruistic behaviours in Darwinian evolution. It has in turn become of interest to sociologists, anthropologists, philosophers, and economists.
See also
Adaptive market hypothesis
Behavioural economics
Complexity economics
Cultural economics
Heterodox economics
Institutional economics
Mainstream economics
Neoclassical economics
Non-equilibrium economics
Ecological model of competition
Population dynamics
Creative destruction
Innovation system
Evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary socialism
Universal Darwinism
Association for Evolutionary Economics
European Association for Evolutionary Political Economy
Geoffrey Hodgson
Oded Galor
Richard R. Nelson
Sidney G. Winter
Thorstein Veblen
References
Further reading
Veblen, T. B. (1898). Why Is Economics Not an Evolutionary Science? The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 12(3), pp. 373-97.
Veblen, T. B. (1899). The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study in the Evolution of Institutions. New York: Huebsch. Archived from on November 22, 2021.
Nelson, R. R., Winter, S. G. (1982). An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Archived from on March 23, 2023.
Hodgson, G. M. (2004) The Evolution of Institutional Economics: Agency, Structure and Darwinism in American Institutionalism. London and New York: Routledge.
Hodgson, G. M. (2012). Evolutionary Economics, in Fundamental Economics, edited by Mukul Majumdar, Ian Wills, Pasquale Michael Sgro, John M. Gowdy, in Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), Developed under the Auspices of the UNESCO, EOLSS Publishers, Paris, France, . Archived from on April 24, 2023.
Oded Galor (2022). The Journey of Humanity: The Origins of Wealth and Inequality. Penguin Random House, 2022.
Journals
Journal of Economic Issues, sponsored by the Association for Evolutionary Economics.
Journal of Evolutionary Economics, sponsored by the International Josef Schumpeter Society.
Journal of Institutional Economics, sponsored by the European Association for Evolutionary Political Economy.
Criticisms of economics
Innovation economics
Schools of economic thought
Thorstein Veblen
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Сланцева промисловість
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Сланцева промисловість — галузь паливної промисловості, яка здійснює видобуток, збагачення і переробку горючих сланців. Родовища горючих сланців є у Естонії, Албанії, Болгарії, Росії, Угорщині, на Кубі, в Румунії, Чехії, Сербії, а також в Австрії, Бразилії, Великій Британії, Єгипті, Іспанії, Канаді, Малі, Марокко, США, ФРН, Швеції, Україні.
Історія
Є свідчення про використання горючого сланцю ще у стародавні часи.
Сучасне індустріальне видобування горючого сланцю розпочалося у 1837 р. в рудниках Аутум (Autun) у Франції і здійснювалося за участі Шотландії і Німеччини. Естонські сланці стали досліджувати в 1771 р., а їх промисловий видобуток почався у 1918 р.
Промислове непаливне використання горючих сланців почалося в 1694 р. в Шотландії, де була споруджена фабрика для отримання сланцевого масла. У 1832 р. у Франції була розроблена ефективна технологія отримання сланцевого освітлювального масла.
Сланцева промисловість досягла значного розвитку у ХІХ ст. у Великій Британії. Сланцева промисловість активно розвивалася до Першої світової війни (1914-18 рр.). Під час Першої світової війни промислова розробка горючих сланців почалася на території Естонії для постачання Петроградського промислового району. Значного розвитку досягла сланцева промисловість у Естонії у ХХ ст. У 1924 р. у Таллінні стала до ладу перша ТЕС, яка використовувала горючий сланець. Однак, у подальшому широко доступна нафта створювала все більші конкурентні труднощі для сланцевої промисловості. Її розвиток спостерігався лише у Естонії, Росії і Китаї. За радянських часів були організовані систематичне вивчення і розвідка запасів горючого сланцю та їх промислова розробка. У 1975 р. по видобутку сланців СРСР займав 1-е місце в світі. Поклади його на території СРСР були локалізовані у Прибалтійському сланцевому басейні (Естонське і Ленінградське родовища) і Волзькому басейні (Кашпірське і Общесиртовське родовища), запаси яких становили відповідно 75,2% і 19,7% розвіданих запасів СРСР. Видобуток горючих сланців у СРСР вівся на Естонському, Ленінградському і Капширському родовищах. Видобуток сланців у СРСР становив (тис.т): 1940 р. — 2628; 1950 — 4716; 1960 — 14147; 1970 — 24319; 1974 — 33266. Після Другої світової війни сланцевий газ використовувався в Ленінграді і містах Північної Естонії.
Світова енергетична криза 1973 року тимчасово пожвавила інтерес до горючих сланців. У 1974 р. в експлуатації в СРСР знаходилося 10 шахт і 4 розрізи. На розрізах застосовувалася безтранспортна система розкриву з використанням потужних екскаваторів. Найбільші шахти мали фабрики, що збагачували видобутий сланець мокрою відсадкою і у важких середовищах. Сланці використовувалися для енергетичних і технологічних цілей. На сланцевому паливі у кінці ХХ ст. працювали всі електростанції в Естонській РСР, ТЕЦ в м. Сланці Ленінградської області і в м. Сизрані Куйбишевської області. У Естонській РСР, Ленінградській і Куйбишевській областях діяли сланцепереробні комбінати, які виробляли паливне масло, побутовий газ, бензин, сірку, дубильні речовини, отрутохімікати, бітуми, карбамідні смоли, антисептики, барвники тощо. На базі рідких фракцій перегонки сланців було організоване виробництво бензолу, іхтіолу, толуолу, сланцевого сольвенту, лаків, клеїв, електродного коксу тощо. З сланців виробляли близько 1 млрд м³ побутового газу на рік.
Світовий видобуток горючих сланців досяг піку в 1980 році і становив 47 млн. т, з них більше 70% в Естонії (решта в Росії, Китаї, Бразилії, Австралії).
Сучасність
У 2006 р. близько 11 млн т горючих сланців спалювалося на електростанціях, а 3 млн т використовувалося в сланцевохімічній промисловості, де вироблялося 0,3 млн т сланцевого масла. Світовий видобуток горючих сланців досяг піку в 1980 р. і дорівнював 47 млн т, з них більше 70% в Естонії (решта в Росії, Китаї, Бразилії, Австралії).
В даний час для хімічної (непаливної) переробки горючих сланців видобуваються тільки в Естонії, Росії, Бразилії, Китаї та Австралії (порядку десятків млн т).
В Україні переробку Бовтиського родовища горючих сланців спільно з Естонією передбачається почати в найближчі 5 років.
З середини 1990-х років, і активніше — уже з 2005 р. у світі спостерігається зростаючий інтерес до горючих сланців як енергетичної сировини. Станом на 2008 р. сланцева промисловість є в Бразилії, Китаї, Естонії, Німеччині, Ізраїлі та Росії. Горючі сланці є сировиною для одержання рідких палив у Естонії, Бразилії і Китаї, використовуються для енергетичної генерації в Естонії, Китаї, Ізраїлі і Німеччині, для виробництва цементу в Естонії, Німеччині і Китаї; як сировина для хімічної промисловості — в Китаї, Естонії і Росії. У 2005 р. Естонія була лідером виробництва рідких палив зі сланцю (70% світового виробництва). Йорданія та Єгипет планують використовувати горючий сланець у енергетичних цілях. Канада і Туреччина планують спалювати горючий сланець разом з вугіллям для енергетичної генерації. Горючий сланець служить головним паливом для енергетичної генерації тільки в Естонії, де Естонська ТЕС генерує 95% електроенергії використовуючи горючий сланець (2005 р.).
Сучасна сланцева індустрія включає одержання з горючих сланців синтетичного рідкого палива і масел, використання сланцю як палива для ТЕС, для виготовлення будівельних матеріалів та ін. У 2008 р. сланцева промисловість є в Бразилії, Китаї, Естонії, Німеччині, Ізраїлі та Росії.
Одержання синтетичного рідкого палива і масел. Горючі сланці є сировиною для одержання рідких палив і масел у Естонії, Бразилії і Китаї, Австралія випробувала пілотну установку, а у 2003 р. розроблена програма досліджень у США. У 2005 рр. Естонія була лідером виробництва рідких палив зі сланцю (70% світового виробництва, 4% ВВП). У 2005 р. у світі зі сланцю вироблялося 684 000 тонн синтетичного рідкого палива. У 2007 р. у цій галузі було вже два світових лідера — Естонія та Китай. Найбільша естонська копальня з видобутку горючого сланцю — Еесті Полевківі (Eesti Polevkivi). У 2008 р. естонський парламент схвалив «Національний план розвитку сланцевої промисловості» на 2008–215 рр. який передбачає щорічне видобування горючого сланцю для переробки на синтетичне паливо до 20 мільйона метричних тонн.
Енергетика. Сьогодні горючі сланці використовуються для енергетичної генерації в Естонії, Китаї, Ізраїлі і Німеччині. Йорданія та Єгипет планують використовувати горючий сланець у енергетичних цілях. Канада і Туреччина планують спалювати горючий сланець разом з вугіллям для енергетичної генерації. Разом з тим, горючий сланець служить головним паливом для енергетичної генерації тільки в Естонії, де Нарвська ТЕС генерує 95% електроенергії використовуючи горючий сланець (2005 р.). У 2008 р. у Естонії електрогенеруючі потужності сланцевих ТЕС становили 2,967 мегават, у Ізраїлі — 12,5 МВт, Китаї — 12 МВт, Німеччині — 9,9 МВт.
Інші галузі. Сланці використовують для виробництва цементу в Естонії, Німеччині і Китаї; як сировину для хімічної та будівельної промисловості — в Китаї, Естонії і Росії. Крім того, досліджується можливість використання горючого сланцю фармацевтичній промисловості. Окремі різновиди сланцю — сировина для отримання сірки, аміаку, глинозему і т. д. Сланцевий газ використовується як замісник природного газу. Крім того, з горючих сланців, що на 2/3 складаються з негорючих мінеральних речовин, виготовляються стінові блоки, пінобетон, аглопорит, перегородні плити, дренажні труби і інші будівельні деталі. Сланцева зола застосовується в сільському господарстві.
Література і джерела
Dyni, J.R. Geology and Resources of Some World Oil-Shale Deposits // Oil Shale. 2003. ol. 20, № 3. P. 193–252.
Volkov, E.P. New developments in oil shale technology
Sachsenhofer, R.F., Koltun, Y.V. Black Shale in Ukraine A Review // Marine and Petroleum Geology. 2012. Vol. 31, Is. 1. P. 125136.
Примітки
Гірнича промисловість
Паливно-енергетичний комплекс
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20of%20Austria%20%281526%E2%80%931545%29
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Elizabeth of Austria (1526–1545)
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Elizabeth of Austria (1526–1545)
Elizabeth of Austria (9 July 1526 – 15 June 1545) was Queen of Poland by marriage. She was the eldest of fifteen children of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, and his wife Anne of Bohemia and Hungary. A member of the House of Habsburg, she was married to Sigismund II Augustus, who was already crowned as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania even though both of his parents were still alive and well. The marriage was short and unhappy. Elizabeth was of frail health, experiencing epileptic seizures, and died at age 18.
Marriage plans
Elizabeth spent most of her childhood in the Hofburg, Innsbruck. She was raised with strict discipline and received a good education from humanist Kaspar Ursinus Velius, but was not taught the Polish language despite her early arranged marriage to Sigismund II Augustus. The marriage plan was first discussed when Elizabeth was only a one year old. Louis, King of Hungary and Bohemia, died in August 1526 without leaving an heir. The Hungarian throne was contested between Louis' brother-in-law Ferdinand I and John Zápolya. Louis' uncle Sigismund I the Old and Hungarian nobility supported Zápolya. The marriage of Elizabeth to Sigismund's son was proposed as the means to end Polish support to Zápolya. The Polish Queen Bona Sforza opposed the wedding as she opposed the growing influence of the Habsburgs.
In February 1530, ten-year-old Sigismund II Augustus was co-crowned vivente rege as King of Poland (his father was still alive and in good health) to secure his inheritance in Poland. Envoys of George, Duke of Saxony, attended the coronation ceremony and negotiated the marriage between Elizabeth and Sigismund August on behalf of Ferdinand. Great Chancellor of the Crown Krzysztof Szydłowiecki supported the match and organized a preliminary marriage treaty, signed on 10–11 November 1530 in Poznań. According to the treaty, the marriage was to take place in 1533 when Elizabeth reached the age of seven. Her dowry was 100,000 ducats. In exchange, the Poles would grant her the cities of Nowy Sącz, Sanok, Przemyśl, Biecz as her dower.
Sigismund Augustus and Elizabeth were first cousins once removed. (Casimir IV Jagiellon was a great-grandfather of Elizabeth and a grandfather of Sigismund August). This close relationship required a matrimonial dispensation, which was issued by Pope Clement VII on 24 August 1531. The final marriage treaty, delayed mostly due to the opposition by Bona Sforza, was signed only on 16 June 1538 in Breslau (now Wrocław) by Johannes Dantiscus. The treaty did not differ from the preliminary treaty of 1530 other than the age of the bride which was now set at 16. The betrothal ceremony took place on 17 July 1538 in Innsbruck. Bona continued to lobby against the marriage and instead proposed Princess Margaret of France.
Queen of Poland
Elizabeth and a twelve-person escort departed Vienna on 21 April 1543. She was met at Olomouc by Samuel Maciejowski, Bishop of Płock and a retinue of 1,500 knights. On 5 May 1543, Elizabeth entered Kraków and met Sigismund Augustus for the first time. The same day 16-year-old Elizabeth married 22-year-old Sigismund Augustus in Wawel Cathedral. The wedding celebrations continued for two weeks. She was also crowned as Queen of Poland, which only increased the ire of Bona Sforza, who detested her title of "Old Queen".
The marriage was not a happy one. Sigismund Augustus, who already had several mistresses, did not find Elizabeth attractive and continued to have extramarital affairs. Raised in a strict household to be obedient, Elizabeth was too timid and meek to object to this. The long journey from Austria to Poland had further deteriorated her already frail state of health. She was diagnosed with epilepsy and started having seizures. At the same time Bona openly expressed her dislike of Elizabeth and continued to search for ways to destroy the marriage. Bona questioned the wording of the matrimonial dispensation; a new dispensation was issued on 17 May 1544. On the other hand, Polish nobility liked and sympathized with Elizabeth – a young, pleasant woman who was ignored by her husband and taunted by her ambitious mother-in-law. Her father-in-law Sigismund I the Old was also sympathetic to her, but was too weak to protect her from Bona.
Two months after the wedding, plague reached Kraków and the royal family departed the capital city. Sigismund Augustus left for the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, while Sigismund I the Old, Bona, and Elizabeth toured various cities in Poland. After a year of separation, the couple met again in Brest. Sigismund Augustus liked living independently in Lithuania and convinced his father to entrust him with ruling the grand duchy. In fall 1544, Elizabeth and Sigismund Augustus moved to Vilnius. For a few months Sigismund Augustus attempted to keep up appearances of a successful marriage to appease the Habsburgs, but soon started ignoring his wife and continued his affair with Barbara Radziwiłł.
In April 1545, Elizabeth's health deteriorated and she was tormented by her increasingly frequent seizures. On 8 June 1545, Sigismund Augustus went to Kraków to receive Elizabeth's dowry, leaving his wife alone in Vilnius. In Kraków, Sigismund Augustus inquired about treatments and asked Ferdinand I to send his own doctors. But it was too late. On 15 June, the young queen died exhausted by her many epileptic seizures. She was buried on 24 July 1545 (after her husband returned from Kraków) in Vilnius Cathedral next to her husband's uncle, King Alexander Jagiellon.
After Elizabeth's death Sigismund Augustus married his mistress Barbara Radziwiłł and, after her death, Elizabeth's younger sister, Catherine of Austria. Sigismund had no children with any his three wives.
Ancestors
References
Bibliography
External links
Przemysław Jędrzejewski, ELŻBIETA AUSTRIACZKA – KRÓLOWA POLSKA I WIELKA KSIĘŻNA LITEWSKA (1526–1545)
1526 births
1545 deaths
Burials at Vilnius Cathedral
Wives of Sigismund II Augustus
16th-century House of Habsburg
16th-century Austrian women
Neurological disease deaths in Lithuania
Deaths from epilepsy
Royalty and nobility with epilepsy
Daughters of emperors
Children of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor
Daughters of kings
People from Innsbruck
People from Linz
Austrian royalty and nobility with disabilities
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Зоряний шлях: Оригінальний телесеріал
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Зоряний шлях: Оригінальний телесеріал
«Зоряний шлях: Оригінальний серіал» (TOS) — американський науково-фантастичний телевізійний серіал, який був створений Джином Родденберрі і транслювався з вересня 1966 по грудень 1967 року компанією Desilu Productions, та Paramount Television з січня 1968 року по червень 1969 року на телеканалі NBC. Тривав 3 сезони, що налічують 80 епізодів.
Події серіалу описують науково-дослідницьку місію космічного корабля «Ентерпрайз», і його екіпажу в 2260-х роках. Команду очолюють капітан Джеймс Т. Кірк (Вільям Шетнер), перший офіцер і науковий співробітник Спок (Леонард Німой), та головний лікар Леонард МакКой (Дефорест Келлі).
Рейтинги «Зоряного шляху» за оригінального показу виявилися доволі низькими, і телеканал NBC скасував серіал, не довівши його до логічного завершення. Кілька років по тому він однак став справжнім хітом, залишаючись таким протягом 1970-х років. Він відомий значним впливом на масову культуру — популяризацією науки серед молоді та породженням субкультури трекерів.
Серіал заклав початок вигаданого всесвіту «Зоряного шляху» та однойменної медіафраншизи, що складається з наступних телесеріалів, художніх фільмів, численної супутньої продукції, такої як книги, комікси, настільні та відеоігри. Підзаголовок «Оригінальний серіал» додався з виходом наступних творів за цим всесвітом. В даний час широко вважається одним з найпопулярніших і впливових телевізійних серіалів усіх часів.
Сюжет
Події розгортаються в XXIII столітті, коли Об'єднана Федерація Планет, куди входять крім інших видів і люди, споряджає у п'ятирічну експедицію космічний корабель «Ентерпрайз NCC-1701». Під командуванням капітана Джеймса Кірка екіпаж подорожує галактикою, дослідуючи невідомі явища і відкриваючи нові цивілізації.
На відміну від наступних серіалів, «Оригінальний серіал» не має наскрізного сюжету чи частих сюжетних арок, які поєднували б епізоди єдиною історією. Кожен епізод оповідає про окрему пригоду, мало пов'язану з рештою. Серіал починається без передісторії з однієї з висадок на чергову планету вже під час експедиції. Завершується він так само однією з багатьох пригод до повернення «Ентерпрайза» на Землю.
Створення
Попередні ідеї
Джин Родденберрі, будучи великим шанувальником наукової фантастики і сценаристом на американському телебаченні, 11 березня 1964 року створив проект серіалу про космічні подорожі, названий «Зоряним шляхом». Він мав базуватися на пригодах екіпажу космічного корабля «колись у майбутньому» наприкінці тисячоліття — в 1995 чи 2995 роках. Родденберрі вигадав склад екіпажу за званнями й посадами під командуванням капітана Роберта Ейпріла. Він також описав головні характеристики корабля «Йорктаун» і його місію — дослідження землеподібних планет нашої галактики впродовж 5-и років. Було надруковано низку заготовок для сюжетів епізодів і змальовано стиль «Йорктауна».
Джерелами натхнення послужили роман «Подорож космічної гончої» (The Voyage of the Space Beagle) (1950) Альфреда ван Вогта, серія «Марафон» Еріка Френка Рассела, і фільм «Заборонена планета» (1956). Деякими також згадується телевізійний серіал «Рокі Джонс, космічний рейнджер» (1954), звідки було перейнято елементи дизайну корабля і форми екіпажу, вигадані технології та лінії відносин між персонажами. На формування образу персонажів вплинули твори Сесіла Скотта Форестера про морського капітана Горація Горнбловера. Джин Родденберрі жартівливо згадував капатан Кірка як «Горнбловера в космосі». Як альтернативи Кірку розглядалося ще 16 імен, таких як Дрейк, Гудзон, Гамільтон, Флеґ.
У квітні 1964 Джин приніс свій проект на студію Desilu. Там він познайомився з Гербертом Солоу, який запропонував внести низку змін до проекту, оскільки в численних елементах бачив копіювання з інших серіалів. Так, він відкинув пропозицію Джина наділити іншопланетянина Спока червоною шкірою й хвостом, вважаючи такий образ неприйнятним для телебачення як «диявольський».
Пілотний епізод
Віце-президент Desilu Productions Оскар Кац зустрівся з Родденберрі і провів разом з ним переговори з керівництвом телерадіомережі CBS щодо замовлення нею «Зоряного шляху». Але мережа не була зацікавлена в показі серіалу, оскільки вже мала замовлення на один про космічні пригоди — «Загублені в космосі» (1965—1968) Ірвіна Алена. У травні 1964 Солоу який раніше працював у мережі NBC, зустрівся з Грантом Тінкером, начальником NBC на західному узбережжі США. Той дозволив зйомки пілотного епізоду «Клітка». На виробництво знадобилося $630000.
Оскільки більшість телевізорів 1960-х були здатні відтворювати тільки чорно-білу картинку, костюми персонажів і грим задумувалися контрастними. Початкові варіанти форми Зоряного флоту дуже нагадували форму героїв серіалу «Космічний патруль» (1962). Родденберрі найняв дизайнера Білла Тейсса, котрий розробив оригінальний дизайн, що і був використаний в пілотному епізоді та подальшому серіалі. Зйомки здійснювалися в листопаді-грудні 1964 на студії Desilu Productions (пізніше відома як Culver Studios) в Калвер-Сіті, Каліфорнія.
Подивившись епізод в лютому 1965, керівництво NBC описало «Клітку» як «надто мозковитий» епізод, в якому «сюжет надто закручений, надто вчений, і розвивається надто невідчутно». Також керівництву не сподобався вибір Меджел Баррет на роль старшого офіцера, яка не відповідає образу сильної, вольової жінки, другої в команді. Їй було визначено більш підходящою роль медсестри. Зауважувався «еротизм» пілотного епізоду. Проте в NBC дійшли згоди, що пілотний епізод не розкриває потенціалу серіалу і Родденберрі слід дати можливість створити другий епіод з урахуванням зауважень. Зокрема на цьому настояв Морт Вернер, продюсер і керівник програмування.
Другий пілотний епізод
Друга спроба отримала назву «Куди ще не приходила жодна людина». Цей епізод був знятий в липні і показаний 22 вересня 1965 року. До написання сценарію було залучено Семюеля Піплса, сценариста на телебаченні й письменника вестернів. Проект був готовий 8 липня, маючи розгорнутий сценарій.
Другий пілотний епізод ввів до серіалу більшу частину акторського складу, знайомого глядачам у подальшому. Вільям Шатнер виконав роль капітана Кірка, Джеймс Духан зіграв головного інженера Скотта, Джордж Такеі зіграв лейтенанта Сулу, який був фізиком в «Клітці», а надалі став керманичем. Пол Фікс виконав роль доктора Марка Пайпера, Келлі Дефорест зіграв корабельного лікаря Леонарда Маккоя.
Керівництво NBC лишилося задоволеним і було замовлено 16 епізодів «Зоряного шляху».
Покази
Сезони
Перший сезон
Першим із замовлених епізодів став «Пастка для людини» (The Man Trap), пущений в ефір 8 вересня 1966 року. Показ відбувся з 8:30 по 9:30 на телеканалі NBC в рамках блоку попередніх показів. «Пастка для людини» отримала змішані відгуки критиків. «The Philadelphia Inquirer» і «San Francisco Chronicle» схвалили початок серіалу, тоді як «The New York Times» і «The Boston Globe» поставилися прохолодніше, а у «Variety» припустили, що «Зоряний шлях» не матиме успіху, оскільки «неймовірно нудний, повний плутанини і складнощів». В той час починалися соціологічні дослідження аудиторії телесеріалів, які розглянули і «Зоряний шлях». Згідно них, серіал зайняв 33-тє місце в рейтингу серед 92-х програм, але після двох тижнів показу опустився на 51-е місце.
Спадання рейтингів змусило NBC розглянути можливість закриття серіалу. Незважаючи на це, «Зоряний шлях» вже мав шанувальників, які виступили проти закриття. Завдяки їхнім зверненням NBC вирішили замовити ще 10 епізодів для першого сезону, а в березні 1967 року замовити другий сезон. Спочатку було оголошено, що серіал буде транслюватися з 19:30 до 20:30 по вівторках, але замість цього покази відбувалися з 20:30 до 21:30 по п'ятницях з 1967 по 1968 рік. Такий вибір призвів до втрати основної аудиторії, яку складали юні телеглядачі.
Другий сезон
Хоча Шатнер, виконавець ролі капітана Кірка, очікував закриття серіалу після другого сезону, почавши готуватися до інших проектів, NBC не мали конкретних планів щодо закриття. На початку січня 1966 року, інформаційне агентство Associated Press повідомило, що в серіалу є великі шанси бути продовженим на ще один сезон. «Зоряний шлях» все ж мав кращий рейтинг, ніж вестерн «Гондо» на ABC або програми SBC, та входив до числа 15-и найкращих програм «рейтингу Нельсона».
Дослідження телевізійної мережі показали, що у серіалу є своя «цільова аудиторія», в тому числі серед чоловіків з хорошим доходом і вищою освітою, а не лише молодь. Інші телевізійні серіали NBC мали куди більш низькі рейтинги, ніж «Зоряний шлях». Серіал зацікавлював тим, що оповідав про серйозні соціальні проблеми сучасності в футуристичному контексті, на відміну від «Загублених у космосі». Як наслідок у «Зоряного шляху» з'являлися все нові шанувальники.
Мережа NBC отримала 29000 листів від шанувальників протягом першого сезону, більше, ніж від глядачів будь-якого іншого тодішнього серіалу, за винятком комедійного «Мавпи». Коли в 1967 році стали ширитися чутки про те, що серіал можуть закрити, активістка науково-фантастичного фендому Бетті Трімбл з її чоловіком Джоном та деякими шанувальниками, взялися таємно переконувати глядачів підтримати покази своїми листами. Використовуючи 4000 імен в списку передплатників на науково-фантастичну конвенцію, Трімбл просила фанатів писати на NBC і ще десяти передплатникам. З грудня 1967 року по березень 1968 на NBC надійшло 116 000 листів. За даними NBC, мережа насправді отримала понад мільйон листів, але тільки 116 000 з них було розкрито. Оглядачі газет закликали писати листи з проханням врятувати те, що вони називали «найкращим науково-фантастичним серіалом в ефірі». Більше 200 студентів Колтеха для того, щоб підтримати серіал, прийшли до будівлі студії NBC в Каліфорнії з плакатами «Вибираємо Спока» і «Вулкан — сила». Студенти Берклі і МІТ вийшли з аналогічними вимогами в Сан-Франциско і Нью-Йорку. Серед листів на підтримку серіалу був і лист губернатора штату Нью-Йорк Нельсона Рокфеллера.
Для того, щоб шанувальники перестали писати листи на підтримку серіалу, студія NBC після показу 23-го епізоду другого сезону «Остаточна перемога», 1 березня 1968 року, повідомила про те, що серіал буде продовжений. Але замість втихомиритися шанувальники почали писати листи з подякою на адресу студії.
Третій сезон
Після безлічі листів шанувальників NBC почали планувати перенесення показу третього сезону з понеділка в надії збільшити аудиторію. У березні 1968 року NBC вирішили перенести показ серіалу на ніч п'ятниці, щоб уникнути конфлікту з успішним серіалом «Хохми Ровена і Мартіна», що йшов по понеділках.
Родденберрі був засмучений і скаржився, що «коли мережа хоче „вбити“ нас, вона мала зробити це в кращий спосіб». Його спроби переконати NBC дати серіалу інший день і годину не увінчалися успіхом. Результатом всього цього став стрес і виснаження, тому він вирішив відійти від щоденної роботи над серіалом, проте залишився виконавчим продюсером. У зв'язку з цим на посаді продюсера «Зоряного шляху» його змінив Фред Фрейбергер. Тим часом NBC вирішили урізати бюджет серіалу, виділяючи на кожен епізод не $39 000, а 36 000. Це зумовило значне зниження якості сезону 1968-69 років, введення «чудовиськ тижня». Актриса Нішель Нікольс охарактеризувала ці скорочення бюджету як навмисну спробу знищити серіал. Останнім днем зйомок стало 9 січня 1969 року, після чого NBC ухвалили рішення закрити серіал, незважаючи на спроби прихильників розгорнути ще одну кампанію з листами підтримки.
Список персонажів
Джеймс Тиберій Кірк (актор Вільям Шатнер) — капітан USS «Ентерпрайз», призначений на заміну капітану Пайку, з 2268 року — адмірал. Відомий як єдиний, хто зумів вирішити суперечність в тесті для молодих капітанів «Кобаясі Мару». Кірк — харизматичний лідер, який вимагає точного виконання своїх наказів, але й сам готовий пожертувати навіть власним життям заради членів екіпажу. Він твердо вірить в ідеали Об'єднаної Федерації Планет і прагне захищати їх за будь-яких умов, незалежно чи від зовнішніх ворогів, чи він зловмисників у самій Федерації. Проте якщо бачить суперечність законів справедливості, може порушити їх. Він досконало знає влаштування систем корабля і добре знається на військовій тактиці. Такі недоброзичливці Федерації як клінгони вважають його достойним противником. Крім того капітан Кірк має чудову фізичну підготовку і володіє власним бойовим стилем.
Спок (Леонард Німой) — старший офіцер, спеціаліст з комп'ютерів, напів-вулканець, напів-людина. Його справжнє ім'я неможливо вимовити людям. Як звичайно для вулканців, має загострені вуха і покладається на логіку, уникаючи емоцій. Йому часто незрозуміла реакція людей на різні події, наприклад, жарти, але він старається сприймати це як належне. Спок цікавиться мистецтвами, тривимірними шахами, і є вегетаріанцем, як більшість вулканців.
Леонард «Боунз» Маккой (Дефорест Келлі) — старший офіцер, медик. Він має видатні знання з медицини і в ході експедиції не тільки лікує екіпаж, а й винаходить нові ліки і медичні технології. Його найближчими друзями на борту «Ентерпрайза» є Кірк і Спок.
Монтгомері «Скотті» Скотт (Джеймс Духан) — інженер, займається обслуговуванням систем корабля, зокрема транспортерів. За походженням шотландець. Впродовж серіалу безуспішно намагається налагодити стосунки з жіночою частиною екіпажу.
Ніота Ухура (Нішель Ніколс) — офіцер, котра займається комунікаціями. Африканка за походженням, Ухура гордиться цим і навіть оформила свою каюту в африканському стилі. Вона поважає капітана Кірка і цікавиться людською частиною Спока.
Хікару Сулу (Джордж Такеі) — офіцер наукового відділення, керманич «Ентерпрайза». Його хобі є догляд за рослинами.
Павел Чехов (Волтер Кеніг) — офіцер-навігатор, росіянин за походженням, чим дуже гордиться. Він полюбляє зараховувати багато досягнень росіянам, стверджуючи, що саме в Росії винайшли ту чи іншу річ, або саме там насправді відбулася якась відома подія.
Дженіс Ренд (Грейс Лі Вітні) — інтендант капітана.
Кристина Чапель (Мажел Баррет) — медсестра.
Трансляція в Україні
Українською мовою серіал не озвучено. Його показували російською на каналі «Enter-фільм». Серіал було озвучено російською мовою студією «Так Треба Продакшн» у 2004 році. Ролі озвучували: Анатолій Пашнін, Юрій Гребельник, Володимир Терещук і Олена Бліннікова.
Див. також
Зоряний шлях: Анімаційний серіал
Примітки
Зоряний шлях (серіали)
Телесеріали про космічні подорожі
Телесеріали, адаптовані як відеоігри
Телесеріали, адаптовані як комікси
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20finta%20semplice
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La finta semplice
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La finta semplice (The Fake Innocent), K. 51 (46a) is an opera buffa in three acts for seven voices and orchestra, composed in 1768 by then 12-year-old Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Young Mozart and his father Leopold were spending the year in Vienna, where Leopold was trying to establish his son as an opera composer. He was acting on a suggested request from the Emperor Joseph II that the young boy should write an opera.
Leopold chose an Italian libretto by the Vienna court poet Marco Coltellini, which was based on an early work by Carlo Goldoni. During rehearsals, the opera was the victim of intrigues from competing composers claiming that the work was not from the 12-year-old boy, but from his father. Threatened with a sabotaged first night by the impresario Giuseppe Affligio, Leopold prudently decided to withdraw. The opera was never staged in Vienna. It was probably performed the following year in Salzburg at the request of the Prince-Archbishop.
Mozart produced a full score of three acts, 26 numbers, in a manuscript of 558 pages. It includes an overture/Sinfonia, one coro, one duet, three ensembles (at the end of each act), and 21 arias.
The opera was recorded in its entirety by Leopold Hager for Orfeo in January 1983 with Helen Donath and Teresa Berganza, a performance lasting two hours 45 minutes. Another recording was made in November 1989, with Barbara Hendricks and Ann Murray, and conducted by Peter Schreier. This version was selected by Philips to be part of The Complete Mozart Edition of all the works of Mozart, published in 1991.
However, since its premiere in 1769, the opera was not staged until modern times. It was given in March 1985 at the Bloomsbury Theatre as part of the Camden Festival conducted by Nicholas Cleobury, directed by Robert Carsen, with Patricia Rozario, Glenn Winslade and Janis Kelly among the cast.
It was performed at the 2006 Salzburg Festival, as part of the production of all of 22 Mozart's operas. The performances were published in the collection of DVDs known as M-22 by Deutsche Grammophon.
Composition history
The opera was something of a temporary career setback for Mozart, amid a childhood otherwise characterized by universal success and stardom. The instigation of the work was a suggestion made by Emperor Joseph II to Mozart's father Leopold during a visit made to the Imperial capital of Vienna by the Mozart family (10 January 1768 to the end of December 1768). Leopold wanted to promote the exceptional talent of young Mozart with the hope of establishing him as an opera composer.
The Emperor suggested to Leopold that Wolfgang write an opera for performance in Vienna to show his remarkable skills to the Viennese public as he had already done all over Europe.
Leopold needed a good libretto, and he had the choice between seria and buffa. He noted that the seria singers available in Milan were mediocre, while the buffa singers were excellent. "There are no singers here for serious opera. Even Gluck's tragic opera Alceste was performed entirely by opera buffa singers. He too is now writing an opera buffa " (30 January 1768). Leopold thus chose a buffa libretto, and for so doing, he simply went to the established librettist in Vienna, who happened to be the Florentine Marco Coltellini, an Italian "poet" who was to replace Metastasio as "poeta cesareo" at the Imperial court of the Habsburgs in 1769.
Together they selected a libretto by Goldoni, the master of the commedia dell'arte genre. Coltellini modified the libretto somewhat, especially act 3. He abandoned some arias, replaced a few with his own, and in some cases, kept the original Goldoni aria in the scene while adding a new one of his own, with the result that a few scenes ended up with two arias instead of one, as was the norm, usually coming at the end of the scene. In Coltellini's version, four scenes start with an opening aria and end with another: act 1, scene 3, nos. 4 and 5 arias; act 2, scene 6, nos. 16 and 17 arias; act 3, scene 1, nos. 22 and 23 arias; act 3, scene 2, nos. 24 and 25 arias.
Some writers claim that, when the opera was finished, "the performers apparently disliked it" The "failure" of La Finta Semplice in Vienna, which went through rehearsals, but didn't reach full performance, has been the object of similar hazy and cursory descriptions.
Hermann Abert (1871–1927) describes in more precise detail the facts of this "fiasco" in his monumental book "W. A. Mozart" (1919, transl. 2007). This was to be the 5th edition of the famous book of the same title by Otto Jahn (1856–59), the first scholarly biography of Mozart, done with rigorous scientific conscientiousness (Deutsche Gründlichkeit) by a professional archeologist who had become a scholarly expert of ancient Greek vase paintings. Cliff Eisen, who edited the translation of Abert's book in 2007 for Yale University Press with the best scholarship then available, does not dispute Abert's historical facts and reasonings, presented in chapter 5, "First operas in Vienna", p. 82–95, which provided the following quotes.
The first act completed, "Mozart sent it off to the singers, who, according to Leopold, expressed their total satisfaction." Then, Coltellini started making alterations, on the request of Mozart and the singers, and took so long that Easter of 1768, the projected date of the first performance, went by. "Mozart refused to be troubled by this, but continued to work on the opera, eagerly and enthusiastically, writing new arias whenever he was asked to do so", (Abert, p. 86), soon completing a score in three acts, with 26 numbers, covering 558 manuscript pages. Young Mozart thus ended up composing a substantial major opera, lasting (in Leopold Hager's 1983 recording) 2 hours and 45 minutes.
The controversy arose, above all, from the jealousy of other composers, who started circulating the story that the opera had not been written by a 12-year old, but by his father, Leopold. Christoph Willibald Gluck was in town supervising the production of his new opera Alceste, and Leopold wondered whether he was also part of the intrigue against young Mozart. Leopold resorted to a test of improvisation to prove young Mozart's authentic composition skills to elite aristocrats. "He would throw open a random volume from Metastasio's works and invite Wolfgang to provide a musical setting with orchestral accompaniment, of whichever aria he hit upon" (Abert, p. 87).
The impresario, Giuseppe Affligio, an independent contractor, alone in charge of the theater and all opera performances, and bearing all the costs and the risks, made the final decisions about all details of retaining the singers, organizing the rehearsals, and staging the final production. He became influenced by the systematic gossip and started worrying about a negative outcome. He began to have doubts, fearing that the appeal of an opera by a 12-year old prodigy would fade under the suspicions of fraudulent authorship. He found successive reasons to delay the performance.
Things dragged on, until the artists started worrying in turn about the damage to their own reputations if the opera was a flop. The same singers who had "declared themselves well satisfied with music that they described as grateful, now began to fear for the success of the production when they saw how much effort was being expended on preventing it from going ahead. Leopold complained at the singers' duplicity," as the Viennese aristocrats "knew nothing of the inner wickedness of these beasts" (14 September 1768, Abert, p. 87).
Abert gave an extensive musical analysis of the opera, and underlined the high quality of many arias written by Mozart, such as:
No. 5 Aria: "Guarda la donna in viso" (Fracasso);
No. 6 Aria: "Colla bocca, e non col core" (Rosina)
No. 9 Aria: "Senti l'eco, ove t'aggiri" (Rosina)
No. 13 Aria: "Con certe persone Vuol essere bastone" (Simone
No. 15 Aria: "Amoretti, che ascosi qui siete" (Rosina) ["The highlight of the opera", with "nobility of utterance" "achieving the expressive intensity of the later Mozart", Abert p. 94]
No. 16 Aria: Ubriaco non son io" (Cassandro)
No. 17 Aria: "Sposa cara, sposa bella" (Polidoro)
No. 19 Duetto: "Cospetton, cospettonaccio!" (Cassandro, Fracasso)
No. 22 Aria: "Vieni, vieni, oh mia Ninetta" (Simone)
No. 24 Aria: "Che scompiglio, che flagello" (Giacinta)
No. 25 Aria: "Nelle guerre d'amore Non val sempre il valore" (Fracasso)
and the 3 ensembles of the finales of each act, where young Mozart displays his remarkable facility in synchronizing the parts of 7 singers:
No. 11 Finale: "Dove avete la creanza?" (Rosina, Fracasso, etc.)
No. 21 Finale: "T'ho, detto, buffone" (Cassandro, Polidoro, etc.
No. 26 Finale: "Se le pupille io giro" (Polidoro, Rosina, etc.).
It is not credible that the singers could have shown displeasure at such charming arias. Here Leopold's account must be trusted against other commenters of the time.
In fact, the turmoil put everybody's reputation at stake, including that of the Salzburg Prince-Archbishop, whose employees the Mozarts were, representing him in Vienna. Leopold wrote that the artists employed and recommended by the archbishop should not be treated as "liars, charlatans, and impostors who venture forth, with his gracious permission, to throw dust in people's eyes like common conjurors" (30 July 1768, Abert, p. 88). Affligio got so worked up that he even threatened, if the work got to first night, to make sure the opening would be a disaster. "He would ensure that it was a fiasco and that it was booed off the stage." Leopold could not take the risk for himself and to thus endanger the unblemished reputation of his son, and "was left with no alternative but to abandon the production." Leopold withdrew from the rehearsals.
In fact, "Affligio was an adventurer and gambler who had obtained his officer's commission by fraud...His complete lack of any understanding of art is clear...He was finally sent to the galleys for forgery." (Abert, p. 88).
The whole affair had "dragged on for 9 months" and in order "to salvage his reputation", Leopold wrote "an indignant petition to the emperor on 21 September 1768, complaining of a conspiracy on the part of the theatre director Giuseppe Affligio, who apparently claimed that Wolfgang's music was ghost-written by his father, and proving Mozart's output by including a list of his compositions to that time." (See also Eisen/Sadie, Grove Online, also Cliff Eisen, Cambridge Mozart Encyclopedia).
Leopold was also requesting the payment of the 100 ducats promised on delivery of the score in the initial Affligio contract plus the reimbursement of his expenses. The petition failed. The letter is reprinted in English translation in Deutsch (1965, pp. 80–83). The Emperor ordered an inquiry, but its result was that the opera was not to be produced.
The Mozarts left Vienna at the end of December 1768, with La finta semplice still unperformed. It was probably produced in their home town of Salzburg, in 1769, at the request of Leopold's employer, Prince-Archbishop Schrattenbach.
Alienating Empress Maria Theresa
This affair's unfortunate outcome may also have further soured and alienated Joseph II's mother, the Empress Maria Theresa. The Empress had 16 children, including 5 sons ("Archdukes"), and she was an important relative of a fair number of monarchs and aristocrats who might have been in a position to give Wolfgang a permanent job.
She was an austere personage who was already offended by the lack of dignity in the Mozarts' European journeys. During the Mozarts' Vienna visit, she may have developed an even more hostile view of the Mozart family.
The failure in 1768 cost young Mozart his chance of establishing his reputation as a first-class opera composer in Vienna, which would have been a jumping board for obtaining a permanent position in another European court.
Later, Mozart was, at first, very successful in Milan with his well-received performances of Mitridate (Carnival of December 1770 to January 1771), and especially Ascanio in Alba, a pastoral serenata performed for the wedding of Archduke Ferdinand (15 October 1771). By contrast, the main opera for the wedding, Ruggiero, by Hasse on a Metastasio libretto, performed the day after the wedding (16 October), generated no enthusiasm. Mozart's serenata, following the main opera was, by contrast, a great success (17 October). Leopold exulted in his letter (19 October): "In a word, it grieves me, but Wolfgang's serenata has so overshadowed Hasse's opera that I cannot describe it." The universal sentiment was confirmed by the Italian and German press.
Maria Theresa had herself commissioned the libretto and composition of the main opera Ruggiero, while Mozart's serenata had been commissioned by the Milan authorities. Hasse had been Maria Theresa's music teacher 38 years earlier, and had remained her favorite musician and personal friend. But he now was 71, suffering from gout, and could barely travel to Milan. The Empress was aware that Hasse was too old and feeble for the event, and that he was past his prime, while young Mozart was only 15, brimming with energy. Still, she was embittered by Hasse's lack of success, and consoled him, back in Vienna, with rich presents. This may have contributed to her growing resentment against the Mozarts.
After the success of Mozart's Lucio Silla (Carnival of December 1772 to January 1773), Leopold, overstayed his visit in Milan by a few months, still hoping for a position for young Mozart, until he was finally advised that no position would be offered. Leopold had to leave empty-handed.
The Empress Maria-Theresa's behind-the-scenes objection to Mozart was revealed much later, when her 17-year-old son Ferdinand, Imperial Governor of Milan, delighted by Mozart's Mitridate, and his wedding serenata, Ascanio in Alba, had expressed his desire to employ young Mozart in his court. His mother answered, in a famous letter of 12 December 1771, advising her son against it:
You ask me to take the young Salzburger into your service. I do not know why, not believing that you have need of a composer or of useless people. If however it would give you pleasure, I have no wish to hinder you. What I say is intended only to prevent your burdening yourself with useless people and giving titles to people of that sort. If they are in your service it degrades that service when these people go about the world like beggars. Besides, he has a large family.
Elsewhere in Italy, Mozart received a very cool reception from another Ferdinand, the King of Naples; Melograni conjectures that he had received the Empress's bad recommendation from his wife, her daughter Maria Carolina.
Historian Derek Beales called Maria-Theresa "monstrously unfair to Mozart." Instead of a court-appointed opera composer, with a stable income and an easy family life, Mozart remained a free-lance opera writer all his life.
The 1768 fiasco in Vienna proved as important, if not more, for Mozart's future as what happened later in Milan in 1773. In both cases he was able to compose brilliant operas, and in both cases he was unable to gain the kind of recognition that would have resulted in a nomination by a court to a permanent position as opera composer. His life, and the world's legacy of Mozart operas, would have been different, if the fates had smiled on him, and the Habsburgs had been more understanding and supportive.
Roles
Synopsis
Place: Cassandro's estate near Cremona
Time: mid-18th century
Act 1
Captain Fracasso and his Hungarian troops are stationed near Cremona. He and his sergeant Simone have been lodging for two months in the home of Don Cassandro, who lives in his grand house with his weak-in-the-head brother Polidoro, and their beautiful sister, Giacinta. Inevitably, Captain Fracasso falls in love with Giacinta, and Simone with the chambermaid Ninetta. Fracasso and Giacinta want to marry, as do Simone and Ninetta. But they can't do it without the consent of the brothers Cassandro and Polidoro. The two brothers are comfortable with their status quo – they are confirmed misogynists, and unwilling to part with their sister. The wily soubrette Ninetta devises a plan to outwit the brothers, with the collaboration of Rosina, Fracasso's sister, who happens to be "visiting". Rosina (prima donna) poses as a naïve innocent who is going to make both brothers fall in love with her until they agree to the marriages. Polidoro falls in love with Rosina first and proposes marriage immediately. At first Cassandro is indifferent, but eventually his defences are completely disarmed through Rosina's feigned naïvety and innocence. So far, the plan is working.
Act 2
Polidoro naively believes Rosina is planning to marry him. Rosina coaches him for a confrontation with his brother Cassandro. Polidoro demands half of his inheritance from Cassandro. Giacinta fears a quarrel between the brothers, but the others look forward to their fight. Rosina and Fracasso congratulate each other for their successful plan to outwit Cassandro. They continue to engineer the rest of the plot. Simone takes Giacinta into hiding. Fracasso tells the brothers that Giacinta has fled, absconding with the family money. The plan is so successful that Ninetta disappears as well. Simone announces that Ninetta has also fled, taking along whatever she could get. The brothers agree that whoever can bring the two girls back should be allowed to marry them, even keeping whatever loot can be found. Fracasso and Simone volunteer to go on the search.
Act 3
Simone finds Ninetta and they rejoice that they soon will get married. Fracasso finds Giacinta, but she is afraid that when she returns, her brother will not agree to her marrying Fracasso, but Fracasso assures Giacinta that Rosina has bewitched the brothers and has them under her complete control. Fracasso and Giacinta rejoice at their pairing off. Rosina is confronted with her own choice between both brothers. She rejects Polidoro, who is heartbroken, and agrees to marry Cassandro. They both mercilessly mock Polidoro for his stupidity. All ends well for the three couples, except for the odd man out, Polidoro, who is left alone.
Numbers and arias
There are 26 numbers:
1 Coro: No. 1
1 Duetto: No. 19, between Cassandro and Fracasso
3 Ensembles as "Finales" of each act: No. 11, No. 21, No. 26
21 arias, distributed as follows:
Cassandro, 3 arias – No. 4, No. 8, No. 16
Polidoro, 2 arias – No. 7, No. 17
Giacinta, 3 arias – No. 3, No. 14, No. 24
Ninetta, 3 arias – No. 10, No. 12, No. 23
Fracasso, 3 arias – No. 5, No. 20, No. 25
Simone, 3 arias – No. 2, No. 13, No. 22
Rosina, 4 arias – No. 6, No. 9, No. 15, No. 18
List of numbers and arias of the Goldoni/Coltellini libretto
See Leopold Hager's January 1983 complete reference recording
Act 1:
Sc. 1: No. 1 Coro: "Bella cosa e far l'amore" (Giacinta, Ninetta, Fracasso, Simone)
Sc. 1: No. 2 Aria: "Troppo briga a prender moglie" (Simone sung by Robert Lloyd)
Sc. 2: No. 3 Aria: "Marito io vorrei" (Giacinta sung by Teresa Berganza)
Sc. 3: No. 4 Aria: "Non c'e al mondo altro che donne" (Cassandro sung by Robert Hol)
Sc. 3: No. 5 Aria: "Guarda la donna in viso" (Fracasso sung by Thomas Moser)
Sc. 4: No. 6 Aria: "Colla bocca, e non col core" (Rosina sung by Helen Donath)
Sc. 5: No. 7 Aria: "Cosa ha mai la donna indosso" (Polidoro sung by Anthony Rolfe-Johnson)
Sc. 6: No. 8 Aria: "Ella vuole ed io vorrei" (Cassandro)
Sc. 7: No. 9 Aria: "Senti l'eco, ove t'aggiri" (Rosina)
Sc. 8: No. 10 Aria: "Chi mi vuol bene, presto mel dica" (Ninetta sung by Juitta-Renate Ihloff)
Sc. 9: No. 11 Finale: "Dove avete la creanza?" (all 7, in turn)
Tutti: "Dunque a pranzo in compagnia" (all 7)
Act 2
Sc. 1: No. 12 Aria: "Un marito, donne care" (Ninetta)
Sc. 2: No. 13 Aria: "Con certe persone Vuol essere bastone" (Simone)
Sc. 3: No. 14 Aria: "Se a martarmi arrivo" (Giacinta)
Sc. 5: No. 15 Aria: "Amoretti,che ascosi qui siete" (Rosina)
Sc. 6: No. 16 Aria: Ubriaco non son io" (Cassandro)
Sc. 6: No. 17 Aria: "Sposa cara, sposa bella" (Polidoro)
Sc. 7: No. 18 Aria: "Ho sentito a dir da tutte" (Rosina)
Sc. 8: No. 19 Duetto: "Cospetton, cospettonaccio!" (Cassandro, Fracasso)
Sc. 11: No. 20 Aria: "In voi, belle, e leggiadria" (Fracasso)
Sc. 13: No. 21 Finale: "T'ho, detto, buffone" (all 6, without Giacinta)
Tutti: "Venga prestissimo, Venga quel giorno" (all 6)
Act 3
Sc. 1: No. 22 Aria: "Vieni, vieni, oh mia Ninetta" (Simone)
Sc. 1: No. 23 Aria: "Sono in amore" (Ninetta)
Sc. 2: No. 24 Aria: "Che scompiglio, che flagello" (Giacinta)
Sc. 2: No. 25 Aria: "Nelle guerre d'amore Non val sempre il valore" (Fracasso)
Sc. 5: No. 26 Finale: "Se le pupille io giro" (Rosina, Polidoro, Cassandro)
Sc. 6 (scena "ultima") Ensemble: "Nozze, nozze, evviva, evviva" (all 7)
"Tutti": "E inutile adesso di far piu lamenti" (all 7)
Recordings
1955 – Dorothea Siebert (Rosina), George Maran (Fracasso), Edith Oravez (Giacinta), Walter Ranninger (Simone), Alois Pernerstorfer (Don Cassandro), August Jaresch (Don Polidoro), Karin Künster (Ninetta) – Camerata Academica des Salzburger Mozarteums, Bernhard Paumgartner – 2 LPs Philips
1983 – Helen Donath (Rosina), Thomas Moser (Fracasso), Teresa Berganza (Giacinta), Robert Lloyd (Simone), Robert Holl (Don Cassandro), Anthony Rolfe Johnson (Don Polidoro), Jutta-Renate Ihloff (Ninetta) – Mozarteum Orchestra Salzburg, Leopold Hager – 3 CDs Orfeo
1990/91 – Barbara Hendricks (Rosina), Hans Peter Blochwitz (Fracasso), Ann Murray (Giacinta), Andreas Schmidt (Simone), Siegfried Lorenz (Don Cassandro), Douglas Johnson (Don Polidoro), Eva Lind (Ninetta) – C.P.E. Bach Chamber Orchestra, Peter Schreier – 2 CDs Philips Classics
2006 – Malin Hartelius (Rosina), Jeremy Ovenden (Fracasso), Marina Comparato (Giacinta), Miljenko Turk (Simone), Josef Wagner (Don Cassandro), Matthias Klink (Don Polidoro), Silvia Moi (Ninetta) – Camerata Academica des Salzburger Mozartuems, Michael Hofstetter – DVD Deutsche Grammophon
See also
List of operas by Mozart
References
Notes
Works cited
Abert, Hermann, W. A. Mozart (1919), a revision for a 5th edition of Otto Jahn's W. A. Mozart (1856–59). (Trans. Stewart Spencer, Ed. Cliff Eisen, 2007, Yale University Press).
Deutsch, Otto Erich, Mozart: A Documentary Biography (1965, Stanford University Press)
Eisen, Cliff, The Cambridge Mozart Encyclopedia, (2006, Cambridge University Press)
Eisen, Cliff; Stanley Sadie (ed.) The New Grove Mozart (2002, Palgrave Macmillan)
, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: a Biography. (2007, translated by Lydia G. Cochrane, University of Chicago Press.)
Solomon, Maynard, Mozart: A Life (2005)
External links
The Pretended Simpleton. List of characters and mention of first performance in 1769
Libretto of La finta semplice, accessible on iCloud only
Original Italian libretto by Carlo Goldoni. Only slightly modified by Marco Coltellini.
, synopsis and analysis of characters
Operas by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Opera buffa
Italian-language operas
1769 operas
Operas
Operas set in Italy
Operas based on works by Carlo Goldoni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Expeditionary%20Forces
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American Expeditionary Forces
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American Expeditionary Forces
The American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) was a formation of the United States Armed Forces on the Western Front during World War I, composed mostly of units from the U.S. Army. The AEF was established on July 5, 1917, in France under the command of then-Major General John J. Pershing. It fought alongside French Army, British Army, Canadian Army, British Indian Army, New Zealand Army and Australian Army units against the Imperial German Army. A small number of AEF troops also fought alongside Italian Army units in 1918 against the Austro-Hungarian Army. The AEF helped the French Army on the Western Front during the Aisne Offensive (at the Battle of Château-Thierry and Battle of Belleau Wood) in the summer of 1918, and fought its major actions in the Battle of Saint-Mihiel and the Meuse-Argonne Offensive in the latter part of 1918.
Formation
President Woodrow Wilson initially planned to give command of the AEF to Gen. Frederick Funston, but after Funston's sudden death, Wilson appointed Major General John J. Pershing in May 1917, and Pershing remained in command for the rest of the war. Pershing insisted that American soldiers be well-trained before going to Europe. As a result, few troops arrived before January 1918. In addition, Pershing insisted that the American force would not be used merely to fill gaps in the French and British armies, and he resisted European efforts to have U.S. troops deployed as individual replacements in depleted Allied units.
This approach was not always well received by the western Allied leaders who distrusted the potential of an army lacking experience in large-scale warfare. In addition, the British government tried to use its spare shipping as leverage to bring US soldiers under British operational control.
By June 1917, only 14,000 American soldiers had arrived in France, and the AEF had only a minor participation at the front up to late October 1917, but by May 1918 over one million American troops were stationed in France, though only half of them made it to the front lines.
Since the transport ships needed to bring American troops to Europe were scarce at the beginning, the U.S. Army pressed into service passenger liners, seized German ships, and borrowed Allied ships to transport American soldiers from the Hoboken Port of Embarkation with facilities in New York City and New Jersey, and the Newport News Port of Embarkation in Virginia. The mobilization effort taxed the American military to the limit and required new organizational strategies and command structures to transport great numbers of troops and supplies quickly and efficiently. The French harbors of Bordeaux, La Pallice, Saint Nazaire, and Brest became the entry points into the French railway system that brought the American troops and their supplies to the Western Front. American engineers in France also built 82 new ship berths, nearly of additional standard-gauge tracks, and over of telephone and telegraph lines.
The first American troops, who were often called "Doughboys," landed in Europe in June 1917. However the AEF did not participate at the front until October 23, 1917, when the 1st Division fired the first American shell of the war toward German lines, although they participated only on a small scale. A group of regular soldiers and the first American division to arrive in France, entered the trenches near Nancy, France, in Lorraine.
I Corps was officially activated in France, under the AEF, from 15 January 1918. It include the 1st, 2nd, 26th, 32nd, 41st and 42nd Divisions. (4th Brigade, US Marine Corps, was included as part of 2nd Division.) II Corps was activated on 24 February, by which time troop numbers justified it. Initially II Corps consisted of the 27th, 30th, 33rd, 78th and 80th Divisions.
In June 1918, many component infantry units from II Corps – commanded by Maj.-Gen. George W. Read – were attached to veteran British Army or Australian Army units. This served two purposes: familiarizing the Americans with actual battlefield conditions in France, and temporarily reinforcing the British Empire units that were often severely-depleted in numbers, after more than three years of fighting. In fact, the first major operation in World War I to involve US troops concerned individual infantry platoons of the 33rd Division, which were attached to battalions of the Australian Corps for the Battle of Hamel on the 4th of July. Their involvement was voluntary and occurred despite last-minute orders from AEF headquarters, that its troops should not take part in offensive operations led by non-US generals. Thus Hamel was historically significant as the first major offensive operation during the war to involve US infantry and the first occasion on which US units had fought alongside British Empire forces.
The AEF used French and British equipment. Particularly appreciated were the French canon de 75 modèle 1897, the canon de 155 C modèle 1917 Schneider, and the canon de 155mm GPF. American aviation units received the SPAD XIII and Nieuport 28 fighters, and the U.S. Army tank corps used French Renault FT light tanks. Pershing established facilities in France to train new arrivals with their new weapons.
By the end of 1917, four divisions were deployed in a large training area near Verdun: the 1st Division, a regular army formation; the 26th Division, a National Guard division; the 2nd Division, a combination of regular troops and U.S. Marines; and the 42nd "Rainbow" Division, a National Guard division made up of soldiers from nearly every state in the United States. The fifth division, the 41st Division, was converted into a depot division near Tours.
Logistics
Logistic operations were under the direction of Chicago banker Charles G. Dawes, with the rank first of colonel and then brigadier general. Dawes reported directly to Gen. Pershing. Dawes recommended in May 1918 that the allies set up a joint logistics planning board, which was approved by the Allies in the form of the Military Board of Allied Supply (MBAS), which coordinated logistics and transportation on the Western and Italian fronts.
Supporting the two million soldiers across the Atlantic Ocean was a massive logistical enterprise. In order to be successful, the Americans needed to create a coherent support structure with very little institutional knowledge. The AEF developed support network appropriate for the huge size of the American force. It rested upon the Services of Supply in the rear areas, with ports, railroads, depots, schools, maintenance facilities, bakeries, clothing repair shops (termed salvage), replacement depots, ice plants, and a wide variety of other activities.
The Services of Supply initiated support techniques that would last well into the Cold War including forward maintenance, field cooking, graves registration (mortuary affairs), host nation support, motor transport, and morale services. The work of the logisticians enabled the success of the AEF and contributed to the emergence of the American Army as a modern fighting force.
African Americans
African Americans were drafted on the same basis as whites and made up 13 percent of the draftees. By the end of the war, over 350,000 African-Americans had served in AEF units on the Western Front. However, they were assigned to segregated units commanded by white officers. One fifth of the black soldiers sent to France saw combat, compared to two-thirds of the whites. They were three percent of AEF combat forces, and under two percent of battlefield fatalities. "The mass of the colored drafted men cannot be used for combatant troops", said a General Staff report in 1918, and it recommended that "these colored drafted men be organized in reserve labor battalions." They handled unskilled labor tasks as stevedores in the Atlantic ports and common laborers at the camps and in the Services of the Rear in France. The French, whose front-line troops were resisting combat duties to the point of mutiny, requested and received control of several regiments of black combat troops. Kennedy reports "Units of the black 92nd Division particularly suffered from poor preparation and the breakdown in command control. As the only black combat division, the 92nd Division entered the line with unique liabilities. It had been deliberately dispersed throughout several camps during its stateside training; some of its artillery units were summoned to France before they had completed their courses of instruction, and were never fully equipped until after the Armistice; nearly all its senior white officers scorned the men under their command and repeatedly asked to be transferred. The black enlisted men were frequently diverted from their already attenuated training opportunities in France in the summer of 1918 and put to work as stevedores and common laborers."
The 369th, 370th, 371st, and 372nd Infantry Regiments (nominally the 93d Division, but never consolidated as such) served with distinction under French command with French colonial units in front-line combat. The French did not harbor the same levels of disdain based on skin color and for many Americans of African descent it was a liberating and refreshing experience. These African-American soldiers wore American uniforms, some dating from the time of the Union Army, with French helmets and were armed with French Model 1907/15 Berthier rifle manufactured by Remington Arms, rather than the M1903 Springfield or M1917 Enfield rifles issued to most American soldiers. One of the most distinguished units was the 369th Infantry Regiment, known as the Harlem Hellfighters. The 369th was on the front lines for six months, longer than any other African-American regiment in the war. One hundred seventy-one members of the 369th were awarded the Legion of Merit. One member of the 369th, Sergeant Henry Johnson, was awarded the French Croix de guerre, and posthumously the Medal of Honor.
Actions during World War I
At the beginning, during the spring of 1918, the four battle-ready U.S. divisions were deployed under French and British command to gain combat experience by defending relatively quiet sectors of their lines. After the first offensive action and American-led AEF victory on 28 May 1918 at the Battle of Cantigny, by the U.S. 1st Division, and a similar local action by the 2nd Division at Belleau Wood beginning 6 June, both while assigned under French Corps command, Pershing worked towards the deployment of an independent US field Army. The rest followed at an accelerating pace during the spring and summer of 1918. By June Americans were arriving in-theater at the rate of 10,000 a day; most of which entered training by British, Canadian and Australian battle-experienced officers and senior non-commissioned ranks. The training took a minimum of six weeks due to the inexperience of the servicemen.
The first offensive action by AEF units serving under non-American command was 1,000 men (four companies from the 33d Division), with the Australian Corps during the Battle of Hamel on 4 July 1918. (Corporal Thomas A. Pope was awarded the Medal of Honor for this battle.) This battle took place under the overall command of the Australian Corps commander, Lt. Gen. Sir John Monash. The Allied force in this battle combined artillery, armor, infantry, and air support (combined arms), which served as a blueprint for all subsequent Allied attacks, using "tanks".
U.S. Army and Marine Corps troops played a key role in helping stop the German thrust towards Paris, during the Second Battle of the Marne in June 1918 (at the Battle of Château-Thierry (1918) and the Battle of Belleau Wood). The first major and distinctly American offensive was the reduction of the Saint Mihiel salient during September 1918. During the Battle of Saint-Mihiel, Pershing commanded the U.S. First Army, composed of seven divisions and more than 500,000 men, in the largest offensive operation ever undertaken by United States armed forces. This successful offensive was followed by the Meuse-Argonne offensive, lasting from September 26 to November 11, 1918, during which Pershing commanded more than one million American and French combatants. In these two military operations, Allied forces recovered more than 200 sq mi (488 km2) of French territory from the German army. By the time the World War I Armistice had suspended all combat on November 11, 1918, the American Expeditionary Forces had evolved into a modern, combat-tested army.
Late in the war, American units ultimately fought in two other theaters at the request of the European powers. Pershing sent troops of the 332d Infantry Regiment to Italy, and President Wilson agreed to send some troops, the 27th and 339th Infantry Regiments, to Russia. These latter two were known as the American Expeditionary Force Siberia, and the American Expeditionary Force North Russia.
Commanders and Senior Staff
Casualties
The AEF sustained about 320,000 casualties: 53,402 battle deaths, 63,114 noncombat deaths and 204,000 wounded. Relatively few men suffered actual injury from poison gas, although much larger numbers mistakenly thought that they had been exposed. The 1918 influenza pandemic during the fall of 1918 took the lives of more than 25,000 men from the AEF, while another 360,000 became gravely ill.
Demobilization
After the Armistice of November 11, 1918 thousands of Americans were sent home and demobilized. On July 27, 1919, the number of soldiers discharged amounted to 3,028,487 members of the military, and only 745,845 left in the American Expeditionary Forces.
American Expeditionary Forces University at Beaune
The AEF established the American Expeditionary Forces University at Beaune, complete with its own chapter of Phi Beta Kappa. Faculty included Walter M. Chandler, a Progressive Party member and, later, a Republican Party member of the U.S. House of Representatives from the State of New York. Botanist Edwin Blake Payson was also an instructor there.
See also
Bonus Army
Formations of the United States Army during World War I
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
Awards and Decorations: World War I Statistics
Ayres, Leonard P, The War with Germany: A Statistical Summary Government Printing Office, 1919 full text online
Barbeau, Arthur E. and Florette Henri, The Unknown Soldiers: Black American Troops in World War I (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1974),
Beaver, Daniel R. Newton D. Baker and the American War Effort, 1917–1919 (1966)
CMH Pub 24-1: "Learning Lessons in the American Expeditionary Forces"
Chambers, John W., II. To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America (1987)
Chapter 17: "World War I: The First Three Years"
Chapter 18: "World War I: The U.S. Army Overseas"
Cooke, James J., The Rainbow Division in the Great War, 1917–1919 Praeger Publishers, (1994)
Dalessandro, Robert J. & Dalessandro, Rebecca S. American Lions: The 332nd Infantry Regiment in World War I (Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2009)
Dalessandro, Robert J., & Knapp, Michael G., "Organization and Insignia of the American Expeditionary Forces, 1917–1923" (Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2008) The best single volume on AEF unit organization.
Dalessandro, Robert J. & Gerald Torrence, "Willing Patriots: Men of Color in the First World War" (Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2009)
Davenport, Matthew J. "First Over There: The Attack on Cantigny America's First Battle of World War I" (New York, Thomas Dunne: 2015)
Faulkner, Richard S. Pershing's Crusaders: The American Soldier in World War I (U Press of Kansas, 2017). xiv, 758 pp
Freidel, Frank. Over There (1964), well illustrated
Grotelueschen; Mark E. Doctrine under Trial: American Artillery Employment in World War I (2001) (full text version at Google Books)
Hallas, James H. Doughboy War: The American Expeditionary Force in World War I (2000)
Heller Charles E. Chemical Warfare in World War I. The American Experience, 1917–1918. Fort Leavenworth, Kan.: Combat Studies Institute, 1984.
Hirrel, Leo P. "Supporting the Doughboys: US Army Logistics and Personnel During World War I." Ft. Leavenworth, KS Combat Studies Institute, 2017. online at no charge
Holley, I. B. Ideas and Weapons: Exploitation of the Aerial Weapon by the United States During World War I (1983)
Howarth, Stephen. To Shining Sea: A History of the United States Navy, 1775–1991 (1991)
Hurley, Alfred F. Billy Mitchell, Crusader for Air Power (1975)
James, D. Clayton. The Years of MacArthur, I, 1880–1941. (1970)
Johnson; Herbert A. Wingless Eagle: U.S. Army Aviation through World War I University of North Carolina Press, (2001)
Kennedy, David M. Over Here: The First World War and American Society (1982)
Koistinen, Paul. Mobilizing for Modern War: The Political Economy of American Warfare, 1865–1919 (2004)
Lengel, Edward G., ed. A Companion to the Meuse-Argonne Campaign (Wiley-Blackwell, 2014). xii, 537 pp.
Millett, Allan Reed. Semper Fidelis: The History of the United States Marine Corps (1991)
Pershing, John J. Pershing, My Experiences in the World War (1931)
Smythe, Donald. Pershing: General of the Armies (1986)
Trask, David F. The United States in the Supreme War Council: American War Aims and Inter-Allied Strategy, 1917–1918 (1961)
Trask, David F. The AEF and Coalition Warmaking, 1917–1918 (1993) online free
Van Ells, Mark D. America and World War I: A Traveler's Guide. (Interlink, 2014)
Venzon, Anne ed. The United States in the First World War: An Encyclopedia (1995)
Wilson Dale E. Treat 'Em Rough: The Birth of American Armor, 1917–1920 Presidio Press, 1989.
Woodward, David R. Trial by Friendship: Anglo-American Relations, 1917–1918 (1993) online
Woodward, David R. The American Army and the First World War(Armies of the Great War) Cambridge University Press, 2014. 484 pp. online review
Yockelson, Mitchell. Forty-Seven Days: How Pershing's Warriors Came of Age to Defeat at the German Army in World War I (New York: NAL, Caliber, 2016)
Zeiger; Susan. In Uncle Sam's Service: Women Workers with the American Expeditionary Force, 1917–1919 (1999)
External links
Government
Records of the American Expeditionary Forces (World War I) at the National Archives
General information
American Expeditionary Forces at UASWW1.com
1917 establishments in France
1920 disestablishments in Washington, D.C.
Disbanded armies
Expeditionary units and formations
Military units and formations of the United States in World War I
Military units and formations established in 1917
Military units and formations disestablished in 1920
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea%20Yates
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Andrea Yates
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Andrea Yates
Andrea Pia Yates (Kennedy; born July 3, 1964) is an American woman from Houston, Texas, who confessed to drowning her five children in their bathtub on June 20, 2001. The case of Yateswho had exhibited severe postpartum depression, postpartum psychosis, and schizophrenia leading up to the murdersplaced the M'Naghten rules, along with the irresistible impulse test for sanity, under close public scrutiny in the United States.
At Yates' 2002 trial, Chuck Rosenthal, the district attorney in Harris County, asked for the death penalty. Yates was convicted of capital murder, but the jury refused the death penalty option. She was sentenced to life in prison with the possibility of parole after forty years. The verdict was overturned on appeal, in light of false testimony by one of the supposed expert psychiatric witnesses.
On July 26, 2006, a Texas jury in her retrial found that Yates was not guilty by reason of insanity. She was consequently committed by the court to the high-security North Texas State Hospital in Vernon, where she received medical treatment and was a roommate of Dena Schlosser, another woman who committed infanticide by killing her infant daughter. In January 2007, Yates was moved to Kerrville State Hospital, a low-security state mental hospital in Kerrville, Texas.
Background
Andrea Yates was born Andrea Pia Kennedy in Houston, Texas, the youngest of the five children of Jutta Karin Koehler, a German immigrant, and Andrew Emmett Kennedy, whose parents were Irish immigrants. Yates suffered from bulimia and depression during her teenage years, and at age 17 spoke to a friend about suicide.
Yates graduated from Milby High School in 1982. She was the class valedictorian, captain of the swim team, and an officer in the National Honor Society. Yates then completed a two-year pre-nursing program at the University of Houston and graduated from the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston.
From 1986 until 1994, Yates worked as a registered nurse at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center. In summer 1989, she met Russell "Rusty" Yates, a NASA engineer, at the Sunscape Apartments in Houston. They soon moved in together and were married on April 17, 1993.
Yates and her husband, a devout evangelical Christian, announced that they "would seek to have as many babies as nature allowed" and bought a four-bedroom house in Friendswood, Texas. Their first child, Noah, was born in February 1994, just before Rusty accepted a job offer in Florida, causing them to relocate to a small trailer in Seminole. By the time of the birth of their third child, Paul, they had moved back to Houston and purchased a GMC motor home.
Following the birth of her fourth child, Luke, Yates' depression resurfaced. On June 16, 1999, Rusty found her shaking and chewing her fingers. The next day, she attempted suicide by overdosing on pills, leading to her being hospitalized and prescribed antidepressants. Soon after her release, Yates begged Rusty to let her die as she held a knife up to her neck. Once again hospitalized, she was given a plethora of medications, including Haldol, an anti-psychotic drug. Yates' condition improved immediately, and she was prescribed it upon her release. After this incident, Rusty moved the family into a small house for the sake of her health. She appeared temporarily stabilized.
In July 1999, Yates had a nervous breakdown, which culminated in two suicide attempts and two psychiatric hospitalizations that summer. She was subsequently diagnosed with postpartum psychosis.
Yates's first psychiatrist, Dr. Eileen Starbranch, testified that she urged her and Rusty not to have any more children, as it would "guarantee future psychotic depression." They conceived their fifth and final child approximately seven weeks after her discharge. Yates stopped taking Haldol in March 2000 and gave birth to her daughter, Mary, nine months later.
Yates seemed to be coping well until the death of her father on March 12, 2001. She then stopped taking medication, mutilated herself, read the Bible feverishly, and stopped feeding Mary. She became so incapacitated that she required immediate hospitalization. On April 1, 2001, Yates came under the care of Dr. Mohammed Saeed; she was treated and released. On May 3, 2001, she degenerated back into a "near catatonic" state and filled the bathtub in the middle of the day; she would later confess to police that she had planned to drown the children that day but had decided against doing it then. Yates was hospitalized the next day after a scheduled doctor visit; her psychiatrist determined she was probably suicidal and assumed she had filled the tub to drown herself.
Murders
At the time of the murders, the Yates family was living in the Houston suburb of Clear Lake City. Yates continued under Dr. Saeed's care until June 20, 2001, when Rusty left for work, leaving her alone to watch the children against Dr. Saeed's instructions to supervise her around the clock. Rusty's mother, Dora Yates, had been scheduled to arrive an hour later to take over for Andrea. In the space of that hour, Andrea Yates drowned all five children.
Yates started with John, Paul, and Luke, and then laid them in her bed. She then drowned Mary, whom she left floating in the tub. Noah came in and asked what was wrong with Mary. He then ran, but Yates soon caught and drowned him. She left him floating in the tub, and laid Mary in John's arms in the bed. She then called the police, repeatedly saying she needed an officer but refusing to say why. She then called Rusty and told him to come home right away.
Trials
Yates confessed to drowning her children. Prior to her second trial, she told Dr. Michael Welner that she waited for Rusty to leave for work that morning before filling the bathtub because she knew he would have prevented her from harming them. After the murders, police found the family dog locked up; Rusty advised Welner that it had normally been allowed to run free, and was so when he had left the house, leading the psychiatrist to allege that she locked it in a cage to prevent it from interfering with her killing the children one by one. Rusty got a family friend, George Parnham, to act as her attorney.
Although the defense's expert testimony agreed that Yates was psychotic, Texas law requires that, in order to successfully assert the insanity defense, the defendant must prove that they could not discern right from wrong at the time of the crime. In March 2002, a jury rejected the insanity defense and found Yates guilty. Although the prosecution had sought the death penalty, the jury refused that option. The trial court sentenced Yates to life imprisonment in the Texas Department of Criminal Justice with eligibility for parole in forty years.
On January 6, 2005, a Texas Court of Appeals reversed the convictions, because California psychiatrist and prosecution witness Dr. Park Dietz admitted he had given materially false testimony during the trial. In his testimony, Dietz had stated that shortly before the murders, an episode of Law & Order had aired featuring a woman who drowned her children and was acquitted of murder by reason of insanity. Author Suzanne O'Malley, who was covering the trial for O: The Oprah Magazine, The New York Times Magazine, and NBC News, had previously been a writer for Law & Order and immediately reported that no such episode existed. The appellate court held unanimously that the jury might have been influenced by Dietz' false testimony, and therefore a new trial would be necessary (Law & Order: Criminal Intent did air an episode two years later based in part on Yates' case).
On January 9, 2006, Yates again entered pleas of not guilty by reason of insanity. On February 1, 2006, she was granted release on bail on the condition that she be admitted to a mental health treatment facility. On July 26, 2006, after three days of deliberations, Yates was found not guilty by reason of insanity, as defined by the state of Texas. She was thereafter committed to the North Texas State Hospital–Vernon Campus. In January 2007, she was moved to the Kerrville State Hospital, a low security mental facility in Kerrville, Texas.
Although psychiatrists for both the prosecution and the defense agreed that Yates was severely mentally ill with one of several psychotic diseases at the time she killed her children, the state of Texas asserted that she was, by legal definition, aware enough to judge her actions as right or wrong—despite her mental defect. The prosecution further implied spousal revenge as motive for the killings, despite the conclusion of defense experts that there was no evidence to support such a motive. Although the original jury believed she was legally aware of her actions, they disagreed that her motive was spousal revenge.
Rusty Yates
According to trial testimony in 2006, Dr. Saeed advised Rusty Yates not to leave his wife unattended. However, Rusty began leaving her alone with the children in the weeks leading up to the drownings for short periods of time, apparently believing it would improve her independence, despite her doctors' instructions. Rusty had announced at a family gathering the weekend before the drownings that he had decided to leave Yates home alone for an hour each morning and evening, so that she would not become totally dependent on him and his mother for her maternal responsibilities.
Andrea Yates' brother, Brian Kennedy, claimed during a broadcast of CNN's Larry King Live that Rusty expressed to him in 2001, while transporting her to a mental treatment facility, that all depressed people needed was a "swift kick in the pants" to get them motivated. Her mother expressed shock when she heard of Rusty's plan while at the gathering with them, saying Yates wasn't stable enough to care for the children. She noted that Yates demonstrated she wasn't in her right mind when she nearly choked Mary by trying to feed her solid food.
According to authors Suzy Spencer and Suzanne O'Malley, who investigated her story in great detail, it was during a phone call Dr. Saeed made to Rusty during the breaking news of the killings that Saeed first learned that she was not being supervised full time. Yates' first psychiatrist, Dr. Starbranch, says she was shocked to disbelief when, during an office visit with the couple, they expressed a desire to discontinue her medications so she could become pregnant again. She warned and counseled them against having more children, and noted in the medical record two days later: "Apparently patient and husband plan to have as many babies as nature will allow! This will surely guarantee future psychotic depression." Nevertheless, Yates became pregnant with her fifth child, Mary, only seven weeks after being discharged from Dr. Starbranch's care on January 12, 2000.
Rusty stated to the media he was never told by psychiatrists that Yates was psychotic nor that she could harm the children, and that, had he known otherwise, he would have never had more children. "If I'd known she was psychotic, we'd never have even considered having more kids," he told the Dallas Observer." However, Yates revealed to her prison psychiatrist, Dr. Melissa Ferguson, that prior to their last child, "she had told Rusty that she did not want to have sex because Dr. Starbranch had said she might hurt her children." Rusty, she said, simply asserted his procreative religious beliefs, complimented her as a good mother and persuaded her that she could handle more children.
O'Malley highlighted Rusty's continuing sense of unreality regarding having more children:
Medical community
Rusty contended that as a psychiatrist, Dr. Saeed was responsible for recognizing and properly treating Yates' psychosis, not a medically untrained person like himself. He claimed that, despite his urging to check her medical records for prior treatment, Dr. Saeed had refused to continue her regimen of the anti-psychotic Haldol, the treatment that had worked for her during her first breakdown in 1999:
Rusty added that his wife was too sick to be discharged from her last stay in the hospital in May 2001. He said he noticed the staff lower their heads as if in shame and embarrassment, turning away without saying a word. The hospital had no other choice due to the ten-day psychiatric hospitalization insurance constraints of their provider, Blue Cross Blue Shield, subcontracted by Magellan Health Services.
Anti-depressants and homicidal ideation
Rusty and his relatives claimed a combination of antidepressants improperly prescribed by Dr. Saeed in the days before the tragedy were responsible for Yates' psychotic behavior. According to Dr. Moira Dolan, executive director of the Medical Accountability Network, "homicidal ideation" was added to the warning label of the antidepressant drug Effexor as a rare adverse event in 2005. Yates, she said, had been taking 450 mg, twice the recommended maximum dose, for a month before killing her children.
Dr. Lucy Puryear, an expert witness hired by Yates' defense team, countered this contention regarding the administration of her antidepressants, saying the dosages prescribed by Dr. Saeed are not uncommon in practice and had nothing at all to do with her re-emergent psychosis. She suggested rather that Yates' psychosis returned as a result of the Haldol having been discontinued by her doctor two weeks earlier. The oral form of Haldol takes 4–6 days after discontinuation to reach a terminal plasma level of under 1.5%—a medical standard for "complete" elimination of a drug from the body.
Religious influences
Media outlets alleged that Michael Woroniecki, an itinerant preacher whom Rusty had met while attending Auburn University, bore some responsibility for the deaths due to certain teachings which were found in his newsletter titled The Perilous Times, which the Yateses had received on occasion, and which was entered into evidence at the trial.
Both Woroniecki and Rusty have rejected these accusations. Rusty said that his family's relationship with Woroniecki was not that close and that Woroniecki did not cause her delusions. Woroniecki maintained that his correspondence with them was intended to help them strengthen their marriage and find the love that he says his own family had found in Jesus. Both men agreed that the alleged connection between his message and her mental state was "nothing more than media-created fiction."
While in prison, Yates stated that she had considered killing the children for two years, adding that they thought she was not a good mother and claiming that her sons were developing improperly. She told her jail psychiatrist: "It was the seventh deadly sin. My children weren't righteous. They stumbled because I was evil. The way I was raising them, they could never be saved. They were doomed to perish in the fires of hell."
Divorce
In August 2004, Rusty filed for divorce, stating that he and Yates had not lived together as a married couple since the day of the murders. The divorce was granted on March 17, 2005, after which Rusty began dating Laura Arnold. They married on March 25, 2006, and had one son. Arnold filed for divorce in 2015.
See also
Other cases of filicide in Texas:
Darlie Routier
John Battaglia
Deanna Laney murders
Ronald Clark O'Bryan
Dena Schlosser
Yaser Abdel Said
References
Notes
Sources
Bienstock, Sheri L. Mothers Who kill Their Children and Postpartum Psychosis, (2003) Vol. 32, No. 3 Southwestern University Law Review, 451.
Keram, Emily A. The Insanity Defense and Game Theory: Reflections on Texas v.Yates (2002), Vol. 30, No. 4, Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, p. 470.
Miceli, Barbara. "Infanticide and the Symbolism of Evil in Joyce Carol Oates's 'Dear Husband'", in Anglica, An International Journal of English Studies, 29/1, 2020, pp. 75–85.
O'Malley, Suzanne, "Are You There Alone?", The Unspeakable Crime of Andrea Yates
Spencer, Suzy, Breaking Point;
Vatz, R.E. "Will Justice Be Served on Andrea Yates?", USA Today (March 2005)
External links
Documentary series from Court TV (now TruTV) "MUGSHOTS: Andrea Yates" episode (2002) at FilmRise
Timeline of Andrea Yates's Life and Trial (Archive)
"Who is Andrea Yates? A Short Story of Insanity"
Case profile, CrimeLibrary review
Profile, About.com
"Despite 'Not Guilty' Verdict, Doctor Who Examined Yates Is Unconvinced"
PowerPoint evidence presented by Dr. Michael Welner during the trial
1964 births
2001 in Texas
American people of German descent
American people of Irish descent
Criminal trials that ended in acquittal
Filicides in Texas
Infanticide
Living people
Overturned convictions in the United States
People acquitted by reason of insanity
People from Houston
Prisoners and detainees of Texas
University of Houston alumni
University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston alumni
American murderers of children
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Record%20Corporation
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American Record Corporation
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American Record Corporation (ARC), also referred to as American Record Company, American Recording Corporation, or ARC Records, was an American record company in operation from 1929 to 1938, and again from 1978 to 1982.
Overview
ARC was created in January 1929 by Louis G. Sylvester, president of Scranton Button Works ('Scranton'), founded 1885. Scranton owned a pressing plant that manufactured disks for many companies, including Columbia labels and Emerson Records, the latter which it also owned. It then purchased Cameo Record Corporation, which owned the Cameo, Lincoln and Romeo labels), and six labels owned by the Plaza Music Company (Conqueror, Banner, Domino, Jewel, Oriole, and Regal). for $1 each, including liabilities. Pathé-Perfect Phonograph and Radio Corporation, which owned Actuelle, Pathé, and Perfect, was also purchased. 'American Record Corporation' was incorporated in Delaware on July 25, 1929, as a subsidiary of Consolidated Film Industries, Inc. ("CFI"). Louis G. Sylvester became the president of the new company, located at 1776 Broadway in Manhattan, New York City.
Columbia Phonograph Company US ownership
In March 1925, Louis Sterling, managing director of the UK Columbia Graphophone Company, backed by J.P. Morgan & Co., acquired a controlling interest in the parent company, Columbia Phonograph Company (U.S.), for $2.5 million, in order to purchase the license for new Western Electric patents that Columbia US could not afford.
The British firm controlled US operations from 1925 until 1931. Sterling, originally from New York, became chairman.
The repercussions of the stock market Crash of 1929 led to huge losses in the recording industry and, in March 1931, J.P Morgan, the major shareholder, steered the Columbia Graphophone Company (along with Odeon records and Parlophone, which it had owned since 1926) into a merger with the Gramophone Company (("His Master's Voice") to form Electric and Musical Industries Ltd (EMI). Since the Gramophone Company (HMV) was a wholly owned subsidiary of Victor, and Columbia in America was a subsidiary of UK Columbia, Victor now technically owned its largest rival in the US. To avoid antitrust legislation, EMI had to sell off its US Columbia operation, which continued to release pressings of matrices made in the UK.
In December, 1931, the U.S. Columbia Phonograph Company, Inc. was sold to the Grigsby-Grunow Company, the manufacturers of Majestic radios and refrigerators. When Grigsby-Grunow was declared bankrupt in November 1933, Columbia was placed in receivership, and in June 1934, the company was sold to Sacro Enterprises Inc. ("Sacro") for $70,000. Sacro was incorporated a few days before the sale in New York. Public documents do not contain any names. Many suspect that it was a shell corporation set up by ARC's parent, Consolidated Films Industries, Inc. to hold the Columbia stock. This assumption grew out of the ease which CFI later exhibited in selling Columbia in 1938.
Brunswick Radio Corporation purchased by Warner Brothers Pictures, Inc.
On April 9, 1930, the Brunswick-Balke-Collender Company sold its Brunswick and Vocalion trademarks, patents, master recordings, inventory of unsold records, recording studio leases, radio/phonograph manufacturing plants and record pressing plants to Warner Bros. Pictures, Inc. (WB), which named its new division the "Brunswick Radio Corporation." The price was $10,000,000.
According to a book co-authored by Jack Warner, Jr., Warner Bros. Pictures "bought the radio, record and phonograph divisions of Brunswick-Balke-Collender Company for the company's patents, its record factory, and its 16mm home talkie projector". Before they came to their senses, it was all moved across the country to WB's Sunset studio. WB soon realized it was a terrible mistake; it lost $8 million on the Brunswick deal.
Melotone, a subsidiary label of the Brunswick Radio Corporation, was introduced late in 1930. "Brunswick is the first of the big-three disc companies to go into the market shortly with a double-faced disc to sell at 25 cents. Plate is called the Melotone," reported Variety. "Policy of Melotone will be the biggest song, to be delivered as cheaply as possible. No literature or advertising campaigns; cheap nut, quantity is the goal."
WB wanted to withdraw from the record business, but economic conditions had deteriorated to the point where no buyer would offer anything close to the $10,000,000 they'd paid for Brunswick just the year before. Unwilling to take a huge loss, an agreement was entered into with Consolidated Film Industries, the parent company of ARC, on December 3, 1931, whereby the record company's artist and staff employment contracts were transferred, and the Brunswick, Vocalion and Melotone trademarks and catalog of master recordings were loaned, to the "Brunswick Record Corporation," a newly-formed holding company controlled by ARC.
While WB was to be paid a fee on sales of records pressed from Brunswick, Vocalion and Melotone masters recorded prior to December 3, 1931, ARC was permitted to release its own master recordings on the Brunswick, Vocalion and Melotone labels free of charge. The agreement effectively fixed the minimum retail price of a 10-inch Brunswick record at 75 cents, but allowed ARC free rein to set prices for Vocalion and Melotone (The price of Melotone nonetheless stayed at 25 cents.) In the event that fewer than 250,000 Brunswick records were pressed and sold in the U.S. and Canada during any one-year period, the agreement provided that control of the trademarks and catalog of Brunswick, Vocalion and Melotone masters recorded through December 2, 1931 would revert to WB. Brunswick would become ARC's premium label.
Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc. acquires American Record Corporation
On December 17, 1938, American Record Corporation was purchased for $700,000 by the Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc. (CBS). Edward Wallerstein was named president on January 3, 1939. On April 4, 1939 CBS filed an amendment in New York for Columbia Phonograph Company, Inc.
Columbia Phonograph Company, Inc., has been chartered to conduct a business in the recording of voices, sounds, etc., in New York, with Frank K. White and Adrian Murphy (employees of CBS), among the directors. Attorney Ralph F. CoUn, 165 Broadway, is third director. White owns four shares; the others three apiece. Capitol stock is $10;000, $10 par value.
Rosenberg, Goldmlark & Colin, are filing attorneys.
Above incorporation represents the formal change of name of CBS' phonograph subsidiary. The American Record Co. tag is discarded and instead of three corporations embracing the ARC'S various operations there will be one, the Columbia Phonograph Co., Inc. The latter label was taken over by Herbert J. Yates, former head of the American Record Co. several years ago and made file insignia of the combine's classical catelog. The indications are that the Columbia label will be returned to the popular field, replacing Brunswick as the company's fee popular record.
On May 22, 1939, Columbia Recording Corporation, Inc., was incorporated with the State of Delaware, and became the CBS phonograph subsidiary. The New York Department of State shows a later incorporation date of April 4, 1947. This corporation changed its name to Columbia Records, Inc. on October 11, 1954, and reverted to CRC on January 2, 1962.
Columbia Recording Corporation
In February 1939, "American Record Co., now the child of the Columbia Broadcasting System, will shortly' move its recording division from its present location on upper-Broadway, New York, to a site conveniently near the Madison avenue home of its new parent". Studios were established at 799 7th Avenue, New York City, along with corporate offices at 1473 Barnum Avenue, Bridgeport, CT. Also in February, John Hammond was hired by Wallerstein as Associate Director Popular Recording. Another executive from ARC, Art Satherley, was not expected to transition over as easily. "It is understood that CBS and the Levys are not interested in retaining American Record's hillbilly department, and that Art Satherly, who has been running this section for many years, will take it out of the company with him". Fortunately, to the delight of many, this did not happen, and Art went on to many more successful years.
Hammond hired Benny Goodman away from Victor to record for the Columbia label. Then came an announcement August 30, 1939, "Columbia drops its Brunswick label at 75c in favor of a 50c platter tagged Columbia, with the issuing of the first of the platters cut by Benny Goodman Sept 3". Brunswick was gradually phased out, the final issue being Brunswick 8520, in April 1940. On December 27, "Columbia Records expects to shift quite a list of artists from its current $.35 Vocalion label to the recently created $.50 Columbia...reason for the shift is that the Columbia label is selling so much faster than the Vocalion."
As sales of Brunswick records declined, a minimum threshold required by the 1931 Warner Bros. lease agreement was going unmet, which obliged Columbia to also discontinue Vocalion. The final Vocalion issued under Columbia's aegis, number 5621, was released July 5, 1940. It was priced at 35 cents, as was the next record in the series, OKeh 05622. Okeh Records was revived in June 1940, acquired in the same 1934 bankruptcy sale whereby ARC obtained its Columbia trademarks. By July, it was releasing new Hillbilly platters by Gene Autry and Bob Wills, and re-issuing past Vocalion discs, using the same catalogue numbers with a leading zero added. Okeh was extremely successful until it was merged into the parent label in 1945. When a January 1941 audit found that not more than 150,000 Brunswick records had sold during the period from December 1, 1939 through December 31, 1940, control of the loaned trademarks and catalog of master recordings made prior to December 3, 1931 reverted to Warner Bros. Pictures
Brunswick and Vocalion purchased by Decca Records, Inc.
On May 2, 1941, Decca Executive Milton Rackmil bought Brunswick Radio Corporation from Warner Brothers for $350,000, which included Brunswick, Vocalion and Melotone masters from label inception to December 1931. Decca reactivated the labels for limited purposes from time to time, but it was the valuable catalogues it really wanted. Brunswick masters included Isham Jones, Al Jolson, early Duke Ellington, Louis Armstrong and Marion Harris, but it was obscure Jacques Rennard and His Orchestra that had recorded "As Time Goes By" in 1931. Decca re-released it in 1943, to capitalize on 'Casablanca's' (1942) theme music. Because of the AFM's studio recording ban, the only recordings the major labels could find were the Rennard, and a July 1931 rendition by Rudy Vallee and His Connecticut Yankees, released by Victor. Both finished in the top 25 of 1943, with Renard's version selling over 250,000 copies, making Decca management so happy, they gave him a $1,000 bonus, even though he hadn't recorded for years. His record's sales more than paid for the Brunswick Radio Corporation purchase. Rackmil was also promoted and named to the Decca board of directors.
ARC re-activated
During August 1978 ARC was reactivated by Columbia as Maurice White's vanity label. Acts such as Earth, Wind & Fire, Weather Report, Deniece Williams, Pockets, and The Emotions were signed to the label. One of the label's final releases was Earth, Wind & Fire's 1981 album Raise!
As of 2019, the ARC legacy is now part of Sony Music Entertainment.
Labels ARC issued or pressed (1929–1938)
Labels that existed prior to the formation of ARC are marked +
ARC (sold to theaters for background and intermission music 1931–1933?, 1978–1982 vanity label for Maurice White)
Banner +1929–1938
Bernardo (client label)
Broadway +from 1932 (fulfilling a contract with Montgomery Ward after Paramount ceased production)
Brunswick +1932–1938 (under lease agreement from Warner Bros. Pictures)
Cameo +1929–1930
Columbia +late 1934–1938
Commodore (client label for Commodore Music Shops)
Conqueror +(client label for Sears from 1929–1938)
Domino +1929–1931 (but was restarted as a client label for the John Gabel Co. circa 1933–34)
Fox Movietone (client label sold only at Fox Theaters, taken over from Victor, circa 1934)
Gospel Herald (client label)
Gramophone Shop Varieties (client label for The Gramophone Shop)
Hollywood 1936–1937 (client label)
Homestead +(mail order label 1929 to circa 1931, when it was taken over by Crown Records)
Hot Record Society (client label for the Hot Record Society)
Jewel +1929 to circa 1932
Liberty Music Shops (client label for the Liberty Music Shops)
Lincoln +from 1929–1930
Master 1937
Mel-O-Dee (client label as a specialty jukebox label for Will F. Dillion Associates, Inc.) 1931
Melotone +1932–1938
Oriole +1929–1938 (client label for McCrory)
Paramount +1932 to circa 1934. Pressed last of the 13000 series and the short-lived 9000 series
Pathé +1929–1930
Perfect +1929–1938
Regal +1929–1931
Romeo +1929–1938 (client label for Kress Stores)
Shamrock Stores – (client label for the Shamrock Stores)
Supertone +1930 to circa 1931 (client label for Sears whose short-lived series made by Brunswick after the Gennett period ended. This rare series probably hails from right before the ARC takeover of Brunswick)
U.H.C.A. – (client label specializing in reissues for United Hot Clubs of America through Commodore)
Variety 1937
Vocalion +1932–1938 (under lease agreement from Warner Bros. Pictures)
See also
Lists of record labels
References
American record labels
Record labels established in 1929
Record labels disestablished in 1938
Sony Music
1929 establishments in New York (state)
Jazz record labels
Defunct record labels of the United States
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88%20%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9
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Томаш Радзинський
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Томаш Радзинський (14 грудня 1973, Познань) — канадський футболіст, що грав на позиції нападника.
Виступав, зокрема, за клуби «Жерміналь-Екерен» та «Фулгем», а також національну збірну Канади.
Клубна кар'єра
Ранні роки
Народився 14 грудня 1973 року в місті Познань. Вихованець юнацьких команд футбольних клубів «Куявія Іновроцлав» та «Оснабрюк». В 1990 році приєднався до «Норт-Йорк Рокетс» з Канадської Ліги Соккера й залишався в складі клубу до 1992 року, коли ця ліга була розформована, а в 1993 році виступав у Канадській Національній Лізі Соккера. Влітку 1994 року виступав у іншому клубі цього ж чемпіонату, «Сент Кетерінс Вулвс».
Жерміналь
У дорослому футболі дебютував, у 20-річному віці, 1994 року виступами за команду клубу «Жерміналь-Екерен», в якій провів чотири сезони, взявши участь у 104 матчах чемпіонату. Більшість часу, проведеного у складі «Жерміналь-Екерена», був основним гравцем атакувальної ланки команди. У складі «Жерміналь-Екерена» був одним з головних бомбардирів команди, маючи середню результативність на рівні 0,38 голу за гру першості. За час свого перебування в бельгійському клубі двічі ставав бронзовим призером національного чемпіонату, ще по одному разу допомагав команді посісти 6-те та 9-те місця. У 1996 році став володарем кубка Бельгії. В одному з сезонів утворив результативний тандем форвардів у «Жерміналі», які на двох відзначиилися 34-ма голами: 19 — Радзинський, 15 — Гофманс. У списку бомбардирів чемпіонату посів 2-ге місце, поступився лише хорвату Бранко Струпару.
Андерлехт
Своєю грою за цю команду привернув увагу представників тренерського штабу клубу «Андерлехт», який у 1998 році викупив його контракт. Свій професіоналізм у новому клубі Томаш довів уже в першому ж сезоні, відзначився 15-ма голами в 22-ох матчах чемпіонату, але «Андерлехт» посів лише 3-тє місце. В 1999 році виграв Кубок бельгійської ліги. Наступного сезону допоміг «Андерлехту» виграти чемпіонат, зігравши 22 матчі, в яких відзначився 13-ма голами. Наступний сезон для Томаша став ще кращим, він допоміг «Андерлехту» виграти Суперкубок та чемпіонат, а сам Радзинський став найкращим бомбардиром чемпіонату (у 31-му матчі відзначився 23-ма голами).
Англія: Евертон та Фулгем
2001 року «Евертон» викупив контракт Томаша за рекордну для канадського футболу суму, 4,5 мільйони фунтів стерлінгів. При покупці Томаша англійці розглядали його як гравця «основи команди», але не дивлячись на вихід у стартовому складі справи в нього пішли не зовсім добре. За 30 зіграних матчів Томаш відзначився лише 6-ма голами в Прем'єр-лізі. Наступного сезону Радзинський в Прем'єр-лізі відзначився 10-ма голами в 30 матчах, а в останньому сезоні — лише 8-ма голами в 34 поєдинках. Загалом же у футболці «Евертона» зіграв 91 матч, в яких відзначився голом 25 разів.
У 2004 році підписав 3-річний контракт з іншим англійським клубом, «Фулгемом», цей трансфер лондонському клубі обійшовся в 1,75 мільйони фунтів старлінгів. У «Фулгемі» гравець був не настільки результативним, як у своєму попередньому клубі, але потішив уболівальників лондонців декількома важливими голами. По завершенні сезону 2006/07 років новий тренер «Фулгема» Лорі Філіп Санчез вирішив відмовитися від послуг Радзинського. Протягом свого перебування в Лондоні зіграв 117 матчів, у яких відзначився 17-ма голами.
Греція: Шкода Ксанті
28 серпня 2007 року, після трьох років виступів у «Фулгемі», на правах вільного агента перейшов до грецького клубу «Шкода Ксанті». У Греції зарекомендував себе одним із найкращих бомбардирів місцевого чемпіонату, відзначився 14-ма голами та посів 4-те місце у суперечці бомбардирів грецького чемпіонату.
Повернення до Бельгії: Лірс
Рік по тому, 30 серпня 2008 році повернувся до Бельгії та підписав контракт з клубом «Лірс» з Другого дивізіону бельгійського чемпіонату, хоча за умовами контракту мав виступати в своєму попередньому клубі до 2010 року. Спочатку «Лірс» цікавився Пітером Утакою, але той перейшов до «Оденсе», тому бельгійці звернули увагу на Радзинського. При цьому Томаш поділився з пресою своїми підозрами, що грецький клуб брав участь у договірних матчах, тому Радзинський почав шукати можливості його залишити. Протягом трьох років свого перебування в «Лірсі» відзначився 39-ма голами в 86 матчах, допомігши команді в 2010 році вийти до Про Ліги. По завершенні сезону 2010/11 років залишив команду на правах вільного агента.
Васланд-Беверен
29 січня 2012 року представник другого дивізіону бельгійського чемпіонату «Васланд-Беверен» оголосив, що уклав з Радзинським короткострокову угоду до завершення сезону 2011/12 років з можливістю продовження контракту ще на один сезон. Протягом шести місяців у клубі в 9-ти матчах відзначився 7-ма голами. У «Васланд-Беверені» Томаш і завершив кар'єру професіонального футболіста.
Виступи за збірну
У червні 1995 року дебютував у складі національної збірної Канади в товариському матчі проти Туреччини. Протягом кар'єри у національній команді, яка тривала 15 років, провів у формі головної команди країни 46 матчів, забивши 10 голів. Цей результат вивів Томаша на 9-те місце серед гравців канадської збірної, яке він розділив з Полом Пескісолідо.
В жовтні 1998 року отримав виклик до національної збірної Канади від головного тренера Хольгера Осієка й пообіцяв тому приїхати, але пізніше відмовився від цього виклику й відмовився також пояснювати причину свого рішення. Канадська футбольна асоціація звернулася до ФІФА з проханням заборонити Томашу виступати за «Андерлехт». Кевін Пайп, президент КФА, назвав дії Радзинського «образою його товаришів по команді, тренерів та країни загалом». У жовтні 2001 року Томаш знову заявив, що має бажання виступати за збірну Канади, тому взяв участь у товариському матчі проти європейського суперника, Мальти. Він зіграв за збірну Канади в 19-ти матчах кваліфікації чемпіонату світу протягом трьох кваліфікаційних турнірів (1996, 2006 та 2010).
У складі збірної був учасником розіграшу Золотого кубка КОНКАКАФ 1996 року у США.
Останній матч у футболці національної збірної зіграв 18 листопада 2009 року, це був товариський поєдинок проти Польщі (0:1), по ходу якого був замінений на 84-ій хвилині на Ієна Г'юме.
Завдяки своєму шлюбу має також бельгійський паспорт.
Статистика виступів
Статистика клубних виступів
Статистика виступів за збірну
Голи за збірну
Голи в колонці результат та рахунок подані спочатку збірної Канади
Титули і досягнення
Про Ліга
Чемпіон (2): 1999-2000, 2000-01 («Андерлехт»)
Кубок бельгійської ліги
Володар (1): 1999-2000 («Андерлехт»)
Суперкубок Бельгії
Володар (1): 2000 («Андерлехт»)
Другий дивізіон чемпіонату Бельгії
Чемпіон (2): 2009/10 («Лірс»)
Кубок Бельгії
Володар (1): 1996-97 («Жерміналь-Екерен»)
Індивідуальні
Найкращий бомбардир Про Ліги
Переможець (1): 2000-01
Примітки
Посилання
Профіль гравця на сайті footballdatabase.eu
Профіль гравця на сайті worldfootball.net
Канадські футболісти
Гравці збірної Канади з футболу
Гравці розіграшу Золотого кубка КОНКАКАФ з футболу 1996
Футболісти «Беєрсхота»
Футболісти «Андерлехта»
Футболісти «Евертона»
Футболісти «Фулгема»
Футболісти «Шкода Ксанті»
Футболісти «Льєрса»
Футболісти «Васланд-Беверен»
Канадські футбольні легіонери
Футбольні легіонери в Бельгії
Футбольні легіонери в Англії
Футбольні легіонери у Греції
Уродженці Познані
Поляки Канади
Натуралізовані громадяни Бельгії
Натуралізовані громадяни Канади
Польські емігранти до Канади
Спортсмени Познані
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rothschild%20family
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Rothschild family
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Rothschild family
The Rothschild family is a wealthy Ashkenazi Jewish noble banking family originally from Frankfurt that rose to prominence with Mayer Amschel Rothschild (1744–1812), a court factor to the German Landgraves of Hesse-Kassel in the Free City of Frankfurt, Holy Roman Empire, who established his banking business in the 1760s. Unlike most previous court factors, Rothschild managed to bequeath his wealth and established an international banking family through his five sons, who established businesses in London, Paris, Frankfurt, Vienna, and Naples. The family was elevated to noble rank in the Holy Roman Empire and the United Kingdom. The family's documented history starts in 16th century Frankfurt; its name is derived from the family house, Rothschild, built by Isaak Elchanan Bacharach in Frankfurt in 1567.
During the 19th century, the Rothschild family possessed the largest private fortune in the world, as well as in modern world history. The family's wealth declined over the 20th century, and was divided among many descendants. Today, their interests cover a diverse range of fields, including financial services, real estate, mining, energy, agriculture, winemaking, and nonprofits. Many examples of the family's rural architecture exist across northwestern Europe. The Rothschild family has frequently been the subject of conspiracy theories, many of which have antisemitic origins.
Overview
The first member of the family who was known to use the name "Rothschild" was Isaak Elchanan Rothschild, born in 1577. The name is derived from the German zum rothen Schild (with the old spelling "th"), meaning "at the red shield", in reference to the house where the family lived for many generations (in those days, houses were designated not by numbers, but by signs displaying different symbols or colours). A red shield can still be seen at the centre of the Rothschild coat of arms. The family's ascent to international prominence began in 1744, with the birth of Mayer Amschel Rothschild in Frankfurt am Main, Germany. He was the son of Amschel Moses Rothschild (born circa 1710), a money changer who had traded with the Prince of Hesse. Born in the "Judengasse", the ghetto of Frankfurt, Mayer developed a finance house and spread his empire by installing each of his five sons in the five main European financial centres to conduct business. The Rothschild coat of arms contains a clenched fist with five arrows symbolising the five dynasties established by the five sons of Mayer Rothschild, in a reference to Psalm 127: "Like arrows in the hands of a warrior, so are the children of one's youth." The family motto appears below the shield: Concordia, Integritas, Industria (Unity, Integrity, Industry).
Paul Johnson writes "[T]he Rothschilds are elusive. There is no book about them that is both revealing and accurate. Libraries of nonsense have been written about them... A woman who planned to write a book entitled Lies about the Rothschilds abandoned it, saying: 'It was relatively easy to spot the lies, but it proved impossible to find out the truth.'" Johnson writes that, unlike the court factors of earlier centuries, who had financed and managed European noble houses, but often lost their wealth through violence or expropriation, the new kind of international bank created by the Rothschilds was impervious to local attacks. Their assets were held in financial instruments, circulating through the world as stocks, bonds and debts. Changes made by the Rothschilds allowed them to insulate their property from local violence: "Henceforth their real wealth was beyond the reach of the mob, almost beyond the reach of greedy monarchs." Johnson argued that their fortune was generated to the greatest extent by Nathan Mayer Rothschild in London; however, more recent research by Niall Ferguson indicates that greater and equal profits also were realised by the other Rothschild dynasties, including James Mayer de Rothschild in Paris, Carl Mayer von Rothschild in Naples and Amschel Mayer Rothschild in Frankfurt.
Another essential part of Mayer Rothschild's strategy for success was to keep control of their banks in family hands, allowing them to maintain full secrecy about the size of their fortunes. In about 1906, the Jewish Encyclopedia noted: "The practice initiated by the Rothschilds of having several brothers of a firm establish branches in the different financial centres was followed by other Jewish financiers, like the Bischoffsheims, Pereires, Seligmans, Lazards and others, and these financiers by their integrity and financial skill obtained credit not alone with their Jewish confrères, but with the banking fraternity in general. By this means, Jewish financiers obtained an increasing share of international finance during the middle and last quarter of the 19th century. The head of the whole group was the Rothschild family..." It also says: "Of more recent years, non-Jewish financiers have learned the same cosmopolitan method, and, on the whole, the control is now rather less than more in Jewish hands than formerly."
Mayer Rothschild successfully kept the fortune in the family with carefully arranged marriages, often between first- or second-cousins (similar to royal intermarriage). By the late 19th century, however, almost all Rothschilds had started to marry outside the family, usually into the aristocracy or other financial dynasties.
His sons were:
Amschel Mayer Rothschild (1773–1855): Frankfurt, died childless as his fortune passed to the sons of Salomon and Kalman
Salomon Mayer Rothschild (1774–1855): Vienna
Nathan Mayer Rothschild (1777–1836): London
Kalman Mayer Rothschild (1788–1855): Naples
Jakob Mayer Rothschild (1792–1868): Paris
The German family name "Rothschild" is pronounced in German, unlike in English. The surname "Rothschild" is rare in Germany.
Families by country:
Rothschild banking family of Austria
Rothschild banking family of England
Rothschild banking family of Naples
Rothschild banking family of France
The five sons of Mayer Amschel Rothschild were elevated to the Austrian nobility by Emperor Francis I of Austria, and they were all granted the Austrian hereditary title of Freiherr (baron) on 29 September 1822. The British branch of the family was elevated by Queen Victoria, who granted the hereditary title of baronet (1847) and later the hereditary peerage title of Baron Rothschild (1885).
Napoleonic Wars
The Rothschilds already possessed a significant fortune before the start of the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), and the family had gained preeminence in the bullion trade by this time. From London in 1813 to 1815, Nathan Mayer Rothschild was instrumental in almost single-handedly financing the British war effort, organising the shipment of bullion to the Duke of Wellington's armies across Europe, as well as arranging the payment of British financial subsidies to their continental allies. In 1815 alone, the Rothschilds provided £9.8 million (equivalent to about £ million in ) in subsidy loans to Britain's continental allies.
The brothers helped coordinate Rothschild activities across the continent, and the family developed a network of agents, shippers and couriers to transport gold across war-torn Europe. The family network was also to provide Nathan Rothschild time and again with political and financial information ahead of his peers, giving him an advantage in the markets and rendering the house of Rothschild still more invaluable to the British government.
In one instance, the family network enabled Nathan to receive in London the news of Wellington's victory at the Battle of Waterloo a full day ahead of the government's official messengers. Rothschild's first concern on this occasion was not to the potential financial advantage on the market which the knowledge would have given him; he and his courier immediately took the news to the government. That he used the news for financial advantage was a fiction then repeated in later popular accounts, such as that of Morton. The basis for the Rothschilds' most famously profitable move was made after the news of British victory had been made public. Nathan Rothschild calculated that the future reduction in government borrowing brought about by the peace would create a bounce in British government bonds after a two-year stabilisation, which would finalise the post-war restructuring of the domestic economy. In what has been described as one of the most audacious moves in financial history, Nathan immediately bought up the government bond market, for what at the time seemed an excessively high price, before waiting two years, then selling the bonds on the crest of a short bounce in the market in 1817 for a 40% profit. Given the sheer power of leverage the Rothschild family had at their disposal, this profit was an enormous sum.
Nathan Mayer Rothschild started his business in Manchester in 1806 and gradually moved it to London, where in 1809 he acquired the location at 2 New Court in St. Swithin's Lane, City of London, where it operates today; he established N M Rothschild & Sons in 1811. In 1818, he arranged a £5 million (equal to £ million in ) loan to the Prussian government, and the issuing of bonds for government loans formed a mainstay of his bank's business. He gained a position of such power in the City of London that by 1825–26 he was able to supply enough coin to the Bank of England to enable it to avert a market liquidity crisis.
International high finance
Rothschild family banking businesses pioneered international high finance during the industrialisation of Europe and were instrumental in supporting railway systems across the world and in complex government financing for projects such as the Suez Canal. From 1895 through 1907 they loaned nearly $450,000,000 to European governments. During the 19th century, the family bought up a large proportion of the property in Mayfair, London.
The Rothschild family was directly involved in the independence of Brazil from Portugal in the early 19th century. Upon an agreement, the Brazilian government should pay a compensation of two million pounds sterling to the Kingdom of Portugal to accept Brazil's independence. N M Rothschild & Sons was pre-eminent in raising this capital for the government of the newly formed Empire of Brazil on the London market. In 1825, Nathan Rothschild raised £2,000,000, and indeed was probably discreetly involved in the earlier tranche of this loan which raised £1,000,000 in 1824. Part of the price of Portuguese recognition of Brazilian independence, secured in 1825, was that Brazil should take over repayment of the principal and interest on a £1,500,000 loan made to the Portuguese government in 1823 by N M Rothschild & Sons. A correspondence from Samuel Phillips & Co. in 1824 suggests the close involvement of the Rothschilds in the occasion.
Major 19th-century businesses founded with Rothschild family capital include:
Alliance Assurance (1824) (now Royal & Sun Alliance)
Chemin de Fer du Nord (1845)
The Rio Tinto mining company (1873) (from the 1880s onwards, the Rothschilds had full control of Rio Tinto)
Eramet (1880)
Imerys (1880)
De Beers (1888)
The family funded Cecil Rhodes in the creation of the African colony of Rhodesia. From the late 1880s onwards, the family took over control of the Rio Tinto mining company.
The Japanese government approached the London and Paris families for funding during the Russo-Japanese War. The London consortium's issue of Japanese war bonds would total £11.5 million (at 1907 currency rates; £ in 2012 currency terms).
The name of Rothschild became synonymous with extravagance and great wealth; and the family was renowned for its art collecting, for its palaces, as well as for its philanthropy. By the end of the century, the family owned, or had built, at the lowest estimates, 41 palaces, of a scale and luxury perhaps unparalleled even by the richest royal families. The British Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George claimed, in 1909, that Nathan, Lord Rothschild was the most powerful man in Britain.
Niles' Weekly Register, Volume 49 had the following to say about the Rothschilds' influence on international high finance in 1836:
Changes to family fortunes
The Neapolitan Rothschilds was the first branch of the family to decline when revolution broke out and Giuseppe Garibaldi captured Naples on 7 September 1860 and set up a provisional Italian government. Because of the family's close political connections with Austria and France, was caught in a delicate position. He chose to take temporary sanctuary in Gaeta with the last Neapolitan king, Francis II of the Two Sicilies. However, the Rothschild branches in London, Paris, and Vienna were not prepared nor willing to financially support the deposed king. With the ensuing unification of Italy, and the mounting tension between Adolph and the rest of the family, the Naples house closed in 1863 after forty-two years in business.
In 1901, the German branch closed its doors after more than a century in business following the death of Wilhelm Rothschild with no male heirs. It was not until 1989 that the family returned to Germany, when N M Rothschild & Sons, the British branch, plus Bank Rothschild AG, the Swiss branch, set up a representative banking office in Frankfurt.
By the start of the 20th century, the introduction of national taxation systems had ended the Rothschilds' policy of operating with a single set of commercial account records, which resulted in the various branches gradually going their own separate ways as independent banks. The system of the five brothers and their successor sons all but disappeared by World War I.
The rise of Nazi Germany in the 1930s led to a precarious situation for the Austrian Rothschilds under the annexation of Austria in 1938 when the family was pressured to sell its banking operation at a fraction of its real worth. While other Rothschilds had escaped the Nazis, Louis Rothschild was imprisoned for a year and only released after a substantial ransom was paid by his family. After Louis was allowed to leave the country in March 1939, the Nazis placed the firm of S M von Rothschild under compulsory administration. Nazi officers and senior staff from Austrian museums also emptied the Rothschild family estates of all their valuables. Following the war, the Austrian Rothschilds were unable to reclaim much of their former assets and properties.
Later, the fall of France during the Second World War led to the seizure of the property of the French Rothschilds under German occupation. Despite having their bank restored to them at the end of the war, the French Rothschilds were powerless in 1982 as the family business was nationalised by the socialist government of newly elected President François Mitterrand.
In addition, The New York Times wrote that the Rothschilds "grossly misjudged the opportunities directly across the Atlantic" and quoted Evelyn de Rothschild as saying that despite the accomplishments made by the various branches of the family in international high finance for over 200 years, "we never seized the initiative in America and that was one of the mistakes my family made."
Hereditary titles
In 1816, four of the five sons of Mayer Amschel Rothschild were elevated to the Austrian nobility by Emperor Francis I of Austria. The remaining son, Nathan, was elevated in 1818. All of them were granted the Austrian hereditary title of Freiherr (baron) on 29 September 1822. As a result, some members of the family used the nobiliary particle de or von before their surname to acknowledge the grant of nobility.
In 1847, Anthony de Rothschild was made a hereditary baronet of the United Kingdom. In 1885, Sir Nathan Rothschild, 2nd Baronet, was granted the hereditary peerage title of Baron Rothschild in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. This title is currently held by the 5th Baron Rothschild.
Branches
English branch
The Rothschild banking family of England was founded in 1798 by Nathan Mayer Rothschild (1777–1836), who first settled in Manchester but then moved to London. Nathan Mayer von Rothschild, the third son of Mayer Amschel Rothschild (1744–1812), first established a textile jobbing business in Manchester and from there went on to establish N M Rothschild & Sons bank in London.
During the early part of the 19th century, the Rothschild family's London bank took a leading part in managing and financing the subsidies that the British government transferred to its allies during the Napoleonic Wars. Through the creation of a network of agents, couriers and shippers, the bank was able to provide funds to the armies of the Duke of Wellington in Portugal and Spain, therefore funding the war. The providing of other innovative and complex financing for government projects formed a mainstay of the bank's business for the better part of the century. N M Rothschild & Sons' financial strength in the City of London became such that, by 1825–26, the bank was able to supply enough coin to the Bank of England to enable it to avert a liquidity crisis.
Nathan Mayer's eldest son, Lionel de Rothschild (1808–1879), succeeded him as head of the London branch. Under Lionel, the bank financed the British government's 1875 purchase of Egypt's interest in the Suez Canal. The Rothschild bank also funded Cecil Rhodes in the development of the British South Africa Company. Leopold de Rothschild (1845–1917) administered Rhodes's estate after his death in 1902 and helped to set up the Rhodes Scholarship scheme at the University of Oxford. In 1873, de Rothschild Frères in France and N M Rothschild & Sons of London joined with other investors to acquire the Spanish government's money-losing Rio Tinto copper mines. The new owners restructured the company and turned it into a profitable business. By 1905, the Rothschild interest in Rio Tinto amounted to more than 30 percent. In 1887, the French and British Rothschild banking houses loaned money to, and invested in, the De Beers diamond mines in South Africa, becoming its largest shareholders.
The London banking house continued under the management of Lionel Nathan de Rothschild (1882–1942) and his brother Anthony Gustav de Rothschild (1887–1961), and then to Sir Evelyn de Rothschild (1931–2022). In 2003, following Sir Evelyn's retirement as head of N M Rothschild & Sons of London, the British and French financial firms merged under the leadership of David René de Rothschild.
French branches
There are two branches of the family connected to France.
The first was the branch of James Mayer de Rothschild (1792–1868), known as "James", who established de Rothschild Frères in Paris; he married his niece Betty von Rothschild. Following the Napoleonic Wars, he played a major role in financing the construction of railways and the mining business that helped make France an industrial power. By 1980, the Paris business employed about 2,000 people and had an annual turnover of 26 billion francs (€4.13 billion or $5 billion in the currency rates of 1980).
However, the Paris business suffered a near death blow in 1982, when the socialist government of François Mitterrand nationalised and renamed it as Compagnie Européenne de Banque. Baron David de Rothschild, then 39, decided to stay and rebuild, creating a new entity named Rothschild & Cie Banque, with just three employees and €830,000 (US$1 million) in capital. Today, the Paris operation has 22 partners and accounts for a significant part of the global business.
Ensuing generations of the Paris Rothschild family remained involved in the family business, becoming a major force in international investment banking. The Paris Rothschilds have since led the Thomson Financial League Tables in Investment Banking Merger and Acquisition deals in the UK, France and Italy.
James Mayer de Rothschild's other son, Edmond James de Rothschild (1845–1934), was very much engaged in philanthropy and the arts, and he was a leading proponent of Zionism. His grandson, Baron Edmond Adolphe de Rothschild, founded in 1953 the LCF Rothschild Group, a private bank. Since 1997, Baron Benjamin de Rothschild chairs the group. The group has €100bn of assets in 2008 and owns many wine properties in France (Château Clarke, Château des Laurets), in Australia, or in South Africa. In 1961, the 35-year-old Edmond Adolphe de Rothschild purchased the company Club Med, after he had visited a resort and enjoyed his stay. His interest in Club Med was sold off by the 1990s. In 1973, he bought out the Bank of California, selling his interests in 1984 before it was sold to Mitsubishi Bank in 1985.
The second French branch was founded by Nathaniel de Rothschild (1812–1870). Born in London, he was the fourth child of the founder of the British branch of the family, Nathan Mayer Rothschild (1777–1836). In 1850 Nathaniel Rothschild moved to Paris to work with his uncle James Mayer Rothschild. In 1853 Nathaniel acquired Château Brane Mouton, a vineyard in Pauillac in the Gironde département. Nathaniel Rothschild renamed the estate Château Mouton Rothschild, and it would become one of the best known labels in the world. In 1868, Nathaniel's uncle, James Mayer de Rothschild, acquired the neighbouring Château Lafite vineyard.
Austrian branch
In Vienna, Salomon Mayer Rothschild established a bank in the 1820s and the Austrian family had vast wealth and position. The crash of 1929 brought problems, and Baron Louis von Schwartz Rothschild attempted to shore up the Creditanstalt, Austria's largest bank, to prevent its collapse. Nevertheless, during the Second World War they had to surrender their bank to the Nazis and flee the country. Their Rothschild palaces, a collection of vast palaces in Vienna built and owned by the family, were confiscated, plundered and destroyed by the Nazis. The palaces were famous for their sheer size and for their huge collections of paintings, armour, tapestries and statues (some of which were restored to the Rothschilds by the Austrian government in 1999).
All family members escaped the Holocaust, some of them moving to the United States, and returning to Europe only after the war. In 1999, the government of Austria agreed to return to the Rothschild family some 250 art treasures looted by the Nazis and absorbed into state museums after the war.
Neapolitan branch
The C M de Rothschild & Figli bank arranged substantial loans to the Papal States and to various Kings of Naples plus the Duchy of Parma and the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. However, in the 1830s, Naples followed Spain with a gradual shift away from conventional bond issues that began to affect the bank's growth and profitability. The Unification of Italy in 1861, with the ensuing decline of the Italian aristocracy who had been the Rothschilds' primary clients, eventually brought about the closure of their Naples bank, due to a forecasted decline in the sustainability of the business over the long-term. However, in the early 19th century, the Rothschild family of Naples built up close relations with the Holy See, and the association between the family and the Vatican continued into the 20th century.
In 1832, when Pope Gregory XVI was seen meeting Carl von Rothschild to arrange the 1832 Rothschild loan to the Holy See (for £400,000, worth €43,000,000 in 2014), observers were shocked that Rothschild was not required to kiss the Pope's feet, as was then required for all other visitors to the Pope, including monarchs. The 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia described the Rothschilds as "the guardians of the papal treasure".
Jewish identity and positions on Zionism
Jewish solidarity in the family was not homogeneous. Many Rothschilds were supporters of Zionism, while other members of the family opposed the creation of the Jewish state. In 1917 Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild was the addressee of the Balfour Declaration to the Zionist Federation, which committed the British government to the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people. His nephew, Victor, Lord Rothschild was against granting asylum or helping Jewish refugees in 1938.
After the death of James Jacob de Rothschild in 1868, his eldest son Alphonse Rothschild took over the management of the family bank and was the most active in support for Eretz Israel. The Rothschild family archives show that during the 1870s the family contributed nearly 500,000 francs per year on behalf of Eastern Jewry to the Alliance Israélite Universelle.
Baron Edmond James de Rothschild (known in Israel simply as "the Baron Rothschild" or "the Benefactor" (Hebrew: "HaNadiv"), youngest son of James Jacob de Rothschild, was a patron of the first permanent settlement in Palestine at Rishon-LeZion (1882). He also provided funding for the establishment of Petah Tikva as a permanent settlement (1883). Overall, he bought from Ottoman landlords 2–3% of the land which now makes up present-day Israel. After Baron de Hirsch died in 1896, the Hirsch-founded Jewish Colonisation Association (ICA) started supporting the settlement of Palestine (1896), and Baron Rothschild took an active role in the organization and transferred his Palestinian land holdings as well as 15 million francs to it. In 1924, he reorganized the Palestinian branch of the ICA into the Palestine Jewish Colonisation Association (PICA), which acquired more than of land and set up business ventures. In Tel Aviv, the Rothschild Boulevard is named after him, as are a number of localities throughout Israel which he assisted in founding, including Metulla, Zikhron Ya'akov, Rishon Lezion and Rosh Pina. A park in Boulogne-Billancourt, Paris, the Parc Edmond de Rothschild (Edmond de Rothschild Park), is also named after its founder. The Rothschilds also played a significant part in the funding of Israel's governmental infrastructure. James A. de Rothschild financed the Knesset building as a gift to the State of Israel and the Supreme Court of Israel building was donated to Israel by Dorothy de Rothschild. Outside the President's Chamber is displayed the letter Dorothy de Rothschild wrote to then Prime Minister Shimon Peres expressing her intention to donate a new building for the Supreme Court. The Rothschilds also established the "Yad Hanadiv" philanthropic foundation in 1958.
Interviewed by Haaretz in 2010, Baron Benjamin Rothschild, who was a Swiss-based member of the banking family, said that he supported the Israeli–Palestinian peace process: "I understand that it is a complicated business, mainly because of the fanatics and extremists – and I am talking about both sides. I think you have fanatics in Israel. ... In general I am not in contact with politicians. I spoke once with Netanyahu. I met once with an Israeli finance minister, but the less I mingle with politicians the better I feel." Due to a dispute with the Israeli tax authorities, the baron refused to visit Israel. But his widow Ariane de Rothschild often visits Israel where she manages the Caesarea Foundation. She says: "It is insulting that the state [Israel] casts doubt on us. If there is a family that does not have to prove its commitment to Israel, it's ours."
Places in Israel named after Rothschild family members
Primarily due to the generosity and influence of Baron Edmond James de Rothschild, HaNadiv (the Benefactor), on the history of the Land of Israel and the State of Israel, a tradition exists of naming cities, towns and other settlements in Israel in honor of members of the Rothschild family. Six of these places are grouped in the same vicinity, on the Sharon plain, while the others are scattered throughout the country. They are, listed in order of founding:
Zichron Ya'akov (Hebrew: Jacob's Memory), a town founded in 1882 and named after the Benefactor's father, James [Jacob] Mayer de Rothschild (1792–1868) from the Paris branch of the family;
Mazkeret Batya (Hebrew: Remembrance of Batya), a local council near Tel Aviv, founded in 1883 and named after Betty von Rothschild (1805–1886), the Benefactor's mother;
Bat Shlomo (Hebrew: Salomon's Daughter), a moshav near Rehovot, founded in 1889 and also named after the Baron's mother, who was the daughter of Salomon Mayer von Rothschild (1774–1855), the Benefactor's grandfather from the Vienna branch;
Meir Shfeya (Hebrew: Mayer's Fields), a youth village near Zichron Ya'acov, founded as a moshava in 1891 and named after Amschel Mayer von Rothschild (1773–1855), the Benefactor's grandfather from the Frankfurt branch;
Givat Ada (Hebrew: Ada's Hill), a town near Zichron Ya'acov, founded in 1903 and named after the Benefactor's wife Adelheid von Rothschild (1853–1935), who was also his cousin, from the Naples branch;
Binyamina, a town near Zichron Ya'acov, founded in 1922 and named after Benefactor himself (Binyamina was officially merged with Givat Ada in 2003);
Ashdot Ya'akov (Hebrew: Jacob's Rapids), a kibbutz just south of the Sea of Galilee, founded in 1924 and named after James Armand Edmond de Rothschild (1878–1957), son of the Benefactor;
Pardes Hanna (Hebrew: Hannah's [Citrus] Orchard), a local council near Zichron Ya'acov, founded in 1929 and named after Hannah Primrose, Countess of Rosebery (née de Rothschild; 1851–1890), daughter of Mayer Anschel Rothschild;
Shadmot Dvora (Hebrew: Deborah's Cultivated Fields), a moshav near Tiberias, founded in 1939 and named after Dorothy de Rothschild (1895–1988), who was James de Rothschild's wife and the Benefactor's daughter-in-law;
Sde Eliezer (Hebrew: Eliezer's Field), a moshav in the Hula Valley, founded in 1950 and named after Robert Rothschild (1911–1998), a relative of the Benefactor's of the French branch.
Modern businesses, investments, and philanthropy
Since the late 19th century, the family has taken a low-key public profile, donating many famous estates, as well as vast quantities of art, to charity, and generally eschewing conspicuous displays of wealth. Today, Rothschild businesses are on a smaller scale than they were throughout the 19th century, although they encompass a diverse range of fields, including: real estate, financial services, mixed farming, energy, mining, winemaking and nonprofits.
The Rothschild Group
Since 2003, a group of Rothschild banks have been controlled by Rothschild Continuation Holdings, a Swiss-registered holding company (under the chairmanship of Baron David René de Rothschild). Rothschild Continuation Holdings is in turn controlled by Concordia BV, a Dutch-registered master holding company. Concordia BV is managed by Paris Orléans S.A., a French-registered holding company. Paris Orléans S.A. is ultimately controlled by Rothschild Concordia SAS, a Rothschild's family holding company. Rothschild & Cie Banque controls Rothschild banking businesses in France and continental Europe, while Rothschilds Continuation Holdings AG controls a number of Rothschild banks elsewhere, including N M Rothschild & Sons in London. Twenty per cent of Rothschild Continuation Holdings AG was sold in 2005 to Jardine Strategic, which is a subsidiary of Jardine, Matheson & Co. of Hong Kong. In November 2008, Rabobank Group, the leading investment and private bank in the Netherlands, acquired 7.5% of Rothschild Continuation Holdings AG, and Rabobank and Rothschild entered into a co-operation agreement in the fields of mergers and acquisitions (M&A) advisory and equity capital markets advisory in the food and agribusiness sectors. It was believed that the move was intended to help Rothschild Continuation Holdings AG gain access to a wider capital pool, enlarging its presence in East Asian markets.
Paris Orléans S.A. is a financial holding company listed on Euronext Paris and controlled by the French and English branches of the Rothschild family. Paris Orléans is the flagship of the Rothschild banking group and controls the Rothschild Group's banking activities including N M Rothschild & Sons and Rothschild & Cie Banque. It has over 2,000 employees. Directors of the company include Eric de Rothschild, Robert de Rothschild and Count Philippe de Nicolay.
N M Rothschild & Sons, an English investment bank, does most of its business as an advisor for mergers and acquisitions. In 2004, the investment bank withdrew from the gold market, a commodity the Rothschild bankers had traded in for two centuries. In 2006, it ranked second in UK M&A with deals totalling $104.9 billion. In 2006, the bank recorded a pre-tax annual profit of £83.2 million with assets of £5.5 billion.
Edmond de Rothschild Group
In 1953, one Swiss member of the family, Edmond Adolphe de Rothschild (1926–1997), founded the LCF Rothschild Group (now Edmond de Rothschild Group) which is based in Geneva and today extends to 15 countries across the world. Although this group is primarily a financial entity, specializing in asset management and private banking, its activities also cover mixed farming, luxury hotels and yacht racing. Edmond de Rothschild Group's committee is currently being chaired by Ariane de Rothschild.
In late 2010, Baron Benjamin Rothschild, the chairman at the time, said that the family had been unaffected by the financial crisis of 2007–2010, due to their conservative business practices: "We came through it well, because our investment managers did not want to put money into crazy things." He added that the Rothschilds were still a small-scale, traditional family business and took greater care over their clients' investments than American companies, adding: "The client knows we will not speculate with his money".
Edmond de Rothschild group includes these companies.
Banque privée Edmond de Rothschild – Swiss private banking firm
Compagnie Financière Edmond de Rothschild – French private bank
La Compagnie Benjamin de Rothschild
Cogifrance – Real estate
Compagnie Vinicole Baron Edmond de Rothschild – wine making firm
RIT Capital Partners
In 1980, Jacob Rothschild, 4th Baron Rothschild resigned from N M Rothschild & Sons and took independent control of Rothschild Investment Trust (now RIT Capital Partners, a British investment trust), which has reported assets of $3.4 billion in 2008. It is listed on London Stock Exchange. Lord Rothschild is also one of the major investors behind BullionVault, a gold trading platform.
In 2010 RIT Capital Partners stored a significant proportion of its assets in the form of physical gold. Other assets included oil and energy-related investments.
In 2012, RIT Capital Partners announced it was to buy a 37 per cent stake in a Rockefeller family wealth advisory and asset management group. Commenting on the deal, David Rockefeller, a former patriarch of the Rockefeller family, said: "The connection between our two families remains very strong."
Investments
In 1991, Jacob Rothschild, 4th Baron Rothschild, founded J. Rothschild Assurance Group (now St. James's Place Wealth Management) with Sir Mark Weinberg. It is also listed on London Stock Exchange.
In 2001, the Rothschild mansion located at 18 Kensington Palace Gardens, London, was on sale for £85 million, at that time (2001) the most expensive residential property ever to go on sale in the world. It was built in marble, at 9,000 sq ft, with underground parking for 20 cars.
In December 2009, Jacob Rothschild, 4th Baron Rothschild, invested $200 million of his own money in a North Sea oil company.
In January 2010, Nathaniel Rothschild, 5th Baron Rothschild, bought a substantial share of the Glencore mining and oil company's market capitalisation. He also bought a large share of the aluminium mining company United Company RUSAL.
During the 19th century, the Rothschilds controlled the Rio Tinto mining corporation, and to this day, Rothschild and Rio Tinto maintain a close business relationship.
Wine
The Rothschild family has been in the winemaking industry for 150 years. In 1853, Nathaniel de Rothschild purchased Château Brane-Mouton and renamed it Château Mouton Rothschild. In 1868, James Mayer de Rothschild purchased the neighbouring Château Lafite and renamed it Château Lafite Rothschild.
Today, the Rothschild family owns many wine estates: their estates in France include Château Clarke, Château de Malengin, Château Clerc-Milon, Château d'Armailhac, Château Duhart-Milon, Château Lafite Rothschild, Château de Laversine, Château des Laurets, Château L'Évangile, Château Malmaison, Château de Montvillargenne, Château Mouton Rothschild, Château de la Muette, Château Rieussec and Château Rothschild d'Armainvilliers. They also own wine estates across North America, South America, South Africa and Australia.
Especially, Château Mouton Rothschild and Château Lafite Rothschild are classified as Premier Cru Classé—i.e., First Growth, the status referring to a classification of wines from the Bordeaux region of France.
Saskia de Rothschild was named Chairwoman of Château Lafite Rothschild in 2018, succeeding her father, Éric de Rothschild. Château Mouton Rothschild was managed by Philippine de Rothschild until her death in 2014. It is now under the direction of her son Philippe Sereys de Rothschild.
Art and charity
The family once had one of the largest private art collections in the world, and a significant proportion of the art in the world's public museums are Rothschild donations which were sometimes, in the family tradition of discretion, donated anonymously.
Hannah Rothschild was appointed in December 2014 as chair of the board of the National Gallery of London.
List of financial holdings
The following is a list of businesses in which the Rothschild family have held a controlling or an otherwise significant interest.
Asia Resource Minerals
Banque Rothschild
Bnito
Brinco
British South Africa Company
Chemins de fer du Nord
Club Med
Creditanstalt
De Beers
The Economist Group
Edmond de Rothschild Group
Eramet
Genel Energy
Libération
M. A. Rothschild & Söhne
Opus One Winery
Rio Tinto
RIT Capital Partners
Rothschild & Co
Royal Dutch Shell
S. M. von Rothschild
Sociedad Minera y Metalúrgica de Peñarroya
St. James's Place plc
Vítkovice Mining and Iron Corporation
Cultural references
In the words of The Daily Telegraph: "This multinational banking family is a byword for wealth, power – and discretion... The Rothschild name has become synonymous with money and power to a degree that perhaps no other family has ever matched."
Writing of the Rockefeller and Rothschild families, Harry Mount writes: "That is what makes these two dynasties so exceptional – not just their dizzying wealth, but the fact that they have held on to it for so long: and not just the loot, but also their family companies."
The story of the Rothschild family has been featured in a number of films. The 1934 Hollywood film titled The House of Rothschild, starring George Arliss and Loretta Young, recounted the life of Mayer Amschel Rothschild and Nathan Mayer Rothschild (both played by Arliss). Excerpts from this film were incorporated into the Nazi propaganda film Der ewige Jude (The Eternal Jew) without the permission of the copyright holder. Another Nazi film, Die Rothschilds (also called Aktien auf Waterloo), was directed by Erich Waschneck in 1940. A Broadway musical entitled The Rothschilds, covering the history of the family up to 1818, was nominated for a Tony Award in 1971. Nathaniel Mayer ("Natty") Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild appears as a minor character in the historical-mystery novel Stone's Fall, by Iain Pears. Mayer Rothschild is featured in Diana Gabaldon's novel Voyager as a coin seller summoned to Le Havre by Jamie Fraser to appraise coins, prior to the establishment of the Rothschild dynasty, when Mayer is in his early 20s. The Rothschild name is mentioned by Aldous Huxley in his novel Brave New World, among many names of historically affluent persons, scientific innovators and others. The character, named Morgana Rothschild, played a relatively minor role in the story. The name Rothschild used as a synonym for extreme wealth inspired the song "If I Were a Rich Man", which is based on a song from the Tevye the Dairyman stories, written in the Yiddish as , meaning 'If I were a Rothschild'.
In France, the word "Rothschild" was throughout the 19th and 20th centuries a synonym for seemingly endless wealth, neo-Gothic styles, and epicurean glamour. The family also has lent its name to "," a very glamorous style of interior decoration whose elements include neo-Renaissance palaces, extravagant use of velvet and gilding, vast collections of armour and sculpture, a sense of Victorian horror vacui, and the highest masterworks of art. Le goût Rothschild has influenced designers such as Robert Denning, Yves Saint Laurent, Vincent Fourcade and others.
Conspiracy theories
Over more than two centuries, the Rothschild family has frequently been the subject of conspiracy theories. These theories take differing forms, such as claiming that the family controls the world's wealth and financial institutions or encouraged or discouraged wars between governments. Discussing this and similar views, the historian Niall Ferguson wrote that,
Many conspiracy theories about the Rothschild family arise from anti-Semitic prejudice and various antisemitic tropes.
Prominent descendants of Mayer Amschel Rothschild
Prominent lineal descendants of Mayer Amschel Rothschild include among many others:
Major Alexander Karet (1905–1976)
Almina Herbert, Countess of Carnarvon (15 August 1876 – 8 May 1969)
Alexandre Louis Philippe Marie Berthier, 4th Prince de Wagram (1883–1918), died fighting in the First World War
Albert Salomon von Rothschild (1844–1911), former majority shareholder of Creditanstalt
Alfred Charles de Rothschild (20 July 1842 – 31 January 1918)
Alice Charlotte von Rothschild (1847–1922) close friend of Queen Victoria
Aline Caroline de Rothschild (1867–1909), French socialite
Baroness Afdera Franchetti (born c. 1931), a former wife of Henry Fonda, from the noble Italian Jewish Franchetti family
Baroness Alix Hermine Jeannette Schey de Koromla (1911–1982)
Alphonse James de Rothschild (1827–1905)
Amschel Mayor James Rothschild (1955–1996, Paris), patron of motor racing
Anthony Gustav de Rothschild (1887–1961), horse-breeder
Anthony James de Rothschild (born 1977)
Anselm von Rothschild (1803–1874), Austrian banker
Sir Anthony de Rothschild, 1st Baronet (1810–1876)
Antoine Armand Odelric Marie Henri de Gramont, 13th Duke of Gramont (born 1951)
Alain de Rothschild (1910–1982)
Benjamin de Rothschild (1963–2021)
Béatrice Ephrussi de Rothschild (1864–1934)
Bethsabée de Rothschild (1914–1999)
Carl Mayer von Rothschild (1788–1855)
Charlotte de Rothschild (1825–1899)
Charlotte Henriette de Rothschild (born 1955), soprano
Charlotte von Rothschild (1818–84)
Charles Rothschild (1877–1923), banker and entomologist
David Cholmondeley, 7th Marquess of Cholmondeley (born 1960), Lord Great Chamberlain of England
David Mayer de Rothschild (born 1978), billionaire British adventurer and environmentalist
David René de Rothschild (born 1942)
Edmond Adolphe de Rothschild (1926–1997)
Edouard Etienne de Rothschild (born 1957)
Edouard Alphonse James de Rothschild (1868–1949), financier and polo player
Edmond James de Rothschild (1845–1934)
Edmund Leopold de Rothschild (1916–2009)
Elie de Rothschild (1917–2007)
Emma Rothschild (born 1948)
Evelina de Rothschild (1839–66)
Evelyn Achille de Rothschild (1886–1917), died fighting for the British Army in the First World War
Sir Evelyn de Rothschild (1931–2022), banker
Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild, M.P. (1839–1898)
Gustave Samuel de Rothschild (1829–1911)
Guy de Rothschild (1909–2007)
Hannah Primrose, Countess of Rosebery, née Hannah de Rothschild (1851–1890)
Hannah Rothschild (born 1962), documentary filmmaker
Henri James de Rothschild (1872–1946), playwright, grandson of Nathaniel de Rothschild
Duke Hélie Marie Auguste Jacques Bertrand Philippe (1943), 10th Duke of Noailles
Hugh Cholmondeley, 6th Marquess of Cholmondeley (1919–90), Lord Great Chamberlain of England
James Armand de Rothschild (1878–1957)
James Mayer Rothschild (1792–1868)
Marie Angliviel de la Beaumelle (1963–2013)
Neil Primrose, 7th Earl of Rosebery (born 1929)
Neil James Archibald Primrose (1882–1917), MP, killed fighting in the First World War
Baroness Nica de Koenigswarter (née Baroness Pannonica Rothschild) (1913–1988), patron of bebop and jazz writer – often called the "Jazz Baroness"
Baron Léon Lambert (1929–1987), Belgian art collector
Leopold de Rothschild (1845–1917)
Leopold David de Rothschild (1927–2012)
Lionel Nathan Rothschild (1808–1879)
Louis Nathaniel de Rothschild (1882–1955)
Marie-Hélène de Rothschild (1927–94), French socialite
Maurice de Rothschild (1881–1957)
Mayer Amschel de Rothschild (1818–1874)
Miriam Louisa Rothschild (1908–2005), famous entomologist and zoologist
Lionel Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild, of Tring in the County of Hertford (1868–1937)
Nathaniel de Rothschild (1812–1870)
Nathan Mayer Rothschild (1777–1836)
Nathan Mayer Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild, of Tring in the County of Hertford (1840–1915)
Nathaniel Charles Jacob Rothschild, 4th Baron Rothschild, of Tring in the County of Hertford (1936–2024)
Nathaniel Robert de Rothschild (1946), French financier
Nathaniel Mayer Victor Rothschild, 3rd Baron Rothschild, of Tring in the County of Hertford (1910–1990)
Nathaniel Rothschild, 5th Baron Rothschild (born 1971), a co-chairman of Atticus Capital, a £20 billion hedge fund
Nathaniel Anselm von Rothschild (1836–1905), Austrian socialite
Sir Philip Sassoon, 3rd Baronet (1888–1939), British First Commissioner of Works and Under-Secretary of State for Air
Count Philippe de Nicolay (born 1955), great-grandson of Salomon James de Rothschild, he is a director of the Rothschild group.
Philippe de Rothschild (1902–1988), vintner, son of Henri James de Rothschild
Philippine de Rothschild (1935–2014), vintner, daughter of Philippe
Jacqueline Rebecca Louise de Rothschild (1911–2012), chess and tennis champion
Harry Primrose, 6th Earl of Rosebery (1882–1974) Earl of Roseberry
Raphael de Rothschild (1976–2000)
Salomon James de Rothschild (1835–1864)
Lady Serena Dunn Rothschild (1935–2019)
Lady Sybil Grant (1879–1955), British writer
Sybil Cholmondeley, Marchioness of Cholmondeley (1894–1989)
Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild (1868–1937), zoologist
Wilhelm Carl von Rothschild (1828–1901)
Prominent marriages into the family include, among many others:
Maurice Ephrussi (1849–1916), of the Ephrussi family
Ben Goldsmith (born 1980), son of financier James Goldsmith, of the Goldsmith family x Kate Emma Rothschild (born 1982)
Anita Patience Guinness (1957), of the Guinness family x Amschel Mayor James Rothschild
Abraham Oppenheim (1804–1878), of the Oppenheim Family x Charlotte Beyfus (1811–1887)
Aline Caroline de Rothschild (1867–1909) x Edward Sassoon (1856–1912), of the Sassoon family
Carola Warburg Rothschild (1894–1987), philanthropist, born into the Warburg family
Baron Eugène Daniel de Rothschild (1884–1976) x Countess Cathleen "Kitty" von Schönborn-Buchheim (1885 – , née Wolff)
James Nathaniel Charles Léopold Rothschild, son of Henri James Nathaniel Charles Rothschild and Mathilde Sophie Henriette de Weisweiller, x 1923: Claude du Pont of the Du Pont family.
Elisabeth Pelletier de Chambure (1902–1945), the only member of the Rothschild family to die in the Holocaust.
Count François de Nicolay (1919–1963), of the House of Nicolay x Marie-Hélène Naila Stephanie Josina van Zuylen van Nyevelt
Marguerite de Rothschild x 1878: Antoine Alfred Agénor, 11th Duc de Gramont (1851–1921),
Dorothy de Rothschild (1895–1988), on her death she left the largest probated estate in Britain
George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon x Almina Victoria Maria Alexandra Wombwell, the illegitimate daughter of Alfred de Rothschild
Pauline de Rothschild (1908–1976), fashion designer and translator of Elizabethan poetry
, of the Wodehouse family
Louis Philippe Marie Alexandre Berthier, 3rd Prince of Wagram (1836–1911)
Countess Katharina Eleonore Veronika Irma Luise Henckel von Donnersmarck (1902–1965), actress x Baron Erich von Goldschmidt-Rothschild
Amartya Sen (born 1933), Nobel Laureate, Indian economist and philosopher x Emma Georgina Rothschild of the Rothschild banking family of England.
Jeanne de Rothschild (1908–2003), actress
Nadine de Rothschild (1932–), French actress and author
Princess Sophie de Ligne (born 1957) x Philippe de Nicolay (born 1955), a director of the Rothschild group, and the great-grandson of Salomon James de Rothschild
David René de Rothschild x Princess Olimpia Anna Aldobrandini, of the House of Borghese and the House of Bonaparte.
Richard Francis Roger Yarde-Buller, 4th Baron Churston of Churston Ferrers and Lupton (1910–1991) x Olga Alice Muriel Rothschild
Serena Dunn Rothschild (1935–2019), granddaughter of Sir James Hamet Dunn, 1st Baronet
Lynn Forester de Rothschild (born 1954), businesswoman
Baroness Rozsika Edle von Wertheimstein
Baron Etienne van Zuylen van Nyevelt, of the House of Van Zuylen van Nyevelt x Baroness Hélène de Rothschild (1863–1947).
Baron Elie Robert de Rothschild (1917–2007) x 1943: Lady Liliane Elisabeth Victoire Fould-Springer, great-aunt of actress Helena Bonham Carter
James Rothschild x 2015: American heiress and socialite Nicky Hilton, the great-granddaughter of Hilton Hotels founder Conrad Hilton
Coat of arms
See also
List of European Jewish nobility
List of wealthiest families
Ascott House
Avenue Foch
Cecil John Rhodes
Château de Montvillargenne
Château de Pregny
Château Lafite Rothschild
Château Mouton Rothschild
De Beers
Eramet
Genealogy of the Rothschild family
Goût Rothschild
Hôtel de Marigny
Hôtel Salomon de Rothschild
Hôtel Lambert
The House of Rothschild (1934 film), addresses Rothschild roles in the Napoleonic era
Imerys
Napoleonic Wars
Old money
Palais Rothschild
Rockefeller family
Rothschild Island
Rothschild (Fabergé egg)
Rothschild properties in and around Buckinghamshire
Rio Tinto Mining Group
Vaux-de-Cernay Abbey
Warburg family
Notes
References
Further reading
Virginia Cowles: The Rothchilds: A Family of Fortune, 1973,
Niall Ferguson: The House of Rothschild: Money's Prophets, 1798–1848
Niall Ferguson: The House of Rothschild: The World's Banker, 1849–1998
Frederic Morton: The Rothschilds: Portrait of a Dynasty
Amos Elon: Founder: A Portrait of the First Rothschild and His Time, 1996.
Egon Caesar Conte Corti: Rise of the House of Rothschild, B. Lunn (translator), Books for Business 2001 (reprint of 1928 translation published by Gollancz), , Amazon.co.uk searchable online view
Joseph Valynseele & Henri-Claude Mars, Le Sang des Rothschild, ICC Editions, Paris [fr]. 2004
Derek A. Wilson: Rothschild: A Story of Wealth and Power
Mir-Babayev M.F.: The role of Azerbaijan in the World's oil industry – "Oil-Industry History" (USA), 2011, v. 12, no. 1, p. 109–123.
Mir-Babayev M.F.: The Rothschild brother's contribution to Baku's oil industry – "Oil-Industry History" (USA), 2012, v. 13, no. 1, p. 225–236.
Pietro Ratto: I Rothschild e gli altri. Dal governo del mondo all'indebitamento delle nazioni: i segreti delle famiglie più potenti, Arianna Editrice, Bologna [it]. 2015
William Verity: The Rise of the Rothschilds – "History Today" (April 19680, Vol. 18 Issue 4, p225-233. covers 1770 to 1839.
Documentary film
The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World – The early history of the Rothschild's family business feature in the second of a four-part series by Niall Ferguson aired on Channel Four
External links
History
Rothschild Archive
The article of "Rothschild" in Jewish Encyclopedia
Foundations
The Edmond de Rothschild Foundations
The Rothschild Foundation
American bankers
American people of German-Jewish descent
American real estate businesspeople
Austrian bankers
Banking families
Business families of the United States
English bankers
French bankers
German bankers
History of banking
Italian bankers
Jewish-American families
American philanthropists
Jewish-German families
Swiss bankers
Free City of Frankfurt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023%20Tour%20de%20France
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2023 Tour de France
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2023 Tour de France
The 2023 Tour de France was the 110th edition of the Tour de France. It started in Bilbao, Spain, on 1 July and ended with the final stage at Champs-Élysées, Paris, on 23 July.
Defending champion Jonas Vingegaard won the general classification for the second year in a row. Two-time champion Tadej Pogačar finished in second place, with Adam Yates (UAE Team Emirates) finishing third.
The race began in Bilbao in the Basque Country before returning to France. The first two weeks of the race was closely fought between Vingegaard and Pogačar, with just 10 seconds between the riders by the end of the second week. The decisive stages were the individual time trial on stage 16 where Vingegaard won by 1 minute 38 seconds ahead of Pogačar, and the subsequent stage in the Alps where Vingegaard extended his lead to over seven minutes. Vingegaard won the Tour for the second year running, putting him equal on Tour wins with his rival Pogačar. His winning margin of 7 minutes 29 seconds was the largest since 2014.
The points classification was won by Jasper Philipsen for the first time. The mountains classification was won by Giulio Ciccone, the first Italian to achieve this feat since 1992. The young rider classification was won by Pogačar for the fourth year in a row, and the team of won the team classification. Victor Campenaerts was chosen as the most combative rider.
The race was followed by the second edition of the Tour de France Femmes, which held its first stage on the final day of the men's Tour.
Teams
22 teams took part in the race. All 18 UCI WorldTeams were automatically invited. They were joined by 4 UCI ProTeams: the two highest placed UCI ProTeams in 2022 (and ), along with and who were selected by Amaury Sport Organisation (ASO), the organisers of the Tour. The teams were announced on 4 January 2023.
UCI WorldTeams
UCI ProTeams
Route and stages
In January 2022, Amaury Sport Organisation announced that the Basque Country in Spain would host the Grand Départ, with the first stage in Bilbao. It was the second time that the Basque Country hosted the Tour's start, following the 1992 edition. In October 2022, the full route was announced by Christian Prudhomme.
The race began in Bilbao, next to the Guggenheim Museum, before crossing into France on stage 3. After two stages in the Pyrenees, the Tour returned to the Puy de Dôme for the first time since 1988 at the end of the first week. After the first rest day, the race crossed over the Massif Central into the Alps, with stage 13 on Bastille Day ending with a summit finish on the Col du Grand Colombier. Another summit finish followed two stages later, this time at Saint-Gervais-les-Bains. Following the second rest day, stage 16 was the only individual time trial of the race, at in length. Stage 17 in the Alps featured the most amount of climbing, with over on the way to Courchevel. Two transitional stages led to the penultimate day, ending at Le Markstein in the Vosges, before a transfer for the ceremonial final stage in Paris.
The first week of the Tour was described by French rider Romain Bardet as "most difficult [...] that ever existed", featuring a large number of high-mountain climbs and offering up the possibility of significant time differences between the general classification contenders. The route was considered to favour climbers, with one short, uphill time trial on stage 16.
Pre-race favourites
The 2023 Tour de France was generally expected to be a two-way fight between defending champion Jonas Vingegaard and two-time winner Tadej Pogačar. Both had finished in first and second place respectively the year before, with the positions reversed in 2021. The pair had raced against one another early in the season at Paris–Nice, a race won by Pogačar, while Vingegaard finished third. Vingegaard's form then picked up as the season progressed. He won three stages and the overall classification at the Tour of the Basque Country in April. At the Critérium du Dauphiné, the most important preparation event for the Tour, he won two stages and won the general classification by the biggest margin since 1993. Pogačar meanwhile enjoyed a very successful spring campaign, winning the Tour of Flanders, the Amstel Gold Race, and La Flèche Wallonne. He also came fourth at Milan–San Remo and third at the E3 Saxo Classic. A crash and subsequent injury at Liège–Bastogne–Liège then interrupted his season.
Behind Vingegaard and Pogačar, the best chances at overall victory were given to 2022 Giro d'Italia winner Jai Hindley. His best result in the run-up to the Tour was fourth overall at the Critérium du Dauphiné. Other riders named as possible favourites were Mikel Landa, Enric Mas, David Gaudu, former Giro d'Italia winner Richard Carapaz, Ben O'Connor, and Romain Bardet. Following his victory at the Tour de Suisse, the name of Mattias Skjelmose was also added to the list of potential favourites. Also named, albeit with even lower chances of victory, were Adam Yates, his brother Simon Yates, Daniel Martínez, Tom Pidcock (both ), and Giulio Ciccone. Egan Bernal, the winner of the 2019 Tour de France, was not given big chances to win overall, since he was still recovering from a life-threatening crash the year before, even though he performed well at the Critérium du Dauphiné.
Four-time winner Chris Froome, who had so far not managed to reach his previous form after a serious accident in 2019, was left off his team's Tour roster. The most notable absentees from the race were a quartet of general classification favourites and former Grand Tour winners who chose to prioritise the 2023 Giro d'Italia, which featured more time trial kilometres than the Tour in 2023, which suited some of these riders. Those four were eventual Giro winner Primož Roglič, 2018 Tour winner Geraint Thomas and two who left the Giro through illness and injury when highly placed, 2020 Giro winner Tao Geoghegan Hart and incumbent World Champion and Vuelta a España winner Remco Evenepoel.
Several riders were seen as possible favourites for victories on stages ending in bunch sprints and therefore for the points classification, which is won based on points collected by high placings on individual stages and awards a green jersey. Mark Cavendish returned for his last Tour de France and was chasing the record for most stage wins by any rider, starting the Tour on an equal number of 34 with Eddy Merckx. A stage win at the Giro d'Italia proved that Cavendish was still a strong sprinter, even at the age of 38. Due to strong performances so far in the season, the best chances at multiple sprint stage wins were given to Jasper Philipsen. Other favourites in this category included Dylan Groenewegen, and Fabio Jakobsen. Riders who could excel both in sprints and on more hilly terrain, and therefore would be candidates for the points classification as well, were defending green jersey winner Wout van Aert, former world champion Mads Pedersen, Mathieu van der Poel, and Biniam Girmay.
Race overview
Grand Départ and Week One
The first stage around Bilbao in the Basque Country saw a crash of several riders, which ultimately forced two pre-race favourites, Carapaz and Mas, to abandon. The race broke into several groups over the two final climbs of the day, with identical twins Simon and Adam Yates breaking away from a select group on the final ascent. The pair held their advantage to the finish, with Adam Yates taking the stage win and the first leader's yellow jersey ahead of his brother. Pogačar won the sprint in the group behind to finish third, and Neilson Powless took the lead in the mountains classification. Stage 2 featured the climb of the Jaizkibel, prominently used in the race Clásica de San Sebastián later in the season. On the climb, a select group of favourites emerged ahead of the peloton, with Pogačar taking eight bonus seconds available at the summit ahead of Vingegaard. Victor Lafay broke clear of the leading group within the final kilometre of the stage and managed to keep his advantage to win the stage ahead of van Aert, while Yates retained the yellow jersey.
Jasper Philipsen won the following two, relatively flat, stages from bunch sprints. On stage 3 into Bayonne, he came in ahead of Phil Bauhaus, following a strong lead-out by teammate Mathieu van der Poel. Yates remained in the leader's jersey while Powless collected more points for the mountains classification as part of the breakaway. Philipsen then won ahead of Caleb Ewan and Bauhaus at the finish of stage 4, which ended at the Circuit Paul Armagnac in Nogaro. The final part of the stage was marred by several crashes, including Fabio Jakobsen, while Yates retained the yellow jersey for another day. Following two hard opening days and with the high mountains of the Pyrenees to come the day after, the field was taking a slow tempo during stage 4, with no breakaway forming until into the race. This led to criticism, with some, such as stage winner Philipsen, describing it as "the most boring Tour de France stage for a long time".
On stage 5, the first mountain stage in the Pyrenees, a 36-man breakaway containing multiple pre-race favourites including Jai Hindley escaped from the bunch and established a stable advantage. The maximum lead of the group over the field was four minutes and was still at 2:30 minutes as it began the ascent of the final climb of the day, the Col de Marie-Blanque. Hindley dropped the remaining breakaway riders and rode alone over the top of the climb and into the finish in Laruns to win the stage, taking the lead in the general classification. Felix Gall had gained enough points during the stage to go into the lead of the mountains classification. Behind in the group of favourites, Vingegaard attacked from the summit of the Marie-Blanque and managed to distance Pogačar. Catching up to several breakaway riders, Vingegaard finished fifth on the day, 34 seconds behind Hindley. Pogačar opted to wait for distanced teammate Adam Yates to try to limit his losses, but eventually arrived at the finish 1:04 minutes behind Vingegaard, dropping to sixth place overall. With him came in other favourites such as Gaudu, Martinez, Rodriguez, and the Yates brothers. Meanwhile, Ben O'Connor and Romain Bardet lost 1:57 minutes to Hindley.
On stage 6, Vingegaard employed similar tactics to stage 5, outdistancing Hindley, but was unable to answer Pogačar's attack from the finish line; Pogačar won the stage and narrowed Vingegaard's general-classification lead over him to 25 seconds, while Vingegaard took the yellow jersey and second place on the stage. The seventh stage, another flat stage ending in a bunch sprint, was won by Philipsen again, narrowly beating Mark Cavendish, whose bicycle gears slipped within metres of the finish line, slowing his momentum. Stage 8 put an end to Cavendish's attempt to break the record for most stage wins, as an injury sustained in a crash forced him to abandon the Tour; the stage was won in a sprint by Mads Pedersen. In stage 9, a 14-man breakaway emerged early; late in the stage, Matteo Jorgenson broke away from the breakaway and led the race alone for most of the last before being overtaken in the last by Michael Woods, who won the stage at the top of the Puy de Dôme. Vingegaard retained the yellow jersey, but lost time to Pogačar, who crossed the finish line eight seconds ahead of him.
Week Two
After the first rest day, stage 10 had a chaotic beginning, with many groups of riders—at one point including Vingegaard and Pogačar—attempting to break away before being caught by the peloton; a stable breakaway emerged around the halfway point of the stage. Krists Neilands attacked the breakaway group and was solo leader for much of the last section of the stage, but was eventually caught by other breakaway riders including Pello Bilbao, who went on to win the stage. Bilbao dedicated his victory to his late teammate Gino Mäder, who had died after a crash in the Tour de Suisse the previous month. Jasper Philipsen took his fourth stage-win of the Tour in a sprint on the eleventh stage to Moulins. In the twelfth stage, Ion Izagirre of the Cofidis team came in first after he escaped solo in the last towards Belleville en Beaujolais. Michał Kwiatkowski won stage 13 after breaking away on his own from the finish at the top of the Grand Colombier. Pogačar cut Vingegaard's lead to nine seconds.
In the fourteenth stage, an early 13-rider crash led race officials to suspend the stage for 30 minutes and caused several riders to abandon the Tour. On the climb to the Col de Joux Plane, Pogačar and Vingegaard led the stage. Pogačar attacked about from the top of the climb, but Vingegaard recovered and caught up with him; Pogačar's next attack was obstructed by media motorcycles crowding the road. Carlos Rodríguez caught Vingegaard and Pogačar during the final descent and went on to win the stage, moving one second ahead of Jai Hindley into third place overall. Wout Poels soloed to victory in stage 15 after he broke away from the finish line on the penultimate climb of the Côtes des Amerands. It was his first Tour de France stage win after years as a super-domestique.
Week Three
The third week began with a time trial of 22.4 km between Passy and Combloux in which Pogačar aimed to reverse the 10 second lead of Vingegaard, but the latter won stage 16 decisively and widened his lead to 1 minute and 48 seconds. Pogačar came in second, over a minute ahead of Vingegaard's teammate van Aert, while Adam Yates moved into third place in the general classification, ahead of Rodriguez. On stage 17, which was a mountainous one, a fierce counter-attack from Pogačar was expected. However, Pogačar needed assistance from his teammate Marc Soler in the climb towards the Col de la Loze and lost further time to Vingegaard, who widened the lead to more than seven minutes in a stage won by Gall.
Kasper Asgreen held off the competition to win the eighteenth stage, which entered the Rhone valley. Meanwhile, van Aert left the race to be with his wife, who was about to give birth. On stage 19, Matej Mohorič won by the width of a rim to beat Asgreen in a photo finish in Poligny. After winning the stage, Mohorič, during an emotional interview on the difficulty of professional cycling, paid tribute to his late teammate Gino Mäder, who died in a crash at in the Tour de Suisse in June. In the twentieth stage, Thibaut Pinot, in his last Tour before retirement, attacked the breakaway and was solo leader at the top of the Petit Ballon, which was lined by thousands of fans cheering him on. He was overtaken and dropped by the race leaders on the ascent to the Col du Platzerwasel, and Pogačar won the stage ahead of Gall and his tour rival Vingegaard. In the same stage, the Italian Giulio Ciccone sealed the victory for the mountain classification. He is the first Italian to achieve this feat since Claudio Chiappucci in 1992.
The final stage was traditionally calm and the Belgian Jordi Meeus won just ahead of his compatriot Philipsen, Groenewegen, and Pedersen. Philipsen won the green jersey of the points classification for the first time in his career. Vingegaard crossed the finish line at the Champs-Élysées arm in arm with his teammates, finishing 7:29 minutes ahead of Pogačar and 10:56 minutes ahead of Adam Yates to win the Tour de France for the second straight year. His winning margin of 7 minutes 29 seconds was the largest since 2014. Vingegaard's Team Jumbo–Visma won the teams classification. Victor Campenaerts was chosen as the most combative rider. Runner up Pogačar won the white jersey of the young rider classification for the fourth year in a row.
Classification leadership
Classification standings
General classification
Points classification
Mountains classification
Young rider classification
Team classification
References
External links
2023 in Spanish sport
2023 in French sport
2023 in road cycling
2023 UCI World Tour
July 2023 sports events in France
2023
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%20FIFA%20Women%27s%20World%20Cup
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2007 FIFA Women's World Cup
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2007 FIFA Women's World Cup
The 2007 FIFA Women's World Cup, the fifth edition of the FIFA Women's World Cup, was an international football competition for women held in China from 10 to 30 September 2007. Originally, China was to host the 2003 edition, but the outbreak of SARS in that country forced that event to be moved to the United States. FIFA immediately granted the 2007 event to China, which meant that no new host nation was chosen competitively until the voting was held for the 2011 Women's World Cup.
The tournament opened with a record-breaking match in Shanghai, as Germany beat Argentina 11–0 to register the biggest win and the highest scoring match in Women's World Cup history, records which stood until 2019. The tournament ended with Germany defeating Brazil 2–0 in the final, having never surrendered a goal in the entire tournament. The Germans became the first national team in FIFA Women's World Cup history to retain their title.
The golden goal rule for extra time in knockout matches was eliminated by FIFA, although no matches went to extra time (and therefore, none required a penalty shootout).
Teams
The qualified teams, listed by region, with numbers in parentheses indicating final positions in the FIFA Women's World Ranking before the tournament were:
Venues
The venues selected to host the competition were:
Squads
Match officials
FIFA's Refereeing Department selected 14 referees and 22 assistant referees from around the world to officiate the 32 games that made up the final tournament. Candidate referees for the tournament were placed under scrutiny from 2005 onwards and attended a series of training camps. Candidates refereeing standards were regularly monitored at various tournaments around the globe before a final list was prepared. This was followed by a training camp in the Canary Islands in January 2007 and a final period of preparation and training at the home of FIFA in Zürich in May. No referees were chosen from the Oceania Football Confederation at the finals. The original selection group was made up of 42 entrants, 6 of which failed fitness tests resulting in the final group of 36 being confirmed for China. The United States was the only country represented by two referees.
Unlike the men's tournaments, the quartets of match officials do not necessarily come from the same country or confederation. This selection system was explained by Sonia Denoncourt, the head of women's refereeing at FIFA's Refereeing Department, "We don't have as many referees among the women and we certainly don't want to sacrifice quality. What we are looking for above all is compatibility on the field of play and the closest possible language links in the team selected for each game. The most important thing for us is that the referees have a good performance in the match." A fourth official was chosen from those referees not officiating a game at that time.
The referees stayed together throughout the competition at their hotel base in Shanghai. From there they travelled to the various venues for their designated games, before returning to base camp to continue with their specialised training programmes. As well as fitness training, they attended regular theory sessions and reviewed previous matches to try to identify possible errors and improve their performance levels. A psychologist was also assigned to the group to help with their mental preparations ahead of games.
Draw
The group draw took place on 22 April 2007 at the Guanggu Science and Technology Exhibition Centre in Wuhan after the completion of the qualifying rounds.
FIFA automatically seeded the host and defending champions, slotting China and Germany into Group D and Group A, respectively. The FIFA Women's World Ranking for March 2007 was used to determine the teams to occupy the other seeded positions, B1 and C1. United States were ranked first, Germany second and Norway third, so the United States and Norway were also seeded.
Also, no two teams from the same confederation could draw each other, except for those from UEFA, where a maximum of two teams from UEFA could be drawn into the same group. Group B quickly became dubbed the group of death since three of the top five teams in the world were drawn in this group – the USA (1st), Sweden (3rd) and North Korea (5th), according to the June 2007 FIFA Women's World Rankings, the last to be released before the tournament. The same four teams were drawn together in Group A in the 2003 FIFA Women's World Cup, on that occasion the US and Sweden progressed to the knockout stages.
Group stage
All times are local (UTC+8).
Group A
Group B
The four teams were also paired in the same group in 2003.
Group C
Group D
Knockout stage
Bracket
Quarter-finals
Semi-finals
Third place play-off
Final
Awards
The following awards were given at the conclusion of the tournament. FIFA.com shortlisted ten goals for users to vote on as the Goal of the Tournament. The Most Entertaining Team award was also decided by a poll on FIFA.com.
All-Star Team
Statistics
Goalscorers
Assists
Tournament ranking
Marketing
Sponsorships
Source:
Coverage
Numerous TV stations around the world provided coverage of the tournament. One notable example is the Chinese-language channel CCTV-5, which also broadcast over the internet via TVUnetworks.
Monetary rewards
For the first time in FIFA Women's World Cup history, all teams received monetary bonuses according to the round they reached (all in USD):
Champions: $1,000,000
Runners-up: $800,000
Third place: $650,000
Fourth place: $550,000
Quarter-finalists: $300,000
First round exit: $200,000
Other rewards
UEFA used the FIFA Women's World Cup as its qualifying tournament for the 2008 Olympic women's tournament. The best three performing UEFA teams would qualify for the Olympics. Originally it was thought that, should England make the top three European teams, they would compete under the United Kingdom banner. However, on 6 September 2007, FIFA issued a press release indicating that England were ineligible to participate in the 2008 Olympics as England does not have its own Olympic Committee.
For the determination of the ranking only first through fourth place, quarterfinal elimination or group phase elimination counted. If there was a need to make a distinction between teams eliminated in the quarterfinal or between teams eliminated in the group phase these teams would meet in a play-off match. In no case would the points or goal difference count for teams eliminated before the semi-final.
Germany and Norway qualified for the Olympics at the World Cup, whereas Denmark and Sweden had to enter a play-off for the third Olympics spot. Sweden won both legs of the playoffs with a total of 7–3 on aggregate to qualify for the Olympics.
Controversies
Kenneth Heiner-Møller and Danish players accused the Chinese hosts of harassment and covert surveillance prior to China's first round match against Denmark. China's Swedish coach Marika Domanski-Lyfors and her assistant Pia Sundhage were unaware of the incidents and Heiner-Møller absolved them of any blame, although he refused to shake hands after the match.
Notes
References
External links
FIFA Women's World Cup China 2007, FIFA.com
FIFA Technical Report
Photos: FIFA Women's World Cup China 2007 on Time.com
2007 in Chinese football
FIFA Women's World Cup tournaments
International women's association football competitions hosted by China
FIFA
September 2007 sports events in Asia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso%20Pedraza
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Alfonso Pedraza
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Alfonso Pedraza Sag (born 9 April 1996) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a left-back or left winger for La Liga club Villarreal and the Spain national team.
Formed at Villarreal, he went on to play as a senior for that club as well as Lugo, Leeds United, Alavés and Betis. He won the 2020–21 Europa League with Villarreal.
Pedraza won the 2019 European Under-21 Championship with Spain. He made his full debut in 2023.
Club career
Born in San Sebastián de los Ballesteros, Córdoba, Andalusia, Pedraza joined Villarreal CF's youth setup in 2011 at the age of 15, after starting out at Séneca CF. In January 2015, he was promoted to the former's C team in the Tercera División.
Pedraza made his Segunda División B debut on 11 January 2015, appearing as a second-half substitute for the reserves in a 2–2 away draw against CF Reus Deportiu. He scored his first goal on 1 March, the game's only in a home victory over CD Atlético Baleares.
On 5 April 2015, after being already a regular with the B's and being called up to the main squad by manager Marcelino García Toral, Pedraza made his professional – and La Liga – debut, replacing Jonathan dos Santos in the 72nd minute of a 0–0 draw at Valencia CF. On 28 July 2016, he was loaned to Segunda División side CD Lugo for one year, scoring his first professional goal on 21 August by netting the first in a 2–2 away draw with Gimnàstic de Tarragona. He ended the season with six successful strikes and eight assists, helping to a final ninth position.
On 31 January 2017, Pedraza joined Leeds United on loan until the end of the campaign, with Villarreal paying Lugo £300,000 in order to cancel his contract with them – the deal with the English side included an option to buy for £8.5 million in May, provided they won promotion from the EFL Championship. After featuring from the bench in his debut, a 2–1 loss at Huddersfield Town, he scored his first goal on 3 March in a 3–1 away win over Birmingham City; as the team could only rank seventh, he returned to the Estadio de la Cerámica.
On 5 July 2017, still owned by Villarreal, Pedraza signed with Deportivo Alavés for one year with a buyout clause. He scored his first goal in the Spanish top flight on 21 January 2018, putting the hosts ahead 2–0 in an eventual 2–2 home draw against CD Leganés.
Upon returning from loan, Pedraza was regularly deployed as a left-back by manager Javier Calleja, and was definitely included in Villarreal's first team. On 4 November 2018, he scored his first goal for the club to earn a 1–1 home draw against Levante UD in local derby. The following 14 February, he scored the only goal after three minutes in a win at Sporting CP in the last 32 of the UEFA Europa League.
On 16 July 2019, Pedraza moved to Real Betis on a one-year loan, with an option to make the deal permanent at the end of the season. From December to March, he suffered from muscular and Achilles tendon injuries. His only goal for the Seville-based side came on 8 July 2020 in a 3–0 home win over CA Osasuna that ensured another season in the top flight; on 24 September he extended his contract until 2025, after having his role in the team guaranteed by new manager Unai Emery.
International career
In 2015, Pedraza was part of the Spain under-19 squad that won the UEFA European Championship. He earned his first cap for the under-21s on 24 March 2016 of the following year, coming on for Dani Ceballos early in the second half of an eventual 0–3 home loss against Croatia in the 2017 European Championship qualifiers. In the 2019 edition of the latter tournament, he appeared in the 2–1 group-stage win over Belgium for the eventual champions.
Pedraza made his full debut on 15 October 2023, playing ten minutes as a left winger in the 1–0 victory in Norway for the UEFA Euro 2024 qualifying phase after replacing Ferran Torres.
Style of play
Pedraza played mainly as a left winger, but could also operate on the opposite flank cutting inside or as a forward. His style of play was compared to Gareth Bale due to his speed running with the ball, as well as his strength and ability to take on defenders.
Spanish football expert Guillem Balagué described Pedraza upon signing for Leeds: "It’s one of the most exciting transfers of the winter... He’s a 20-year-old, he mirrors himself on Denis Cheryshev – a winger who goes forward and works really hard. And he’s a goalscorer".
Career statistics
Club
Honours
Villarreal
UEFA Europa League: 2020–21
Spain U19
UEFA European Under-19 Championship: 2015
Spain U21
UEFA European Under-21 Championship: 2019
Individual
UEFA Europa League Squad of the Season: 2020–21
References
External links
1996 births
Living people
Spanish men's footballers
Footballers from the Province of Córdoba (Spain)
Men's association football fullbacks
Men's association football wingers
La Liga players
Segunda División players
Segunda División B players
Tercera División players
Villarreal CF C players
Villarreal CF B players
Villarreal CF players
CD Lugo players
Deportivo Alavés players
Real Betis players
English Football League players
Leeds United F.C. players
UEFA Europa League winning players
Spain men's youth international footballers
Spain men's under-21 international footballers
Spain men's international footballers
Spanish expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in England
Spanish expatriate sportspeople in England
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rison%2C%20Arkansas
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Rison, Arkansas
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Rison, Arkansas
Rison, officially the City of Rison, is a city in and the county seat of Cleveland County, Arkansas, United States. Its population was 1,344 at the 2010 U.S. census. It is included in the Pine Bluff, Arkansas Metropolitan Statistical Area. Rison is a bedroom community for people who work in Pine Bluff (in neighboring Jefferson County). The largest employers are the city and county governments, the Cleveland County School District, the Cleveland County Nursing Home. There are two banks, eight churches, and about forty-five businesses within the city limits. Among the local properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places are the Rison Cities Service Station and the Rison Texaco Service Station.
History
The Texas and St. Louis Railroad gave rise to Rison. The county seat of Dorsey County (present day Cleveland County) was originally Toledo. When the railroad was routed through the county in 1882, Rison did not exist. Samuel Fordyce of Huntsville, Alabama, a former Union army officer, was authorized to determine the route of the railroad from Texarkana to Birds Point, Missouri. According to unsubstantiated legend, when the leading citizens of Toledo snubbed his plans to route the railroad through that community, Fordyce planned a route three miles north and built a station through land that would later become Rison.
Fordyce named the new station for William Rison, his former business partner in a banking venture in Alabama, who had fought on the opposite side of the Civil War. The first home erected in the community the small settlement that grew up around the new station was built in 1880 by lawyer and farmer James McMurtrey. In 1883, the Southwest Improvement Association, a subsidiary of the railroad company, presented a parcel of land for use by the inhabitants of the area that became Rison. The settlement was incorporated on August 26, 1890, with J. T. Renfrow as mayor. The name of the county was changed from Dorsey to Cleveland in 1885; the popularity of U.S. Senator Stephen Dorsey had waned, and President Grover Cleveland's name was substituted. The Arkansas Supreme Court relocated the county seat from Toledo to Rison in 1891 after a spirited battle among the leading contenders, Toledo, Kingsland, and Rison.
The railroad remained Rison's point of reference for decades. “Rison on the Cotton Belt” was the affectionate way residents referred to their community. The commercial value of the railroad was felt from the beginning. The economy depended on the production of cotton, lumber, and, ultimately, a wide variety of wood products, including pulpwood, piling, pallets, broom handle squares, ammunition boxes, and Army pup tent poles.
The financial make-up of the community was divided for several decades into owners and sharecroppers. The emergence of the timber-related wood products business ultimately skewed that economic picture, with the corresponding rise of the merchant entrepreneurs also affecting it somewhat. Nevertheless, family fortunes were built on the owner/sharecropper system, and they influenced the financial and social structure of the town. Sharecropping was the prevailing structure of the primary business enterprise in the county until the land became depleted by failure to rotate crops adequately.
The Cleveland County Courthouse was built in 1911 after two contested elections. Two years later, the Phoenix Hotel was built and served as a popular gathering spot for the local community.
Three cotton gins operated in and around Rison. The largest and most efficient gin was owned by Ira E. Moore. That gin was built in 1933 to replace one owned by Moore that was built in 1926 and burned in 1933. The more modern and efficient all-electric gin built in 1933 was the first of its kind in the area.
Residents of Rison owned and operated a dozen or more sawmills. The largest lumber mills were the J. I. Porter Lumber Company and the Clio Lumber Company. The Clio mill was built in 1887 five miles north of Rison. According to a 1909 issue of Lumberman's Magazine, the Clio mill owned several thousand acres of timberland and had 432 employees in the sawmill, 130 on the woods crew, and eighty operating the tramlines that transported the logs to the mill. Other mills that added significantly to the economy were the J. L. Sadler Lumber Company, the C. L. Garner & Sons Lumber Company, and the Elrod Lumber Company. In the 1950s, Elrod employed about one-third of Rison's population, more than 300.
During World War II, many Rison residents secured war-related jobs in nearby towns. These included the Pine Bluff Arsenal (Jefferson County) and the Naval Ammunition Depot at Camden (Ouachita County). Others went to California to work in the shipbuilding industry. The Rison high school's football program was suspended until the end of the war due to a lack of players and coaches, as well as financial constraints. One of Rison's citizens, Airman Roy Martin, was shot down over occupied France and classified as missing in action. The French underground secured his freedom by hiding him in attics, barns, and other places not known to the German occupying forces. When the news of Martin's survival reached Rison, a wild celebration broke out in streets and homes.
Geography
Rison is located in north-central Cleveland County. U.S. Route 79 passes through the western side of the city, leading northeast to Pine Bluff and southwest to Fordyce.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , all land.
Demographics
2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 967 people, 498 households, and 297 families residing in the city.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,271 people, 471 households, and 324 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 532 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 62.23% White, 33.36% Black or African American, 0.31% Native American, 0.24% Asian, 1.73% from other races, and 2.12% from two or more races. 2.20% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 471 households, out of which 36.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.0% were married couples living together, 19.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.2% were non-families. 30.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.16.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 29.3% under the age of 18, 6.8% from 18 to 24, 25.3% from 25 to 44, 19.6% from 45 to 64, and 19.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 79.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 75.2 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $20,865, and the median income for a family was $30,833. Males had a median income of $26,500 versus $18,229 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,106. About 25.6% of families and 32.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 46.0% of those under age 18 and 30.5% of those age 65 or over.
Education
Public education for early childhood, elementary and secondary school students in the city limits of Rison is provided by the Cleveland County School District, which is headquartered in Rison. Students graduate from Rison High School. The district was established by the July 1, 2004, consolidation of the Rison School District and the Kingsland School District.
Notable people
Jeremy James, singer/songwriter originally from Rison
Tyrell Johnson, NFL player for the Minnesota Vikings
Jerry Taylor, Arkansas legislator and businessman
Buddy Turner, Arkansas legislator
Ed Wilson, Arkansas Entertainers Hall of Fame
References
External links
1883 establishments in Arkansas
Cities in Arkansas
Cities in Cleveland County, Arkansas
County seats in Arkansas
Cities in Pine Bluff metropolitan area
Populated places established in 1883
Railway towns in Arkansas
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Список лускокрилих Фінляндії
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Список лускокрилих Фінляндії
До списку лускокрилих Фінляндії віднесені денні метелики і молі, що були зареєстровані у Фінляндії.
Згідно з останніми оцінками, існує 2431 вид лускокрилих із 67 родин, що трапляються на території Фінляндії.
Денні метелики
Головчаки (Hesperiidae)
Heteropterinae
Carterocephalus palaemon
Carterocephalus silvicola
Heteropterus morpheus
Hesperiinae
Hesperia comma
Ochlodes sylvanus (Esper, 1777) — Головчак жилкуватий
Thymelicus lineola
Pyrginae
Pyrgus alveus
Pyrgus andromedae
Pyrgus centaureae
Pyrgus malvae
Синявцеві (Lycaenidae)
Lycaeninae
Lycaena dispar
Lycaena helle
Lycaena hippothoe
Lycaena phlaeas
Lycaena tityrus
Lycaena virgaureae
Polyommatinae
Celastrina argiolus
Cupido alcetas
Cupido argiades
Cupido minimus
Glaucopsyche alexis
Glaucopsyche arion
Plebeius amandus
Plebeius argus
Plebeius artaxerxes
Plebeius glandon aquilo
Plebeius eumedon
Plebeius idas
Plebeius nicias
Plebeius optilete
Polyommatus icarus
Polyommatus semiargus
Polyommatus vicrama
Scolitantides orion
Theclinae
Callophrys rubi
Neozephyrus quercus
Satyrium pruni
Satyrium w-album
Thecla betulae
Сонцевики (Nymphalidae)
Apaturinae
Apatura ilia
Apatura iris (Linnaeus, 1758) — мінливець великий
Heliconiinae
Argynnis laodice
Argynnis adippe
Argynnis aglaja
Argynnis niobe
Argynnis paphia
Boloria aquilonaris
Boloria chariclea
Boloria freija
Boloria frigga
Boloria eunomia
Boloria euphrosyne
Boloria improba — перлівець арктичний
Boloria napaea
Boloria polaris
Boloria selene
Boloria thore
Boloria titania
Brenthis ino
Issoria lathonia
Limenitidinae
Limenitis camilla
Limenitis populi (Linnaeus, 1758) — Стрічкарка тополева
Nymphalinae
Araschnia levana
Euphydryas aurinia
Euphydryas ichnea
Euphydryas iduna
Euphydryas maturna
Melitaea athalia
Melitaea cinxia
Melitaea diamina
Nymphalis antiopa(Linnaeus, 1758) — Жалібниця
Nymphalis c-album
Nymphalis io(Linnaeus, 1758) — Сонцевик павиче око
Nymphalis polychloros (Linnaeus, 1758) — Бараниця грушева
Nymphalis urticae (Linnaeus, 1758) — Сонцевик кропив'яний
Nymphalis vaualbum
Nymphalis xanthomelas
Vanessa atalanta (Linnaeus, 1758) — Сонцевик адмірал
Vanessa cardui (Linnaeus, 1758) — Сонцевик будяковий
Satyrinae
Hipparchia semele
Pararge achine
Pararge petropolitana
Pararge megera
Pararge maera
Pararge aegeria tircis
Hyponephele lycaon
Aphantopus hyperantus
Maniola jurtina
Coenonympha glycerion
Coenonympha pamphilus
Coenonympha hero (Linnaeus, 1761) — Сінниця Геро
Coenonympha tullia
Erebia euryale euryaloides
Erebia disa
Erebia pandrose
Erebia ligea
Erebia medusa polaris
Erebia embla
Oeneis bore
Oeneis jutta
Oeneis norna
Косатцеві (Papilionidae)
Papilioninae
Iphiclides podalirius (Linnaeus, 1758) — Подалірій
Papilio machaon Linnaeus, 1758 — Махаон
Parnassiinae
Parnassius apollo (Linnaeus, 1758) — Аполлон
Parnassius mnemosyne (Linnaeus, 1758) — Мнемозина
Біланові (Pieridae)
Coliadinae
Colias crocea
Colias hecla sulitelma
Colias hyale
Colias palaeno (Linnaeus, 1761) — Жовтюх торфовищний
Colias tyche werdandi
Gonepteryx rhamni (Linnaeus, 1758) — Цитринець
Dismorphiinae
Leptidea juvernica
Leptidea sinapis
Pierinae
Anthocharis cardamines — Зоряниця Аврора
Aporia crataegi (Linnaeus, 1758) — Білан жилкуватий
Euchloe ausonia
Pieris brassicae (Linnaeus, 1758) — Білан капустяний
Pieris napi
Pieris rapae (Linnaeus, 1758) — Білан ріпаковий
Pontia callidice
Pontia chloridice
Pontia daplidice
Молі
Adelidae
Adela croesella (Scopoli, 1763)
Adela cuprella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Cauchas breviantennella Nielsen & Johansson, 1980
Cauchas fibulella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Cauchas rufimitrella (Scopoli, 1763)
Nematopogon magna (Zeller, 1878)
Nematopogon metaxella (Hübner, 1813)
Nematopogon pilella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Nematopogon robertella (Clerck, 1759)
Nematopogon schwarziellus Zeller, 1839
Nematopogon swammerdamella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Nemophora amatella (Staudinger, 1892)
Nemophora bellela (Walker, 1863)
Nemophora cupriacella (Hübner, 1819)
Nemophora degeerella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Nemophora metallica (Poda, 1761)
Alucitidae
Alucita hexadactyla Linnaeus, 1758
Pterotopteryx dodecadactyla Hübner, 1813
Argyresthiidae
Argyresthia abdominalis Zeller, 1839
Argyresthia albistria (Haworth, 1828)
Argyresthia aurulentella Stainton, 1849
Argyresthia bonnetella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Argyresthia brockeella (Hübner, 1813)
Argyresthia conjugella Zeller, 1839
Argyresthia curvella (Linnaeus, 1761)
Argyresthia glaucinella Zeller, 1839
Argyresthia goedartella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Argyresthia pruniella (Clerck, 1759)
Argyresthia pulchella Lienig & Zeller, 1846
Argyresthia pygmaeella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Argyresthia retinella Zeller, 1839
Argyresthia semifusca (Haworth, 1828)
Argyresthia sorbiella (Treitschke, 1833)
Argyresthia spinosella Stainton, 1849
Argyresthia submontana Frey, 1871
Argyresthia arceuthina Zeller, 1839
Argyresthia bergiella (Ratzeburg, 1840)
Argyresthia dilectella Zeller, 1847
Argyresthia glabratella (Zeller, 1847)
Argyresthia laevigatella Herrich-Schäffer, 1855
Argyresthia praecocella Zeller, 1839
Autostichidae
Oegoconia deauratella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)
Batrachedridae
Batrachedra pinicolella (Zeller, 1839)
Batrachedra praeangusta (Haworth, 1828)
Bedelliidae
Bedellia somnulentella (Zeller, 1847)
Blastobasidae
Asaphocrita obsoletella (Krogerus, 1947)
Hypatopa binotella (Thunberg, 1794)
Hypatopa inunctella Zeller, 1839
Hypatopa segnella (Zeller, 1873)
Брамеї (Brahmaeidae)
Lemonia dumi (Linnaeus, 1761)
Bucculatricidae
Bucculatrix albedinella (Zeller, 1839)
Bucculatrix argentisignella Herrich-Schäffer, 1855
Bucculatrix artemisiella Herrich-Schäffer, 1855
Bucculatrix bechsteinella (Bechstein & Scharfenberg, 1805)
Bucculatrix cidarella (Zeller, 1839)
Bucculatrix cristatella (Zeller, 1839)
Bucculatrix demaryella (Duponchel, 1840)
Bucculatrix frangutella (Goeze, 1783)
Bucculatrix humiliella Herrich-Schäffer, 1855
Bucculatrix latviaella Sulcs, 1990
Bucculatrix maritima Stainton, 1851
Bucculatrix nigricomella (Zeller, 1839)
Bucculatrix noltei Petry, 1912
Bucculatrix ratisbonensis Stainton, 1861
Bucculatrix thoracella (Thunberg, 1794)
Bucculatrix ulmella Zeller, 1848
Chimabachidae
Dasystoma salicella (Hübner, 1796)
Diurnea fagella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Diurnea lipsiella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Choreutidae
Anthophila fabriciana (Linnaeus, 1767)
Choreutis diana (Hübner, 1822)
Choreutis pariana (Clerck, 1759)
Prochoreutis myllerana (Fabricius, 1794)
Prochoreutis sehestediana (Fabricius, 1776)
Prochoreutis solaris (Erschoff, 1877)
Prochoreutis ultimana (Krulikovsky, 1909)
Tebenna bjerkandrella (Thunberg, 1784)
Tebenna pretiosana (Duponchel, 1842)
Coleophoridae
Coleophora absinthii Wocke, 1877
Coleophora adelogrammella Zeller, 1849
Coleophora adjunctella Hodgkinson, 1882
Coleophora adspersella Benander, 1939
Coleophora ahenella Heinemann, 1877
Coleophora albella (Thunberg, 1788)
Coleophora albicans Zeller, 1849
Coleophora albidella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Coleophora albitarsella Zeller, 1849
Coleophora alcyonipennella (Kollar, 1832)
Coleophora alnifoliae Barasch, 1934
Coleophora alticolella Zeller, 1849
Coleophora amellivora Baldizzone, 1979
Coleophora anatipenella (Hübner, 1796)
Coleophora antennariella Herrich-Schäffer, 1861
Coleophora arctostaphyli Meder, 1934
Coleophora argentula (Stephens, 1834)
Coleophora artemisicolella Bruand, 1855
Coleophora atriplicis Meyrick, 1928
Coleophora badiipennella (Duponchel, 1843)
Coleophora betulella Heinemann, 1877
Coleophora binderella (Kollar, 1832)
Coleophora boreella Benander, 1939
Coleophora brevipalpella Wocke, 1874
Coleophora caelebipennella Zeller, 1839
Coleophora caespititiella Zeller, 1839
Coleophora carelica Hackman, 1945
Coleophora chrysanthemi Hofmann, 1869
Coleophora clypeiferella Hofmann, 1871
Coleophora colutella (Fabricius, 1794)
Coleophora conspicuella Zeller, 1849
Coleophora conyzae Zeller, 1868
Coleophora cornutella Herrich-Schäffer, 1861
Coleophora deauratella Lienig & Zeller, 1846
Coleophora dianthi Herrich-Schäffer, 1855
Coleophora directella Zeller, 1849
Coleophora discordella Zeller, 1849
Coleophora expressella Klemensiewicz, 1902
Coleophora filaginella Fuchs, 1881
Coleophora flavipennella (Duponchel, 1843)
Coleophora follicularis (Vallot, 1802)
Coleophora frischella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Coleophora fuscocuprella Herrich-Schäffer, 1855
Coleophora gallipennella (Hübner, 1796)
Coleophora gardesanella Toll, 1954
Coleophora glaucicolella Wood, 1892
Coleophora glitzella Hofmann, 1869
Coleophora graminicolella Heinemann, 1876
Coleophora granulatella Zeller, 1849
Coleophora gryphipennella (Hübner, 1796)
Coleophora hackmani (Toll, 1953)
Coleophora hemerobiella (Scopoli, 1763)
Coleophora idaeella Hofmann, 1869
Coleophora inulae Wocke, 1877
Coleophora jaernaensis Bjorklund & Palm, 2002
Coleophora juncicolella Stainton, 1851
Coleophora kuehnella (Goeze, 1783)
Coleophora laricella (Hübner, 1817)
Coleophora lassella Staudinger, 1859
Coleophora ledi Stainton, 1860
Coleophora limosipennella (Duponchel, 1843)
Coleophora lithargyrinella Zeller, 1849
Coleophora lixella Zeller, 1849
Coleophora lusciniaepennella (Treitschke, 1833)
Coleophora lutipennella (Zeller, 1838)
Coleophora mayrella (Hübner, 1813)
Coleophora millefolii Zeller, 1849
Coleophora milvipennis Zeller, 1839
Coleophora murinella Tengstrom, 1848
Coleophora nutantella Muhlig & Frey, 1857
Coleophora obscuripalpella Kanerva, 1941
Coleophora orbitella Zeller, 1849
Coleophora otidipennella (Hübner, 1817)
Coleophora pappiferella Hofmann, 1869
Coleophora paripennella Zeller, 1839
Coleophora partitella Zeller, 1849
Coleophora peribenanderi Toll, 1943
Coleophora plumbella Kanerva, 1941
Coleophora potentillae Elisha, 1885
Coleophora pyrrhulipennella Zeller, 1839
Coleophora ramosella Zeller, 1849
Coleophora salicorniae Heinemann & Wocke, 1877
Coleophora saxicolella (Duponchel, 1843)
Coleophora serratella (Linnaeus, 1761)
Coleophora sibiricella Falkovitsh, 1972
Coleophora siccifolia Stainton, 1856
Coleophora solitariella Zeller, 1849
Coleophora spinella (Schrank, 1802)
Coleophora squalorella Zeller, 1849
Coleophora squamosella Stainton, 1856
Coleophora sternipennella (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Coleophora striatipennella Nylander in Tengstrom, 1848
Coleophora succursella Herrich-Schäffer, 1855
Coleophora svenssoni Baldizzone, 1985
Coleophora taeniipennella Herrich-Schäffer, 1855
Coleophora tamesis Waters, 1929
Coleophora tanaceti Muhlig, 1865
Coleophora therinella Tengstrom, 1848
Coleophora thulea Johansson, 1967
Coleophora trifolii (Curtis, 1832)
Coleophora trigeminella Fuchs, 1881
Coleophora trochilella (Duponchel, 1843)
Coleophora uliginosella Glitz, 1872
Coleophora unigenella Svensson, 1966
Coleophora vacciniella Herrich-Schäffer, 1861
Coleophora versurella Zeller, 1849
Coleophora vestianella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Coleophora vibicigerella Zeller, 1839
Coleophora violacea (Strom, 1783)
Coleophora virgaureae Stainton, 1857
Coleophora vitisella Gregson, 1856
Metriotes lutarea (Haworth, 1828)
Cosmopterigidae
Cosmopterix lienigiella Zeller, 1846
Cosmopterix orichalcea Stainton, 1861
Cosmopterix scribaiella Zeller, 1850
Eteobalea anonymella (Riedl, 1965)
Eteobalea tririvella (Staudinger, 1870)
Limnaecia phragmitella Stainton, 1851
Pancalia leuwenhoekella (Linnaeus, 1761)
Pancalia schwarzella (Fabricius, 1798)
Sorhagenia janiszewskae Riedl, 1962
Sorhagenia lophyrella (Douglas, 1846)
Cossidae
Acossus terebra (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Cossus cossus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Phragmataecia castaneae (Hübner, 1790)
Zeuzera pyrina (Linnaeus, 1761)
Вогнівки-трав'янки (Crambidae)
Acentria ephemerella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Agriphila biarmicus (Tengstrom, 1865)
Agriphila inquinatella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Agriphila poliellus (Treitschke, 1832)
Agriphila selasella (Hübner, 1813)
Agriphila straminella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Agriphila tristella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Agrotera nemoralis (Scopoli, 1763)
Anania coronata (Hufnagel, 1767)
Anania crocealis (Hübner, 1796)
Anania funebris (Strom, 1768)
Anania fuscalis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Anania hortulata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Anania lancealis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Anania perlucidalis (Hübner, 1809)
Anania stachydalis (Germar, 1821)
Anania terrealis (Treitschke, 1829)
Anania verbascalis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Calamotropha paludella (Hübner, 1824)
Cataclysta lemnata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Catoptria falsella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Catoptria fulgidella (Hübner, 1813)
Catoptria furcatellus (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Catoptria lythargyrella (Hübner, 1796)
Catoptria maculalis (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Catoptria margaritella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Catoptria permiacus (W. Petersen, 1924)
Catoptria permutatellus (Herrich-Schäffer, 1848)
Catoptria pinella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Catoptria verellus (Zincken, 1817)
Chilo phragmitella (Hübner, 1805)
Chrysoteuchia culmella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Crambus alienellus Germar & Kaulfuss, 1817
Crambus ericella (Hübner, 1813)
Crambus hamella (Thunberg, 1788)
Crambus heringiellus Herrich-Schäffer, 1848
Crambus lathoniellus (Zincken, 1817)
Crambus pascuella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Crambus perlella (Scopoli, 1763)
Crambus pratella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Crambus silvella (Hübner, 1813)
Crambus uliginosellus Zeller, 1850
Cynaeda dentalis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Diasemia reticularis (Linnaeus, 1761)
Dolicharthria punctalis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Donacaula forficella (Thunberg, 1794)
Donacaula mucronella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Duponchelia fovealis Zeller, 1847
Elophila nymphaeata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Euchromius ocellea (Haworth, 1811)
Eudonia aequalis Kyrki & Svensson, 1986
Eudonia alpina (Curtis, 1850)
Eudonia lacustrata (Panzer, 1804)
Eudonia laetella (Zeller, 1846)
Eudonia mercurella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Eudonia murana (Curtis, 1827)
Eudonia pallida (Curtis, 1827)
Eudonia sudetica (Zeller, 1839)
Eudonia truncicolella (Stainton, 1849)
Evergestis aenealis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Evergestis extimalis (Scopoli, 1763)
Evergestis forficalis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Evergestis frumentalis (Linnaeus, 1761)
Evergestis limbata (Linnaeus, 1767)
Evergestis pallidata (Hufnagel, 1767)
Gesneria centuriella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Heliothela wulfeniana (Scopoli, 1763)
Loxostege commixtalis (Walker, 1866)
Loxostege ephippialis (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Loxostege sticticalis (Linnaeus, 1761)
Loxostege turbidalis (Treitschke, 1829)
Mecyna flavalis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Metaxmeste schrankiana (Hochenwarth, 1785)
Nascia cilialis (Hübner, 1796)
Nomophila noctuella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Nymphula nitidulata (Hufnagel, 1767)
Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner, 1796)
Ostrinia palustralis (Hübner, 1796)
Palpita vitrealis (Rossi, 1794)
Parapoynx stratiotata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Paratalanta hyalinalis (Hübner, 1796)
Paratalanta pandalis (Hübner, 1825)
Pediasia aridella (Thunberg, 1788)
Pediasia contaminella (Hübner, 1796)
Pediasia fascelinella (Hübner, 1813)
Pediasia luteella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Pediasia truncatellus (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Platytes alpinella (Hübner, 1813)
Platytes cerussella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Pleuroptya ruralis (Scopoli, 1763)
Psammotis pulveralis (Hübner, 1796)
Pyrausta aerealis (Hübner, 1793)
Pyrausta aurata (Scopoli, 1763)
Pyrausta cingulata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Pyrausta despicata (Scopoli, 1763)
Pyrausta nigrata (Scopoli, 1763)
Pyrausta ostrinalis (Hübner, 1796)
Pyrausta porphyralis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Pyrausta purpuralis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Pyrausta sanguinalis (Linnaeus, 1767)
Schoenobius gigantella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Scoparia ambigualis (Treitschke, 1829)
Scoparia ancipitella (La Harpe, 1855)
Scoparia basistrigalis Knaggs, 1866
Scoparia pyralella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Scoparia subfusca Haworth, 1811
Sitochroa palealis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Sitochroa verticalis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Udea accolalis (Zeller, 1867)
Udea decrepitalis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1848)
Udea elutalis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Udea ferrugalis (Hübner, 1796)
Udea fulvalis (Hübner, 1809)
Udea hamalis (Thunberg, 1788)
Udea inquinatalis (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Udea lutealis (Hübner, 1809)
Udea nebulalis (Hübner, 1796)
Udea olivalis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Udea prunalis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Douglasiidae
Klimeschia transversella (Zeller, 1839)
Tinagma dryadis Staudinger, 1872
Tinagma ocnerostomella (Stainton, 1850)
Tinagma perdicella Zeller, 1839
Drepanidae
Achlya flavicornis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cilix glaucata (Scopoli, 1763)
Drepana curvatula (Borkhausen, 1790)
Drepana falcataria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Falcaria lacertinaria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Habrosyne pyritoides (Hufnagel, 1766)
Ochropacha duplaris (Linnaeus, 1761)
Sabra harpagula (Esper, 1786)
Tethea ocularis (Linnaeus, 1767)
Tethea or (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Tetheella fluctuosa (Hübner, 1803)
Thyatira batis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Watsonalla binaria (Hufnagel, 1767)
Elachistidae
Agonopterix alstromeriana (Clerck, 1759)
Agonopterix angelicella (Hübner, 1813)
Agonopterix arctica (Strand, 1902)
Agonopterix arenella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Agonopterix astrantiae (Heinemann, 1870)
Agonopterix broennoeensis (Strand, 1920)
Agonopterix capreolella (Zeller, 1839)
Agonopterix ciliella (Stainton, 1849)
Agonopterix conterminella (Zeller, 1839)
Agonopterix heracliana (Linnaeus, 1758)
Agonopterix hypericella (Hübner, 1817)
Agonopterix kaekeritziana (Linnaeus, 1767)
Agonopterix laterella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Agonopterix liturosa (Haworth, 1811)
Agonopterix multiplicella (Erschoff, 1877)
Agonopterix nervosa (Haworth, 1811)
Agonopterix ocellana (Fabricius, 1775)
Agonopterix pallorella (Zeller, 1839)
Agonopterix propinquella (Treitschke, 1835)
Agonopterix purpurea (Haworth, 1811)
Agonopterix quadripunctata (Wocke, 1857)
Agonopterix selini (Heinemann, 1870)
Agonopterix subpropinquella (Stainton, 1849)
Agonopterix yeatiana (Fabricius, 1781)
Anchinia daphnella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Blastodacna atra (Haworth, 1828)
Chrysoclista lathamella (T. Fletcher, 1936)
Chrysoclista linneella (Clerck, 1759)
Depressaria albipunctella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Depressaria artemisiae Nickerl, 1864
Depressaria badiella (Hübner, 1796)
Depressaria beckmanni Heinemann, 1870
Depressaria chaerophylli Zeller, 1839
Depressaria daucella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Depressaria depressana (Fabricius, 1775) — Міль зонтична
Depressaria emeritella Stainton, 1849
Depressaria leucocephala Snellen, 1884
Depressaria libanotidella Schlager, 1849
Depressaria olerella Zeller, 1854
Depressaria pimpinellae Zeller, 1839
Depressaria pulcherrimella Stainton, 1849
Depressaria radiella (Goeze, 1783)
Depressaria silesiaca Heinemann, 1870
Depressaria sordidatella Tengstrom, 1848
Elachista adscitella Stainton, 1851
Elachista argentella (Clerck, 1759)
Elachista bisulcella (Duponchel, 1843)
Elachista bruuni Traugott-Olsen, 1990
Elachista cingillella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)
Elachista dispilella Zeller, 1839
Elachista littoricola Le Marchand, 1938
Elachista pollinariella Zeller, 1839
Elachista pullicomella Zeller, 1839
Elachista ripula Kaila, 1998
Elachista subalbidella Schlager, 1847
Elachista subocellea (Stephens, 1834)
Elachista triatomea (Haworth, 1828)
Elachista abiskoella Bengtsson, 1977
Elachista albidella Nylander, 1848
Elachista albifrontella (Hübner, 1817)
Elachista alpinella Stainton, 1854
Elachista apicipunctella Stainton, 1849
Elachista baltica E. Hering, 1891
Elachista canapennella (Hübner, 1813)
Elachista compsa Traugott-Olsen, 1974
Elachista deriventa Kaila & Mutanen, 2008
Elachista diederichsiella E. Hering, 1889
Elachista elegans Frey, 1859
Elachista eleochariella Stainton, 1851
Elachista eskoi Kyrki & Karvonen, 1985
Elachista exactella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)
Elachista excelsicola Braun, 1948
Elachista freyerella (Hübner, 1825)
Elachista gleichenella (Fabricius, 1781)
Elachista humilis Zeller, 1850
Elachista imatrella Schantz, 1971
Elachista kebneella (Traugott-Olsen & Nielsen, 1977)
Elachista kilmunella Stainton, 1849
Elachista krogeri Svensson, 1976
Elachista leifi Kaila & Kerppola, 1992
Elachista luticomella Zeller, 1839
Elachista maculicerusella (Bruand, 1859)
Elachista nielswolffi Svensson, 1976
Elachista nobilella Zeller, 1839
Elachista occidentalis Frey, 1882
Elachista ornithopodella Frey, 1859
Elachista poae Stainton, 1855
Elachista pomerana Frey, 1870
Elachista saarelai Kaila & Sippola, 2010
Elachista scirpi Stainton, 1887
Elachista serricornis Stainton, 1854
Elachista tengstromi Kaila, Bengtsson, Sulcs & Junnilainen, 2001
Elachista tetragonella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)
Elachista trapeziella Stainton, 1849
Elachista utonella Frey, 1856
Elachista vonschantzi Svensson, 1976
Elachista zernyi Hartig, 1941
Ethmia bipunctella (Fabricius, 1775)
Ethmia dodecea (Haworth, 1828)
Ethmia pusiella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Ethmia pyrausta (Pallas, 1771)
Ethmia quadrillella (Goeze, 1783)
Ethmia terminella Fletcher, 1938
Exaeretia ciniflonella (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Exaeretia praeustella (Rebel, 1917)
Exaeretia allisella Stainton, 1849
Heinemannia laspeyrella (Hübner, 1796)
Hypercallia citrinalis (Scopoli, 1763)
Levipalpus hepatariella (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Orophia ferrugella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Perittia farinella (Thunberg, 1794)
Perittia herrichiella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)
Perittia obscurepunctella (Stainton, 1848)
Semioscopis avellanella (Hübner, 1793)
Semioscopis oculella (Thunberg, 1794)
Semioscopis steinkellneriana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Semioscopis strigulana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Stephensia brunnichella (Linnaeus, 1767)
Telechrysis tripuncta (Haworth, 1828)
Endromidae
Endromis versicolora (Linnaeus, 1758) — Ендроміс березовий
Epermeniidae
*Epermenia chaerophyllella (Goeze, 1783)
Epermenia falciformis (Haworth, 1828)
Epermenia illigerella (Hübner, 1813)
Epermenia profugella (Stainton, 1856)
Ochromolopis ictella (Hübner, 1813)
Phaulernis dentella (Zeller, 1839)
Phaulernis fulviguttella (Zeller, 1839)
Erebidae
Acerbia alpina (Quensel, 1802)
Arctia caja (Linnaeus, 1758) — Ведмедиця кайя
Arctornis l-nigrum (Muller, 1764)
Atolmis rubricollis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Borearctia menetriesi (Eversmann, 1846)
Callimorpha dominula (Linnaeus, 1758) — Ведмедиця-господиня
Calliteara abietis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Calliteara pudibunda (Linnaeus, 1758)
Calyptra thalictri (Borkhausen, 1790)
Catocala adultera Menetries, 1856
Catocala elocata (Esper, 1787)
Catocala fraxini (Linnaeus, 1758) — Стрічкарка блакитна
Catocala fulminea (Scopoli, 1763)
Catocala nupta (Linnaeus, 1767)
Catocala pacta (Linnaeus, 1758)
Catocala promissa (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Catocala sponsa (Linnaeus, 1767) — Стрічкарка орденська малинова
Colobochyla salicalis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Coscinia cribraria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cybosia mesomella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Diacrisia sannio (Linnaeus, 1758)
Diaphora mendica (Clerck, 1759)
Dicallomera fascelina (Linnaeus, 1758)
Dysgonia algira (Linnaeus, 1767)
Eilema complana (Linnaeus, 1758)
Eilema depressa (Esper, 1787)
Eilema griseola (Hübner, 1803)
Eilema lurideola (Zincken, 1817)
Eilema lutarella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Eilema pygmaeola (Doubleday, 1847)
Eilema sororcula (Hufnagel, 1766)
Eublemma minutata (Fabricius, 1794)
Eublemma parva (Hübner, 1808)
Eublemma purpurina (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Euclidia mi (Clerck, 1759)
Euclidia glyphica (Linnaeus, 1758)
Euplagia quadripunctaria (Poda, 1761) — Ведмедиця Гера
Euproctis similis (Fuessly, 1775)
Grammia quenseli (Paykull, 1791)
Grammodes stolida (Fabricius, 1775)
Gynaephora selenitica (Esper, 1789)
Herminia grisealis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Herminia tarsicrinalis (Knoch, 1782)
Herminia tarsipennalis (Treitschke, 1835)
Hypena crassalis (Fabricius, 1787)
Hypena obesalis Treitschke, 1829
Hypena proboscidalis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Hypena rostralis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Hypenodes humidalis Doubleday, 1850
Hyphoraia aulica (Linnaeus, 1758)
Laspeyria flexula (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Leucoma salicis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Lithosia quadra (Linnaeus, 1758)
Lygephila craccae (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Lygephila pastinum (Treitschke, 1826)
Lygephila viciae (Hübner, 1822)
Lymantria dispar (Linnaeus, 1758)
Lymantria monacha (Linnaeus, 1758)
Macrochilo cribrumalis (Hübner, 1793)
Miltochrista miniata (Forster, 1771)
Nudaria mundana (Linnaeus, 1761)
Orgyia antiquoides (Hübner, 1822)
Orgyia recens (Hübner, 1819)
Orgyia antiqua (Linnaeus, 1758)
Paracolax tristalis (Fabricius, 1794)
Pararctia lapponica (Thunberg, 1791)
Parascotia fuliginaria (Linnaeus, 1761)
Parasemia plantaginis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Pechipogo strigilata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Pelosia muscerda (Hufnagel, 1766)
Pelosia obtusa (Herrich-Schäffer, 1852) — лишайниця жовта
Pericallia matronula (Linnaeus, 1758) — Ведмедиця велика
Phragmatobia fuliginosa (Linnaeus, 1758)
Phragmatobia luctifera (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Phytometra viridaria (Clerck, 1759)
Polypogon tentacularia (Linnaeus, 1758)
Rhyparia purpurata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Rivula sericealis (Scopoli, 1763)
Schrankia costaestrigalis (Stephens, 1834)
Schrankia intermedialis Reid, 1972
Schrankia taenialis (Hübner, 1809)
Scoliopteryx libatrix (Linnaeus, 1758)
Setema cereola (Hübner, 1803)
Setina irrorella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Spilosoma lubricipeda (Linnaeus, 1758)
Spilosoma lutea (Hufnagel, 1766)
Spilosoma urticae (Esper, 1789)
Thumatha senex (Hübner, 1808)
Trisateles emortualis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Tyria jacobaeae (Linnaeus, 1758)
Zanclognatha lunalis (Scopoli, 1763)
Eriocraniidae
Dyseriocrania subpurpurella (Haworth, 1828)
Eriocrania cicatricella (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Eriocrania salopiella (Stainton, 1854)
Eriocrania sangii (Wood, 1891)
Eriocrania semipurpurella (Stephens, 1835)
Eriocrania sparrmannella (Bosc, 1791)
Heringocrania unimaculella (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Gelechiidae
Acompsia cinerella (Clerck, 1759)
Acompsia subpunctella Svensson, 1966
Altenia perspersella (Wocke, 1862)
Anacampsis blattariella (Hübner, 1796)
Anacampsis fuscella (Eversmann, 1844)
Anacampsis populella (Clerck, 1759)
Anacampsis temerella (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Anarsia lineatella Zeller, 1839
Apodia bifractella (Duponchel, 1843)
Aproaerema anthyllidella (Hübner, 1813)
Argolamprotes micella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Aristotelia brizella (Treitschke, 1833)
Aristotelia ericinella (Zeller, 1839)
Aristotelia heliacella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)
Aristotelia subdecurtella (Stainton, 1859)
Aroga velocella (Duponchel, 1838)
Athrips amoenella (Frey, 1882)
Athrips mouffetella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Athrips pruinosella (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Athrips tetrapunctella (Thunberg, 1794)
Brachmia blandella (Fabricius, 1798)
Brachmia dimidiella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Brachmia inornatella (Douglas, 1850)
Bryotropha affinis (Haworth, 1828)
Bryotropha boreella (Douglas, 1851)
Bryotropha desertella (Douglas, 1850)
Bryotropha galbanella (Zeller, 1839)
Bryotropha plantariella (Tengstrom, 1848)
Bryotropha purpurella (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Bryotropha senectella (Zeller, 1839)
Bryotropha similis (Stainton, 1854)
Bryotropha terrella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Bryotropha umbrosella (Zeller, 1839)
Carpatolechia alburnella (Zeller, 1839)
Carpatolechia decorella (Haworth, 1812)
Carpatolechia epomidella (Tengstrom, 1869)
Carpatolechia fugitivella (Zeller, 1839)
Carpatolechia notatella (Hübner, 1813)
Carpatolechia proximella (Hübner, 1796)
Caryocolum alsinella (Zeller, 1868)
Caryocolum amaurella (M. Hering, 1924)
Caryocolum blandella (Douglas, 1852)
Caryocolum blandelloides Karsholt, 1981
Caryocolum blandulella (Tutt, 1887)
Caryocolum cassella (Walker, 1864)
Caryocolum cauligenella (Schmid, 1863)
Caryocolum fischerella (Treitschke, 1833)
Caryocolum fraternella (Douglas, 1851)
Caryocolum junctella (Douglas, 1851)
Caryocolum kroesmanniella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)
Caryocolum petrophila (Preissecker, 1914)
Caryocolum petryi (O. Hofmann, 1899)
Caryocolum pullatella (Tengstrom, 1848)
Caryocolum schleichi (Christoph, 1872)
Caryocolum tischeriella (Zeller, 1839)
Caryocolum tricolorella (Haworth, 1812)
Caryocolum vicinella (Douglas, 1851)
Caryocolum viscariella (Stainton, 1855)
Chionodes continuella (Zeller, 1839)
Chionodes distinctella (Zeller, 1839)
Chionodes electella (Zeller, 1839)
Chionodes fumatella (Douglas, 1850)
Chionodes holosericella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)
Chionodes ignorantella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)
Chionodes luctuella (Hübner, 1793)
Chionodes lugubrella (Fabricius, 1794)
Chionodes nubilella (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Chionodes tragicella (Heyden, 1865)
Chionodes viduella (Fabricius, 1794)
Chionodes violacea (Tengstrom, 1848)
Chrysoesthia drurella (Fabricius, 1775)
Chrysoesthia sexguttella (Thunberg, 1794)
Cosmardia moritzella (Treitschke, 1835)
Dichomeris alacella (Zeller, 1839)
Dichomeris derasella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Dichomeris juniperella (Linnaeus, 1761)
Dichomeris latipennella (Rebel, 1937)
Dichomeris limosellus (Schlager, 1849)
Dichomeris rasilella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)
Eulamprotes atrella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Eulamprotes plumbella (Heinemann, 1870)
Eulamprotes superbella (Zeller, 1839)
Eulamprotes unicolorella (Duponchel, 1843)
Eulamprotes wilkella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Exoteleia dodecella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Filatima incomptella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)
Gelechia cuneatella Douglas, 1852
Gelechia hippophaella (Schrank, 1802)
Gelechia jakovlevi Krulikovsky, 1905
Gelechia muscosella Zeller, 1839
Gelechia nigra (Haworth, 1828)
Gelechia rhombella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Gelechia sabinellus (Zeller, 1839)
Gelechia sestertiella Herrich-Schäffer, 1854
Gelechia sororculella (Hübner, 1817)
Gelechia turpella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Gnorimoschema epithymella (Staudinger, 1859)
Gnorimoschema herbichii (Nowicki, 1864)
Gnorimoschema nordlandicolella (Strand, 1902)
Gnorimoschema streliciella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)
Gnorimoschema valesiella (Staudinger, 1877)
Helcystogramma lineolella (Zeller, 1839)
Helcystogramma lutatella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)
Helcystogramma rufescens (Haworth, 1828)
Hypatima rhomboidella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Isophrictis anthemidella (Wocke, 1871)
Isophrictis striatella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Klimeschiopsis kiningerella (Duponchel, 1843)
Mesophleps silacella (Hübner, 1796)
Metzneria aestivella (Zeller, 1839)
Metzneria aprilella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)
Metzneria ehikeella Gozmany, 1954
Metzneria lappella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Metzneria metzneriella (Stainton, 1851)
Metzneria neuropterella (Zeller, 1839)
Metzneria santolinella (Amsel, 1936)
Monochroa arundinetella (Boyd, 1857)
Monochroa conspersella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)
Monochroa cytisella (Curtis, 1837)
Monochroa elongella (Heinemann, 1870)
Monochroa ferrea (Frey, 1870)
Monochroa hornigi (Staudinger, 1883)
Monochroa lucidella (Stephens, 1834)
Monochroa lutulentella (Zeller, 1839)
Monochroa niphognatha (Gozmany, 1953)
Monochroa palustrellus (Douglas, 1850)
Monochroa rumicetella (O. Hofmann, 1868)
Monochroa saltenella (Benander, 1928)
Monochroa sepicolella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)
Monochroa servella (Zeller, 1839)
Monochroa simplicella (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Monochroa suffusella (Douglas, 1850)
Monochroa tenebrella (Hübner, 1817)
Monochroa tetragonella (Stainton, 1885)
Neofaculta ericetella (Geyer, 1832)
Neofaculta infernella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)
Neofriseria peliella (Treitschke, 1835)
Neotelphusa sequax (Haworth, 1828)
Nothris lemniscellus (Zeller, 1839)
Nothris verbascella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Parachronistis albiceps (Zeller, 1839)
Pexicopia malvella (Hübner, 1805)
Prolita sexpunctella (Fabricius, 1794)
Pseudotelphusa paripunctella (Thunberg, 1794)
Pseudotelphusa scalella (Scopoli, 1763)
Psoricoptera gibbosella (Zeller, 1839)
Psoricoptera speciosella Teich, 1893
Recurvaria leucatella (Clerck, 1759)
Scrobipalpa acuminatella (Sircom, 1850)
Scrobipalpa artemisiella (Treitschke, 1833)
Scrobipalpa atriplicella (Fischer von Röslerstamm, 1841)
Scrobipalpa bryophiloides Povolny, 1966
Scrobipalpa murinella (Duponchel, 1843)
Scrobipalpa nitentella (Fuchs, 1902)
Scrobipalpa obsoletella (Fischer von Röslerstamm, 1841)
Scrobipalpa pauperella (Heinemann, 1870)
Scrobipalpa proclivella (Fuchs, 1886)
Scrobipalpa salicorniae (E. Hering, 1889)
Scrobipalpa samadensis (Pfaffenzeller, 1870)
Scrobipalpa stangei (E. Hering, 1889)
Scrobipalpopsis petasitis (Pfaffenzeller, 1867)
Scrobipalpula diffluella (Frey, 1870)
Scrobipalpula psilella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)
Sophronia gelidella Nordman, 1941
Sophronia humerella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Sophronia semicostella (Hübner, 1813)
Sophronia sicariellus (Zeller, 1839)
Stenolechia gemmella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Syncopacma cinctella (Clerck, 1759)
Syncopacma karvoneni (Hackman, 1950)
Syncopacma sangiella (Stainton, 1863)
Syncopacma taeniolella (Zeller, 1839)
Syncopacma wormiella (Wolff, 1958)
Teleiodes flavimaculella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)
Teleiodes luculella (Hübner, 1813)
Teleiodes vulgella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Teleiodes wagae (Nowicki, 1860)
Teleiopsis diffinis (Haworth, 1828)
Thiotricha subocellea (Stephens, 1834)
Xystophora pulveratella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)
П'ядуни (Geometridae)
Abraxas grossulariata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Abraxas sylvata (Scopoli, 1763)
Acasis appensata (Eversmann, 1842)
Acasis viretata (Hübner, 1799)
Aethalura punctulata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Agriopis aurantiaria (Hübner, 1799)
Agriopis marginaria (Fabricius, 1776)
Alcis jubata (Thunberg, 1788)
Alcis repandata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Angerona prunaria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Anticlea derivata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Anticollix sparsata (Treitschke, 1828)
Apeira syringaria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Aplocera plagiata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Aplocera praeformata (Hübner, 1826)
Archiearis parthenias (Linnaeus, 1761)
Arichanna melanaria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Aspitates gilvaria (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Asthena albulata (Hufnagel, 1767)
Asthena anseraria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)
Baptria tibiale (Esper, 1791)
Biston betularia (Linnaeus, 1758) — П'ядун березовий
Biston strataria (Hufnagel, 1767)
Boudinotiana notha (Hübner, 1803)
Bupalus piniaria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cabera exanthemata (Scopoli, 1763)
Cabera pusaria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Campaea margaritaria (Linnaeus, 1761)
Camptogramma bilineata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Carsia sororiata (Hübner, 1813)
Catarhoe cuculata (Hufnagel, 1767)
Catarhoe rubidata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Cepphis advenaria (Hübner, 1790)
Charissa obscurata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Chesias legatella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Chiasmia clathrata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Chlorissa viridata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Chloroclysta miata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Chloroclysta siterata (Hufnagel, 1767)
Chloroclystis v-ata (Haworth, 1809)
Cidaria fulvata (Forster, 1771)
Cleora cinctaria (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Cleorodes lichenaria (Hufnagel, 1767)
Coenocalpe lapidata (Hübner, 1809)
Colostygia aptata (Hübner, 1813)
Colostygia olivata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Colostygia pectinataria (Knoch, 1781)
Colostygia turbata (Hübner, 1799)
Colotois pennaria (Linnaeus, 1761)
Comibaena bajularia (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Cosmorhoe ocellata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Costaconvexa polygrammata (Borkhausen, 1794)
Crocallis elinguaria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cyclophora linearia (Hübner, 1799)
Cyclophora punctaria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cyclophora albipunctata (Hufnagel, 1767)
Cyclophora annularia (Fabricius, 1775)
Cyclophora pendularia (Clerck, 1759)
Cyclophora quercimontaria (Bastelberger, 1897)
Deileptenia ribeata (Clerck, 1759)
Dysstroma citrata (Linnaeus, 1761)
Dysstroma infuscata (Tengstrom, 1869)
Dysstroma latefasciata (Blocker, 1908)
Dysstroma truncata (Hufnagel, 1767)
Earophila badiata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Ecliptopera capitata (Herrich-Schäffer, 1839)
Ecliptopera silaceata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Ectropis crepuscularia (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Electrophaes corylata (Thunberg, 1792)
Elophos vittaria (Thunberg, 1788)
Ematurga atomaria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Ennomos alniaria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Ennomos autumnaria (Werneburg, 1859)
Ennomos erosaria (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Ennomos fuscantaria (Haworth, 1809)
Entephria caesiata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Entephria flavicinctata (Hübner, 1813)
Entephria nobiliaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1852)
Entephria polata (Duponchel, 1830)
Entephria punctipes (Curtis, 1835)
Epione repandaria (Hufnagel, 1767)
Epione vespertaria (Linnaeus, 1767)
Epirranthis diversata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Epirrhoe alternata (Muller, 1764)
Epirrhoe galiata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Epirrhoe hastulata (Hübner, 1790)
Epirrhoe pupillata (Thunberg, 1788)
Epirrhoe rivata (Hübner, 1813)
Epirrhoe tartuensis Mols, 1965
Epirrhoe tristata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Epirrita autumnata (Borkhausen, 1794)
Epirrita christyi (Allen, 1906)
Epirrita dilutata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Erannis defoliaria (Clerck, 1759)
Euchoeca nebulata (Scopoli, 1763)
Eulithis mellinata (Fabricius, 1787)
Eulithis populata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Eulithis prunata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Eulithis pyropata (Hübner, 1809)
Eulithis testata (Linnaeus, 1761)
Euphyia biangulata (Haworth, 1809)
Euphyia unangulata (Haworth, 1809)
Eupithecia abietaria (Goeze, 1781)
Eupithecia absinthiata (Clerck, 1759)
Eupithecia actaeata Walderdorff, 1869
Eupithecia analoga Djakonov, 1926
Eupithecia assimilata Doubleday, 1856
Eupithecia cauchiata (Duponchel, 1831)
Eupithecia centaureata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Eupithecia conterminata (Lienig, 1846)
Eupithecia denotata (Hübner, 1813)
Eupithecia distinctaria Herrich-Schäffer, 1848
Eupithecia dodoneata Guenee, 1858
Eupithecia egenaria Herrich-Schäffer, 1848
Eupithecia exiguata (Hübner, 1813)
Eupithecia expallidata Doubleday, 1856
Eupithecia fennoscandica Knaben, 1949
Eupithecia gelidata Moschler, 1860
Eupithecia groenblomi Urbahn, 1969
Eupithecia icterata (de Villers, 1789)
Eupithecia immundata (Lienig, 1846)
Eupithecia indigata (Hübner, 1813)
Eupithecia innotata (Hufnagel, 1767)
Eupithecia intricata (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Eupithecia inturbata (Hübner, 1817)
Eupithecia irriguata (Hübner, 1813)
Eupithecia lanceata (Hübner, 1825)
Eupithecia lariciata (Freyer, 1841)
Eupithecia linariata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Eupithecia millefoliata Rossler, 1866
Eupithecia nanata (Hübner, 1813)
Eupithecia ochridata Schutze & Pinker, 1968
Eupithecia orphnata W. Petersen, 1909
Eupithecia pernotata Guenee, 1858
Eupithecia pimpinellata (Hübner, 1813)
Eupithecia plumbeolata (Haworth, 1809)
Eupithecia pusillata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Eupithecia pygmaeata (Hübner, 1799)
Eupithecia satyrata (Hübner, 1813)
Eupithecia selinata Herrich-Schäffer, 1861
Eupithecia simpliciata (Haworth, 1809)
Eupithecia sinuosaria (Eversmann, 1848)
Eupithecia subfuscata (Haworth, 1809)
Eupithecia subumbrata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Eupithecia succenturiata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Eupithecia tantillaria Boisduval, 1840
Eupithecia tenuiata (Hübner, 1813)
Eupithecia tripunctaria Herrich-Schäffer, 1852
Eupithecia trisignaria Herrich-Schäffer, 1848
Eupithecia valerianata (Hübner, 1813)
Eupithecia venosata (Fabricius, 1787)
Eupithecia virgaureata Doubleday, 1861
Eupithecia vulgata (Haworth, 1809)
Eustroma reticulata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Gagitodes sagittata (Fabricius, 1787)
Gandaritis pyraliata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Geometra papilionaria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Glacies coracina (Esper, 1805)
Gnophos obfuscata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Gymnoscelis rufifasciata (Haworth, 1809)
Hemithea aestivaria (Hübner, 1789)
Heterothera serraria (Lienig, 1846)
Horisme aemulata (Hübner, 1813)
Horisme tersata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Horisme vitalbata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Hydrelia flammeolaria (Hufnagel, 1767)
Hydrelia sylvata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Hydria cervinalis (Scopoli, 1763)
Hydria undulata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Hydriomena furcata (Thunberg, 1784)
Hydriomena impluviata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Hydriomena ruberata (Freyer, 1831)
Hylaea fasciaria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Hypomecis punctinalis (Scopoli, 1763)
Hypomecis roboraria (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Hypoxystis pluviaria (Fabricius, 1787)
Idaea aversata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Idaea biselata (Hufnagel, 1767)
Idaea deversaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1847)
Idaea dimidiata (Hufnagel, 1767)
Idaea emarginata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Idaea humiliata (Hufnagel, 1767)
Idaea inquinata (Scopoli, 1763)
Idaea muricata (Hufnagel, 1767)
Idaea ochrata (Scopoli, 1763)
Idaea pallidata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Idaea seriata (Schrank, 1802)
Idaea serpentata (Hufnagel, 1767)
Idaea straminata (Borkhausen, 1794)
Idaea sylvestraria (Hübner, 1799)
Jodis lactearia (Linnaeus, 1758)
Jodis putata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Lampropteryx otregiata (Metcalfe, 1917)
Lampropteryx suffumata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Larentia clavaria (Haworth, 1809)
Ligdia adustata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Lobophora halterata (Hufnagel, 1767)
Lomaspilis marginata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Lomaspilis opis Butler, 1878
Lomographa bimaculata (Fabricius, 1775)
Lomographa temerata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Lycia hirtaria (Clerck, 1759)
Lycia lapponaria (Boisduval, 1840)
Lycia pomonaria (Hübner, 1790)
Lythria cruentaria (Hufnagel, 1767)
Macaria alternata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Macaria artesiaria (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Macaria brunneata (Thunberg, 1784)
Macaria carbonaria (Clerck, 1759)
Macaria fusca (Thunberg, 1792)
Macaria liturata (Clerck, 1759)
Macaria loricaria (Eversmann, 1837)
Macaria notata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Macaria signaria (Hübner, 1809)
Macaria wauaria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Malacodea regelaria Tengstrom, 1869
Martania taeniata (Stephens, 1831)
Mesoleuca albicillata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Mesotype didymata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Mesotype parallelolineata (Retzius, 1783)
Narraga fasciolaria (Hufnagel, 1767)
Nycterosea obstipata (Fabricius, 1794)
Odezia atrata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Odontopera bidentata (Clerck, 1759)
Operophtera brumata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Operophtera fagata (Scharfenberg, 1805)
Opisthograptis luteolata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Orthonama vittata (Borkhausen, 1794)
Ourapteryx sambucaria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Paradarisa consonaria (Hübner, 1799)
Parectropis similaria (Hufnagel, 1767)
Pasiphila chloerata (Mabille, 1870)
Pasiphila debiliata (Hübner, 1817)
Pasiphila rectangulata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Pelurga comitata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Pennithera firmata (Hübner, 1822)
Perconia strigillaria (Hübner, 1787)
Peribatodes rhomboidaria (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Peribatodes secundaria (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Perizoma affinitata (Stephens, 1831)
Perizoma albulata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Perizoma alchemillata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Perizoma bifaciata (Haworth, 1809)
Perizoma blandiata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Perizoma flavofasciata (Thunberg, 1792)
Perizoma hydrata (Treitschke, 1829)
Perizoma minorata (Treitschke, 1828)
Petrophora chlorosata (Scopoli, 1763)
Phibalapteryx virgata (Hufnagel, 1767)
Phigalia pilosaria (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Philereme transversata (Hufnagel, 1767)
Philereme vetulata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Plagodis dolabraria (Linnaeus, 1767)
Plagodis pulveraria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Plemyria rubiginata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Pseudopanthera macularia (Linnaeus, 1758)
Psychophora sabini (Kirby, 1824)
Pterapherapteryx sexalata (Retzius, 1783)
Rheumaptera hastata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Rheumaptera subhastata (Nolcken, 1870)
Rhodometra sacraria (Linnaeus, 1767)
Rhodostrophia vibicaria (Clerck, 1759)
Scopula floslactata (Haworth, 1809)
Scopula frigidaria (Moschler, 1860)
Scopula immutata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Scopula incanata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Scopula marginepunctata (Goeze, 1781)
Scopula ternata Schrank, 1802
Scopula caricaria (Reutti, 1853)
Scopula corrivalaria (Kretschmar, 1862)
Scopula decorata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Scopula immorata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Scopula nigropunctata (Hufnagel, 1767)
Scopula ornata (Scopoli, 1763)
Scopula rubiginata (Hufnagel, 1767)
Scopula virgulata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Scotopteryx chenopodiata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Selenia dentaria (Fabricius, 1775)
Selenia lunularia (Hübner, 1788)
Selenia tetralunaria (Hufnagel, 1767)
Selidosema brunnearia (de Villers, 1789)
Siona lineata (Scopoli, 1763)
Spargania luctuata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Stegania cararia (Hübner, 1790)
Thalera fimbrialis (Scopoli, 1763)
Thera cognata (Thunberg, 1792)
Thera juniperata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Thera obeliscata (Hübner, 1787)
Thera variata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Thetidia smaragdaria (Fabricius, 1787)
Timandra comae Schmidt, 1931
Timandra griseata Petersen, 1902
Trichopteryx carpinata (Borkhausen, 1794)
Trichopteryx polycommata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Triphosa dubitata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Venusia blomeri (Curtis, 1832)
Venusia cambrica Curtis, 1839
Xanthorhoe abrasaria (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)
Xanthorhoe annotinata (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Xanthorhoe biriviata (Borkhausen, 1794)
Xanthorhoe decoloraria (Esper, 1806)
Xanthorhoe designata (Hufnagel, 1767)
Xanthorhoe ferrugata (Clerck, 1759)
Xanthorhoe fluctuata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Xanthorhoe montanata (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Xanthorhoe quadrifasiata (Clerck, 1759)
Xanthorhoe spadicearia (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Glyphipterigidae
Acrolepia autumnitella Curtis, 1838
Acrolepiopsis assectella (Zeller, 1839)
Digitivalva reticulella (Hübner, 1796)
Glyphipterix bergstraesserella (Fabricius, 1781)
Glyphipterix equitella (Scopoli, 1763)
Glyphipterix forsterella (Fabricius, 1781)
Glyphipterix haworthana (Stephens, 1834)
Glyphipterix simpliciella (Stephens, 1834)
Glyphipterix thrasonella (Scopoli, 1763)
Orthotelia sparganella (Thunberg, 1788)
Молі-строкатки (Gracillariidae)
Acrocercops brongniardella (Fabricius, 1798)
Aspilapteryx tringipennella (Zeller, 1839)
Callisto coffeella (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Callisto denticulella (Thunberg, 1794)
Callisto insperatella (Nickerl, 1864)
Caloptilia alchimiella (Scopoli, 1763)
Caloptilia betulicola (M. Hering, 1928)
Caloptilia cuculipennella (Hübner, 1796)
Caloptilia elongella (Linnaeus, 1761)
Caloptilia falconipennella (Hübner, 1813)
Caloptilia hemidactylella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Caloptilia populetorum (Zeller, 1839)
Caloptilia robustella Jackh, 1972
Caloptilia semifascia (Haworth, 1828)
Caloptilia stigmatella (Fabricius, 1781)
Caloptilia suberinella (Tengstrom, 1848)
Calybites phasianipennella (Hübner, 1813)
Cameraria ohridella Deschka & Dimic, 1986
Euspilapteryx auroguttella Stephens, 1835
Gracillaria syringella (Fabricius, 1794)
Leucospilapteryx omissella (Stainton, 1848)
Micrurapteryx gradatella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)
Parectopa ononidis (Zeller, 1839)
Parornix anglicella (Stainton, 1850)
Parornix betulae (Stainton, 1854)
Parornix devoniella (Stainton, 1850)
Parornix finitimella (Zeller, 1850)
Parornix loganella (Stainton, 1848)
Parornix polygrammella (Wocke, 1862)
Parornix scoticella (Stainton, 1850)
Phyllocnistis labyrinthella (Bjerkander, 1790)
Phyllocnistis unipunctella (Stephens, 1834)
Phyllonorycter anderidae (W. Fletcher, 1885)
Phyllonorycter apparella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)
Phyllonorycter blancardella (Fabricius, 1781)
Phyllonorycter cavella (Zeller, 1846)
Phyllonorycter cerasicolella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)
Phyllonorycter comparella (Duponchel, 1843)
Phyllonorycter connexella (Zeller, 1846)
Phyllonorycter coryli (Nicelli, 1851)
Phyllonorycter corylifoliella (Hübner, 1796)
Phyllonorycter dubitella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)
Phyllonorycter emberizaepenella (Bouche, 1834)
Phyllonorycter froelichiella (Zeller, 1839)
Phyllonorycter harrisella (Linnaeus, 1761)
Phyllonorycter heegeriella (Zeller, 1846)
Phyllonorycter hilarella (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Phyllonorycter insignitella (Zeller, 1846)
Phyllonorycter issikii (Kumata, 1963)
Phyllonorycter joannisi (Le Marchand, 1936)
Phyllonorycter junoniella (Zeller, 1846)
Phyllonorycter klemannella (Fabricius, 1781)
Phyllonorycter lantanella (Schrank, 1802)
Phyllonorycter lautella (Zeller, 1846)
Phyllonorycter maestingella (Muller, 1764)
Phyllonorycter nicellii (Stainton, 1851)
Phyllonorycter nigrescentella (Logan, 1851)
Phyllonorycter pastorella (Zeller, 1846)
Phyllonorycter populifoliella (Treitschke, 1833)
Phyllonorycter pyrifoliella (Gerasimov, 1933)
Phyllonorycter quercifoliella (Zeller, 1839)
Phyllonorycter quinqueguttella (Stainton, 1851)
Phyllonorycter rajella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Phyllonorycter roboris (Zeller, 1839)
Phyllonorycter rolandi (Svensson, 1966)
Phyllonorycter sagitella (Bjerkander, 1790)
Phyllonorycter salicicolella (Sircom, 1848)
Phyllonorycter salictella (Zeller, 1846)
Phyllonorycter sorbi (Frey, 1855)
Phyllonorycter spinicolella (Zeller, 1846)
Phyllonorycter stettinensis (Nicelli, 1852)
Phyllonorycter strigulatella (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Phyllonorycter trifoliella (Gerasimov, 1933)
Phyllonorycter tristrigella (Haworth, 1828)
Phyllonorycter ulmifoliella (Hübner, 1817)
Povolnya leucapennella (Stephens, 1835)
Heliozelidae
Heliozela hammoniella Sorhagen, 1885
Heliozela resplendella (Stainton, 1851)
Heliozela sericiella (Haworth, 1828)
Heliozelidae
Gazoryctra fuscoargenteus (O. Bang-Haas, 1927)
Gazoryctra ganna (Hübner, 1808)
Hepialus humuli (Linnaeus, 1758) — Тонкопряд хмелевий
Pharmacis fusconebulosa (DeGeer, 1778)
Pharmacis lupulina (Linnaeus, 1758)
Phymatopus hecta (Linnaeus, 1758)
Triodia sylvina (Linnaeus, 1761)
Incurvariidae
Alloclemensia mesospilella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1854)
Incurvaria circulella (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Incurvaria masculella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Incurvaria oehlmanniella (Hübner, 1796)
Incurvaria pectinea Haworth, 1828
Incurvaria praelatella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Incurvaria vetulella (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Phylloporia bistrigella (Haworth, 1828)
Коконопряди (Lasiocampidae)
Cosmotriche lobulina (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Dendrolimus pini (Linnaeus, 1758)
Eriogaster lanestris (Linnaeus, 1758)
Euthrix potatoria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Gastropacha quercifolia (Linnaeus, 1758)
Gastropacha populifolia (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Lasiocampa quercus (Linnaeus, 1758) — Коконопряд дубовий
Lasiocampa trifolii (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Macrothylacia rubi (Linnaeus, 1758)
Malacosoma castrensis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Malacosoma neustria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Odonestis pruni (Linnaeus, 1758)
Phyllodesma ilicifolia (Linnaeus, 1758)
Poecilocampa populi (Linnaeus, 1758)
Trichiura crataegi (Linnaeus, 1758)
Limacodidae
Heterogenea asella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Lyonetiidae
Leucoptera lathyrifoliella (Stainton, 1866)
Leucoptera lustratella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)
Leucoptera malifoliella (O. Costa, 1836)
Leucoptera orobi (Stainton, 1869)
Leucoptera sinuella (Reutti, 1853)
Lyonetia clerkella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Lyonetia ledi Wocke, 1859
Lyonetia prunifoliella (Hübner, 1796)
Lyonetia pulverulentella Zeller, 1839
Lypusidae
Lypusa maurella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Pseudatemelia flavifrontella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Pseudatemelia elsae Svensson, 1982
Pseudatemelia josephinae (Toll, 1956)
Micropterigidae
Micropterix aruncella (Scopoli, 1763)
Micropterix aureatella (Scopoli, 1763)
Micropterix calthella (Linnaeus, 1761)
Micropterix mansuetella Zeller, 1844
Momphidae
Mompha langiella (Hübner, 1796)
Mompha idaei (Zeller, 1839)
Mompha miscella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Mompha conturbatella (Hübner, 1819)
Mompha divisella Herrich-Schäffer, 1854
Mompha epilobiella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Mompha lacteella (Stephens, 1834)
Mompha propinquella (Stainton, 1851)
Mompha sturnipennella (Treitschke, 1833)
Mompha subbistrigella (Haworth, 1828)
Mompha locupletella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Mompha raschkiella (Zeller, 1839)
Mompha sexstrigella (Braun, 1921)
Mompha terminella (Humphreys & Westwood, 1845)
Nepticulidae
Bohemannia pulverosella (Stainton, 1849)
Ectoedemia agrimoniae (Frey, 1858)
Ectoedemia albifasciella (Heinemann, 1871)
Ectoedemia angulifasciella (Stainton, 1849)
Ectoedemia arcuatella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)
Ectoedemia argyropeza (Zeller, 1839)
Ectoedemia intimella (Zeller, 1848)
Ectoedemia minimella (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Ectoedemia occultella (Linnaeus, 1767)
Ectoedemia rubivora (Wocke, 1860)
Ectoedemia subbimaculella (Haworth, 1828)
Ectoedemia turbidella (Zeller, 1848)
Ectoedemia albibimaculella (Larsen, 1927)
Ectoedemia sericopeza (Zeller, 1839)
Ectoedemia septembrella (Stainton, 1849)
Ectoedemia weaveri (Stainton, 1855)
Ectoedemia atrifrontella (Stainton, 1851)
Ectoedemia longicaudella Klimesch, 1953
Stigmella aceris (Frey, 1857)
Stigmella aeneofasciella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)
Stigmella alnetella (Stainton, 1856)
Stigmella anomalella (Goeze, 1783)
Stigmella assimilella (Zeller, 1848)
Stigmella basiguttella (Heinemann, 1862)
Stigmella benanderella (Wolff, 1955)
Stigmella betulicola (Stainton, 1856)
Stigmella catharticella (Stainton, 1853)
Stigmella confusella (Wood & Walsingham, 1894)
Stigmella continuella (Stainton, 1856)
Stigmella crataegella (Klimesch, 1936)
Stigmella dryadella (O. Hofmann, 1868)
Stigmella filipendulae (Wocke, 1871)
Stigmella floslactella (Haworth, 1828)
Stigmella glutinosae (Stainton, 1858)
Stigmella hybnerella (Hübner, 1796)
Stigmella incognitella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)
Stigmella lapponica (Wocke, 1862)
Stigmella lediella (Schleich, 1867)
Stigmella lemniscella (Zeller, 1839)
Stigmella lonicerarum (Frey, 1856)
Stigmella luteella (Stainton, 1857)
Stigmella magdalenae (Klimesch, 1950)
Stigmella malella (Stainton, 1854)
Stigmella microtheriella (Stainton, 1854)
Stigmella myrtillella (Stainton, 1857)
Stigmella nylandriella (Tengstrom, 1848)
Stigmella obliquella (Heinemann, 1862)
Stigmella oxyacanthella (Stainton, 1854)
Stigmella perpygmaeella (Doubleday, 1859)
Stigmella plagicolella (Stainton, 1854)
Stigmella poterii (Stainton, 1857)
Stigmella pretiosa (Heinemann, 1862)
Stigmella roborella (Johansson, 1971)
Stigmella ruficapitella (Haworth, 1828)
Stigmella salicis (Stainton, 1854)
Stigmella samiatella (Zeller, 1839)
Stigmella sorbi (Stainton, 1861)
Stigmella splendidissimella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)
Stigmella svenssoni (Johansson, 1971)
Stigmella tiliae (Frey, 1856)
Stigmella trimaculella (Haworth, 1828)
Stigmella tristis (Wocke, 1862)
Stigmella ulmivora (Fologne, 1860)
Stigmella zelleriella (Snellen, 1875)
Trifurcula headleyella (Stainton, 1854)
Trifurcula subnitidella (Duponchel, 1843)
Совки (Noctuidae)
Abrostola asclepiadis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Abrostola tripartita (Hufnagel, 1766)
Abrostola triplasia (Linnaeus, 1758)
Acontia lucida (Hufnagel, 1766)
Acontia trabealis (Scopoli, 1763)
Acronicta aceris (Linnaeus, 1758)
Acronicta leporina (Linnaeus, 1758)
Acronicta strigosa (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Acronicta alni (Linnaeus, 1767)
Acronicta cuspis (Hübner, 1813)
Acronicta psi (Linnaeus, 1758) — Стрільчатка псі
Acronicta tridens (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775) — Стрільчатка тризубець
Acronicta auricoma (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Acronicta cinerea (Hufnagel, 1766)
Acronicta euphorbiae (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Acronicta menyanthidis (Esper, 1789)
Acronicta rumicis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Actebia fennica (Tauscher, 1837)
Actebia praecox (Linnaeus, 1758)
Actebia squalida (Guenee, 1852)
Actinotia polyodon (Clerck, 1759)
Aedia funesta (Esper, 1786)
Agrochola lychnidis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Agrochola helvola (Linnaeus, 1758)
Agrochola litura (Linnaeus, 1758)
Agrochola nitida (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Agrochola lota (Clerck, 1759)
Agrochola macilenta (Hübner, 1809)
Agrochola circellaris (Hufnagel, 1766)
Agrotis bigramma (Esper, 1790)
Agrotis cinerea (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Agrotis clavis (Hufnagel, 1766)
Agrotis exclamationis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel, 1766)
Agrotis segetum (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775) — Совка озима
Agrotis vestigialis (Hufnagel, 1766)
Allophyes oxyacanthae (Linnaeus, 1758)
Ammoconia caecimacula (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Amphipoea crinanensis (Burrows, 1908)
Amphipoea fucosa (Freyer, 1830)
Amphipoea lucens (Freyer, 1845)
Amphipoea oculea (Linnaeus, 1761)
Amphipyra berbera Rungs, 1949
Amphipyra livida (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Amphipyra perflua (Fabricius, 1787)
Amphipyra pyramidea (Linnaeus, 1758) — Совка пірамідальна
Amphipyra tragopoginis (Clerck, 1759)
Anaplectoides prasina (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Anarta myrtilli (Linnaeus, 1761)
Anarta farnhami (Grote, 1873)
Anarta melanopa (Thunberg, 1791)
Anarta trifolii (Hufnagel, 1766)
Anorthoa munda (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Antitype chi (Linnaeus, 1758)
Apamea anceps (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775) — Совка сіра зернова
Apamea crenata (Hufnagel, 1766)
Apamea exulis (Lefebvre, 1836)
Apamea furva (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Apamea illyria Freyer, 1846
Apamea lateritia (Hufnagel, 1766)
Apamea lithoxylaea (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Apamea maillardi (Geyer, 1834)
Apamea monoglypha (Hufnagel, 1766)
Apamea oblonga (Haworth, 1809)
Apamea remissa (Hübner, 1809)
Apamea rubrirena (Treitschke, 1825)
Apamea schildei (Staudinger, 1901)
Apamea scolopacina (Esper, 1788)
Apamea sordens (Hufnagel, 1766)
Apamea sublustris (Esper, 1788)
Apamea unanimis (Hübner, 1813)
Aporophyla lueneburgensis (Freyer, 1848)
Apterogenum ypsillon (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Archanara dissoluta (Treitschke, 1825)
Arenostola phragmitidis (Hübner, 1803)
Athetis gluteosa (Treitschke, 1835)
Athetis pallustris (Hübner, 1808)
Athetis lepigone (Moschler, 1860)
Atypha pulmonaris (Esper, 1790)
Autographa bractea (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Autographa buraetica (Staudinger, 1892)
Autographa excelsa (Kretschmar, 1862)
Autographa gamma (Linnaeus, 1758)
Autographa jota (Linnaeus, 1758)
Autographa macrogamma (Eversmann, 1842)
Autographa mandarina (Freyer, 1845)
Autographa pulchrina (Haworth, 1809)
Axylia putris (Linnaeus, 1761)
Blepharita amica (Treitschke, 1825)
Brachionycha nubeculosa (Esper, 1785)
Brachylomia viminalis (Fabricius, 1776)
Bryophila ereptricula Treitschke, 1825
Bryophila raptricula (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Calamia tridens (Hufnagel, 1766)
Calophasia lunula (Hufnagel, 1766)
Caradrina morpheus (Hufnagel, 1766)
Caradrina clavipalpis Scopoli, 1763
Caradrina selini Boisduval, 1840
Caradrina albina Eversmann, 1848
Caradrina montana Bremer, 1861
Celaena haworthii (Curtis, 1829)
Ceramica pisi (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cerapteryx graminis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cerastis leucographa (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Cerastis rubricosa (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Charanyca trigrammica (Hufnagel, 1766)
Charanyca ferruginea (Esper, 1785)
Chersotis andereggii (Boisduval, 1832)
Chersotis cuprea (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Chilodes maritima (Tauscher, 1806)
Chloantha hyperici (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Coenophila subrosea (Stephens, 1829)
Colocasia coryli (Linnaeus, 1758)
Conisania luteago (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Conistra rubiginosa (Scopoli, 1763)
Conistra vaccinii (Linnaeus, 1761)
Conistra erythrocephala (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Conistra rubiginea (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Coranarta cordigera (Thunberg, 1788)
Cornutiplusia circumflexa (Linnaeus, 1767)
Cosmia trapezina (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cosmia pyralina (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Cosmia affinis (Linnaeus, 1767)
Craniophora ligustri (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Cryphia algae (Fabricius, 1775)
Crypsedra gemmea (Treitschke, 1825)
Cryptocala chardinyi (Boisduval, 1829)
Cucullia absinthii (Linnaeus, 1761)
Cucullia argentea (Hufnagel, 1766) — Каптурниця срібна
Cucullia artemisiae (Hufnagel, 1766)
Cucullia asteris (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Cucullia boryphora Fischer von Waldheim, 1840
Cucullia chamomillae (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Cucullia fraudatrix Eversmann, 1837
Cucullia gnaphalii (Hübner, 1813)
Cucullia lactucae (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Cucullia lucifuga (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Cucullia praecana Eversmann, 1843
Cucullia pustulata Eversmann, 1842
Cucullia umbratica (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cucullia lychnitis Rambur, 1833
Dasypolia templi (Thunberg, 1792)
Deltote bankiana (Fabricius, 1775)
Deltote uncula (Clerck, 1759)
Deltote pygarga (Hufnagel, 1766)
Denticucullus pygmina (Haworth, 1809)
Diachrysia chrysitis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Diachrysia stenochrysis (Warren, 1913)
Diachrysia zosimi (Hübner, 1822)
Diarsia brunnea (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Diarsia dahlii (Hübner, 1813)
Diarsia florida (F. Schmidt, 1859)
Diarsia mendica (Fabricius, 1775)
Diarsia rubi (Vieweg, 1790)
Dicycla oo (Linnaeus, 1758)
Diloba caeruleocephala (Linnaeus, 1758)
Dryobotodes eremita (Fabricius, 1775)
Dypterygia scabriuscula (Linnaeus, 1758)
Elaphria venustula (Hübner, 1790)
Enargia paleacea (Esper, 1788)
Epilecta linogrisea (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Epipsilia grisescens (Fabricius, 1794)
Eremobia ochroleuca (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Eremohadena immunda (Eversmann, 1842)
Eucarta virgo (Treitschke, 1835)
Euchalcia modestoides Poole, 1989
Euchalcia variabilis (Piller, 1783) — Евхальція різнобарвна
Eugnorisma glareosa (Esper, 1788)
Eugnorisma depuncta (Linnaeus, 1761)
Eugraphe sigma (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Euplexia lucipara (Linnaeus, 1758)
Eupsilia transversa (Hufnagel, 1766)
Eurois occulta (Linnaeus, 1758)
Euxoa adumbrata (Eversmann, 1842)
Euxoa cursoria (Hufnagel, 1766)
Euxoa eruta (Hübner, 1817)
Euxoa nigricans (Linnaeus, 1761)
Euxoa nigrofusca (Esper, 1788)
Euxoa obelisca (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Euxoa ochrogaster (Guenee, 1852)
Euxoa recussa (Hübner, 1817)
Euxoa temera (Hübner, 1808)
Euxoa tritici (Linnaeus, 1761)
Euxoa vitta (Esper, 1789)
Fabula zollikoferi (Freyer, 1836)
Globia algae (Esper, 1789)
Globia sparganii (Esper, 1790)
Gortyna flavago (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Graphiphora augur (Fabricius, 1775)
Griposia aprilina (Linnaeus, 1758)
Hada plebeja (Linnaeus, 1761)
Hadena irregularis (Hufnagel, 1766)
Hadena perplexa (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Hadena albimacula (Borkhausen, 1792)
Hadena bicruris (Hufnagel, 1766)
Hadena caesia (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Hadena capsincola (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Hadena compta (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Hadena confusa (Hufnagel, 1766)
Hadena filograna (Esper, 1788)
Hecatera bicolorata (Hufnagel, 1766)
Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner, 1808)
Heliothis adaucta Butler, 1878
Heliothis maritima Graslin, 1855
Heliothis nubigera Herrich-Schäffer, 1851
Heliothis peltigera (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Heliothis viriplaca (Hufnagel, 1766)
Helotropha leucostigma (Hübner, 1808)
Hillia iris (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Hoplodrina ambigua (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Hoplodrina blanda (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Hoplodrina octogenaria (Goeze, 1781)
Hydraecia micacea (Esper, 1789)
Hydraecia nordstroemi Horke, 1952
Hydraecia petasitis Doubleday, 1847
Hydraecia ultima Holst, 1965
Hyppa rectilinea (Esper, 1788)
Ipimorpha contusa (Freyer, 1849)
Ipimorpha retusa (Linnaeus, 1761)
Ipimorpha subtusa (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Lacanobia contigua (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Lacanobia suasa (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Lacanobia thalassina (Hufnagel, 1766)
Lacanobia oleracea (Linnaeus, 1758)
Lacanobia splendens (Hübner, 1808)
Lacanobia w-latinum (Hufnagel, 1766)
Lamprotes c-aureum (Knoch, 1781)
Lasionycta imbecilla (Fabricius, 1794)
Lasionycta leucocycla (Staudinger, 1857)
Lasionycta proxima (Hübner, 1809)
Lasionycta secedens (Walker, 1858)
Lasionycta skraelingia (Herrich-Schäffer, 1852)
Lasionycta staudingeri (Aurivillius, 1891)
Lateroligia ophiogramma (Esper, 1794)
Lenisa geminipuncta (Haworth, 1809)
Leucania loreyi (Duponchel, 1827)
Leucania comma (Linnaeus, 1761)
Leucania obsoleta (Hübner, 1803)
Lithophane consocia (Borkhausen, 1792)
Lithophane furcifera (Hufnagel, 1766)
Lithophane lamda (Fabricius, 1787)
Lithophane ornitopus (Hufnagel, 1766)
Lithophane semibrunnea (Haworth, 1809)
Lithophane socia (Hufnagel, 1766)
Litoligia literosa (Haworth, 1809)
Longalatedes elymi (Treitschke, 1825)
Luperina testacea (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Lycophotia porphyrea (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Macdunnoughia confusa (Stephens, 1850)
Mamestra brassicae (Linnaeus, 1758) — Совка капустяна
Melanchra persicariae (Linnaeus, 1761)
Mesapamea remmi Rezbanyai-Reser, 1985
Mesapamea secalella Remm, 1983
Mesapamea secalis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Mesogona oxalina (Hübner, 1803)
Mesoligia furuncula (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Mniotype adusta (Esper, 1790)
Mniotype bathensis (Lutzau, 1901)
Mniotype satura (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Moma alpium (Osbeck, 1778)
Mormo maura (Linnaeus, 1758)
Mythimna albipuncta (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Mythimna ferrago (Fabricius, 1787)
Mythimna l-album (Linnaeus, 1767)
Mythimna conigera (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Mythimna impura (Hübner, 1808)
Mythimna pallens (Linnaeus, 1758)
Mythimna pudorina (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Mythimna straminea (Treitschke, 1825)
Mythimna turca (Linnaeus, 1761)
Mythimna vitellina (Hübner, 1808)
Naenia typica (Linnaeus, 1758)
Noctua comes Hübner, 1813
Noctua fimbriata (Schreber, 1759)
Noctua interjecta Hübner, 1803
Noctua interposita (Hübner, 1790)
Noctua janthe (Borkhausen, 1792)
Noctua janthina Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775
Noctua orbona (Hufnagel, 1766)
Noctua pronuba (Linnaeus, 1758)
Nonagria typhae (Thunberg, 1784)
Ochropleura plecta (Linnaeus, 1761)
Oligia fasciuncula (Haworth, 1809)
Oligia latruncula (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Oligia strigilis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Oligia versicolor (Borkhausen, 1792)
Opigena polygona (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Orthosia gracilis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Orthosia opima (Hübner, 1809)
Orthosia cerasi (Fabricius, 1775)
Orthosia cruda (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Orthosia miniosa (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Orthosia populeti (Fabricius, 1775)
Orthosia incerta (Hufnagel, 1766)
Orthosia gothica (Linnaeus, 1758)
Pabulatrix pabulatricula (Brahm, 1791)
Pachetra sagittigera (Hufnagel, 1766)
Panemeria tenebrata (Scopoli, 1763)
Panolis flammea (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Panthea coenobita (Esper, 1785)
Papestra biren (Goeze, 1781)
Paradiarsia punicea (Hübner, 1803)
Parastichtis suspecta (Hübner, 1817)
Peridroma saucia (Hübner, 1808)
Phlogophora meticulosa (Linnaeus, 1758)
Photedes captiuncula (Treitschke, 1825)
Photedes extrema (Hübner, 1809)
Photedes fluxa (Hübner, 1809)
Photedes minima (Haworth, 1809)
Phragmatiphila nexa (Hübner, 1808)
Plusia festucae (Linnaeus, 1758)
Plusia putnami (Grote, 1873)
Polia bombycina (Hufnagel, 1766)
Polia conspicua A. Bang-Haas, 1912
Polia hepatica (Clerck, 1759)
Polia lamuta (Herz, 1903)
Polia nebulosa (Hufnagel, 1766)
Polia richardsoni (Curtis, 1835)
Polychrysia moneta (Fabricius, 1787)
Polymixis flavicincta (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Polymixis polymita (Linnaeus, 1761)
Protarchanara brevilinea (Fenn, 1864)
Protolampra sobrina (Duponchel, 1843)
Protoschinia scutosa (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Pseudeustrotia candidula (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Pyrrhia exprimens (Walker, 1857)
Pyrrhia umbra (Hufnagel, 1766)
Rhizedra lutosa (Hübner, 1803)
Rhyacia simulans (Hufnagel, 1766)
Sedina buettneri (E. Hering, 1858)
Senta flammea (Curtis, 1828)
Sideridis rivularis (Fabricius, 1775)
Sideridis reticulata (Goeze, 1781)
Sideridis turbida (Esper, 1790)
Simyra albovenosa (Goeze, 1781)
Spaelotis ravida (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Spaelotis suecica (Aurivillius, 1890)
Spodoptera exigua (Hübner, 1808) — Карадрина
Standfussiana lucernea (Linnaeus, 1758)
Staurophora celsia (Linnaeus, 1758) — Совка розкішна
Subacronicta megacephala (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Sympistis funebris (Hübner, 1809)
Sympistis heliophila (Paykull, 1793)
Sympistis lapponica (Thunberg, 1791)
Sympistis nigrita (Boisduval, 1840)
Syngrapha ain (Hochenwarth, 1785)
Syngrapha diasema (Boisduval, 1829)
Syngrapha hochenwarthi (Hochenwarth, 1785)
Syngrapha interrogationis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Syngrapha microgamma (Hübner, 1823)
Syngrapha parilis (Hübner, 1809)
Thalpophila matura (Hufnagel, 1766)
Tholera cespitis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Tholera decimalis (Poda, 1761)
Tiliacea aurago (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Tiliacea citrago (Linnaeus, 1758)
Trachea atriplicis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Trichoplusia ni (Hübner, 1803)
Trichosea ludifica (Linnaeus, 1758)
Tyta luctuosa (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Victrix umovii (Eversmann, 1846)
Xanthia gilvago (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Xanthia icteritia (Hufnagel, 1766)
Xanthia ocellaris (Borkhausen, 1792)
Xanthia togata (Esper, 1788)
Xestia ashworthii (Doubleday, 1855)
Xestia c-nigrum (Linnaeus, 1758)
Xestia ditrapezium (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Xestia triangulum (Hufnagel, 1766)
Xestia alpicola (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Xestia atrata (Morrison, 1874)
Xestia borealis (Nordstrom, 1933)
Xestia brunneopicta (Matsumura, 1925)
Xestia distensa (Eversmann, 1851)
Xestia fennica (Brandt, 1936)
Xestia gelida (Sparre-Schneider, 1883)
Xestia laetabilis (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Xestia lorezi (Staudinger, 1891)
Xestia sincera (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)
Xestia speciosa (Hübner, 1813)
Xestia tecta (Hübner, 1808)
Xestia lyngei (Rebel, 1923)
Xestia quieta (Hübner, 1813)
Xestia agathina (Duponchel, 1827)
Xestia baja (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Xestia castanea (Esper, 1798)
Xestia collina (Boisduval, 1840)
Xestia sexstrigata (Haworth, 1809)
Xestia xanthographa (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Xylena solidaginis (Hübner, 1803)
Xylena exsoleta (Linnaeus, 1758)
Xylena vetusta (Hübner, 1813)
Xylomoia strix Mikkola, 1980
Nolidae
Bena bicolorana (Fuessly, 1775)
Earias clorana (Linnaeus, 1761)
Meganola albula (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Meganola strigula (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Nola aerugula (Hübner, 1793)
Nola confusalis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1847)
Nola cucullatella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Nola karelica Tengstrom, 1869
Nycteola asiatica (Krulikovsky, 1904)
Nycteola degenerana (Hübner, 1799)
Nycteola revayana (Scopoli, 1772)
Pseudoips prasinana (Linnaeus, 1758)
Зубницеві (Notodontidae)
Cerura erminea (Esper, 1783)
Cerura vinula (Linnaeus, 1758)
Clostera anachoreta (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Clostera anastomosis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Clostera curtula (Linnaeus, 1758)
Clostera pigra (Hufnagel, 1766)
Furcula bicuspis (Borkhausen, 1790)
Furcula bifida (Brahm, 1787)
Furcula furcula (Clerck, 1759)
Gluphisia crenata (Esper, 1785) — Глуфізія осикова
Leucodonta bicoloria (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Notodonta dromedarius (Linnaeus, 1767)
Notodonta torva (Hübner, 1803)
Notodonta tritophus (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Notodonta ziczac (Linnaeus, 1758)
Odontosia carmelita (Esper, 1799)
Odontosia sieversii (Menetries, 1856)
Peridea anceps (Goeze, 1781)
Phalera bucephala (Linnaeus, 1758) — Лунка срібляста
Pheosia gnoma (Fabricius, 1776)
Pheosia tremula (Clerck, 1759)
Pterostoma palpina (Clerck, 1759)
Ptilodon capucina (Linnaeus, 1758)
Ptilophora plumigera (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775) — Чубатка пишновуса
Pygaera timon (Hübner, 1803)
Stauropus fagi (Linnaeus, 1758)
Oecophoridae
Aplota nigricans (Zeller, 1852)
Bisigna procerella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Borkhausenia fuscescens (Haworth, 1828)
Borkhausenia luridicomella (Herrich-Schäffer, 1856)
Borkhausenia minutella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Crassa tinctella (Hübner, 1796)
Decantha borkhausenii (Zeller, 1839)
Denisia obscurella (Brandt, 1937)
Denisia similella (Hübner, 1796)
Denisia stipella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Denisia stroemella (Fabricius, 1779)
Endrosis sarcitrella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Harpella forficella (Scopoli, 1763)
Hofmannophila pseudospretella (Stainton, 1849)
Metalampra cinnamomea (Zeller, 1839)
Oecophora bractella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Pleurota bicostella (Clerck, 1759)
Opostegidae
Opostega salaciella (Treitschke, 1833)
Pseudopostega auritella (Hübner, 1813)
Pseudopostega crepusculella (Zeller, 1839)
Peleopodidae
Carcina quercana (Fabricius, 1775)
Plutellidae
Eidophasia messingiella (Fischer von Röslerstamm, 1840)
Plutella xylostella (Linnaeus, 1758) — Міль капустяна
Plutella hyperboreella Strand, 1902
Plutella porrectella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Rhigognostis incarnatella (Steudel, 1873)
Rhigognostis kuusamoensis Kyrki, 1989
Rhigognostis schmaltzella (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Rhigognostis senilella (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Praydidae
Atemelia torquatella (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Prays fraxinella (Bjerkander, 1784)
Prays ruficeps (Heinemann, 1854)
Prodoxidae
Lampronia aeripennella (Rebel, 1889)
Lampronia capitella (Clerck, 1759)
Lampronia corticella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Lampronia flavimitrella (Hübner, 1817)
Lampronia fuscatella (Tengstrom, 1848)
Lampronia luzella (Hübner, 1817)
Lampronia morosa Zeller, 1852
Lampronia redimitella (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Lampronia rupella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Lampronia standfussiella Zeller, 1852
Psychidae
Acanthopsyche atra (Linnaeus, 1767)
Anaproutia norvegica (Schoyen, 1880)
Apterona helicoidella (Vallot, 1827)
Canephora hirsuta (Poda, 1761)
Dahlica charlottae (Meier, 1957)
Dahlica fennicella (Suomalainen, 1980)
Dahlica lazuri (Clerck, 1759)
Dahlica lichenella (Linnaeus, 1761)
Dahlica triquetrella (Hübner, 1813)
Diplodoma laichartingella Goeze, 1783
Pachythelia villosella (Ochsenheimer, 1810)
Phalacropterix graslinella (Boisduval, 1852)
Proutia rotunda Suomalainen, 1990
Psyche casta (Pallas, 1767)
Psyche crassiorella Bruand, 1851
Siederia listerella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Siederia rupicolella (Sauter, 1954)
Sterrhopterix fusca (Haworth, 1809)
Sterrhopterix standfussi (Wocke, 1851)
Taleporia borealis Wocke, 1862
Taleporia tubulosa (Retzius, 1783)
Pterophoridae
Adaina microdactyla (Hübner, 1813)
Amblyptilia punctidactyla (Haworth, 1811)
Buckleria paludum (Zeller, 1839)
Calyciphora albodactylus (Fabricius, 1794)
Capperia trichodactyla (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Cnaemidophorus rhododactyla (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Crombrugghia tristis (Zeller, 1841)
Emmelina monodactyla (Linnaeus, 1758)
Geina didactyla (Linnaeus, 1758)
Gillmeria ochrodactyla (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Gillmeria pallidactyla (Haworth, 1811)
Hellinsia didactylites (Strom, 1783)
Hellinsia distinctus (Herrich-Schäffer, 1855)
Hellinsia lienigianus (Zeller, 1852)
Hellinsia osteodactylus (Zeller, 1841)
Hellinsia tephradactyla (Hübner, 1813)
Marasmarcha lunaedactyla (Haworth, 1811)
Merrifieldia baliodactylus (Zeller, 1841)
Merrifieldia leucodactyla (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Merrifieldia tridactyla (Linnaeus, 1758)
Oidaematophorus lithodactyla (Treitschke, 1833)
Oidaematophorus rogenhoferi (Mann, 1871)
Oidaematophorus vafradactylus Svensson, 1966
Oxyptilus chrysodactyla (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Oxyptilus ericetorum (Stainton, 1851)
Oxyptilus parvidactyla (Haworth, 1811)
Oxyptilus pilosellae (Zeller, 1841)
Platyptilia calodactyla (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Platyptilia gonodactyla (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Platyptilia nemoralis Zeller, 1841
Platyptilia tesseradactyla (Linnaeus, 1761)
Porrittia galactodactyla (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Pselnophorus heterodactyla (Muller, 1764)
Pterophorus pentadactyla (Linnaeus, 1758)
Stenoptilia bipunctidactyla (Scopoli, 1763)
Stenoptilia islandicus (Staudinger, 1857)
Stenoptilia nolckeni (Tengstrom, 1869)
Stenoptilia pelidnodactyla (Stein, 1837)
Stenoptilia pterodactyla (Linnaeus, 1761)
Stenoptilia veronicae Karvonen, 1932
Stenoptilia zophodactylus (Duponchel, 1840)
Stenoptilodes taprobanes (Felder & Rogenhofer, 1875)
Pyralidae
Achroia grisella (Fabricius, 1794)
Acrobasis advenella (Zincken, 1818)
Acrobasis consociella (Hübner, 1813)
Acrobasis repandana (Fabricius, 1798)
Acrobasis sodalella Zeller, 1848
Acrobasis suavella (Zincken, 1818)
Aglossa pinguinalis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Ancylosis cinnamomella (Duponchel, 1836)
Anerastia lotella (Hübner, 1813)
Aphomia sociella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Aphomia zelleri de Joannis, 1932
Apomyelois bistriatella (Hulst, 1887)
Assara terebrella (Zincken, 1818)
Cadra calidella (Guenee, 1845)
Cadra cautella (Walker, 1863)
Catastia kistrandella Opheim, 1963
Catastia marginea (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Cryptoblabes bistriga (Haworth, 1811)
Delplanqueia dilutella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Dioryctria abietella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Dioryctria schuetzeella Fuchs, 1899
Dioryctria simplicella Heinemann, 1863
Dioryctria sylvestrella (Ratzeburg, 1840)
Elegia similella (Zincken, 1818)
Ephestia elutella (Hübner, 1796)
Ephestia kuehniella Zeller, 1879
Ephestia mistralella (Milliere, 1874)
Episcythrastis tetricella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Etiella zinckenella (Treitschke, 1832)
Eurhodope cirrigerella (Zincken, 1818)
Euzophera cinerosella (Zeller, 1839)
Euzophera fuliginosella (Heinemann, 1865)
Euzophera pinguis (Haworth, 1811)
Galleria mellonella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Homoeosoma nebulella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Homoeosoma sinuella (Fabricius, 1794)
Hypochalcia ahenella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Hypsopygia costalis (Fabricius, 1775)
Hypsopygia glaucinalis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Laodamia faecella (Zeller, 1839)
Matilella fusca (Haworth, 1811)
Myelois circumvoluta (Fourcroy, 1785)
Nephopterix angustella (Hübner, 1796)
Nyctegretis lineana (Scopoli, 1786)
Oncocera semirubella (Scopoli, 1763)
Ortholepis betulae (Goeze, 1778)
Ortholepis vacciniella (Lienig & Zeller, 1847)
Pempelia palumbella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Pempeliella ornatella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Phycita roborella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Phycitodes albatella (Ragonot, 1887)
Phycitodes binaevella (Hübner, 1813)
Phycitodes lacteella (Rothschild, 1915)
Phycitodes maritima (Tengstrom, 1848)
Phycitodes saxicola (Vaughan, 1870)
Pima boisduvaliella (Guenee, 1845)
Plodia interpunctella (Hübner, 1813)
Polopeustis altensis (Wocke, 1862)
Psorosa nucleolella (Moschler, 1866)
Pyralis farinalis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Pyralis lienigialis (Zeller, 1843)
Pyralis regalis Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775
Rhodophaea formosa (Haworth, 1811)
Salebriopsis albicilla (Herrich-Schäffer, 1849)
Sciota adelphella (Fischer v. Röslerstamm, 1836)
Sciota fumella (Eversmann, 1844)
Sciota hostilis (Stephens, 1834)
Sciota lucipetella (Jalava, 1978)
Sciota rhenella (Zincken, 1818)
Selagia spadicella (Hübner, 1796)
Synaphe punctalis (Fabricius, 1775)
Vitula biviella (Zeller, 1848)
Vitula edmandsii (Packard, 1865)
Zophodia grossulariella (Hübner, 1809)
Roeslerstammiidae
Roeslerstammia erxlebella (Fabricius, 1787)
Сатурнієві (Saturniidae)
Aglia tau (Linnaeus, 1758) — Сатурнія руда
Saturnia pavonia (Linnaeus, 1758) — Сатурнія мала
Schreckensteiniidae
Schreckensteinia festaliella (Hübner, 1819)
Scythrididae
Scythris disparella (Tengstrom, 1848)
Scythris empetrella Karsholt & Nielsen, 1976
Scythris fuscopterella Bengtsson, 1977
Scythris inspersella (Hübner, 1817)
Scythris laminella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Scythris limbella (Fabricius, 1775)
Scythris noricella (Zeller, 1843)
Scythris obscurella (Scopoli, 1763)
Scythris palustris (Zeller, 1855)
Scythris potentillella (Zeller, 1847)
Scythris productella (Zeller, 1839)
Sesiidae
Bembecia ichneumoniformis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Paranthrene tabaniformis (Rottemburg, 1775)
Pennisetia hylaeiformis (Laspeyres, 1801)
Sesia apiformis (Clerck, 1759)
Sesia bembeciformis (Hübner, 1806)
Sesia melanocephala Dalman, 1816
Synanthedon culiciformis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Synanthedon flaviventris (Staudinger, 1883)
Synanthedon formicaeformis (Esper, 1783)
Synanthedon mesiaeformis (Herrich-Schäffer, 1846)
Synanthedon polaris (Staudinger, 1877)
Synanthedon scoliaeformis (Borkhausen, 1789)
Synanthedon soffneri Spatenka, 1983
Synanthedon spheciformis (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Synanthedon tipuliformis (Clerck, 1759)
Бражникові (Sphingidae)
Acherontia atropos (Linnaeus, 1758) — Бражник мертва голова
Agrius convolvuli (Linnaeus, 1758)
Daphnis nerii (Linnaeus, 1758) — Бражник олеандровий
Deilephila elpenor (Linnaeus, 1758)
Deilephila porcellus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Hemaris fuciformis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Hemaris tityus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Hyles euphorbiae (Linnaeus, 1758)
Hyles gallii (Rottemburg, 1775) — Бражник підмаренниковий
Hyles livornica (Esper, 1780)
Laothoe amurensis (Staudinger, 1879)
Laothoe populi (Linnaeus, 1758)
Macroglossum stellatarum (Linnaeus, 1758)
Mimas tiliae (Linnaeus, 1758)
Smerinthus ocellata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Sphinx ligustri Linnaeus, 1758
Sphinx pinastri Linnaeus, 1758
Stathmopodidae
Stathmopoda pedella (Linnaeus, 1761)
Tineidae
Agnathosia mendicella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Archinemapogon yildizae Kocak, 1981
Elatobia fuliginosella (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Elatobia montelliella (Schantz, 1951)
Haplotinea ditella (Pierce & Metcalfe, 1938)
Haplotinea insectella (Fabricius, 1794)
Infurcitinea argentimaculella (Stainton, 1849)
Infurcitinea ignicomella (Zeller, 1852)
Monopis fenestratella (Heyden, 1863)
Monopis imella (Hübner, 1813)
Monopis laevigella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Monopis monachella (Hübner, 1796)
Monopis obviella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Monopis spilotella (Tengstrom, 1848)
Monopis weaverella (Scott, 1858)
Montescardia tessulatellus (Zeller, 1846)
Morophaga choragella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Myrmecozela ochraceella (Tengstrom, 1848)
Nemapogon clematella (Fabricius, 1781)
Nemapogon cloacella (Haworth, 1828)
Nemapogon fungivorella (Benander, 1939)
Nemapogon granella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Nemapogon nigralbella (Zeller, 1839)
Nemapogon picarella (Clerck, 1759)
Nemapogon variatella (Clemens, 1859)
Nemapogon wolffiella Karsholt & Nielsen, 1976
Nemaxera betulinella (Fabricius, 1787)
Niditinea fuscella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Niditinea striolella (Matsumura, 1931)
Niditinea truncicolella (Tengstrom, 1848)
Scardia boletella (Fabricius, 1794)
Stenoptinea cyaneimarmorella (Milliere, 1854)
Tinea bothniella Svensson, 1953
Tinea columbariella Wocke, 1877
Tinea pallescentella Stainton, 1851
Tinea pellionella Linnaeus, 1758
Tinea semifulvella Haworth, 1828
Tinea steueri Petersen, 1966
Tinea svenssoni Opheim, 1965
Tinea trinotella Thunberg, 1794
Tineola bisselliella (Hummel, 1823)
Triaxomera fulvimitrella (Sodoffsky, 1830)
Trichophaga scandinaviella Zagulajev, 1960
Trichophaga tapetzella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Tischeriidae
Coptotriche angusticollella (Duponchel, 1843)
Coptotriche heinemanni (Wocke, 1871)
Coptotriche marginea (Haworth, 1828)
Tischeria dodonaea Stainton, 1858
Tischeria ekebladella (Bjerkander, 1795)
Листовійки (Tortricidae)
Acleris arcticana (Guenee, 1845)
Acleris aspersana (Hübner, 1817)
Acleris bergmanniana (Linnaeus, 1758)
Acleris comariana (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Acleris cristana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Acleris effractana (Hübner, 1799)
Acleris emargana (Fabricius, 1775)
Acleris ferrugana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Acleris fimbriana (Thunberg, 1791)
Acleris forsskaleana (Linnaeus, 1758)
Acleris hastiana (Linnaeus, 1758)
Acleris holmiana (Linnaeus, 1758)
Acleris hyemana (Haworth, 1811)
Acleris implexana (Walker, 1863)
Acleris laterana (Fabricius, 1794)
Acleris lipsiana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Acleris literana (Linnaeus, 1758)
Acleris logiana (Clerck, 1759)
Acleris lorquiniana (Duponchel, 1835)
Acleris maccana (Treitschke, 1835)
Acleris nigrilineana Kawabe, 1963
Acleris notana (Donovan, 1806)
Acleris obtusana (Eversmann, 1844)
Acleris rhombana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Acleris roscidana (Hübner, 1799)
Acleris rufana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Acleris scabrana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Acleris schalleriana (Linnaeus, 1761)
Acleris shepherdana (Stephens, 1852)
Acleris sparsana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Acleris umbrana (Hübner, 1799)
Acleris variegana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Adoxophyes orana (Fischer v. Röslerstamm, 1834)
Aethes cnicana (Westwood, 1854)
Aethes deutschiana (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Aethes fennicana (M. Hering, 1924)
Aethes francillana (Fabricius, 1794)
Aethes hartmanniana (Clerck, 1759)
Aethes kindermanniana (Treitschke, 1830)
Aethes kyrkii Itamies & Mutanen, 2003
Aethes margaritana (Haworth, 1811)
Aethes rubigana (Treitschke, 1830)
Aethes rutilana (Hübner, 1817)
Aethes smeathmanniana (Fabricius, 1781)
Aethes tesserana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Aethes triangulana (Treitschke, 1835)
Agapeta hamana (Linnaeus, 1758)
Agapeta zoegana (Linnaeus, 1767)
Aleimma loeflingiana (Linnaeus, 1758)
Ancylis achatana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775) — Листокрутка полохлива
Ancylis apicella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Ancylis badiana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Ancylis comptana (Frolich, 1828) — Листокрутка сунична
Ancylis diminutana (Haworth, 1811)
Ancylis geminana (Donovan, 1806)
Ancylis kenneli Kuznetsov, 1962
Ancylis laetana (Fabricius, 1775)
Ancylis mitterbacheriana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Ancylis myrtillana (Treitschke, 1830)
Ancylis obtusana (Haworth, 1811)
Ancylis paludana Barrett, 1871
Ancylis rhenana Muller-Rutz, 1920
Ancylis selenana (Guenee, 1845)
Ancylis subarcuana (Douglas, 1847)
Ancylis tineana (Hübner, 1799)
Ancylis uncella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Ancylis unculana (Haworth, 1811)
Ancylis unguicella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Ancylis upupana (Treitschke, 1835)
Aphelia viburniana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Aphelia paleana (Hübner, 1793)
Aphelia unitana (Hübner, 1799)
Apotomis algidana Krogerus, 1946
Apotomis betuletana (Haworth, 1811)
Apotomis boreana Krogerus, 1946
Apotomis capreana (Hübner, 1817)
Apotomis demissana (Kennel, 1901)
Apotomis fraterculana Krogerus, 1946
Apotomis infida (Heinrich, 1926)
Apotomis inundana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Apotomis lemniscatana (Kennel, 1901)
Apotomis lineana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Apotomis moestana (Wocke, 1862)
Apotomis sauciana (Frolich, 1828)
Apotomis semifasciana (Haworth, 1811)
Apotomis sororculana (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Apotomis turbidana Hübner, 1825
Archips betulana (Hübner, 1787)
Archips crataegana (Hübner, 1799) — Листокрутка глодова
Archips oporana (Linnaeus, 1758)
Archips podana (Scopoli, 1763)
Archips rosana (Linnaeus, 1758)
Archips xylosteana (Linnaeus, 1758)
Argyroploce aquilonana Karvonen, 1932
Argyroploce arbutella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Argyroploce concretana (Wocke, 1862)
Argyroploce externa (Eversmann, 1844)
Argyroploce lediana (Linnaeus, 1758)
Argyroploce noricana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)
Argyroploce roseomaculana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)
Argyrotaenia ljungiana (Thunberg, 1797)
Aterpia chalybeia Falkovitsh, 1966
Bactra furfurana (Haworth, 1811)
Bactra lacteana Caradja, 1916
Bactra lancealana (Hübner, 1799)
Bactra robustana (Christoph, 1872)
Bactra suedana Bengtsson, 1989
Capricornia boisduvaliana (Duponchel, 1836)
Capua vulgana (Frolich, 1828)
Celypha cespitana (Hübner, 1817)
Celypha lacunana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Celypha rivulana (Scopoli, 1763)
Celypha rosaceana Schlager, 1847
Celypha rufana (Scopoli, 1763)
Celypha rurestrana (Duponchel, 1843)
Celypha siderana (Treitschke, 1835)
Celypha striana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Celypha tiedemanniana (Zeller, 1845)
Choristoneura albaniana (Walker, 1863)
Choristoneura diversana (Hübner, 1817)
Choristoneura hebenstreitella (Muller, 1764)
Clepsis illustrana (Krogerus, 1936)
Clepsis lindebergi (Krogerus, 1952)
Clepsis neglectana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)
Clepsis nybomi Hackman, 1950
Clepsis pallidana (Fabricius, 1776)
Clepsis rogana (Guenee, 1845)
Clepsis rurinana (Linnaeus, 1758)
Clepsis senecionana (Hübner, 1819)
Clepsis spectrana (Treitschke, 1830)
Cnephasia alticolana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)
Cnephasia asseclana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Cnephasia communana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)
Cnephasia genitalana Pierce & Metcalfe, 1922
Cnephasia pasiuana (Hübner, 1799)
Cnephasia stephensiana (Doubleday, 1849)
Cnephasia incertana (Treitschke, 1835)
Cochylidia heydeniana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)
Cochylidia implicitana (Wocke, 1856)
Cochylidia moguntiana (Rossler, 1864)
Cochylidia richteriana (Fischer v. Röslerstamm, 1837)
Cochylidia rupicola (Curtis, 1834)
Cochylidia subroseana (Haworth, 1811)
Cochylimorpha alternana (Stephens, 1834)
Cochylimorpha hilarana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)
Cochylis atricapitana (Stephens, 1852)
Cochylis dubitana (Hübner, 1799)
Cochylis epilinana Duponchel, 1842
Cochylis flaviciliana (Westwood, 1854)
Cochylis hybridella (Hübner, 1813)
Cochylis nana (Haworth, 1811)
Cochylis pallidana Zeller, 1847
Cochylis posterana Zeller, 1847
Corticivora piniana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)
Cydia cognatana (Barrett, 1874)
Cydia coniferana (Saxesen, 1840)
Cydia cornucopiae (Tengstrom, 1869)
Cydia corollana (Hübner, 1823)
Cydia cosmophorana (Treitschke, 1835)
Cydia duplicana (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Cydia fagiglandana (Zeller, 1841)
Cydia illutana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)
Cydia indivisa (Danilevsky, 1963)
Cydia inquinatana (Hübner, 1800)
Cydia leguminana (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Cydia medicaginis (Kuznetsov, 1962)
Cydia microgrammana (Guenee, 1845)
Cydia nigricana (Fabricius, 1794)
Cydia oxytropidis (Martini, 1912)
Cydia pactolana (Zeller, 1840)
Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cydia servillana (Duponchel, 1836)
Cydia splendana (Hübner, 1799)
Cydia strobilella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cydia succedana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Cymolomia hartigiana (Saxesen, 1840)
Dichelia histrionana (Frolich, 1828)
Dichrorampha acuminatana (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Dichrorampha aeratana (Pierce & Metcalfe, 1915)
Dichrorampha agilana (Tengstrom, 1848)
Dichrorampha alpinana (Treitschke, 1830)
Dichrorampha cinerascens (Danilevsky, 1948)
Dichrorampha consortana Stephens, 1852
Dichrorampha flavidorsana Knaggs, 1867
Dichrorampha heegerana (Duponchel, 1843)
Dichrorampha obscuratana (Wolff, 1955)
Dichrorampha petiverella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Dichrorampha plumbagana (Treitschke, 1830)
Dichrorampha plumbana (Scopoli, 1763)
Dichrorampha sedatana Busck, 1906
Dichrorampha senectana Guenee, 1845
Dichrorampha simpliciana (Haworth, 1811)
Dichrorampha sylvicolana Heinemann, 1863
Dichrorampha vancouverana McDunnough, 1935
Doloploca punctulana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Eana derivana (de La Harpe, 1858)
Eana incanana (Stephens, 1852)
Eana penziana (Thunberg, 1791)
Eana argentana (Clerck, 1759)
Eana osseana (Scopoli, 1763)
Enarmonia formosana (Scopoli, 1763) — Листокрутка вишнева
Endothenia ericetana (Humphreys & Westwood, 1845)
Endothenia gentianaeana (Hübner, 1799)
Endothenia marginana (Haworth, 1811)
Endothenia nigricostana (Haworth, 1811)
Endothenia oblongana (Haworth, 1811)
Endothenia pullana (Haworth, 1811)
Endothenia quadrimaculana (Haworth, 1811)
Epagoge grotiana (Fabricius, 1781)
Epiblema cirsiana (Zeller, 1843)
Epiblema cnicicolana (Zeller, 1847)
Epiblema foenella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Epiblema grandaevana (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Epiblema graphana (Treitschke, 1835)
Epiblema inulivora (Meyrick, 1932)
Epiblema scutulana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Epiblema similana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Epiblema simploniana (Duponchel, 1835)
Epiblema sticticana (Fabricius, 1794)
Epinotia abbreviana (Fabricius, 1794)
Epinotia bilunana (Haworth, 1811)
Epinotia brunnichana (Linnaeus, 1767)
Epinotia caprana (Fabricius, 1798)
Epinotia crenana (Hübner, 1799)
Epinotia cruciana (Linnaeus, 1761)
Epinotia demarniana (Fischer v. Röslerstamm, 1840)
Epinotia gimmerthaliana (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Epinotia granitana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)
Epinotia immundana (Fischer v. Röslerstamm, 1839)
Epinotia indecorana (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Epinotia maculana (Fabricius, 1775)
Epinotia mercuriana (Frolich, 1828)
Epinotia nanana (Treitschke, 1835)
Epinotia nemorivaga (Tengstrom, 1848)
Epinotia nisella (Clerck, 1759)
Epinotia pygmaeana (Hübner, 1799)
Epinotia ramella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Epinotia rubiginosana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)
Epinotia signatana (Douglas, 1845)
Epinotia solandriana (Linnaeus, 1758)
Epinotia sordidana (Hübner, 1824)
Epinotia subocellana (Donovan, 1806)
Epinotia tedella (Clerck, 1759)
Epinotia tenerana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Epinotia tetraquetrana (Haworth, 1811)
Epinotia trigonella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Eriopsela quadrana (Hübner, 1813)
Eucosma aemulana (Schlager, 1849)
Eucosma aspidiscana (Hübner, 1817)
Eucosma campoliliana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Eucosma cana (Haworth, 1811)
Eucosma conterminana (Guenee, 1845)
Eucosma flavispecula Kuznetsov, 1964
Eucosma fulvana Stephens, 1834
Eucosma guentheri (Tengstrom, 1869)
Eucosma hohenwartiana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Eucosma lacteana (Treitschke, 1835)
Eucosma messingiana (Fischer v. Röslerstamm, 1837)
Eucosma metzneriana (Treitschke, 1830)
Eucosma obumbratana (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Eucosma pupillana (Clerck, 1759)
Eucosma saussureana (Benander, 1928)
Eucosma scorzonerana (Benander, 1942)
Eucosma suomiana (A. Hoffmann, 1893)
Eucosmomorpha albersana (Hübner, 1813)
Eudemis porphyrana (Hübner, 1799)
Eudemis profundana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Eulia ministrana (Linnaeus, 1758) — Ейлія іржава
Eupoecilia ambiguella (Hübner, 1796) — Листокрутка дволітна
Eupoecilia angustana (Hübner, 1799)
Exapate bicuspidella Bruun & Krogerus, 1996
Exapate congelatella (Clerck, 1759)
Falseuncaria degreyana (McLachlan, 1869)
Falseuncaria ruficiliana (Haworth, 1811)
Gibberifera simplana (Fischer v. Röslerstamm, 1836)
Grapholita funebrana Treitschke, 1835
Grapholita janthinana (Duponchel, 1843)
Grapholita lobarzewskii (Nowicki, 1860)
Grapholita tenebrosana Duponchel, 1843
Grapholita aureolana Tengstrom, 1848
Grapholita caecana Schlager, 1847
Grapholita compositella (Fabricius, 1775)
Grapholita discretana Wocke, 1861
Grapholita jungiella (Clerck, 1759)
Grapholita lunulana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Grapholita orobana Treitschke, 1830
Gynnidomorpha alismana (Ragonot, 1883)
Gynnidomorpha luridana (Gregson, 1870)
Gynnidomorpha minimana (Caradja, 1916)
Gynnidomorpha permixtana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Gynnidomorpha vectisana (Humphreys & Westwood, 1845)
Gypsonoma dealbana (Frolich, 1828)
Gypsonoma minutana (Hübner, 1799)
Gypsonoma nitidulana (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Gypsonoma oppressana (Treitschke, 1835)
Gypsonoma sociana (Haworth, 1811)
Hedya dimidiana (Clerck, 1759)
Hedya nubiferana (Haworth, 1811)
Hedya ochroleucana (Frolich, 1828)
Hedya pruniana (Hübner, 1799)
Hedya salicella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Lathronympha strigana (Fabricius, 1775)
Lobesia abscisana (Doubleday, 1849)
Lobesia bicinctana (Duponchel, 1844)
Lobesia littoralis (Westwood & Humphreys, 1845)
Lobesia reliquana (Hübner, 1825)
Lobesia virulenta Bae & Komai, 1991
Lobesia euphorbiana (Freyer, 1842)
Lozotaenia forsterana (Fabricius, 1781)
Metendothenia atropunctana (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Neosphaleroptera nubilana (Hübner, 1799)
Notocelia cynosbatella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Notocelia incarnatana (Hübner, 1800)
Notocelia roborana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Notocelia rosaecolana (Doubleday, 1850)
Notocelia tetragonana (Stephens, 1834)
Notocelia trimaculana (Haworth, 1811)
Notocelia uddmanniana (Linnaeus, 1758)
Olethreutes arcuella (Clerck, 1759)
Olindia schumacherana (Fabricius, 1787)
Orthotaenia undulana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Pammene albuginana (Guenee, 1845)
Pammene argyrana (Hübner, 1799)
Pammene aurana (Fabricius, 1775)
Pammene clanculana (Tengstrom, 1869)
Pammene fasciana (Linnaeus, 1761)
Pammene gallicana (Guenee, 1845)
Pammene germmana (Hübner, 1799)
Pammene ignorata Kuznetsov, 1968
Pammene insulana (Guenee, 1845)
Pammene luculentana Kuznetsov, 1962
Pammene luedersiana (Sorhagen, 1885)
Pammene obscurana (Stephens, 1834)
Pammene ochsenheimeriana (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Pammene populana (Fabricius, 1787)
Pammene regiana (Zeller, 1849)
Pammene rhediella (Clerck, 1759)
Pammene splendidulana (Guenee, 1845)
Pammene suspectana (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Pandemis cerasana (Hübner, 1786)
Pandemis cinnamomeana (Treitschke, 1830)
Pandemis corylana (Fabricius, 1794) — Листокрутка кривовуса ліщинова
Pandemis dumetana (Treitschke, 1835)
Pandemis heparana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775) — Листокрутка вербова кривовуса
Paramesia gnomana (Clerck, 1759)
Pelochrista caecimaculana (Hübner, 1799)
Pelochrista huebneriana (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Pelochrista infidana (Hübner, 1824)
Pelochrista mollitana (Zeller, 1847)
Phalonidia curvistrigana (Stainton, 1859)
Phalonidia gilvicomana (Zeller, 1847)
Phalonidia manniana (Fischer v. Röslerstamm, 1839)
Phiaris bipunctana (Fabricius, 1794)
Phiaris dissolutana (Stange, 1866)
Phiaris heinrichana (McDunnough, 1927)
Phiaris metallicana (Hübner, 1799)
Phiaris micana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Phiaris obsoletana (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Phiaris palustrana (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Phiaris schulziana (Fabricius, 1776)
Phiaris septentrionana (Curtis, 1835)
Phiaris turfosana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)
Phiaris umbrosana (Freyer, 1842)
Philedone gerningana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Philedonides lunana (Thunberg, 1784)
Phtheochroa inopiana (Haworth, 1811)
Phtheochroa schreibersiana (Frolich, 1828)
Phtheochroa sodaliana (Haworth, 1811)
Phtheochroa vulneratana (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Piniphila bifasciana (Haworth, 1811)
Pristerognatha fuligana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Pseudargyrotoza conwagana (Fabricius, 1775)
Pseudococcyx posticana (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Pseudococcyx turionella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Pseudohermenias abietana (Fabricius, 1787)
Pseudosciaphila branderiana (Linnaeus, 1758)
Ptycholoma lecheana (Linnaeus, 1758)
Retinia resinella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Rhopobota myrtillana (Humphreys & Westwood, 1845)
Rhopobota naevana (Hübner, 1817)
Rhopobota stagnana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Rhopobota ustomaculana (Curtis, 1831)
Rhyacionia buoliana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Rhyacionia duplana (Hübner, 1813)
Rhyacionia logaea Durrant, 1911
Rhyacionia pinicolana (Doubleday, 1849)
Rhyacionia pinivorana (Lienig & Zeller, 1846)
Selenodes karelica (Tengstrom, 1875)
Sparganothis praecana (Kennel, 1900)
Sparganothis rubicundana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1856)
Spatalistis bifasciana (Hübner, 1787)
Spilonota laricana (Heinemann, 1863)
Spilonota ocellana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Stictea mygindiana (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Strophedra nitidana (Fabricius, 1794)
Syndemis musculana (Hübner, 1799)
Thiodia citrana (Hübner, 1799)
Tortrix viridana Linnaeus, 1758
Zeiraphera griseana (Hübner, 1799)
Zeiraphera isertana (Fabricius, 1794)
Zeiraphera ratzeburgiana (Saxesen, 1840)
Zeiraphera rufimitrana (Herrich-Schäffer, 1851)
Urodidae
Wockia asperipunctella (Bruand, 1851)
Yponomeutidae
Cedestis gysseleniella Zeller, 1839
Cedestis subfasciella (Stephens, 1834)
Euhyponomeuta stannella (Thunberg, 1788)
Euhyponomeutoides albithoracellus Gaj, 1954
Euhyponomeutoides ribesiella (de Joannis, 1900)
Kessleria fasciapennella (Stainton, 1849)
Ocnerostoma friesei Svensson, 1966
Ocnerostoma piniariella Zeller, 1847
Paraswammerdamia albicapitella (Scharfenberg, 1805)
Paraswammerdamia conspersella (Tengstrom, 1848)
Paraswammerdamia lapponica (W. Petersen, 1932)
Paraswammerdamia nebulella (Goeze, 1783)
Scythropia crataegella (Linnaeus, 1767)
Swammerdamia caesiella (Hübner, 1796)
Swammerdamia compunctella Herrich-Schäffer, 1855
Swammerdamia passerella (Zetterstedt, 1839)
Swammerdamia pyrella (Villers, 1789)
Yponomeuta cagnagella (Hübner, 1813)
Yponomeuta evonymella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Yponomeuta irrorella (Hübner, 1796)
Yponomeuta malinellus Zeller, 1838
Yponomeuta padella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Yponomeuta plumbella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Yponomeuta rorrella (Hübner, 1796)
Yponomeuta sedella Treitschke, 1832
Zelleria hepariella Stainton, 1849
Ypsolophidae
Ochsenheimeria taurella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Ochsenheimeria urella Fischer von Röslerstamm, 1842
Ochsenheimeria vacculella Fischer von Röslerstamm, 1842
Ypsolopha asperella (Linnaeus, 1761)
Ypsolopha chazariella (Mann, 1866)
Ypsolopha dentella (Fabricius, 1775)
Ypsolopha falcella (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Ypsolopha horridella (Treitschke, 1835)
Ypsolopha lucella (Fabricius, 1775)
Ypsolopha nemorella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Ypsolopha parenthesella (Linnaeus, 1761)
Ypsolopha sarmaticella (Rebel, 1917)
Ypsolopha scabrella (Linnaeus, 1761)
Ypsolopha sequella (Clerck, 1759)
Ypsolopha sylvella (Linnaeus, 1767)
Ypsolopha ustella (Clerck, 1759)
Ypsolopha vittella (Linnaeus, 1758)
Строкатки (Zygaenidae)
Adscita statices (Linnaeus, 1758)
Rhagades pruni (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Zygaena minos (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Zygaena exulans (Hohenwarth, 1792)
Zygaena filipendulae (Linnaeus, 1758)
Zygaena lonicerae (Scheven, 1777)
Zygaena osterodensis Reiss, 1921
Zygaena viciae (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775)
Посилання
Fauna Europaea
Списки:Фінляндія
Фауна Фінляндії
Фінляндія
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133464
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem%20Township%2C%20Pennsylvania
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Bethlehem Township, Pennsylvania
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Bethlehem Township, Pennsylvania
Bethlehem Township is a township in Northampton County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population of Bethlehem Township was 23,730 at the 2010 census. It is a suburb of Bethlehem and is part of the Lehigh Valley metropolitan statistical area, which had a population of 861,899 and was the 68th-most populous metropolitan area in the U.S. as of the 2020 census.
Bethlehem Township is located northeast of Allentown, north of Philadelphia, and west of New York City.
Geography
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the township has a total area of , of which is land and (0.61%) is water. It is drained by the Lehigh River, which separates it from Lower Saucon Township. Its villages include Brodhead, Butztown, Farmersville, Middletown, Prospect Park (also in Palmer Township), and Wagnerville.
Neighboring municipalities
Lower Saucon Township (south)
Easton (southeast)
Palmer Township (east)
Lower Nazareth Township (north)
Hanover Township (west)
Bethlehem (southwest)
Freemansburg (southwest)
Climate
Bethlehem Township has a hot-summer humid continental climate (Dfa) and the hardiness zone is 6b. Average monthly temperatures in Farmersville range from 28.8 °F in January to 73.8 °F in July.
History
Prior to the arrival of European settlers, the Lenape Native American tribe lived in present-day Bethlehem Township and elsewhere in Lehigh Valley. The Lehigh River and its Monocacy Creek and Nancy Run tributaries, provided fertile soil and ample fishing opportunities for the Lenape's inhabitants before the arrival of William Penn, newly named "Proprietor" of the Province of Pennsylvania in 1681. In 1737, Penn's family negotiated a land purchase from the Lenape, known as the Walking Purchase. From this agreement, settlement began by Europeans newly arrived in pre-Revolutionary War Pennsylvania.
The municipality of Bethlehem Township was formed in 1746 as a part of Bucks County. The name of Bethlehem itself originated from the German Moravian Brethren on Christmas Eve in 1741. The township, as originally defined, contained the current township as well as the townships of Upper Nazareth and Lower Nazareth. The 1874 edition of Atlas of Northampton County shows Upper and Lower Nazareth Townships had been created, but Bethlehem had not yet annexed the areas of Altona and parcels along Center Street (Bath Pike), Linden Street (Nazareth Pike), and Easton Avenue.
Demographics
As of the 2000 census, there were 21,171 people, 7,619 households, and 5,889 families residing in the township. The population density was . There were 7,831 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the township was 93.27% White, 2.44% African American, 0.07% Native American, 2.20% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 1.14% from other races, and 0.87% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.97% of the population.
There were 7,619 households, out of which 36.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 67.4% were married couples living together, 7.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.7% were non-families. 19.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.69 and the average family size was 3.09.
In the township, the population was spread out, with 25.1% under the age of 18, 6.4% from 18 to 24, 28.1% from 25 to 44, 25.5% from 45 to 64, and 14.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 93.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.5 males. The median income for a household in the township was $60,317, and the median income for a family was $68,427. Males had a median income of $47,363 versus $32,136 for females. The per capita income for the township was $25,141. About 2.2% of families and 2.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.6% of those under age 18 and 4.2% of those age 65 or over.
Transportation
As of 2021, there were of public roads in Bethlehem Township, of which were maintained by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (PennDOT) and were maintained by the township.
U.S. Route 22 and Pennsylvania Route 33 are the main highways serving Bethlehem Township. US 22 follows the Lehigh Valley Thruway along an east–west alignment across the northern part of the township, while PA 33 follows a north–south alignment across the eastern part of the township. The southern terminus of Pennsylvania Route 191 is at US 22 in the northwestern portion of the township, from which it heads north along Nazareth Pike. Other major roads include William Penn Highway and Freemansburg Road, both following east-to-west alignments, with Butztown Road/Hecktown Road, Farmersville Road, and the Main Street Extension all following north-to-south alignments.
Education
Public education
Bethlehem Township is part of the Bethlehem Area School District, which maintains two large public high schools, Freedom High School and Liberty High School. Students in grades nine through 12 attend Freedom High School in the township.
The school district also maintains four middle schools and sixteen elementary schools. Four parochial schools also exist in the area: Notre Dame High School in Easton and Bethlehem Christian School, Moravian Academy, and Our Lady of Pepetual Help, all located in Bethlehem.
Community college
Northampton Community College, Bethlehem Township
Police
, there were 35 full-time officers on the local police force. Police personnel earned 15 of the township's top 20 salaries in 2006 with the highest-paid officer grossing nearly $78,000, according to figures released by the township in 2007.
Emergency services
Bethlehem Township is served by two volunteer fire departments, Bethlehem Township and Nancy Run Fire Companies. Bethlehem Township Volunteer Fire Company Station 17, houses two Engines, one Heavy Rescue, two Utility Vehicles, two ATVs, two Brush Units, Rescue Boat and two command vehicles. This station also provides Emergency Medical Services and offers BLS and ALS capabilities to the township, its fleet consists of six ALS ambulances, rehab trailer and supervisors QRS vehicle. Nancy Run Fire Company Station 14, houses three Engines, one Truck (100 ft.) Tower Ladder, one Utility Truck, one Light and Air Truck, and two Command Vehicles. Both departments average more than 900 fire calls annually making them the busiest volunteer fire companies in Northampton county.
Parks and recreation
Bethlehem Township's parks system provides recreation opportunities for its residents through a series of parks, trail systems, and greenways. The township's two largest parks, Municipal Park on Farmersville Road in the center of the township and the Janet Johnston Housenick and William D. Housenick Memorial Park on Christian Spring Road in the northwestern corner of the township, provide dozens of acres of green space. Municipal Park features a modern recreation facility with tennis and basketball courts, a fitness trail, hardball and softball fields, and other modern amenities. The Housenick Park property consists of conserved lands which formed part of the Camel's Hump Farm property of Archibald Johnston, the first mayor of the consolidated city of Bethlehem.
Complementing the active and passive park facilities in the township is the Palmer/Bethlehem Rail Trail, a bicycle and walking trail near the north bank of the Lehigh River linking the county seat of Easton to the east with the city of Bethlehem, the largest municipality in the county.
Notes
External links
Official township website
Townships in Northampton County, Pennsylvania
Townships in Pennsylvania
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373266
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing%20737
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Boeing 737
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Boeing 737
Боїнг 737 — близько- та середньомагістральний дводвигунний вузькофюзеляжний пасажирський реактивний літак, який розробила та виробляє компанія Boeing Commercial Airplanes. В березні 2018-ого року компанія виготовила 10 000-й літак цієї моделі, це робить його наймасовішим реактивним літаком, що виготовляється, за всю історію пасажирського авіабудування. 2006 року у світі експлуатується понад 4500 літаків Боїнг-737, що складає більше чверті від загальної чисельності парку великих цивільних літаків, щосекунди в повітрі перебуває понад 1000 таких літаків. Модель Боїнг-737 входить до складу парку понад 540 авіакомпаній, маршрутні мережі яких зв'язують понад 1200 міст в 190 країнах.
Модифікації
До складу сімейства Боїнг 737 входять перші модифікації Боїнг 737—100 і Боїнг 737—200, які увійшли до комерційної експлуатації в 1968 році, модифікації серії Classic (Боїнг 737—300, Боїнг 737—400 і Боїнг 737—500), що увійшли до експлуатації в 1980-х роках, а також новітні модифікації серії Next-Generation (Боїнг 737—600, Боїнг 737—700, Боїнг 737—800 і Боїнг 737-900ER), що увійшли до експлуатації в 1998 році.
Боїнг 737—300 пасажирський літак для авіаліній малої та середньої протяжності. Створений у 1981 році для американських авіакомпаній USair та Southwest Airlines. Літак припинили будувати у 1999 році. Зараз найбільше Боїнгів 737—300 літає в авіакомпанії Southwest Airlines (173 машини).
Боїнг 737—400 — пасажирський літак для авіаліній малої та середньої протяжності. Розробляти літак 737—400 фірма «Боїнг» офіційно розпочала на початку червня 1986 року, отримавши замовлення від американської авіакомпанії «П'ємонт Ерлайнз» на 55 літаків. Льотні випробування дослідного літака почалися 23 лютого 1988 року, сертифікація завершилася у вересні, а 1 жовтня був виконаний перший комерційний рейс.
Боїнг 737—500 — пасажирський літак для авіаліній малої протяжності. Він був створений для заміни застарілої моделі 737—200.
Боїнг 737—600 — пасажирський літак для авіаліній малої та середньої протяжності. Створений для заміни моделі 737—500. Після завершення будівництва Боїнга 717 Боїнг 737—600 залишився єдиним стомісним Боїнгом.
Боїнг 737—700 — пасажирський літак для авіаліній малої та середньої протяжності. Літак створений задля заміни застарілого Боїнга 737—300. 737—700 має нове крило, з покращеною аеродинамікою. Також на кінчиках крил є нові вінглети. Вони покращують аеродинаміку крил.
Спочатку літак був сертифікований з максимальною злітною масою 62,88 т, а в березні 1989 року — зі злітною масою 68,1 т. Основна відмінність цього літака від базової моделі 737—300 полягає в збільшенні фюзеляжу на 3,05 м і застосуванні потужніших двигунів CFM56.
Технічні характеристики
Висота кіля: 12,6 м (-600), 12,5 м (-700, -800, -900, -900ER).
Максимальна ширина пасажирського салону: 3,5 м (всі моделі).
Двигуни: Пратт & Уітні JT8D (-100, -200), CFMI CFM56-3 (-300, -400, -500), CFMI CFM56-7 (-600, -700, -800, -900, -900ER).
Вартість (доларів США): від 51,5 млн до 87 млн $ в цінах 2008 року.
Аварії та катастрофи Boeing-737
1995
9 серпня в Сальвадорі при підльоті до Сан-Сальвадору врізався в вулкан Чіконтепек «Боїнг 737» гватемальської компанії «Авіатека». Загинули всі 60 осіб, що перебували на його борту.
1999
31 серпня в аеропорту Буенос-Айреса при зльоті впав аргентинський «Боїнг 737». Загинули близько 80 осіб.
2002
14 січня семеро людей отримали поранення під час аварії індонезійського пасажирського літака «Боїнг 737», що належить приватній авіакомпанії «Лайон Ейрлайнс». Літак з 96 пасажирами на борту впав на землю одразу після зльоту з аеропорту міста Пеканбару, що перебував за 700 кілометрів від Джакарти. При падінні з хвостової частини літака йшов дим, один двигун відвалився, отримало пошкодження одне з крил.
17 січня в Центральній Яві екстрену посадку на річку зробив літак «Боїнг 737» індонезійської авіакомпанії «Гаруда» з 51 пасажиром на борту. Лайнер, що здійснював рейс з індонезійського острова Ломбок в місто Джок'якарта, приводнився, не долетівши до місця призначення всього 30 кілометрів. Причина катастрофи невідома. Ніхто з пасажирів і членів екіпажу не загинув, проте кілька людей отримали поранення. При посадці праве крило літака відірвалося, а фюзеляж отримав незначні пошкодження.
7 травня пасажирський літак «Боїнг 737» єгипетської авіакомпанії «Іджіпт-ейр», що прямував з Каїра до Тунісу, зазнав катастрофи неподалік від столиці Тунісу. Диспетчери аеропорту отримали сигнал лиха, після чого зв'язок з літаком був втрачений. Лайнер врізався в вершину пагорба, розташованого за 10 кілометрів від туніського аеропорту. Головна причина аварії — погана видимість, викликана дощем і туманом. На борту літака перебувало 63 людини — 56 пасажирів і 7 членів екіпажу. У живих залишилися 33 людини, 27 з них отримали поранення та удари різного ступеня тяжкості.
2003
6 березня в Алжирі зазнав катастрофи «Боїнг 737» алжирської авіакомпанії. Під час зльоту загорівся один з двигунів. Літак упав за 600 метрів від аеродрому. На борту перебувало 103 людини, вижила лише одна.
8 липня в Судані розбився «Боїнг 737» суданської авіакомпанії. Літак упав відразу після зльоту і загорівся. На борту лайнера перебували 116 пасажирів, дивом вижила тільки дворічна дитина.
25 грудня в Беніні впав «Боїнг 737» однієї з чартерних авіакомпаній. На борту перебував 161 особа, загинули 138 осіб. Аварія сталася через перевантаженість лайнера.
2004
3 січня в результаті падіння «Боїнг 737» до Червоного моря в Єгипті загинули всі, хто був на борту 148 осіб. Літак належав одній із приватних авіакомпаній і здійснював рейс Шарм-еш-Шейх — Каїр — Париж.
2005
3 лютого в Афганістані розбився «Боїнг 737» афганської авіакомпанії. Загинули 96 пасажирів і 8 членів екіпажу.
14 серпня «Боїнг 737», на борту якого перебував 121 людина, розбився в горах недалеко від Афін. Катастрофа авіалайнера першої приватної авіакомпанії Кіпру Helios Airways, що здійснював рейс з Ларнаки до Афін і далі до Праги, стала найбільшою авіакатастрофою з тих, що траплялися в Греції. Причиною стала розгерметизація кабіни літака з вини інженерів компанії, вони вимкнули автогерметізацію салону. Екіпаж знепритомнів і літак врізався в гору після того, як закінчилося пальне.
5 вересня на індонезійському острові Суматра розбився пасажирський літак «Боїнг-737-200». Лайнер місцевої авіакомпанії Mandala Airlines прямував рейсом з м. Медан до Джакарти. Аварія сталася через лише одну хвилину після зльоту. Літак впав прямо на житловий квартал. В результаті падіння літака виникла сильна пожежа. Загинули 147 людей — 112 пасажирів і п'ять членів екіпажу, а також 30 осіб на землі.
22 жовтня в Нігерії зазнав катастрофи «Боїнг 737» авіакомпанії «Бельв'ю ейрлайнз», який незабаром після зльоту з аеропорту Лагосу впав на прилеглу плантацію дерев какао. За свідченнями очевидців, літак вибухнув ще в повітрі, а потім його уламки впали на землю, утворивши декілька воронок глибиною по вісім метрів. Загинули всі 117 осіб, що перебували на борту. Попередня версія катастрофи — удар блискавки.
2006
29 вересня у Бразилії сталася катастрофа пасажирського літака «Боїнг 737—800». На борту лайнера, що виконував рейс з амазонського міста Манаус в Ріо-де-Жанейро з проміжною посадкою в Бразиліа, перебувало 155 осіб — 149 пасажирів і 6 членів екіпажу.
29 жовтня поблизу аеропорту нігерійської столиці Абуджі впав відразу після зльоту і загорівся Боїнг-737 зі 104 пасажирами та екіпажем на борту. Загинув лідер нігерійських мусульман, султан Сокото Мухаммаду Мачідо, його син — сенатор, а також син колишнього президента Нігерії Шеху Шагара. Зі 105 пасажирів і членів екіпажа «Боїнга-737» вижили дев'ятеро людей. Причиною авіакатастрофи стала помилка пілота.
2007
1 січня «Боїнг 737—400» приватної індонезійської авіакомпанії «Едам Ейр» розбився в західній частині острова Сулавесі. На борту літака перебувало 102 людини: 96 пасажирів (у тому числі 11 дітей) і шестеро членів екіпажу. Усі вони загинули.
5 травня, в Камеруні поблизу м. Дуала розбився пасажирський літак «Боїнг 737—800», що належав компанії «Кенія ейрвейз» і виконував рейс Дуала-Найробі. В результаті цієї трагедії загинуло 114 осіб: 105 пасажирів і 9 членів екіпажу.
7 березня при посадці в аеропорту індонезійського міста Джок'якарта на острові Ява зазнав катастрофи пасажирський літак «Боїнг 737—400» індонезійської державної авіакомпанії «Гаруда». Літак загорівся, виїхавши за межі злітно-посадкової смуги. На його борту, за різними даними, перебували 133 людини, жертвами авіакатастрофи стали 22 людини.
5 травня кенійський авіалайнер «Боїнг 737—800» зі 105 пасажирами та дев'ятьма членами екіпажу зазнав катастрофи на півдні Камеруну. Літак вилетів з камерунського міста Дуала до столиці Кенії Найробі; відразу після зльоту радіоконтакт з пасажирським літаком був втрачений.
2008
1 січня «Боїнг 737» індонезійської компанії «Адам ейр» звалився в океан між островами Ява і Сулавесі. Літак здійснював рейс з аеропорту міста Сурабая на східній Яві до столиці провінції Північний Сулавесі Манадо. Загинуло 100 осіб. Катастрофа сталася через помилку пілотів та несправності навігаційного устаткування.
24 серпня літак «Боїнг 737» авіакомпанії «Ітек Ейр», що виконував рейс Бішкек — Тегеран, через 12 хвилин після вильоту з Бішкека спробував здійснити аварійну посадку, але впав у полі за два кілометри від міжнародного аеропорту «Манас» і загорівся. На борту перебували 83 пасажири та 7 членів екіпажу, з них вижили 26 осіб.
14 вересня в Пермі розбився пасажирський літак «Боїнг 737—500» авіакомпанії «Аерофлот-Норд», що виконував рейс за маршрутом Москва-Перм. На борту літака перебував 88 осіб. Усі загинули.
1 жовтня в аеропорту Калінінграда «Храброво» літак Боїнг 737—300 авіакомпанії «КД-Авіа» здійснив аварійну посадку на злітно-посадкову смугу без випущених шасі. Літак отримав значні пошкодження, зокрема нижній частині фюзеляжу. на борту літака перебували 138 осіб, з них одна дитина і шість членів екіпажу. Жертв та постраждалих немає.
20 грудня літак Boeing 737—524 1994 року випуску, що належить американській авіакомпанії Continental Air Lines, виконував місцевий пасажирський рейс з Денвера до Х'юстона. На борту перебувало 110 пасажирів і 5 членів екіпажу. При виконанні зльоту зі злітної смуги правою викотився за межі смуги (близько 2000 футів від початку розбігу) і загорівся. 38 осіб були доставлені до лікарні.
2009
25 лютого в Голландії розбився турецький пасажирський літак Боїнг 737. Літак зазнав аварії при спробі здійснити посадку в аеропорту Амстердама. При падінні лайнер розвалився на три частини. На борту літака перебувало 135 осіб.
23 грудня авіалайнер Boeing 737 американської авіакомпанії American Airlines розбився в аеропорту столиці Ямайки міста Кінгстон. На борту літака були 152 людини. Ніхто з них не загинув, понад 40 постраждали.
2010
25 січня літак «Боїнг 737» авіакомпанії Ethiopian Airlines, що виконував рейс Бейрут — Аддис-Абеба з 90 пасажирами на борту, впав в Середземне море.
13 квітня в аеропорту «Рендані» міста Манокварі, столиці індонезійської провінції Західне Папуа літак індонезійської авіакомпанії Merpati здійснював посадку під проливним дощем, з'їхав зі злітно-посадкової смуги в річку і розвалився на декілька частин, двадцять осіб отримали поранення різного ступеня тяжкості. На борту літака перебувало 100 осіб.
22 травня під час заходу на посадку в аеропорту Мангалора розбився літак Боїнг-737 компанії Air India, що прямував з Дубая, зі 166 людей на борту вижило 8.
16 серпня «Боїнг 737» компанії Aires зі 131 пасажиром на борту при заході на посадку на колумбійському острові Сан-Андрес в Карибському морі на посадковій смузі розколовся на три частини, загинула одна людина, є поранені.
2011
30 липня у міжнародному аеропорту Чедді Джаган в Гаяні Boeing 737—800 авіакомпаній Caribbean Airlines, що виконував рейс з Нью-Йорка в Гаяну із зупинкою в Тринідад і Тобаго, в умовах поганої видимості через дощ викотився за межі злітно-посадкової смуги та розвалився на дві частини. Ніхто зі 140 пасажирів не загинув.
20 серпня розбився «Боїнг 737» канадської авіакомпанії First Air, що прямував з Єллоунайф в одне із найпівнічніших поселень країни Резольют, загинули 12 людей з 15 на борту.
2012
20 квітня в Ісламабаді розбився пасажирський літак «Боїнг 737—200», на борту якого перебувало 127 осіб.
2013
18 травня при приземленні в аеропорту Внуково літака авіакомпанії «UTair» (рейс «Ставрополь-Москва») сталося руйнування коліс шасі з наступним горінням. По аварійному трапу були евакуйовані 136 пасажирів. Ніхто не постраждав.
17 листопада Boeing 737—500 авіакомпанії «Татарстан» рейсу Москва-Казань розбився при спробі приземлення в Казані о 19:26 за місцевим часом. Всі 44 пасажири та 6 членів екіпажу загинули. Літак знаходився в експлуатації протягом 23 років (з 1990), компанія «Татарстан» була сьомим експлуатантом (лізинг) літака. Серед загиблих: 2 дітей, син президента Татарстану Ірек Мінніханов, голова УФСБ Татарстану генерал О. Антонов.
2018
29 жовтня літак індонезійської авіакомпанії впав у Яванське море. Всі 189 пасажирів та 7 членів екіпажу загинули.
2019
10 березня літак моделі Boeing 737 MAX Ефіопських авіаліній зазнав аварії в Кенії. Всі 149 пасажирів і 8 членів екіпажу загинули.
2020
8 січня літак моделі Boeing 737—800 авіакомпанії МАУ був збитий Іранськими військовими неподалік Тегерану, Іран. Всі 167 пасажирів та 9 членів екіпажу загинули. Незабаром із брифінгу прем'єр-міністра України стало відомо, що двоє пасажирів не сіли на борт літака. За попередньою інформацією міністра закордонних справ України загинули громадяни наступних держав:
Іран — 82;
Канада — 63;
Україна — 2 + 9(екіпаж);
Швеція — 10;
Афганістан — 4;
ФРН — 3;
Велика Британія — 3.
11 січня 2020 року Іран визнав, що літак було збито випадково ракетою російського виробництва.
2024
26 квітня, згідно повідомлення новинної мережі ABC News, літак Delta Airlines Boeing 767−300, який прямував з Нью-Йорка до Лос-Анджелеса (США), незабаром після зльоту втратив аварійний трап. Пілоти передали інформацію про стукіт і вібрацію літака та провівши у повітрі всього 33 хвилини, літак знову приземлився у Міжнародному аеропорту імені Джона Кеннеді. Зазначається, що компанія Boeing переживає серйозну кризу, яка пов’язана з безпековими питаннями. Тільки за квітень 2024 року з літаками Boeing були зафіксовані інциденти пов'язані зі втратою шин при зльоті, з відривом від літака шматків обшивки, спалахом турбіни. Особливий ажіотаж викликала аварійна ситуація, яка трапилася у січні 2024 року з літаком Boeing 737−9, коли під час польоту у нього відірвалися двері аварійного виходу. У цей момент літак перебував на висоті 5 тис. м.
Виноски
Посилання
Сторінка сімейства Боїнг 737 на сайті Boeing
Катастрофы самолетов «Боинг-737» (1995‑2009 гг). Справка
Пасажирські літаки
З'явилися 1967
1967 в авіації
Літаки Boeing
Двомоторні реактивні літаки
Патрульні літаки
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1234415
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%81
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Аноліс
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Аноліс (Anolis) — найбільший рід ящірок з родини анолісових. Має 213 видів.
Опис
Загальна довжина представників цього роду коливається від 10 до 50 см. Більшість анолісів характеризуються трикутною, розширеною ззаду головою, струнким помірно стислим з боків тулубом з добре розвиненими лапами. Задні кінцівки довші за передні. Тіло вкрите дрібною однорідною лускою, серед якої по хребту та верхній стороні хвоста нерідко розташовується невисокий гребінь з великої трикутної луски. Пальці анолісів знизу вкриті розширеними пластинками з прикріплюючими щіточками, які тягнуться поперечними рядками. Ці щіточки вкриті дрібним гачкоподібним волоссям. Хвіст довгий, поступово тоншає, на кінці не закручується.
Аноліси мають яскраве забарвлення, здебільшого в зелених або коричневих тонах. Самці з яскравою червоною, помаранчевою, жовтою або ліловою віялоподібною горловою торбою, яка підтримується паличкоподібними хрящами. Зустрічаються види з блакитною плямою на горловій торбі. Ці ящірки здатні змінювати забарвлення залежно від умов навколишнього середовища. У такому випадку відтінок стає темнішим.
Спосіб життя
Полюбляють лісисту місцину. Більшість веде деревний спосіб життя, деякі наземний. Харчуються комахами та іншими безхребетними.
Це яйцекладні ящірки. Самиці відкладають 1-6 яєць у землі, дуплах, гронах бромелій. Процес інкубації триває від 25 до 90 діб.
Анолісів часто люди тримають у себе вдома, містять їх у тераріумах вертикального типу з хорошим озелененням.
Розповсюдження
Мешкають від півдня Північної Америки до Болівії і Парагваю та островів Карибського басейну. Зустрічаються також у південних та деяких південно-східних штатах США.
Види
Рід Anolis нараховує 440 видів:
Anolis acutus Hallowell, 1856
Anolis aeneus Gray, 1840
Anolis aequatorialis F. Werner, 1898
Anolis agassizi Stejneger, 1900
Anolis agueroi (Díaz, Navarro & Garrido, 1998)
Anolis ahli Barbour, 1925
Anolis alayoni Estrada & Hedges, 1995
Anolis alfaroi Garrido & Hedges, 1992
Anolis aliniger Mertens, 1939
Anolis allisoni Barbour, 1928
Anolis allogus Barbour & Ramsden, 1919
Anolis alocomyos Köhler, Vargas, & Lotzkat, 2014
Anolis altae Dunn, 1930
Anolis altavelensis Noble & Hassler, 1933
Anolis altitudinalis Garrido, 1985
Anolis alumina Hertz, 1976
Anolis alutaceus Cope, 1861
Anolis alvarezdeltoroi Nieto Montes de Oca, 1996
Anolis amplisquamosus (McCranie, Wilson & K. Williams, 1993)
Anolis anatoloros Ugueto, Rivas, Barros, Sánchez-Pacheco & García-Pérez, 2007
Anolis anchicayae Poe, Velasco, Miyata & E. Williams, 2009
Anolis anfiloquioi Garrido, 1980
Anolis angusticeps Hallowell, 1856
Anolis anisolepis H.M. Smith, Burley & Fritts, 1968
Anolis annectens E. Williams, 1974
Anolis anoriensis Velasco, Gutiérrez-Cárdenas & Quintero-Angel, 2010
Anolis antioquiae E. Williams, 1985
Anolis antonii Boulenger, 1908
Anolis apletolepis Kohler & Hedges, 2016
Anolis apletophallus G. Köhler & Sunyer, 2008
Anolis apollinaris Boulenger, 1919
Anolis aquaticus Taylor, 1956
Anolis arenal (Köhler & Vargas, 2019)
Anolis argenteolus Cope, 1861
Anolis argillaceus Cope, 1862
Anolis aridius (Köhler, Zimmer, McGrath, & Hedges, 2019)
Anolis armouri (Cochran, 1934)
Anolis auratus Daudin, 1802
Anolis aurifer Schwartz, 1968
Anolis australis (Köhler, Zimmer, McGrath, & Hedges, 2019)
Anolis bahorucoensis Noble & Hassler, 1933
Anolis baleatus (Cope, 1864)
Anolis baracoae Schwartz, 1964
Anolis barahonae E. Williams, 1962
Anolis barbatus (Garrido, 1982)
Anolis barbouri (Schmidt, 1919)
Anolis barkeri (Schmidt, 1939)
Anolis bartschi (Cochran, 1934)
Anolis beckeri
Anolis bellipeniculus (Myers & Donnelly, 1996)
Anolis benedikti Lotzkat, Bienentreu, Hertz & G. Köhler, 2011
Anolis bicaorum (G. Köhler, 1996)
Anolis bimaculatus (Sparrman, 1784)
Anolis binotatus W. Peters, 1863
Anolis biporcatus (Wiegmann, 1834)
Anolis birama Garrido, 1980
Anolis bitectus Cope, 1864
Anolis blanquillanus Hummelinck, 1940
Anolis boettgeri Boulenger, 1911
Anolis bombiceps Cope, 1876
Anolis bonairensis Ruthven, 1923
Anolis boulengerianus Thominot, 1887
Anolis brasiliensis Vanzolini & Williams, 1970
Anolis bremeri Barbour, 1914
Anolis breslini Schwartz, 1980
Anolis brevirostris Bocourt, 1870
Anolis brianjuliani (Köhler, Petersen, & Méndez de la Cruz, 2019)
Anolis brooksi Barbour, 1923
Anolis brunneus Cope, 1894
Anolis caceresae (Hofmann & Townsend, 2018)
Anolis calimae Ayala, Harris & E. Williams, 1993
Anolis callainus Köhler & Hedges, 2020
Anolis campbelli (G. Köhler & E.N. Smith), 2008
Anolis capito W. Peters, 1863
Anolis caquetae E. Williams, 1974
Anolis carlliebi G. Köhler et al., 2014
Anolis carlostoddi (E. Williams, Praderio & Gorzula, 1996)
Anolis carolinensis Voigt, 1832
Anolis carpenteri A.A. Echelle, A.F. Echelle & Fitch, 1971
Anolis casildae Arosemena, Ibáñez & De Sousa, 1991
Anolis caudalis Cochran, 1932
Anolis centralis J. Peters, 1970
Anolis chamaeleonides A.M.C. Duméril & Bibron, 1837
Anolis charlesmyersi Köhler, 2010
Anolis chloris Boulenger, 1898
Anolis chlorocyanus A.M.C. Duméril & Bibron, 1837
Anolis chlorodius Kohler & Hedges, 2016
Anolis christophei E. Williams, 1960
Anolis chrysolepis A.M.C. Duméril & Bibron, 1837
Anolis chrysops Lazell, 1964
Anolis clivicola Barbour & Shreve, 1935
Anolis cobanensis L. Stuart, 1942
Anolis compressicauda Smith & Kerster, 1955
Anolis concolor Cope, 1863
Anolis confusus Estrada & Garrido, 1991
Anolis conspersus Garman, 1887
Anolis cooki Grant, 1931
Anolis crassulus Cope, 1864
Anolis cristatellus A.M.C. Duméril & Bibron, 1837
Anolis cristifer H.M. Smith, 1968
Anolis cryptolimifrons G. Köhler & Sunyer, 2008
Anolis cupeyalensis J. Peters, 1970
Anolis cupreus Hallowell, 1860
Anolis cuprinus H.M. Smith, 1964
Anolis cuscoensis (Poe, Yañez-Miranda & Lehr, 2008)
Anolis cusuco (McCranie, G. Köhler & Wilson, 2000)
Anolis cuvieri Merrem, 1820
Anolis cyanopleurus Cope, 1861
Anolis cyanostictus Mertens, 1939
Anolis cybotes (Cope, 1862)
Anolis cymbops (Cope, 1864)
Anolis damulus Cope, 1864
Anolis danieli E. Williams, 1988
Anolis darlingtoni (Cochran, 1935)
Anolis datzorum Köhler, Ponce, Sunyer, & Batista, 2007
Anolis delafuentei Garrido, 1982
Anolis deltae E. Williams, 1974
Anolis demissus Schwartz, 1969
Anolis desechensis Heatwole, 1976
Anolis desiradei Lazell, 1964
Anolis dissimilis E. Williams, 1965
Anolis distichus Cope, 1861
Anolis divius Kohler & Hedges, 2016
Anolis dolichocephalus E. Williams, 1963
Anolis dollfusianus Bocourt, 1873
Anolis dominicensis Reinhardt & Lütken, 1863
Anolis doris Barbour, 1925
Anolis dracula Yánez-Muñoz et al., 2018
Anolis duellmani Fitch & Henderson, 1973
Anolis dunni Smith, 1936
Anolis eladioi Kohler & Hedges, 2016
Anolis elcopeensis Poe, Scarpetta, & Schaad, 2015
Anolis equestris (Merrem, 1820)
Anolis ernestwilliamsi Lazell, 1983
Anolis etheridgei E. Williams, 1962
Anolis eugenegrahami (Schwartz, 1978)
Anolis eulaemus Boulenger, 1908
Anolis euskalerriari (Barros, E. Williams, and Viloria, 1996)
Anolis evermanni Stejneger, 1904
Anolis extremus Garman, 1887
Anolis fairchildi Barbour & Shreve, 1935
Anolis fasciatus Boulenger, 1885
Anolis favillarum Schwartz, 1968
Anolis ferreus (Cope, 1864)
Anolis festae Peracca, 1904
Anolis fitchi Williams & Duellman, 1984
Anolis forresti Barbour, 1923
Anolis fortunensis Arosemena & Ibanez, 1993
Anolis fowleri Schwartz, 1973
Anolis fraseri Günther, 1859
Anolis frenatus Cope, 1899
Anolis fugitivus Garrido, 1975
Anolis fungosus Myers, 1971
Anolis fuscoauratus D'Orbigny, 1837
Anolis gadovii Boulenger, 1905
Anolis gaigei Ruthven, 1916
Anolis garmani Stejneger, 1899
Anolis garridoi Diaz, Estrada & Moreno, 1996
Anolis gemmosus O'Shaughnessy, 1875
Anolis gibbiceps Cope, 1864
Anolis ginaelisae (Lotzkat, Bienentreu, Hertz & G. Köhler, 2013)
Anolis gingivinus Cope, 1864
Anolis gonavensis Kohler & Hedges, 2016
Anolis gorgonae Barbour, 1905
Anolis gracilipes Boulenger, 1898
Anolis grahami Gray, 1845
Anolis granuliceps Boulenger, 1898
Anolis griseus Garman, 1887
Anolis gruuo Köhler, Ponce, Sunyer & Batista, 2007
Anolis guafe Estrada & Garrido, 1991
Anolis guamuhaya (Garrido, Pérez-Beato, & Moreno, 1991)
Anolis guazuma Garrido, 1984
Anolis gundlachi Peters, 1877
Anolis haguei L. Stuart, 1942
Anolis hendersoni Cochran, 1923
Anolis heterodermus A.H.A. Duméril, 1851
Anolis heteropholidotus Mertens, 1952
Anolis higuey (Köhler, Zimmer, McGrath, & Hedges, 2019)
Anolis hispaniolae (Köhler, Zimmer, McGrath, & Hedges, 2019)
Anolis hobartsmithi Nieto-Montes de Oca, 2001
Anolis homolechis (Cope, 1864)
Anolis huilae Williams, 1982
Anolis humilis Peters, 1863
Anolis hyacinthogularis Torres-Carvajal, Ayala-Varela, Lobos, Poe, & Narvaez, 2017
Anolis ibague Williams, 1975
Anolis ibanezi Poe, Latella, Ryan, & Schaad, 2009
Anolis ignigularis Mertens, 1939
Anolis imias Ruibal & Williams, 1961
Anolis immaculogularis Köhler et al., 2014
Anolis impetigosus Cope, 1864
Anolis incredulus Garrido & Moreno, 1998
Anolis inderenae (Rueda & Hernández-Camacho, 1988)
Anolis inexpectatus Garrido & Estrada, 1989
Anolis insignis Cope, 1871
Anolis insolitus Williams & Rand, 1969
Anolis isolepis (Cope, 1861)
Anolis jacare Boulenger, 1903
Anolis johnmeyeri Wilson & McCranie, 1982
Anolis juangundlachi Garrido, 1975
Anolis jubar Schwartz, 1968
Anolis kahouannensis Lazell, 1964
Anolis kathydayae Poe & Ryan, 2017
Anolis kemptoni Dunn, 1940
Anolis koopmani Rand, 1961
Anolis kreutzi (McCranie, Köhler, & Wilson, 2000)
Anolis krugi Peters, 1877
Anolis kunalayae Hulebak, Poe, Ibánez, & Williams, 2007
Anolis laevis (Cope, 1875)
Anolis laeviventris (Wiegmann, 1834)
Anolis lamari Williams, 1992
Anolis landestoyi Mahler et al., 2016
Anolis latifrons Berthold, 1846
Anolis leachii Duméril & Bibron, 1837
Anolis leditzigorum (Köhler, Vargas, & Lotzkat, 2014)
Anolis lemniscatus Boulenger, 1898
Anolis lemurinus Cope, 1861
Anolis leucodera Kohler & Hedges, 2016
Anolis limifrons Cope, 1871
Anolis limon Velasco & Hurtado-Gomez, 2014
Anolis lineatopus Gray, 1840
Anolis lineatus Daudin, 1802
Anolis liogaster Boulenger, 1905
Anolis lionotus Cope, 1861
Anolis litoralis Garrido, 1975
Anolis lividus Garman, 1887
Anolis longiceps Schmidt, 1919
Anolis longitibialis Noble, 1923
Anolis lososi Torres-Carvajal, Ayala-Varela, Lobos, Poe, & Narvaez, 2017
Anolis loveridgei Schmidt, 1936
Anolis loysiana (Cocteau, 1836)
Anolis luciae Garman, 1888
Anolis lucius Duméril & Bibron, 1837
Anolis luteogularis Noble & Hassler, 1935
Anolis luteosignifer Garman, 1888
Anolis lynchi Miyata, 1985
Anolis lyra Poe, Velasco, Miyata, & Williams, 2009
Anolis macilentus Garrido & Hedges, 1992
Anolis macrinii H.M. Smith, 1968
Anolis macrolepis Boulenger, 1911
Anolis macrophallus F. Werner, 1917
Anolis maculigula E. Williams, 1984
Anolis maculiventris Boulenger, 1898
Anolis magnaphallus Poe & Ibánez, 2007
Anolis maia (Batista, Vesely, Mebert, Lotzkat & G. Köhler, 2015)
Anolis marcanoi E. Williams, 1975
Anolis mariarum Barbour, 1932
Anolis marmoratus A.M.C. Duméril & Bibron, 1837
Anolis marron Arnold, 1980
Anolis marsupialis Taylor, 1956
Anolis matudai H.M. Smith, 1956
Anolis maynardii Garman, 1888
Anolis mccraniei (G. Köhler, Townsend & Petersen, 2016)
Anolis medemi Ayala & E. Williams, 1988
Anolis megalopithecus Rueda-Almonacid, 1989
Anolis megapholidotus Smith, 1933
Anolis menta Ayala, Harris & E. Williams, 1984
Anolis meridionalis Boettger, 1885
Anolis mestrei Barbour & Ramsden, 1916
Anolis microlepidotus Davis, 1954
Anolis microtus Cope, 1871
Anolis milleri H.M. Smith, 1950
Anolis mirus E. Williams, 1963
Anolis monensis Stejneger, 1904
Anolis monteverde G. Köhler, 2009
Anolis monticola Shreve, 1936
Anolis morazani Townsend & Wilson, 2009
Anolis muralla (Köhler, McCranie & Wilson, 1999)
Anolis nasofrontalis (Amaral, 1933)
Anolis naufragus (Campbell, Hillis, & Lamar, 1989)
Anolis neblininus (Myers, Williams, & McDiarmid, 1993)
Anolis nebuloides (Bocourt, 1873)
Anolis nebulosus (Wiegmann, 1834)
Anolis neglectus Prates, Melo-Sampaio, de Queiroz, Carnaval, Rodrigues, & Oliveira-Drummond, 2019
Anolis nelsoni Barbour, 1914
Anolis nemonteae Ayala-Varela, Valverde, Poe, Narvaez, Yanez-Munoz, & Torres-Carvajal, 2021
Anolis nicefori (Dunn, 1944)
Anolis nietoi Köhler et al., 2014
Anolis nigrolineatus Williams, 1965
Anolis noblei Barbour & Shreve, 1935
Anolis notopholis Boulenger, 1896
Anolis nubilis Garman, 1888
Anolis occultus Williams & Rivero, 1965
Anolis ocelloscapularis (Köhler, McCranie & Wilson, 2001)
Anolis oculatus (Cope, 1879)
Anolis oligaspis Cope, 1894
Anolis olssoni Schmidt, 1919
Anolis omiltemanus Davis, 1954
Anolis onca (O'Shaughnessy, 1875)
Anolis opalinus Gosse, 1850
Anolis ophiolepis (Cope, 1862)
Anolis oporinus Garrido & Hedges, 2001
Anolis orcesi (Lazell, 1969)
Anolis ortonii Cope, 1868
Anolis osa Köhler, Dehling, & Köhler, 2010
Anolis otongae Ayala-Varela & Velasco, 2010
Anolis oxylophus Cope, 1868
Anolis pachypus Cope, 1876
Anolis parilis Williams, 1975
Anolis parvauritus Williams, 1966
Anolis parvicirculatus Álvarez del Toro & H.M. Smith, 1956
Anolis paternus Hardy, 1967
Anolis pecuarius Schwartz, 1969
Anolis pentaprion Cope, 1863
Anolis peraccae Boulenger, 1898
Anolis peruensis Poe, Latella, Ayala-Varela, Yañez-Miranda, & Torres-Carvajal, 2015
Anolis petersii Bocourt, 1873
Anolis peucephilus Kohler, Trejo-Perez, Petersen, & Mendez De La Cruz, 2014
Anolis peynadoi Mertens, 1939
Anolis phyllorhinus Myers & Carvalho, 1945
Anolis pigmaequestris Garrido, 1975
Anolis pijolense (McCranie, Wilson, & Williams, 1993)
Anolis pinchoti Cochran, 1931
Anolis placidus Hedges & Thomas, 1989
Anolis planiceps Troschel, 1848
Anolis podocarpus (Ayala-Varela & Torres-Carvajal, 2010)
Anolis poecilopus Cope, 1862
Anolis poei Ayala-Varela, Troya-Rodríguez, Talero-Rodríguez, & Torres-Carvajal, 2014
Anolis pogus Lazell, 1972
Anolis polylepis Peters, 1874
Anolis poncensis Stejneger, 1904
Anolis porcatus Gray, 1840
Anolis porcus (Cope, 1864)
Anolis prasinorius Kohler & Hedges, 2016
Anolis princeps Boulenger, 1902
Anolis proboscis Peters & Orces, 1956
Anolis properus Schwartz, 1968
Anolis propinquus Williams, 1984
Anolis pseudokemptoni Köhler, Ponce, Sunyer, & Batista, 2007
Anolis pseudopachypus Köhler, Ponce, Sunyer, & Batista, 2007
Anolis pseudotigrinus Amaral, 1933
Anolis pulchellus Duméril & Bibron, 1837
Anolis pumilus Garrido, 1988
Anolis punctatus Daudin, 1802
Anolis purpurescens Cope, 1899
Anolis purpurgularis (McCranie, Cruz, & Holm, 1993)
Anolis purpuronectes Gray, Meza-Lazaro, Poe, & Nieto-Montes De Oca, 2016
Anolis pygmaeus Álvarez del Toro & H.M Smith, 1956
Anolis quadriocellifer Barbour & Ramsden, 1919
Anolis quaggulus Cope, 1885
Anolis quercorum Fitch, 1979
Anolis quimbaya Moreno-Arias, Méndez-Galeano, Beltrán, & Vargas-Ramírez, 2023
Anolis ravifaux Schwartz & Henderson, 1982
Anolis ravitergum Schwartz, 1968
Anolis reconditus Underwood & Williams, 1959
Anolis rejectus Garrido & Schwartz, 1972
Anolis richardii Duméril & Bibron, 1837
Anolis richteri Dunn, 1944
Anolis ricordii Duméril & Bibron, 1837
Anolis rimarum Thomas & Schwartz, 1967
Anolis riparius Chaves, Ryan, Bolaños, Márquez, Köhler & Poe, 2023
Anolis rivalis Williams, 1984
Anolis roatanensis (Köhler & McCranie, 2001)
Anolis robinsoni Chaves, Ryan, Bolaños, Márquez, Köhler & Poe, 2023
Anolis rodriguezii
Anolis roosevelti Grant, 1931
Anolis roquet (Lacépède, 1788)
Anolis rubiginosus Bocourt, 1873
Anolis rubribarbaris (Köhler, McCranie, & Wilson 1999)
Anolis rubribarbus (Barbour & Ramsden, 1919)
Anolis ruibali Navarro & Garrido, 2004
Anolis ruizii Rueda & Williams, 1986
Anolis rupinae Williams & Webster, 1974
Anolis sabanus Garman, 1887
Anolis sacamecatensis G. Köhler et al., 2014
Anolis sagrei Duméril & Bibron, 1837
Anolis salvini Boulenger, 1885
Anolis santamartae E. Williams, 1982
Anolis savagei Poe & Ryan, 2017
Anolis saxatilis Mertens, 1938
Anolis schiedei (Wiegmann, 1834)
Anolis schwartzi Lazell, 1972
Anolis scriptus Garman, 1887
Anolis scypheus Cope, 1864
Anolis semilineatus Cope, 1864
Anolis sericeus Hallowell, 1856
Anolis serranoi (G. Köhler, 1999)
Anolis sheplani Schwartz, 1974
Anolis shrevei (Cochran, 1939)
Anolis sierramaestrae Holáňová, Rehák & Frynta, 2012
Anolis singularis E. Williams, 1965
Anolis smallwoodi Schwartz, 1964
Anolis smaragdinus Barbour & Shreve, 1935
Anolis sminthus Dunn & Emlen, 1932
Anolis soinii Poe & Yañez-Miranda, 2008
Anolis solitarius Ruthven, 1916
Anolis spectrum Peters, 1863
Anolis spilorhipis Alvarez Del Toro & Smith, 1956
Anolis squamulatus Peters, 1863
Anolis stevepoei G. Köhler et al., 2014
Anolis strahmi Schwartz, 1979
Anolis stratulus Cope 1861
Anolis subocularis Davis, 1954
Anolis sulcifrons Cope, 1899
Anolis tandai Avila-Pires, 1995
Anolis taylori H.M. Smith & Spieler, 1945
Anolis tenorioensis G. Köhler, 2011
Anolis tequendama Moreno-Arias, Méndez-Galeano, Beltrán, & Vargas-Ramírez, 2023
Anolis terraealtae Barbour 1915
Anolis terueli Navarro, Fernandez & Garrido, 2001
Anolis tetarii (Barros, Williams, & Viloria, 1996)
Anolis tigrinus Peters, 1863
Anolis toldo Fong & Garrido, 2000
Anolis tolimensis Werner, 1916
Anolis townsendi Stejneger, 1900
Anolis trachyderma Cope, 1876
Anolis transversalis Duméril, 1851
Anolis trinitatis Reinhardt & Lütken, 1862
Anolis triumphalis (Nicholson & Kohler, 2014)
Anolis tropidogaster Hallowell, 1856
Anolis tropidolepis Boulenger, 1885
Anolis tropidonotus Peters, 1863
Anolis uniformis Cope, 1885
Anolis unilobatus Köhler & Vesely, 2010
Anolis urraoi Grisales-Martínez et al., 2017
Anolis ustus Cope, 1864
Anolis utilensis (Köhler, 1996)
Anolis valencienni Duméril & Bibron, 1837
Anolis vanidicus Garrido & Schwartz, 1972
Anolis vanzolinii (Williams, Orces, Matheus, & Bleiweiss, 1996)
Anolis vaupesianus Williams, 1982
Anolis ventrimaculatus Boulenger, 1911
Anolis vermiculatus Cocteau, 1837
Anolis vescus Garrido & Hedges, 1992
Anolis vicarius Williams, 1986
Anolis villai Fitch & Henderson, 1976
Anolis vinosus Schwartz, 1968
Anolis viridius Kohler & Hedges, 2016
Anolis viridulus Díaz, Cádiz, Velazco, & Kawata, 2022
Anolis vittigerus Cope, 1862
Anolis wampuensis (McCranie & Köhler, 2001)
Anolis wattsii Boulenger, 1894
Anolis websteri Arnold, 1980
Anolis wellbornae Ahl, 1940
Anolis wermuthi (Köhler & Obermeier, 1998)
Anolis williamsmittermeierorum Poe & Yañez-Miranda, 2007
Anolis wilsoni (Kohler, Townsend, & Petersen, 2016)
Anolis woodi Dunn, 1940
Anolis yoroensis (McCranie, Nicholson, & Köhler, 2001)
Anolis zapotecorum Köhler et al., 2014
Anolis zeus (Köhler & McCranie, 2001)
Примітки
Джерела
Axel Flaschendräger, Leo C. Wijffles: Anolis, Natur und Tier-Verlag, ISBN 3-931587-04-5
Словник-довідник із зоології. — К., 2002.
Роди ящірок
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3385453
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/1596%20%D0%B2%20%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D1%96
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1596 в Україні
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1596 в Україні
Події
23 — 24 березня — битва українських повстанців з польсько-шляхетським військом під Гострим Каменем (поблизу села Трипілля на Київщині).
26 травня — 7 червня — поразка повстання Северина Наливайка в ході Солоницького бою поблизу Лубен.
8-10 жовтня — скликання у Бересті королем Речі Посполитої Сигізмундом III Вазою Берестейського собору, що через непримиренність позицій розколовся надвоє. Обидва собори, православний і уніатський, відбулись, не знайшли способів порозумітися: уніатський проголосив з'єднання з римсько-католицькою церквою під проводом Папи Римського, а православний засудив унію.
У Києві розпочинається 40-літня боротьба православних з уніатами.
завершення повстання Наливайка 1594–1596 років.
Особи
Призначено, звільнено
Гнат Василевич — обраний гетьманом запорізького козацтва (до 1597 року).
Народились
6 січня — Богдан (Зиновій-Богдан) Михайлович Хмельницький — український військовий, політичний та державний діяч. Гетьман Війська Запорозького, очільник Гетьманщини (1648–1657). Керівник Хмельниччини — повстання проти зловживань коронної шляхти в Україні, котре переросло у загальну, очолену козацтвом, визвольну війну проти Речі Посполитої. Перший з козацьких ватажків, котрому офіційно було надано титул гетьмана. Намагався розбудувати незалежну українську державу, укладаючи протягом свого правління союзи з Кримським ханством та Московським царством. Представник роду Хмельницьких.
31 грудня — Петро Могила (1647) — церковний та політичний діяч, педагог, митрополит Київський, Галицький і всієї Русі.
Померли
9 листопада — Єлизавета Еуфімія Радзивілл (1569) — представниця українського магнатського та князівського роду, відома меценатка.
Григорій Лобода — 23-й Гетьман Війська Запорозького (1593—1596 з перервами). Учасник походів на Молдову та Угорщину, очільник низовців під час повстання Северина Наливайка.
Сасько Федорович (Сашко Федорович) — козацький старшина, полковник, учасник козацьких воєн 1591—1596 років. Вперше згадується в 1593 році в оточенні Криштофа Косинського. В 1594 році був послом запорожців до австрійського імператора. В 1594—1595 брав участь у молдавських походах. У 1596 командував полком у війську Григорія Лободи. Загинув у бою під Білою Церквою.
Семен Дениско Матвієвський, або Семен Дениско, іноді Денінський (? — травень-червень 1596) — військовик та урядник в українських землях Речі Посполитої. Мав посаду житомирського старости. Грушевський вказує, що він загинув під час необережного штурму табору повстанців під проводом Северина Наливайка біля Солониці. За даними Яворницького Дмитра, загинув під час погоні за повстанцями, які виїхали з табору «задирати ляхів».
Шаула Матвій — український військовий діяч, один з керівників козацького повстання 1594—1596 років під проводом Северина Наливайка, запорізький гетьман.
Засновані, створені
Київська уніатська архієпархія — уніатська (греко-католицька) митрополича єпархія з центром у місті Київ, яка постала внаслідок переходу Київської православної архієпархії на унію з Римом у Бересті, 1596-го року. Ліквідована 1839 року на Полоцькому Соборі.
Стебник — село у Тисменицькому районі Івано-Франківської області.
Зникли, скасовані
Київської православної архієпархії в результаті переходу на унію з Римом у Бересті, 1596-го року.
Видання, твори
Пам'ятні дати та ювілеї
800 років з часу (796 рік):
знищення Аварського каганату у Паннонії франками (інша дата — 805 рік).
700 років з часу (896 рік):
битви на Південному Бузі, де болгарський цар Симеон I розбив військо угрів та в союзі з печенігами він вигнав їх далеко на захід.
650 років з часу (946 рік):
посольства княгині Ольги до Царгорода.
придушення Ольгою повстання древлян після спалення Іскоростеня.
625 років з часу (971 рік):
завершення Другого Балканського походу у Болгарії князя Святослава (з 969 року) та пограбування околиць Константинополя, облога у Доростолі; поразка і відхід з Балкан. Укладення з Візантією договору на умовах 944 року.
600 років з часу (996 рік):
завершення спорудження Десятинної церкви в Києві (з 990 року) та її урочисте відкриття (25 травня), до якої прибули священики з Херсонеса. Захоронення тут праху княгині Ольги.
550 років з часу (1046 рік):
укладення миру між Візантією та Київською Руссю, яким завершилася війна, що тривала з 1043 року.
500 років з часу (1096 рік):
19 червня — Битва на річці Трубіж — одна з битв русько-половецької війни 1090-х — 1116 років.
Битва на Колокші біля Володимира у якій князь Мстислав Володимирович Великий розгромив Олега Святославича.
450 років з часу (1146 рік):
завершення повстання у Києві, який у 1139 році був захоплений Всеволодом Олеговичем.
початку збройної боротьби князівських родів (Ольговичів, Мономаховичів, Давидовичів) за Київський престол (до 1161 року).
400 років з часу (1196 рік):
вторгнення литовців у Волинське князівство.
375 років з часу (1221 рік):
початку княжіння Данила Романовича на Волині.
350 років з часу (1246 рік):
відвідання галицько-волинським князем Данилом Романовичем столиці Орди — Сарай-Бату, де був вимушений визнати себе підлеглим хана Батия.
подорожі Плано Карпіні через Чехію, Польщу, Русь (Володимир, Київ) і Дон до Сарая і Монголії.
275 років з часу (1321 рік):
битви на річці Ірпінь, коли литовський князь Гедимін розбив руське військо і зайняв Київ (інша дата — 1320 рік).
250 років з часу (1346 рік):
облоги Кафи Ханом Джанібеком.
175 років з часу (1421 рік):
входження Галичини до складу Польського королівства.
150 років з часу (1446 рік):
Блокада Кафи трапезудською ескадрою. Генуезці відкупилися від греків і уклали з ними мир.
125 років з часу (1471 рік):
ліквідація Великим князівством Литовського Київського удільного князівства та утворення Київського воєводства у складі Овруцького, Київського, Житомирського та інших повітів.
75 років з часу (1521 рік):
вигнання із Казані кримським ханом Мехмедом I Ґераєм ставленика Москви із посадженням на намісництво свого брата Сахіба.
нальоту братів Ґераїв на околиці Москви, Нижнього Новгорода та Рязані із захопленням великої кількості бранців.
25 років з часу (1571 рік):
походу кримських татар на чолі з ханом Девлет Ґераєм на Москву, який привів до спалення кримськими татарами Москви, коли цар Іван IV втік зі своєї столиці.
петиції української шляхти з Київщини до польського короля про збереження прав «руської» української мови.
Установ та організацій
Видатних особистостей
Народження
525 років з дня народження (1071 рік):
Євпраксія Всеволодівна (1109) — князівна із династії Рюриковичів. Німецька імператриця (1088—1105), дружина німецького імператора Генріха IV. Донька великого князя київського Всеволода Ярославича, онука Ярослава Мудрого.
Ярослав Святославич (1129) — князь чернігівський (1123—1127). Син Великого князя Київського Святослава II. Онук Ярослава I Мудрого.
375 років з дня народження (1221 рік):
Андрій Ярославич (1264) — третій син великого князя Ярослава Всеволодовича, князь суздальський, у 1250—1252 роках великий князь владимирський. Чоловік Устиною — доньки Короля Русі Данила Романовича та його союзник.
Олександр Ярославович Невський (1263) — князь новгородський (1236—1240,1241—1252, 1257—1259), псковський (1242), великий князь владимирський (1252—1263), формальний великий князь київський (1249—1263). Прославився завдяки перемогам у Невській битві та Битві на Чудському озері.
50 років з дня народження (1546 рік):
7 лютого — Федір Євлашовський (Фёдар Еўлашоўскі; 1616) — український письменник-мемуарист, правник, державний діяч часів Великого князівства Литовського та Речі Посполитої.
Петро Збаразький (1569) — український князь, державний діяч Речі Посполитої.
25 років з дня народження (1571 рік):
Шимон Ніклевич (1632) — церковний діяч Речі Посполитої, священик-єзуїт, педагог, уродженець Львова, ректор Віленської єзуїтської академії і університету в 1611—1614 і 1625—1629 роках.
Смерті
500 років з дня смерті (1096 рік):
6 вересня — Ізяслав Володимирович — руський князь з династії Рюриковичів, другий син Володимира Мономаха та його першої дружини Ґіти (дочки англійського короля Гарольда II Ґодвінсона). Князь курський (до 1095), ростовський і муромський (1095–1096).
475 років з дня смерті (1121 рік):
квітень — Никифор І — православний церковний діяч, митрополит Київський та всієї Руси (1103 або 1104—1121).
450 років з дня смерті (1146 рік):
30 липня/1 серпня — Всеволод Ольгович — руський князь із династії Рюриковичів, роду Ольговичів. Великий князь Київський (5 березня 1139 — 1 серпня 1146).
425 років з дня смерті (1171 рік):
20 січня — Гліб Юрійович, в хрещенні Олександр — руський князь із династії Рюриковичів. Князь київський. Син Юрія Довгорукого. Став першим київським князем, що не титулувався як «Великий» (з 1169 року).
30 травня — Володимир Мстиславич (1130) — руський князь із династії Рюриковичів. Великий князь київський (1171).
400 років з дня смерті (1196 рік):
23 квітня — Бела III (1145) — угорський король (1172–1196). Син Гейзи II та Єфросинії, дочки Великого князя Київського Мстислава I Величного. Онук Мстислава Великого, правнук Володимира Мономаха.
Всеволод Курський — князь курський і трубчевський, менший брат князя новгород-сіверського Ігоря Святославича, син Святослава Ольговича князя черніговського.
350 років з дня смерті (1246 рік):
20 вересня — Михайло Чернігівський (1179) — руський князь з династії Рюриковичів, князь переяславський (1206), новгородський (1224, 1229), чернігівський (1224—1239), галицький (1235—1236), великий князь київський (1238—1239, 1241—1246).
30 вересня — Ярослав Всеволодович (1191) — син князя Всеволода Велике Гніздо, князь Переяславський, великий князь Київський (1236—1238, 1246).
75 років з дня смерті (1521 рік):
Йосифа II Солтана — митрополита Київського, Галицького і всієї Руси.
Примітки
Посилання
Роки XVI століття в Україні
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32186676
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%C3%A1%C5%A1%20Hertl
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Tomáš Hertl
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Tomáš Hertl (born 12 November 1993) is a Czech professional ice hockey forward for the Vegas Golden Knights of the National Hockey League (NHL). Hertl was selected 17th overall in the 2012 NHL Entry Draft by the San Jose Sharks, with whom he spent his first 11 seasons. Prior to being drafted, Hertl played for HC Slavia Praha of the Czech Extraliga (ELH).
He is the first player born in the modern Czech Republic after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia to appear in an NHL game.
Playing career
Early career
Hertl started his playing career with HC Slavia Praha in the Czech Extraliga, playing on the U18 and U20 squads in 2009–10. He was the third-highest scorer on the U20 team, scoring 12 goals and 26 assists. On the under-18 team, Hertl scored 13 goals and 10 assists. The next season, Hertl was among four players on the U20 team with 40+ points; Hertl had 14 goals and 27 assists. In 2011–12, Hertl was the fourth-leading scorer for Slavia, with 11 goals and 15 assists.
The NHL Central Scouting Bureau ranked Hertl fifth among European skaters before the 2012 NHL Entry Draft. Sports Illustrateds Allan Muir ranked Hertl as the 18th best prospect in the 2012 draft. ISS Hockey listed Hertl as the 32nd best, while The Hockey News and TSN scout Craig Button listed him as the 24th and 22nd best player, respectively. Among Hertl's advantages include his large body and a good physical and defensive play, which Muir compared to Martin Hanzal. However, Muir also wrote, "Hertl's not the most agile skater or finisher, and he has a tendency to try to do too much." Button stated that Hertl, although not particularly fast, his agility compensates for his speed; Hertl is also an effective passer and when "given the opportunity to shoot, he can be dangerous."
Hertl was drafted by the San Jose Sharks with 17th overall pick in the 2012 draft, and became the first European player drafted with the Sharks' top pick since Czech Lukáš Kašpar was drafted in 2004. After being drafted, Hertl rejoined Slavia, scoring 30 points in 43 games.
San Jose Sharks
The Sharks officially signed Hertl to a three-year, entry-level contract on 3 June 2013. In the preseason, Hertl scored 3 goals and 1 assist, and joined Joe Thornton and Brent Burns on a line, filling the hole created by Raffi Torres' injury. Hertl made his NHL debut against the Vancouver Canucks on 3 October, 2013 and tallied his first career point with an assist on a goal by Brent Burns. At age 19, Hertl became the first teenager to play in a season opener for the Sharks since Marc-Édouard Vlasic in 2006. Hertl scored his first two NHL goals in the next game on 5 October 2013, against Mike Smith of the Phoenix Coyotes; Hertl became the youngest player to score two goals for the Sharks in one game since Patrick Marleau on 17 March 1999. On 8 October 2013, Hertl registered 4 goals against the New York Rangers in a 9–2 victory, making him the fourth youngest player in the NHL to record a four-goal game (19 years, 330 days old) after Jimmy Carson did in the 1987–88 NHL season with the Los Angeles Kings (19 years, 254 days old). Hertl also became the first Shark to score four goals in one game since Owen Nolan in 1995. Hertl was eventually named the October Rookie of the Month, scoring eight goals, which led all rookies, and 11 points in 13 games. However, on 19 December against the Kings, Hertl injured his knee after a collision with Dustin Brown and was reported to miss at least a month. Hertl had surgery on his MCL and PCL in his right knee on 31 December. A former NHL trainer stated that the "best-case scenario" for Hertl's return was approximately 12 weeks, though Kevin Kurz of CSN Bay Area wrote that Hertl could be out for six-to-nine months. On 11 April 2014, Hertl was cleared to return to the Sharks against the Colorado Avalanche, ending a 45-game absence. On 17 April, against the Kings, Hertl scored his first career playoff goal.
On 29 June 2016, at the conclusion of his entry-level contract, Hertl agreed to a two-year, $6 million extension to remain with the Sharks. He signed a four-year contract extension with the Sharks on 2 July 2018. During the 2018–19 season, Hertl posted 74 points in 77 games as the Sharks advanced to the 2019 Stanley Cup playoffs. The Sharks faced off against the Vegas Golden Knights in the first round and in Game 6, Hertl scored a short-handed goal in double overtime to force a Game 7, which the Sharks won 5–4 in overtime. Following this, the Sharks beat the Colorado Avalanche, also in seven games, before being defeated by the St. Louis Blues in the Western Conference Finals.
In January 2020, Hertl participated in the 2020 National Hockey League All-Star Game as an alternate following an injury to teammate Logan Couture. In the Pacific Division's 10–5 semifinal victory over the Central Division, Hertl became the first Sharks player to score four goals in an All-Star Game. On 29 January, he left the Sharks' game against the Canucks with what was revealed to be season-ending tears to the ACL and MCL.
On 16 March 2022, he signed an eight-year contract extension with the Sharks.
Vegas Golden Knights
On 8 March 2024, Hertl, along with 2025 and 2027 third-round picks, was traded to the Vegas Golden Knights in exchange for prospect David Edstrom and a 2025 first-round pick. On 8 April, Hertl played his first game for Vegas, recording an assist in a 4–3 loss to the Vancouver Canucks.
International play
Hertl joined the Czech Republic at the 2011 IIHF World U18 Championships, scoring one goal, as the team finished eighth. The next year, Hertl participated in the 2012 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships for the Czechs, scoring three goals and two assists, with the team finishing fifth. He eventually played in the 2013 edition, in which the Czech team finished fifth.
Hertl played with the Czech Republic at the 2013 IIHF World Championship, where he was the youngest player on the team. Due to the knee injury against the Kings in December 2013, Hertl was forced to have surgery and missed out on participating in the 2014 Sochi Olympics. Hertl returned to the Czech team for the 2015 IIHF World Championship.
Hertl was selected to play for the Czech Republic in the 2016 World Cup.
Personal life
Hertl and his wife have one son.
Career statistics
Regular season and playoffs
International
Awards and honors
References
External links
1993 births
Living people
Czech expatriate ice hockey players in the United States
Czech ice hockey centres
HC Slavia Praha players
HC Slovan Ústečtí Lvi players
Ice hockey people from Prague
NHL first-round draft picks
San Jose Sharks draft picks
San Jose Sharks players
Vegas Golden Knights players
Worcester Sharks players
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114384
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolstock%2C%20Iowa
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Woolstock, Iowa
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Woolstock, Iowa
Woolstock is a city in Wright County, Iowa, United States. The population was 144 at the time of the 2020 census.
History
Woolstock township was established in 1858, and its first Post Office for Woolstock was in 1868, located near the location of the Historic French Church, about 3 miles east of the town's location today. Woolstock was relocated when platted by the Western Town Lot Company in 1881, that relocated many rural communities towards newly laid railroad lines. The name was made by Gilbert Perry because of the settlers early trade of raising sheep for wool. Woolstock is the only town in the world with its name.
Located, east of the Boone River, the Native Americans used the area for hunting, fishing, and lodging. The Sauk and Meskwaki tribes continued to use the river seasonally through the first quarter of the 20th century.
French and German Alsatian immigrants populated the area from late 1800s through 1940s. Laurent "Frenchy" and sister Renie Grandgeorge, were the last to immigrate from that area. Most who immigrated or are descendants, are laid to rest at the Historic French Church Cemetery, est. 1896. The town of Woolstock is Sister Cities with Ban de la Roche (7 mountainous villages), Alsace, France.
Most notable famous person from Woolstock was actor, veteran, and humanitarian, George Reeves, known mostly for his role as the Superman/Clark Kent in the 1950s TV serial Adventures of Superman. He starred in over fifty films and serials, including minor roles in Gone with the Wind, and From Here to Eternity. He was born George Keefer Brewer in Woolstock on January 5, 1914, to Donald and Helen (Lescher) Brewer.
Geography
Woolstock is located at (42.566730, -93.845030) just north of Eagle Creek's confluence with the Boone River.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , all land.
Demographics
2020 census
As of the 2020 Census, the total population was 144 people. The population density was 135.8 people per square mile, spread over 1.06 miles. Of those 144 people, the median age was 43.5 years, with 20.7% of the town's population under the age of 18, 59.5% between the ages of 18 and 64, and 19.8% of the population over the age of 65. There were a total of 110 households, with an average of 1.3 people per household.
57% of the town's population was male, with 43% of the population female. The racial makeup of the town was 95.1% White, less than 1% African American, 3.4% mixed race, and 2% Hispanic.
The average income per capita of Woolstock was $52,517, which is higher than the state average, and the median household income was $68,750, 10% higher than the rest of the state. Only 3.7% of the town's population lives under the poverty line, which is far lower than the rest of the state.
53.9% of the population of the town is identified as currently married, but only 1.8% of women between the ages of 15 and 50 gave birth during that year, lower than the average in Iowa.
95.3% of the Woolstock population has received a high school degree, which is 2.8 percentage points higher than the rest of the state. Although Woolstock has a lower-than-average percentage of the population having received college degrees, with only 13.3% of the town's population have received college degrees compared to the state average of 30.5%.
7% of the town's population were veterans.
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 168 people, 85 households, and 44 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 100 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 96.4% White, 0.6% African American, 0.6% Native American, and 2.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.2% of the population.
There were 85 households, of which 16.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.9% were married couples living together, 5.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 48.2% were non-families. 41.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.98 and the average family size was 2.68.
The median age in the city was 47 years. 16.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 4.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.4% were from 25 to 44; 25.6% were from 45 to 64; and 26.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 53.0% male and 47.0% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 204 people, 98 households, and 62 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 101 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 98.04% White, 0.49% Native American, 0.49% from other races, and 0.98% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.49% of the population.
There were 98 households, out of which 17.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.1% were married couples living together, 3.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.7% were non-families. 35.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 19.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.08 and the average family size was 2.60.
Age spread: 16.2% under the age of 18, 6.4% from 18 to 24, 21.1% from 25 to 44, 33.3% from 45 to 64, and 23.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 50 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.8 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $34,479, and the median income for a family was $47,500. Males had a median income of $27,917 versus $28,594 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,599. About 1.7% of families and 4.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under the age of eighteen and 2.3% of those 65 or over.
Climate
Education
The Eagle Grove Community School District serves children from PreK to 12th grade. The district covers area of Wright, Humboldt, and Webster counties, and serves the communities of Eagle Grove, Thor, Vincent, Woolstock, Iowa|Woolstock, and the surrounding rural areas.
Notable person
George Reeves, actor and star of Superman
Twin cities
Woolstock is twinned with the French Alsatian geographic area, Ban de la Roche, as many bandelarochiens settled in Woolstock. Ban de la Roche includes the French towns of Bellefosse, Belmont, Fouday, Neuviller-la-Roche, Rothau, Solbach, Wildersbach, and Waldersbach, the adult home of Oberlin College namesake, Jean-Frederic Oberlin.
References
Cities in Wright County, Iowa
Cities in Iowa
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18539128
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus%20Evora
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Lotus Evora
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Lotus Evora
The Lotus Evora is a sports car produced by the British company Lotus. The car, which was developed under the project name Project Eagle, was launched on 22 July 2008 at the British International Motor Show. The Evora S was launched in 2010 with a supercharged 3.5-litre V6. A facelifted and more powerful Evora 400 model was unveiled at the 2015 Geneva Motor Show, followed by another more powerful variant, the Evora GT430, which was unveiled in 2017.
The Lotus Evora is based on the first all-new vehicle platform from Lotus Cars since the introduction of the Lotus Elise in 1995 (the Exige and the 2006 Europa S are both derivatives of the Elise). The Evora was planned to be the first of three vehicles to be built on the same platform. The sales target was 2,000 cars per year, with prices between £45,000 and just over £50,000, and sales in America scheduled from the beginning of 2010.
Overview
The Evora is the first product of a five-year plan started in 2006 to expand the Lotus lineup beyond its track-specialized offerings and produce a practical road car that would appeal to the mainstream market. As such, it is larger than are recent Elise models and its derivatives (the Exige, Europa S, etc.), with an unladen weight of , with the automatic version weighing in at . The Evora is currently the only Lotus model with a 2+2 configuration, although it will also be offered in a two-seater configuration, referred to as the "Plus Zero" option. The Evora and the BMW i8 are the only 2+2 mid-engine coupés on sale. The interior is larger to accommodate taller passengers, such as former Lotus CEO Mike Kimberley and two people of 6'5" (195.6 cm).
The cooled boot behind the engine is large enough to fit a set of golf clubs, although Lotus design head Russell Carr denies that this was intentional. Lotus intends for the Evora to compete in different market sectors, including that of the Porsche 911.
Name
The Evora name keeps the Lotus tradition of model names that begin with an E. The name is derived from the words evolution, vogue and aura. Other names considered were Eagle, Exira and Ethos; Eagle and Ethos were rejected because they would be difficult for Lotus to claim as a trademark.
Specifications
The Evora is equipped with a mid-mounted, transverse, Toyota-sourced 3.5-litre 24-valve 2GR V6 engine. The Evora S uses the same engine but with a supercharger. Both versions are available with either a six-speed manual or six-speed automatic transmission with "Intelligent Precision Shift," manufactured by Aisin. The Evora has a drag coefficient of . It is constructed on a lightweight aluminium tub with an additional front crash structure also made from aluminium, along with a steel rear sub-frame that houses the drivetrain. The chassis was designed to utilize proprietary 6000 Series alloy extrusions, which are bonded with an epoxy based adhesive and riveted together to increase torsional rigidity. The Evora also utilises a forged-aluminium, double-wishbone suspension with Bilstein high-performance gas dampers and Eibach coaxial coil springs. Hydraulically assisted power steering is included for increased manoeuvrability.
Models
Evora S
In 2010, Lotus unveiled a high-performance variant of the Evora called the Evora S. The "S" in the name stands for "supercharged," but the engine is not intercooled. The car has the same standard design but is more powerful, now rated at and of torque powered by a new supercharger manufactured by Harrop. The car's exhaust was also replaced with a single-tubed exhaust system. The suspension's dampers were recalibrated to suit the vehicle's new suspension characteristics, and the steering also received recalibration.
The car was able to accelerate from 0- in 4.6 seconds, with a top speed of .
Lotus ceased production of the S in 2014 and later replaced it and the standard Evora with a new variant called the Evora 400 in 2015.
The Romanian police have an Evora S in their lineup as of 2012.
Evora 400
The Evora 400 is a new variant that replaces the Evora and the Evora S. The "400" in the name is a reference to the vehicle's horsepower rating. The improved engine output of and of torque is made possible by an intercooled supercharger developed by Edelbrock. The Evora 400 has an all-new body kit design, which helps produce an extra of downforce. The exhaust has a new driver-activated system that allows the driver to increase the roar of the exhaust. The interior was slightly revised, notably with narrower sills for simplified entry and exit, a new dashboard design and a new centre-console design. The wheel set was also different, with forged wheels as a new option. The wing was changed to a split rear wing. The car has a total weight of .
Acceleration from 0+ is at 4.1 seconds, 0.5 seconds faster than that of the S variant. The 400 can attain a top speed of .
Evora Sport 410
At the 2016 Geneva Motor Show, Lotus unveiled the Evora Sport 410, a slightly enhanced version of the 400. The car's 3.5-liter Toyota-derived V6 received a power increase by , for a total of . The torque was also improved to .
The exterior was changed with the addition of a carbon-fibre roof, tailgate and front access panel. The wheels were further lightened and a lithium-ion battery was fitted rather than the traditional lead acid version. Inside, the rear seats were removed and one-piece carbon-fibre bucket seats were fitted. Overall weight was reduced to .
The performance figures were improved with the 0- acceleration time now at 3.9 seconds, and a top speed of . However, if the IPS automatic transmission system is used, top speed is reduced to .
Evora GT430
In 2017, Lotus unveiled the most powerful variant of the Evora and also the fastest street-legal that Lotus has ever produced, the Evora GT430, though only 60 units were planned. The model is part of an entirely new range in the Evora family called the performance range. The car's 3.5-liter Toyota-derived V6 has an increased power output of powered by an Edelbrock supercharger and a titanium exhaust system. The torque figures were also improved to for manual-transmission models and for models with automatic transmission made possible by launch control and fast gear-change ratios. The GT430 is also the lightest Evora and weighs for manual-transmission models and for automatic-transmission models. The cars with automatic transmission weigh more because of the gear box and its cooling system. Top speed also varies for manual and automatic cars because of gearbox differences and the added weight, rated at for automatic cars and for manual cars. Because of the increased torque, the automatic-transmission cars have a slightly shorter 0- acceleration time of 3.6 seconds, compared with 3.7 seconds for manual-transmission cars. The GT430 also generates more downforce (250 kg at 190 mph) than did its previous variants.
The GT430 has a new and aggressive body kit that features a larger carbon-fibre rear wing, larger air intakes, forged aluminium wheels, polycarbonate lights and carbon-fibre bodywork to keep the weight low. The interior is also stripped down to save weight and the rear seats have been removed. The GT430 has carbon-fiber interior components and racing seats. It also features a plaque signifying the car's production number. The creature comforts are retained, with air conditioning included as standard.
Evora GT430 Sport and GT410 Sport
Later in 2017, Lotus unveiled another variant of the Evora GT430 called the Evora GT430 Sport. It features a more aerodynamic body and removes the GT430's rear wing for smoother airflow and reduced drag. This helps increase the top speed to , with the automatic version having a top speed of because of added gearbox weight.
To celebrate its 70th anniversary, Lotus unveiled the new Evora GT410 Sport. Available as a two-seater or 2+2, the GT410 Sport takes the GT430's basic shape and adds new composite front and rear body panels minus some of the 430's higher downforce pieces for a subtler shape. The revised front panel has larger carbon-fibre air ducts that move air around the front wheels more efficiently, cutting turbulence and drag. Deeper front and rear splitters and carbon ducts behind the rear wheels add downforce, which is increased by 211 pounds. Other carbon pieces include the front-access panel, roof panel and rear decklid. The car is powered by the same engine powering the rest of the Evora lineup, rated at and of torque, allowing for a 0-to-60 mph acceleration time of 3.9 seconds with the manual and four seconds with the six-speed automatic. The car weighs , less than the 410.
Evora GT
In June 2019, for the 2020 model year, Lotus introduced the Evora GT for the North American market only. This car uses the same supercharged 3.5-liter V6 like the rest of the line-up but is rated at and for the manual and for the automatic. Cars with the manual transmission feature a standard Torsen rear differential. Regardless of transmission choice, the 0- acceleration time is estimated at 3.8 seconds. The automatic version can reach and the manual's top speed is . The GT uses some of the same aero components as the GT410 Sport, which helps it produce of downforce at maximum speed. This variant of the Evora weighs between and depending on which options are selected. The optional Carbon Pack includes a carbon fibre roof, rear tailgate, and front access panel which reduces weight by . The optional titanium exhaust reduces weight further by . The manual transmission weighs less than the automatic. The Evora GT was discontinued after the 2021 model year and is set to be replaced by the all-new Lotus Emira in Spring 2022. 6,117 Evora have been produced overall.
Special editions
Evora 414E Hybrid
In 2012, Lotus produced a prototype hybrid Evora, called 414E. Developed as a demonstration project for the UK Government's Technology Strategy Board, the range-extended electric coupe emits 55 g/km and has an electric only driving range of 30 miles. When combined with the 3-cylinder 1.2-litre (1198 cc) petrol engine acting as a generator (as a similar manner to the Chevrolet Volt), the 414E has a range of 300 miles. The 414E formed the basis of the Infiniti Emerg-e concept car.
Evora S Carabinieri
In July 2011, Lotus Cars donated two Evora S models with special equipment to the Carabinieri, the Italian gendarmerie. Lotus also pledged to handle the maintenance of the cars and the training for the drivers.
Evora GTE Road Car
The Evora GTE road version is a variant of the Evora that was built to permit its racing variant to race under GT3 and LM GTE regulations. Only 25 units of this special edition were built. The road car uses the race car's engine and produces , making it the most powerful Lotus ever made. The weight of the car has been lowered drastically to .
Motorsport
LM GTE
During the 2011 Geneva Motor Show, Lotus announced the Evora Enduro GT concept, as a follow-up to the Type 124 and GT4 race cars. Lotus is aiming for this car to enter into the LM GTE category by mid-2011, with a Toyota-supplied V8.
Lotus entered two Evoras at the 2011 24 Hours of Le Mans, which were run by the Jetalliance Racing team. Despite overheating issues during practice and qualifying, car No. 65 finished 22nd overall, completing 295 laps, whilst car No. 64 retired after 126 laps. The cars ran highly tuned, naturally aspirated variants of its factory V6 engine, instead of the aforementioned V8.
In 2012, Jetalliance Racing failed to negotiate a deal to run the cars in Europe; instead, Alex Job Racing chose to run a LM GTE in the American Le Mans Series. Alex Job Racing did not get a good outcome from this however, and the car was later replaced by a Ferrari 458 Italia GT2 as the main race car for the team.
Group GT4
Ollie Hancock won the Nürburgring round of the 2010 GT4 European Cup season. A team including Johnny Mowlem, Stefano D'Aste and Gianni Giudici finished on the podium in the 2011 Dubai 24 Hour endurance race.
In 2011, Stefano D'Aste was the first Italian driver after Mario Andretti to win on Circuit Park Zandvoort with an official Lotus car and the car was the Evora GT4. D'Aste was in first position of the GT4 European Series till the last race but due to a problem that occurred to the engine he got a third position in the series, which was still good, considering that it was the first year that the official Lotus Evora GT4 took part to a full season competing with cars like the BMW M3, Porsche 911, Aston Martin Vantage GT4, and the Chevrolet Camaro. The Evora proved capable of keeping up with these cars.
In 2012, Richard Adams, David Green and Martin Byford won the Britcar MSA British Endurance Championship in a Lotus Evora GT4.
GT300
Cars Tokai ran a Lotus Evora from 2015 to 2021 in the GT300 class of Super GT, with backing from Lotus Cars Japan. Engineered by Mooncraft, the Evora GT300 MC was built to the series' "Mother Chassis" regulations, and as such, was a silhouette racing car sharing almost no parts with its production counterpart. As with all other Mother Chassis cars, it was built on a Dome chassis and powered by a Nissan VK45DE naturally aspirated V8. The Evora took its maiden victory at Fuji Speedway in 2020, followed by its second and last win at Twin Ring Motegi in 2021.
Reception
The Evora received several accolades at its launch from the British motoring press, including: Britain's Best Driver's Car 2009 from Autocar and Car of the Year 2009, from Evo.
The car was reviewed by Jeremy Clarkson on the television show Top Gear. Overall his review was positive: he was very happy with the performance, handling and comfort. He was extremely impressed with the ride comfort even after driving it into a field saying "Here, the suspension is taking the knocks, not me." and described the car as "the only car I've ever driven, ever, which is a killer attack dog and an old sofa". However, he considered the rear seats to have not enough legroom, the interior felt tinny and the satellite navigation was sub-optimal.
Road & Track put the Evora in #2 place in their annual "Performance Car of the Year" contest in 2017, noting the Evora is "fully deserving of the ACBC badge on its nose, this brave and charming two-plus-two is perhaps the finest over-the-road enthusiast vehicle available for sale at any price."
References
External links
SELOC TechWiki – Evora
Anthology of Videos detailing the Evora model development and evolution
2+2 coupés
Evora
Sports cars
Rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Cars introduced in 2008
Cars introduced in 2009
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20Huntington%2C%20New%20York
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South Huntington, New York
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South Huntington, New York
South Huntington is an affluent hamlet and census-designated place (CDP) within the Town of Huntington in Suffolk County, on Long Island, in New York, United States. The population was 9,422 at the 2010 census. Residents have a Huntington Station postal address. South Huntington is considered part of the greater Huntington area, which is anchored by Huntington.
South Huntington is the birthplace of Walt Whitman, and the Walt Whitman Shops Mall is nearby. It is also home to St. Anthony's High School, Walt Whitman High School and the South Huntington Public Library.
The Walt Whitman Shops were previously known as the Walt Whitman Shopping Center. The department store chain Abraham & Straus purchased 45 acres in South Huntington in 1956 to build a shopping mall and parking lot. An A & S store would be built as the centerpiece of the mall. The groundbreaking ceremony for the shopping center took place on April 20, 1961. The first store to open, on March 28, 1962, was Abraham & Straus, followed by Macy's on September 18, 1962. The official opening for the entire shopping center was in November 1962. It was the first enclosed shopping center on Long Island. The mall had 75 stores, lighted fountains, and a reflecting pool. The parking lot had spaces for 5,000 cars.
Renovations at the mall took place in 1998, including changes to the main concourse and an elevated parking deck. Also in this time period, three new department stores were added. Bloomingdale's opened on August 5, 1998 followed by Lord & Taylor on November 11, 1998. Saks Fifth Avenue opened its doors on March 11, 1999. A second renovation was completed in November 2013. This included adding 70,000 square feet to the facility as well as doing exterior remodeling. A statue of Walt Whitman was also added.
Walt Whitman Shops is currently owned by the Simon Property Group.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of , all land.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 9,465 people, 3,299 households, and 2,533 families residing in the CDP. The population density was . There were 3,379 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the CDP was 93.47% White, 0.85% African American, 0.06% Native American, 3.55% Asian, 0.82% from other races, and 1.25% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.76% of the population.
There were 3,299 households, out of which 32.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 64.2% were married couples living together, 9.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.2% were non-families. 17.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.77 and the average family size was 3.14.
In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 22.4% under the age of 18, 5.1% from 18 to 24, 31.8% from 25 to 44, 24.1% from 45 to 64, and 16.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.0 males.
The median income for a household in the CDP was $177,950, and the median income for a family was $184,828. Males had a median income of $60,440 versus $41,867 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $34,011. About 3.3% of families and 4.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.5% of those under age 18 and 8.9% of those age 65 or over.
Median real estate property taxes paid for housing units with mortgages in 2009: $6,918 (1.6%)
Median real estate property taxes paid for housing units with no mortgage in 2009: $6,446 (1.6%)
Education
St. Anthony's High School opened on Sept. 12, 1984 at the former site of Holy Family High School. Formerly an all-boys high school in Smithtown, St. Anthony's student body was moved to the new location in South Huntington when the Diocese of Rockville Centre decided to close Holy Family High School. The major factor for the closure of Holy Family was declining enrollment. The move of St. Anthony's to South Huntington sparked protests by parents and students.
Funding for the 48 classroom Walt Whitman High School was approved in February 1950. A new high school was needed because of the large population growth in the school district. The cost of over $3,100,000 included purchasing 32 acres in South Huntington. Capacity for the school was set at 1,500. Groundbreaking took place on March 14, 1955. The school opened on Sept. 6, 1956.
Enrollment for the 2015–16 school year for Walt Whitman High School was 1,898.
The 49,000 square foot South Huntington Public Library, located at 145 Pidgeon Hill Road, opened to the public on July 24, 2004. The construction of the library was funded by an $11.9 million bond referendum passed on December 5, 2000 by a margin of 1,532 to 1,493. Reasons for construction of the new library included need for additional space to house the library's collections, additional computers and updated technology for patrons and a larger community room for programs. An added feature on the grounds of the library is an outdoor garden with patio seating.
The library was built on the site of the former Pidgeon Hill Elementary School.
Transportation
Walt Whitman Shops is a major hub for bus routes in the area. The following routes serve there:
Suffolk County Transit Routes 1, 3, and 6
Huntington Area Rapid Transit Routes H20, H30, and H40
Nassau Inter-County Express Route n79
References
External links
South Huntington Public Library
Walt Whitman High School
Huntington, New York
Census-designated places in New York (state)
Hamlets in New York (state)
Census-designated places in Suffolk County, New York
Hamlets in Suffolk County, New York
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2875000
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%20%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B9%20%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87
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Никифоров Андрій Вікторович
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Никифоров Андрій Вікторович
Андрій Вікторович Никифоров (23 січня 1969, Армянськ, Кримська область, УРСР) — радянський та український футболіст, виступав на позиції півзахисника.
Кар'єра гравця
Народився в Армянську, але футболом розпочав займатися в Сімферополі. У 1990 році став гравцем місцевої «Таврії». Дебютував у футболці сімферопольців 26 серпня 1990 року в нічийному (1:1) домашньому поєдинку 28-го туру першої ліги радянського чемпіонату проти владикавказького «Спартака». Андрій вийшов на поле в стартовому складі та відіграв увесь матч. У дебютному для себе сезоні в першості СРСР зіграв 8 матчів, 5 з яких — у стартовому складі. Наступного сезону став гравцем глибокого резерву, на полі з'являвся дуже рідко (3 матчі в чемпіонаті СРСР, у всіх випадках — розпочинав поєдинок з лави для запасних). В пошуках стабільної ігрової практики повернувся до рідного Армянська, в якому підсилив місцевий «Титан». Команда виступала в змаганнях КФК, в армянському колективі став гравцем основи й до завершення сезону встиг відзначитися 6 голами.
Після здобуття Україною незалежності продовжив кар'єру в запорізькому «Торпедо», яке отримало можливість стартувати в першому розіграші чемпіонату України серед команд Вищої ліги. Дебютував у футболці запорізького клубу 16 лютого 1992 року в переможному (3:2) виїзному поєдинку 1/16 фіналу кубку України проти луцької «Волині». Андрій вийшов на 80-й хвилині, замінивши Олександра Зайця. У «вишці» дебютував за «торпедівців» 7 березня 1992 року в програному (0:2) виїзному поєдинку 1-го туру підгрупи 1 проти сімферопольської «Таврії». Никифоров вийшов на поле на 78-й хвилині, замінивши Ігора Якубовського. У футболці «Торпедо» у Вищій лізі провів 8 поєдинків, ще 6 матчів зіграв у кубку України.
У травні 1992 року повернувся до армянського «Титану», який отримав можливість виступати в першому розіграші чемпіонату України серед команд Перехідної ліги. Дебютував за колектив з Армянська 30 березня 1992 року в переможному (1:0) домашньому поєдинку 11-го туру підгрупи 2 проти феодосійського «Моря». Андрій вийшов на поле в стартовому складі та відіграв увесь матч. Дебютним голом за «Титан» відзначився 1 липня 1992 року в переможному (2:1) домашньому поєдинку 14-го туру підгрупи 2 Перехідної ліги проти макіївського «Бажановця». Никифоров вийшов на поле в стартовому складі та відіграв увесь матч. У команді виступав (з невеликими перервами) до 1999 року, за цей час у складі «Титану» в чемпіонатах України зіграв 184 матчі та відзначився 42-а голами, ще 15 матчів (5 голів) провів у кубку України. За період виступів у армянському колективі двічі відправлявся в оренди до клубів Вищої ліги. Влітку 1993 року знову стає гравцем «Таврії». Дебютував у футболці сімферопольського клубу 8 серпня 1993 року в нічийному (1:1) виїзному поєдинку 1-го туру Вищої ліги проти шепетівського «Темпу». Андрій вийшов на поле на 72-й хвилині, замінивши Сергія Єсіна. За першу частину сезону у Вищій лізі зіграв 8 матчів, ще 3 поєдинки провів у кубку України. Вдруге в оренду перейшов напередодні старту весняно-літньої частини сезону 1994/95 років, до вінницької «Ниви». У футболці вінничан дебютував 4 березня 1995 року в програному (0:2) виїзному поєдинку 18-го туру Вищої ліги проти львівських «Карпат». Никифоров вийшов у стартовому складі, на 28-й хвилині отримав жовту картку, а на 46-й хвилині його замінив Сергій Бабійчук. У складі «Ниви» зіграв 7 матчів у Вищій лізі та 2 поєдинки в кубку України.
Напередодні початку сезону 1999/00 років підписав контракт з вищоліговою «Зіркою», за яку дебютував 12 липня 1999 року в програному (0:1) виїзному поєдинку 1-го туру чемпіонату України проти донецького «Шахтаря». Олександр вийшов на поле в стартовому складі, а на 75-й хвилині його замінив Сергія Лавриненка. За першу команду «Зірки» провів 6 матчів у Вищій лізі, за другу команду — 8 поєдинків у Другій лізі. Під час зимової перерви повернувся в «Титан», за який дебютував 1 квітня 2000 року в переможному (3:0) виїзному поєдинку 14-го туру групи Б Другої ліги проти комсомольського «Гірника-спорту». Никифоров вийшов на поле в стартовому складі та відіграв увесь матч, а на 37-й хвилині відзначився голом у воротах «Гірника». В армянському колективі був одним з ключових гравців, провів у команді менше 4-х сезонів, за цей час у Другій лізі зіграв 117 матчів та відзначився 13 голами, ще 6 поєдинків відіграв у кубку України.
Навесні 2004 року підсилив КЗЕСО. Дебютував за каховський колектив 28 квітня 2004 року в переможному (6:1) домашньому поєдинку 1-го туру 5-ї підгрупи аматорського чемпіонату України проти херсонського «Укррічфлоту». Андрій вийшов на поле в стартовому складі, а на 75-й хвилині його замінив Микола Кучерявий. Єдиним голом за КЗЕСО відзначився 12 травня 2004 року на 77-й хвилині (реалізував пенальті) переможного (1:0) виїзного поєдинку 2-го туру 5-ї підгрупи аматорського чемпіонату України проти красноперекопського «Хіміка». Никифоров вийшов на поле в стартовому складі та відіграв увесь матч. У футболці каховського колективу зіграв 4 матчі (1 гол) в аматорському чемпіонаті України, а також провів 1 матч у кубку Херсонської області (фінальний поєдинок).
Востаннє на футбольне поле як гравець виходив у 2012 році в футболці аматорського клубу «Галант» (Чаплинка).
Сім'я
Андрій Никифоров має сина — Павла. Він до 2014 року займався в Училищі олімпійського резерву (Сімферополь). Після анексії Криму отримав російський паспорт, у 2015 році виступав за фейковий сімферопольський клуб «Скіф».
Примітки
Посилання
Статистика виступів гравця на офіційному сайті ФФУ
Візитна картка футболіста на офіційному сайті УПЛ
Профіль гравця на сайті «Український футбол»
Профіль гравця на сайті footbook.ru
Профіль гравця на сайті «Історія Таврії»
Уродженці Армянська
Радянські футболісти
Українські футболісти
Футболісти «Таврії» (Сімферополь)
Футболісти «Торпедо» (Запоріжжя)
Футболісти «Титана» (Армянськ)
Футболісти «Ниви» (Вінниця)
Футболісти «Зірки» (Кропивницький)
Футболісти «Каховки»
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-phase%20and%20quadrature%20components
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In-phase and quadrature components
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In-phase and quadrature components
A sinusoid with modulation can be decomposed into, or synthesized from, two amplitude-modulated sinusoids that are in quadrature phase, i.e., with a phase offset of one-quarter cycle (90 degrees or /2 radians). All three sinusoids have the same center frequency. The two amplitude-modulated sinusoids are known as the in-phase (I) and quadrature (Q) components, which describes their relationships with the amplitude- and phase-modulated carrier.
Or in other words, it is possible to create an arbitrarily phase-shifted sine wave, by mixing together two sine waves that are 90° out of phase in different proportions.
The implication is that the modulations in some signal can be treated separately from the carrier wave of the signal. This has extensive use in many radio and signal processing applications. I/Q data is used to represent the modulations of some carrier, independent of that carrier's frequency.
Orthogonality
In vector analysis, a vector with polar coordinates and Cartesian coordinates can be represented as the sum of orthogonal components: Similarly in trigonometry, the angle sum identity expresses:
And in functional analysis, when is a linear function of some variable, such as time, these components are sinusoids, and they are orthogonal functions. A phase-shift of changes the identity to:
,
in which case is the in-phase component. In both conventions is the in-phase amplitude modulation, which explains why some authors refer to it as the actual in-phase component.
Narrowband signal model
In an angle modulation application, with carrier frequency φ is also a time-variant function, giving:
When all three terms above are multiplied by an optional amplitude function, the left-hand side of the equality is known as the amplitude/phase form, and the right-hand side is the quadrature-carrier or IQ form.
Because of the modulation, the components are no longer completely orthogonal functions. But when and are slowly varying functions compared to the assumption of orthogonality is a common one.
Authors often call it a narrowband assumption, or a narrowband signal model.
I/Q data
A stream of information about how to amplitude-modulate the I and Q phases of a sine wave is known as the I/Q data. By just amplitude-modulating these two 90°-out-of-phase sine waves and adding them, it is possible to produce the effect of arbitrarily modulating some carrier: amplitude and phase. And if the IQ data itself has some frequency (e.g. a phasor) then the carrier also can be frequency modulated. So I/Q data is a complete representation of how a carrier is modulated: amplitude, phase and frequency.
For received signals, by determining how much in-phase carrier and how much quadrature carrier is present in the signal it is possible to represent that signal using in-phase and quadrature components, so IQ data can get generated from a signal with reference to a carrier sine wave.
IQ data has extensive use in many signal processing contexts, including for radio modulation, software-defined radio, audio signal processing and electrical engineering.
I/Q data is a two-dimensional stream. Some sources treat I/Q as a complex number; with the I and Q components corresponding to the real and imaginary parts. Others treat it as distinct pairs of values, as a 2D vector, or as separate streams.
When called "I/Q data" the information is likely digital. However, I/Q may be represented as analog signals. The concepts are applicable to both the analog and digital representations of IQ.
This technique of using I/Q data to represent the modulations of a signal separate to the signal's frequency is known as equivalent baseband signal, supported by the . It is sometimes referred to as vector modulation.
The data rate of I/Q is largely independent to the frequency of the signal being modulated. I/Q data can be generated at a relatively slow rate (e.g. millions of bits per second), perhaps generated by software in part of the physical layer of a protocol stack. I/Q data is used to modulate a carrier frequency, which may be faster (e.g. Gigahertz, perhaps an intermediate frequency).
As well as within a transmitter, I/Q data is also a common means to represent the signal from some receiver. Designs such as the Digital down converter allow the input signal to be represented as streams of IQ data, likely for further processing and symbol extraction in a DSP. Analog systems may suffer from issues, such as IQ imbalance.
I/Q data may also be used as a means to capture and store data used in spectrum monitoring. Since I/Q allows the representation of the modulation separate to the actual carrier frequency, it is possible to represent a capture of all the radio traffic in some RF band or section thereof, with a reasonable amount of data, irrespective of the frequency being monitored. E.g. if there is a capture of 100 MHz of Wi-Fi channels within the 5 GHz U-NII band, that IQ capture can be sampled at 200 million samples per second (according to Nyquist) as opposed to the 10,000 million samples per second required to sample directly at 5 GHz.
A vector signal generator will typically use I/Q data alongside some programmed frequency to generate its signal. And similarly a vector signal analyser can provide a stream of I/Q data in its output. Many modulation schemes, e.g. quadrature amplitude modulation rely heavily on I/Q.
Alternating current (AC) circuits
The term alternating current applies to a voltage vs. time function that is sinusoidal with a frequency When it is applied to a typical (linear time-invariant) circuit or device, it causes a current that is also sinusoidal. In general there is a constant phase difference φ between any two sinusoids. The input sinusoidal voltage is usually defined to have zero phase, meaning that it is arbitrarily chosen as a convenient time reference. So the phase difference is attributed to the current function, e.g.
whose orthogonal components are
and as we have seen. When φ happens to be such that the in-phase component is zero, the current and voltage sinusoids are said to be in quadrature, which means they are orthogonal to each other. In that case, no average (active) electrical power is consumed. Rather power is temporarily stored by the device and given back, once every
seconds. Note that the term in quadrature only implies that two sinusoids are orthogonal, not that they are components of another sinusoid.
See also
Analytic signal
IQ imbalance
Constellation diagram
Negative frequency
Phasor
Polar modulation
Quadrature amplitude modulation
Single-sideband modulation
Notes
References
Further reading
Steinmetz, Charles Proteus (1917). Theory and Calculations of Electrical Apparatus 6 (1 ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. B004G3ZGTM.
External links
I/Q Data for Dummies
Signal processing
Radio electronics
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Жертвоприношення мая
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Жертвоприношення мая — ритуальні (культові) дійства, що існували в часи цивілізації мая. Мали на меті отримати прихильність богів, вгамувати їх невдоволення. Жертвами виступали люди, тварини, рослини.
Значення
Принесення жертв має своє витоки з племінних звичаїв. В цьому народи мая розвивалися в рамках загальних процесів, що відбувалися скрізь на планеті. По мірі розвитку давні традиції оформлювалися обрядами. Втім зберігалося первісне значення — через надання різних жертв відбувалося спілкування з богами. В залежності від типу богів (землеробських, підземних, військових) здійснювалися жертви. Відбувався своєрідний обмін за майбутній успіх того, хто здійснював таке жертвопринесення.
Воно було невід'ємною частиною світосприйняття, філософії та міфологічних уявлень стародавніх мая. без цього, на їх думку, не можна було здійснити жодного дійства у житті (від народження до смерті, а також війни, торговельні мандрівки, укладання шлюбу тощо). Вони були не лише необхідними, а обов'язковими, це особливо стосувалося царів та жерців, які своїм кровопускання підтримувала рівновагу у світі. Тому відповідно будувалися величні храми, де здійснювали такі ритуали, на центральних площах і майданах, навколо таких пірамід з храмами зверху формувався ритуально-адміністративний центр кожного з міст-держав мая.
Час і періодичність
Принесення жертв здійснювалося в залежності від значення молитов і прохань. В побутовому плані (хвороби, народження, похорон) вони не мали значної прив'язки до дня та якогось циклу. Такі жертвоприношення мали лише зв'язок з безпосередньою подією, у зв'язку з якою мешканець держав мая звертався до богів.
Уся діяльність володарів та вищого жрецтва мала сакральний, особливий характер. Тому усі події, пов'язані з ними, повинні були чітко відповідати встановленим правилам і циклам: народження, інтронізація, походи, святкування перемог, поховання. Усім цим подіям відповідало принесення жертв різного виду. Окремі жертви здійснювалися під час «ювілейних» дат, які координувалися з календарем мая. Визначенням цих дат займалося вище жрецтво.
Види
Основними жертвами були продукція виробництва мая, насамперед маїс та цінні господарські культури, вироби з кераміки, коштовного та напівкоштовного каміння, золота. Особливим привілеєм, на яке мали право лише царі та знать, було здійснення священної жертви — декількох краплин крові. В особливих подіях — вдала військова кампанія, неврожай, посуха, влаштовувалися людські жертвоприношення. Для посилення ефекту жерці та жертви (царі при кровопускані й ті, кого вбивали на вівтарях) приймали галюциногенні засоби: Ек'Балам — Croton flavens; кору дерева балакче — Bourreria pulchra, насіння рослин Ipomoea violacea і Nymphaea ampla, гриб K'айсалах-Окош — Psilocybe cubensis.
Священна жертва
Мая обожнювали людську кров (єм-кік або ч'аб'), вважаючи її носієм нулей («душі» людини), а тому жертвували її на «харчування» своїх богів. Процес кровопускання називався б'aх ч'аб'''.
Для цього потрібно було риб'ячою кісткою (зазвичай ската) або обсидіановою чи кременевою голкою (лезом) проткнути собі язик, пеніс чи вуха (та ще й протягнути крізь рану мотузку) і зросити кров'ю папір, який потім спалювався (мая стверджували, що в диму такого багаття вони бачать лики своїх богів, котрі радіють кривавій пожертві, адже це їхня їжа). І чим вище стояв мая в соціальній ієрархії, тим частіше він мав виконувати такий ритуал.
Жертвенна кров з вуха називалася туб, з язика — ак', з крайньої плоті пеніса — ач''. Особливим був ритуал протикання вуха (піч'), що, на думку тодішніх мая, дозволяло чути голоси богів. Важливим був ритуал отримання крові з пеніса: її змішували зі спермою у золотій невеличкій посудині. Це дійство повинно було символізувати утворення Всесвіту, а його повторення являло собою підтримання балансу і гармонії.
Існували також колективні кровопускання, що здійснювалися в особливо відповідальні моменти, під час величних церемоній. Їх здійснювали прилюдно цар, його дружина (зазвичай під час інтронізації чоловіка), родичі, вища знать і жрецтво. Іншим був ритуал «розсіювання», коли отриману з рани кров збирали у долоні, а потім розкидували на кшталт зерен маїсу під час посіву кукурудзи.
Людські жертви
Здіснювали обряди з принесення людей у жертву спеціальні або верховні жерці. Так, у післякласичний період на Юкатані цим видом ритуалів зазвичай займалися накоми (або накоми), у мая-какчикелей — призначався окремо верховний жрець, що займався виключно обрядами жертвопринесень.
Формою таких принесень людей у жертву були: виривання серця (один з найпоширеніших), відрубання голови, кидання у сенот, запирання у підземеллі, ритуальне самогубство. Все це обставлялося урочисто, з піснями і танцями, що завершувалися бенкетом.
Інші
Простолюдини як жертву приносили до храмів продукти своєї діяльності. Оскільки основні божества мали землеробський характер, відповідно як дар їм приносили маїс, картоплю, тютюн, боби какао, плоди та фрукти, а також рибу, різних тварин і птахів, мозаїку з пір'їв, вироби гончарства, ювелірів, цінні тканини.
Джерела
Рубель В. А. Історія цивілізацій Доколумбової Америки: Навч. посібник. — Київ: Либідь, 2005 — С. 199
Stuart, David (2003). «La ideología del sacrificio entre los mayas». Arqueología mexicana (Mexico City.: Editorial Raíces) XI (63): 24–29.
Joralemon, D. (1974). Ritual Blood-Sacrifice among the Ancient Maya: Part I. In Merle Green Robertson (ed.). Primera Mesa Redonda de Palenque (PDF). Pebble Beach, California, USA: Robert Louis Stevenson School, Pre-Columbian Art Research. pp. 59–76
Tiesler, Vera; Andrea Cucina (December 2006). «Procedures in Human Heart Extraction and Ritual Meaning: A Taphonomic Assessment of Anthropogenic Marks in Classic Maya Skeletons». Latin American Antiquity 17 (4): 493—510
Maya Religion
Цивілізація мая
Обряди і ритуали
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4336609
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%20%D0%93%D1%8E%D1%82%D1%82
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Артур Гютт
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Артур Гютт
Артур Юліус Гютт (17 серпня 1891, Міхелау — 2 березня 1949, Штаде) — німецький державний діяч, медик і євгеніст, доктор медицини (1919), бригадефюрер СС і лейтенант медичної служби резерву вермахту.
Біографія
Син землевласника. В 1911-14 роках вивчав медицину. Учасник Першої світової війни. В листопаді 1914 року взятий в полон російськими військами, до грудня 1916 року утримувався в Сибіру. З грудня 1918 року працював практикуючим лікарем. Брав активну участь у політичному житті. З 1923 по 1925 рік — співзасновник і керівник Німецької народної партії свободи в Лабіау.
На початку 30-х років вступив в НСДАП, потім повторно в листопаді 1932 року (квиток № 1325 846). В 1933 році — міністерський радник в Імперському міністерстві внутрішніх справ. 9 листопада 1933 вступив в СС (квиток № 85 924). В 1935 році отримав ранг міністерського директора і призначений начальником департаменту народного здоров'я Імперського міністерства внутрішніх справ. З червня 1935 року — начальник управління політики народонаселення і спадкового здоров'я в Особистому штабі рейхсфюрера СС. В 1936 році Гютт став членом Національного комітету із захисту німецької крові і організації Лебенсборн. Гютт твердо вірив в арійську перевагу і необхідність дотримання расової чистоти.
З 1 липня 1937 року — начальник Управління з питань генеалогії (VIII Amt) в Головному управлінні СС з питань раси і поселення. 6 вересня 1939 року залишив пост в міністерстві внутрішніх справ, отримав ранг статс-секретаря у відставці і став президентом Академії громадського здоров'я. 9 листопада 1944 року був зарахований в Штаб рейхсфюрера СС. Після війни на короткий час був інтернований, потім звільнений.
Сім'я
Був одружений, мав шістьох синів і дочку.
Звання
Штурмфюрер СС (9 листопада 1933)
Гауптштурмфюрер СС (20 квітня 1934)
Оберштурмбанфюрер СС (1 травня 1934)
Оберфюрер СС (1 червня 1935)
Бригадефюрер СС (9 листопада 1938)
Нагороди
Залізний хрест 2-го класу
Почесний хрест ветерана війни з мечами
Пам'ятна військова медаль (Угорщина) з мечами
Почесний знак Німецького Червоного Хреста, хрест заслуг
Хрест Воєнних заслуг 2-го класу
Кільце «Мертва голова» (квітень 1942)
Почесна шпага рейхсфюрера СС (квітень 1942)
Бібліографія
Автор численних статей і книг про расову чистоту.
Die einfachen und kombinierten Lähmungen des Nervus recurrens, in: Zeitschrift für Laryngologie, Bd. 8 (1919), S. 511–545
Vorwort zu Otto Helmut: Volk in Gefahr – Der Geburtenrückgang und seine Folgen für Deutschlands Zukunft, Lehmann, München 1933
Die Bedeutung von Blut und Boden für das deutsche Volk, Reichsdruckerei, Berlin 1933
mit Ernst Rüdin und Falk Ruttke (Bearbeiter, Erläuterungen): Gesetz zur Verhütung erbkranken Nachwuchses vom 14. Juli 1933. Mit Auszug aus dem Gesetz gegen gefährliche Gewohnheitsverbrecher und über Maßregeln der Sicherung und Besserung vom 24. November 1933, Lehmann, München 1934
Dienst an der Rasse als Aufgabe der Staatspolitik, Junker und Dünnhaupt, Berlin 1934 (erschien 1938 in 2. Aufl.), PDF
Ausmerzung krankhafter Erbanlagen – Eine Übersicht über das Erbkrankheitsgesetz mit den Texten, Beyer, Langensalza 1934; 2. Auflage: Verhütung krankhafter Erbanlagen – Eine Übersicht über das Erbkrankheitsgesetz mit Texten, 1934
Rasse und Familie als sittlich-politische Zelle des Volkstums, in: „Deutscher Geist – Kulturdokumente der Gegenwart“, Zweiter Jahresband 1935
Aufbau und Aufgaben des Reichsausschusses für Volksgesundheitsdienst beim Reichs- und Preußischen Ministerium des Innern, Reichsdruckerei, Berlin 1935
Leibesübungen im Dienst der Rassenpflege, Beyer, Langensalza 1935; 2. Auflage 1936
Der Aufbau des Gesundheitswesens im Dritten Reich, Junker & Dünnhaupt, Berlin 1935; 3., überarbeitete Auflage 1937; 4., überarbeitete Auflage 1938
mit Erich Moebius: Der öffentliche Gesundheitsdienst, Heymann, Berlin 1935
Einführung zu Der öffentliche Gesundheitsdienst – Textausgabe des Gesetzes über die Vereinheitlichung des Gesundheitswesens vom 3. Juli 1934 nebst Durchführungsverordnungen, Reichsgebührenordnung und Erläuterungserlassen, Heymann, Berlin 1935; 2., völlig neu bearbeitete Auflage: Der öffentliche Gesundheitsdienst: Erläuterungen zum Gesetz über die Vereinheitlichung des Gesundheitswesens vom 3. Juli 1934 nebst Durchführungsverordnungen, Gebührenordnungen und Anhängen mit Erlassen, 1939
Bevölkerungs- und Rassenpolitik, Spaeth & Linde, Berlin 1935; 2., neubearb. Auflage 1938
Der Amtsarzt – Ein Nachschlagewerk für Medizinal- und Verwaltungsbeamte, Fischer, Jena 1936
mit Wilhelm Frick: Nordisches Gedankengut im Dritten Reich – 3 Vorträge, Lehmann, München 1936 (darin von Arthur Gütt: Gesundheits- und Ehegesetzgebung im Dritten Reich sowie Aufartung durch Familienpflege)
mit Herbert Linden und Franz Massfeller: Blutschutz- und Ehegesundheitsgesetz – Gesetz zum Schutze des deutschen Blutes und der deutschen Ehre und Gesetz zum Schutze der Erbgesundheit des deutschen Volkes nebst Durchführungsverordnungen sowie einschlägigen Bestimmungen, Lehmann, München 1936
als Herausgeber: Handbuch der Erbkrankheiten, 6 Bände, Thieme, Leipzig 1937–1942, redigiert von Ernst Rüdin; Beiträge von Berthold Kihn („Schizophrenie“), Hans Heinze („Irresein“), Max Schwarz (HNO); Fred Dubitscher („Asoziale“, „Schwachsinn“); Max Bücklers (Augen) und Klaus Conrad („Fallsucht“)
Die Rassenpflege im Dritten Reich, Vortrag, Hanseatische Verlagsanstalt, Hamburg 1940/41
Література
Залесский К. А. Кто был кто в Третьем рейхе. — М.: АСТ, 2002. — 944 с. — 5000 экз. — ISBN 5-271-05091-2.
Залесский К. А. СС. Охранные отряды НСДАП. — М.: Эксмо, 2005. — 672 с. — 5000 экз. — ISBN 5-699-09780-5.
Посилання
Фотографія Гютта з дружиною і дітьми.
Примітки
Німецькі військові лікарі
Німецькі військовики Першої світової війни
Доктори наук Німеччини
Члени НСДАП
Расові теоретики
Євгеністи
Нагороджені Почесною шпагою рейхсфюрера СС
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110650
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairfield%2C%20Idaho
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Fairfield, Idaho
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Fairfield, Idaho
Fairfield is the county seat of and the only village in Camas County, Idaho. The population was 410 at the time of 2010 census, nearly half of the rural county's population.
Geography
Fairfield is located at (43.346000, -114.791159), at an elevation of above sea level.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , all of it land.
Climate
According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Fairfield has a warm-summer mediterranean continental climate, abbreviated "Dsb" on climate maps. The hottest temperature recorded in Fairfield was on July 12–14, 2002 and August 9, 2012, while the coldest temperature recorded was on January 19, 1984.
Demographics
2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 416 people, 176 households, and 109 families residing in the village. The population density was . There were 244 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 93.0% White, 1.0% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 1.4% from other races, and 4.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.3% of the population.
There were 176 households, of which 35.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.9% were married couples living together, 6.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 10.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 38.1% were non-families. 31.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 2.95.
The median age in the village was 35.1 years. 26.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 29.6% were from 25 to 44; 27.4% were from 45 to 64; and 11.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 51.9% male and 48.1% female.
2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 395 people, 162 households, and 115 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 211 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 97.97% White, 0.51% Native American, 0.25% from other races, and 1.27% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.08% of the population.
There were 162 households, out of which 33.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.5% were married couples living together, 6.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.0% were non-families. 25.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 2.92.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 25.6% under the age of 18, 7.3% from 18 to 24, 27.1% from 25 to 44, 27.6% from 45 to 64, and 12.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.7 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $31,167, and the median income for a family was $33,750. Males had a median income of $26,607 versus $16,667 for females. The per capita income for the city was $21,504. About 9.1% of families and 10.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.7% of those under age 18 and 18.0% of those age 65 or over.
Transportation
Fairfield's main street is Soldier Road but is accessed by U.S. Route 20, a two-lane undivided highway connecting it to the west with Interstate 84 near Mountain Home, and to the east with State Highway 75 at Timmerman Junction in Blaine County. Four miles (6.4 km) east of Fairfield, State Highway 46 begins and proceeds south to Gooding.
Education
The public schools are operated by Camas County School District #121, headquartered in Fairfield. Camas County High School is the district's flagship school, located on Soldier Road in central Fairfield.
Recreation
The Soldier Mountains and Smoky Mountains of the Sawtooth National Forest (Fairfield Ranger District) are north of the village, offering many outdoor recreational opportunities. The Soldier Mountain ski area, established in 1948, is north of the village. The Snowkiting area, known around the world as one of the top destinations for this extreme sport, is west of the village. The Sun Valley ski resort is approximately 45 highway miles (70 km) northeast, up the Big Wood River Valley along State Highway 75, the Sawtooth Scenic Byway. The western end of the Magic Reservoir is east of Fairfield, and the Silver Creek fly fishing stream is about east of the village.
Climate
Fairfield experiences a continental climate (Köppen Dsb) with cold, snowy winters and hot, dry summers.
In Popular Culture
The village was featured in a season two episode of The X-Files titled "Fearful Symmetry", in which an investigation at a fictitious zoo takes place. While the episode is set in Fairfield, it was, like many in the series, filmed in British Columbia, Canada.
See also
List of cities in Idaho
References
External links
Fairfield Idaho.net
Camas County School District #121
Cities in Camas County, Idaho
Cities in Idaho
County seats in Idaho
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66417
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichiro%20Suzuki
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Ichiro Suzuki
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Ichiro Suzuki
, also known mononymously as , is a Japanese former professional baseball outfielder who played professionally for 28 seasons. He played the first nine years of his career with the Orix BlueWave of Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), and the next 12 years with the Seattle Mariners of Major League Baseball (MLB). Suzuki then played two and a half seasons with the New York Yankees and three with the Miami Marlins before returning to the Mariners for his final two seasons. He won two World Baseball Classic titles as part of the Japanese national team. He also became the Mariners' special assistant to the chairman in 2019. He is regarded as one of the greatest contact hitters and defensive outfielders in baseball history.
In his combined playing time in the NPB and MLB, Suzuki received 17 consecutive selections both as an All-Star and Gold Glove winner, won nine league batting titles, and was named most valuable player (MVP) four times. In the NPB, he won seven consecutive batting titles and three consecutive Pacific League MVP Awards. In 2001, Suzuki became the first Japanese-born position player to be posted and signed to an MLB club. He led the American League (AL) in batting average and stolen bases en route to being named AL Rookie of the Year and AL MVP.
Suzuki was the first MLB player to enter the Japanese Baseball Hall of Fame (The Golden Players Club). He was a ten-time MLB All-Star and won the 2007 All-Star Game MVP Award for a three-hit performance that included the event's first-ever inside-the-park home run. Suzuki won a Rawlings Gold Glove Award in each of his first 10 years in the majors and had an American League–record seven hitting streaks of 20 or more games, with a high of 27. He was also noted for the longevity of his career, continuing to produce at a high level with slugging, and on-base percentages above .300 in 2016, while approaching 43 years of age. Suzuki also set a number of batting records, including MLB's single-season record for hits with 262. He achieved 10 consecutive 200-hit seasons, the longest streak by any player in history. In 2016, Suzuki notched the 3,000th hit of his MLB career, becoming only the 30th player ever to do so. In total, he finished with 4,367 hits in his professional career across Japan and the United States, 2nd most to Pete Rose who had 4,863 total professional hits, including the minor leagues.
Early life
Suzuki grew up in Toyoyama, a small town just outside Nagoya. At the age of seven, Suzuki joined his first baseball team and asked his father, Nobuyuki Suzuki (鈴木宣之), to teach him to be a better player. The two began a daily routine, which included throwing 50 pitches, fielding 50 infield balls and 50 outfield balls, and hitting 500 pitches, 250 from a pitching machine and 250 from his father.
As a little leaguer in Toyoyama, Suzuki had the word written on his glove. By age 12, he had dedicated himself to pursuing a career in professional baseball, and their training sessions were no longer for leisure, and less enjoyable. The elder Suzuki claimed, "Baseball was fun for both of us," but Ichiro later said, "It might have been fun for him, but for me it was a lot like Star of the Giants," a popular Japanese manga and anime series about a young baseball prospect's difficult road to success, with rigorous training demanded by the father. According to Ichiro, "It bordered on hazing and I suffered a lot."
When Suzuki joined his high-school baseball team, his father told the coach, "No matter how good Ichiro is, don't ever praise him. We have to make him spiritually strong." When he was ready to enter high school, Suzuki was selected by a school with a prestigious baseball program, Nagoya's Aikodai Meiden (:ja:愛工大名電) High School. Suzuki was primarily used as a pitcher instead of as an outfielder, owing to his exceptionally strong arm. His cumulative high-school batting average was .505, with 19 home runs. He built strength and stamina by hurling car tires and hitting Wiffle balls with a heavy shovel, among other regimens. These exercises helped develop his wrists and hips, adding power and endurance to his thin frame. Despite his outstanding numbers in high school, Suzuki was not drafted until the fourth round of the NPB draft in November 1991, because many teams were discouraged by his small size of and . Years later, Suzuki told an interviewer, "I'm not a big guy, and hopefully kids could look at me and see that I'm not muscular and not physically imposing, that I'm just a regular guy. So if somebody with a regular body can get into the record books, kids can look at that. That would make me happy."
Career in Japan
Suzuki made his NPB Pacific League debut in 1992 for the Orix BlueWave at the age of 18, but he spent most of his first two seasons in the farm system (accumulating 156 minor league hits and a .368 batting average) because his then-manager, Shōzō Doi, refused to accept Suzuki's unorthodox swing. The swing was nicknamed because of the pendulum-like motion of his leg, which shifts his weight forward as he swings the bat, and goes against conventional hitting theory. In his second career game, he recorded his first ichi-gun (Japan's Nippon Professional Baseball League) hit in the Pacific League against Fukuoka Daiei Hawks pitcher Keiji Kimura. Even though he hit a home run in 1993 against Hideo Nomo, who later won an MLB National League Rookie of the Year Award while a Los Angeles Dodger, Suzuki was nevertheless sent back to the farm system on that very day. In 1994, he benefited from the arrival of a new manager, Akira Ōgi, who played him every day in the second spot of the lineup. He was eventually moved to the leadoff spot, where his immediate productivity dissolved any misgivings about his unconventional swing. He set a Japanese single-season record with 210 hits, the first player ever to top 200 hits in a single season. Five other players have since done so: Matt Murton, Norichika Aoki (twice), Alex Ramírez, Tsuyoshi Nishioka, and Shogo Akiyama's 216 hits in 2015.
Suzuki's .385 batting average in 1994 was a Pacific League record and won the young outfielder the first of a record seven consecutive batting titles. Suzuki also hit 13 home runs and had 29 stolen bases, helping him to earn his first of three straight Pacific League MVP (Most Valuable Player) awards. It was during the 1994 season that he began to use his given name, "Ichiro," instead of his family name, "Suzuki," on the back of his uniform. Suzuki is the second-most-common family name in Japan, and his manager introduced the idea as a publicity move to help create a new image for what had been a relatively weak team, as well as a way to distinguish their rising star. Initially, Suzuki disliked the practice and was embarrassed by it; however, "Ichiro" was a household name by the end of the season, and he was flooded with endorsement offers.
In 1995, Suzuki led the Blue Wave to its first Pacific League pennant in 12 years. In addition to his second batting title, he led the league with 80 RBI and 49 stolen bases, while his career-high 25 home runs were third in the league. By this time, the Japanese press had begun calling him the . The following year, with Suzuki winning his third-straight MVP award, the team defeated the Central League champion, Yomiuri Giants, in the Japan Series. Following the 1996 season, playing in an exhibition series against a visiting team of Major League All-Stars kindled Suzuki's desire to travel to the United States to play in the Major Leagues.
In November 1998, Suzuki participated in a seven-game exhibition series between Japanese and American all-stars. Suzuki batted .380 and collected seven stolen bases in the series, winning praise from several of his MLB counterparts, including Sammy Sosa and Jamie Moyer (who would become his teammate with the Mariners).
In 2000, Suzuki was still a year away from being eligible for free agency, but the Blue Wave was no longer among Japan's best teams. Because the team would probably not be able to afford to keep him and would lose him without compensation in another year, Orix allowed him to negotiate with Major League clubs. Suzuki used the posting system, and the Seattle Mariners won the right to negotiate with him with a bid of approximately $13 million. In November, Suzuki signed a three-year, $14 million contract with the Seattle Mariners. In his nine NPB seasons in Japan, Suzuki had 1,278 hits, a .353 career batting average, and won seven Golden Glove Awards. Suzuki's time in the Japanese baseball leagues matured him as a player and a person, and he often credits it for his success.
Career in MLB
Seattle Mariners (2001–2012)
2001: Rookie of the Year and AL MVP
Due to an agreement between Japanese baseball and the MLB, Suzuki was not allowed to play in the United States before 2001. His move to the United States was viewed with some interest because he was among the first Japanese position players to play for an MLB team. In the same way that many Japanese teams had considered the 18-year-old Suzuki too small to draft in 1992, many Americans believed he would prove too frail to succeed against Major League pitching or endure the longer 162-game season. Suzuki made an auspicious debut with Seattle, and in the Mariners' eighth game revealed his tremendous throwing arm by gunning down Oakland's Terrence Long, who had tried to advance from first to third on a teammate's single to right field. That play would be dubbed "The Throw" by Japanese media covering Suzuki's progress.
After expressing no preference as to a uniform number, Suzuki was issued #51 by the Mariners, which was his number when he played in Japan. He was initially hesitant because it had previously been worn by pitching star Randy Johnson. To avoid insulting Johnson, Suzuki sent a personal message to the pitcher promising not to "bring shame" to the uniform. His trepidation was unfounded, as he had a remarkable 2001 season, accumulating a rookie-record 242 hits, breaking Lloyd Waner’s rookie record of 223 hits dating back in 1927, and the most hits by any MLB player since 1930. His perennial Gold Glove fielding led Safeco's right field to be dubbed "Area 51". With a .350 batting average and 56 stolen bases, Suzuki was the first player to lead his league in both categories since Jackie Robinson in 1949. The season included hitting streaks of 25 and 23 games, an appearance on the cover of Sports Illustrated, and intense media attention on both sides of the Pacific. Fans from Japan were taking $2,000 baseball tours, sometimes flying in and out of the U.S. just to watch Suzuki's games. More than 150 Japanese reporters and photographers were given media access. Safeco Field's sushi stands began selling "Ichirolls", a spicy tuna roll served with wasabi and ginger.
Aided by Major League Baseball's decision to allow All-Star voting in Japan, Suzuki was the first rookie to lead all players in voting for the All-Star Game. That winter, he won the American League Most Valuable Player and the Rookie of the Year awards, becoming only the second player in MLB history (after Fred Lynn) to receive both honors in the same season. Suzuki is also the only player in major league history to have won an MVP, Rookie of the Year, Gold Glove Award, Silver Slugger Award, all while starting in the All-Star Game in the same season.
2001 had been an exceptionally successful regular season for the Seattle Mariners as a team, as they matched the 1906 Chicago Cubs' Major League record of 116 wins. In his only postseason appearance with the Mariners, Suzuki continued his hot hitting into the playoffs, batting .600 in the ALDS against the Cleveland Indians. However, on Suzuki's 28th birthday, Seattle's stellar season ended against the New York Yankees in the ALCS, as Suzuki was held to a .222 average during the series. Yankees manager Joe Torre had emphasized to his pitchers, "Do not let Ichiro beat you. He is the key to Seattle's offense." Informed of this assessment, Suzuki said, "If that is true, it would give me great joy. I don't believe he is right."
2002
Suzuki finished his second year in American baseball with 208 total hits, making him the first Mariners player ever with two consecutive seasons of 200+ hits. He got off to a hot start in 2002, but a late-season slump drove his batting average down to .321, 29 points below his batting average as a rookie. He was the fifth player in MLB history to start a career with two 200-hit seasons. Suzuki finished the season second in the AL in hits, fourth in batting average, and fourth in steals. Suzuki led the major league All-Star balloting for the second straight year. Although the Mariners had a 93–69 record, that was good for only a third-place finish in the competitive AL West.
2003
In 2003, Suzuki became just the third player in history to begin his career with three 200-hit seasons, by garnering 212. He again finished in the top ten for hits, batting average, steals, and runs, and, again, a late-season slump brought his average down almost 40 points (to .312). Suzuki was elected to his third All-Star game in the three years he had been in the league, and he was again the vote leader in both leagues. However, the second-place Mariners again fell short of the playoffs. Following the season, Suzuki signed a 4-year, $44 million contract that kept him with the Mariners through 2007.
2004
Suzuki had his best offensive season in 2004, highlighted by his breaking of George Sisler's 84-year-old record for most hits (257) in a season. An increase in games played benefited Suzuki, as he accumulated only 251 hits through the first 154 games of the season. Suzuki recorded 50 hits in four different months of the year (September and October are combined by MLB for this computational purpose), becoming the first player ever to have four in a season. With 51 hits in August 2001, Suzuki joined Pete Rose as the only players with four 50-hit months in a career.
On 21 May, Suzuki recorded his 2,000th professional hit. His 200th hit of 2004 came in just his 126th game. By the end of September, with one three-game series remaining, Suzuki's hit total stood at 256—one shy of Sisler. Suzuki singled off the Rangers' Ryan Drese on 1 October to tie Sisler's record. In the third inning, on a 3–2 count, Suzuki singled up the middle for his 258th hit of the year, which Suzuki later called "the greatest moment of my baseball career". He was greeted by a swarm of teammates, and a standing ovation from the fans. Sisler's daughter, Frances Sisler Drochelman attended the game and was greeted by Suzuki after his hit. Suzuki finished the 2004 season with a record of 262 hits, giving him the single-season records for both the United States and Japanese baseball.
In July 2009, while in St. Louis for his ninth All-Star appearance, Suzuki made a trip to Sisler's grave. He later told reporters, "There's not many chances to come to St. Louis. In 2004, it was the first time I crossed paths with him, and his family generously came all the way to Seattle. Above all, it was a chance. I wanted to do that for a grand upperclassman of the baseball world. I think it's only natural for someone to want to do that, to express my feelings in that way. I'm not sure if he's happy about it."
From 2001 to 2004, Suzuki had more hits (924) than anyone in history over any four-year period, breaking the record of 918 that Bill Terry accumulated from 1929 to 1932; Terry, however, played in 34 fewer games than Suzuki during their respective four-year spans. He would later surpass his own mark by recording 930 hits from 2004 to 2007. During one 56-game stretch in 2004, Suzuki batted over .450. By comparison, Joe DiMaggio batted .408 during his record-setting 56-game hitting streak. Suzuki batted over .400 against left-handed pitching in 2004.
2005
During the off-season, then-manager Bob Melvin's contract was not extended and the Mariners brought in Mike Hargrove as the new manager with a contract through 2007. It was Hargrove who had predicted that Suzuki would be no better than "a fourth outfielder on [an American] major league team" back when Suzuki was still in Japan. Speculation started that Hargrove and Suzuki did not get along very well in the season.
In 2005, Suzuki had his second worst year in his MLB career to date, collecting only 206 hits (the lowest total of his career to that point). However, he reached the plateau of a .300 batting average, 100+ runs, 30+ steals, and 200+ hits for the fifth straight season. That allowed Suzuki to become the first player to collect 200 hits per season in each of his first five years in the Major Leagues. Only Willie Keeler, Wade Boggs, Chuck Klein, Al Simmons, and Charlie Gehringer had had five consecutive 200-hit seasons at any point in their careers. During the season, he accumulated 1,000 career hits, reaching the career milestone faster than any other player in MLB history. Suzuki hit a career-high 15 home runs. In the off-season, Suzuki played himself in Furuhata Ninzaburō, a Japanese Columbo-like TV drama that he loves. In the drama, he kills a person and is arrested.
2006
Suzuki's 2006 season got off to a disappointing start, with the outfielder hitting as low as .177 in the season's third week. He quickly rebounded, finishing the season with a .322 average (sixth in the AL and 11th in the majors). Suzuki's 224 hits led the majors, and he recorded 110 runs and 45 stolen bases. Suzuki was caught stealing only twice in 2006 for a 96% success rate. His 1,354 career U.S. hits topped Wade Boggs's record for the most hits in any six-year period. In his sixth year in the majors, Suzuki collected his sixth Gold Glove Award, and a sixth All-Star Game selection. He also won a Fielding Bible Award as the best fielding MLB right fielder.
Suzuki began wearing high stocking baseball pants in the 2006 World Baseball Classic.
2007
In May and June, Suzuki hit in 25 consecutive games, breaking the previous Seattle Mariners record set by Joey Cora in 1997. Suzuki broke Tim Raines' American League record by stealing 41 consecutive bases without being caught. Suzuki extended the record to 45; the major league record of 50 belongs to Vince Coleman.
On 10 July 2007, he became the first player to hit an inside-the-park home run in any MLB All-Star Game after an unpredictable hop off the right field wall of AT&T Park in San Francisco. It was the first inside-the-park home run of Suzuki's professional career. Suzuki was a perfect 3-for-3 in the game and was named the Most Valuable Player in the American League's 5–4 victory.
2007 marked the end of Suzuki's second contract with the Mariners, and he initially told MLB.com that he would likely enter the free agent market, citing the team's lack of success in recent years. However, Suzuki signed a five-year contract extension with Seattle in July. The deal was reported to be worth $90 million, consisting of a $17 million annual salary and $5 million signing bonus. The Associated Press reported that Suzuki's contract extension defers $25 million of the $90 million at 5.5% interest until after his retirement, with payments through 2032. Other provisions in Suzuki's contract included a yearly housing allowance of more than $30,000, and four first-class round-trip tickets to Japan each year for his family. He was provided with either a new Jeep or Mercedes SUV, as well as a personal trainer and interpreter.
On 29 July 2007, Suzuki collected his 1,500th U.S. hit, the third fastest to reach the MLB milestone behind Al Simmons and George Sisler. Suzuki had 213 hits in 2008, his eighth straight 200-hit season. This tied the 107-year-old record set by Wee Willie Keeler. Typically, Suzuki was among baseball's leaders in reaching base on an error (14 times in 2008, more than any other batter in the AL), and in infield hits (his 56 were the most in the majors). Suzuki has amassed more than 450 infield hits in his U.S. career. Detroit third baseman Brandon Inge told The New York Times, "I wish you could put a camera at third base to see how he hits the ball and see the way it deceives you. You can call some guys' infield hits cheap, but not his. He has amazing technique." In May 2008, Suzuki stole two bases, giving him a career total of 292, surpassing the previous Seattle Mariners team record of 290 set by second baseman Julio Cruz. Cruz, who worked on Spanish-language broadcasts of Mariners games at the time, was watching from the broadcast booth as Suzuki broke his record.
2008
On 29 July 2008, Suzuki became the second-youngest player to amass 3,000 top-level professional hits (1,278 in Japan + 1,722 in the U.S.) after Ty Cobb. He also became just the second Japanese professional to get 3,000 hits. (Nippon Professional Baseball's record holder is Isao Harimoto, with 3,085 hits).
By 2008, it had emerged in the media that Suzuki was known within baseball for his tradition of exhorting the American League team with a profanity-laced pregame speech in the clubhouse prior to the MLB All-Star Game. Asked if the speech had had any effect on the AL's decade-long winning streak, Suzuki deadpanned, "I've got to say over 90 percent." Minnesota first baseman Justin Morneau describes the effect: "If you've never seen it, it's definitely something pretty funny. It's hard to explain, the effect it has on everyone. It's such a tense environment. Everyone's a little nervous for the game, and then he comes out. He doesn't say a whole lot the whole time he's in there, and all of a sudden, the manager gets done with his speech, and he pops off." Boston's slugger David Ortiz says simply, "It's why we win."
2009
Suzuki began his 2009 season by going on the disabled list for the first time in his career. He had a bleeding ulcer, which team doctor Mitch Storey said may have been caused in part by the stress of playing in the World Baseball Classic. After missing 8 games, Suzuki debuted on 15 April and went 2-for-5 against the Angels, including a grand slam for his 3,085th overall professional career hit. The home run matched Isao Harimoto's Japanese record for career hits, and Harimoto had been flown out to Seattle to witness the event. Suzuki surpassed the record the following night.
Suzuki was named #30 on the Sporting News''' 2009 list of the 50 greatest current players in baseball, voted upon by a 100-person panel of experts and former stars. In May and June, Suzuki surpassed his own franchise record with a 27-game hitting streak. Suzuki went on to record 44 hits in June 2009, his 20th career month with 40 or more hits. The previous players to have accomplished this were Stan Musial in the NL and Lou Gehrig in the AL.
On 6 September against the Oakland A's, Suzuki collected his 2,000th MLB hit on the second pitch of the game, a double along the first base foul line. He is the second-fastest player to reach the milestone, behind Al Simmons. On 13 September against the Texas Rangers, Suzuki collected his 200th hit of the season for the ninth consecutive year, setting an all-time major league record. Suzuki recorded 210 hits with Orix in 1994, thereby giving him a total of ten 200 hit seasons in his professional career.
With two outs in the bottom of the 9th inning, 18 September, Suzuki hit a walk-off, two-run home run against Yankees closer Mariano Rivera, scoring Michael Saunders in one of the more memorable victories of the season. His homer made a winner out of Félix Hernández, who was in line for the loss despite having allowed only one run in 9 innings pitched.
On 26 September 2009, Suzuki was ejected from a game for the first time in his professional career. Arguing that a strikeout pitch from Toronto's David Purcey had been outside, Suzuki used his bat to draw a line on the outer edge of the plate, and was immediately tossed by umpire Brian Runge. He was the only Mariner to be ejected from a game all season. The ejection may have hurt Suzuki's chances regarding an esoteric record: the longest playing streak without going hitless in consecutive games. Suzuki's stretch was at 180 games, the longest in the majors since Doc Cramer went 191 consecutive games without back-to-back 0-fers in 1934–35. Suzuki went hitless in the following afternoon's game.
Suzuki again led the majors in hits in 2009, with 225. In spite of hitting ground balls at a rate of 55 percent, he grounded into only one double play all season, in 15 April game, his first game played in 2009. He won his second Fielding Bible Award as the best fielding right fielder in MLB.
2010
Suzuki's 32 career leadoff home runs rank ninth all time. Nevertheless, in 2009, Suzuki told The New York Times:
Chicks who dig home runs aren't the ones who appeal to me. I think there's sexiness in infield hits because they require technique. I'd rather impress the chicks with my technique than with my brute strength. Then, every now and then, just to show I can do that, too, I might flirt a little by hitting one out.
After playing in the season opener against the Oakland Athletics, Suzuki became eligible for Hall of Fame consideration, by playing in his tenth MLB season. On 5 June 2010, Suzuki scored his 1,000th career MLB run against the Angels on Franklin Gutierrez's RBI groundout. On 1 September 2010, Suzuki also collected his 2,200th hit, a leadoff infield single against Cleveland Indians pitcher Josh Tomlin.
During the August 2010 series against the New York Yankees, Suzuki traveled to the Calvary Cemetery in Queens, New York, to pay his respects at the grave of Hall-of-Famer "Wee Willie" Keeler, whose record for single-season hits he had broken in 2004.
On 23 September, Suzuki hit a single to center field against Toronto Blue Jays pitcher Shawn Hill to become the first MLB player in history to reach the 200 hit mark for 10 consecutive seasons. This feat also tied him with Pete Rose for the most career seasons of 200+ hits, and he surpassed Ty Cobb for most career seasons of 200+ hits in the AL. He finished the season with 214 hits, topping the MLB in that category. Suzuki also finished the season "ironman" style, playing in all 162 games. Only Suzuki and Matt Kemp did so for the 2010 season. This was Suzuki's 3rd season playing in all 162 games. Also, Suzuki was nominated for the This Year in Baseball Award. Suzuki finished first or second in hits in all of his first 10 MLB seasons.
Suzuki won his tenth consecutive Rawlings Gold Glove Award in 2010, tying Ken Griffey Jr., Andruw Jones, and Al Kaline, and trailing only Roberto Clemente and Willie Mays (twelve each) for major league outfielders. Suzuki also won his second consecutive and third overall Fielding Bible Award for his statistically based defensive excellence in right field, as the only right fielder to have so far received multiple Bible awards. Jason Heyward subsequently equaled Suzuki with his third Bible in 2015; thereafter Mookie Betts promptly became the third right fielder to achieve this distinction in 2018, on three consecutive awards.
2011
On 2 April 2011, Suzuki broke the Seattle Mariners' all-time career hits record with his 2,248th hit in the 9th inning versus the Oakland Athletics, overtaking the team's previous leader Edgar Martínez. 2011 marked the first time in Suzuki's 11 seasons that he failed to make the all star team. He batted under .300 (.277) before the all star break for the first time in his career. On 10 July, manager Eric Wedge did not start Suzuki, ending his then-major league-best active streak of 255 consecutive starts. Suzuki followed with an 11-game hitting streak, but Wedge noted "it's not that easy to give that guy a day off" due to Suzuki's iconic stature. On 22 August, Suzuki hit his 35th career leadoff homer, tying him for 6th place with Bobby Bonds. Suzuki finished the season batting a career-low .272 with 184 hits, the first time in his 11-year MLB career he did not record 200 hits. It was also his first season not playing in the All-Star game, as well as his first season not winning a Gold Glove.
2012
On 19 June 2012, Suzuki led off a game against the Arizona Diamondbacks with a single to center field, the 2,500th hit of his MLB career. Suzuki reached the milestone in the fourth-fewest games in major league history, after Al Simmons, Ty Cobb, and George Sisler. In a 13-inning road loss to the Oakland A's on 8 July, Suzuki was placed second in the batting order and responded by going 2 for 6 to bring his season batting average to .261 heading into the All-Star break. In the previous night's game, Suzuki recorded two hits to break a career-worst 0-for-23 hitless streak. Suzuki had also been tried at the three-spot in the batting order during a season for which he earned $18 million. Former teammate Jay Buhner stated he felt Suzuki was the recipient of too much blame for the Mariners' difficulties but "at the same time, they need help desperately." Buhner stated that if Suzuki were awarded a three-year contract extension for somewhere between $35 million and $40 million, "I'd vomit. I mean, really, no offense. No offense, we've got to get this organization turned around. You can't be spending all the money on one guy."
With a contract extension with the Mariners unknown, Suzuki stated, "It's going to go both ways. It can't just come from the player. It's got to come from the team, too. If the team is saying they need you, you're necessary, then it becomes a piece. But if it's just coming from the player, it's not going to happen." Suzuki's agent, Tony Attanasio, said, "He knows that the club has to grow. He knows they have to play the younger guys and get them more playing time. The only way he knows to do that is to move on. He doesn't want to stop playing. He wants to continue."
New York Yankees (2012–2014)
Rest of 2012: second postseason appearance
Suzuki approached the Mariners to ask for a trade at midseason in 2012. His first choice was to play for the New York Yankees. The Mariners traded him to the Yankees for minor league pitchers D. J. Mitchell and Danny Farquhar on 23 July. Seattle also received cash in the trade. Suzuki left Seattle hitting .261 with a .288 on-base percentage (OBP), four home runs, 28 RBIs and 15 stolen bases in 95 games. His first game as a Yankee was played the night of the trade, at Safeco Field against the Mariners. Before the trade was consummated, Suzuki agreed to the Yankees' conditions, which stated that they would play Suzuki primarily in left field, bat him at the bottom of the lineup, and occasionally sit him against left-handed pitching. Suzuki hit safely in his first 12 games as a Yankee, tying a record set by Don Slaught. He wore number 31 during his tenure with the Yankees, as his traditional 51 had not been used since the 2006 retirement of Bernie Williams, who wore it while playing for the Yankees; the Yankees retired the number in 2015.
Suzuki hit his first home run as a Yankee, and the 100th of his career, on 30 July against the Baltimore Orioles. For the week ending 23 September, Suzuki was named AL Player of the Week after hitting .600 (15-for-25) with three doubles, two home runs, five RBI, seven runs scored, and six stolen bases in six games. He led all MLB players in batting average, hits, steals and OBP (.630). In 67 games with New York, Suzuki batted .322 with a .340 OBP, 28 runs, five home runs and 27 RBIs. With his improved performance, the Yankees at times batted him second and also started him against left-handers.
Against the Baltimore Orioles in the 2012 ALDS, Suzuki ran home on a ball hit by Robinson Canó. Despite the ball beating him to the plate, Orioles catcher Matt Wieters had difficulty tagging Suzuki, who evaded multiple tag attempts by jumping over and around Wieters. In Game 1 of the 2012 ALCS, Suzuki hit his first career postseason home run; however, the Yankees lost the series to the Detroit Tigers in 4 games.
On 19 December 2012, Suzuki finalized a $13 million deal for two years with the Yankees.
2013
On 25 June 2013, Suzuki hit a walk-off home run against Rangers pitcher Tanner Scheppers with two outs in the bottom of the ninth inning. Earlier in the game, three of his teammates had led off the fourth, fifth, and sixth innings with home runs, so all of the Yankees' runs in the game were provided by solo home runs.
On 21 August 2013, Suzuki collected his 4,000th professional career hit with a single off Toronto Blue Jays pitcher R. A. Dickey, becoming the seventh player in professional baseball history known to have reached the mark after Pete Rose, Ty Cobb, Julio Franco, Hank Aaron, Jigger Statz, and Stan Musial.
2014
On 10 July 2014, Suzuki collected his 2,800th MLB hit off of Cleveland Indians pitcher Scott Atchison in the top of the eighth inning at Progressive Field. On 9 August 2014, Suzuki hit a single in a game against the Astros to pass George Sisler on the all-time hit list with his 2,811th hit. Suzuki had previously broken Sisler's single season hit record in the 2004 season.
Miami Marlins (2015–2017)
2015
On 23 January 2015, Suzuki agreed to a one-year, $2 million contract with the Miami Marlins. The Marlins originally planned for him to be their fourth outfielder, but he finished the season with 439 plate appearances due to team injuries—primarily Giancarlo Stanton, who suffered a season-ending injury on 26 June. On 25 April, Suzuki scored his 1,310th major league run, which, combined with the 658 runs he scored in Japan, surpassed the record for runs scored by a Japanese player set by Sadaharu Oh. On 18 June, he was batting .294 after playing in 64 of the Marlins' 68 games, but his average fell to .229 by season's end. On 14 August at Busch Stadium, Suzuki singled off St. Louis Cardinals starter John Lackey to earn his 4,192nd top-level hit, passing Ty Cobb. On 29 July, Suzuki recorded his 2,900th major league hit, against Washington Nationals pitcher Doug Fister. On 18 August, Suzuki had his first four-hit game since 2013. On 31 August, against the Atlanta Braves, Suzuki scored his 2,000th professional run when combining his runs scored in MLB (1,342) and in Japan's NPB (658). On 5 September, Suzuki recorded his 100th right field assist in the major leagues. In the season finale against the Philadelphia Phillies on 4 October, he made his major league pitching debut, completing the final inning and allowing one run and two hits in a 7–2 loss. For the 2015 season, he batted .229/.282/.279 with 11 stolen bases.
2016
On 6 October 2015, Suzuki and the Marlins agreed on a one-year, $2 million contract for the 2016 season. The deal also came with a $2 million club option for 2017. He stole his 500th career MLB base on 29 April 2016, against the Milwaukee Brewers, and led off the game with a single against Zach Davies to move ahead of Frank Robinson into 33rd place on the all-time MLB hit list with the 2,944th hit of his career.
On 15 June, Suzuki recorded his 4,257 career hit, breaking Pete Rose's all-time record for hits in top tier professional baseball. Rose commented that "I'm not trying to take anything away from Ichiro, he's had a Hall of Fame career, but the next thing you know you'll be counting his high school hits". This was in response to the Japanese media labeling Suzuki as the "Hit King", claiming that Suzuki should be considered to be the all-time hits leader when his hits in Japan are included. American media was more divided on the significance of the accomplishment, though some major sources acknowledged the milestone as indicating Suzuki had become the greatest hitter in baseball.
On 7 August, Suzuki collected the 3,000th hit of his MLB career when he hit a triple off the right field wall at Coors Field playing against the Colorado Rockies. He is just the second player to reach that milestone by way of a triple, joining Hall of Famer Paul Molitor. He also became one of only seven players to have collected 3,000 hits and 500 stolen bases. At the end of his 16th season, Suzuki had played in exactly 2,500 major league games. Suzuki and Pete Rose are the only two players in MLB history to have accomplished playing in 2,500 games in their first 16 seasons.
After the 2016 season, the Marlins exercised their option on Suzuki's contract for the 2017 season, and added an option for the 2018 season.
2017
On 19 April, Suzuki hit his first home run against his former team the Seattle Mariners, a 9th-inning drive off Evan Marshall. Suzuki scored his 1400th run in a 23 May game against the Oakland A's.
On 14 June, Suzuki singled for his 365th interleague hit, passing Derek Jeter (364) to become the all-time leader in interleague hits. Suzuki finished 2017 with 368 interleague hits. This total would be surpassed by Miguel Cabrera on September 7, 2021.
On 25 June, Suzuki (age 43 and 246 days) became the oldest player to start a game in center field since at least 1900, breaking the record previously held by Rickey Henderson. On 29 June, Suzuki became the oldest active MLB player when Bartolo Colón was designated for assignment by the Atlanta Braves, although Colon latched on with the Minnesota Twins a few weeks later. On 6 July, Suzuki hit two singles against the St. Louis Cardinals, bringing his hits total to 3,054 and surpassing Panamanian-born Rod Carew as the all-time leader in MLB hits among foreign-born players. Dominican-born Adrian Beltre surpassed Suzuki as the foreign hits leader on 13 June 2018.
On 26 August, Suzuki set the Marlins' single-season franchise record for pinch-hits with his 22nd pinch hit. On 3 September, he set a major league record for most pinch-hit at-bats in a season, with 84, and four days later he set a major league record for most pinch-hit plate appearances in a season, with 95. On 8 September, Suzuki became the sixth player all-time to hit 2,500 career singles, as well as the 8th right fielder of all-time to record over 4,000 putouts at the position. On 1 October, Suzuki flied out in his last chance to tie John Vander Wal's MLB record of 28 pinch hits in a season, finishing with 27.
For the season, he batted .255/.318/.332 with one stolen base (the first season in which he did not steal at least 10 bases). After the season, the Marlins declined a $2 million club option for the 2018 season, instead paying Suzuki a $500,000 buyout.
Seattle Mariners (2018–2019)
2018
On 7 March 2018, Suzuki signed a one-year contract to return to the Mariners after several team outfielders were injured during spring training. On Opening Day, 29 March, against the Cleveland Indians, Suzuki became the 20th outfielder all-time to record 5,000 career putouts at the position. At 44 years old, he entered the 2018 season as the second-oldest active player in baseball, behind only Bartolo Colón.
On 3 May, the Mariners announced that Suzuki would move to the front office as a special assistant to the chairman for the remainder of the season, but Suzuki did not rule out a possible return as a player for the 2019 season. In his final game for the year on the previous day, he went 0-for-3 with a walk, a strikeout, and a run in a 3–2 loss to the Oakland Athletics. This would end up being his last game played at Safeco Field. In 15 games played with the 2018 Mariners, Suzuki batted 9-for-44 (.205/.255/.205) without an extra base hit, stolen base, or RBI.
At the time of his sabbatical as an active player, Suzuki held the record for most hits in Major League Baseball history by a foreign-born player (3,089). He was surpassed six weeks later by Adrián Beltré.
On 11 May, he became the interim bench coach for two games as manager Scott Servais was gone to attend his daughter's college graduation and regular bench coach Manny Acta was filling in as manager.
2019
On 2 October 2018, it was announced that Suzuki would be on the Mariners' active roster when they opened the 2019 season against the Oakland Athletics in Japan. Suzuki was re-signed to a minor league deal on 23 January 2019.
On 20 March 2019, the Mariners opened the MLB season against the Athletics at the Tokyo Dome and Suzuki started the game in right field, becoming at 45 years old the second oldest position player (behind Julio Franco) to start for a team on its opening day. The next night, the Mariners again played the Athletics at the Tokyo Dome and Suzuki played in his final professional game. He went 0–4 at the plate and in the bottom of the eighth inning walked off the field to applause. Later in the day, Suzuki officially announced his retirement. He was the oldest active MLB player at the time.
2019 was Suzuki's 19th season in the MLB, and including the nine years he played in Japan's NPB, Suzuki's 28 seasons of playing in baseball's top-tiered leagues eclipsed the record of most seasons played by a position player held previously by 19th century MLB player Cap Anson. (MLB pitcher Nolan Ryan, like Anson, also played 27 seasons, while NPB pitcher Kimiyasu Kudo played 29 seasons).
On 30 April 2019, Suzuki renewed his role with the Mariners from the previous year as special assistant to the chairman.
On 27 August 2022, Suzuki was inducted into the Seattle Mariners Hall of Fame.
International career
2006: Inaugural World Baseball Classic
Suzuki played for the Japan national baseball team in the inaugural World Baseball Classic in March 2006. During the 15 March Japan-Korea game, Suzuki was booed by some spectators during every at-bat, reportedly in response to a previous statement that he wanted to "beat South Korea so badly that the South Koreans won't want to play Japan for another 30 years." That, however, was an incorrect translation mostly spread to the public through ESPN. Suzuki was variously quoted as saying "I want to win in a way that the opponent would think, 'we cannot catch up with Japan for the coming 30 years'. We should not merely win the games." Japan would later beat Korea in the playoffs and win the tournament after defeating Cuba 10–6 in the finals. For the tournament, Suzuki had twelve hits including a home run, seven runs, and four stolen bases.
2009: Second WBC championship
Despite struggling uncharacteristically during most of the tournament, Suzuki provided the game-winning hit in the Championship game against South Korea. With two outs in the top of the tenth inning, he broke a 3–3 tie with a two-run single off a ball in the dirt. This would prove to be the margin of victory in Japan's 5–3 defeat of South Korea. Suzuki ended the night 4-for-6, bringing his total to 6-for-10 in WBC championship games.
Playing style
Sportswriter Bruce Jenkins, writing in the San Francisco Chronicle, described Suzuki's distinctive style of play:
There's nobody like Ichiro in either league—now or ever. He exists strictly within his own world, playing a game 100 percent unfamiliar to everyone else. The game has known plenty of 'slap' hitters, but none who sacrifice so much natural ability for the sake of the art. And he'll go deep occasionally in games, looking very much like someone who could do it again, often ... [but] the man lives for hits, little tiny ones, and the glory of standing atop the world in that category. Every spring, scouts or media types write him off, swearing that opposing pitchers have found the key, and they are embarrassingly wrong.
While he is known for his hitting ability, he did not draw many walks. In 2004, when he set the single-season record for hits, his low walk total (49) led to him being on base a total of 315 times. It was the 58th-most times a player has reached base in a season and short of the major league record of 379 set by Babe Ruth in 1923.The New York Times criticized his inability to improve his power when his Mariner teams were often low-scoring while noting that he also did not steal bases as frequently as Rickey Henderson or Tim Raines. Suzuki, however, once commented, "If I'm allowed to hit .220, I could probably hit 40 [home runs], but nobody wants that."
Suzuki has long been interested in pitching professionally, and he actually took the mound to pitch to one batter in the 1996 NPB All Star game, reaching close to in warm up pitches. In 2009, it was reported that during an early February workout at the World Baseball Classic his fastball was clocked at 92 mph. On the final day of the 2015 season on 4 October, Suzuki pitched in his first MLB game, throwing one complete inning at the end of a 7–2 Marlins loss against the Philadelphia Phillies, allowing one run on two hits. Less than three weeks before turning 42, he was still able to touch 88 mph with his fastball to go along with a mid 80s slider.
Suzuki is the only left-handed hitter in Major League history with at least 2,000 plate appearances against left-handed pitching to display a reverse platoon split—that is, he had better results hitting off left-handed pitchers than right-handed pitchers.
Suzuki received recognition for playing superior defense in right field, with above-average range and a strong and accurate throwing arm. During his career, he won 10 Gold Glove Awards.
Personality and influence
Suzuki is noted for his work ethic in arriving early for his team's games, and for his calisthenic stretching exercises to stay limber even during the middle of the game. Continuing in Seattle the custom he began in Japan, he used his given name (written in rōmaji) on the back of his uniform instead of his family name, becoming the first player in Major League Baseball to do so since Vida Blue.
In addition to being a ten-time Gold Glove winner, Suzuki was a ten-time All-Star selection from 2001 to 2010. His success has been credited with opening the door for other Japanese players like former Yomiuri Giants slugger Hideki Matsui, former Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks catcher Kenji Johjima, former teammate So Taguchi, and former Seibu Lions infielder Kazuo Matsui and active players Shohei Ohtani and Seiya Suzuki to enter the Major Leagues. Suzuki's career was followed closely in Japan, with national television news programs covering each of his at-bats, and with special tour packages arranged for Japanese fans to visit the United States to attend his games.
Suzuki's agent, Tony Attanasio, described his client's status: "When you mail Ichiro something from the States, you only have to use that name on the address and he gets it [in Japan]. He's that big." Suzuki's status in Japan fueled interest in Major League Baseball in Japan, including the $275 million broadcasting rights deal between MLB and Dentsu Inc. in 2003.
Suzuki performs in TV commercials in Japan for ENEOS. His likeness is used as the basis of the character "Kyoshiro" in the anime and manga Major.
When he first came to the United States, he especially enjoyed trips to Kansas City to talk with former Negro leagues star Buck O'Neil. When O'Neil died in 2006, Suzuki sent a very large memorial wreath to the funeral service. The following year, he visited the Negro Leagues Baseball Museum while on a road trip to Kansas City and made what, as of 2016, remains the largest contribution ever made to the museum by an active MLB player.
When Suzuki was traded to the Yankees in July 2012, longtime Mariners fan Ben Gibbard (of Death Cab for Cutie) posted his tribute song, "Ichiro's Theme", on his SoundCloud page. The previous year, The Baseball Project had released the tribute song "Ichiro Goes To The Moon" on their album Volume 2: High and Inside.
Endorsements
Over the course of his career, Suzuki has endorsed numerous Japanese brands, although he was more reluctant to enter endorsement deals with American companies. According to Forbes, at one point in his career, Suzuki earned roughly $7 million annually from endorsements, most of which came from Japanese companies.
He was the face of Kirin Brewery, a Japanese beer brand. He has endorsed Japanese brands such as sporting goods company Mizuno Corporation, Nikko Cordial, NTT Communications, Asics, JXTG Nippon Oil & Energy. Suzuki also endorsed Yunker energy drink on behalf of Sato Pharmaceutical and Oakley sunglasses.
As of 2001, Suzuki had deals with the US golfwear company Cutter & Buck, Upper Deck trading card company, and sporting goods company Majestic Athletic.
Suzuki's agent Tony Attanasio stated that Suzuki had rejected around $40 million in endorsements due to him being "very selective when it comes to putting his name out in the public"
Personal life
He has an elder brother, Kazuyasu Suzuki.
Suzuki married , a former TBS TV announcer, on 3 December 1999, at a small church in Santa Monica, California. , they have a pet dog (Shiba Inu) named Ikkyu, a combination of the first character in each of his and his wife's first names. The couple resided in Issaquah, Washington, during the season while he played in Seattle and in Greenwich, Connecticut, while he played for the Yankees. They resided in Miami Beach during seasons with the Marlins.
On 18 March 2011, Suzuki donated ¥100 million ($1.25 million) to the Japanese Red Cross for earthquake and tsunami relief efforts.
Suzuki's father, Nobuyuki, handled Ichiro's finances early in his career until, in 2002, due to Nobuyuki underreporting Ichiro's income, Ichiro was saddled with a significant bill for unpaid taxes. The scandal cost Ichiro an undisclosed amount of money and caused him embarrassment. This incident, along with Nobuyuki's relentless training and unforgiving attitude toward his son, caused their relationship to collapse. Subsequently, Ichiro's finances have been looked after by his wife Yumiko.
Since November 2000, Nobuyuki has run the Ichiro exhibition room named "I-fain" in Toyoyama, Suzuki's hometown. It exhibits a wide variety of Ichiro Suzuki memorabilia, including personal items from his childhood and up-to-date baseball gear.
Suzuki is the honored chairman of the Ichiro Cup, a six-month-long boys' league tournament with more than 200 teams, held in Toyoyama and surrounding cities and towns since 1996. Suzuki watches the final game and attends its awards ceremony every year.
Suzuki speaks English well and often spoke it with his teammates in his playing days, but uses an interpreter during interviews so that he is not misunderstood. He also learned Spanish early in his MLB career, using it to banter with other players. Suzuki further explains he did it because he felt a kinship to the Latin American players who, like him, were foreigners trying to succeed in the U.S.
See also
Best Nine Award
Commissioner's Historic Achievement Award
3,000 hit club
Fielding Bible Award
History of the Japanese in Seattle
Japan Professional Sports Grand Prize
List of Major League Baseball annual stolen base leaders
List of Major League Baseball batting champions
List of Major League Baseball career at-bat leaders
List of Major League Baseball career games played leaders
List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders
List of Major League Baseball career plate appearance leaders
List of Major League Baseball career putouts as a right fielder leaders
List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders
List of Major League Baseball career singles leaders
List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders
List of Major League Baseball career total bases leaders
List of Major League Baseball hit records
List of Major League Baseball players from Japan
Major League Baseball titles leaders
Matsutaro Shoriki Award
Mitsui Golden Glove Award
Meikyukai
Nippon Professional Baseball All-Star Series
Players Choice Awards
Seattle Mariners award winners and league leaders
This Year in Baseball Awards
References
Sources
Further reading
Allen, Jim. Ichiro Magic. New York: Kodansha America, 2001.
Christopher, Matt, and Glenn Stout. At the Plate With... Ichiro. New York: Little, Brown, 2003. .
Dougherty, Terri. Ichiro Suzuki. ?: Checkerboard Books, 2003. .
Komatsu, Narumi, and Philip Gabriel. Ichiro on Ichiro: Conversations with Narumi Komatsu. Seattle: Sasquatch Books, 2004. .
Leigh, David S. Ichiro Suzuki. Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books, 2004. .
Levin, Judith. Ichiro Suzuki. New York: Chelsea House Publications, 2007. .
Rappoport, Ken. Super Sports Star Ichiro Suzuki. Berkeley Heights, N.J.: Enslow Elementary, 2004. .
Rosenthal, Jim. Ichiro's Art of Playing Baseball: Learn How to Hit, Steal, and Field Like an All-Star. New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 2006. .
Savage, Jeff. Ichiro Suzuki. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications, 2003. .
Shields, David. "Baseball Is Just Baseball": The Understated Ichiro: An Unauthorized Collection Compiled by David Shields. Seattle: TNI Books, 2001. .
Stewart, Mark. Ichiro Suzuki: Best in the West. Minneapolis: Millbrook Press, 2002. .
Whiting, Robert. The Meaning of Ichiro: The New Wave from Japan and the Transformation of Our National Pastime. Warner Books, 2004; retitled for the 2005 paperback to The Samurai Way of Baseball: The New Wave from Japan and the Transformation of Our National Pastime''. , .
External links
1973 births
2006 World Baseball Classic players
2009 World Baseball Classic players
American League All-Stars
American League batting champions
American League Most Valuable Player Award winners
American League stolen base champions
Baseball people from Aichi Prefecture
Gold Glove Award winners
Japanese expatriate baseball players in the United States
Living people
Major League Baseball All-Star Game MVPs
Major League Baseball outfielders
Major League Baseball players from Japan
Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award winners
Miami Marlins players
New York Yankees players
Nippon Professional Baseball MVP Award winners
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Otto Skorzeny
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Otto Skorzeny
Otto Johann Anton Skorzeny (12 June 1908 – 5 July 1975) was an Austrian-born German SS-Obersturmbannführer (lieutenant colonel) in the Waffen-SS during World War II. During the war, he was involved in a number of operations, including the removal from power of Hungarian Regent Miklós Horthy and the Gran Sasso raid which rescued Benito Mussolini from captivity. Skorzeny led Operation Greif in which German soldiers infiltrated Allied lines wearing their enemies' uniforms. As a result, he was charged in 1947 at the Dachau Military Tribunal with breaching the 1907 Hague Convention, but was acquitted.
Skorzeny escaped from an internment camp in 1948, hiding out on a Bavarian farm as well as in Salzburg and Paris before eventually settling in Francoist Spain. In 1953, he served as a military advisor to Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser. He was allegedly an advisor to Argentinian president Juan Perón. Skorzeny died of lung cancer on 5 July 1975 in Madrid at the age of 67.
Pre-war years
Otto Skorzeny was born in Vienna into a middle-class Austrian family which had a long history of military service. His surname is of Polish origin, and Skorzeny's distant ancestors came from Skorzęcin in the Greater Poland region, eventually immigrating to East Prussia.
In addition to his native German, he spoke excellent French and was proficient in English. In his teens, Skorzeny once complained to his father about the austere lifestyle the family was enduring; his father replied, "There is no harm in doing without things. It might even be good for you not to get used to a soft life."
He was a noted fencer as member of a German-national Burschenschaft while studying at the Technical University of Vienna. He engaged in fifteen personal combats. The tenth resulted in a wound that left a dramatic dueling scar—known in academic fencing as a Schmiss (German for "smite" or "hit")—on his cheek.
In May 1932, Skorzeny joined the Austrian Nazi organization and soon became a member of the Austrian branch of the Nazi Sturmabteilung (SA) in February 1934. A charismatic figure, Skorzeny played a minor role in the Anschluss on 12 March 1938 when, according to his own account, he saved the Austrian President Wilhelm Miklas from being shot by Austrian Nazis.
Eastern Front
After the 1939 Invasion of Poland, Skorzeny, then working as a civil engineer, volunteered for service in the German Air Force (the Luftwaffe), but was turned down because he was considered too tall at and too old (31 years in 1939) for aircrew training. He then joined the Waffen-SS, training with Hitler's bodyguard regiment, the Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler (LSSAH).
Skorzeny took part in the invasion of the Soviet Union with the SS Division Das Reich and subsequently fought in several battles on the Eastern Front. In October 1941, he was in charge of a "technical section" of German forces during the Battle of Moscow. His mission was to seize important buildings of the Communist Party, including the NKVD headquarters at Lubyanka, and the central telegraph office and other high priority facilities, before they could be destroyed. He was also ordered to capture the sluices of the Moscow-Volga Canal because Hitler wanted to turn Moscow into a huge artificial lake by opening them. The missions were canceled inasmuch as German forces had failed to capture the Soviet capital.
In January 1942, Skorzeny was hit in the back of the head by shrapnel; he was evacuated to the rear for treatment. He had previously been awarded the Iron Cross, Second Class while fighting in the Yelnya bridgehead. Recuperating from his injuries he was given a staff role in Berlin, where he developed his ideas on unconventional commando warfare. Skorzeny's proposals were to develop units specialized in such warfare, including partisan-like fighting deep behind enemy lines, fighting in enemy uniform, sabotage attacks, etc. In April 1943 Skorzeny's name was put forward by Ernst Kaltenbrunner, the new head of the RSHA, and Skorzeny met with Walter Schellenberg, head of Amt VI, Ausland-SD (the SS foreign intelligence service department of the RSHA). Schellenberg charged Skorzeny with command of the schools organized to train operatives in sabotage, espionage, and paramilitary techniques. Skorzeny was appointed commander of the recently created Waffen SS Sonderverband z.b.V. Friedenthal stationed near Berlin (the unit was later renamed SS Jagdverband 502, and in November 1944 again to SS Combat Unit "Center", expanding ultimately to five battalions).
The unit's first mission was Operation François in mid-1943. Skorzeny sent a group by parachute into Iran to make contact with the dissident mountain tribes to encourage them to sabotage Allied shipments to the Soviet Union via the Trans-Iranian Railway. However, commitment among the rebel tribes was suspect, and Operation François was deemed a failure.
Operations by Skorzeny
Operation François – Co-ordination of guerrilla operations in Iran.
Operation Oak (Unternehmen Eiche, September 1943) – rescue of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini.
Operation Long Jump – A planned operation to assassinate the "Big Three" (Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt) during the 1943 Tehran Conference. The plot was uncovered before its inception. Skorzeny denied that this operation had ever existed.
Operation Knight's Leap (Unternehmen Rösselsprung, May 1944) – An attempt to capture Josip Broz Tito alive.
Operation Armoured Fist (Unternehmen Panzerfaust a.k.a. Unternehmen Eisenfaust, October 1944) – kidnapping of Miklós Horthy Jr. to force his father, Admiral Miklós Horthy, to resign as Regent of Hungary in favor of Ferenc Szálasi, the pro-Nazi leader of the Arrow Cross Party.
Operation Griffin (Unternehmen Greif, December 1944) – A false flag operation to spread disinformation during the Battle of the Bulge.
Werwolf SS – A planned Nazi underground resistance movement in Allied-occupied Europe.
Liberation of Mussolini
On the night between 24 and 25 July 1943, a few weeks after the Allied invasion of Sicily and bombing of Rome, the Italian Grand Council of Fascism voted a motion of no confidence (Ordine del Giorno Grandi) against Mussolini. On the same day, the king replaced him with Marshal Pietro Badoglio and had him arrested.
Hitler ordered military operations to liberate Mussolini, and, as was his common procedure, he issued similar orders to competing organisations within the German military. So he ordered Skorzeny to track Mussolini, and simultaneously ordered the paratroop General Kurt Student to execute the liberation.
Mussolini was being transported around Italy by his captors (first to Ponza, then to La Maddalena, both small islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea). Intercepting a coded Italian radio message, Skorzeny used the reconnaissance provided by SS-Obersturmbannführer Herbert Kappler's network of agents and informants (helped with counterfeit British bank notes with a face value of £100,000, forged under Operation Bernhard). It was determined that Mussolini was being imprisoned at Campo Imperatore Hotel, a ski resort at Campo Imperatore in Italy's Gran Sasso massif, high in the Apennine Mountains.
On 12 September 1943, Skorzeny and 16 SS troopers joined the Fallschirmjäger to rescue Mussolini in a high-risk glider mission. Ten DFS 230 gliders, each carrying nine soldiers and a pilot, towed by Henschel Hs 126 planes started between 13:05 and 13:10 from the Pratica di Mare Air Base near Rome. The leader of the airborne operation, paratrooper-Oberleutnant Georg Freiherr von Berlepsch, entered the first glider, Skorzeny and his SS troopers sat in the fourth and fifth glider. To gain height before crossing the close by Alban Hills the leading three glider-towing plane units flew an additional loop. All following units considered this maneuver unnecessary and preferred not to endanger the given time of arrival at the target. This led to the situation that Skorzeny's two units arrived first over the target. Meanwhile, the valley station of the funicular railway leading to the Campo Imperatore was captured at 14:00 in a ground attack by two paratrooper companies led by Major Otto-Harald Mors, who was commander-in-chief of the whole raid. They also cut all telephone lines. At 14:05 the airborne commandos landed their ten DFS 230 gliders on the mountain near the hotel; only one crashed, causing injuries. The Fallschirmjäger and Skorzeny's special troopers overwhelmed Mussolini's captors (200 well-equipped Carabinieri guards) without a single shot being fired; this was also due to the fact that General Fernando Soleti of the Polizia dell' Africa Italiana, who flew in with Skorzeny, told them to stand down. Skorzeny attacked the radio operator and his equipment and stormed into the hotel, being followed by his SS troopers and the paratroopers. Ten minutes after the beginning of the raid, Mussolini left the hotel, accompanied by the German soldiers. At 14:45 Major Mors accessed the Hotel via the funicular railway and introduced himself to Mussolini.
Subsequently, Mussolini was to be flown out by a Fieseler Fi 156 STOL plane. Although under the given circumstances the small plane was overloaded, Skorzeny insisted on accompanying Mussolini, thus endangering the success of the mission. After an extremely dangerous but successful lift-off, they flew to Pratica di Mare. There they continued immediately, flying in a Heinkel He 111 to Vienna, where Mussolini stayed overnight at the Hotel Imperial. The next day he was flown to Munich and on 14 September he met Hitler at the Wolf's Lair Führer Headquarters near Rastenburg.
The landing at Campo Imperatore was in fact led by First Lieutenant Georg Freiherr von Berlepsch, commanded by Major Otto-Harald Mors and under orders from General Kurt Student, all Fallschirmjäger (German air force paratroop) officers; but Skorzeny stewarded the Italian leader right in front of the cameras. After a pro-SS propaganda coup at the behest of Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler and propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels, Skorzeny and his special forces (SS-Sonderverband z. b. V. "Friedenthal") of the Waffen-SS were granted the majority of the credit for the operation.
Operation Long Jump
"Operation Long Jump" was the alleged code name given to a plot to assassinate the "Big Three" (Joseph Stalin, Winston Churchill, and Franklin Roosevelt) at the 1943 Tehran Conference. Hitler supposedly gave the command of the operation to Ernst Kaltenbrunner, chief of the RSHA, who, in turn, ceded the mission to Skorzeny. Knowledge of the whole scheme was presented to the Western Allies by Stalin's NKVD at the Tehran Conference. The Soviets said they had learned about its existence from counter espionage activities against German intelligence. Their agents had found out the Nazis knew the time and place of this meeting because they had cracked a US naval code. According to the NKVD the assassination plot was foiled after they identified the German spies in Iran forcing Skorzeny to call off the mission due to inadequate intelligence.
Following Tehran, the story was treated with incredulity by the British and Americans who dismissed it as Soviet propaganda. Skorzeny supported this view by stating in his post-war memoirs that no such operation ever existed. He said the story about the plans being leaked to Soviet spy Nikolai Kuznetsov by an SS-Sturmbannführer named Hans Ulrich von Ortel was a Soviet invention; Hans Ulrich von Ortel never existed. Skorzeny claimed his name was used only to add credibility to the story because the NKVD knew his renowned record as an SS commando would make the existence of such an operation more plausible.
Raid on Drvar
In early 1944, Sonderverband z.b.V. Friedenthal was re-designated SS-Jäger-Bataillon 502 with Skorzeny staying on as commander. They were assigned to Operation Rösselsprung, known subsequently as the Raid on Drvar. Rösselsprung was a commando operation meant to capture the Yugoslav commander-in-chief, Marshal Josip Broz Tito, who had also recently been recognized by the Allies as the Yugoslav prime minister. Marshal Tito led the Yugoslav Partisan resistance army from his headquarters near the Bosnian town of Drvar, in the center of a large area held by the Partisans.
Hitler knew Tito was receiving Allied support and was aware that either British or American troops might land in Dalmatia along the Adriatic coastline with support from the Partisans. Killing or capturing Tito would not only hinder this, it would give a badly needed boost to the morale of Axis forces engaged in occupied Yugoslavia. Skorzeny was involved in planning Rösselsprung and was intended to command it. However, he argued against implementation after he visited Zagreb and discovered that the operation had been compromised through the carelessness of German agents in the Nazi-affiliated Independent State of Croatia in occupied Yugoslav territory.
Rösselsprung was put into action nonetheless, but it was a complete disaster. The first wave of paratroopers, following heavy bombardment by the Luftwaffe, jumped between Tito's hideout in a cave and the town of Drvar; they landed on open ground and many were promptly shot by members of the Tito Escort Battalion, a unit numbering fewer than a hundred soldiers. The second wave of paratroopers missed their target and landed several miles out of town. Tito was long gone before paratroopers reached the cave; a trail at the back of the cave led to the railway tracks where Tito boarded a train that took him safely to Jajce. In the meantime, the Partisan 1st Brigade, from the 6th Lika Partisan Division, arrived after a twelve-mile (nineteen-kilometer) forced march and attacked the Waffen-SS paratroopers, inflicting heavy casualties.
Hungary and Operation Panzerfaust
In October 1944, Hitler sent Skorzeny to Hungary after receiving word that the Regent of Hungary, Admiral Miklós Horthy, was secretly negotiating with the Red Army. The surrender of Hungary would have cut off the million German troops still fighting in the Balkans.
Skorzeny, in a daring "snatch" codenamed Operation Panzerfaust (known as Operation Eisenfaust in Germany), kidnapped Horthy's son Miklós Horthy Jr. and forced his father to resign as head of state. A pro-Nazi government under dictator Ferenc Szálasi was then installed in Hungary. In April 1945, after German and Hungarian forces had already been driven out of Hungary, Szálasi and his Arrow Cross Party-based forces continued the fight in Austria and Slovakia. The success of the operation earned Skorzeny promotion to Obersturmbannführer.
Operation Greif and the German defeat
As part of the German Ardennes offensive in late 1944 (Battle of the Bulge), Skorzeny's English-speaking troops were charged with infiltrating American lines disguised in American uniforms in order to produce confusion to support the German attack. For the campaign, Skorzeny was the commander of a composite unit, the 150th SS Panzer Brigade. As planned by Skorzeny, Operation Greif involved about two dozen German soldiers, most of them in captured American Jeeps and disguised in American uniforms, who would penetrate American lines in the early hours of the Battle of the Bulge to cause disorder and confusion. Skorzeny was well aware that under the Hague Convention of 1907, any of his men captured while wearing American uniforms would be executed as spies and this possibility caused much discussion with Generaloberst Alfred Jodl and Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt.
A handful of his men were captured and spread a rumor that Skorzeny personally was leading a raid on Paris to kill or capture General Eisenhower, who was not amused by having to spend Christmas 1944 isolated for security reasons. Eisenhower retaliated by ordering an all-out manhunt for Skorzeny, with "Wanted" posters distributed throughout Allied-controlled territories featuring a detailed description and a photograph. In all, twenty-three of Skorzeny's men were captured behind American lines and sixteen were executed as spies for contravening the rules of war by wearing enemy uniforms.
Skorzeny spent February 1945 as an acting major general commanding about 5,000 troops, only some of which were his SS commandos and paratroopers, during the defense of the Schwedt Bridgehead on the River Oder. On 17 March, he received orders to sabotage the last remaining intact bridge across the Rhine at Remagen following its capture by the Allies, but the bridge collapsed that same day, and the naval demolitions squad that had been preparing its destruction instead unsuccessfully attacked a nearby Allied pontoon bridge between Kripp and Linz. Hitler awarded him one of Germany's highest military honours, the Oak Leaves to the Knight's Cross.
Postwar
Dachau trials
Skorzeny was interned for two years before being tried as a war criminal at the Dachau trials in 1947 for allegedly violating the laws of war during the Battle of the Bulge. He and nine officers of the Panzerbrigade 150 were tried before an American military tribunal in Dachau on 18 August 1947. They faced charges of improper use of American military insignia, theft of American uniforms, and theft of Red Cross parcels from American POWs. The trial lasted over three weeks. The charge of stealing Red Cross parcels was dropped for lack of evidence. Skorzeny admitted to ordering his men to wear American uniforms, but his defence argued that as long as enemy uniforms were discarded before combat started, such a tactic was a legitimate ruse de guerre.
On the final day of the trial, 9 September, F. F. E. Yeo-Thomas, a former British SOE agent, testified in defence of Skorzeny and his operatives wearing American uniforms behind enemy lines, claiming that the Western Allies had actively contemplated carrying out exactly the same kind of "false flag" operations; the Tribunal subsequently acquitted the ten defendants. The Tribunal drew a distinction between using enemy uniforms during combat and for other purposes including deception and were unable to prove that Skorzeny had given any orders to actually fight in American uniforms.
Escape from prison
Skorzeny was detained in an internment camp at Darmstadt awaiting the decision of a denazification court. On 27 July 1948, he escaped from the camp with the help of three former SS officers dressed in American military police uniforms who entered the camp and claimed that they had been ordered to take Skorzeny to Nuremberg for a legal hearing. Skorzeny afterwards maintained that American authorities had aided his escape and had supplied the uniforms.
Skorzeny hid out at a farm in Bavaria which had been rented by Countess Ilse Lüthje, the niece of Hjalmar Schacht (Hitler's former finance minister), for around 18 months, during which time he was in contact with Reinhard Gehlen, and together with Hartmann Lauterbacher (former deputy head of the Hitler Youth) recruited for the Gehlen Organization. Skorzeny was photographed at a café on the Champs Elysées in Paris on 13 February 1950. The photo appeared in the French press the next day, causing him to move to Salzburg, where he met up with German veterans and also filed for divorce so that he could marry Ilse Lüthje.
Shortly afterwards, with the help of a Nansen passport issued by the Spanish government, he moved to Madrid, where he set up a small engineering business. In April 1950, the publication of Skorzeny's memoirs by the French newspaper Le Figaro caused 1,500 communists to riot outside the journal's headquarters.
Military advisor
In 1952, Egypt was taken over by General Mohammed Naguib. Skorzeny was sent to Egypt the following year by former General Reinhard Gehlen (who was now working indirectly for the CIA) to act as Naguib's military adviser. Skorzeny recruited a staff made up of former SS and Wehrmacht officers to train the Egyptian army. Among these officers were former Wehrmacht generals Wilhelm Fahrmbacher and Oskar Munzel; the head of the Gestapo Department for Jewish Affairs in occupied Poland Leopold Gleim; and Joachim Daemling, former chief of the Gestapo in Düsseldorf. In addition to training the army, Skorzeny also trained Arab volunteers in commando tactics for possible use against British troops stationed in the Suez Canal zone. Several Palestinian refugees also received commando training, and Skorzeny planned their raids into Israel via the Gaza Strip in 1953–1954. One of these Palestinians was Yasser Arafat. He stayed on to serve as an adviser to Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser.
According to some authors, he traveled between Spain and Argentina, where he acted as an advisor to President Juan Perón and as a bodyguard for Eva Perón, while fostering an ambition for the "Fourth Reich" to be centered in Latin America.
Alleged recruitment by Mossad
The Israeli security and intelligence magazine Matara published an article in 1989 claiming that Skorzeny had been recruited by Mossad in 1963 to obtain information on German scientists who were working on an Egyptian project to develop rockets to be used against Israel. Reporting on the Matara story, the major Israeli daily Yedioth Ahronot said that it had confirmed the story from their own senior Mossad source. Former Mossad head Isser Harel confirmed the story that former Nazis were recruited to provide intelligence on Arab countries.
Ian Black and Benny Morris wrote in 1991 that Skorzeny may not have known for whom he was working, but in 2010, Tom Segev published in his biography of Simon Wiesenthal that Skorzeny had offered to help only if Wiesenthal removed him from his list of wanted war criminals. Wiesenthal refused, but Skorzeny finally agreed to help anyway. Segev gave as his main source the senior Mossad agent Rafi Meidan to whom Segev attributes the primary role in the recruitment of Skorzeny.
Further details of the story were published by Yossi Melman and Dan Raviv in 2016. According to their information, a Mossad team had started to develop a plan to kill Skorzeny, but chief Isser Harel decided to attempt to recruit him instead, as a man on the inside would greatly enhance their ability to target Nazis who were providing military assistance to Egypt. He allegedly was recruited and conducted operations for Mossad from 1964, working with Avraham Ahituv and Rafi Eitan.
Other unnamed sources asserted Skorzeny was recruited after Mossad visited his home in Spain, where he expected that he would be assassinated. After undergoing instruction and training in Mossad's facilities in Israel, the rumoured work for Mossad included assassinating German rocket scientist Heinz Krug who was working for the Egyptian government and posting a letter bomb which killed five Egyptians at the Egyptian military rocket site Factory 333. He also allegedly supplied the names and addresses of German scientists working for Egypt and the names of European front companies supplying military hardware to Egypt.
No confirmed source can explain Skorzeny's motives for working with Israel, but he may have craved adventure and intrigue and feared assassination by Mossad. An article featured in Der Spiegel on 22 January 2018 raised doubts as to the involvement of Skorzeny in Krug's death, stating that Mossad boss Isser Harel ordered the murder.
Other activities
Like thousands of other former Nazis, Skorzeny was declared (denazified) in absentia in 1952 by a West German government arbitration board, which meant that he could now travel from Spain into other Western countries, on a special Nansen passport for stateless persons with which he visited Ireland in 1957 and 1958. In late 1958, he qualified for an Austrian passport and in 1959, he purchased Martinstown House, a farm near The Curragh in County Kildare, Ireland. Although Skorzeny could not be refused entry without due cause, he was refused a residency visa by the Irish government and had to limit his stays to six weeks at a time, and he was monitored by G2. He rarely visited after 1963 and sold Martinstown House in 1971. At 6 ft 4 in (193 cm) and weighing , along with his scar, he was easily recognizable and caused speculation among the English and Irish press as to why he was in Ireland. One Kildare resident recalled Skorzeny as someone who "wasn't particularly friendly and [who] didn't really mix with local people". Skorzeny also owned property on Majorca.
In the 1960s, Skorzeny set up the Paladin Group, which he envisioned as "an international directorship of strategic assault personnel [that would] straddle the watershed between paramilitary operations carried out by troops in uniform and the political warfare which is conducted by civilian agents". Based near Alicante, Spain, the Paladin Group specialized in arming and training guerrillas. Some of its operatives were recruited by the Spanish Interior Ministry to wage a clandestine war against the separatist group ETA. Skorzeny was a founder and an advisor to the leadership of the Spanish neo-Nazi group CEDADE, established in 1966.
It was rumored that under the cover names Robert Steinbacher and Otto Steinbauer and supported by either Nazi funds or (according to some sources) by Austrian intelligence, Skorzeny set up a secret organization named Die Spinne (English: "The Spider"), which helped as many as 600 former SS men escape from Germany to Spain, Argentina, and from there to other countries.
Death
In 1970, a cancerous tumor was discovered on Skorzeny's spine. Two tumors were later removed while he was staying at a hospital in Hamburg, leaving him temporarily paralyzed. Skorzeny died of lung cancer on 5 July 1975 in Madrid. He was 67 years old. Skorzeny never denounced Nazism.
He was given a Catholic funeral in Madrid on 7 August 1975. His body was then cremated and his ashes were later taken to Vienna to be interred in the Skorzeny family plot at Döblinger Friedhof. His funerals in Madrid and Vienna were attended by former SS colleagues who gave the Hitler salute, and also sang some of Hitler's favourite songs.
In fiction
Like many other prominent World War II figures, Skorzeny has been portrayed in several works of fiction, such as the Worldwar tetralogy by Harry Turtledove and 1945 by Newt Gingrich and William R. Forstchen. In The Eagle has Landed by Jack Higgins, Skorzeny's rescue of Mussolini inspires a plan to kidnap Winston Churchill.
Skorzeny was portrayed in the television drama series Mussolini: The Untold Story and Mussolini and I, and the drama film Walking with the Enemy (2014). The Spanish drama-series Jaguar is inspired by Skorzeny.
Awards
Iron Cross (1939) Second Class (26 August 1941) & First Class (12 September 1943)
Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross, 13 September 1943; Oak Leaves, 9 April 1945 (826th)
See also
Citations
General and cited references
Annussek, Greg (2005). Hitler's Raid To Save Mussolini , Da Capo Press, .
Durschmied, Erik (1990), Don't Shoot the Yanqui, Grafton Books, .
Durschmied, Erik (2001), Whisper of the Blade, Coronet Books, .
Foley, Charles (1987), Commando Extraordinary, Arms & Armour, .
Infield, Glenn (1981), Secrets of the SS, Stein and Day, .
Skorzeny, Otto, David Johnson transl. (1995), My Commando Operations: The Memoirs of Hitler's Most Daring Commando, Schiffer Publishing, .
Skorzeny, Otto (1997), Skorzeny's Special Missions, Greenhill Books, .
Smith, Stuart (2018), Otto Skorzeny - The Devil's Disciple, Osprey/Bloomsbury, .
Tetens, T. H. (1961), The New Germany and the Old Nazis, Random House/Marzani & Munsell; LCN 61–7240.
Wechsberg, Joseph (1967), The Murderers Among Us—The Simon Wiesenthal Memoirs, McGraw Hill, LCN 67–13204.
Whiting, Charles (1998), Skorzeny: "The Most Dangerous Man in Europe", DaCapo Press; .
Explanatory notes
External links
Trial of Otto Skorzeny and Others, General Military Government Court of the U.S. Zone of Germany, 18 August to 9 September 1947
Summary of KV 2/403 a British intelligence file Declassified in July 2001 it details the post war debriefing of Otto Skorzeny on Operation Werewolf and other matters
Otto Skorzeny Interrogation In Dachau 2/8/1945
Otto Skorzeny interrogated by a US Army captain in Germany
Europe's Most Dangerous Man: Otto Skorzeny in Spain (2020)
1908 births
1975 deaths
20th-century Freikorps personnel
Austrian expatriates in Argentina
Austrian expatriates in Spain
Austrian neo-Nazis
Austrian Waffen-SS personnel
Austrian people of Polish descent
Austrian Roman Catholics
Burials at Döbling Cemetery
Dachau trials
Deaths from lung cancer in Spain
Federal Intelligence Service informants
German World War II special forces
Military personnel from Vienna
People acquitted of international crimes
Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
Reich Security Main Office personnel
SS-Obersturmbannführer
TU Wien alumni
Escapees from United States military detention
People of the Mossad
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey%20Wolves%20%28organization%29
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Grey Wolves (organization)
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Grey Wolves (organization)
The Grey Wolves, officially known by the short name Idealist Hearths, is a Turkish far-right political movement and the youth wing of the Nationalist Movement Party (MHP). Commonly described as ultra-nationalist, neo-fascist, Islamo-nationalist (sometimes secular), and racist, it is a youth organization that has been characterized as the MHP's paramilitary or militant wing during the political violence in Turkey. Its members deny its political nature and claim it to be a cultural and educational foundation, as per its full official name: Idealist Clubs Educational and Cultural Foundation.
Established by Colonel Alparslan Türkeş in the late 1960s, it rose to prominence during the late 1970s political violence in Turkey when its members engaged in urban guerrilla warfare with left-wing militants and activists. Scholars have described it as a death squad, responsible for most of the violence and killings in this period. Their most notorious attack, which killed over 100 Alevis, took place in Maraş in December 1978. They are also alleged to have been behind the Taksim Square massacre in May 1977 and to have played a role in the Kurdish–Turkish conflict from 1978 onwards. The masterminds behind the attempted assassination of Pope John Paul II in 1981 by Grey Wolves member Mehmet Ali Ağca were not identified and the organization's role remains unclear. Due to these attacks, the Grey Wolves have been described by some scholars, journalists, and governments as a terrorist organization.
The organization has long been a prominent suspect in investigations into the deep state in Turkey, and is suspected of having had close dealings in the past with the Counter-Guerrilla, the Turkish branch of the NATO Operation Gladio, as well as the Turkish mafia. Among the Grey Wolves' prime targets are non-Turkish ethnic minorities such as Kurds, Greeks, and Armenians.
A staunchly pan-Turkist organization, in the early 1990s the Grey Wolves extended their area of operation into the post-Soviet states with Turkic and Muslim populations. Up to thousands of its members fought in the First Nagorno-Karabakh War on the Azerbaijani side, and the First and Second Chechen–Russian Wars on the Chechen side. After an unsuccessful attempt to seize power in Azerbaijan in 1995, they were banned in that country. In 2005, Kazakhstan also banned the organization, classifying it as a terrorist group.
Under Devlet Bahçeli, who assumed the leadership of the MHP and Grey Wolves after Türkeş's death in 1997, the organization has been reformed. According to a 2021 poll, the Grey Wolves are supported by 3.2% of the Turkish electorate. Its members are often involved in attacks and clashes with Kurdish and leftist activists. The organization is also active in the Turkish-occupied portion of Cyprus and has affiliated branches in several Western European countries with significant Turkish communities, such as Germany, Belgium, and the Netherlands. They are the largest right-wing extremist organization in Germany. The Grey Wolves were banned in France in November 2020 for hate speech and political violence, and calls for similar actions are made elsewhere. In May 2021, the European Parliament also called on member states of the European Union to designate it as a terrorist group.
Name and symbolism
The organization's members are known as Ülkücüler, which literally means "idealists". Its informal name is inspired by the ancient legend of Asena, a she-wolf in the Ergenekon, a Tengrist ancient myth associated with Turkic ethnic origins in the Central Asian steppes. In Turkey, the wolf also symbolizes honor. The Grey Wolves have a "strong emphasis on leadership and hierarchical, military-like organisation."
The Grey Wolves also use what scholar Ahmet İnsel describes as "fascist slogans imported from America", such as "Love it or leave it" (Ya Sev Ya Terk Et!) and "Communists to Moscow" (Komünistler Moskova'ya).
The salutation of the Grey Wolves is "a fist with the little finger and index finger raised" Turkic hand gesture. It was banned in Austria in February 2019. In Germany, the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the Left Party proposed banning the salute in October 2018, calling it fascist.
Ideology
The Grey Wolves adhere to an extreme form of Turkish nationalism. It has been characterized as an ultra-nationalist and neo-fascist paramilitary organization by political scholars, the mainstream media, and left-wing sources. R. W. Apple Jr., writing in The New York Times in 1981, described MHP and its satellite groups as a "xenophobic, fanatically nationalist, neofascist network steeped in violence." The organization's ideology emphasizes the early history of the Turkic peoples in Central Asia and blends it with Islamic culture and beliefs; their synthesis of Turkish identity, political ideology, and Islamic beliefs is referred to as "Turkish Islamonationalism", and is widely prevalent in their rhetoric and activities. One of their mottos is: "Your doctor will be a Turk and your medicine will be Islam." Other sources have described it as secular.
Their ideology is based on a "superiority" of the Turkish "race" and the Turkish nation. According to Peters, they strive for an "ideal" Turkish nation, which they define as "Sunni-Islamic and mono-ethnic: only inhabited by 'true' Turks." A Turk is defined as someone who lives in the Turkish territory, feels Turkish and calls themselves Turkish. In their ideology and activities, they are hostile to virtually all non-Turkish or non-Sunni elements within Turkey, including Kurds, Alevis, Arabs, Armenians, Greeks, Christians, and Jews. They embrace anti-Semitic conspiracy theories such as those put forward by The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, and have distributed the Turkish translation of Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf.
The Grey Wolves are Pan-Turkist and seek to unite the Turkic peoples in one state stretching from the Balkans to Central Asia. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Grey Wolves called for "a revived Turkish empire embracing newly independent Central Asian states of the former Soviet Union." They have proposed "a pan-Turkish extension of the Turkish nation-state." Due to their pan-Turkic agenda they are hostile towards China, Iran, and Russia.
The Grey Wolves are staunchly anti-communist and have a history of violence toward leftists.
Base
According to sociologist , the Grey Wolves—"the militant youth wing of the Turkish ethnic nationalists that are dissatisfied with the inertia of the Nationalist Movement Party (MHP) camp"—are supported by 3.6% of the Turkish electorate as of 2014. A 2021 poll by Kadir Has University found that a similar percentage, 3.2% of respondents identify as Ülkücü, or supporters of the Grey Wolves.
According to analyst Ankarali Jan, the Grey Wolves have a largely unofficial presence in Turkey's major universities, but their "real power is on the streets, among disaffected poor people in predominantly Turkish Sunni neighbourhoods." Norm Dixon wrote in the Green Left Weekly in 1999 that the MHP and Grey Wolves "retain strong support within the military." In 2018, Tom Stevenson described it as a "street movement."
Links to the Turkish government and NATO
In the late 1970s, former military prosecutor and Turkish Supreme Court Justice Emin Değer documented collaboration between the Grey Wolves, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and Counter-Guerrilla, the Turkish stay-behind anti-communist organization organised under NATO's Operation Gladio, a plan for guerrilla warfare in case of a communist takeover. Martin Lee writes that the Counter-Guerrilla supplied weapons to the Grey Wolves, while according to Tim Jacoby, the CIA transferred guns and explosives to Grey Wolves units through an agent in the 1970s.
During the 1996 Susurluk scandal, the Grey Wolves were accused of being members of the Counter-Guerrilla. Abdullah Çatlı, second-in-command of the Grey Wolves leadership, was killed during the Susurluk car crash, which sparked the scandal. The April 1997 report of the Turkish National Assembly's investigative committee "offered considerable evidence of close ties between state authorities and criminal gangs, including the use of the Grey Wolves to carry out illegal activities."
In 2008 the Ergenekon trials, a court document revealed that the National Intelligence Organization (MİT) armed and funded Grey Wolves members to carry out political murders. They mostly targeted members of the Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia (ASALA), which attacked Turkish embassies abroad in retaliation for the Turkish state's continued denial of the Armenian genocide. The Turkish intelligence services also made use of the Grey Wolves in the Kurdish–Turkish conflict, by offering them amnesty for their crimes in exchange.
In 2018, the AK Party formed an alliance with the MHP which succeeded in re-electing President Erdoğan. Concerns around the close connections between the Turkish government and the Grey Wolves caused the EU Foreign Affairs Committee to recommend that the Grey Wolves be banned in the EU.
History
According to Ruben Safrastyan, because the Grey Wolves are subtle and often formally operate as cultural and sports organizations, information about them is scarce.
Early history
The Grey Wolves organization was formed by Colonel Alparslan Türkeş in the late 1960s as the paramilitary wing of the Nationalist Movement Party (MHP). In 1968, over a hundred camps for ideological and paramilitary training were founded by Türkeş across Turkey. Canefe and Bora describe it as a grassroots fascist network, which had an active role in the economy, education, and neighborhoods. Nasuh Uslu characterized it as a well-disciplined paramilitary organization, while Joshua D. Hendrick compared its organization to the Nazi Schutzstaffel (SS). Young male students and economic migrants from rural areas who have settled in Istanbul and Ankara made up the majority of its members. In 1973 Israeli orientalist Jacob M. Landau wrote that the importance of the Grey Wolves "is attested to by the fact that Türkeş himself assumed responsibility for the formation of these youth groups and assigned the supervision of their training to two of his close associates".
1970s violence and 1980 coup
By the late 1970s the organizations had tens of thousands of members, and according to Amberin Zaman, the Turkish authorities had lost control over it. During the political violence between 1976 and 1980, members of the Grey Wolves were involved in numerous assassinations of left-wing and liberal activists, intellectuals, labor organizers, Kurds, officials, and journalists. The organization became a death squad engaged in "street killings and gunbattles". According to authorities, 220 of its members carried out 694 murders of left-wing and liberal activists and intellectuals. In total, some 5,000 to 6,000 people were killed in the violence, with the Grey Wolves responsible for most of the killings.
Their most significant attack of this period was the Maraş massacre in December 1978, when over 100 Alevis were killed. They are also accused of being behind the Taksim Square massacre on 1 May 1977. The Grey Wolves became a "state-approved force" and used attacks on left-wing groups to "cause chaos and demoralization and inflame a climate in which a regime promising law and order would be welcomed by the masses."
During this violent period, Grey Wolves operated with the encouragement and the protection of the Turkish Army's Special Warfare Department.
The conflict between left-wing and right-wing groups eventually resulted in a military intervention in September 1980 when General Kenan Evren led a coup d'état. According to Daniele Ganser, at the time of the coup, there were some 1,700 Grey Wolves branches, with about 200,000 registered members and a million sympathizers. Following the 1980 coup, the Grey Wolves and MHP were banned and their activity was diminished. Turkish nationalists and others assert that the Grey Wolves were "used and then discarded" by the deep state in Turkey.
Post-1980
After the 1980 coup, the Grey Wolves reorganized. They began to direct their efforts against Kurds in Turkey, as well as lobbying for aggressive denial of the Armenian genocide and support of the Turkish occupation of Cyprus.
Anti-Kurdish violence and activism
1990s
In the 1990s, the Grey Wolves turned their focus on the Kurds and participated in the Kurdish–Turkish conflict in Turkish Kurdistan. In 1999, Hürriyet Daily News described the organization as "the staunchest opponent to the Kurdish cause in Turkey."
In May 1998, the Grey Wolves were involved in two murders. On 3 May, a group of Grey Wolves attacked two students in Bolu who were passing by the organization's building. Kenan Mak, one of the students, was killed. On 5 May, a worker named Bilal Vural was killed in Istanbul's Şişli district, allegedly by the Grey Wolves. His family claimed that he was "brought several times to the Ülkü Ocakları building where ultranationalists forced him to become a member." They said that he was killed because he was a member of the pro-Kurdish People's Democracy Party (HADEP). As a result of these murders, Republican People's Party (CHP) Deputy Chairman Sinan Yerlikaya and the Freedom and Solidarity Party (ÖDP) requested that the Grey Wolves be banned by the authorities.
During the 1999 general election, the Grey Wolves attacked members of the HADEP, allegedly with impunity.
2000s
In August 2002, the Grey Wolves burnt Masoud Barzani's effigy in a protest in Ankara after he claimed the partly Turkmen-inhabited Iraqi governorates of Kirkuk and Mosul as part of Iraqi Kurdistan.
2010s
On 9 November 2010, Hasan Şimşek, a Grey Wolves member and a student, was killed at the Kütahya Dumlupınar University during an apparent fight between Kurdish nationalist and Turkish nationalist student groups. At his funeral, MHP leader Bahçeli stated that "We expect every kind of measure to be taken to prevent the expansion of the PKK mob, who have a tendency to grow in the universities." Violence between Turkish and Kurdish students also broke out in Marmara University in Istanbul on 12 November.
In September 2011, the Ankara Police Department raided 40 locations across Ankara belonging to the Grey Wolves. They took 36 people into custody and seized numerous guns and knives. According to police, the Grey Wolves were planning an attack on the pro-Kurdish Democratic Regions Party (BDP).
In October 2013, the Grey Wolves demonstrated across Turkey against the Kurdish–Turkish peace process.
In October 2014, the Grey Wolves were involved in deadly clashes during the 2014 Kurdish riots in Turkey against the government's perceived collaboration with ISIL during the Siege of Kobanî. A group of Grey Wolves in Sancaktepe, Istanbul, attempted to lynch a young man.
On 20 February 2015, Fırat Yılmaz Çakıroğlu, leader of the Grey Wolves organisation in Ege University, was stabbed to death by left-wing and according to some reports, Kurdish nationalist students.
On 7–8 September 2015, Turkish nationalists, including Grey Wolves members, attacked 128 offices of the pro-Kurdish Peoples' Democratic Party (HDP) across Turkey in an apparent retaliation for anti-government attacks by the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK). Some have alleged that some of the attacks were carried out by AKP members "masquerading as Grey Wolves" or that the Grey Wolves cooperated with AKP members in attacks on HDP offices and left-wingers suspected of sympathy for the Kurds.
Greece-related violence and activism
On 18 June 1988 Kartal Demirağ, a senior member of the Grey Wolves, attempted to assassinate Prime Minister Turgut Özal's at the Motherland Party congress. Özal linked it to his visit to Greece three days earlier, saying that the attempt was carried out "by a group opposed to his efforts to improve relations with Greece."
On 6 September 2005, a group of nationalists, led by Grey Wolves leader Levent Temiz, stormed into an Istanbul exhibition commemorating the anti-Greek pogrom of 1955. They threw eggs and tore down photos. The Grey Wolves issued a statement denying involvement.
In the 2000s the Grey Wolves routinely demonstrated outside the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople in Fener (Phanar), Istanbul and burn the Patriarch in effigy. In October 2005 they staged a rally and proceeding to the gate they laid a black wreath, chanting "Patriarch Leave" and "Patriarchate to Greece", inaugurating the campaign for the collection of signatures to oust the Ecumenical Patriarchate from Istanbul. As of 2006 the Grey Wolves claimed to have collected more than 5 million signatures for the withdrawal of the Patriarch and called on the Turkish government to have the patriarch deported to Greece.
In December 2017 Grey Wolves members, among them the BBP-affiliated Alperen Ocakları, invaded the Hagia Sophia and prayed there in protest against the United States recognition of Jerusalem as capital of Israel.
Anti-Armenian violence and activism
In January 2004, the Grey Wolves prevented the screening of Ararat, a film about the Armenian genocide, in Turkey.
On 24 April 2011, the murder of Sevag Balıkçı, a soldier of Armenian descent in the Turkish Army, was committed by Kıvanç Ağaoglu, who sympathized with Abdullah Çatlı, the late leader of the Grey Wolves. According to Ruben Melkonyan, an Armenian expert on Turkish studies, Ağaoglu was a member of the Grey Wolves.
On 24 April 2012, the Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day, nationalist groups, including the Grey Wolves, protested against the commemoration of the genocide in Istanbul's Taksim Square.
In June 2015, during a visit to the medieval Armenian city of Ani in Kars Province by the Armenian pianist Tigran Hamasyan, the local leader of the Grey Wolves suggested that his followers should "go on an Armenian hunt."
Other acts of violence
According to Zürcher and Linden, when Sunni radicals attacked Alevis in Istanbul in March 1995, the police in the Gazi quarter were "heavily infiltrated by Grey Wolves" and it was not until the police were replaced by military units that peace was restored.
In December 1996, the Grey Wolves attacked left-wing students and teachers at Istanbul University, with the alleged approval of the police.
In late November 2006 the Grey Wolves staged protests against Pope Benedict XVI's visit to Turkey. On 22 November, tens of protesters symbolically occupied Haghia Sophia in Istanbul to perform Muslim prayers. They chanted slogans against the Pope, such as "Don't make a mistake Pope, don't try our patience". Reuters reported that the event was organized by Alperen Ocakları, considered an offshoot of the Grey Wolves. Police arrested around 40 protesters for violating the ban on prayers in the former mosque, which had been a museum since the 1930s.
In July 2014 around a thousand people demonstrated in Kahramanmaraş against the presence of Syrian refugees who fled the Syrian Civil War. Many protesters made the sign of the Grey Wolves, blocked roads in the city and removed Arabic-language signs from stores. AKP lawyer Mahir Ünal commented: "This doesn't make them idealists [i.e. members of the Grey Wolves] but it is certain some people's attempt to show it like something the idealists did."
In July 2015 the Grey Wolves staged protests across Turkey, burnt flags of the People's Republic of China, attacked Chinese restaurants and "tourists who were mistaken for being Chinese" in response to the Chinese government's ban on Muslim Turkic Uyghurs fast during the holy month of Ramadan. Korean tourists were attacked by Grey Wolves. An Uighur worked at the Turkish run Chinese restaurant which was assaulted. Members of the Grey Wolves displayed a banner in multiple locations that read, "We crave Chinese blood." Grey Wolves members attacked the Thai consulate in Istanbul in apparent retaliation for the deportation of hundreds of Uyghurs by Thailand. MHP chairman Devlet Bahçeli stated that "Our nationalist youth is sensitive to injustices in China", and that the attacks by MHP-affiliated youth on South Korean tourists was "understandable", adding "What feature differentiates a Korean from a Chinese? They see that they both have slanted eyes. How can they tell the difference?"
In November 2015, the Grey Wolves protested Russian involvement in the Syrian Civil War near Istanbul's Russian consulate, Ankara, and Adana, accusing Russia of slaughtering Syrian Turkmens.
Presence in Eurasia
Azerbaijan
During the First Nagorno-Karabakh War (1988–94), Grey Wolves members fought on the Azerbaijani side against Armenians, but many reportedly returned to Turkey in late 1992. Around 200 members of the Grey Wolves were still in the conflict zone in September 1994 to train Azerbaijani units.
In 1993, Azerbaijani Interior Minister Isgandar Hamidov established the National Democratic Party, which was known as Boz Qurd ("Grey Wolves"). According to Russian political scientist Stanislav Cherniavsky, the Azerbaijani Grey Wolves grew out of the nationalist Popular Front in 1992 and "considered itself a branch of the Turkish Grey Wolves." It was registered by the Justice Ministry in 1994. In interviews in 1992–93, Hamidov said there was no organisational link with the Turkish organization, stating that the "Grey Wolves of Azerbaijan are not subordinate to the Turkish group".
In March 1995, a coup d'état attempt against President Heydar Aliyev was staged in Baku by paramilitary police chief Rovshan Javadov, Turkish far-right organizations (including the Grey Wolves), and the Azerbaijani opposition. According to Thomas de Waal, the "shadowy backers of this uprising were never identified but appear to have included rogue elements of the Turkish security establishment and members of the 'Gray Wolves' Bozkurt movement." After the coup attempt, Hamidov was jailed, while the Azerbaijani Supreme Court formally abolished the National Democratic Party due to its links to the Turkish Grey Wolves, which it considered to be a terrorist organization. In 2004, Hamidov was freed in an amnesty granted by President Ilham Aliyev. In 2008, Hamidov retired from politics and as president of the party, which had been inactive since. After 2007, the Grey Wolves reportedly used to not operate in Azerbaijan for some time. In the blockades of the Lachin corridor of December 2022 the presence of Grey Wolves was made apparent by their repeated salutations.
China (Xinjiang)
The Grey Wolves "set up training camps in Central Asia for youths from Turkic language groups" following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Failing to find support in post-Soviet Central Asian republics, they targeted the Uyghurs, concentrated in the Chinese province of Xinjiang and began actively supporting the East Turkestan independence movement. In this scope, the Grey Wolves' European affiliates attacked Chinese tourists in the Netherlands. The Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies suggested in 2012 they are "highly limited in their reach and support base". In March 2020, several Chinese state-run outlets published an article, which claimed that the World Uyghur Congress (WUC) and "its offshoots have forged ties with the Grey Wolves" and that WUC founder Erkin Alptekin met Türkeş on numerous occasions.
Cyprus
Following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974 the Grey Wolves "continued to play a role in radicalizing the dispute with Greek Cypriots by actively engaging in violence on the island." They actively supported Rauf Denktaş, the President of the unrecognized Northern Cyprus between 1983 and 2005, and were involved, according to Harry Anastasiou, in state-sponsored terror of citizens. In July 1996, Kutlu Adali, a Turkish Cypriot journalist who had criticized Denktaş and his policies, was killed by the Grey Wolves, according to some sources.
In August 1996, the Grey Wolves were involved in an attack on a protest of Greek Cypriots against the Turkish occupation of Northern Cyprus. Tassos Isaac, a Cypriot protester, was beaten to death by the Grey Wolves in the United Nations Buffer Zone.
In July 1997 the Grey Wolves clashed in Northern Cyprus with Kurdish university students who protested against Turkey's invasion of northern Iraq in search of the PKK.
On 17 October 2003, Murat Kanatlı, Turkish Cypriot journalist and editor of the opposition newspaper Yeniçağ, was "attacked by a group of 20-30 persons belonging to the Grey Wolves" according to the International Press Institute (IPI). Kanatlı had covered the Grey Wolves' demonstration against the "intervention" of the European Union and the United States in elections in Northern Cyprus.
During the 2004 referendum on the Annan Plan, the Grey Wolves campaigned for a 'no' vote. During the pre-voting period at least 50 Grey Wolves activists arrived in Northern Cyprus and caused riots against pro-ratification supporters. They were suspected of assaulting motorcyclists carrying 'vote yes' banners.
In October 2013 that the Grey Wolves opened a new headquarters in North Nicosia's Köşklüçiftlik quarter. During the opening ceremony Adem Yurdagül, the chairman of the Grey Wolves in Cyprus delivered a speech, while slogans like "Nicosia plain is home of Grey Wolves", "Cyprus is Turkish and will remain Turkish", "We are soldiers of [Alparslan] Türkeş", "The Grey Wolves Movement cannot be prevented" were chanted.
In November 2013 a fight broke out between members of the Grey Wolves and Kurdish students at the Near East University in North Nicosia resulting in arrest of 23 persons. According to the newspaper Havadis, "the cause of the fight was allegations by the Grey wolves' organization that some Kurdish students broke the windows of the Grey wolves organization’s building. Around 500 students went out on the streets holding clubs and rocks and the police asked for reinforcement in order to put them under control."
Russia
In November and December 2015, Federation Council member Andrey Klishas and two Communist Party members of the State Duma proposed outlawing the Grey Wolves in Russia. In August 2020, the Russian International Affairs Council, a government think tank, classified the Grey Wolves as an extremist organization.
Chechnya
Members of the Grey Wolves fought on the Chechen separatist side during the First Chechen War (1994–96) and the Second Chechen War (1999–2000). CNN reported in 2000 that the Grey Wolves with most pro-Chechen stance were those affiliated with the Islamist Great Union Party (BBP), which had split from MHP in 1993. The article suggested that they "run the mosques and commercial activities in some parts of Istanbul. It is in these mosques, in the suburbs of the city, that offerings are collected after daily prayers for the Chechen refugees. It is money that probably also goes to soldiers on the front lines." According to Svante Cornell it is "widely believed that the Grey Wolves organised arms shipments to Chechnya, probably with at least the partial knowledge of the Turkish authorities." Russian media has alleged that the Turkish government knew and possibly supported, or at least did not prevent, the activities of the Grey Wolves in Chechnya. Georgian Minister of State Security Valery Khaburdania stated in 2002 that the Grey Wolves were the "conduit of assistance" to the Chechen militants.
Azerbaijani Grey Wolves also participated in the fight against Russia. In January 1995 Kommersant cited the Federal Counterintelligence Service (FSK) in stating that the Azerbaijani Grey Wolves sent 80 fighters to Chechnya. Another 270 fighters went to Chechnya in December of that year.
Crimea
According to a December 2015 report by the independent Russian online newspaper Svobodnaya Pressa, Crimean Tatar nationalists have apparently began cooperating with the Grey Wolves.
Syria
Activists of the MHP and Idealist Hearths have fought in the Syrian civil war, in support of the Syrian Turkmen, whom they consider kinsmen. The MHP and Grey Wolves have provided the Syrian Turkmen Assembly with relief aid and fighters. Syrian Turkmen Assembly president Abdurrahman Mustafa stated in 2016 that "Turkish NGOs, just as the Grey Wolves, give us humanitarian aid." According to Egypt Today the National Intelligence Organization of Turkey (MİT) "is believed to be recruiting retired military personnel to provide support for armed groups operating in Syria, through the Grey Wolves Brigades."
Some Syrian rebel groups have ties to Grey Wolves. One is the Muntasir Billah Brigade. Another is the Turkmen Abdulhamid Han Brigade.
On 24 November 2015, the Turkish Air Force shot down a Russian Sukhoi Su-24M bomber aircraft near the Syria–Turkey border. The pilot was shot in mid-air parachuting toward land by Syrian Turkmen rebels under Syrian Turkmen Brigades. The Turkmen rebel group operated under the command of Alparslan Çelik, a Turkish national and a Grey Wolves member from Elazığ.
Youm7, an Egyptian news site picked up a document allegedly issued by the Army of Conquest (Jaish al-Fatah), which claimed that it conspired with the Turkistan Islamic Party and the Grey Wolves in the December 2016 assassination of Andrei Karlov, the Russian ambassador to Turkey. Russian-state run news TASS agency cited this in a news report.
Thailand
The 2015 Bangkok bombing is suspected to have been carried out by the Grey Wolves due to Thailand's deportation of Uyghur terrorist suspects back to China instead of allowing them to travel to Turkey for asylum. A man with fake Turkish passports using the name Adem Karadag was arrested by the Thai police in connection to the bombing and bomb making materials found in his apartment.
Presence in Western Europe
Austria
In Austria, the Grey Wolves salute as well as its symbols were legally banned starting from 1 March 2019. It is punishable by fines up to €4,000. Turkey's Foreign Ministry condemned the ban. "[T]he 'bozkurt' ('Grey Wolves') sign, which is a symbol of a legal political party in Turkey and the 'rabia' sign that is widely used by Muslims in many countries as well as in Turkey. We do not accept this and we strongly condemn it," read the Foreign Ministry statement. Turkey also called on Austria to "correct this grave mistake," because it "deeply offends Turkey, the Turkish community in Austria and Muslims." In early March 2019, Grey Wolves sympathizers started a campaign on Twitter by sending Chancellor Sebastian Kurz hundreds of photos of people showing the salute. Kurz defended the ban declaring people and organizations that do not accept democratic values, or fight against those values, have no place in Austria.
In January 2020 four Turkish bus drivers were fired in Vienna for making the Grey Wolves sign. On 26 June 2020, Turkish nationalist groups, identified by journalist Jake Hanrahan as Grey Wolves members, attacked Kurdish rallies in Vienna protesting the Turkish operation in Iraqi Kurdistan. Turkey criticized the handling of the violence by the Austrian police and claimed that it was organized by PKK sympathizers.
Belgium
The Belçika Türk Federasyonu (BTF) is considered to be "affiliated with or sympathetic" to the Grey Wolves. According to one study, its aim is "to foster loyalty among young people of Turkish origin to their ancestral culture, religion and history and to keep alive the Turkish identity in Europe. BTF claims to oppose not the integration of Belgian-Turks into their host society but rather their assimilation by it." Its activities mostly focus on "issues relevant to Turkish national sensitivities". For instance, it has demonstrated against the erection of an Armenian Genocide memorial in Brussels. During the municipal elections of 2006 two member of the BTF came to the attention of the media: Fuat Korkmazer on the Flemish Christian Democrats (CD&V) list in Ghent and Murat Denizli on the Francophone Socialist Party (PS) list in Schaerbeek, a commune in the Brussels Region. Korkmazer got a very low number of votes, while Denizli was elected but had to resign because it was discovered he had a false address and lived in another commune. In 2019, sp.a candidate Mustafa Ayutar was linked to the organization. In 2019, Belgian-Kurdish New Flemish Alliance politician Zuhal Demir reported that posters advertising her candidacy in Maasmechelen had been vandalized with swastikas and the symbol of the Grey Wolves.
In 2022, Grey Wolves vandalized an Armenian genocide memorial in Brussels with three crescents, similar to the MHP logo.
France
In May 1984, Grey Wolves leader Abdullah Çatlı carried out a bombing of an Armenian Genocide memorial in Alfortville, a Paris suburb.
According to Direction générale de la sécurité intérieure members of the Grey Wolves partook in a 21 January 2012 demonstration in Paris against the adoption of the bill criminalizing the Armenian genocide denial in France.
In November 2020, France banned the Grey Wolves organisation after defacement of an Armenian Genocide Memorial, organizing combat training camps in the Ardèche region in 2019, inciting violence against Kurds and Armenians and orchestrating marches targeting Armenians near Lyon. Turkey's Foreign Ministry criticized the ban and said: "we will reciprocate to this decision in the strongest way." In addition, accused the French government of tolerating associations affiliated with the PKK and the FETÖ.
Germany
As a far-right extremist group, the Grey Wolves are monitored by the German authorities. The Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution assumes that there are around 12,100 people in Germany who can be assigned to the “Ülkücü” movement and its ideology as of 2023. The majority of these - around 10,500 supporters - are organized in clubs, which in turn are grouped together under the umbrella of larger associations. An 2017 article published by the Federal Agency for Civic Education estimated over 18,000 members.
The three “Ülkücü” associations in Germany with the largest number of members are:
“Federation of Turkish Democratic Idealist Associations in Germany e.V.” (ADÜTDF), with around 7,000 members organized in around 200 local associations.
“ATİB – Union of Turkish-Islamic Cultural Associations in Europe e.V.” (ATİB), with around 2,500 members in 25 associations.
"Federation of the World Order in Europe” (ANF), with around 1,000 members in around 15 local associations.
The group transfers conflicts from their native Turkey into Germany with harassment against Kurds and Armenians as well as people with leftist political views in general. Its members have actively engaged in attacks on and clashes with Kurds in Germany.
Historicly the most important Grey Wolves-affiliated Turkish organization in Germany was the Türk Federasyon (Avrupa Demokratik Ülkücü Türk Dernekleri Federasyonu, ADÜTDF), which had around 200 member organizations. Founded in 1978 by 64 nationalist organizations it declined in the 1980s, but revived in the 1990s and claimed to have doubled its membership following the Solingen arson attack of 1993. It denies any direct links with the Grey Wolves in Turkey or the MHP, however, its monthly journal publishes articles praising the MHP and denouncing left-wing and Kurdish organizations in Turkey and Germany. According to educationalist Kemal Bozay, their influence on third generation Turkish youth—who are "looking for an identity"—has "increased significantly". They had ties to the banned Turkish-nationalistic outlaw motorcycle club Osmanen Germania BC.
According to the Baden-Württemberg State Government, there are 45 Grey Wolves clubs and associations in that state as of 2012. These associations are often given non-political names (usually cultural and athletic) to conceal their identity.
The 2013 in three German federal states "two live arms with ammunition, blank-firing guns, batons, electric stun guns and Samurai swords" were seized from members of the Grey Wolves.
The Ministry of the Interior of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany's most populous state where 70 Grey Wolves associations with more than 2,000 members operated in 2011, also monitors the organization. Nevertheless, , a Social Democratic Party member of the state's parliament, stated in a 2011 interview that the threat of the Grey Wolves in Germany is underestimated. He said, "When thousands of Turkish right-wing radicals come together in Essen, we're not worried. But if 100 members of NPD march, we immediately organize a counter-demonstration." Olaf Lehne, a Christian Democratic Union member of North Rhine-Westphalia's state parliament, stated in an interview that the Grey Wolves "are in this country, unfortunately, too often ignored". He also added that they have a large number of sympathizers among young people. Another important organisation affiliated with the Grey Wolves are the ATIB (Turkish: Avrupa Türk-İslam Birliği, ATİB; German: Union der Türkisch-Islamischen Kulturvereine in Europa).
Netherlands
As early as 1979 the Dutch Scientific Council for Government Policy reported that clashes between the Grey Wolves and the Dutch-Turkish Workers Association (HTIB) occurred on May Day celebrations. Organizations such as Turkish Federation Netherlands (Turkse Federatie Nederland, TFN) and Turkish Islamic Federation (Turks Islamitische Federatie) have links to the Grey Wolves. According to Wangmo and Yazilitas, the Grey Wolves in the Netherlands have engaged in a variety of activities, ranging from criminal activities and nationalist propaganda to support of football teams. The organization was more influential in the 1990s when many first-generation Turkish immigrants "maintained a deep interest in Turkish politics and who had a deeply felt Turkish identity." Grey Wolves activists have participated—with varying successes—in the local politics of several Dutch municipalities. In November 2020, VVD MP Bente Becker introduced a motion to ban the Grey Wolves. The motion was supported by 147 members of the parliament with 3 members voting against it. All three votes against the motion came from Denk.
Sweden
On 13 September 2015, an explosion occurred at a Kurdish civil center in Stockholm, Sweden, following clashes between Turks, Kurds and anti-fascists at a rally organised by the Swedish Grey Wolves.
The Swedish Green Party was hit by a political scandal in April 2016, as images emerged of party member and Housing Minister Mehmet Kaplan attending a dinner party alongside leading members of the Grey Wolves. Kaplan resigned when a 2009 video was made public in which he compared Israel's treatment of Palestinians to that of Jews by Nazi Germany. The Sweden Democrats party have called for the Grey Wolves to be banned in Europe and for its members in Sweden to be deported.
Vatican
On 13 May 1981 Mehmet Ali Ağca, an alleged Grey Wolves member, attempted to murder Pope John Paul II in St. Peter's Square. The masterminds were not identified and the organization's role remains unclear. According to Daniel Pipes and Khalid Duran Grey Wolves appear to have been involved in the assassination attempt and write that Ağca "in his own confused way mixed Turkish nationalist sentiments with fundamentalist Islam." However, Italian investigators could not establish his link to the Grey Wolves.
Norway
There is allegedly a Grey Wolf group recruiting in Drammen, Norway.
Illegal drug trade allegations
Grey Wolves members and leaders have been involved in international drug trafficking since the 1980s. In the early 1980s U.S. anti-terrorism officials at the State Department reported that Türkeş is "widely believed to have been involved" in moving heroin from Turkey into Western Europe. According Stephen E. Ambrose, the leaders of Grey Wolves had built in the late 1980s an army by trading drugs for military equipment, ranging from assault helicopters to tanks. Drugs were transported to Italy, where organized crime processed them. According to Peter Dale Scott, the author of the book American War Machine, in 2010 there were drug producing and dealing groups that had clear ties with the Grey Wolves and its affiliated political party, MHP.
Designation as a terrorist group
In 2005, Kazakhstan banned the Grey Wolves, classifying it as a terrorist group.
Following the November 2020 ban of the Grey Wolves in France for hate speech and violence, and the calls for similar actions to be taken in the Netherlands and Germany, the European Parliament urged, on 20 May 2021, that the 27 member states of the European Union to designate the Grey Wolves as a terrorist group, and thus, marking the first time that an EU institution has linked the Grey Wolves to terrorism. The Turkish government reacted to the EP report by calling it "biased" and "unacceptable", because, according to the Turkish Foreign Ministry spokesperson Tanju Bilgiç, the Grey Wolves are "a legal movement, which is associated with a long-established political party in Turkey." The MFA claimed the "slanders" are "fabricated by the anti-Turkey Armenian diaspora as well as PKK and FETÖ circles."
In September 2021 Representative Dina Titus (D-NV) proposed designating the Grey Wolves as a terrorist group through an amendment to the Fiscal Year 2022 National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA). The proposed amendment asked the US Secretary of State to provide "a detailed report of the activities of the Grey Wolves organization undertaken against US interests, allies, and international partners" and determine if the organization "meet the criteria for designation as a foreign terrorist organization." The state-run Anadolu Agency claimed that the Gülen movement was behind the move.
Cultural references
The Grey Wolves organization benefits from Turkish TV films and series, such as those released in 2003 to 2005 or 2018, which glorify Turkish nationalism.
The Turkish television series Valley of the Wolves ("Kurtlar Vadisi") and The Wolves ("Börü") are particularly likely to provoke an exaggerated nationalist attitude and reinforce enemy images that are inherent in the Ülkücü movement.
In the 2002 film Aram a French-Armenian fighter named Levon attempts to kill a high level Turkish general who is the head of Grey Wolves.
In the 2003 novel ("Empire of the Wolves") by Jean-Christophe Grangé the Grey Wolves are involved in a woman's murder. The 2005 film Empire of the Wolves is based on the same-name novel by Grangé.
The left-wing American podcast Chapo Trap House (2016–present) refers to avid fans and Patreon backers as "Grey Wolves," an ironic reference to the podcast's pretended support of Erdoğan and the AKP.
See also
Racism and discrimination in Turkey
Turkish nationalism
Ergenekon (organization)
Vatansever Kuvvetler Güç Birliği Hareketi, an ultranationalist group which was founded by former Grey Wolves
Nasyonal Aktivite ve Zinde İnkişaf
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Barbara Hoffmann, Michael Opperskalski, Erden Solmaz: Graue Wölfe. Koranschulen. Idealistenvereine. Türkische Faschisten in der Bundesrepublik [Grey Wolves. Koranic schools. Idealists clubs. Turkish fascists in Germany]. Köln 1981, .
Jean-Christophe Grangé: Das Imperium der Wölfe [The Empire of the Wolves]. Bergisch Gladbach 2005, .
External links
1969 establishments in Turkey
Alparslan Türkeş
Nationalist Movement Party
Anti-Armenian sentiment
Anti-Armenian sentiment in Turkey
Anti-Christian sentiment in Turkey
Anti-communist terrorism
Anti-Greek sentiment
Anti-Iranian sentiments
Anti-Israeli sentiment
Anti-Kurdish sentiment
Armenian
Anti-Shi'ism
Antisemitism in Turkey
Deniers of the Armenian genocide
Far-right politics in Asia
Far-right politics in Europe
Far-right politics in Turkey
Far-right terrorist organizations
Idealism (Turkey)
Islamic nationalism
Islamic organizations that oppose LGBT rights
Nationalist movements in Asia
Nationalist movements in Europe
Neo-fascist organizations
Operation Gladio
Opposition to same-sex marriage in Asia
Opposition to same-sex marriage in Europe
Organised crime groups in Germany
Organized crime groups in Turkey
Organizations based in Asia designated as terrorist
Organizations based in Europe designated as terrorist
Organizations designated as terrorist by Kazakhstan
Organisations designated as terrorist by the European Union
Organizations established in 1969
Organizations that oppose LGBT rights in Germany
Organizations that oppose LGBT rights in Turkey
Pan-Turkism
Persecution of Kurds in Turkey
Persecution of LGBT people in Asia
Persecution of LGBT people in Europe
Racism in Turkey
Sunni Islamist groups
Terrorism in Turkey
Turkish nationalism
Turkish nationalist organizations
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4672994
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millerntor-Stadion
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Millerntor-Stadion
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Millerntor-Stadion is a multi-purpose stadium in the St. Pauli area of Hamburg, Germany. Best known as the home ground of football club FC St. Pauli, it is on the Heiligengeistfeld near the Reeperbahn, the red light district of Hamburg. The stadium had a capacity of 32,000 when it was built in 1961. It is also used by the Blue Devils American football team, and as a concert venue, including a performance by Prince in 1988. FC St Pauli celebrated their centenary festival at the stadium in 2010.
History
The first sports ground at the Heiligengeistfeld was created after the First World War as a simple flat space. This was the home ground of the St. Pauli TV, together with other workers sports associations (Arbeitersportkartells).
In 1946, the club (now called FC St. Pauli) built its own stadium partially on the original site of Hamburg Observatory, built in 1802 by Johann Georg Repsold and moved to Bergedorf in 1912. The stadium was located on the Heiligengeistfeld, opposite to the old firestation and in the corner between Glacischaussee and Budapester strasse (during 1946 to 1956 named Ernst Thälmann strasse).
In a city laid to ruins by the Second World War, the stadium was made possible only with the help from fans and club members. However, the stadium was not to last long as it had to be removed in 1961. This was due to the IGA (International Garden exposition) 1963 in Hamburg and parts of the park Planten un Blomen was constructed at the site. (The site is today used by the northern entrance of the U Bahn-station St. Pauli.)
As a result, the club had to find a new stadium and so in 1961 the construction of the Millerntor-Stadion started. The new stadium opened in 1963, delayed by of an initial lack of drainage system, which made the pitch unplayable after rain. The new stadium held 32,000 spectators, but the capacity was later reduced to 20,629 for safety reasons.
The Millerntor-Stadion has undergone numerous modifications over the years, the biggest change was the construction of a temporary seating area above the Back straight, allowing the promotion into the Bundesliga 1988. This temporary area was in use until May 2012 when the entire Back straight was demolished.
In the end of the 1980s, plans for a new stadium, the so-called Sport-Dome were blocked by supporters of the club and residents. The Sport-Dome would have become a state of the art all-seater stadium that would have combined sport facilities with a shopping mall and a hotel. The fans protested against the commercialization of their stadium and there were also fears that the Sport-Dome would have led to higher rents in the neighbourhood.
In the 1990s, the chairman of the club, the architect Heinz Weisener, made new plans, but they too collapsed, this time due to the financial situation of the club. The question of a new stadium looked like a never-ending story and every chairman has made their own plans.
Redevelopment 2006–2015
In December 2006, the South Stand was demolished after the game versus Wuppertal. This caused the capacity to be reduced to 15,600 people. Due to some issues caused by mismanagement of the redevelopment project, the building of the new stand on this side of the ground was heavily delayed, and some fans cynically referred to the now empty side of the ground as the "Littman hole", referring to the controversial club chairman Corny Littmann held responsible for the delay. Eventually construction of the new South Stand began in Spring 2007.
With the new South Stand completed and a new temporary seating area above the North Stand, the capacity was increased to 22,648. With the first phase of the redevelopment completed, the club also ensure that the club fulfilled the ground grading requirements for a licence from the DFL, including the installation of under-soil heating. In addition, the iconic old manually operated scoreboard was, for many fans lamentably, replaced by a more modern new digital display screen.
After the completion of the new South Stand, the Main Stand was demolished in mid-November 2009. The new all-seater Main Stand was completed in time for the start of the 2010–2011 season, with the capacity of the Millerntor-Stadium rising to 24,487 spectators.
The redevelopment of the Gegengerade (lit. Far side) started in January 2012 with the building of a new subway under the Heiligengeistfeld. Two heavy air-dropped bombs from the Second World War, weighing approximately 250-500 kilograms, were found in the middle of the Heiligengeistfeld during the exploratory works.
Two different designs for the new Gegengerade had been mooted during the autumn of 2011: "The Wave", an elaborate curvaceous design, or a more conventional design more in keeping with the rest of the redeveloped stadium. "The Wave" came from collaboration between the engineering firm OSD and the Hamburg-based Interpol +- outfit. The proposed stand was to have measured 27 meters in height, with a total capacity of 14,000 spectators (3,000 seated). In the end, FC St. Pauli announced in November 2011, after extensive consultation with supporters, they would build the more conventional design with the red brick facade, designed by the Dortmund-based architect bureau art.te.plan GmbH.
The reasons given for the decision were safety, construction time, the more sympathetic architectural style and cost. With a price possibly as high as €21m, "The Wave" would have taken up almost the entire budget for the reconstruction of the Gegengerade, the North stand and the new training facilities combined.
The new completed Gegengerade has a total capacity of 13,199, with standing room for 10,126 spectators in the paddock and 3,030 seats in the upper tier. At the top of the stand there will still be 27 seats for media and commentators, as well as 16 seats for the visually impaired and their accompanying helpers.
The old Gegengerade was demolished after the game against SC Paderborn in May 2012, and the main contractor for the construction of the new Gegengerade was Walter Hellmich GmbH.
With the new Gegengerade completed, the capacity of the Millerntor-Stadion rose to 29,063 at the beginning of 2013.
The final phase of the planned redevelopment program is the North stand. The demolition of the North stand came into full swing after the 2014–15 DFB-Pokal match against Borussia Dortmund at end of October 2014. When the North stand is fully demolished, the ground will be analyzed and searched for undetonated bombs and then the reconstruction will start.
When the redevelopment work at the ground is completed, the capacity of the ground is expected to rise to approximately 30,000 spectators.
Capacity
As of July 2015 the stadium is permitted for a capacity of 29,546 spectators of which 16,940 are standing and 12,606 are seated. The seating capacity includes seats for media and commentators, seats for impaired, business seats and seats in the 39 suites.
The suites are officially known as "Séparées". This is made with a humoristic reference to the "Chambres Séparées" used by the sex workers at the nearby Red Light District around Reeperbahn.
Location
Name
The name Millerntor is derived from the Millerntor Gate, one of the gates permitting entry through the city wall that surrounded the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg. The area now constituting modern St. Pauli was located outside the city wall, on the no man's land between Hamburg and the Danish city of Altona.
From 1970 to 1998, the Millerntor-Stadion was known as Wilhelm-Koch-Stadion. It was renamed Millerntor-Stadion by the club members because its namesake Wilhelm Koch had been a member of the NSDAP. In 2007 the club members decided that there would be no commercial use of the name.
Gallery
Panorama
References
Further reading
See also
List of football stadiums in Germany
Lists of stadiums
External links
St. Pauli Official Website in English
Millerntor-Stadion
Millerntor-Stadion in German
Picture of the Millerntor-Stadion in German
Football venues in Hamburg
FC St. Pauli
Buildings and structures in Hamburg-Mitte
Multi-purpose stadiums in Germany
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%20Wirehaired%20Pointer
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German Wirehaired Pointer
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German Wirehaired Pointer
The German Wirehaired Pointer is a medium to large-sized griffon type breed of dog developed in the 19th century in Germany for versatile hunting. It became a leading gun dog in Germany in the later part of the 20th century. It is the result of the careful mixing and crossing of the Wirehaired Pointing Griffon, German Shorthaired Pointer, German Roughhaired Pointer, and the hunting Pudelpointer in the late 19th century.
Description
Appearance
The German Wirehaired Pointer is a well muscled, medium to large-sized dog of distinctive appearance. Balanced in size and sturdily built, the breed's most distinguishing characteristics are its weather resistant, wire-like coat and its facial furnishings. Typically pointer in character and style, the German Wirehaired Pointer (GWP) is an intelligent, energetic and determined hunter. The tail is typically docked to two-fifths of the natural length. In countries where docking is prohibited the tail should be of sufficient length to reach down to the hocks. Like all German pointers, they have webbed feet. This dog can have a similar appearance and therefore is sometimes confused with the Spinone Italiano, Český Fousek, or Wirehaired Pointing Griffon.
Coat
The functional wiry coat is the breed's most distinctive feature. A dog must have a correct coat to be of correct type. The coat is weather resistant and water-repellent. The undercoat is dense enough in winter to insulate against the cold but is so thin in summer as to be almost invisible. The distinctive outer coat is straight, harsh, wiry and flat lying, and is from one to two inches in length. The outer coat is long enough to protect against the punishment of rough cover, but not so long as to hide the outline of the dog. On the lower legs the coat is shorter and between the toes it is of softer texture. On the skull the coat is naturally short and close fitting. Over the shoulders and around the tail it is very dense and heavy. The tail is nicely coated, particularly on the underside, but devoid of feather. Eyebrows are of strong, straight hair. Beard and whiskers are medium length. The hairs in the liver patches of a liver and white dog may be shorter than the white hairs. A short smooth coat, a soft woolly coat, or an excessively long coat is to be severely penalized when showing. While maintaining a harsh, wiry texture, the puppy coat may be shorter than that of an adult coat. The coat of the puppy should be shorter than 1 inch the adult coat should be kept at 1 inch long.
Gait
The dog should be evaluated at a moderate gait. The breed standard is that the movement is free and smooth with good reach in the forequarters and good driving power in the hindquarters. The topline should remain firm.
Color
The colors are liver (brown) and white or black and white ticked usually with some solid patches, and solid liver (brown) with or without a white chest patch.
History
The German Wirehaired Pointer traces its origins back to 1880. The breed originated in Germany, where Baron Sigismund von Zedlitz und Neukirch was a leading breeder, wanting to create a versatile hunting dog that would work closely with either one person or a small party of persons hunting on foot in varied terrain; from the mountainous regions of the Alps, to dense forests, to more open areas with farms and small towns. The breed the Germans desired had to have a coat that would protect the dogs when working in heavy cover or in cold water, yet be easy to maintain. Careful crosses of the German pointer with many other breeds. Sources differ on the exact lineage, though the Wirehaired Pointing Griffon, Pudelpointer, Stichelhaar, and Deutscher-Kurzhaar are commonly accepted as the most likely contributors. This is a dog that can fully respond to the needs of its hunter. The goal was to develop a wire-coated, medium-sized dog that could:
Search for, locate and point upland game
Work both feather and fur with equal skill and retrieve water fowl
Be a close-working, easily trained gun dog
Be able to track and locate wounded game
Be fearless when hunting "sharp" game such as fox
Be a devoted companion and pet; and
Be a watchdog for its owner's family and property.
All "drahts" must meet rigorous hunt and physical evaluations before being eligible for breeding. In addition to searching and pointing, these tests include the tracking and recovery of all game including wounded game such as fox, rabbit, deer and boar, which may not be required of a dog that hunts birds predominantly.
For upland (i.e. non-waterfowl) bird work, many GWPs have distinguished themselves with all-breed Field Championships and Master Hunter titles. When purchasing a working GWP, attention needs to be paid to identifying breeders that place emphasis on all aspects of the versatile hunting dog. Among these breeders can be found accomplished dogs including Dual Championships (both field and show).
Health
A 2024 UK study found a life expectancy of 13 years for the breed compared to an average of 12.7 for purebreeds and 12 for crossbreeds.
See also
Dogs portal
List of dog breeds
German Shorthaired Pointer
German Longhaired Pointer
Český Fousek (Bohemian wirehaired pointing griffon)
References
Further reading
External links
Dog breeds originating in Germany
FCI breeds
Gundogs
Pointers
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5171004
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%96%20%D1%87%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%20%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%83%20%C2%AB%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%C2%BB
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Підводні човни типу «Ромоло»
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Підводні човни типу «Ромоло», також підводні човни типу «R» — серія італійських транспортних підводних човнів, побудованих італійськими суднобудівельними компаніями для Королівських ВМС Італії у 1940-х роках. Всього планувалося побудувати 12 підводних човнів цього типу, але в експлуатацію було введено лишень 2. Обидва отримали назву на честь Ромула і Рема.
Підводні човни будувалися як підводні транспорти — проривачі блокади для перевезення вантажів надзвичайної цінності з Європи до Японії та у зворотному напрямку. Окупованій країнами Осі Європі не вистачало стратегічних матеріалів, таких як вольфрам, олово та деякі товари, такі як каучук.
Історія
У 1941 році Королівські військово-морські сили Італії в контексті підтримки своїх наземних військ, що билися в Північній Африці, здійснили транспортування важливих матеріалів, майна та боєприпасів, використовуючи для цього деякі зі своїх великих океанських підводних човнів або підводних мінних загороджувачів. Ці перероблені субмарини могли перевозити від 50 до 150 тонн матеріалів, залежно від типу, загальних характеристик та наявного простору, і забезпечували більш безпечну подорож до місця призначення, ніж надводні транспортні судна. Цей ранній досвід привів до ідеї створення нових підводних човнів, спеціально розроблених для виконання транспортних завдань.
У 1942 році брак у Європі стратегічних матеріалів, таких як натуральний каучук, олово та цинк, змусив німців та італійців організувати таємні підводні транспортні місії на Далекий Схід, щоб отримувати ці матеріали у японців. Підводними човнами, обраними для цього завдання, стали вцілілі італійські субмарині, що базувалися на базі BETASOM у французькому місті Бордо. Їхній вік і зношеність означали, що вони більше не могли виконувати бойові завдання, тому вони пройшли кілька модифікацій для збільшення вантажопідйомності до максимальних 200 тонн на одиницю.
Але потреби країн Осі перевищували вантажопідйомність задіяних підводних човнів BETASOM, тому Італія замовила будівництво 2 нових великих підводних човнів типу «R». Ці субмарини були закладені влітку 1942 року на верфі в Таранто і отримали назви «Ромоло» та «Рем». Німці були дуже зацікавлені в цих нових транспортних засобах і надали італійцям матеріали для закладки ще 10 одиниць на початку 1943 року.
Конструкція
Підводні човни типу «R» були найбільшими підводними одиницями, коли-небудь побудованими для італійського флоту, довжиною 87 метрів і водотоннажністю 2 600 тонн у підводному стані і 2 200 тонн у надводному. Вони не мали торпедних апаратів, а їхнє озброєння складалося лише з трьох автоматичних зенітних гармат.
Для транспортування матеріалів тип «R» був обладнаний чотирма водонепроникними вантажними трюмами, двома в носовій частині і двома у кормовій, загальним об'ємом 610 кубічних метрів, що дозволяло перевозити до 600 тонн матеріалів. Їх вантажопідйомність втричі перевищувала вантажопідйомність найбільших «конвертованих» підводних човнів і вдвічі — вантаж, який можна було завантажити на німецькі підводні човни типу XB.
Лише перші дві екземпляри човнів цього типу були завершені; в березні 1943 року вони були спущені на воду і стали до строю в червні після поспішних приготувань і навчання екіпажу. Влітку 1943 року ситуація для країн Осі стала жахливою, і Італія зіткнулася з неминучою загрозою вторгнення союзників. Італійський флот прагнув використати «Ромоло» та «Рем» для транспортування стратегічних мінералів, таких як мідь і свинець, з Сардинії (де були розташовані шахти) на материкову Італію. Зростаюче повітряне і військово-морське домінування союзників над Середземним морем привело керівництво італійських ВМС до думки, що лише транспортні підводні човни типу «Ромоло» зможуть реалізувати це завдання. Це стало причиною того, що італійці відхилили запит Крігсмаріне на розгортання «Ромоло» і «Рема» в Атлантичному океані для походів на Далекий Схід. Крім того, перетин Гібралтарської протоки став набагато небезпечнішим, і два великих підводних човни навряд чи пройшли б його непоміченими.
15 липня 1943 року «Ромоло» і «Рем» вирушили з Таранто на свою першу і останню місію. Вони мали дістатися Неаполя, а потім Сардинії, щоб завантажити мінерали та матеріали, необхідні для промисловості на півночі. Через кілька годин після відплиття «Ремо» був помічений британським підводним човном «Юнайтед» і торпедований. Підводний човен пішов на дно разом з 55 членами екіпажу, і лише 4 з них пощастило вижили. «Ромоло» продовжив свій шлях, але 18 липня радіоконтакт з ним було втрачено, не залишивши жодних слідів підводного човна, який згодом було оголошено загиблим.
Після війни з архівів союзників стало відомо, що підводний човен зазнав атаки британського літака, який влучив у «Ромоло» бомбою. Однак, отримані пошкодження не потопили підводний човен, який змінив курс і продовжував плавати ще кілька годин, за ним здалеку спостерігав британський літак, перш ніж втратив контакт. Найбільш вірогідним поясненням є те, що «Ромоло» затонув через внутрішній вибух, прямо чи опосередковано спричинений пошкодженнями від бомби; вцілілих не було.
Список підводних човнів типу «Ромоло»
Див. також
Список підводних човнів Нідерландів
Список підводних човнів ВМФ СРСР
Список підводних човнів Третього Рейху
Підводні човни типу 212
Підводні човни типу «Тенч»
Примітки
Виноски
Джерела
Посилання
Sommergibile «REMO»
I SOMMERGIBILI DA TRASPORTO ITALIANI 1940—1943
Література
Bagnasco, Erminio (1977). Submarines of World War Two. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-962-6.
Giorgio Giorgerini, Uomini sul fondo. Storia del sommergibilismo italiano dalle origini ad oggi, Milano, Mondadori, 1994, ISBN 88-04-33878-4.
Підводні човни Італії часів Другої світової війни
Типи підводних човнів
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limburgish
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Limburgish
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Limburgish (or ; ; ; ), also called Limburgan, Limburgian, or Limburgic, is a West Germanic language spoken in Dutch Limburg, Belgian Limburg, and neighbouring regions of Germany (North Rhine-Westphalia).
Although frequently misunderstood as such, Limburgish as a linguistic term does not refer to the regional variety of Dutch spoken in the Belgian and Dutch provinces of Limburg. Within the modern communities of these provinces, intermediate idiolects are also very common, which combine standard Dutch with the accent and some grammatical and pronunciation tendencies derived from Limburgish. This "Limburgish Dutch" is confusingly also often referred to simply as "Limburgish", although in Belgium such intermediate languages tend to be called ("in-between language"), no matter the exact dialect/language with which standard Dutch is combined.
Since Limburgish is still the mother tongue of many inhabitants in the aforementioned region, Limburgish grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation can have a significant impact on the way locals speak Dutch in public life. Limburgish shares vocabulary and grammatical characteristics with both German and Dutch, but has some unique features as well.
Many dialects of Limburgish (and of Ripuarian) have a pitch accent.
Etymology
The name Limburgish (and variants of it) derives only indirectly from the now Belgian town of Limbourg (Laeboer in Limburgish, IPA: /ˈlæːbuʁ/), which was the capital of the Duchy of Limburg during the Middle Ages. More directly it is derived from the more modern name of the Province of Limburg (1815–39) in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which has been split today into a Belgian Limburg and a Dutch Limburg. In the area around the old Duchy of Limburg the main language today is French, but there is also a particular cluster of Limburgish (or Limburgish-like, depending on definitions) dialects. The use of Limburgish is first attested at the close of the 19th century.
People from Limburg usually call their language plat, similar as Low German speakers do. This plat refers simply to the fact that the language is spoken in the low plains country, as opposed to the use of "High" in "High German", which are derived from dialects spoken in the more mountainous southerly regions. The word "plat" is therefore associated both with the platteland (Dutch: "countryside") and can in effect sometimes mean simply "slang" in the sense of any very informal, rustic or locally unique words or expressions.
Terminology
The term Limburgish can refer to all varieties spoken within either the Belgian or Dutch province of Limburg, the South-East of Flemish Brabant, the North-East of Liège as well as in combination with the adjacent Rhineland region in a Limburgian-Ripuarian context.
In everyday speech, Limburgish refers to the varieties spoken in Dutch and Belgian Limburg. It is likewise legally defined through the Dutch recognition of Limburgish as a regional language under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.
According to Flemish professor linguist Jan Goossens, Münster, Westphalia, Germany, Limburgish is defined as consisting of the Low Franconian varieties positioned between the Uerdingen and Benrath line. His definition for Southern Low Franconian is basically by the unit word for I/me.
In more recent linguistic publications, some linguists further narrow this traditional definition by defining Limburgish as the dialects between the Uerdingen and Benrath isoglosses marked by pitch accent.
Regardless of the exact definition used, the term Limburgish itself is specific to the Netherlands and Belgium, where it used by linguists and speakers alike and is strongly connected to the cultural and regional identity of the inhabitants of both Belgian and Dutch Limburg. This regional identity is notably absent from the speakers of closely related Low Franconian dialects in adjacent parts of Germany, who do not refer to their local dialects as Limburgish. In German linguistic discourse too, the term is uncommon with German linguists instead tending to use Southern Low Franconian (German: ) to refer to the same dialect grouping.
Classification and history
The classification of Limburgish is contended by different national traditions. Within the context of historical linguistics, Limburgish is regarded as one of the five main dialects of Middle Dutch, although this is not considered to be a homogeneous language, but a retrofit definition based on the region where Dutch is currently an official language.
German and French dialectology considers Limburgish part of the Rhenish Fan. Sometimes it is also called a variety of Meuse-Rhenish, especially among German dialectologists. Belgian/Dutch linguistics considers it in the context of Limburgian-Ripuarian, together with the Ripuarian varieties. The early medieval Limburgish writer Heinrich von Veldeke is claimed by the tradition of both Dutch and German dialectology.
From the end of the 20th century on, Limburgish has developed a sense of autonomy from the traditional Dutch-German dipole as Limburgish linguists and functionaries consider it explicitly distinct from Dutch and German, as affirmed by the Covenant of the Limburgish language which politically decouples Limburgish from Dutch in the eyes of the Dutch government.
Limburgish developed from Old East Low Franconian, which had evolved itself from earlier Weser–Rhine Germanic, a language which had been spoken in the Low Countries on both sides of the Roman limes since at least the 4th century. During the High Middle Ages, the dialects which would result in Limburgish were influenced by the High German dialects spoken around the city of Cologne, resulting in certain High German features being absorbed by these varieties. It is the adoption of these phonological traits that resulted in Limburgish being classified as East Low Franconian.
In the past, all Limburgish varieties were therefore sometimes seen as West Central German, part of High German. This difference is caused by a difference in definition: the latter stance defines a High German variety as one that has taken part in any of the first three phases of the High German consonant shift. It is nevertheless most common in linguistics to consider Limburgish as Low Franconian.
The traditional terminology can be confusing as the differences between the historical groupings Old West Franconian and Old East Franconian (which mainly concern certain vowel variations and the presence of Ingvaeonic features) is different from the modern modern dialectal dichotomy between Western and Eastern Low Franconian, which is based on the presence or absence of High German features in Low Franconian, which did not occur until the advent of the Middle Dutch period.
The period of High German influence lasted until the 13th century, after which the Duchy of Brabant extended its power, which resulted in a marked Brabantian influence, first among the western (i.e. spoken up to Genk) Limburgish dialects and then also among the eastern variants.
Currently Limburgish – although being essentially a variety of Low Franconian – still has a considerable distance from Standard Dutch with regards to phonology, morphology and lexicon. Standard Dutch, which developed mostly from West Low Franconian dialects such as Flemish and Brabantic, serves as the standard language (or Dachsprache) for the Limburgish varieties spoken in the Netherlands and Belgium. The speakers of Limburgish or South Low Franconian dialects in Germany use Standard German as their Dachsprache.
Form
Limburgish is far from being homogeneous. In other words, it has numerous varieties instead of one single standard form. Between 1995 and 1999, a uniform standard form called AGL (Algemein Gesjreve Limburgs, "Generally written Limburgish") was developed and proposed, but found too little support. Today the so-called "Veldeke-spelling" which was first applied in the 1940s is most of the time used to write in a specific Limburgish dialect. In 2000 the parliament of the province of Dutch Limburg enacted a measure establishing the Limburgish Language Council (Raod veur 't Limburgs), a committee which advises the Parliament of Dutch Limburg on measures in relation to Limburgish. In 2003 the Limburgish Language Council adopted a standard orthography for Limburgish. On the basis of this standard orthography the Limburgish Academy Foundation (Stiechting Limbörgse Academie) is creating Limburgish-Dutch, Limburgish-English, Dutch-Limburgish and English-Limburgish dictionaries.
Contemporary usage
Limburgish is spoken by approximately 1.6 million people in the Low Countries and by many hundreds of thousands in Germany. It is especially in the Dutch province of Limburg that Limburgish is used not only in everyday speech, but also often in more formal situations and on the local and regional radio. According to a study by Geert Driessen, in 2011 Limburgish was spoken by 54 percent of the adults and 31 percent of the children. Limburgish has no real written tradition, except for its early beginnings. Hendrik van Veldeke wrote in a Middle Limburgish dialect. Especially in the Netherlands, the cultural meaning of the language is also important. Many song texts are written in a Limburgish dialect, for example during Carnival. Jack Poels writes most of his texts for Rowwen Hèze in Sevenums, a local dialect.
To what degree Limburgish actually is spoken in Germany today remains a matter of debate. Not depending on the city in these parts of Germany, less than 50% of the population speak a local or regional form of Limburgish. Depending on the city in these parts of Belgium, according to A, Schuck (2001) 50% to 90% of the population speak a local or regional form of Limburgish, which seems to be a clear overestimation. Moreover, research into some specific variants seems to indicate a gradual process of development towards the national standardised Dutch, especially amongst younger generations. In Belgium, the Limburgish dialects are more endangered than in the Netherlands.
Linguistic versus societal status
In March 1997 the Dutch government recognised Limburgish as a regional language (Dutch: streektaal) in the Netherlands. As such, it receives moderate protection under chapter 2 of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.
However, some linguists have argued that this recognition was highly politically motivated and done more on sociolinguistic than purely linguistic grounds. In 1999, the Dutch Language Union, the de facto language authority which asserted that it had not been asked for advice, opposed the recognition. From the Limburgish side it has been argued that the arguments put forth against the recognition of Limburgish were not based on linguistic considerations, but rather a concern for maintaining the dominance of the Dutch language.
On the other hand, Limburgish is not recognised by the German and Belgian national governments as an official language. An attempt at recognition, made after Limburgish had been recognised in the Netherlands, failed in the Belgian parliament due to Flemish opposition. Because in Belgium political power is divided according to linguistic lines, recognizing Limburgish as an official language would have had considerable constitutional implications and undermine the small majority Flemish speakers hold over Walloon speakers in the Belgian State.
Subdivisions of Limburgish
Principal dialects
Subdialects of Limburgish in Dutch and Belgian Limburg are:
(around Lommel)
(West Limburgish)
(cp. Beringen)
(Central Limburgish)
(cp. Bilzen)
(cp. Tongeren)
(East Limburgish)
(Northern East Limburgish)
(Southern East Limburgish)
(around Venlo)
or
Expanded
The Limburgish group belongs to the Continental West Germanic dialect continuum. As usual inside dialect continua, neighboring languages have a maximum of similarities, and speakers being used to the rather small individual lingual differences in their immediate neighborhood perceive them as close, and familiar, while more distant ones become gradually harder to understand with distance. That ends, in the Dutch–German continuum at least, most often with incomprehensible dialects. Isoglosses are so dense in this area that practically every village or town has its own distinct dialect of Limburgish. Large cities such as Mönchengladbach, Krefeld, and Düsseldorf have several local dialect varieties. The named cities have in common, that they are large enough to in part extend outside the area of the dialect group. Thus each has one or more quarters outside, having vernacular languages belonging to adjacent groups, such as Kleverlandish or Ripuarian.
A few sample dialects are: of near , of in , of central , of , of , of in Krefeld, of central , of in , of northern and central , of , of , of , of , of , and many more.
The group combines Low Franconian properties with some Ripuarian properties, such as tonal accents, the pronoun "I" translates as or , the word "but" most often as , all like Ripuarian. Contrasting, "time" is translated as , "to have" mostly as , "today" as , all typical for Low Franconian.
(also called ) is the Dutch term for a group of dialects spoken north of the Uerdingen line, i.e. from just south of Venlo upward to the North in the Dutch province of Limburg. These dialects share many features with both the and Brabantian dialects and are closer to Standard Dutch than the more southern language varieties (see e.g. Hoppenbrouwers 2001). The term is used by Jo Daan for the entire province north of the Uerdingen line, whereas other linguists use it only for the part that has tonality, the language north of this region then being considered Kleverlandish.
The north border of the Limburgish tonality zone lies a little north of Arcen and Horst aan de Maas and just above the meej/mich isogloss, also known as the "mich-kwartier". This makes this Limburgish isogloss the northernmost of all. Venlo lies between the meej/mich isogloss and the Uerdingen line, so the Venlo dialect is the only one with both forms ik and mich/dich. All dialects in the Dutch province of Limburg spoken north of the tonality border are Kleverlandish in linguistic respect.
The dialects spoken in the most southeastern part of the Dutch province of North Brabant (i.e. in and around Budel and Maarheeze) also have many Limburgish characteristics. An important difference between these dialects and the adjacent ones in the Dutch province of Limburg is, however, that the second-person pronoun gij is here used instead of doe, as in "purely" Brabantian dialects.
Centraal-Limburgs (Central Limburgish) includes the area around Maastricht, Sittard, Roermond, the eastern half of Belgian Limburg, and the Belgian Voeren area, and stretches further Northeast.
Belgian linguists use a more refined classification.
Dutch linguists use the term Oost-Limburgs (East Limburgish) for the form of Limburgish spoken in an area from Belgian Voeren south of Maastricht in the Netherlands to the German border. For them, West-Limburgs (West Limburgish) is the variety of Limburgish spoken in Belgium in the area east of the Uerdingen line, for example in and around Hasselt and Tongeren. It includes areas in Dutch Limburg (like Ool, Maria Hoop and Montfort) and Dutch Brabant. The border of West-Limburgs and Oost-Limburgs starts a little south of the area between the villages of 's-Gravenvoeren and Sint-Martens-Voeren in the Belgian municipality of Voeren.
Meuse-Rhenish
Limburgish is spoken in a considerable part of the German Lower Rhine area. This area extends from the border regions of Cleves, Viersen and Heinsberg, stretching out to the Rhine river. Modern linguists, both in the Netherlands and in Germany, now often combine these distinct varieties with the Cleves dialects. This superordinating group of Low Franconian varieties (between the rivers Meuse and Rhine) is called Meuse-Rhenish.
Both Limburgish and Low Rhenish belong to this greater Meuse-Rhine area, building a large group of Low Franconian dialects, including areas in Belgium, the Netherlands and the German Northern Rhineland. The northwestern part of this triangle came under the influence of the Dutch standard language, especially since the founding of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815. At the same time, the southeastern portion became part of the Kingdom of Prussia, and was subject to High German language domination. At the dialectal level however, mutual understanding is still possible far beyond both sides of the national borders.
The Meuse-Rhenish dialects can be divided into Northern and Southern varieties. Hence, Limburgish is Southern Meuse-Rhenish as spoken in Belgium, the Netherlands and the German Lower Rhine. The Northern Meuse-Rhenish dialects as spoken in the Netherlands and in Germany (a little eastward along the Rhine) are unambiguously Low Franconian. As discussed above, Limburgish straddles the borderline between "Low Franconian" and "Middle Franconian" varieties. These Southern Meuse-Rhenish dialects are more-or-less mutually intelligible with the Ripuarian dialects, but have not been influenced by the High German consonant shift except in isolated words (R. Hahn 2001).
South Low Franconian
South Low Franconian is a concept used in Germany to describe the Limburgish language of the Netherlands, Belgium and Germany. It also includes a group spoken in a part of the Bergisches Land Region near Düsseldorf east of the Rhine and in the lower Rhine area between the rivers Rhine and Maas.
Goossens (1965) distinguished the following subdialects:
(East Limburgish - Ripuarian transitional area; Uerdingen, Düsseldorf, Solingen, Remscheid, Mönchengladbach, Eupen)
(East Limburgish; Panningen, Krefeld, Dülken, Sittard)
(Central Limburgish; Maastricht, Vroenhoven)
(West Limburgish - Central Limburgish transitional area; around and southern of Genk)
(Tongeren)
(Genk, Bilzen)
(West Limburgish; Veldeke, Hasselt, St.-Truiden, Loon)
(South Brabantian - West Limburgish transitional area)
(Beringen)
(Tienen)
Orthography
Limburgish has many varieties hence there isn't a standard written form. However the Limburgish Language Council has adopted a standard orthography for Limburgish since 2003 and it is used in its websites as well as dictionaries. This is the form presented below.
Alphabet
Limburgish orthography
Digraphs
Monophthong vowels
Diphthongs vowels
Phonology
The sound inventory below is based on the variety of West-Limburgs spoken in Montfort.
Consonants
may not show up in the Hasselt dialect, but is common in other Limburgish dialects, e.g. zègke (Dutch: zeggen) "to say".
Other Limburgish dialects also have the following sounds: (landj); (tenj, teeth).
is realized as in Belgian Limburgish.
is a common allophone of , especially in coda position. It is rare in the Montfortian dialect.
and are allophones of and , occurring in a front-vowel environment. This is termed Soft G in Dutch dialectology.
is an allophone of . In some dialects, it may be the usual realization of .
In most modern dialects, is uvular.
Overall, Limburgish dialects tend to have more consonants than Dutch. They also tend to have more vowels. According to Peter Ladefoged, the vowel inventory of the dialect of Weert is perhaps the richest in the world. It has 28 vowels, among which there are 12 long monophthongs (three of which surface as centering diphthongs), 10 short monophthongs and 6 diphthongs.
In most of the Limburgish dialects spoken to the southeast of Panningen—for example those of Roermond, Sittard and Heerlen— appears at the beginning of words in the consonant clusters sp, st, sl, sm, sn and zw. The same sound is realized as elsewhere (e.g. sjtraot/straot, "street"). This is not the case, however, in the dialects of for example Venlo, Weert, Maastricht, Echt, Montfort and Posterholt.
Vowels
Monophthongs
only occurs in unstressed syllables.
are realised as before alveolar consonants.
Diphthongs
The diphthongs occur, as well as combinations of + . only occurs in French loanwords and interjections.
is realized as before alveolar consonants. can be realized as or . In the dialect of Geleen, is realized as and as . In many dialects such as that of Maastricht and Sittard, the long vowel in Dutch cognates is most of the time realized as , as in nao ("after", "to, towards"). The Standard Dutch equivalents are na and naar .
In about 50 Belgian Limburgish dialects, the rounded front vowels are unrounded to in most native words. They are retained in French loanwords such as dzjuus .
Tone
The pitch accent means having two different accents used in stressed syllables. The difference between these two accents is used for differentiating both various grammatical forms of a single lexeme and minimal tone pairs one from the other.
With specific regards to Limburgish, these two accents are traditionally known as sjtoettoen ("push tone") and sjleiptoen ("dragging tone"). For example, daãg with a dragging tone means "day" in Limburgish, while in many Limburgish dialects daàg with a push tone is the plural form, "days" (in addition, can also be articulated in a neutral tone as a third possibility. In this case, it means "bye-bye"). In the preceding example, the difference is grammatical, but not lexical. An example of a lexical difference caused only by tone is the word biè which is articulated with a push tone and means "bee", which forms a tonal minimal pair with biẽ, which is articulated with a dragging tone and means "at". This contrastive pitch accent also occurs in Central Franconian dialects spoken to the southeast of Limburgish.
Other Indo-European pitch accent languages that use tone contours to distinguish the meaning of words that are otherwise phonetically identical include Lithuanian, Latvian, Swedish, Norwegian, Standard Slovene (only some speakers), and Serbo-Croatian. This feature is comparable to tone systems as found e.g. in Chinese or many languages of Africa and Central America, although such "classical" tone languages make much more use of tone distinctions when compared to Limburgish.
Historically, pitch accent in Limburgish and Central Franconian developed independently from accent systems in other Indo-European languages. While contrastive accent can be reconstructed for Proto Indo-European, it was completely lost in Proto-Germanic. Its reemergence in Limburgish (and Central Franconian) was phonetically triggered by vowel height, vowel length, and voicing of a following consonant, and became phonemic with sound changes that must have occurred after 1100 CE such as lengthening of short vowels in open syllables, loss of schwa in final syllables, devoicing of consonants in final position, and merger of vowels that had been distinct before.
Particular local features
Bitonality
It has been proven by speech analysis that in the Belgian Limburgish dialect of Borgloon, the dragging tone itself is bitonal, while it has also been proved that this is not the case in the adjacent Limburgish dialects of Tongeren and Hasselt.
Steeper fall
Other research has indicated that the push tone has a steeper fall in the eastern dialects of Limburgish (e.g. those of Venlo, Roermond and Maasbracht) than it has in western dialects. In addition, both the phonetic realisation and the syllable-based distribution of the contrasts between push and dragging tone seem to be mora-bound in the eastern dialects only. This has been examined especially by Jörg Peters.
Diphthongization
Moreover, in some dialects such as that of Sittard and Maastricht, especially the mid and high vowels tend to diphthongize when they have a push tone. So in the dialect of Sittard means "to choose" while in the dialect of Maasbracht no diphthongization takes place, so means the same here. This difference has been examined in particular by Ben Hermans and Marc van Oostendorp.
Other examples include plural
steĩn "stone"
steìn "stones"
and lexical
"grave"
"hole next to a road"
Verbs distinguish mood with tone:
"We conquer!"
"May we conquer!"
The difference between push tone and dragging tone may also purely mark grammatical declension without there being any difference in meaning, as in the dialect of Borgloon: gieël ("yellow", with dragging tone) as opposed to en gieël peer ("a yellow pear", with push tone). This tonal shift also occurs when the adjective gets an inflectional ending, as in nen gieëlen appel ("a yellow apple").
In some parts of Limburg, the tonal plural is being replaced with the Dutch forms among the younger generation, so that the plural for daag becomes dage.
Samples
The sample texts are readings of the first sentence of The North Wind and the Sun.
Phonetic transcription (Hasselt, West Limburgish)
Orthographic version (Hasselt, West Limburgish)
Phonetic transcription (Maastricht, Central Limburgish)
Orthographic version (Maastricht, Central Limburgish)
Grammar
Nouns
Gender
Limburgish has three grammatical genders. In some of the Limburgish dialects, is used before masculine words beginning with b, d, h, t or with a vowel and in many other dialects is used before all masculine words. In most dialects, the indefinite article is for masculine nouns, for feminine nouns and or for neuter nouns. Without stress, these forms are most of the time realized as , and .
Plural
For some nouns, Limburgish uses simulfixes (i.e. umlaut) to form the plural:
– (brother – brothers)
– (shoe – shoes): note this can also be 'sjoon' with (pushing tone).
Plural and diminutive nouns based on Umlaut start to prevail east towards Germany. However, towards the west, the phonemic distinction between dragging and pushing tone will stop just before Riemst.
Diminutives
The diminutive suffix is most often -ke, as in Brabantian, or -je/-sje after a dental consonant. For some nouns an umlaut is also used and in breurke for 'little brother' and sjeunke for 'little shoe'.
Adjectives
According to their declension, Limburgish adjectives can be grouped into two classes. Adjectives of the first class get the ending -e in their masculine and feminine singular forms and always in plural, but no ending in their neuter singular form. When combined with a masculine noun in singular adjectives may also end on -en, under the same phonological conditions which apply to articles. To this class belong most adjectives ending on a , -d, -k, -p, -t or -s preceded by another consonant or with one of the suffixes , and . The other declension class includes most adjectives ending on -f, -g, -j, -l,-m,-n, -ng, -r, -w or -s preceded by a vowel; these adjectives only get the ending in their masculine singular form.
When used as a predicate, Limburgish adjectives never get an ending: (Maastrichtian: "That man is crazy"). Except for neuter adjectives which sometimes get -t: "'t Eint of 't angert", though this is dying out.
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
Possessive pronouns
In the masculine singular forms of mien, dien, zien and oos, final -n is added under the same phonological conditions which apply to articles and adjectives. Deletion of the final -n in the neuter forms of mien, dien, zien no longer occurs in the dialect of Venlo and is also disappearing in the dialect of Roermond.
Demonstrative pronouns
The most common demonstrative pronouns in Limburgish are:
Vocabulary
Most of the modern Limburgish vocabulary is very similar to that of Standard Dutch or to that of Standard German due to a heavy influence from the two. However, some of the basic vocabulary is rooted in neighboring Central German dialects.
Historically, the vocabulary of the varieties of Limburgish spoken within current Belgian territory has been more influenced by French than that of the Limburgish dialects spoken on Dutch and German soil, as appears form words such as briquet ("cigarette-lighter"), camion ("truck") and crevette ("shrimp"). The language has similarities with both German and Dutch, and Hendrik van Veldeke, a medieval writer from the region, is referred to as both one of the earlier writers in German and one of the earliest writers in Dutch.
See also
Limburgish Wikipedia
Southeast Limburgish
Notes
References
Sources
Driessen, Geert (2012): Ontwikkelingen in het gebruik van Fries, streektalen en dialecten in de periode 1995-2011. Nijmegen: ITS.
Frins, Jean (2005): Syntaktische Besonderheiten im Aachener Dreilãndereck. Eine Übersicht begleitet von einer Analyse aus politisch-gesellschaftlicher Sicht. Groningen: RUG Repro [Undergraduate Thesis, Groningen University]
Frins, Jean (2006): Karolingisch-Fränkisch. Die plattdůtsche Volkssprache im Aachener Dreiländereck''. Groningen: RUG Repro [Master's Thesis, Groningen University]
Further reading
External links
On Limburgish Tones (in Dutch)
Map of dialects spoken in Dutch Limburg
Limburgish Wiktionary – De Limburgse Wiktionair
Limburgish Academy Foundation (Stiechting Limbörgse Academie) with dictionaries Limburgish-Dutch, Limburgish-English, Dutch-Limburgish and English-Limburgish and a history of the Limburgish language
Veldeke Genk (in Genk dialect and Dutch)
Languages of Belgium
Languages of the Netherlands
Languages of Germany
Limburg (region)
Low Franconian languages
Subject–object–verb languages
Tonal languages
Verb-second languages
Culture of Limburg (Netherlands)
Limburg (Belgium)
Liège Province
Rhineland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyoming
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Wyoming
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Wyoming is a landlocked state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It borders Montana to the north and northwest, South Dakota and Nebraska to the east, Idaho to the west, Utah to the southwest, and Colorado to the south. With a population of 576,851 in 2020, Wyoming is the least populous state despite being the 10th largest by area, with the second-lowest population density after Alaska. The state capital and most populous city is Cheyenne, which had a population of 65,132 in 2020.
Wyoming's western half consists mostly of the ranges and rangelands of the Rocky Mountains; its eastern half consists of high-elevation prairie, and is referred to as the High Plains. Wyoming's climate is semi-arid in some parts and continental in others, making it drier and windier overall than other states, with greater temperature extremes. The federal government owns just under half of Wyoming's land, generally protecting it for public use. The state ranks sixth in the amount of land—and fifth in the proportion of its land—that is owned by the federal government. Its federal lands include two national parks (Grand Teton and Yellowstone), two national recreation areas, two national monuments, and several national forests, as well as historic sites, fish hatcheries, and wildlife refuges.
Indigenous peoples inhabited the region for thousands of years. Historic and currently federally recognized tribes include the Arapaho, Crow, Lakota, and Shoshone. Part of the land that is now Wyoming came under American sovereignty via the Louisiana Purchase, part via the Oregon Treaty, and, lastly, via the Mexican Cession. With the opening of the Oregon Trail, the Mormon Trail, and the California Trail, vast numbers of pioneers traveled through parts of the state that had once been traversed mainly by fur trappers, and this spurred the establishment of forts, such as Fort Laramie, that today serve as population centers. The Transcontinental Railroad supplanted the wagon trails in 1867 with a route through southern Wyoming, bringing new settlers and the establishment of founding towns, including the state capital of Cheyenne. On March 27, 1890, Wyoming became the union's 44th state.
Farming and ranching, and the attendant range wars, feature prominently in the state's history. Wyoming's economy is largely based on tourism and the extraction of minerals such as coal, natural gas, oil, and trona. Its agricultural commodities include barley, hay, livestock, sugar beets, wheat, and wool.
Wyoming does not require the beneficial owners of LLCs to be disclosed in the filing, which creates an opportunity for a tax haven. Wyoming levies no individual or corporate income tax and no tax on retirement income.
Wyoming is known for having a political culture that leans towards libertarian conservatism. The Republican presidential nominee has carried the state in every election since 1968. It is one of the least religious states in the country. Wyoming was the first state to allow women the right to vote (not counting New Jersey, which had allowed it until 1807), and the right to assume elected office, as well as the first state to elect a female governor. In honor of this part of its history, its most common nickname is "The Equality State" and its official state motto is "Equal Rights".
History
Several Native American groups originally inhabited the region today known as Wyoming. The Crow, Arapaho, Lakota, and Shoshone were but a few of the original inhabitants European explorers encountered when they first visited the region. What is now southwestern Wyoming was claimed by the Spanish Empire, which extended through the Southwest and Mexico. With Mexican independence in 1821, it was considered part of Alta California. U.S. expansion brought settlers who fought for control. Mexico ceded these territories after its defeat in 1848 in the Mexican–American War.
From the late 18th century, French-Canadian trappers from Québec and Montréal regularly entered the area for trade with the tribes. French toponyms such as Téton and La Ramie are marks of that history.
American John Colter first recorded a description in English of the region in 1807. He was a member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, which was guided by French Canadian Toussaint Charbonneau and his young Shoshone wife, Sacagawea. At the time, Colter's reports of the Yellowstone area were considered fictional. On a return from Astoria, Robert Stuart and a party of five men discovered South Pass in 1812.
The Oregon Trail later followed that route as emigrants moved to the west coast. In 1850, mountain man Jim Bridger first documented what is now known as Bridger Pass. Bridger also explored Yellowstone, and filed reports on the region that, like Colter's, were largely regarded at the time as tall tales. The Union Pacific Railroad constructed track through Bridger Pass in 1868. It was used as the route for construction of Interstate 80 through the mountains 90 years later.
After the Union Pacific Railroad reached Cheyenne in 1867, population growth was stimulated. The federal government established the Wyoming Territory on July 25, 1868. Lacking significant deposits of gold and silver, unlike mineral-rich Colorado, Wyoming did not have such a population boom. But South Pass City had a short-lived boom after the Carissa Mine began producing gold in 1867. Copper was mined in some areas between the Sierra Madre Mountains and the Snowy Range near Grand Encampment.
Once government-sponsored expeditions to the Yellowstone country began, Colter's and Bridger's descriptions of the region's landscape were confirmed. In 1872, Yellowstone National Park was created as the world's first, to protect this area. Nearly all of the park lies within the northwestern corner of Wyoming.
On December 10, 1869, territorial Governor John Allen Campbell extended the right to vote to women, making Wyoming the first territory to do so, and upon statehood became the first state to grant women's suffrage. Women first served on juries in Wyoming (Laramie in 1870). Wyoming was also a pioneer in welcoming women into electoral politics. It had the first female court bailiff (Mary Atkinson, Laramie, in 1870), and the first female justice of the peace in the country (Esther Hobart Morris, South Pass City, in 1870). In 1924, Wyoming was the first state to elect a female governor, Nellie Tayloe Ross, who took office in January 1925. Due to its civil-rights history, one of Wyoming's state nicknames is "The Equality State", and the official state motto is "Equal Rights".
Wyoming's constitution also included a pioneering article on water rights. Bills for Wyoming Territory's admission to the union were introduced in both the U.S. Senate and U.S. House of Representatives in December 1889. On March 27, 1890, the House passed the bill and President Benjamin Harrison signed Wyoming's statehood bill; Wyoming became the 44th state in the union.
Wyoming was the location of the Johnson County War of 1892, which erupted between competing groups of cattle ranchers. The passage of the Homestead Act led to an influx of small ranchers. A range war broke out when either or both of the groups chose violent conflict over commercial competition in the use of the public land.
Etymology
The region had acquired the name Wyoming by 1865 when Representative James Mitchell Ashley of Ohio introduced a bill to Congress to provide a "temporary government for the territory of Wyoming". The territory was named after the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania. Thomas Campbell wrote his 1809 poem "Gertrude of Wyoming", inspired by the Battle of Wyoming in the American Revolutionary War. The name ultimately derives from the Lenape Munsee word ("at the big river flat").
Geography
Climate
Wyoming's climate is generally semi-arid and continental (Köppen climate classification BSk) and is drier and windier in comparison to most of the United States with greater temperature extremes. Much of this is due to the topography of the state. Summers in Wyoming are warm with July high temperatures averaging between in most of the state. With increasing elevation, however, this average drops rapidly with locations above averaging around . Summer nights throughout the state are characterized by a rapid cooldown with even the hottest locations averaging in the range at night. In most of the state, most of the precipitation tends to fall in the late spring and early summer. Winters are cold but are variable with periods of sometimes extreme cold interspersed between generally mild periods, with Chinook winds providing unusually warm temperatures in some locations.
Wyoming is a dry state with much of the land receiving less than of rainfall per year. Precipitation depends on elevation with lower areas in the Big Horn Basin averaging , making the area nearly a true desert. The lower areas in the North and on the eastern plains typically average around , making the climate there semi-arid. Some mountain areas do receive a good amount of precipitation, or more, much of it as snow, sometimes or more annually. The state's highest recorded temperature is at Basin on July 12, 1900, and the lowest recorded temperature is at Riverside on February 9, 1933.
The number of thunderstorm days varies across the state with the southeastern plains of the state having the most days of thunderstorm activity. Thunderstorm activity in the state is highest during the late spring and early summer. The southeastern corner of the state is the most vulnerable part of the state to tornado activity. Moving away from that point and westwards, the incidence of tornadoes drops dramatically with the west part of the state showing little vulnerability. Tornadoes, where they occur, tend to be small and brief, unlike some of those that occur farther east.
Location and size
As specified in the designating legislation for the Territory of Wyoming, Wyoming's borders are lines of latitude 41°N and 45°N, and longitude 104°3'W and 111°3'W (27 and 34 west of the Washington Meridian)—a geodesic quadrangle. Wyoming is one of only three states (the others being Colorado and Utah) to have borders defined by only "straight" lines. Due to surveying inaccuracies during the 19th century, Wyoming's legal border deviates from the true latitude and longitude lines by up to in some spots, especially in the mountainous region along the 45th parallel. Wyoming is bordered on the north by Montana, on the east by South Dakota and Nebraska, on the south by Colorado, on the southwest by Utah, and on the west by Idaho. It is the tenth largest state in the United States in total area, containing and is made up of 23 counties. From the north border to the south border, it is ; and from the east to the west border is at its south end and at the north end.
Natural landforms
Mountain ranges
The Great Plains meet the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming. The state is a great plateau broken by many mountain ranges. Surface elevations range from the summit of Gannett Peak in the Wind River Mountain Range, at , to the Belle Fourche River valley in the state's northeast corner, at . In the northwest are the Absaroka, Owl Creek, Gros Ventre, Wind River, and the Teton ranges. In the north central are the Big Horn Mountains; in the northeast, the Black Hills; and in the southern region the Laramie, Snowy, and Sierra Madre ranges.
The Snowy Range in the south-central part of the state is an extension of the Colorado Rockies both in geology and in appearance. The Wind River Range in the west central part of the state is remote and includes more than 40 mountain peaks in excess of tall in addition to Gannett Peak, the highest peak in the state. The Bighorn Mountains in the north-central portion are somewhat isolated from the bulk of the Rocky Mountains.
The Teton Range in the northwest extends for , part of which is included in Grand Teton National Park. The park includes the Grand Teton, the second-highest peak in the state.
The Continental Divide spans north–south across the central portion of the state. Rivers east of the divide drain into the Missouri River Basin and eventually the Gulf of Mexico. They are the North Platte, Wind, Bighorn, and Yellowstone rivers. The Snake River in northwest Wyoming eventually drains into the Columbia River and the Pacific Ocean, as does the Green River through the Colorado River Basin.
The Continental Divide forks in the south-central part of the state in an area known as the Great Divide Basin where water that precipitates onto or flows into it cannot reach an ocean—it all sinks into the soil and eventually evaporates.
Several rivers begin in or flow through the state, including the Yellowstone River, Bighorn River, Green River, and the Snake River.
Basins
Much of Wyoming is covered with large basins containing different eco-regions, from shrublands to smaller patches of desert. Regions of the state classified as basins contain everything from large geologic formations to sand dunes and vast unpopulated spaces. Basin landscapes are typically at lower elevations and include rolling hills, valleys, mesas, terraces and other rugged terrain, but also include natural springs as well as rivers and artificial reservoirs. They have common plant species such as various subspecies of sagebrush, juniper and grasses such as wheatgrass, but basins are known for their diversity of plant and animal species.
Islands
Wyoming has 32 named islands; the majority are in Jackson Lake and Yellowstone Lake, within Yellowstone National Park in the northwest portion of the state. The Green River in the southwest also contains a number of islands.
Regions and administrative divisions
Counties
The state of Wyoming has 23 counties.
Wyoming license plates have a number on the left that indicates the county where the vehicle is registered, ranked by an earlier census. Specifically, the numbers are representative of the property values of the counties in 1930. The county license plate numbers are:
Cities and towns
The State of Wyoming has 99 incorporated municipalities.
In 2020, 51.1% of Wyomingites lived in one of the 12 most populous Wyoming municipalities.
Metropolitan areas
The United States Census Bureau has defined two metropolitan statistical areas (MSA) and eight micropolitan statistical areas (MiSA) for the state. In 2020, 31.3% of Wyomingites lived in either of the metropolitan statistical areas, and 80.4% lived in either a metropolitan or a micropolitan area.
Demographics
Population
The 2020 United States census counted 576,851 people living in Wyoming. The center of population of Wyoming is in Natrona County. Sparsely populated, Wyoming is the least populous state of the United States. Wyoming has the second-lowest population density in the country (behind Alaska) and is the sparsest-populated of the 48 contiguous states. It is one of only two states with a population smaller than that of the nation's capital; the only other state with this distinction is Vermont.
According to HUD's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 648 homeless people in Wyoming.
According to the 2020 census, the population's racial composition was 84.7% white (81.4% non-Hispanic white), 2.4% American Indian and Alaska Native, 0.9% Black or African American, 0.9% Asian American, and 0.1% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, 3.5% from some other race, and 7.5% from two or more races. As of 2011, 24.9% of Wyoming's population younger than age1 were minorities. According to data from the American Community Survey, as of 2018, Wyoming was the only U.S. state where African Americans earn a higher median income than white workers.
As of 2015, Wyoming had an estimated population of 586,107, which was an increase of 1,954, or 0.29%, from the prior year and an increase of 22,481, or 3.99%, since the 2010 census. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 12,165 (33,704 births minus 21,539 deaths) and an increase from net migration of 4,035 into the state. Immigration resulted in a net increase of 2,264 and migration within the country produced a net increase of 1,771. In 2004, the foreign-born population was 11,000 (2.2%). In 2005, total births in Wyoming were 7,231 (birth rate of 14.04 per thousand).
According to the 2000 census, the largest ancestry groups in Wyoming were: German (26.0%), English (16.0%), Irish (13.3%), Norwegian (4.3%), and Swedish (3.5%).
In 2018, The top countries of origin for Wyoming's immigrants were Mexico, China, Germany, England and Canada.
Birth data
Note: Births in table do not add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.
Since 2016, data for births of White Hispanic origin are not collected, but included in one Hispanic group; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
Languages
In 2010, 93.39% (474,343) of Wyomingites over age 5 spoke English as their primary language; 4.47% (22,722) spoke Spanish, 0.35% (1,771) spoke German, and 0.28% (1,434) spoke French. Other common non-English languages included Algonquian (0.18%), Russian (0.10%), Tagalog, and Greek (both 0.09%).
In 2007, the American Community Survey reported 6.2% (30,419) of Wyoming's population over five spoke a language other than English at home. Of those, 68.1% were able to speak English very well, 16.0% spoke English well, 10.9% did not speak English well, and 5.0% did not speak English at all.
Religion
Surveys have consistently ranked Wyoming among the most irreligious states. According to the 2020 American Values Atlas survey, Wyoming was the least religious state in the country.
In 2020, the Public Religion Research Institute determined that about 55% of Wyoming's adult population was Christian, primarily evangelical and mainline Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Mormon. The Public Religion Research Institute survey documented a decrease in religiosity from a 2014 separate Pew Research Center study; according to the Public Religion Research Institute, the irreligious made up 40% of the state population by 2020. According to a 2013 Gallup poll, Wyomingites' religious affiliations were 49% Protestant, 23% nonreligious or other, 18% Catholic, 9% Latter-day Saint (Mormons), and less than 1% Jewish.
A 2010 Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA) report recognized as Wyoming's largest denominations the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), with 62,804 (11%); the Catholic Church, with 61,222 (10.8%); and the Southern Baptist Convention, with 15,812 (2.8%). The report counted 59,247 evangelical Protestants (10.5%), 36,539 mainline Protestants (6.5%), 785 Eastern Orthodox Christians; 281 Black Protestants; 65,000 adhering to other traditions; and 340,552 claiming no religious tradition. In 2020, ARDA reported the state's largest individual denominations as the following: the Catholic Church (69,500); the LDS Church (67,729); and the Southern Baptist Convention (11,082). Non-denominational Protestants were 23,410 in number.
According to ARDA's 2020 report, the Roman Catholics had an adherence rate of 120.48 per 1,000 people, Mormons 117.41 per 1,000 people, and Southern Baptists 19.21 per 1,000 people. Non-denominational Protestants had an adherence rate of 40.58 per 1,000 people; these trends reflected the separate 2014 Pew study's varying attendance at religious services. In 2014, 38% visited a religious service at least once a week, 28% once or twice a month, and 32% seldom/never. A 2018 research article by the National Christian Foundation cited non-churchgoing Christians nationwide did not attend religious services often through practicing the faith in other ways, not finding a house of worship they liked, disliking sermons and feeling unwelcomed, and logistics.
Economy and infrastructure
According to a 2012 United States Bureau of Economic Analysis report, Wyoming's gross state product was $38.4 billion. As of 2014, the population was growing slightly with the most growth in tourist-oriented areas, such as Teton County. Boom conditions in neighboring states, such as North Dakota, were drawing energy workers away. About half of Wyoming's counties showed population loss. The state makes active efforts through Wyoming Grown, an internet-based recruitment program, to find jobs for young people educated in Wyoming who have emigrated but may wish to return.
The mineral-extraction industry and travel and tourism sector are the main drivers of Wyoming's economy. The federal government owns about 42.3% of its landmass, while the state controls 6%. The total taxable value of mining production in Wyoming in 2007 was over $14.5 billion. In 2018, tourism industry accounted for over $3.8 billion in revenue.
In 2002, more than six million people visited Wyoming's national parks and monuments. Wyoming's main tourist attractions include Grand Teton National Park, Yellowstone National Park, Devils Tower National Monument, Independence Rock and Fossil Butte National Monument. Yellowstone, the world's first national park, receives three million visitors each year.
Historically, agriculture has been an important component of Wyoming's economy. Its overall importance to the economy has waned, but it is still an essential part of Wyoming's culture and lifestyle. The main agricultural commodities Wyoming produces include livestock (beef), hay, sugar beets, grain (wheat and barley), and wool. More than 91% of Wyoming's land is classified as rural.
Wyoming is the home of only a handful of companies with a regional or national presence. Taco John's and Sierra Trading Post, both in Cheyenne, are privately held. Cloud Peak Energy in Gillette and U.S. Energy Corp. (NASDAQ: USEG) in Riverton are Wyoming's only publicly traded companies.
Various initiatives have been put in place and legislation adopted to encourage the use of blockchain technology and cryptocurrencies in the state. Tyler Lindholm, a former state legislator, claimed that 500 member-owned limited liability companies built on blockchain had been established and that 17,000 businesses with "crypto" in their name registered by 2023.These included the blockchain platforms Cardano and Tacen.
Mineral and energy production
Wyoming's mineral commodities include coal, natural gas, coalbed methane, crude oil, uranium, and trona.
Coal
Wyoming produced 277 million short tons (251.29 million metric tons) of coal in 2019, a 9% drop from 2018. Wyoming's coal production peaked in 2008, when 514 million short tons (466.3 million metric tons) were produced. Wyoming has a reserve of 68.7 billion tons (62.3 billion metric tons) of coal. Major coal areas include the Powder River Basin and the Green River Basin.
CBM is methane gas extracted from coal bed seams and coalbed methane extraction (CBM) boomed in the mid-1990s. There has been substantial CBM production in the Powder River Basin. In 2002, the CBM production yield was 327.5 billion cubic feet (9.3 km3). In 2016, Wyoming produced 1.77 trillion cubic feet (50.0 billion m3) of natural gas, ranking the state ranked 6th nationwide in natural gas production.
Oil
Wyoming produced of crude oil in 2007, ranking fifth nationwide in oil production.
Wind energy
Because of its geography and altitude, the potential for wind power in Wyoming is one of the highest of any U.S. state. The Chokecherry and Sierra Madre Wind Energy Project is the largest commercial wind generation facility under development in North America. Carbon County is home to the largest proposed wind farm in the nation. Construction plans have been halted because of proposed new taxes on wind power energy production.
Other
The Kelsey Lake Diamond Mine in Colorado, less than from the Wyoming border, produced gem-quality diamonds for several years. The Wyoming craton, which hosts the kimberlite volcanic pipes that were mined, underlies most of Wyoming.
Wyoming possesses the world's largest known reserve of trona, a mineral used in manufacturing glass, paper, soaps, baking soda, water softeners, and pharmaceuticals. In 2008, Wyoming produced 46 million short tons (41.7 million metric tons) of trona, 25% of the world's production.
Although uranium mining in Wyoming is much less active than in previous decades, recent increases in uranium's price have generated new interest in prospecting and mining.
Rare earth metals.
Taxes
Unlike most other states, Wyoming levies no individual or corporate income tax. It also assesses no tax on retirement income earned and received from another state. Wyoming has a state sales tax of 4%. Counties have the option to collect an additional 1% tax for general revenue and a 1% tax for specific purposes, if approved by voters. Food for human consumption is not subject to sales tax. A county lodging tax varies from 2% to 5%. The state collects a use tax of 5% on items purchased elsewhere and brought into Wyoming. All property tax is based on the property's assessed value; Wyoming's Department of Revenue's Ad Valorem Tax Division supports, trains, and guides local government agencies in the uniform assessment, valuation and taxation of locally assessed property. "Assessed value" means taxable value; "taxable value" means a percentage of the fair market value of property in a particular class. Statutes limit property tax increases. For county revenue, the property tax rate cannot exceed 12 mills (or 1.2%) of assessed value. For cities and towns, the rate is limited to eight mills (0.8%). With very few exceptions, state law limits the property tax rate for all governmental purposes.
Personal property held for personal use is tax-exempt. Inventory held for resale, pollution control equipment, cash, accounts receivable, stocks and bonds are also exempt. Other exemptions include property used for religious, educational, charitable, fraternal, benevolent and government purposes and improvements for handicapped access. Mine lands, underground mining equipment, and oil and gas extraction equipment are exempt from property tax, but companies must pay a gross products tax on minerals and a severance tax on mineral production.
Wyoming does not collect inheritance taxes. There is limited estate tax related to federal estate tax collection.
In 2008, the Tax Foundation reported that Wyoming had the most "business-friendly" tax climate of any U.S. state. Wyoming state and local governments in fiscal year 2007 collected $2.242 billion in taxes, levies, and royalties from the oil and gas industry. The state's mineral industry, including oil, gas, trona, and coal, provided $1.3 billion in property taxes from 2006 mineral production. As of 2017, Wyoming receives more federal tax dollars as a percentage of state general revenue than any state except Montana.
As of 2016, Wyoming does not require the beneficial owners of LLCs to be disclosed in the filing, which creates an opportunity for a tax haven, according to Clark Stith of Clark Stith & Associates. If fact, Wyoming was the first state to enact a statute authorizing the creation of LLCs.
Transportation
Wyoming's largest airport is Jackson Hole Airport, with more than 500 employees. Three interstate highways and 13 U.S. highways pass through Wyoming. The Wyoming state highway system also serves the state.
Interstate 25 enters Wyoming south of Cheyenne and runs north, intersecting Interstate 80 immediately west of Cheyenne. It passes through Casper and ends at Interstate 90, near Buffalo. Interstate 80 crosses the Utah border west of Evanston and runs east through the southern third of the state, passing through Cheyenne before entering Nebraska near Pine Bluffs. Interstate 90 comes into Wyoming near Parkman and cuts through the northeastern part of the state. It serves Gillette and enters South Dakota east of Sundance.
U.S. Routes 14, 16, and the eastern section of U.S. 20 have their western terminus at the eastern entrance to Yellowstone National Park and pass through Cody. U.S. 14 runs eastward before joining I-90 at Gillette. U.S. 14 then follows I-90 to the South Dakota border. U.S. 16 and 20 split off of U.S. 14 at Greybull and U.S. 16 turns east at Worland while U.S. 20 continues south Shoshoni. U.S. Route 287 runs from Fort Collins, Colorado, to Laramie, Wyoming, through a pass between the Laramie Mountains and the Medicine Bow Mountains, then merges with US 30 and I-80 until it reaches Rawlins, where it continues north, passing Lander. Outside of Moran, U.S. 287 is part of a large interchange with U.S. Highways 26, 191, and 89, before continuing north to Yellowstone's southern entrance. U.S. 287 continues north of Yellowstone, but the park separates the two sections.
Other U.S. highways that pass through Wyoming are 18, 26, 30, 85, 87, 89, 189, 191, 212, and 287.
Wyoming is one of only two states (the other is South Dakota) in the 48 contiguous states not served by Amtrak. It was once served by Amtrak's San Francisco Zephyr and Pioneer lines. While no passenger trains roll through Wyoming today, intercity buses continue to connect residents across the state. Intercity bus carriers in the state include Express Arrow, Greyhound Lines, and Jefferson Lines.
Major interstates
(300.5 mi) connects Denver, Cheyenne, Casper and Buffalo. Most of the highway is connected with US 87. Major junctions include Interstate 80, US 30, US 85, US 26, US Routes 18 & 20 and US 16 before its northern terminus at Interstate 90 in Buffalo.
(402.8 mi) connects Evanston, Rock Springs, Rawlins, Laramie and Cheyenne. Major junctions include US 191, US 287, I-25, and US 85 & I-180.
(208.8 mi) connects Sheridan, Buffalo and Gillette. Primarily in northeastern Wyoming. Major junctions include US 14, I-25 and US 16.
Wind River Indian Reservation
The Eastern Shoshone and Northern Arapaho tribes share the Wind River Indian Reservation in central western Wyoming, near Lander. The reservation is home to 2,500 Eastern Shoshone and 5,000 Northern Arapaho.
Chief Washakie established the reservation in 1868 as the result of negotiations with the federal government in the Fort Bridger Treaty, but the federal government forced the Northern Arapaho onto the Shoshone reservation in 1876 after it failed to provide a promised separate reservation.
Today the Wind River Indian Reservation is jointly owned, with each tribe having a 50% interest in the land, water, and other natural resources. It is a sovereign, self-governed land with two independent governing bodies: the Eastern Shoshone Tribe and the Northern Arapaho Tribe. Until 2014, the Shoshone Business Council and Northern Arapaho Business Council met jointly as the Joint Business Council to decide matters that affect both tribes. Six elected council members from each tribe served on the joint council.
Public lands
The federal government owns nearly half of Wyoming's land (about ); the state owns another . Most of it is administered by the Bureau of Land Management and U.S. Forest Service in numerous national forests and a national grassland, not to mention vast swaths of "public" land and an air force base near Cheyenne.
There are also areas managed by the National Park Service and agencies such as the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
National parks
Grand Teton National Park
Yellowstone National Park—first designated national park in the world
Memorial parkway
The John D. Rockefeller Jr. Memorial Parkway connects Yellowstone and Grand Teton.
National recreation areas
Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area
Flaming Gorge National Recreation Area (managed by the Forest Service as part of Ashley National Forest)
National monuments
Devils Tower National Monument—first national monument in the U.S.
Fossil Butte National Monument
National historic trails, landmarks and sites
California National Historic Trail
Fort Laramie National Historic Site
Independence Rock National Historic Landmark
Medicine Wheel/Medicine Mountain National Historic Landmark
Mormon Pioneer National Historic Trail
National Register of Historic Places listings in Wyoming
Oregon National Historic Trail
Pony Express National Historic Trail
National fish hatcheries
Jackson National Fish Hatchery
Saratoga National Fish Hatchery
National wildlife refuges
National Elk Refuge
Seedskadee National Wildlife Refuge
Education
The state superintendent of public instruction, an elected state official, directs public education. The State Board of Education, a nine-member board appointed by the governor, sets educational policy. The constitution prohibits the state from establishing curriculum and textbook selections; these are the prerogative of local school boards. The Wyoming School for the Deaf was the only in-state school dedicated to supporting deaf students before it closed in the summer of 2000.
Higher education
Wyoming has a public four-year institution, the University of Wyoming in Laramie, and a private four-year college, Wyoming Catholic College, in Lander. There are also seven two-year community colleges.
Before the passing of a new law in 2006, Wyoming had hosted unaccredited institutions, many of them suspected diploma mills. The 2006 law requires unaccredited institutions to make one of three choices: move out of Wyoming, close down, or apply for accreditation. The Oregon State Office of Degree Authorization predicted in 2007 that in a few years the problem of diploma mills in Wyoming might be resolved.
Media
Wyoming's media market consists of 16 broadcast TV stations, radio stations and dozens of small to medium-sized newspapers. There are also a few small independent news sources such as the nonprofit news site Wyofile.com and Oil City News.
Government and politics
State government
Wyoming's Constitution established three branches of government: the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The state legislature comprises a House of Representatives with 60 members and a Senate with 30 members. The executive branch is headed by the governor and includes a secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, and superintendent of public instruction. As Wyoming does not have a lieutenant governor, the secretary of state is first in the line of succession.
Wyoming's sparse population warrants the state only one at-large seat in the U.S. House of Representatives, and hence only three votes in the Electoral College.
The Wyoming State Liquor Association is the state's sole legal wholesale distributor of spirits, making it an alcoholic beverage control state. With the exception of wine, state law prohibits the purchase of alcoholic beverages for resale from any other source.
Judicial system
Wyoming's highest court is the Supreme Court of Wyoming, with five justices presiding over appeals from the state's lower courts. Wyoming is unusual in that it does not have an intermediate appellate court, like most states. This is largely attributable to the state's population and correspondingly lower caseload. Appeals from the state district courts go directly to the Wyoming Supreme Court. Wyoming also has state circuit courts (formerly county courts), of limited jurisdiction, which handle certain types of cases, such as civil claims with lower dollar amounts, misdemeanor criminal offenses, and felony arraignments. Circuit court judges also commonly hear small claims cases as well.
Before 1972, Wyoming judges were selected by popular vote on a nonpartisan ballot. This earlier system was criticized by the state bar which called for the adoption of the Missouri Plan, a system designed to balance judiciary independence with judiciary accountability. In 1972, an amendment to Article5 of the Wyoming Constitution, which incorporated a modified version of the plan, was adopted by the voters. Since the adoption of the amendment, all state court judges in Wyoming are nominated by the Judicial Nominating Commission and appointed by the Governor. They are then subject to a retention vote by the electorate one year after appointment.
Political history
Wyoming's political history defies easy classification. The state was the first to grant women the right to vote and to elect a woman governor. On December 10, 1869, John Allen Campbell, the first Governor of the Wyoming Territory, approved the first law in United States history explicitly granting women the right to vote. This day was later commemorated as Wyoming Day. On November 5, 1889, voters approved the first constitution in the world granting full voting rights to women.
While the state elected notable Democrats to federal office in the 1960s and 1970s, politics have become decidedly more conservative since the 1980s as the Republican Party came to dominate the state's congressional delegation. Today, Wyoming is represented in Washington by its two Senators, John Barrasso and Cynthia Lummis, and its one member of the House of Representatives, Congresswoman Harriet Hageman. All three are Republicans; a Democrat has not represented Wyoming in the Senate since 1977 or in the House since 1978. The state has not voted for a Democrat for president since 1964, one of only eight times since statehood. In the 2004 presidential election, George W. Bush won his second-largest victory, with 69% of the vote. Former Vice President Dick Cheney is a Wyoming resident and represented the state in Congress from 1979 to 1989.
The last time a Democrat won a statewide election in Wyoming was in 2006, when Democratic governor Dave Freudenthal was re-elected to a second term by a wide margin, winning every county in the state. For 19 of Wyoming's 23 counties, 2006 marked the last time that they voted for the Democratic nominee in a statewide race. Of the remaining 4, Sweetwater County last voted Democratic in the 2008 U.S. House race and Laramie County last voted Democratic in the 2014 Superintendent of Public Instruction race, leaving Teton and Albany as the only counties that Democrats are able to win. Teton, which is composed of affluent resort communities, is reliably Democratic, except in Republican landslides like the 2022 gubernatorial election; Albany, which contains the college town of Laramie, is more competitive.
Republicans are dominant at the state level. They have held a majority in the state senate continuously since 1936 and in the state house since 1964, though Democrats held the governorship for all but eight years between 1975 and 2011. Uniquely, Wyoming elected Democrat Nellie Tayloe Ross as the first woman in United States history to serve as state governor. She served from 1925 to 1927, winning a special election after her husband, William Bradford Ross, unexpectedly died a little more than a year into his term.
Wyoming retains the death penalty. Authorized methods of execution include the gas chamber.
Culture
Sports
Due to its sparse population, Wyoming lacks any major professional sports teams; the Gillette Mustangs, an indoor football team based in Gillette that began play in 2021 prior to their departure from the city in 2023, were previously the only professional team in the state. However, the Wyoming Cowboys and Cowgirls—particularly the football and basketball teams—are quite popular; their stadiums in Laramie are about above sea level, the highest in NCAA DivisionI. The Wyoming High School Activities Association also sponsors twelve sports and there are three junior ice hockey teams, all of which are members of the NA3HL. Casper has hosted the College National Finals Rodeo since 2001.
State symbols
List of all Wyoming state symbols:
State bird: western meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta)
State coin: Sacagawea dollar
State dinosaur: Triceratops
State emblem: Bucking Horse and Rider
State fish: cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki)
State flag: Flag of the State of Wyoming
State flower: Wyoming Indian paintbrush (Castilleja linariifolia)
State fossil: Knightia
State gemstone: Wyoming nephrite jade
State grass: western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii)
State insect: Sheridan's green hairstreak butterfly (Callophrys sheridanii)
State mammal: American bison (Bison bison)
State motto: Equal Rights
State nicknames: Equality State; Cowboy State; Big Wyoming
State reptile: horned lizard (Phrynosoma douglassi brevirostre)
State seal: Great Seal of the State of Wyoming
State song: "Wyoming" by Charles E. Winter & George E. Knapp
State sport: rodeo
State tree: plains cottonwood (Populus sargentii)
See also
Bibliography of Wyoming history
Index of Wyoming-related articles
Outline of Wyoming
Notes
References
External links
State of Wyoming government official website
Official Wyoming State Travel Website
Wyoming State Facts from USDA
1890 establishments in the United States
States and territories established in 1890
States of the United States
Western United States
Contiguous United States
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Синдром зап'ястного каналу
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Синдром зап'ястного каналу (також — зап'ясткового; ще — зап'ястковий тунельний синдром) — патологічний стан, що характеризується болем, відчуттям оніміння і поколювання в пальцях руки й самої кисті та виникає в результаті здавлювання серединного нерва в зап'ястковому каналі. Синдром частіше розвивається після 40 років, водночас страждають більше від нього жінки.
Причини
Причинами розвитку цього синдрому можуть бути защемлення закінчень нервів в зап'ястковому каналі. Защемлення можуть траплятися через розвиток набряку сухожильної тканини, яка прилягає до ураженого нерва. Крім того, і сам нерв може набрякати.
Підсилює тунельний синдром зап'ястя постійні навантаження, зокрема під час роботи з клавіатурою комп'ютера. При цьому часто особливий ризик являє одноманітна робота, наприклад, постійна робота правої руки на комп'ютерній миші. Крім цього, тунельний синдром може розвиватися при незручному розташуванні рук, якщо ділянка зап'ястя змушена постійно напружуватися.
До причин синдрому відносять:
Травма області зап'ястя, що приводить до набряку тканин в ньому, до виникнення гематом.
Перелом кісток в ділянці зап'ястя — найчастіше, це перелом променевої кістки.
Артрит промене-зап'ясткового суглоба.
Пухлини в ділянці каналу.
Запалення в ділянці синовіальних піхв сухожиль м'язів-сгиначів.
Вагітність, при якій відбуваються набряки м'яких тканин.
Цукровий діабет, при якому розвивається патологія периферичних нервів — полінейропатія.
Зниження функції щитоподібної залози.
Клінічні ознаки
Один з перших симптомів — це поступове оніміння в ділянках, чутливість яких визначає серединний нерв. Відразу ж після цього виникає біль. В кисті з'являється відчуття оніміння, особливо рано вранці після нічного відпочинку. Хворі часто цілу ніч розтирають кисті і трясуть ними, що дає певне полегшення.
Біль може поширюватися вгору по руці у напрямку плеча і навіть досягати шиї. При прогресуванні цього стану м'язи великого пальця можуть ослабнути і атрофуватися, викликаючи незручність при роботі кисті, коли необхідно взяти склянку або чашку.
Пацієнту складно доторкнутися подушечкою великого пальця до кінчиків інших пальців, утримувати різні предмети, наприклад, кермо, газету або телефон. Хворі часто не можуть защепити ґудзики, не можуть чистити картоплю.
Лікування
Консервативне лікування
Слід змінити або, по можливості, припинити виконання тих видів діяльності, які спричинюють появу симптомів. Уникати повторюваних рухів кисті, сильних хапальних рухів, утримування вібрувальних інструментів або змінити розташування зап'ястя при виконанні роботи, що вимагає нахилу та вигинання зап'ястя. Слід відмовитися від паління тютюну, позбутися надмірної ваги, зменшити споживання кофеїну.
Бандаж на зап'ястя
Бандаж на зап'ясті іноді полегшує симптоми на ранніх стадіях хвороби. Бандаж утримує зап'ястя в стані спокою (без вигинання назад або нахилу). Коли зап'ястя знаходиться в цьому положенні, зап'ястковий канал зберігає найбільший об'єм, тому для нерва є достатньо простору всередині каналу. Бандаж допомагає зняти відчуття оніміння і болю, що відчувають хворі вночі, він не дозволяє кисті згинатися під час сну. Бандаж на зап'ясті можна носити і протягом дня, щоб послабити симптоми і забезпечити спокій тканин в зап'ястному каналі.
Медикаментозне лікування
Протизапальні засоби можуть допомогти зняти набряк і послабити симптоми. Ці ліки включають поширені лікарські засоби, що продають без рецепта, такі як ібупрофен та ацетилсаліцилова кислота. Деякі дослідження продемонстрували, що високі дози вітаміну B6 допомагають послабити симптоми. Деякі різновиди фізичних вправ також допомагають запобігти або принаймні контролювати симптоми.
Якщо ці прості заходи не допоможуть контролювати симптоми, слід розглянути можливість ін'єкції гідрокортизону в зап'ястковий канал. Цей препарат використовують для зняття набряку в каналі, він може тимчасово послабити симптоми. Гідрокортизон може допомогти лікарю при постановці діагнозу. Якщо пацієнт не відчуває навіть тимчасового полегшення після ін'єкції, це може вказувати на наявність іншого захворювання, що спричинює ці симптоми. Якщо симптоми зникнуть після ін'єкції, ймовірно, вони виникли через патологію в зап'ястному каналі. Деякі лікарі вважають, що в цьому випадку рекомендовано операцію перерізу поперечної зв'язки зап'ястя.
Фізіотерапія
Основна мета фізіотерапевтичного лікування — зменшити вплив або позбутися причини підвищення тиску в зап'ястному каналі. Фізіотерапевт може перевірити ваше робоче місце і спосіб виконання вами робочих завдань. Він може запропонувати, як краще розташовувати своє тіло і в якому положенні тримати зап'ястя, порадити комплекс фізичних вправ і підказати, як уникнути подібних проблем у майбутньому.
Хірургічне лікування
Якщо спроби контролювати симптоми не вдалися, пацієнту може бути запропонована операція по зниженню тиску на серединний нерв. Розроблено кілька різних методик операцій зі зменшення тиску на серединний нерв. Після них поліпшується кровопостачання нерва, більшість пацієнтів відчувають полегшення. Однак, якщо нерв здавлюється протягом тривалого часу, він може ущільнитися і рубцюватися, що сповільнить відновлення після операції.
Найпоширенішим втручанням є відкрита операція. Відкрита операція може бути проведена із застосуванням місцевого анестетика. Він блокує нерви, розташовані тільки в певній частині тіла. На долоні виконують невеликий розріз, зазвичай менше 5 см завдовжки. У деяких випадках злегка подовжений розріз проводять в сторону передпліччя. Розріз дозволяє побачити фасцію долоні. Це пласт сполучної тканини на долоні, розташований прямо під шкірою. Лікар розрізає цю оболонку і відкриває поперечну зв'язку зап'ястя. Побачивши поперечну зв'язку зап'ястя, хірург розрізає її скальпелем або ножицями. Після розтину поперечної зв'язки зап'ястя хірург зшиває тільки шкіру, залишаючи вільними кінці поперечної зв'язки зап'ястя не зшитими. Вільні кінці зв'язки розходяться, що зменшує тиск на серединний нерв. З часом простір між двома кінцями зв'язки заповниться рубцевою тканиною.
Примітки
Посилання
Тунельні синдроми 30/06/2017
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Fact Sheet (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke)
Синдроми
Неврологія
Неврологічні розлади
Ергономіка
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Стронцій
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Стронцій (Sr) — хімічний елемент з атомним номером 38, а також відповідна проста речовина, лужноземельний метал. Атомна маса 87,62. Присутність в мінералі стронціаніті оксиду нового металу було встановлено у 1790 р. хіміками — шотландцем А.Кроуфордом та англійцем В.Крюйкшенком. У чистому вигляді виділений сером Гемфрі Деві у 1808 р. електролізом. У природі існує 4 стабільних ізотопи стронцію з масовими числами 84, 86, 87, 88.
Історія
Новий елемент виявили в мінералі стронціаніті (SrCO3), знайденому у 1764 у свинцевому руднику поблизу шотландського села Стронтіан, що дало згодом назву новому елементу. Присутність у цьому мінералі оксиду нового металу було встановлено майже через 30 років, у 1790, Адером Кроуфордом і Вільямом Крюйкшенком. Майже одночасно з ними про відкриття заявили і Мартін Генріх Клапрот.
Стронцій виділено в чистому вигляді сером Гемфрі Деві у 1808 за допомогою електролізу гідроксиду стронцію.
У 1924 році Філіп Даннер винайшов більш практичний, порівняно з методикою Деві, спосіб отримання чистого стронцію — відновлення його з окисів магнієм або алюмінієм.
Фізичні властивості
Проста речовина — стронцій. Сріблясто-білий метал, ковкий і пластичний. Належить до лужноземельних металів.
Конфігурація кристалічної ґратки залежить від температури: нижче 215°C — кубічна гранецентрована (α-Sr) з періодом 0,6085 нм, при 215—605°C — гексагональна гранецентрована (β-Sr) з періодами а=0,432 нм, с=0,706 нм, вище 605°C — кубічна об'ємноцентрована (γ-Sr) з періодом 0.485 нм.
Густина при 273 К — 2630 кг/м³, tплав — 768 °C, tкип — 1390 °C.
Парамагнітний, питома магнітна сприйнятливість при 20°C — + 1,05·10-9. Питомий електричний опір — 20·10-8 Ом·м, температурний коефіцієнт опору —5,2·10-3К-1 .
Хімічні властивості
Стронцій подібний до кальцію і барію, займаючи проміжне положення між ними. Типовий ступінь окиснення +2, проте відома сполука з +1 — монофлюорит стронцію FSr. Окисно-відновний потенціал ε=-2.89 В. Електрохімічний еквівалент — 0,45404 мг/Кл.
Хімічно активний, швидко окиснюється на повітрі, покриваючись плівкою окису SrO, що сповільнює подальше окиснення, проте не зупиняє його, тому металічний стронцій зберігається під шаром керосину або масла. При нагріванні у повітрі горить з утворенням окису і нітриду (Sr3N2) стронцію, порошкоподібний стронцій може самозайматись. Слабко реагує з водою з виділенням водню, утворюючи гідроксид стронцію Sr(OH)2.
При температурі вище 300-400°C взаємодіє з воднем, азотом, фосфором, сіркою, карбоном і галогенами. Слабко реагує з концентрованими азотною і сульфатною кислотою і енергійно — з розбавленими.
При температурі вище 500°C і тиску 15 МПа реагує з киснем з утворенням пероксиду стронцію SrO2.
Поширення
Середній вміст стронцію в земній корі 3,4•10−2% (мас). Відомо близько 40 мінералів стронцію, найважливішими з яких є целестин SrSO4 і стронціаніт SrCO3, які переважно зустрічаються в осадових та гідротермальних утвореннях. Крім цього практично завжди присутній в мінералах кальцію, калію і барію, входячи у вигляді ізоморфної домішки в їх кристалічні ґратки.
Ізотопи
Природній стронцій складається з чотирьох різних ізотопів. Всі вони стабільні.
Загалом відомо 38 ізотопів стронцію з масовими числами від 73 до 107, 3 з яких — метастабільні.
З нестабільних ізотопів, найбільші періоди напіврозпаду мають Sr90 (28,9 років) і Sr85 (65 днів).
Отримання
Існують 3 способи отримання металевого стронцію:
термічне розщеплення деяких сполук
електроліз
відновлення оксиду або хлориду стронцію
Основним промисловим способом отримання металевого стронцію є термічне відновлення його оксиду алюмінієм. Далі отриманий стронцій очищається за допомогою процесу сублімації.
Застосування
Стронцій застосовується в промисловості як легуюча добавка до сплавів на основі магнію, алюмінію, свинцю, нікелю та міді. Стронцій входить до складу гетерів. Сполуки стронцію застосовуються в піротехніці (надають вогню червоного забарвлення), входять до складу люмінесцентних матеріалів, як емісійне покриття радіоламп, при виготовленні скла тощо. Титанат стронцію SrTiO3 використовують при виготовленні діелектричних антен, п'єзоелементів, малогабаритних нелінійних конденсаторів, як датчики інфрачервоного випромінювання. Препарати з вмістом ізотопу 90Sr застосовуються при променевій терапії шкірних та при деяких очних хворобах.
Застосовують для виготовлення люмінофорів, окремі ізотопи — у променевій терапії тощо. Радіоактивний ізотоп 90Sr утворюється в атомних реакторах. Ізотоп 87Sr накопичується в природі за рахунок розпаду радіоактивного Rb. Накопичення 87Sr у рубідійвмісних гірських породах використовується для визначення їх віку за стронцієвим методом.
Біологічна роль
Стронцій не відіграє значної біологічної ролі, і не є небезпечним у концентраціях, що зустрічаються в природі. У організмі людини стронцій поводить себе подібно до кальцію і має підвищену концентрацію в кістках. У нормальних умовах, людина щодня споживає близько 3,3 міліграмів стронцію (2 мг з водою і решту — з їжею). Надмірне надходження стронцію (більше 500 мг на кілограм ваги за день) може призводити до порушення розвитку кісток у дітей і тварин (такі порушення відомі під назвами стронцієвий рахіт, урівська хвороба і хвороба Кашина-Бека). Концентрація стронцію в людському тілі становить близько 4,6 мільйонних, причому 99% стронцію сконцентровано в кістках і зубах. Рекомендована максимальна концентрація стронцію у питній воді становить 4 мг\л.
Значно більш небезпечним є ізотоп стронцію 90Sr з періодом напіврозпаду 28,8 років, що утворюється при багатьох ядерних реакціях, а при ядерних вибухах, або через викид радіоактивних відходів — потрапляє до навколишнього середовища. Він утворює добре розчинний у воді гідрокарбонат Sr(HCO3)2, активно мігрує до ґрунту, накопичується в рослинах і організмах тварин. При потраплянні в організм людини можливе ураження кісткової тканини і клітин печінки, лейкемія, та інші радіаційні ушкодження.
Акантарії (група морських радіолярій) утворюють скелети з сульфату стронцію.
Див. також
Гідрид стронцію
Стронцій (мінерал)
Примітки
Джерела
Глосарій термінів з хімії // Й. Опейда, О. Швайка. Ін-т фізико-органічної хімії та вуглехімії ім. Л. М. Литвиненка НАН України, Донецький національний університет. — Донецьк: Вебер, 2008. — 758 с. — ISBN 978-966-335-206-0
Деркач Ф. А. Хімія: посібник для вступ. до вузів / Ф. А. Деркач. — Л. : Видавництво Львівського університету, 1968. — 312 с.
Посилання
СТРОНЦІЙ // Фармацевтична енциклопедія
Хімічні елементи
Лужноземельні метали
Період 5 періодичної системи елементів
Високонебезпечні речовини
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32939805
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt%20Zouma
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Kurt Zouma
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Kurt Zouma
Kurt Happy Zouma (born 27 October 1994) is a French professional footballer who plays as a centre-back for and captains club West Ham United.
Zouma began his career at Saint-Étienne, making his professional debut aged 16, and going on to win the Coupe de la Ligue with the club in 2013. Zouma joined Chelsea for £12 million in January 2014, but was loaned back to the French club for the remainder of the season. With Chelsea, he won two Premier League titles, an EFL Cup, a UEFA Champions League title and a UEFA Super Cup. After loan spells with Stoke City and Everton, he moved to across London to West Ham in 2021, winning the UEFA Conference League in his second season.
Zouma represented France at several youth levels, up to under-21. He made his senior international debut against Denmark on 29 March 2015.
Club career
Early career
Born in Lyon, Zouma began his career at age nine with Vaulx-en-Velin until he was 15. He played as a right winger and also as a striker before switching to his current position of a defender.
Saint-Étienne
Zouma joined Saint-Étienne in 2009. On 2 April 2011, he signed his first professional contract, agreeing to a three-year contract. He was subsequently promoted to the senior team by manager Christophe Galtier ahead of the 2011–12 season, and initially played without a name on his shirt in order to protect him from media attention.
Zouma made his professional debut at 16 years old, on 31 August 2011 in a Coupe de la Ligue match against Bordeaux, playing the entire match in a 3–1 win. On 17 September, he made his Ligue 1 debut in a 3–0 loss at Lorient; his first professional goal came on 19 November, replacing Paulão after nine minutes and finishing a corner kick to confirm a 2–0 win before half time at OGC Nice. He totalled 21 league games in his first season – 13 starts – and his other goal came on 14 January 2012, heading Banel Nicolita's corner for the only goal against lowly Sochaux at the Stade Geoffroy-Guichard.
On 20 April 2013, Zouma played in Saint-Étienne's 1–0 win over Rennes in the final of the Coupe de la Ligue. Eight days later in the Derby du Rhone away to Lyon, he opened a 1–1 draw by heading Yohan Mollo's corner after half an hour of play. On 7 November 2013, Zouma was banned for ten games following a challenge that left Sochaux's Thomas Guerbert with a broken right leg and a dislocated ankle.
Chelsea
2014–15 season
On 31 January 2014, Zouma joined Chelsea on a five-and-a-half-year contract for a transfer fee believed to be around £12 million (€14.6 million). He remained at Saint-Étienne on loan for the remainder of the 2013–14 season.
On 24 September, Zouma made his first competitive appearance for Chelsea, scoring the opener in a 2–1 win against Bolton Wanderers in the third round of the League Cup. He made his second Chelsea start and first UEFA Champions League appearance on 21 October against Maribor, helping his team keep a clean sheet in a 6–0 win. He made his Premier League debut as an added-time substitute for Willian in the 1–1 draw with Manchester United at Old Trafford on 26 October 2014.
On 4 January 2015, Zouma scored the third goal for Chelsea in the 3–0 victory over Watford in the FA Cup. Six days later, he started in the Premier League for the first time, partnering John Terry in place of Gary Cahill and keeping a clean sheet in a 2–0 home win over Newcastle United, which put Chelsea back into first place in the league table. With Nemanja Matić suspended and Mikel John Obi injured, Zouma played in defensive midfield as Chelsea won the League Cup Final on 1 March after a 2–0 victory over Tottenham Hotspur. On 3 May, he featured as a substitute for the final five minutes in place of Willian as Chelsea defeated Crystal Palace 1–0 to win the league title.
2015–2017
On 2 August 2015, Zouma was a 69th-minute substitute for César Azpilicueta as Chelsea lost 1–0 to rivals Arsenal in the Community Shield. Starting ahead of John Terry, he scored his first Premier League goal on 19 September, heading in Cesc Fàbregas' cross to open a 2–0 home win over the same opposition. On 24 November, as a late substitute for the injured Terry, he scored his first European goal to conclude a 4–0 win at Maccabi Tel Aviv in the Champions League group stage. Under interim manager Guus Hiddink, Zouma regularly started alongside Terry as Chelsea's form improved. On 7 February 2016, Zouma ruptured the anterior cruciate ligament in his right knee after landing awkwardly from a jump in a match against Manchester United. He required surgery and was ruled out for six months.
In the summer of 2016, Zouma traveled and trained with the first-team during preseason. Chelsea also rejected a loan offer from Schalke 04. On 24 October, Zouma made his first competitive appearance after being out of action for nine months, playing 45 minutes for the Chelsea under-23 team in a 2–2 draw against Derby County. On 8 January 2017, Zouma made his first team comeback in Chelsea's 4–1 FA Cup third-round win over Peterborough United. On 4 February, he made his first appearance of the 2016–17 Premier League season as a substitute in a 3–1 win against rivals Arsenal.
2017–19: Loans to Stoke City and Everton
Following agreeing to a new six-year contract with Chelsea, on 21 July 2017, Zouma joined fellow Premier League club Stoke City on loan for the 2017–18 season. On 12 August, he made his debut in a 1–0 loss at Everton. In November 2017, Stoke captain Ryan Shawcross expressed his surprise that Chelsea had loaned out Zouma, who had only missed one match, against his parent club. On 20 November he headed his first goal for the Potters, in a 2–2 draw at Brighton & Hove Albion. Zouma played 37 matches for Stoke in 2017–18 as the club suffered relegation to the EFL Championship.
On 10 August 2018, Zouma joined fellow Premier League club Everton on loan for the 2018–19 season. He made his debut on 25 August as a last-minute substitute for the injured Michael Keane in a 2–2 draw at AFC Bournemouth. Zouma scored his first goal for Everton on 13 January 2019, a header to open a 2–0 home win also against Bournemouth. He was sent off for dissent after the final whistle in a 1–0 loss at Watford on 9 February.
2019–21: Return to Chelsea
Zouma returned to Chelsea following the expiration of his loan at Everton. He made 32 appearances and scored 2 goals with the club.
On 11 August 2019, Zouma made his first appearance of the season as a starter in the 4–0 away defeat to Manchester United. He was back on the scoresheet against Grimsby Town on 25 September 2019, in a 7–1 home win in the third round of the EFL Cup. On 1 January 2020, Zouma marked his 100th appearance for the club as Chelsea drew 1–1 to Brighton & Hove Albion at Falmer Stadium.
Zouma began the new season in the starting back four for Chelsea's trip to Brighton & Hove Albion on 14 September 2020. He would go on to score the club's third goal in a 3–1 win, his first Premier League goal in over five years for Chelsea. On 6 December, Zouma headed in his team's second goal of a 3–1 win over Leeds United. The win put Chelsea at the top of the league table and was his fourth goal in the first ten league matches of the season, which meant he had twice as many strikes as the next highest-scoring Premier League defender. Through the first ten league matches, Zouma had also won 74.5 per cent of his duels, which put him among the top 20 players in Europe. Zouma made five appearances for Chelsea in their victorious 2020-21 UEFA Champions League run, however did not come off the bench in the final as Chelsea beat Manchester City 1-0.
Zouma's last appearance for Chelsea was in their win in the 2021 UEFA Super Cup against Villarreal on 11 August 2021. The game finished 1–1 before being decided in a penalty shoot-out. In August 2021 he left to join West Ham United. He had played 151 games in all competitions for Chelsea, scoring 10 goals.
West Ham United
On 28 August 2021, Zouma joined West Ham United for £29.8 million signing a four-year contract. On 16 September, he made his West Ham debut, in the Europa League in a 2–0 win over Dinamo Zagreb.
On 7 November, he scored his first goal for West Ham, the winning goal in a 3–2 victory over Liverpool.
On 7 June 2023, Zouma played in the 2023 UEFA Europa Conference League final, against Fiorentina in Prague. West Ham won their first trophy in 43 years with a 2–1 victory.
Following the departure of club captain Declan Rice, on 12 August 2023 Zouma was named as captain for the first game of the season, an away game to AFC Bournemouth. This was the first occasion in his professional career that he had captained a team. The appointment was criticised by The Times journalist, Henry Winter who wrote "James Ward-Prowse is more deserving because he’s a natural captain and he’s never kicked a cat."
In June 2024, with a year left on his contract, Zouma was placed on the transfer list by West Ham.
International career
Zouma is a France youth international having represented his nation at under-16 and under-17 level. He played with the under-17 team at the 2011 UEFA European Under-17 Championship and 2011 FIFA U-17 World Cup. Zouma has been the captain for the French under-21 team. He was part of the under-20 team that won the 2013 World Cup in Turkey. In the quarter-finals against Uzbekistan in Rize, he headed the last goal of a 4–0 victory.
Senior France manager Didier Deschamps wanted to build a defence around Zouma and fellow youngster Raphaël Varane, and on 19 March 2015, he was called him up for the first time for friendlies against Brazil and Denmark. He made his debut in the latter match ten days later, a 2–0 win at his former club ground with Saint-Étienne, the Stade Geoffroy-Guichard, replacing Morgan Schneiderlin for the last eight minutes of the game. After his injury for Chelsea in February, Zouma missed France's hosting of UEFA Euro 2016.
He returned to the squad in August 2017, replacing the injured Raphaël Varane for a World Cup qualifier against the Netherlands. He was put on standby for France's squad at the final tournament in Russia. Zouma earned his first France cap in over three years on 11 October 2018 as a substitute in a 2–2 friendly draw with Iceland, coming on as a substitute and winning the equalising penalty.
On 11 June 2019, Zouma made his first start for the France senior team, played every minute of the match and scored his first senior international goal, in the 4–0 away win over Andorra in a UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying match.
Style of play
A November 2013 report by FourFourTwo noted Zouma's strength, reading of the game, and aerial presence, while mentioning his occasional lapses in concentration. In January 2014, Zouma was named by British newspaper The Observer as one of the ten most promising young players in Europe. The newspaper wrote, "Blessed with exceptional power and technique, Zouma is also coveted by many for his leadership qualities."
In February 2015, Match of the Day pundit Danny Murphy likened Zouma to Marcel Desailly, another Frenchman who played in defence for Chelsea. Writing after a draw with Manchester City, which included a strong run and perfectly-executed sliding tackle on Sergio Agüero, Murphy noted Zouma's reliability and confidence against the strong opponent, in addition to his pace. He predicted that Zouma could be a Chelsea mainstay for years to come, and would be an ideal replacement for captain John Terry, then aged 34.
Ryan Shawcross called Zouma the "ultimate defender" for his speed, jump, passing, shooting and tackling, and said that Tottenham Hotspur's Toby Alderweireld was the only central defender on his level.
Personal life
Zouma's parents emigrated to France from the Central African Republic. His older brother Lionel plays in the same position, and his younger brother Yoan is also a defender. Zouma is named after Kurt Sloane, Jean-Claude Van Damme's character in the 1989 film Kickboxer, while his middle name Happy reflects an African tradition of using positive words as middle names. Zouma is married to Sandra, with whom he has three children. Zouma is a Muslim and made a pilgrimage to Mecca in 2019.
Animal abuse
On 7 February 2022, footage emerged of Zouma kicking, slapping and throwing objects at his cat, filmed at his home by his brother, Yoan Zouma. He was condemned by both his club and the RSPCA. Zouma apologised and said that despite his actions, his two pet cats were "fine and healthy". West Ham said that they would deal with the matter internally. On 8 February, a French animal welfare organisation, the Brigitte Bardot Foundation, announced that they had filed a complaint against Zouma. On the same day, Essex Police said they had launched an enquiry into the abuse in conjunction with the RSPCA. West Ham manager David Moyes selected Zouma to play in their match against Watford on the same day, despite the controversy. BBC Sport presenter Gary Lineker said he was "shocked and appalled that West Ham played Zouma" against Watford; Chris Packham called the decision to play Zouma an "absolute disgrace".
On 9 February, the RSPCA confirmed that Zouma's two cats were taken away from him and were in RSPCA care. Two of West Ham's sponsors, Vitality and Experience Kissimmee, respectively suspended and ended their relationships with the club, while Adidas ended its partnership with Zouma. West Ham fined him the maximum amount possible, with the money being donated to animal welfare charities. Sky News reported that the fine was understood to be two weeks' wages worth £250,000. On 10 February, National League club Dagenham & Redbridge suspended Yoan Zouma for filming the abuse of the cat.
On 16 March 2022, the RSPCA announced that after a full investigation they had started the process of bringing a prosecution against Kurt and Yoan Zouma under the 2006 Animal Welfare Act. Zouma was charged with animal cruelty under the act in April, and was ordered to appear at Barkingside Magistrates Court on 24 May. At court, he pleaded guilty to two counts of causing unnecessary suffering to a protected animal, his Bengal cat. He was ordered to carry out 180 hours of community service, pay £9,000 in court costs and was banned from keeping cats for five years. Yoan, his brother pleaded guilty to one count of aiding, abetting, counseling or procuring him to commit an offence. He was ordered to carry out 140 hours of community service.
Home burglary
In December 2023, Zouma and his family were the victims of a burglary on his home while he and his family were present. An armed gang broke in and stole £100,000 in cash and jewellery. West Ham offered a reward of £25,000 for information leading to the arrest and successful prosecution of the burglars.
Agent controversy
In 2024 football agent, Saif Alrubie appeared at Southwark Crown Court charged with sending an electronic communication with intent to cause distress or anxiety to Chelsea director, Marina Granovskaia. The court were told that Alrubie believed he was entitled to a percentage of the transfer fee when Zouma moved from Chelsea to West Ham in August 2021 for around £29 million and that he threatened Granovskaia with the same fate as Kia Joorabchian who had been physically forced to paid money owed to Alrubie. On 29 April 2024, Alrubie was found not guilty of the offence.
Career statistics
Club
International
As of match played 16 November 2021
France score listed first, score column indicates score after each Zouma goal
Honours
Saint-Étienne
Coupe de la Ligue: 2012–13
Chelsea
Premier League: 2014–15, 2016–17
Football League Cup: 2014–15
UEFA Champions League: 2020–21
UEFA Super Cup: 2021
FA Cup runner-up: 2016–17, 2019–20, 2020–21
West Ham United
UEFA Europa Conference League: 2022–23
France U20
FIFA U-20 World Cup: 2013
Individual
Chelsea Young Player of the Year: 2014–15
References
External links
Profile at the West Ham United F.C. website
1994 births
Living people
Footballers from Lyon
French men's footballers
Men's association football central defenders
FC Vaulx-en-Velin players
AS Saint-Étienne players
Chelsea F.C. players
Stoke City F.C. players
Everton F.C. players
West Ham United F.C. players
Ligue 1 players
Premier League players
UEFA Champions League winning players
France men's youth international footballers
France men's under-21 international footballers
France men's international footballers
UEFA Euro 2020 players
UEFA Conference League winning players
French expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in England
French expatriate sportspeople in England
Black French sportspeople
French sportspeople of Central African Republic descent
French Muslims
Animal welfare and rights in England
Animal welfare and rights in France
Animal cruelty incidents
People convicted of cruelty to animals
21st-century Muslims
French victims of crime
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268076
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%20%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD
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Джексон Браун
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Джексон Браун (Jackson Browne; 9 жовтня 1948, Гайдельберг, Німеччина) — вокаліст, гітарист, клавішних, композитор, автор текстів, продюсер.
Народився Джексон Браун в американській родині цивільного службовця армії США. Коли йому виповнилося три роки, родина повернулась до Америки, у Лос-Анджелес. З дитинства Джексон мріяв про спортивну кар'єру, однак, зацікавившись джазом, почав вчитись грати на трубі. Якось два його шкільні приятелі Грег Копеланд та Стів Нумен ввели його у коло фолк-музикантів. Ця трійця почала часто відвідувати клуб «Paradox», де Браун познайомився з учасниками гурту The Nitty Gritty Dirt Band. 1966 року він приєднався до цього гурту на півроку, хоча його твори з'являлись і на пізніх альбомах NGDB.
Контракт з «Nina Music», видавничою філією фірми «Elektra», став причиною того, що твори Брауна почали виконувати артисти, пов'язані з цієї фірмою. Тим часом сам автор переїхав до Нью-Йорка, де акомпанував Ніко під час виступів у клубі Енді Уорола «The Dom». До альбому «Chelsea Girl» цієї співачки ввійшло три композиції Брауна, однак після конфлікту з Ніко Браун повернувся до Каліфорнії. 1968 року він вирішив працювати над сольним альбомом, але як і у випадку створення «супергуртуи» з Недом Доєні та Джеком Уїлсом, ці задуми зазнали фіаско. Розчарований Браун був змушений задовольнитись виступами у місцевих клубах з суто локальною популярністю.
Переломним у кар'єрі артиста став контракт з новоствореною фірмою «Asylum», яка зацікавилася його творчим матеріалом. Альбом «Jackson Browne/Saturate Before Using» доводив, що талант музиканта вдало пройшов випробування часом. До цієї платівки, яка з'явилася дякуючи не в останню чергу Девіду Кросбі, ввійшли, наприклад, авторська інтерпретація композицій «Jamaica Say You Will» та «Rock Me On The Water», які раніше виконували гурти The Byrds та Breuer & Shipley, а також прем'єрна «Doctor My Eyes». Ця остання була видана на синглі і відкрила автору шлях до американського Тор 10, а трохи пізніше стала хітом гурту The Jackson Five.
Популярність принесла Брауну також композиція, «Take It Easy», яку він написав разом з своїм товаришем, лідером гурту The Eagles Гленом Фрайом. Також у наступні роки плодом їх співпраці стали твори «Nigntingale», «Doolin' Dalton» та «James Dean». Авторська версія «Take It Easy» потрапила до наступного альбому Брауна «For Everyman», з якого походив один з найпопулярніших хітів артиста — «These Days». Ця платівка започаткувала довголітню співпрацю Брауна з мультиінструменталістом Девідом Ліндлі, однак крім локальної слави фолк-шлягера «Redneck Dean» вона не здобула ринкового успіху. Цікавішим задумом був альбом «Late For The Sky», на якому Браун запропонував досить сучасне звучання, а часті концертні турне лише примножили коло прихильників артиста.
1975 року Браун виступив у ролі продюсера дебютного альбому Уоррена Зівона. У музиці Брауна надалі домінувала лише меланхолія, яку він все ж намагався позбутися на лонгплеї «The Pretender», що був записаний під керівництвом Джона Ландау. Внутрішня боротьба домінувала у більшості композиціях, а маніфестаційний заглавний твір, яким автор намагався віддати належне американському світу праці, став одним з поворотних пунктів сімдесятих років і часто з'являвся на радістанціях, що презентували музику для зрілих слухачів. Успіх цієї платівки, яка стала «золотою», збігся, однак, з великою трагедією — самогубством дружини у березні 1976 року.
Черговий лонгплей «Running On Empty» примножив популярність Брауна. Артист не повторив на ньому схеми попереднього, віддаючи перевагу матеріалу, записаному під час концертів. Платівка потрапила на двадцяте місце в Америці та дванадцяте —
у Британії, а також стала, незважаючи на технічне недоопрацювання, найпопулярнішою роботою музиканта і завершувала певний період його творчості.
Наприкінці сімдесятих серед досягнень Брауна домінували політичні, серед яких головною була участь в антиядерній компанії. Також разом з Грейем Нешом він об'їздив усі Штати з серією агітаційних сольних виступів, підсумком яких став «концерт зірок» у нью-йоркському «Madison Square Garden». Найцікавіші фрагменти з цих виступів потрапили до платівки «No Nukes» 1979 року.
1980 року Браун записав новий студійний альбом «Hold Out», який вийшов непоганим у музичному плані, але був позбавлений краси попередніх робіт. Два твори з цього лонгплею — «Boulevard» та «That Girl Could Sing» — потрапили до американського Тор 20, а 1987 року твір «Somebody's Baby» з фільму «Fast Times At Ridgemong High» опинився на сьомому місці. На жаль, заангажованість музиканта у суспільну діяльність, а також особисті проблеми привели до творчого тупика. Альбом «Lawyers In Love» розчарував усіх, хоча вже наступні «Lives In The Balance» та «Wold In Motion» були краще доопрацьовані. 1990 року Браун виступив на багатьох благодійних концертах, а записана 1993 року платівка «I'm Alive» стала підсумком розпаду зв'язку Брауна з акторкою Деріл Ханна.
Джексон Браун і сьогодні залишається цікавим та досвідченим виконавцем, композитором, а музична цінність його досягнень забезпечила йому багато вірних прихильників.
Дискографія
1971: Jackson Browne або Saturate Before Using
1973: For Everyman
1974: Late For The Sky
1976: The Pretender
1977: Running On Empty
1980: Hold Out
1983: Lawyers In Love
1986: Lives In The Balance
1989: World In Motion
1993: I'm Alive
1996: Looking East
2002: The Naked Ride Home
2005: Solo Acoustic, Vol. 1
2008: Solo Acoustic, Vol. 2
Музиканти США
Попспіваки США
Народились 9 жовтня
Народились 1948
Уродженці Гайдельберга
Персоналії за алфавітом
Піснярі штату Каліфорнія
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1108103
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nantong
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Nantong
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Nantong is a prefecture-level city in southeastern Jiangsu province, China. Located on the northern bank of the Yangtze River, near the river mouth. Nantong is a vital river port bordering Yancheng to the north; Taizhou to the west; Suzhou, Wuxi and Shanghai to the south across the river; and the East China Sea to the east. Its population was 7,726,635 as of the 2020 census, 3,766,534 of whom lived in the built-up area made up of three urban districts.
In September 26, 2004, the first World Metropolitan Development Forum was held in Nantong. In 2005, Nantong had a GDP growth of 15.4%, the highest growth rate in Jiangsu province, and in 2016 Nantong's GDP had a total of about 675 billion yuan, ranking 21st in the whole country.
Although the city took a blow from the economic depression of the 1930s, as well as the Japanese occupation of the 1930s and 40s, Nantong has remained an important center for the textile industry. Because of its deepwater harbor and connections to inland navigational canals, it was one of 14 port cities opened to foreign investment in recent Chinese economic reforms.
Geography and climate
Because the coast of the East China Sea is constantly expanding eastward as the Yangtze River adds silt to its delta, the distance between Nantong and the seashore is getting longer than it once was in ancient times.
In May 2021, a violent storm hit the city, leaving 11 people dead, and a further 102 people injured. According to authorities, many homes were badly damaged during the storm, and more than 3,000 people were evacuated. They were among many other cities on China's east coast that were affected.
Nantong has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa), with four distinct seasons. Winters are chilly and damp, and cold northwesterly winds caused by the Siberian high can force temperatures to fall below freezing at night although snowfall is relatively uncommon. Summers are hot and humid, and downpours or freak thunderstorms often occur. Monthly daily average temperatures range from in January to in July, and the annual mean is . With the plum rains in June and early July comes the rainiest part of the year.
History
Ancient era
Because the coast of the East China Sea is constantly expanding eastward as the Yangtze River adds silt to its delta, the distance between Nantong and the seashore is getting longer than it once was in ancient times.
The area that is now Nantong was originally part of the state of Wu during the Spring and Autumn period, which was later conquered by the state of Yue in 473 BC. After yet again being subjected to a new foreign rule by the state of Chu in 334 BC, the inhabitants of present-day Nantong would again experience another regime change during the first unification of China by the state of Qin.
Imperial era
From the Han dynasty up until the Tang dynasty, what is now called Nantong was a minor city county subordinate to Yangzhou. By AD 958, that city county had already gained sufficient importance for it to be upgraded to an independent prefecture called Tongzhou ("Opening Prefecture", possibly from its position near the mouth of the Yangtze) to be created. The increasing wealth of Yangzhou caused Tongzhou to be once again eclipsed as an administrative center in 1368.
When Tongzhou finally regained prefecture status in 1724 during the Qing dynasty, it was renamed to its present name Nantong ("Southern Tong") to avoid confusion with another administrative division also named Tongzhou, located near Beijing.
Modern era
Nantong was the first place in China to be developed into a modern city after the collapse of the Qing dynasty, and was also the birthplace of China's modern industry.
The prosperity of Nantong has traditionally depended on salt production on the nearby seacoast, rice and cotton agriculture, and manufacture of cotton and silk textiles, especially Nantong blue calico. A local statesman and industrialist named Zhang Jian founded Nantong's first modern cotton mills in 1899. He then developed an industrial complex that included flour, oil, and silk reeling mills, a distillery, and a machinery shop. He also founded a shipping line and reclaimed saline agricultural land to the east of Nantong for cotton production. Thanks to these efforts, by 1911 Nantong was commonly called "Zhang Jian's Kingdom". In the early Republican period, the Nantong Special Administrative District included Chongming County, now part of Shanghai.
Culture
Xuanmiao Temple, structure built during the Song era.
Nantong Confucian Temple
Nantong Museum
Language
Nantong city and its six counties (or county-level cities) are rich in linguistic diversity, featuring both important Northern Wu varieties and highly divergent dialects of Mandarin (see Nantong dialect). People in the city of Nantong speak a unique dialect which sounds nothing like standard Mandarin or any other dialect, and it also holds distinctive differences from surrounding dialects. About 2 million people in the southern parts of Tongzhou, Haimen, and Qidong speak the Wu language, the specific local variety of which is often referred to as "Qi-hai Hua", meaning Qidong-Haimen speech. It is about the same as the dialect spoken on the neighbouring island of Chongming, Shanghai. People in northern parts of these counties speak the "Tongdong dialect" (. People in Rugao, Hai'an speak other dialects.
Tourism
The Hao River, known as the Emerald Necklace of Nantong, surrounds the city with a total length of . Most city scenery lines this river.
Popular tourist sites include Langshan ("Wolf Hill"), which is around 110 meters high. On top of the hill is a Buddhist temple dedicated to a Song dynasty monk. Because of the monk's legendary powers over water demons, sailors pray to him for protection on their voyages.
The Cao Gong Zhu Memorial Temple commemorates a local hero who defended the city against Japanese pirates in 1557.
Shuihuiyuan Garden, meaning Water Garden, is unique of all Chinese classical gardens due its creation in the Hui style. It includes the tombs of several notable people, such as Luo Binwang, a famous poet of the Tang dynasty; Wen Tianxiang, the national hero of the Nansong dynasty; and Zhang Jian, the top scholar of the late Qing dynasty, who was a modern industrialist and supporter of education.
Economy
Nantong was historically known as an agricultural area and a traditional site for salt-making. Its principal agricultural products include cotton, silk, rice, wheat, fishing, fruits, rice wine, and more. Currently, the city is making efforts to upgrade its farming sectors and increase production of organic foods.
Nantong is one of the 14 port cities opened to foreign investment projects under China's current policies of modernization. Nantong was traditionally an industrial city, especially around the turn of the 20th century, specializing in salt and cotton textile production. Today's industrial corporations have made Nantong into an industrial hub since it opened its door to the outside world in the 1990s. With its excellent geographic location and the completion of two Yangtze River bridges, the prefecture is attracting more investment funding nationwide. Many of these investments come from international corporations. In October 2007, Singapore RGM International signed an agreement with Rudong, a county under Nantong's jurisdiction, to invest in a port project, costing 9 billion Yuan or US$1.33 billion, at Rudong Yangkou Port.
Today, Nantong is one of many fast-growing coastal cities in China. With the opening of Sutong Bridge in April 2008 and Chonghai Bridge in 2009, the city has been listed as the number one city in the Yangtze River Delta Economic Zone for foreign investment, surpassing its rivals Suzhou, Hangzhou and Nanjing.
As a sprawling metropolis, Nantong has experienced environment damage from its industrialization as well. The municipal government has been putting stiffer environmental policies into practice over the years and has spent tremendous amounts of money to curb pollution and plant more trees along its roads. The city is active in shutting down factories that do not meet its environment laws.
Nantong has developed rapidly in the last 25 years, as have most of the cities in the Yangtze River Delta. Nantong's rapid economic growth is generally attributed to its advantageous location just north of Shanghai. Nantong's Sutong Bridge is expected to further Nantong's integration with Shanghai, cutting transportation time between the cities down from three hours to one hour.
The shipping corporation Cosco has a large port and ship repair yard on the river. Cosco (Nantong) Shipyard Co., Ltd, the first shipyard of the Cosco group, has placed itself adjacent to the busy port of Nantong. The yard has 1120 m of coastline and is equipped with one cape-size and one panamax size floating dock. Cosco Shipyard handles approximately 150 vessels per year. Nantong Mingde Heavy Industries originally operated a shipyard in Nantong, but declared bankruptcy in 2014. Minde's parent company, Jiangsu Sainty Marine Corporation, would cease operations in 2017.
Some companies in Nantong:
Empire Clothing Co. Ltd. – Manufacturer of garments for men, women and children. Products gallery.
Nantong No.2 Yarn-dyed Weaving Mill – Cloth and garment manufacturer.
Nantong Taierte Clothing Co. Ltd. – Textile production and processing.
Nantong Freezing Equipment Factory – Refrigeration and quick freezing equipment for the food industry.
Nantong Printing and Dyeing Co. Ltd. – Textile processor. Product specifications.
Nantong Suzhong Textile Co. Ltd. – Yarn and thread manufacturer. Product specifications.
Nantong General Pharmaceutical Factory – Manufacturer of pharmaceutical materials such as tablets, capsules and injections. Product specifications.
Nantong Xiaoxing Transformer Co., Ltd. -Various range of electric transformers
Nantong Fujitsu Microelectronics Co Ltd
Industrial zones
Nantong Binhai Park
Established in January 2012 under the State-level development zone standard, Nantong Binhai Park is directly governed and intensively invested by the Nantong Municipality, shares superior policies and occupies a land area as much as . Binhai park is located at east to Nantong downtown, nearly 1.5 hrs drive to Shanghai Pudong and Hongqiao airports. Binhai park possesses unique transportation conditions both in expressways (Tongyang to Nantong downtown, Haiqi to Qidong and Shanghai Pudong) and sea ports (500 berths from 50,000 tons to 300,000 tons in Tongzhou Bay port cluster). Binhai park's industries focus on maritime & offshore, logistics, equipment manufacturing, new energy, advanced materials, electronics, etc.
Nantong Economic & Technological Development Area
Established in 1984, Nantong Economic & Technological Development Area (NETDA) was one of the first state-level development zones approved by the Chinese Central Government and has been certified as an ISO 14000 National Demonstration Zone. The zone benefits from superior transportation facilities by both rail and road. NETDA has direct links to two railways: the Xinyi-Changxing Railway and the Nanjing-Qidong Railway. Su-Tong Yangtze River Bridge feeds into the center of NETDA and connects the Nanjing-Nantong and Yancheng-Nantong Expressways to the north, and Shanghai-Nanjing and Suzhou-Jiaxing-Hangzhou Expressways and Riverside Expressways to the south.
NETDA includes several subsidiary zones including Nantong Export Processing Zone, New Material Park, Opto-mechatronics Industrial Park and NETDA Business Park. Special incentives are offered for investments in areas of modern equipment manufacturing, such as in new materials, engineering, fine chemicals, new medicines, new energy and modern services. At present, NETDA has attracted a large number of renowned companies to settle in Nantong, such as Vonnex Allied IT Services, OJI Paper, Maxion, Johnson Controls, ITOCHU, TSRC Corporation, and Merck KGaA.
China Singapore
Established in 2009, STP is one of the key projects of Jiangsu Province coastal development. It's also a joint-venture park between Suzhou and Nantong, linking them on either side of the Yangtze River. The intended area is and is to be developed in three phases. It claims the project as "An International Enterprise Park and Eco-friendly City in Yangtze Delta".
Nantong Export Processing Zone
Nantong Export Processing Zone (NTEPZ) is situated in the Nantong Economic and Technological Development Area with a planned area of . The Tong-Qi canal marks its western and northern boundaries, with Dongfang Avenue and Fuxin Road its eastern and southern boundaries respectively. NTPEZ is located at a communication hub, adjoining the main coastal artery of communications between north and south, close to the estuary of the Yangtze River, only 8 kilometers to the Su(Suzhou)-Tong(Nangtong) Changjiang Bridge.
Administration
The prefecture-level city of Nantong administers seven county-level divisions, including three districts, three county-level cities, and one county.
These are further divided into 146 township-level divisions.
Defunct – Gangzha District has been promoted to Gangzha Economic Development Zone (Gangzha Jingji Kaifa Qu – ) at the provincial level.
Transportation
Air
Nantong Xingdong International Airport, located in the town of Xingdong in Tongzhou District, 9.8 kilometers northeast of city center and 120 kilometers from Shanghai, serves Nantong and its neighboring areas. The construction of terminal 2 was completed in 2014, marking an important step towards serving international flights, the first of which took place on 26 May, 2023, to Hong Kong.
Road
Nantong has two bridges across the Yangtze to the south. The Chongming–Qidong Yangtze River Bridge, completed in 2011, carries the G40 Shanghai–Xi'an Expressway from Qidong to Chongming Island. The Sutong Yangtze River Bridge, which carries the G15 Shenyang–Haikou Expressway from Nantong to Changshu, was completed in 2008 and is one of the longest cable-stayed bridges in the world.
Rail
The Nanjing-Qidong (Ningqi) and Xinyi-Changxing (Xinchang) railways intersect at Hai'an in the northwestern part of Nantong Prefecture. The Nantong–Shanghai railway opened in 2020 with the Hutong Yangtze River Bridge and provides a link south to Suzhou and Shanghai.
Currently, Nantong Railway station and Hai'An railway station have the highest train volume in the city. Due to the single-track nature of the Nanjing-Qidong railway east of Nantong railway station, Electrified Multiple Unit service are not available beyond Nantong railway station; Qidong railway station currently receives 4 round trip trains per day operated as "K" trains. A line from Hai'an also connects Rudong county to the national rail network, with daily departures bounding for Nanjing.
The first line of the Nantong Metro opened in 2022.
Education
Nantong hosts a comprehensive university, Nantong University (made by the merger of the former Nantong Medical College, former Nantong Normal College, and former Nantong Engineer College). It includes 21 schools and had around 22,000 registered students in 2007.
Nantong has contributed to China's educational development with several firsts: establishment of the first school for teacher training, the first folk museum (Nantong Museum), the first school for industrial textile manufacturing, the first school for embroidery, the first drama school, and the first school for the deaf and the blind.
Zhang Jian founded the first normal school in modern China, Nantong Normal College. Zhang also founded museums, libraries, and theaters, making Nantong into an important cultural center.
Secondary schools (incomplete list):
Nantong Middle School
Nantong No.1 Middle School
Universities and colleges:
Nantong University
International Schools
Nantong Stalford International School http://en.ntsis.com/
Social Welfare Institute
Established in 1906, Nantong Social Welfare Institute was originally created by Zhang Jian as a house for orphans, the aged, and the disabled.
Located on the banks of the Haohe, the site of the institute has an area of 13.2 mu (8,800 m²). At present, there are 79 staff members who care for around 170 orphans, widows, and disabled children, plus 70 retirees. Since 1952, Nantong Social Welfare Institute has adopted more than 16,000 elderly, orphaned and disabled children.
Notable people
Ding Xuexiang (born 1962), member of Politburo Standing Committee and Vice Premier
Ge Jun (born 1964), college and university professor
See also
List of twin towns and sister cities in China
Notes
References
Further reading
Qin Shao, Culturing Modernity: The Nantong Model, 1890–1930 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004).
Bao, Mingwei & Wang, Jun (2002). Nantong Diqu Fangyan Yanjiu [A Study on the Dialects in Nantong Area]. Jiangsu Jiaoyu Press.
External links
Government website of Nantong (available in Chinese, Japanese and English)
Cities in Jiangsu
Populated places on the Yangtze River
Jiangnan
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424638
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party%20of%20Communists%20of%20the%20Republic%20of%20Moldova
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Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova
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Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova
The Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova (PCRM) is a communist party in Moldova led by Vladimir Voronin. It is the only communist party to have held a majority government in the post-Soviet states. It has been variously described as communist, Moldovenist, populist, Russophile, and pro-Soviet.
Affiliated with the Union of Communist Parties – Communist Party of the Soviet Union, it is also a member of the Party of the European Left and the International Meeting of Communist and Workers' Parties. In contrast to most like-minded left-wing and communist parties, especially in the Western world, the party has a conservative outlook on social issues, reflecting Voronin's views, the country's strong social conservatism, and the influence of the Moldovan Orthodox Church.
History
The PCRM was registered as a political party in 1994. The PCRM was part of the Popular Patriotic Forces Front at the time of the 1996 presidential election, in which Voronin stood as the coalition's candidate and won 10.3% of the vote, placing third. The party supported Petru Lucinschi in the second round of the election, and following Lucinschi's victory the PCRM was given two positions in the government. Romanian historian Dorin Cimpoeșu has described the party as Moldovenist.
1998 parliamentary election
In the 1998 Moldovan parliamentary election, the PCRM won 30.1% of the vote and 40 seats, becoming the largest party in parliament; in its platform, it called for "the rebirth of a socialist society". Despite its strong showing, the PCRM was left in opposition due to the formation of a center-right coalition government, Alliance for Democracy and Reforms (ADR). Although Lucinschi later nominated Vladimir Voronin as Prime Minister of Moldova in late 1999, the nomination was unsuccessful because Voronin did not have enough support in parliament.
2001 parliamentary election
The PCRM received 49.9% of the vote in the 2001 Moldovan parliamentary election, winning 71 out of the 101 seats in parliament. With a PCRM parliamentary majority, Voronin was elected as president by parliament in April 2001. The Constitutional Court ruled that the President could also lead a political party, and Voronin was re-elected as party leader.
2005 parliamentary election
As the ruling political party in Moldova, it won the 2005 Moldovan parliamentary election, and provided the President, Vladimir Voronin, the Prime Minister, Zinaida Greceanîi, and the President of the Moldovan Parliament, Marian Lupu. Under Voronin, it privatized several state-owned industries and governed in a multi-party fashion. It also favors European integration and eventual EU membership.
2009 parliamentary elections
After April 2009 Moldovan parliamentary election and the 2009 Moldova civil unrest, the political and civic climate in Moldova became very polarized. The parliament failed to elect a new president. For this reason, the parliament was dissolved and, consequently, snap elections were held. At the July 2009 Moldovan parliamentary election, the party received 44.7% of the vote. That gave the former ruling party 48 MPs and the remaining 53 seats in the 101-member chamber went to four opposition parties which subsequently formed the governing Alliance for European Integration (AIE). For the first time since 2001, the Communists were pushed in opposition.
2010 parliamentary election
After the Parliament failed to elect a new President of the Republic, 2010 Moldovan parliamentary election were called. In the election, PCRM obtained 39.34% of votes, winning 42 seats, going again into opposition to the Alliance of European Integration (AIE). In 2011, Igor Dodon and Zinaida Greceanîi left the party and joined the Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova (PSRM).
2014 parliamentary election
The 2014 Moldovan parliamentary election saw a great defeat for PCRM, which received only 17.48% of votes, losing more than half of its electors to PSRM and electing 21 seats. Following the elections, the party agreed to give confidence and supply to the new Gaburici Cabinet. The agreement collapsed in June 2015 and the PCRM went back into opposition.
In 2016, the party suffered a large split as 14 MPS left PCRM faction and established the Social Democratic Platform for Moldova, joining the majority of Filip Cabinet. On 10 March 2017, all 14 MPs joined the Democratic Party of Moldova (PDM). Since then, the party rapidly declined in polls, losing most of its votes to PSRM and PDM.
2019 parliamentary election
At the 2019 Moldovan parliamentary election, the PCRM collapsed, receiving only 3.75% of votes and losing all representation in the parliament for the first time in independent Moldova.
2021 parliamentary election
At the 2021 Moldovan parliamentary election, the PCRM decided to join forces with the PSRM in order to re-enter the parliament as the Electoral Bloc of Communists and Socialists (BECS). The party won 10 out of 101 seats in the parliament as part of the aforementioned electoral bloc, thus regaining parliamentary presence after 2019.
Ideology
According to Art. 1 of its statute adopted in 2008, the PCRM is the "lawful successor and heir of the Communist Party of Moldova both in terms of ideas and traditions." While officially espousing a Marxist-Leninist communist doctrine, there is debate over their policies. In 2009, The Economist considered it a centre-right party, communist-in-name only. Romanian political scientist Vladimir Tismăneanu posits that the party is not communist in the classical sense because of the many changes since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, but it is the clear successor to the Communist Party of Moldova, and not something foreign to it, for its Soviet nostalgia.
For its latest period of governance, the PCRM has outlined a new quality of life, economic modernisation, European integration, and consolidation of the society as goals for the country. During the party's time in government, the party has adopted pro-Russian policies, while remaining committed to European integration. Despite being known for gaining most of its support from pensioners, since 2009 it also started to attract more votes from young people and adopting a populist outlook, which was downplayed during the PCRM's time in government but has resurfaced at the opposition and extra-parliamentary level. In contrast to social populist parties, some of which combine left-wing policies on welfare with more right-wing nationalist stances, the PCRM is only marginally populist, and its main ideology continues to be Marxism–Leninism and European socialism.
The party is known for its Moldovenist position, supporting the existence of Moldovan language and ethnicity. The party considers June 28 1940 as "the day Moldova was liberated by the Soviet Union from the Romanian occupation". For these reasons, part of the press (such as journalist Oleg Serebrian) described the party as anti-Romanian.
Moldovan Komsomol
The Communist Youth Union of Moldova was registered in 1995, currently including 6,000 members. According to the Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Moldova, it is the largest youth organization in the country. The First Secretaries of the Central Committee of the UTCM were the following: Victor Verșîn (1995-1997), Eduard Babliuc (1997-2000), Tatiana Nicoară (2000-2004), Grigore Petrenco (2004-2007), Inna Șupac (2007-present).
Leadership
President – Vladimir Voronin
Vice Presidents – Oleg Reidman and Veaceslav Nigai
Executive Secretary for Ideology – Constantin Starîș
Electoral results
Parliament
Presidency
Gallery
Notes
References
External links
Official website
1993 establishments in Moldova
Communist parties in Moldova
Democratic socialist parties in Europe
Party of the European Left member parties
Political parties established in 1993
Political parties in Moldova
Social conservative parties
International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties
Russophilic parties in Moldova
Anti-Romanian sentiment
Russophilic parties
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389989
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venedic%20language
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Venedic language
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Venedic language
Venedic (Wenedyk, lęgwa wenedka) is a naturalistic constructed language, created by the Dutch translator Jan van Steenbergen (who also co-created the international auxiliary language Interslavic). It is used in the fictional Republic of the Two Crowns, based on the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, in the alternate timeline of Ill Bethisad. Officially, Venedic is a descendant of Vulgar Latin with a strong Slavic admixture, based on the premise that the Roman Empire incorporated the ancestors of the Poles in their territory. Less officially, it tries to show what Polish would have looked like if it had been a Romance instead of a Slavic language. On the Internet, it is well-recognized as an example of the altlang genre, much like Brithenig and Breathanach.
The idea for the language was inspired by such languages as Brithenig and Breathanach, languages that bear a similar relationship to the Celtic languages as Venedic does to Polish. The language itself is based entirely on (Vulgar) Latin and Polish: all phonological, morphological, and syntactic changes that made Polish develop from Common Slavic are applied to Vulgar Latin. As a result, vocabulary and morphology are predominantly Romance in nature, whereas phonology, orthography and syntax are essentially the same as in Polish. Venedic uses the modern standard Polish orthography, including (for instance) for and for .
Venedic plays a role in the alternate history of Ill Bethisad, where it is one of the official languages of the Republic of the Two Crowns. In 2005 Venedic underwent a major revision due to a better understanding of Latin and Slavic sound and grammar changes. In the process, the author was assisted by the Polish linguist Grzegorz Jagodziński.
The dictionary on the WWW page linked below contains over 4000 entries.
The language has acquired some media attention in Poland, including several online news articles and an article in the monthly .
Spelling and pronunciation
Venedic uses the Polish alphabet, which consists of the following 32 letters :
A Ą B C Ć D E Ę F G H I J K L Ł M N Ń O Ó P R S Ś T U W Y Z Ź Ż
Also, there are seven digraphs, representing five phonemes (ch being identical with h, and rz with ż):
Ch Cz Dz Dź Dż Rz Sz
Pronunciation is exactly as in Polish. Stress almost always falls on the penultimate syllable. A preposition and a pronoun are generally treated as one word, and therefore, when the pronoun has only one syllable, the preposition is stressed.
(In theory, the construction of Venedic enables relatively easy construction of other "Slavo-Romance" languages. The Romance "mirror" for Czech, for example, is called "Šležan"; another for Slovak, although somewhat looser than the other two as it uses a partially Hungarian orthography, is called "Slevan". )
Nominals
Venedic does not have articles. This is a feature that distinguishes Venedic from all natural Romance languages. The reason for this is that Vulgar Latin showed only a rudimentary tendency toward the formation of articles, and they are absent in Polish and most other Slavic languages.
Nouns, pronouns and adjectives can have three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), two numbers (singular, plural), and three cases:
the direct case: used for both the subject and the direct object of a sentence. In the sentence: Miej poterz leże libier "My father reads a book", Miej poterz "my father" and libier "a book" are both in the direct case.
the genitive case: used to indicate possession, for example: siedź potrze "my father's chair", rzejna Anglie "the queen of England".
the dative case: used to indicate the indirect object of a sentence, for example: Da mi ił libier "Give me that book", Da mi łu "Give it to me".
Venedic also has a vocative case. In most cases it has the same form as the direct case, but there are exceptions: O potrze! "Oh father!" In earlier version of Venedic, it used to have nominative and accusative cases, but later merged to form the direct case.
Nouns can be subdivided into four declensions. They are similar to the declension system in Latin:
The first declension are all words on -a, the vast majority of which are feminine;
the second declension are mostly masculine and neuter words ending with a consonant. It is a mixture of the second and fourth declension in Latin;
the third declension are mostly feminine words ending with a soft consonant;
the fourth declension are words on -ej, it matches the Latin fifth declension. However, the author treated the nouns with the 4th declension ending as irregular, see also the sections below.
Declension endings
Hard and soft in this context are suffixes that are decided by final consonants, either hard (remaining consonants, like -n, -c, or -d) or soft (postalveolars or palatal-like sounds, like -l, -ń, or -rz). Endings in -ia-, -ie-, and -i- are always affected by regular changes below:
Irregular nouns
There is a number of irregular nouns. Not just completely irregular nouns on the table below, some nouns have less predictable oblique stems (the rest stem other than nominative singular), as in above moszkieł, gen. moszklu. However, nouns with the last vowel ó regularly shorten to o (sórz, sorze).
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | dziew "god"
! colspan="2" | womień "person"2
! colspan="2" | kap "head"
|-
! Singular
! Plural
! Singular
! Plural
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Direct
| dziew
| dziei
| womień
| ludzie
| kap
| kapta
|-
! Genitive
| dzieju
| dziejór
| womnie
| ludzi
| kapcie
| kaptór
|-
! Dative
| dziei
| dziejew
| womni
| ludziew
| kapci
| kapciew
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | rzej "head"
! colspan="2" | dzej "day"
! Jezus "Jesus"
! rowspan="5" |
|-
! Singular
! Plural
! Singular
! Plural
! Singular
|-
! Direct
| rzej
| rzeje
| dzej
| dzeje
| Jezus
|-
! Genitive
| rzei
| rzejar
| dzei
| dzejór
| Jezu
|-
! Dative
| rzei
| rzejew| dzei| dzejew| Jezui|}
Adjectives
Adjectives always agree in gender, number and case with the noun they modify. They can be placed both before and after it. Unlike nouns, the adjective declension are always consistent and there is no distinctions in declension classes.
Further derivatives of adjectives
The comparatives and superlatives are formed by the suffixes -ierzy and -ieśmy, respectively, to the adjective's stem. However, the adjectives below have irregular comparative (second row) and superlative (third row) forms:
bony "good", mielerzy, oćmy mały "bad", piejerzy, pieśmy grędzy "big", mojerzy, mośmy łonięcy "far", łonierzy, łonieśmy pieskły "small", mnierzy, mnieśmy wiekły "old", wieszczerzy, wieszcześmy jałty "high", sprzerzy, sprześmy mołt "many/much", pły "more", płerześmy "most"
Adverbial forms are either done by removing the -y/-i from the root or adding the suffix -mięć into the root (kłary, kłar/kłaramięć "warmly"). There are no rules which forms are preferred, but the latter usually expresses how something is done.
For the longer form, -amięć is used after hard consonants while -iemięć used after soft consonants. Adjectives in -ły use the suffix -lemięć (i.e. -ł- + -iemięć), except for the adjectives biały, mały, miły, siegły which are always suffixed with the former (biały → białamieć). The adjective bony "good" has an irregular adverbial derivation: bień. The comparatives and superlatives can also have adverbial forms, by substituting -ierzy and -ieśmy with -iu and -ieśmie. Verbal participles always remove their last vowels.
The predicative forms are the same as masculine and neuter direct singular forms, except that sometimes the suffix -y/-i is removed, but this predicative forming is somewhat archaic and the resulting forms should not be confused with adverbs.
Pronouns
Unlike nouns, adjectives and other pronouns, personal pronouns do not use the direct case, but preserve the distinction between the nominative and accusative instead. They are displayed in the following chart:
Verbs
Verbs are inflected for person, number, mood and tense. Because Latin and Proto-Slavonic had virtually identical person/number inflections, Venedic and Polish do also.
Venedic verbs have the following moods and tenses:infinitive – jemar "to love"present tense – jemu "I love, I am loving"imperfect – jemawa "I loved"perfect – jemie " I have loved"future tense (imperfective) – joru jemar "I will love, I will be loving"future tense (perfective) – jemaru "I will have loved"conditional mood – jemarsi "I would love, I would have loved"imperative mood – jem "love!"present active participle – jemęć "loving"perfect passive participle – jematy "beloved"
Regular verbs
Word list
Venedic vocabulary as published on the internet consists of over 4000 words. Because of how it was developed from Vulgar Latin, Venedic words are closest to Italian, but with phonologic differences from Italian which may be compared to those distinguishing Portuguese from Spanish. The following charts of 30 shows what Venedic looks like in comparison to a number of other Romance languages; note that unlike Brithenig, where one-quarter of the words resembled Welsh words, only four Venedic words (not counting szkoła, borrowed into Polish from Latin) resemble Polish words, due to the Slavic languages' greater distance from the Romance languages compared to the Celtic languages:
Sample text
The Lord's Prayer in Venedic:Potrze nostry, kwały jesz en czałór, sąciewkaty si twej numię.Owień twej rzeń.Foca si twa włątać, komód en czału szyk i sur cierze.Da nów odzej nostry pań kocidzany.I dziemieć nów nostrze dziewta, komód i nu dziemiećmy swór dziewtorzór.I nie endycz nosz en ciętaceń, uta liwra nosz dzie mału.Nąk twie są rzeń i pociestać i głurza, o siąprz. Amen.Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Venedic:Tuci ludzie noszczę sie liwrzy i jekwali z rześpiece świej dzińtacie i swór drzecór. Li są dotaci ku rocenie i koszczęce i dziewię ocar piara wyniałtru en jenie frotrzeńtacie.Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.Similar languages
In the Ill Bethisad universe, there are two other languages which are related to Venedic: Slevan, which is spoken in that universe's counterpart of Slovakia; and Šležan, or Silesian, spoken in Silesia. Šležan mirrors Czech in much the same way Venedic does Polish, whereas Slevan, despite being located in Slovakia, is more similar to Hungarian and Croatian in its orthography. (The Romance "mirror" of Slovak is a dialect of Slevan spoken in Moravia called Moravľaňec.) (As if in compensation, Croatian in Ill Bethisad is forced to be noticeably different from Serbian by being made to resemble the now-virtually-missing Czech and Slovak. )
Additionally, in the famous The Adventures of Tintin series, the pseudo-Slavic fictional language Syldavian may be thought of as a Germanic counterpart of Venedic. The nearly extinct Wymysorys language provides another real-life example of this. Ill Bethisad also has such a "Slavo-Germanic" language: Bohemian, spoken in that universe's Czech Republic, developed by amateur Czech linguist Jan Havliš.
Citations
Notes
References
Bibliography
Tilman Berger, Vom Erfinden Slavischer Sprachen, in: M. Okuka & U. Schweier, eds., Germano-Slavistische Beiträge. Festschrift für P. Rehder zum 65. Geburtstag, München 2004, pp. 19–28. Cites Venedic as an example of Slavic-based extrapolated conlangs.
Michał Foerster, Wariacje literackie: o językach, in: Esencja, no. 07/2008 (LXXIX), August–September 2008.
Dorota Gut, : Now@ Mow@ ("New Language"), in: Wiedza i Życie, February 2004.
Jakub Kowalski, Wymyślone języki, on: Relaz.pl, 2 March 2007.
Stefan Michael Newerkla, "Auf den Spuren des ř in den slawischen Sprachen und rund um den Globus", in: Johannes Reinhart & Tilmann Reuther, eds., Ethnoslavica: Festschrift für Herrn Univ. Prof. Dr. Gerhard Neweklowsky zum 65. Geburtstag; Beiträge des internationalen Symposiums des Instituts für Slawistik der Universität Klagenfurt in Zusammenarbeit mit dem Institut für Slawistik der Universität Wien, Klagenfurt, 7.-8. April 2006, München-Wien: Otto Sagner, 2006, p. 212.
Paul J.J. Payack, A Million Words and Counting: How Global English Is Rewriting the World'', 2008, p. 193.
Romance glossary. A list of common words in all Romance languages, including Venedic and Brithenig.
External links
Wenedyk
Artistic languages
Fusional languages
Ill Bethisad
Constructed languages introduced in the 2000s
2002 introductions
Thought experiments
Constructed languages
Italo-Dalmatian languages
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%96%20%28%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BA%29
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Кі (співак)
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Кі (співак)
Кім Кібом (23 вересня 1991, Тегу, Південна Корея), більш відомий під своїм сценічним псевдонімом Кі, — південнокорейський співак, танцюрист, репер, автор пісень, актор, модельєр і телеведучий. Народився й виріс у Тегу, Південна Корея, пізніше переїхав до Сеула після успішного прослуховування на кастингу SM National Tour Audition Casting. У травні 2008 року Кі дебютував як учасник південнокорейського бой-бенду SHINee, що згодом став одним з найбільш продаваних артистів у Південній Кореї. Кі відомий як співак й танцюрист, але він також спробував себе в інших сферах, зокрема, як телеведучий.
Як співак, він співпрацював з різними артистами, а також сформував дует Toheart з Ухьоном з Infinite. У листопаді 2018 року дебютував як соліст з випуском цифрового синглу «Forever Yours», а його перший студійний альбом Face вийшов пізніше того ж місяця. Кі також долучився до написання пісень для себе та SHINee. Як актор, він брав участь у кількох мюзиклах, таких як «Bonnie & Clyde» (2013), «Zorro» (2014) і «Chess» (2015). Відтоді він розширив свою акторську кар'єру, взявши участь у кількох телевізійних драмах, таких як Drinking Solo (2016) та The Guardians (2017).
У 2015 році Кі почав активну діяльність як модельєр і взяв участь у численних проєктах. Наприклад, він співпрацював з Bridge Shop House над концертним вбранням Shinee, а також працював з моделлю Кім Ірен та брендом Charm's над дизайном модного одягу. Завдяки успіху своїх робіт Кі згодом був призначений фешн-директором гурту. З 2020 року він став відомим як телеведучий, з'явившись на вар'єте-шоу DoReMi Market та I Live Alone як учасник акторського складу. Він отримав нагороду Excellence Award від MBC Entertainment Awards на знак визнання його естрадних виступів.
Життя й кар'єра
1991—2011: Раннє життя та початок кар'єри
Кі народився 23 вересня 1991 року єдиною дитиною в сім'ї, у Тегу, Південна Корея. У підлітковому віці представляв середню школу Yeong Shin, у своєму рідному місті, як водний лижник й брав участь у змаганнях з воднолижного спорту. У 2005 році він приєднався до SM Entertainment після успішного прослуховування на кастингу SM National Tour Audition Casting. Через два роки він з'явився в ролі танцюриста на задньому плані у фільмі «Attack on the Pin-Up Boys». У 2008 році його обрали учасником гурту SHINee. 22 травня гурт випустив свій перший мініальбом Replay, що посів восьме місце в чартах. 25 травня 2008 року відбувся їх перший виступ на програмі SBS Inkigayo.
У 2009 році Кі брав участь у сольному виступі колеги по лейблу Сіа з піснею «Xiahtic» на концерті TVXQ «3rd Asia Tour Mirotic» в Сеулі. У 2010 році він виконав пісню «Healing» с мініальбому TRAX — Let You Go, а також пісню Girls' Generation «Boys & Girls» для їхнього другого студійного альбому Oh!. Він був учасником шоу Raising Idol разом з Донго з U-KISS і Чондуном з MBLAQ. У 2012 році Кі співпрацював з Ітхиком з Super Junior над піснею «Bravo» для драми History of a Salaryman. Він також взяв участь у створенні пісні EXO «Two Moons» для їхнього дебютного мініальбому Mama та пісні БоА «One Dream», що стала головною піснею для шоу SBS K-pop Star, разом з Генрі з Super Junior-M.
2012—2015: Toheart та дебют у театрі
У 2012 році Кі отримав роль Френка Ебігнейла у корейській постановці мюзиклу «Catch Me If You Can», що й стало його театральним дебютом. Він грав цю роль по черзі з Ом Кі Джуном, Кім Чонхуном, Пак Гванхьоном та колегою по лейблу Кюхеном. Мюзикл йшов з 28 березня по 10 червня в Blue Square, Samsung Card Hall, в Ханнам-донгі, Сеул. У жовтні оголосили, що Кі візьме участь у поверненні мюзиклу. 14 грудня 2012 року постановка розпочалася й тривала до 9 лютого 2013 року в Оперному театрі в Seongnam Arts Center. Кі також з'явився в епізодичній ролі в ситкомі SBS Salamander Guru and The Shadows.18 липня 2013 року оголосили, що Кі отримав роль Клайда в корейській постановці мюзиклу «Bonnie & Clyde», разом з Кім Мінджон, Ум Кіджун, Даною з «The Grace» та Хьонсіком з «ZE: A». Вистава йшла з 4 вересня по 27 жовтня 2013 року в залі Chungmu Art Hall в Сеулі. Незабаром після цього він отримав роль Д'Артаньяна в «Трьох мушкетерах».
У 2014 році Кі створив дует Toheart з Ухьоном з Infinite, це спільний проєкт SM Entertainment та Woollim Entertainment. За словами учасників, це була їхня ідея створити дует, оскільки вони й до цього були близькими друзями, але не думали про музичну співпрацю, лише про фотосесії та інші подібні заходи. Дует добре сприйняли, отримавши нагороду за популярність на 29-й церемонії вручення премії «Golden Disc Awards». Джефф Бенджамін з Billboard високо оцінив їхній вокал, а також хореографію та харизму на сцені. Того ж року Кі отримав головну роль у мюзиклі «Zorro», розділивши її зі співаком Вісуном та Йосебом з Beast. Мюзикл «Zorro» йшов з 27 серпня по 26 жовтня в залі Chungmu Art Hall в Сеулі. Кі також брав участь в естрадному шоу MBC We Got Married Global Edition. Також, він був партнером Аліси Ягі, японської моделі.
У січні 2015 року Кі приєднався до акторського складу голограмного мюзиклу SM Entertainment «School Oz». У березні 2015 року Кі та Джун Шін з CNBLUE призначили головними ведучими шоу M Countdown на Mnet. Того ж року Кі співпрацював з Axodus, дуетом, сформованим Доном Спайком та діджеєм Ханміном. Кі надав вокал для треку «Hold On», який вони разом виконали 25 липня 2015 на рок-фестивалі в долині Ансан. У нього також було власне веб-шоу під назвою Key's Know How, що випускала компанія Mnet.
2016—2017: акторській дебют
У вересні 2016 року Кі офіційно дебютував як актор в телесеріалі Drinking Solo, що транслювалася на каналі tvN з 5 вересня по 25 жовтня. Він зіграв роль студента, який три роки готувався до іспиту на державну службу. Хоча це був перший досвід Кі у телевізійному серіалі, його акторська гра була добре сприйнята знімальною групою, яка зазначила: «Кі — людина, яка багато працює. Він багато готувався заздалегідь і, як актор, всебічно проаналізував свою роль. Він отримує багато похвали й любові від персоналу. Попри те, що на момент прослуховування у нього не було досвіду гри в драмах, його акторська гра випромінювала дуже свіжу енергетику. До того ж його акторська гра та вимова були хорошими, тому ми вирішили взяти його на роль».
У квітні 2017 року Кі був оголошений одним з головних героїв нової дорами MBC The Guardians. У драмі Кі грає роль Гон КЬонсу, сКітера та хакера, чия мати зникла безвісти через злочин. Після чого, отримав позитивні відгуки за свою акторську майстерність. Згодом він отримав нагороду Best New Actor Award на церемонії Grimae Awards 2017 року.
2018—2019: Соло дебют та призов на військову службу
У лютому 2018 року Кі приєднався до вар'єте DoReMi Market як учасник кастингу. Він взяв участь у реміксі Years & Years для їхнього синглу «If You're Over Me», що випустили 6 липня 2018 року. Кі виконав пісню обидвома мовами корейською та англійською, зробивши оригінальну мелодію разом з британським поптріо. Оригінальні корейські куплети відображають загальний зміст пісні, оскільки Кі просить коханого припинити штовхати й тягнути, і були написані самим співаком.
11 жовтня 2018 року SM Entertainment оголосили, що сольний дебют Кі запланований на кінець листопада. Незабаром після цього, 20 жовтня, Кі виступив на спеціальній сцені на показі мод Charm під час Тижня моди в Сеулі. Він виконав нову пісню — «Chemicals», що пізніше увійшла до його альбому. Два тижні потому, 6 листопада, відбувся пре реліз синглу, а також музичного відео «Forever Yours» за участю близької подруги Кі й колишньої учасниці гурту Sistar Соєю. 26 листопада вийшов його перший студійний альбом Face, а також відеокліп на головний сингл «One of Those Nights» за участю Crush. З десяти пісень, що увійшли до альбому, до чотирьох Кі написав слова сам.
Після сольного дебюту 26 грудня 2018 року Kі випустив свій перший японський мініальбом Hologram. До мініальбому увійшло п'ять треків, включаючи заголовний трек «Hologram» та японську версію «One of Those Nights». Аби відсвяткувати свій японський дебют, Kі провів два живі шоу під назвою Key Land у Кобе та Йокогамі 22 та 25 грудня відповідно. В лютому 2019 року відбувся його перший сольний концерт у Сеулі під назвою «The Agit: Key Land», й включив 11 аншлагових виступів.
4 березня 2019 року вийшов альбому I Wanna Be, перевидання Face; альбом супроводжували сингли: «Cold» за участю Хенхе й заголовний трек «I Wanna Be» за участю Сойон з (G)I-DLE. У той же день, коли вийшов альбом, Кі пішов на обов'язкову військову службу у складі військового оркестру.
2020–донині: Bad Love та Gasoline
24 вересня 2020 року Кі пішов у свою останню військову відпустку, не повертаючись до армії через військові протоколи щодо пандемії COVID-19, до офіційного звільнення 7 жовтня. Він повернувся як постійний учасник DoReMi Market в епізоді 21 листопада. У липні 2021 року він приєднався до I Live Alone як учасник акторського складу після гостьового виступу за кілька місяців до цього.
30 серпня 2021 року Кі випустив сингл «Hate That…» за участю Тейон, що став пре релізом його майбутнього альбому у вересні. 26 вересня він провів онлайн-концерт на платформі Beyond Live під назвою Groks in the Keyland. Концерт також транслювали в прямому ефірі в кінотеатрах. 27 вересня вийшов перший корейський мініальбом Bad Love з однойменним синглом. 9 жовтня Кі отримав свою першу перемогу сольним виконавцем на MBC Show! Music Core.
30 серпня 2022 року Кі випустив свій другий студійний альбом Gasoline з однойменним синглом. 22-23 жовтня він провів концерт під назвою G.O.A.T. (Greatest of All Time) в Keyland на Jangchung Arena в Сеулі, та 19-20 листопада на Pia Arena MM в Йокогамі. В березні 2023 він провів додаткові виступи в Осаці. 13 лютого він випустив перевидання альбому Gasoline під назвою Killer.
11 вересня 2023 вийшов його другий корейський мініальбом Good & Great. Також Кі з'явиться в шоу Crime Scene на телеканалі TVING в першій половині 2024.
Особисте життя
Від народження Кі виховувала бабуся; його мати тяжко захворіла після пологів, а батько був зайнятий роботою. 10 жовтня 2014 року Кі оголосив у своєму акаунті в Instagram, що його бабуся померла 23 вересня 2014 року. Він заявив, що хотів оголосити про це сам, тому що не хотів, щоб ця новина була оголошена через його компанію.
Кі закінчив Університет Мьонджі за спеціальністю «Кіно й мюзикли», навчався в аспірантурі Університету Усук за спеціальністю «Розробка змісту культури та освіти». Брав участь у проєкті з розвитку самосвідомості молоді, започаткованому студентами його спеціальності. Його дисертація називається «Вплив навчання стилізації на задоволеність зовнішнім виглядом та самооцінку корейських підлітків».
Інші проєкти
Мода
Кі вважається чоловіком з одних з найкращих стилей у своїй країні. Його «унікальний і нетрадиційний» стиль часто поєднує візерунки та кольори. У ЗМІ його стиль порівнюють з модою його колеги-ідола G-Dragon; відомо, що обидва уникають модних тенденцій на користь пошуку власного стилю. Кі заявив, що йому подобається пробувати нові речі, щоб виглядати не так, як інші, і що замість того, щоб бути обмеженим модою, він більше піклується про ставлення до моди. Кі розглядає моду як форму самовираження і вважає за краще не розрізняти чоловічий і жіночий стилі. Кім Инджу, професор університету Сеулу, наводить його як приклад нетрадиційного гендерного виконання.
Кі пробував себе в індустрії моди. Наприклад, він співпрацював з дизайнером Ко Тейоном над власноруч розробленими світшотами із зображенням власних собак і продавав їх як благодійність. Крім того, його призначили одним з модних директорів SM Entertainment і з 2015 року він розробляє концертне вбрання Shinee. Костюми для синглу Shinee 2015 року «View» заснували на ідеях Кі, прийнявши вінтажну естетику, натхненну фігуристами, в той час, коли інші гурти здебільшого носили просто уніформу.
У 2016 році Кі співпрацював з японським ілюстратором Bridge Ship House для п'ятого концертного туру Shinee по Кореї Shinee World V. Його головною метою було досягти балансу між ідентичністю Shinee як гурту та індивідуальністю кожного учасника. Кі також став спеціальним редактором корейського Elle, ділячись своїм особистим стилем життя в колонці під назвою «Key Story», що виходила двічі на тиждень. Він ділився порадами щодо кольорових контактних лінз, камер, додатків та багато іншого.
У березні 2017 року Кі працював з моделлю Ірен Кім над дизайном нових продуктів для модного бренду «Charm».
Рекламні контракти
У січні 2016 року Кі став моделлю для «Jill Stuart Accessory». Представник пояснив, що Кі обрали для бренду, тому що він професійно просувався в різних сферах, таких як музика і радіомовлення, що демонструвало художній аспект, який перетинався з модною концепцією бренду.
У 2021 році його обрали моделлю для магазину здоров'я та краси «Olive Young» разом з лейблом Тейон, в кампанії, орієнтованій на молодих споживачів. Також запустив лінію по догляду за шкірою під назвою «Key: Face» у співпраці з «Youlief», для якої він особисто розробив дизайн продукту.
У 2022 році його призначили амбасадором бренду макіяжу «Espoir». Соджу-бренд «HiteJinro» представив тонізуючий напій з чорного чаю на основі вірусного рецепту, винайденого Кі, що просували з упаковкою «Key is back». За чотири місяці продали понад 3,5 мільйона пляшок, що зробило його найшвидше продаваним продуктом у лінійці «Jinro Tonic» і сприяло збільшенню річних продажів на 83 %.
У 2023 році він почав підтримувати McDonald's, з'явившись у рекламі їхнього нового бургера.
Благодійність
У 2012 році Кі та його фанати з Кореї, Китаю, Японії, Тайваню, Сінгапуру, Таїланду та семи інших країн пожертвували 2,12 тонни рису організації World Vision, який використали для харчування 17,000 недоїдаючих дітей та людей похилого віку в 11 містах. У 2014 році на день народження Кі фанати зібрали 2 мільйони вон і встановили колодязь у Камбоджі. Зібрані гроші також пішли на медичну допомогу бідним дітям. У 2015 році Кі опублікував у своєму Instagram-акаунті пост, в якому закликав шанувальників допомогти громадянам Непалу після землетрусу. Того ж року Кі співпрацював з дизайнером Ко Тейонгом і продавав світшоти із зображенням його собак. Всі виручені кошти (приблизно 12,5 млн вон) пізніше були передані Animal Freedom Union. У 2016 Кі разом з колегою по групі Теміном та іншими артистами з SM Entertainment взяв участь у кампанії «Make a Promise», організованій ЮНІСЕФ та Louis Vuitton, в рамках якої 40 % виручених коштів були передані через ЮНІСЕФ дітям, які цього потребують. У січні 2022 року він передав засоби зі своєї лінії по догляду за шкірою «Youlief» вартістю 12 млн вон Korean Unwed Mothers Families Association.
Дискографія
Face (2018)
Gasoline (2022)
Авторські права
Усі авторські права на пісні адоптовано з сайту Korea Music Copyright Association.
Фільмографія
Фільми
Серіали
Телешоу
Веб шоу
Театр
Концерти
Хедлайнер
Key Land (2018)
The Agit: Key Land (2019)
Groks in the Keyland (2021)
G.O.A.T. (Greatest of All Time) in the Keyland (2022—2023)
Нагороди та номінації
Примітки
Посилання
Key у SM Town
Південнокорейські співаки
Денс-музиканти Південної Кореї
Музиканти SM Entertainment
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Інфографія
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Інфографія — поняття, що має декілька визначень: науково-практична дисципліна; область суспільної свідомості (філософії, науки або ж методології); напрям в кібернетиці та інформатиці; сукупність (комплекс) особливих теоретичних і практичних питань геометричного моделювання об'єктів (предметів або процесів); загальна теоретична наука про життєвий цикл документа в репрографії, методологічна основа проектування систем і конструювання технічних засобів візуалізації образів у інформаційних технологіях; дисципліна в інженерно-технічній освіті; один з із візуальних аспектів комунікативних процесів; інформування у ЗМІ за допомогою графічних засобів, особлива інженерна діяльність; технологія дій і спрямованість мислення (світогляд) дизайнера, оформлювача, інженера і дослідника.
Інфографія являє собою оригінальний науково-практичний напрямок, що проявляється у вигляді графічних теорій, досліджень і практик візуалізації (графування), документування та документознавства в різних галузях знання. Інфографія ще молода як самостійна сфера науки, але тим не менш її наукова сутність у вирішенні проблем співорганізації думкодіяльності і діяльності, комунікації і трансляції в інформаційно-енергетичних процесах очевидна.
Термін інфографія утворений складанням термінів «інформація» і «графування». Останній з них введено в 1940 р. Бизовим Л. А. та узагальнює всі окремі терміни (креслення, малювання, відтворення, копіювання, візуалізація та ін), що стосуються графічного відображення інформації людиною або програмно-технічними засобами.
Витоки інфографії походять з наскельних малюнків первісних людей. Нові горизонти інформаційної графіки відкрила комп'ютеризація.
Інфографіка
Часто інфографію трактують як суто комп'ютерну графіку для потреб ЗМІ, для якої застосовують термін «інфографіка». В широкому значенні інфографіка — це візуальне подання інформації. Інфографікою можна назвати будь-яке поєднання тексту та графіки, створене з наміром викласти ту чи іншу історію, донести той чи інший факт. Інфографіка використовується там, де потрібно швидко і чітко представити складну інформацію, показати устрій і алгоритм роботи чого-небудь, співвідношення предметів і фактів у часі і просторі, продемонструвати тенденцію, показати як що виглядає, організувати великі обсяги інформації. Спектр її застосування великий: географія, журналістика, освіта, статистика, технічні тексти. Інфографіка здатна не тільки організувати великі обсяги інформації, але і більш наочно показати співвідношення предметів і фактів у часі та просторі, а також продемонструвати тенденції.
Інфографія в журналістиці
В журналістиці інфографією називають ілюстративний матеріал у ЗМІ, що використовується для виразнішої, цікавішої, різноманітнішої подачі журналістських жанрів. До арсеналу зображувальної журналістики відносять фотознімки, малюнки, діаграми, гістограми, органіграми, мапи, схеми, графіки — все що відноситься для ілюстрації видань.
З поширенням комп'ютерних технологій інфографія все частіше і ширше використовується у друкованій пресі та інтернет-ЗМІ. Першими поєднали графіку і текст видавці газети USA Today, що запустили свій проект в 1982 році. За кілька років газета ввійшла до п'ятірки найбільш популярних видань країни. Одним з найбільш помітних і затребуваних читачами нововведень USA Today стали детальні, добре промальовані картинки з пояснювальними коментарями — інфографіка. Американські читачі швидко зрозуміли і прийняли переваги такого способу передачі інформації — інфографіка передавала повідомлення швидше, ніж текст (один якісно зроблений малюнок заміняв декілька сторінок тексту) і докладніше, ніж стандартна ілюстрація (завдяки детальності малюнка і точним тезовим коментарям). Згодом з'ясувалося, що інфографіка є не тільки технологією, не тільки сферою бізнесу, а й мистецтвом. При цьому, ступінь володіння цим мистецтвом безпосередньо впливає на прибутковість видавничого бізнесу. Саме тому сьогодні такі журнали як «Есквайр» і «Нью-Йоркер» виділяють на створення інфографіки 3-4 провідних дизайнерів і одного журналіста — автора стрижневої ідеї.
Інфографія в будівництві
У проектуванні потокового будівництва широко використовується інформаційна графіка (інфографіка) для наочного зображення (візуалізації) проміжних і остаточних результатів планування. Комп'ютерно-графічна підтримка ґрунтується на поданні планованих результатів організаційно-технологічного проектування і управління у вигляді планів-графіків, тобто ескізів, схем, планів, розрізів, діаграм, гістограм, двомірних і інших графіків, що дозволяють кількісно і якісно оцінити життєздатність і ефективність процесів планування і виконання робіт.
Посилання
Стаття «Инфографика. Крупный план» в блоге «Инфографика в примерах»
Инфография: просто о сложном
Виступ Януковича зобразили в інфографіці
Тема: інфографіка
Коктейлі в інфографіці від Фабіо Рекса (Fabio Rex)
Джерела
Инфография
Журналістика: основи професіональної комунікації: навч. посіб. для студ. вищ. навч. закл., що навч. за спец. «Журналістика» / В. О. Карпенко ; Київський національний ун-т ім. Тараса Шевченка. Інститут журналістики. — К. : Нора-прінт, 2002. — 348 с. — ISBN 966-7837-37-8
Инфография — метод и средство формирования и исследования функциональных систем
Шапе, Жан-Марі. Інфографія у пресі [Текст]: посібник Центру підготовки та вдосконалення журналістів (CFPJ), Париж / Ж. Шапе ; Інститут масової інформації. — 2-ге вид., за підтримки програми МАТРА Міністерства закордонних справ Королівства Нідерланди. — К. : [б.в.], 2004. — 95 с. — ISBN 966-95917-2-4
Унаочнення
Журналістика
Видавнича справа
Графічний дизайн
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48665618
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating%20Points
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Floating Points
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Floating Points
Samuel Shepherd, known professionally as Floating Points, is a British electronic music producer, DJ, and musician. He is the founder of Pluto Records, co-founder of Eglo Records and leader of a 16-piece group called Floating Points Ensemble.
Biography
Raised in Manchester, England, Shepherd studied piano at Chetham's School of Music before receiving a PhD in neuroscience and epigenetics at University College London. He also worked as a DJ at Plastic People, a London club, in the late 2000s.
In late 2008, Shepherd and Alexander Nut launched the Eglo record label. Eglo Records had released music by Floating Points, Fatima, Funkineven, Steve Spacek, Dego & Kaidi, Shafiq Husayn, K15, Mizz Beats, Natalie Slade, Destiny71z, Shy One, Henry Wu, Chunky and others.
In 2010, Shepherd performed with a 16-piece live incarnation of Floating Points, entitled the Floating Points Ensemble. The group won an award for "Best BBC Radio 1 Maida Vale Session".
In 2015, Shepherd founded Pluto records. He released projects such as Eleania, Kuiper, Crush, and Reflections: Mojave Desert from the label.
Shepherd's musical influences include Claude Debussy, Olivier Messiaen, and Bill Evans. He began releasing work under the Floating Points moniker in 2008, and in 2017 toured with The xx.
He has also remixed musicians such as Thundercat, Caribou, Basement Jaxx, Skepta & Headie One.
Career
Shepherd's first release was the Vacuum EP in 2008 on Eglo Records. Over the next few years, he would continuously release EPs and singles on Eglo, but also other labels such as Planet Mu. Notable releases included 2011's Shadows EP and 2014's "King Bromeliad" / "Montparnasse".
On 6 November 2015, Shepherd released the first Floating Points album - Elaenia. Around its release, Shepherd launched an 11-piece live show and immediately sold-out a string of global live dates including headline shows at Islington Assembly Hall and two dates at Electric Brixton in London. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, Elaenia received an average score of 85, based on 20 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".
Hamill Industries and Floating Points created the exhibition ‘Future Shocks’ at 180, The Strand in London in collaboration with FACT. The exhibition featured an installation by Hamill called “Vortex”.
In 2017, Shepherd released Reflections: Mojave Desert. The album recording was accompanied by a short film produced by long-time collaborator Anna Diaz Ortuño of Hamill Industries. The album was recorded in August 2016 in the Mojave Desert when Shepherd and his band were rehearsing for their upcoming US tour. Floating Points explained: "Whilst we were out playing and exploring the area around us – the sound reflecting from the rocks, the sound of the wind between them, complete stillness at night and packs of roaming coyotes in the distance, it became apparent that we could use this as its own unique recording environment”.
On 29 March 2019, Shepherd contributed a DJ mix to the Late Night Tales series.
On 18 October 2019, Shepherd released the album Crush. It received positive reception upon release. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from music publications, the album received an average score of 81 based on 16 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". Shepherd embarked on a tour following the album's release, selling out shows at Printworks, Elysee Montmartre, and Funkhaus.
During lockdown, Shepherd collaborated with KDV Dance Ensemble and Boiler Room to host an interactive live stream on Zoom. He was Interviewed by New York Times.
On 26 March 2021, Shepherd released a collaborative album with Pharoah Sanders and the London Symphony Orchestra, entitled Promises. It was nominated for the Mercury Prize 2021 and reached #6 in the Official UK Albums Chart and #1 in the Official UK Vinyl Albums Chart. The album was released on New York label Luaka Bop. Sanders was impressed by Elaenia and befriended Shepherd, who was 40 years younger than him. Sanders proposed that they produce a collaborative album. Shepherd composed the music and played both electronic and non-electronic instruments.
After Sanders' death in 2022, Shepherd put together a one-time live performance of the album at the Hollywood Bowl, conducted by Miguel Atwood-Ferguson with an ensemble cast including Sam Shepherd, Kieran Hebden, Dan Snaith, Shabaka Hutchings, Kara Lis Coverdale, Hinako Omori. The Independent reviewed the performance, calling it “A near perfect body of music paired with a beautiful tribute” and gave it 4/5 stars.
In 2022, Shepherd released the singles Vocoder, Grammar, Promises, Birth4000, and Someone Close. In 2023, Shepherd released Birth4000.
He collaborated as a producer for Japanese American singer-songwriter Hikaru Utada album Bad Mode, working on the songs Bad Mode, Kibunja Naino (Not In The Mood) and Somewhere Near Marseilles.
Shepherd composed an original score for Mere Mortals for the San Francisco Ballet which premiered on 26 January 2024. The ballet, featuring choreography from Aszure Barton, contextualised the ancient parable of Pandora’s Box in AI. Shepherd worked with long-time creative collaborators Hamill Industries. The initial run of shows sold out. A second run is planned for April 2024.
Discography
Studio albums
Elaenia (2015)
Reflections – Mojave Desert (2017)
Crush (2019)
Promises (with Pharoah Sanders & the London Symphony Orchestra) (2021)
Compilation albums
Late Night Tales: Floating Points (2019)
EPs
Vacuum EP (2009)
Shadows EP (2011)
Kuiper (2016)
Singles
"J&W Beat" (2009)
"Love Me Like This" (2009)
"For You" (2009)
"People's Potential" / "Shark Chase" (2010)
"Post Suite" / "Almost in Profile" (2010) (as Floating Points Ensemble)
"Sais (Dub)" (2011)
"Marilyn" (2011)
"Danger" (2011)
"Wires" (2013)
"King Bromeliad" / "Montparnasse" (2014)
"Sparkling Controversy" (2014)
"Nuits Sonores" / "Nectarines" (2014)
"Kuiper" (2016)
"For Marmish Part II" (2016)
"Silurian Blue" (2017)
"Ratio" (2017)
"LesAlpx" (2019)
"Last Bloom" (2019)
"Anasickmodular" (2019)
"Bias" (2020)
"Vocoder" (2022)
"Grammar" (2022)
"Problems" (2022)
"Someone Close" (2022)
"Birth4000" (2023)
References
External links
English electronic musicians
English experimental musicians
Living people
Luaka Bop artists
Musicians from Manchester
Ninja Tune artists
1986 births
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26671082
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Burry
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Michael Burry
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Michael Burry
Michael James Burry (born June 19, 1971) is an American investor and hedge fund manager. He founded the hedge fund Scion Capital, which he ran from 2000 until 2008 before closing it to focus on his personal investments. He is best known for being among the first investors to predict and profit from the subprime mortgage crisis that occurred between 2007 and 2010.
Early life and education
Burry was born and grew up in San Jose, California. He has Rusyn ancestry. At the age of two he lost his left eye to retinoblastoma and has had a prosthetic eye ever since. As a teenager, he attended Santa Teresa High School.
He studied economics and pre-med at the University of California, Los Angeles, earned an MD degree from the Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, and started but did not finish his residency in pathology at Stanford University Medical Center. While off duty at night, he worked on his hobby: financial investing.
Despite not practicing, Burry has kept his license as a physician active with the Medical Board of California, including continuing education requirements.
Investment career
After medical school, Burry worked as a Stanford Hospital neurology resident, then a Stanford Hospital pathology resident.
He then left to start his own hedge fund. He had already developed a reputation as an investor by demonstrating success in value investing, which he wrote about on message boards on the stock discussion site Silicon Investor beginning in 1996. He was so successful with his stock picks that he attracted the interest of companies such as Vanguard, White Mountains Insurance Group and prominent investors such as Joel Greenblatt. Burry has a strictly traditional understanding of value. He has said more than once that his investment style is built upon Benjamin Graham and David Dodd’s 1934 book Security Analysis: "All my stock picking is 100% based on the concept of a margin of safety."
After shutting down his website in November 2000, Burry started the hedge fund Scion Capital, funded by an inheritance and loans from his family. He named it after Terry Brooks' The Scions of Shannara (1990), one of his favorite novels. He quickly earned extraordinary profits for his investors. According to author Michael Lewis, "in his first full year, 2001, the S&P 500 fell 11.88%. Scion was up 55%. The next year, the S&P 500 fell again, by 22.1%, and Scion was up again: 16%. The next year, 2003, the stock market finally turned around and rose 28.69%, but Burry beat it again, with returns of 50%. By the end of 2004, he was managing $600 million and turning money away." Burry was able to achieve these returns partly by shorting overvalued tech stocks at the peak of the internet bubble.
In 2005, Burry started to focus on the subprime market. Through his analysis of mortgage lending practices in 2003 and 2004, he correctly predicted that the real estate bubble would collapse as early as 2007. His research on the values of residential real estate convinced him that subprime mortgages, especially those with "teaser" rates, and the bonds based on these mortgages, would begin losing value when the original rates were replaced by much higher rates, often in as little as two years after initiation. This conclusion led him to short the market by persuading Goldman Sachs and other investment firms to sell him credit default swaps against subprime deals he saw as vulnerable.
During his payments toward the credit default swaps, Burry suffered an investor revolt, where some investors in his fund worried his predictions were inaccurate and demanded to withdraw their capital. Eventually, Burry's analysis proved correct: He made a personal profit of $100 million and a profit for his remaining investors of more than $700 million. Scion Capital ultimately recorded returns of 489.34% (net of fees and expenses) between its November 1, 2000, inception and June 2008. The S&P 500, widely regarded as the benchmark for the US market, returned just under 3%, including dividends over the same period.
According to his website, Burry liquidated his credit default swap short positions by April 2008 and did not benefit from the bailouts of 2008 and 2009. He subsequently liquidated his company to focus on his personal investments.
In an April 3, 2010 op-ed for The New York Times, Burry argued that anyone who studied the financial markets carefully in 2003, 2004 and 2005 could have recognized the growing risk in the subprime markets. He faulted federal regulators for failing to listen to warnings from outside a closed circle of advisors.
In 2013, Burry reopened his hedge fund, this time called Scion Asset Management, filing reports as an exempt reporting adviser (ERA) active in the state of California and approved by the SEC. He has focused much of his attention on investing in water, gold, and farmland. He has said, "Fresh, clean water cannot be taken for granted. And it is not—water is political, and litigious."
Glimpses were offered into Scion's portfolio from the 13F quarterly reports filed from the 4th quarter of 2015 through the 3rd quarter of 2016, as required by the SEC when fund holdings top $100 million. After more than two years, on February 14, 2019, Scion Asset Management filed another 13F, showing Burry to hold numerous large-cap stocks and $103,528,000 13F assets under management, just above the threshold for filing. In August 2019, Bloomberg News quoted an email from Burry in which he said there was a bubble in large US company stocks due to the popularity of passive investing, which "has orphaned smaller value-type securities globally". In 2020, the fund's largest investments were Alphabet Inc. ($121 million value) and Facebook ($24.4 million value).
Burry initiated short position(s) on Tesla before or around early December 2020, according to a now-deleted tweet and likely added to his short positions after the market cap of Tesla surpassed that of Facebook. Burry predicted Tesla stock would collapse like the housing bubble, saying that "my last Big Short got bigger and Bigger and BIGGER" and taunted Tesla bulls to 'enjoy it while it lasts.' In May 2021, it was reported that he held put options on over 800,000 shares of Tesla. In October 2021, after a 100% rise in Tesla's stock value, he revealed he was no longer shorting it. During the second quarter of 2021, he reportedly held put options valued at almost $31 million on the ARKK ETF innovation index managed by Ark Invest.
In August 2023, it was widely reported that Burry's hedge fund, Scion Asset Management, had made a $1.6 billion bet on a US stock market crash. Securities filings reportedly showed that Burry held put options on both the S&P 500 and the Nasdaq-100 at the end of Q2 2023. While the put options have been widely reported as being 93% of Scion's entire portfolio, this is misleading, as the $1.6 billion figure is based on the maximum possible value that the put options could rise to, and not the amount they were actually purchased for. Furthermore, Scion's assets under management is $237,971,170, significantly lower than $1.6 billion.
Personal life
Burry is married, with children, and was living in Saratoga, California in 2010. His son was diagnosed with Asperger syndrome, and Burry believes he himself has Asperger syndrome after reading about the disorder. When he was younger, he noticed that it took him a lot of energy to look people in the eye, and said, "If I am looking at you, that's the one time I know I won't be listening to you".
He is a fan of heavy metal music, including bands such as Obituary, Lamb of God, Amon Amarth, Slipknot, King Diamond and Pantera.
Burry was highly critical of the lockdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States.
In popular culture
Film
Burry is portrayed by Christian Bale in the 2015 film The Big Short.
Literature
2010: Michael Lewis, The Big Short
2009: Gregory Zuckerman, The Greatest Trade Ever
References
External links
"Michael Burry: Subprime Short-Seller No. 1," , The New York Times, March 1, 2010
"Betting on the Blind Side" Excerpt from "The Big Short"
"A Primer on Scion Capital’s Subprime Mortgage Short", Michael Burry, M.D. November 7, 2006
"Michael Burry’s FCIC Testimony – Audio", FCIC Staff Audiotape of Interview with Michael Burry
"Scion Asset Management - Homepage"
"Scion Asset Management - Quarterly Holdings Reports"
1971 births
American financiers
American hedge fund managers
American investors
American money managers
American stock traders
Businesspeople from California
Living people
People from Saratoga, California
Physicians from California
Santa Teresa High School alumni
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
Vanderbilt University School of Medicine alumni
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4785983
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%20%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F
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Мануель Мургія
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Мануель Мургія
Мануель Антоніо Мартінес Мургія; (17 травня 1833 року, село Фрошел, Артейшо, Галісія — 2 лютого 1923 року, Корунья, Галісія) — іспанський історик, поет, письменник, журналист, видатна постать Галісійського відродження (решурдіменто або ресурхімьєнто) — відродження галісійскої мови та галісійської літератури 2-ї половини XIX сторіччя. Відноситься до митців, які писали іспанською та галісійською мовами. Один із ідеологів галісійського націоналізму. Засновник і перший голова Королівської галісійської академії. Чоловік галісійської та іспанської поетеси Росалії де Кастро.
День галісійської літератури 2000 року був присвячений Мануелю Мургії.
Біографія
Народився в родині фармацевта. Батько, Хуан Мартінес де Кастро (Juan Martínez de Castro) був власником аптеки спочатку в А Коруньї, а пізніше — в Сантьяго-де-Компостела, куди переїхав разом з родиною. Мати Консепсьйон Мургія (Concepción Murguía). В Сантьяго вивчав гуманітарні науки та латинь, в 1851 році отримав ступінь бакалавра філософії. В культурному центрі Liceo de la Juventud в Сантьяго познайомився з Ауреліо Агірре (Aurelio Aguirre), Едуардо Пондалом та Росалією де Кастро, які також поділяли прагнення відродження галісійської мови та літератури.
1853 року переїхав до Мадрида, де почав друкувати свої твори. 1 червня 1854 видав свій перший вірш галісійською Nena das Soidades. Співпрацював з різноманітними періодичними виданнями, зокрема публікувався в La Iberia та Las Novedades. Саме в Мадриді знову зустрівся з Росалією де Кастро, з якою одружився в 1858 році. Через кілька місяців після одруження молодята повернулися до Галісії. Родина часто змінювала місце проживання: Мадрид, Сантьяго, Корунья, Лестробе, Віго, Луго, Сіманкас и Падрон.
Мануель Мургія підтримував і заохочував творчі кроки дружини. Завдяки його активності, в день його 30тирічного ювілею, 17 травня 1863 року було видано поетичну збірку Росалії де Кастро Cantares gallegos («Галісійські пісні»). Саме ця збірка стала початком епохи Відродження галісійської літератури. 17 травня 1963 року, на сторіччя з виходу збірки, Королівською галісійською академією було започатковане щорічне свято - День галісійської літератури.
Всю другу половину XIX століття Мануель Мургія активно займався журналістикою, співпрацював як журналіст з виданнями La Oliva та El Miño та як редактор - з El Diario de La Coruña з La Ilustración Gallega y Asturiana. З 1890 року став спів-редактором журналу La Patria Gallega.
В 1905 році, під час зустрічі з колегами в букіністичній крамниці A Cova Céltica в Коруньї, висловив ідею створення академії галісійської мови і літератури. 25 серпня 1906 року було створено Королівську галісійську академію, першим головою якої став Мануель Мургія.
Помер 2 лютого 1923 року. Похований в Коруньї.
Твори
La primera luz, Vigo, Juan Compañel, 1860.
Diccionario de escritores gallegos, Vigo, Juan Compañel, 1862.
De las guerras de Galicia en el siglo XV y de su verdadero carácter, La Coruña, 1861.
Historia de Galicia, T. I, Lugo, Soto Freire,1865, T. II, Lugo, Soto Freire, 1866, T. III, La Coruña, Libr. de A. Martínez Salazar, 1888, Tomo IV, La Coruña, Libr. de E. Carré Aldao, 1891, T.V, La Coruña, 1911.
Memoria relativa al Archivo Regional de Galicia, La Coruña, 1871.
Biografía del P. M. Fr. Benito Gerónimo Feijóo, Santiago, Est. Tip. de El Diario, 1876.
El foro, Madrid, Libr. de Bailly Bailliere, 1882.
El arte en Santiago durante el siglo XVIII y noticia de los artistas que florecieron en dicha ciudad y centuria, Madrid, Est. Tip. de Fernando Fé, 1884.
Los Precursores, La Coruña, Latorre y Martínez Editores, Biblioteca Gallega, 1886.
Galicia, Barcelona, Daniel Cortezo, 1888.
El regionalismo gallego, La Habana, Imp. La Universal, 1889.
En prosa, (contiene la novela El puñalito), La Coruña, 1895.
Don Diego Gelmírez, La Coruña, Imprenta y Librería de Carré, 1898.
Los trovadores gallegos, La Coruña, Imp. de Ferrer, 1905.
Apuntes históricos de la provincia de Pontevedra, folletín de La Temporada, Mondariz, Imp. del Establecimiento, 1913.
Política y sociedad en Galicia, Madrid, Akal, Arealonga, 8, 1974, ed. de X. Alonso Montero
Поезія
Nena d’as soidades (poema), La Oliva, 27-2-1856.
Madrigal (poema), La Oliva, 8-3-1856.
La flor y el aire (poema), La Oliva, 19-3-1856.
A una paloma (poema), La Oliva, 3-5-1856.
A las ruinas del Castillo de Altamira (poema), La Oliva, 31-5-1856.
En un Álbum (poema), La Oliva, 31-5-1856.
Al partir (poema), Galicia (La Coruña), 1862, páx. 39.
Tres poemas na antoloxía El Álbum de la Caridad, La Coruña, 1862. Son los poemas Madrigal, Nena d’as soledades y Gloria.
Sueños dorados (poema), en García Acuña (177) y antes en el Álbum de El Miño.
Ildara de Courel, (poema), en García Acuña (177-178).
Soneto de Pardo de Cela, (poema), en García Acuña (179).
Los versos fueron mi ilusión primera (poema de 1903), en Naya (1950: 104).
Проза
Un can-can de Musard (cuento), 1853.
Un artista (cuento), Madrid, 1853; con el título de "Ignotus" en Los Precursores (1886).
Desde el cielo, (novela), Madrid, La Iberia, 1854; Vigo, Imp. de La Oliva, 1856; Madrid, Biblioteca de Escritores Gallegos, 1910.
Luisa (cuento), Madrid, 1855 y La Coruña, 1862.
La Virgen de la Servilleta, (novela), Madrid, 1855.
El regalo de boda (novela), La Iberia, Madrid, 1855.
Mi madre Antonia (novela), Vigo, La Oliva, 1856.
Don Diego Gelmírez (novela), Madrid, La Oliva, 1856.
El ángel de la muerte (novela), Madrid, La Crónica, 1857.
La mujer de fuego (novela), Madrid, 1859.
Родина
Росалія де Кастро — дружина (1833—1885)
Алехандра Мургіа — дочка (1859—1937)
Аура — дочка (1868—1942)
Гала — дочка (1871—1964)
Овідіо Мургіа — син, художник (1871—1900)
Амара — дочка (1873—1921)
Адріано — син (1875—1876)
Валентина — дочка (1877—1877)
Примітки
Посилання
Obras digitalizadas de Manuel Murguía
Manuel de Murguía en la Biblioteca Virtual de Polígrafos de la Fundación Ignacio Larramendi
Іспанські поети
Іспанські письменники
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183717
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guiana%20Space%20Centre
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Guiana Space Centre
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Guiana Space Centre
The Guiana Space Centre (CSG), also called Europe's Spaceport, is a European spaceport to the northwest of Kourou in French Guiana, a region of France in South America. Kourou is located approximately north of the equator at a latitude of 5°. In operation since 1968, it is a suitable location for a spaceport because of its equatorial location and open sea to the east.
The European Space Agency (ESA), the European Union Agency for the Space Programme (EUSPA), the French space agency CNES (National Centre for Space Studies), the Space Agency of the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azercosmos) and the commercial company Arianespace conduct launches from Kourou. It was used by the ESA to send supplies to the International Space Station using the Automated Transfer Vehicle.
History
In 1964, Guiana was selected to become the spaceport of France, replacing France's first launch site Centre interarmées d'essais d'engins spéciaux in Hammaguir, Algeria. In 1975, France offered to share Kourou with the ESA, with ESA covering today two thirds of Guiana Space Centre's budget. Commercial launches are also bought by non-European companies. ESA pays two-thirds of the spaceport's annual budget and has also financed the upgrades made during the development of the Ariane launchers.
On 4 April 2017, the center was occupied by 30 labour unions and indigenous peoples leaders in the midst of the 2017 social unrest in French Guiana. The center resumed operation on 24 April 2017, after an emergency relief plan of up to 2.1 billion euros was authorized by the French government.
Facilities
The location of the space centre was selected based on various factors. One of the primary benefits of this spaceport is its proximity to the equator, which makes it more efficient, requiring substantially less energy, to launch spacecraft into an near-equatorial, geostationary orbit compared to launching from spaceports at higher latitudes.
Additionally, the centre's location adjacent to the open sea to the east reduces the potential risk of rocket stages and debris from launch failures falling on or near human settlements, which enhances safety during spaceflight activities.
Furthermore, rockets typically launch towards the east to take advantage of Earth's rotation and the angular momentum it provides. The near-equatorial location of the Guiana Space Centre offers an advantage for launches to low-inclination or geostationary Earth orbits, as rockets can be launched into orbits with an inclination of as low as 6°. In contrast, a rocket launched from Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, with a latitude of 28.5°, can only be launched to an inclination of 28.5°, requiring a significant amount of propellant to change the inclination.
The location of the Guiana Space Centre provides benefits for launching spacecraft into low-inclination or geostationary Earth orbits. Rockets of similar size to those used at other spaceports to place satellites into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO), such as the Proton and Ariane 5 rockets, can send similar payloads to a low Earth orbit (LEO). For example, the Proton rocket, launched from high latitudes in Russia, can only send 6,270kg to GTO, while the Kourou-launched Ariane 5 can send more than 10,000kg to GTO.
BEC/ELA-1/ELV
Originally built in the 1960s under the name of Base Équatoriale du CECLES, the pad located at was designed for the Europa-II launch vehicle. One Europa-II was launched from the site in 1971, which ended in failure due to a guidance problem, before the program was cancelled.
The pad at Giunana was demolished and subsequently rebuilt as the first launch complex for Ariane as ELA. Redesignated later as ELA-1, it was used for Ariane 1 and Ariane 2 and 3 launches until being retired in 1989.
In November 2001, it was refurbished again for the Vega rocket and renamed ELV. The first launch was on 13 February 2012.
ELA-2
The ELA-2 pad, located at , built in 1986, had been used for Ariane 4 launches from 1988 until 2003. Before 1988, although purpose-built for Ariane 4, the pad hosted an Ariane-2 and two Ariane-3 launches. The complex consisted of two areas: the launcher preparation zone and the launch pad, separated by one kilometre, allowing a launcher to be assembled in the preparation zone while another launch from the pad. A mobile service tower at the launch pad provided a protected environment for payload installation and final preparation of the rocket. Following the retirement of the Ariane 4 in favor of the Ariane 5, In September 2011, the pad's service tower was demolished using explosives.
ELA-3
ELA-3 has been active, launching Ariane 5 rockets since 1996. This facility is located at and covers an area of .
ELA-4
ELA4 is located along the Route de l'Espace in the Roche Christine site at , between ELA-3 and ELS launch facilities. CNES was responsible for the construction of the Ariane 6 ground segments including the new launch pad. Earthworks on the 150 hectare launch site began at the end of June 2015 and was completed at the start of 2016. Four platforms were levelled to accommodate the launch pad, the liquid oxygen and hydrogen tanks and the assembly building. Civil engineering works on the flame trench and other buildings began in the summer of 2016 and ended in 2019. The new launch facility was inaugurated on 28 September 2021 with first flight of the Ariane 6 scheduled in 2024.
ELS / Soyuz at CSG
ESA has built ELS at for launching Russian-built Soyuz-2 rockets. The first Soyuz launch from ELS was postponed several times, but launched on 21 October 2011.
ELS is located on the territory of Sinnamary commune, from Kourou harbor. It is northwest of the site used for the Ariane 5 launches. Under the terms of the Russo-European joint venture, ESA will augment its own launch vehicle fleet with Soyuz rockets – using them to launch ESA or commercial payloads – and the Russians will get access to the Kourou spaceport for launching their own payloads with Soyuz rockets. Russia will use the Guiana Space Centre in addition to Baikonur Cosmodrome. The Guiana location has the significant benefit of greatly increased payload capability, owing to the near equatorial position. A Soyuz rocket with a 1.7 tones to geostationary transfer orbit performance from Baikonur will increase its payload potential to 2.8 tones from the Guiana launch site.
The ELS project is being co-funded by Arianespace, ESA, and the European Union, with CNES being the prime contractor. The project has a projected cost of approximately €320 million, where €120 million are allocated for modernizing the Soyuz vehicle. The official opening of the launch site construction occurred on 27 February 2007.
On 13 September 2010, Spaceflight Now reported that after several delays in the construction of a mobile gantry the launch pad had been finished, and the first flight of the Soyuz was expected to occur in early 2011. By October 2010, 18 launch contracts were signed. Arianespace has ordered 24 launchers from Russian industry.
On 21 October 2011, two Galileo IOV-1 and IOV-2 satellites were launched using a Soyuz-ST rocket, in the "first Russian Soyuz vehicle ever launched from Europe's Spaceport in French Guiana.".
On 26 February 2022, Roscosmos announced that it was suspending operations at ELS as a reaction to international sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War. According to Stephane Israël, CEO of Arianespace, "there will no longer be Soyuz launches" from the Guiana Space Center.
Final assembly building
Astrium assembles each Ariane 5 launcher in the Launcher Integration Building. The vehicle is then delivered to the Final Assembly Building for payload integration by Arianespace. The Final Assembly Building is located from the ELA-3 launch zone. The mobile launch table completes the trip with an Ariane 5 in about one hour. It is then secured in place over the launch pad's flame ducts.
Launches
Launch safety
Fire safety is ensured by a detachment of the Paris Fire Brigade, a branch of the French Army. Security around the base is ensured by French Gendarmerie forces, assisted by the 3rd Foreign Infantry Regiment of the French Foreign Legion. Before and during launch windows, CSG facility security is significantly enhanced by anti-personnel and anti-aircraft measures, the exact configurations of which are classified by the French military. All entrants to the launch complex are also subject to checks for proof of permission to enter the facility.
The Guiana Space Centre (as per CNES) also contains the Îles du Salut, a former penal colony including the infamous Devil's Island. Now a tourist site, the islands are under the launching trajectory for geosynchronous orbit and have to be evacuated during launches.
Early launches
10 March 1970 – The first Diamant-B launched the DIAL/MIKA and DIAL/WIKA satellites. DIAL/MIKA failed during launch, but it entered orbit with a total mass of 111 kg. DIAL/WIKA provided data for about two months after launch.
Recent launches
21 May 2011 – 04:38 (GMT+08:00) An Ariane 5 ECA launch vehicle launched carrying ST-2 Satellite twice as powerful Singtel's first satellite ST-1, which was launched back in 1998. It will provide 20% more transponder capacity and a wider coverage footprint than ST-1, with C-band and Ku-band coverage of the Middle East, Central Asia, Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia.
21 October 2011 – A Soyuz-2 carrying two Galileo satellites was launched. This was the first launch of a Soyuz rocket at the Centre Spatial Guyanais.
17 December 2011 – A Soyuz carrying the French space agency's Pleiades 1 Earth imaging satellite, four ELISA electronic intelligence satellites, and the SSOT remote sensing satellite for the Chilean military. This was the second launch of a Soyuz at the Guiana Space Centre.
13 February 2012 – The Vega, which was designed in Italy, lifted off at 10:00 UTC on its maiden voyage. The launcher released nine satellites into orbit: two Italian satellites and seven pico-satellites.
5 July 2012 – The uncrewed Ariane 5 rocket took off to send an American communication satellite and European weather-monitoring spacecraft into orbit. Liftoff occurred at 21:36 UTC.
30 August 2013 – Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) launched the advanced multi-band communication satellite GSAT-7. It was 17th Indian satellite launched from ESA with Ariane 5.
16 October 2014 – An Ariane 5 launch vehicle carrying the communication satellite ARSAT-1 to orbit. It is the first geostationary satellite built by a Latin American country, Argentina, and the second one of the Americas, after the U.S.
30 September 2015 – An Ariane 5 launch vehicle carrying the communication satellite ARSAT-2 to orbit, being the second Argentine geostationary satellite built in two years.
1 October 2015 – Sky Muster (NBN-Co 1A) is a communication satellite launched on an Ariane 5 ECA launch vehicle. Sky Muster is the first satellite of an operation to improve Australia's internet with the NBN program.
6 October 2016 – Sky Muster II (NBN-Co 1B) is a communication satellite launched on an Ariane 5 ECA launch vehicle. Sky Muster II is the second satellite of an operation to improve Australia's internet with the NBN program.
28 January 2017 – A Soyuz-2 STB carrying the geostationary communication satellite Hispasat 36W-1 to orbit. It is the first of the ESA's "Small-GEO" class of satellites.
14 February 2017 – An Ariane 5 launch vehicle carrying the commercial communication satellites Sky Brasil 1 (Intelsat 32e) and Telekom 3S launched the satellites to a geostationary orbit.
25 January 2018 – Partial failure of Ariane 5 launch vehicle on Ariane flight VA241.
19 October 2018 – An Ariane 5 launched the European-Japanese BepiColombo mission to Mercury.
5 February 2019 – An Ariane 5 launched the Saudi Geostationary Satellite SGS-1 (also known as SaudiGeosat-1/HellasSat-4).
11 July 2019 – Vega failed to launch Falcon Eye 1 satellite for United Arab Emirates Armed Forces.
15 August 2020 – An Ariane 5 launched MEV-2, BSAT-4b, and Galaxy-30.
17 November 2020 – Vega failed to launch TARANIS and SEOSat-Ingenio.
25 December 2021 – An Ariane 5 launched the James Webb Space Telescope.
13 December 2022 — An Ariane 5 launched the first third generation Meteosat: Meteosat MTG-I1.
21 December 2022 – Vega-C failed to launch two Pléiades Neo satellites from Airbus Defence and Space.
14 April 2023 – An Ariane 5 launched the JUICE space probe on an 8-year journey to Jupiter, including four gravity assist maneuvers at the Moon, Earth, and Venus, where it will study three of Jupiter's Galilean moons: Ganymede, Callisto, and Europa.
5 July 2023 – Ariane 5 launched two military communication satellites from France and Germany (Syracuse 4B and Heinrich Hertz) as its final mission.
Launch statistics
, Kourou counts amongst the spaceports with the highest percentage of successful launches, both successive and overall. Here is a chronology of all orbital launches from the Kourou spaceport since 1970, under the French and European space programmes.
Flights by launcher
In development:
Active:
Retired:
Flights by mission outcome
Local impact
The space sector was responsible for about 15% of French Guiana's GDP in 2014, around half of the 28% it was in 1990. This reduction is mostly due to expansion in other sectors, rather than decreasing space activity. As of 2020, the space sector employed 4,620 people in Guiana, meaning the industry was responsible for just under 10% of salaried jobs in the overseas department, though there are estimates that as many as 9,000 people are employed directly and indirectly as a result of activities at the spaceport. The Guiana Space Centre (or CSG) is one of the spaceports in the world that receives the most traffic, and it receives large amounts of funding from the European Space Agency (ESA), with the organisation covering around 66% of the spaceport's annual budget, as well as financing new facilities. Indigenous and local activist groups argue that mainland France is only interested in French Guiana as far as the space centre is concerned, and the funding that the space centre receives is symbolic given the inequity in living standards seen between the department and mainland France. For example, despite there being high poverty levels and unemployment rates of over 20% in the department, the cost of living remains high due to a dependence on mainland France for imported food and resources, yet large amounts of funding are invested in the space programme, rather than in public services for the department.
The department became the site of strikes and protests throughout March and April 2017, which were held to highlight the insecurity and infrastructural issues facing French Guiana. Alongside 30 labour unions who launched strikes, the Collective of 500 Brothers led protests in Kourou, which spread across the entire country, and resonated in mainland France. On 21 March 2017, the launch of an Ariane 5 rocket carrying a Brazilian satellite and a South Korean satellite was prevented due to protesters and workers on strike from the CSG blockading the centre. Further strikes and occupation of the space centre meant that the satellites were not launched until May 2017. Negotiations between the French government and Guianese protesters resulted in a rejection of a €1.1 billion offer made by the French, with the Guianese demanding at least €3 billion in aid. Since the protests, CNES (National Centre for Space Studies), the French government space agency that operates the spaceport, added an additional €10 million to the €40 million it had already pledged to fund economic and social programmes in French Guiana.
See also
3rd Foreign Infantry Regiment
ESA Centre for Earth Observation (ESRIN)
European Astronaut Centre (EAC)
European Centre for Space Applications and Telecommunications (ECSAT)
European Space Agency (ESA)
European Space Astronomy Centre (ESAC)
European Space Operations Centre (ESOC)
European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC)
European Space Tracking Network (ESTRACK)
French space program
References
External links
Soyouz in Guiana
Europe's Spaceport – information from ESA
List of Stratospheric Balloons launched from CSG – information from StratoCat
Arianespace mission status – information on current and upcoming Ariane missions; list of past missions
European Space Agency
Spaceports
Buildings and structures in Kourou
Rocket launch sites in France
Space program of France
1968 establishments in South America
1968 establishments in France
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laco%20Novomesk%C3%BD
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Laco Novomeský
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Laco Novomeský (full name: Ladislav Novomeský) (27 December 1904, Budapest – 4 September 1976, Bratislava) was a Slovak poet, writer and communist politician. Novomeský was a member of the DAV group; after The Second World War he was commissioner of education and culture of Socialist Czechoslovakia. A prominent Czechoslovak politician, he was persecuted in the 1950s and later rehabilitated in the 1960s.
Early life
Novomeský was born in to the family of a tailor that immigrated from Senica to Budapest, where he was born. The family moved back to Senica to continue his studies. He later graduated from the teacher training institute in Modra. Novomeský started to work as a teacher while at the same time enrolling as an external student of the Faculty of Arts at the Comenius University where he became involved in literary and political activities.
Literary and political career
He joined the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia in 1925 and worked for its press. He was the editor of the Communist Party's newspaper Pravda (previously it was named the Truth of Poverty).
In 1927 he was arrested by the Czechoslovak authorities for press offence and sentenced to 10 years in prison however he was released by bail.
He went to Prague and joined the group of left-wing intellectuals around the DAV magazine.
The members of DAV also had influence in the Youth Club (sk. Klub mladých), which joined to the Art discussion club of Slovakia (sk. Umelecká beseda), which together with the DAV organized book-reading parties with poetry of important Slovak writers like Lukáč, Smrek, Novomeský and Okáli. DAV supported internationalism on the one hand, and too equality between Slovaks and Czechs. The concept of DAV connected the political line on the one hand, and the aesthetic line on the other hand. After the ban on the DAV project (by representatives of the new Slovak state), individual members (Urx, Novomeský, Husák, Clementis) participated in the organization of the Slovak National Uprising 1944 (Eduard Urx was even executed by the Nazis; Gustav Husak was one of the most important organizers of the Slovak National Uprising 1944). Ex-DAV members, Husák, Okáli, Clementis and Novomeský became part of the government in exile (in London) and after the end of the war they took part in taking power.
Novomeský rejected the Manifesto of the Seven and supported Klement Gottwald and the Sovietisation of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. He wrote against the seven left-wing intellectuals and called for the intellectual left to support the new Party line by saying "The intellectual left cannot stand above the party".
In 1936, the Spanish Civil War broke out against general Franco's insurgency, in which Novomeský became involved in Czechoslovakia by organizing International Brigades (he also founded the Club of Friends of Spain). A year later, he participated in the congress in Paris and became a direct participant in the fighting (he got directly to the Czechoslovak combat units fighting the fascists) and the congress of the International Association of Writers for the Defense of Culture in Valencia, Barcelona and Madrid. Many of his memoirs about the Civil War were later published.
In 1939 he moved back to Slovakia and continued his communist activities despite the ban of the Party. In August 1943, together with his younger friend Gustav Husák, he became a member of the 5th illegal leadership of the Communist Party of Slovakia, led by Karol Šmidke . He was one of the leading organizers of the Slovak National uprising. He was also a co-founder and vice-chairman of the insurgent Slovak National Council in 1943 which later became the highest legislative and executive body in socialist Slovakia.
In the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic
After the war he became a member of the Central committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia and the Commissioner of Education from 1945 to 1950 as well as a member of the Constituent National Assembly.
At the congress of the Communist Party of Slovakia in 1950, he was accused of 'bourgeois nationalism' and was arrested on 6 February 1951, together with Gustav Husák. In 1954 he was sentenced to 10 years in prison in a staged trial with a subversive group of bourgeois nationalists. While Gustáv Husák was not completely broken in custody and tried to oppose the investigators, Novomeský and other accusers cooperated with the security forces and confessed to all the fabricated points. He could not publish at this time. In prison, he wrote 4,000 poems on tobacco papers, but smoked most of them. On 22 December 1955 he was released on parole. Zolo Mikeš wrote (Aktuality.sk) Novomeský's statements were used in the Slánsky trial against his friend Vladimir Clementis, thus contributing to his death sentence.
Novomeský then lived in Prague and was not allowed to return to Bratislava and was under police supervision. Then, until 1962, he worked at the Monument of National Literature in Prague. In 1963, Novomeský was fully rehabilitated. He moved to Bratislava, where he worked at the Institute of Slovak Literature of the Slovak Academy of Sciences. After the Warsaw Pact invasion on 21 August 1968, he again became a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, and in the same year he also chaired the Matica slovenská. In 1970, he resigned from the Central Committee of the Party and soon became seriously ill. In July 1970, a stroke completely removed him from social life. Opinions therefore differ as to whether, at least initially, he contributed to the so-called Husák's "normalization" In the cultural and political field.
He died on 4 September 1976 in Bratislava.
Works
Poetry
1927 – Nedeľa
1932 – Romboid
1939 – Svätý za dedinou
1935 – Otvorené okná
1949 – Pašovanou ceruzkou
1963 – Vila Tereza, poéma
1963 – Do mesta 30 minút
1964 – Stamodtiaľ a iné
1964 – Nezbadaný svet
1966 – Dom, kde žijem
Journalism and essays
1933 – Marx a slovenský národ
1949 – Výchova socialistického pokolenia
1969 – Znejúce ozveny
1969 – Čestná povinnosť
1970 – Manifesty a protesty
1970 – Slávnosť istoty
1972 – Zväzky a záväzky
1971 – O Hviezdoslavovi
1971 – O literatúre
1974 – Nový duch novej školy
References
1904 births
1976 deaths
Writers from Budapest
Politicians from Budapest
Slovak poets
Slovak communists
Slovak journalists
Czechoslovak communists
Czechoslovak politicians
Communist poets
Socialist realism writers
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Communist Party of Czechoslovakia politicians
Members of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia
Members of the National Assembly of Czechoslovakia (1948–1954)
Slovak male writers
20th-century Slovak politicians
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aubonne
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Aubonne
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Aubonne is a municipality in the district of Morges in the canton of Vaud in Switzerland. In 2011 the former municipality of Pizy merged into Aubonne and on 1 January 2021 Montherod merged into it.
History
The municipality was settled very early. The oldest remains are from the Bronze Age. From Roman times, there remain foundations of villas, and from early medieval times, graves.
The first documentation of the municipality is from 1177 under the name of Albona. In the first half of the 13th century, a defensive wall was built around the town. In 1255, the town was sold to Count Peter II of Savoy. He gave the governing of the town over to the family of Thoire-Villars. Aubonne was the most important town on the north side of the lake between Lausanne and Geneva until the second half of the 15th century. Since the 13th century, it had weekly markets, and starting in 1487 semi-annual three-day markets.
The Count of Greyerz acquired Aubonne in 1393. Since he was allied with the Eidgenossen, the municipality was spared the ravages of the Burgundian Wars in 1476. When the canton of Vaud was conquered by Bern in 1536, Aubonne came under Bernese domination, but still belonged to the Count of Greyerz until 1553.
In 1670, the city was bought by the Frenchman Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, and in 1685 by Henri Duquesne, who sold it to Bern again in 1701. From 1798 to 1803 it belonged to the canton of Léman in the Helvetic Republic, which, through the mediation of Napoleon became the canton of Vaud. Aubonne was the capital of its district from 1803 until 2006.
On 5 December 2017, Michael I of Romania died in his home in Aubonne.
Montherod
Montherod was first mentioned in about 1344 as Monterot.
Geography
Aubonne lies at an elevation of . west of Lausanne. It is spread in the valley of the river Aubonne, on the edge of the Jura foothill plateau, about above the surface of Lake Geneva.
The highest point in the municipality is at an elevation of
The villages of Trévelin and Bougy-Saint-Martin belong to the municipality. The surrounding municipalities are Allaman, Féchy, Pizy, Montherod, Saint-Livres, Lavigny, and Etoy.
Aubonne has an area, (as of the 2004/09 survey), of . Of this area, or 63.3% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 14.1% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 22.1% is settled (buildings or roads), or 0.7% is either rivers or lakes and or 0.4% is unproductive land.
Of the built up area, industrial buildings made up 2.0% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 9.9% and transportation infrastructure made up 6.4%. Power and water infrastructure as well as other special developed areas made up 1.6% of the area while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 2.2%. Out of the forested land, 11.1% of the total land area is heavily forested and 3.1% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 33.2% is used for growing crops and 8.3% is pastures, while 21.8% is used for orchards or vine crops. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.
The municipality was the capital of the Aubonne District until it was dissolved on 31 August 2006, and Aubonne became part of the new district of Morges.
Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Per pale Gules and Or.
Demographics
Aubonne has a population of . , 24.7% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1999–2009 ) the population has changed at a rate of 5.9%. It has changed at a rate of 2.3% due to migration and at a rate of 3.8% due to births and deaths.
Most of the population speaks French (2,160 or 84.0%), with German being second most common (133 or 5.2%) and Portuguese being third (93 or 3.6%). There are 86 people who speak Italian and 4 people who speak Romansh.
Of the population in the municipality 623 or about 24.2% were born in Aubonne and lived there in 2000. There were 842 or 32.8% who were born in the same canton, while 456 or 17.7% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 563 or 21.9% were born outside of Switzerland.
In there were 17 live births to Swiss citizens and 8 births to non-Swiss citizens, and in same time span there were 15 deaths of Swiss citizens and 1 non-Swiss citizen death. Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens increased by 2 while the foreign population increased by 7. There were 6 Swiss men and 5 Swiss women who emigrated from Switzerland. At the same time, there were 26 non-Swiss men and 36 non-Swiss women who immigrated from another country to Switzerland. The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was an increase of 11 and the non-Swiss population increased by 41 people. This represents a population growth rate of 1.9%.
The age distribution, , in Aubonne is; 301 children or 11.0% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 345 teenagers or 12.6% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 266 people or 9.7% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 374 people or 13.7% are between 30 and 39, 471 people or 17.2% are between 40 and 49, and 381 people or 13.9% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 292 people or 10.7% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 164 people or 6.0% are between 70 and 79, there are 117 people or 4.3% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 22 people or 0.8% who are 90 and older.
, there were 1,048 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 1,258 married individuals, 150 widows or widowers and 114 individuals who are divorced.
, there were 1,102 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.3 persons per household. There were 379 households that consist of only one person and 67 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 1,128 households that answered this question, 33.6% were households made up of just one person and there were 9 adults who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 306 married couples without children, 342 married couples with children There were 54 single parents with a child or children. There were 12 households that were made up of unrelated people and 26 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.
there were 271 single family homes (or 47.9% of the total) out of a total of 566 inhabited buildings. There were 138 multi-family buildings (24.4%), along with 110 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (19.4%) and 47 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (8.3%). Of the single family homes 80 were built before 1919, while 28 were built between 1990 and 2000. The most multi-family homes (70) were built before 1919 and the next most (22) were built between 1981 and 1990. There was 1 multi-family house built between 1996 and 2000.
there were 1,252 apartments in the municipality. The most common apartment size was 3 rooms of which there were 375. There were 76 single room apartments and 336 apartments with five or more rooms. Of these apartments, a total of 1,075 apartments (85.9% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 145 apartments (11.6%) were seasonally occupied and 32 apartments (2.6%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 2.9 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 1.2%.
The historical population is given in the following chart:
Heritage sites of national significance
The Former Federal Powder Mill, Aubonne Castle, the City Hall and grenette, the D'Aspre House with Orangery, the Manoir et manège are listed as Swiss heritage site of national significance. The entire town of Aubonne and the Federal Powder Mill are listed as part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.
Tourism
A wood museum was opened in 1967. The first arboretum in the canton of Vaud was established in 1963 in Aubonne. It has an area of about 200 hectares and features both native and imported trees.
Politics
In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SP which received 21.08% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (17.1%), the FDP (15.81%) and the Green Party (13.72%). In the federal election, a total of 861 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 52.6%.
Economy
Aubonne was long an agricultural town. Today, however, agriculture plays a secondary role. Agricultural products of the region include wine.
Because Aubonne does not lie on the Lausanne–Geneva railway built in the 19th century, industrialization began relatively late. The first factory, a gunpowder factory, was built in 1853. In the 20th century, a precision machine shop, laboratories, furniture manufacturers, and pharmaceutical companies have come to Aubonne.
Today, the majority of jobs are in the service sector.
, Aubonne had an unemployment rate of 3%. , there were 110 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 22 businesses involved in this sector. 623 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 39 businesses in this sector. 1,591 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 191 businesses in this sector. There were 1,335 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 44.9% of the workforce.
the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 1,882. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 70, all of which were in agriculture. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 579 of which 404 or (69.8%) were in manufacturing and 137 (23.7%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 1,233. In the tertiary sector; 610 or 49.5% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 42 or 3.4% were in the movement and storage of goods, 39 or 3.2% were in a hotel or restaurant, 46 or 3.7% were in the information industry, 18 or 1.5% were the insurance or financial industry, 108 or 8.8% were technical professionals or scientists, 54 or 4.4% were in education and 185 or 15.0% were in health care.
, there were 1,533 workers who commuted into the municipality and 799 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 1.9 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving. About 3.9% of the workforce coming into Aubonne are coming from outside Switzerland. Of the working population, 11.2% used public transportation to get to work, and 62.4% used a private car.
Religion
From the , 761 or 29.6% were Roman Catholic, while 1,085 or 42.2% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 13 members of an Orthodox church (or about 0.51% of the population) and there were 156 individuals (or about 6.07% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 3 individuals (or about 0.12% of the population) who were Jewish and 33 (or about 1.28% of the population) who were Islamic. There were 4 individuals who were Buddhist, 1 person who was Hindu and 8 individuals who belonged to another church. 389 (or about 15.14% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 117 individuals (or about 4.55% of the population) did not answer the question.
Education
In Aubonne about 843 or (32.8%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 522 or (20.3%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 522 who completed tertiary schooling, 52.3% were Swiss men, 31.0% were Swiss women, 10.3% were non-Swiss men and 6.3% were non-Swiss women.
In the 2009/2010 school year there were a total of 341 students in the Aubonne school district. In the Vaud cantonal school system, two years of non-obligatory pre-school are provided by the political districts. During the school year, the political district provided pre-school care for a total of 631 children of which 203 children (32.2%) received subsidized pre-school care. The canton's primary school program requires students to attend for four years. There were 179 students in the municipal primary school program. The obligatory lower secondary school program lasts for six years and there were 157 students in those schools. There were also 5 students who were home schooled or attended another non-traditional school.
, there were 412 students in Aubonne who came from another municipality, while 184 residents attended schools outside the municipality.
There is a private international school, La Côte International School.
Transportation
Aubonne lies at the crossroads of the highway between Rolle and Cossonay and the highway between Allaman and Gimel. The entrance to the A1 motorway was opened in 1964 and is only about from the center.
The train station of the Lausanne-Geneva railway was opened on 14 April 1858 and lies just outside the municipality in Allaman. From 1896 to 1952, there was an electric tram from Allaman to Aubonne. Today, Aubonne is served by the bus line Allaman – Aubonne – Gimel. There are also postal buses to Rolle and Etoy.
Notable people
Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (1605–1689), a 17th-century French gem merchant and traveler, owner of the seigneurery of Aubonne 1670 to 1685
Alexandre Yersin (1863 in Aubonne – 1943), a Swiss and naturalized French physician and bacteriologist who discovered the bacillus of the plague or pest, born and lived in Aubonne
Charles Ferdinand Ramuz (1878–1947), a French-speaking Swiss writer, studied in Aubonne
Georges de Mestral (1907–1990), a Swiss electrical engineer who invented the hook and loop fastener and Velcro lived in Aubonne
Michael I of Romania (1921–2017 in Aubonne), the last King of Romania, had a residence in Aubonne
Sibylle Blanc (born 1974 in Aubonne), a French-speaking Swiss actress and director ´
References
External links
website
Aubonne website
Cities in Switzerland
Cultural property of national significance in the canton of Vaud
Articles which contain graphical timelines
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyz%20people
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Kyrgyz people
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Kyrgyz people
The Kyrgyz people (also spelled Kyrghyz, Kirgiz, and Kirghiz; or ) are a Turkic ethnic group native to Central Asia. They primarily reside in Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, China, Pakistan and Afghanistan. A Kyrgyz diaspora is also found in Russia, Tajikistan, and Kazakhstan. They speak the Kyrgyz language, which is the official language of Kyrgyzstan.
The earliest people known as "Kyrgyz" were the descendants of several Central Asian tribes, first emerging in western Mongolia around 201 BC. Modern Kyrgyz people are descended in part from the Yenisei Kyrgyz that lived in the Yenisey river valley in Siberia. The Kyrgyz people were constituents of the Tiele people, the Göktürks, and the Uyghur Khaganate before establishing the Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate in the 9th century, and later a Kyrgyz khanate in the 15th century.
Etymology
There are several theories on the origin of ethnonym Kyrgyz. It is often said to be derived from the Turkic word kyrk ("forty"), with -iz being an old plural suffix, so Kyrgyz literally means "a collection of forty tribes". It also means "imperishable", "inextinguishable", "immortal", "unconquerable" or "unbeatable", as well as its association with the epic hero Manas, who – according to a founding myth – unified the 40 tribes against the Khitans. A rival myth, recorded in 1370 in the History of Yuan, concerns 40 women born on a steppe motherland.
The earliest records of the ethnonym appear to have been the Chinese transcriptions Gekun (LH *kek-kuən < Old Chinese: *krêk-kûn) and Jiankun (LH *ken-kuən < OC: *kên-kûn). Those suggest that the original ethnonym was *kirkur ~ kirgur and/or *kirkün, and another transcription Jiegu (EMC: *kέt-kwət) suggests *kirkut / kirgut. Yury Zuev proposed that the ethnonym possibly means 'field people, field Huns' (cf. Tiele tribal name 渾 Hún < MC *ɣuən). Peter Golden reconstructs *Qïrğïz < *Qïrqïz< *Qïrqïŕ and suggests a derivation from Old Turkic qır 'gray' (horse color) plus suffix -q(X)r/ğ(X)r ~ k(X)z/g(X)z. Besides, Chinese scholars later used a number of different transcriptions for the Kyrgyz people: these include Gegu (紇骨), Jiegu (結骨), Hegu (紇骨), Hegusi (紇扢斯), Hejiasi (紇戛斯), Hugu (護骨), Qigu (契骨), or Juwu (居勿), and then, during the reign of Tang Emperor Wuzong, Xiajiasi (黠戛斯), said to mean "red face". Edwin G. Pulleyblank surmises that "red face" was possibly a folk etymology provided by an interpreter who explained the ethnonym based on Turkic qïzïl ~ qizqil, meaning 'red'. By the time of the Mongol Empire, the ethnonym's original meaning had apparently been forgotten – as was shown by variations in readings of it across different reductions of the History of Yuan. This may have led to the adoption of Kyrgyz and its mythical explanation.
During the 18th and 19th centuries, European writers used the early Romanized form Kirghiz – from the contemporary Russian – to refer not only to the modern Kyrgyz, but also to their more numerous northern relatives, the Kazakhs. When distinction had to be made, more specific terms were used:
the Kyrgyz proper were known as the Kara-Kirghiz ("Black Kirghiz", from the colour of their tents),
and the Kazakhs were named the Kaisaks. or "Kirghiz-Kazaks".
Origins
The Kyrgyz are a Turkic ethnic group. Recent linguistic, genetic and archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest Turkic peoples descended from agricultural communities in Northeast China who moved westwards into Mongolia in the late 3rd millennium BC, where they adopted a pastoral lifestyle. By the early 1st millennium BC, these peoples had become equestrian nomads. In subsequent centuries, the steppe populations of Central Asia appear to have been progressively Turkified by an East Asian dominant minority moving out of Mongolia.
The Yenisei Kyrgyz, whose 9–10th century migration to the Tienshan area was of "particularly great importance for the formative process" of the Kyrgyz, have their origins in the western parts of modern-day Mongolia and first appear in written records in the Chinese annals of the Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian (compiled 109-91 BCE) as Gekun or Jiankun. The Middle Age Chinese composition Tang Huiyao of the 8–10th century transcribed the name "Kyrgyz" as Jiegu (Kirgut), and their tamga was depicted as identical to the tamga of the present-day Kyrgyz tribes Azyk, Bugu, Cherik, Sary Bagysh and a few others.
The 11th-century New Book of Tang described the Kyrgyz (結骨) with red hair, white skin, and green eyes. Contemporary Persian writer Gardizi recounted a legend that ascribed these traits to Saqaliba ancestry in the tribe.
The Yenisei Kyrgyz lived in the upper Yenisey River valley, central Siberia. In late antiquity, the Yenisei Kyrgyz were a part of the Tiele people. Later, in the Early Middle Ages, the Yenisei Kyrgyz were a part of the confederation of the Göktürks and the Uyghur Khaganate.
In 840, a revolt led by the Yenisei Kyrgyz brought down the Uyghur Khaganate, and brought the Yenisei Kyrgyz to a dominating position in the former Second Turkic Khaganate. With the rise to power, the center of the Kyrgyz Khaganate moved to Jeti-su, and brought about a spread south of the Kyrgyz to Tian Shan and Xinjiang, bringing them into contact with the existing peoples of what is now Western China, especially the Tibetan Empire.
The khagans of the Yenisei Kirghiz Khaganate claimed descent from the Han Chinese general Li Ling, which was mentioned in the diplomatic correspondence between the Kirghiz khagan and the Tang dynasty emperor, since the Tang imperial Li family claimed descent from Li Ling's grandfather, Li Guang. The Kirghiz qaghan assisted the Tang dynasty in destroying the Uyghur Khaganate and rescuing the Princess Taihe from the Uyghurs. They also killed a Uyghur khagan in the process.
Then Kyrgyz quickly moved as far as the Tian Shan range and maintained their dominance over this territory for about 200 years. In the 12th century, however, Kyrgyz domination had shrunk to the Altai and Sayan Mountains as a result of Mongol expansion. With the rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, the Kyrgyz migrated south. In 1207, after the establishment of Yekhe Mongol Ulus (Mongol empire), Genghis Khan's oldest son Jochi occupied Kyrgyzstan without resistance. The state remained a Mongol vassal until the late 14th century. Various Turkic peoples ruled them until 1685, when they came under the control of the Oirats (Dzungars), which lasted until 1757. Many Kyrgyz tribes that had fled the Dzungars returned to modern Kyrgyzstan at this time.
By the 16th century, the carriers of the ethnonym Kirgiz lived in South Siberia, Xinjiang, Tian Shan, Pamir-Alay, Middle Asia, Urals (among Bashkirs), and in Kazakhstan. In the Tian Shan and Xinjiang area, the term Kyrgyz retained its unifying political designation, and became a general ethnonym for the Yenisei Kirgiz and aboriginal Turkic tribes that presently constitute the Kyrgyz population. Though it is impossible to directly identify the Yenisei and Tien Shan Kyrgyz, a trace of their ethnogenetical connections is apparent in archaeology, history, language and ethnography. A majority of modern researchers came to the conclusion that the ancestors of Kyrgyz tribes had their origin in the most ancient tribal unions of Sakas/Scythians, Wusun/Issedones, Dingling, Mongols, and Huns.
18th-century Qing administrators referred to the Kyrgyz by the name Bulute.
The oldest notes about a definite mention of the Kyrgyz ethnonym originate from the 6th century. There is a certain probability that there was relations between Kyrgyz and Gegunese already in the 2nd century BC and between Kyrgyz and Khakas since the 6th century AD, but there is a missing unique mention. The Kyrgyz as an ethnic group are mentioned quite unambiguously during the time of Genghis Khan's rule (1162–1227), when their name replaces the former name Khakas.
Genetics
The genetic makeup of the Kyrgyz is consistent with their origin as a mix of tribes. For instance, 63% of modern Kyrgyz men of Jumgal District are Haplogroup R1a1. Low diversity of Kyrgyz R1a1 indicates a founder effect within the historical period. Other groups of Kyrgyz especially Southwest Kyrgyz show considerably lower haplogroup R frequencies and almost lack haplogroup N (except for the Kyrgyz from Pamir).
Depending on the geographical location of samples, West Eurasian mtDNA haplogroup lineages make up 27% to 42.6% in the Kyrgyz, with haplogroup mtDNA H being the most predominant West Eurasian mtDNA haplogroup at about 14.2% (range 8.3% Talas to 21.3% Sary-Tash) among the Kyrgyz. However, the majority of Kyrgyz belong to East Eurasian mtDNA haplogroups, with mtDNA haplogroup D (approx. 20.2%, range 14.6% Talas to 25.5% Sary-Tash) and D4 in particular (approx. 18.5%) being the most frequent Eastern Eurasian lineage among them.
A 2011 study of autosomal ancestry found that East Eurasian ancestry is predominant in most Kyrgyz living in Kyrgyzstan. East Eurasian ancestry makes up roughly two-thirds with exceptions of Kyrgyz living in Tajikistan and the western areas of Kyrgyzstan, where it forms only half.
A 2022 study and report found that Kyrgyz people from the Southwest regions of Xinjiang China were found to have more West Eurasian ancestry than the Kyrgyz from Kyrgyzstan. Kyrgyz people from China clustered more closely with Europeans and South Asians.
Religion
Kyrgyz are predominantly Muslims of the Hanafi school of Sunni Islam. Islam was first introduced by Arab traders who travelled along the Silk Road in the 7th and 8th centuries. In the 8th century, orthodox Islam reached the Fergana Valley with the Uzbeks. However, in the 10th-century Persian text Hudud al-'Alam, the Kyrgyz were still described as a people who "venerate the Fire and burn the dead".
The Kyrgyz began to convert to Islam in the mid-17th century. Sufi missionaries played an important role in the conversion. By the 19th century, the Kyrgyz were considered devout Muslims and some performed the Hajj.
Atheism has some following in the northern regions under Russian communist influence. A few cultural rituals of Shamanism are practiced to this day, particularly in Central Kyrgyzstan. During a July 2007 interview, Bermet Akayeva, the daughter of Askar Akayev, the former President of Kyrgyzstan, stated that Islam was increasingly taking root, even in the northern regions which had been under communist influence. She emphasized that many mosques have been built and that the Kyrgyz are "increasingly devoting themselves to Islam".
Many ancient indigenous beliefs and practices, including shamanism and totemism, coexisted syncretically with Islam. Shamans, most of whom are women, still play a prominent role at funerals, memorials, and other ceremonies and rituals. This split between the northern and southern Kyrgyz in their religious adherence to Muslim practices can still be seen today. Likewise, the Sufi order of Islam has been one of the most active Muslim groups in Kyrgyzstan for more than a century.
Outside Kyrgyzstan
Afghanistan
The Kyrgyz population of Afghanistan was 1,130 in 2003, all from eastern Wakhan District in the Badakhshan Province of northeastern Afghanistan. They still lead a nomadic lifestyle and are led by a khan or tekin.
The suppression of the 1916 rebellion against Russian rule in Central Asia caused many Kyrgyz later to migrate to China and Afghanistan. Most of the Kyrgyz refugees in Afghanistan settled in the Wakhan region. Until 1978, the northeastern portion of Wakhan was home to about 3–5 thousand ethnic Kyrgyz. In 1978, most Kyrgyz inhabitants fled to Pakistan in the aftermath of the Saur Revolution. They requested 5,000 visas from the United States consulate in Peshawar for resettlement in Alaska, a state of the United States which they thought might have a similar climate and temperature with the Wakhan Corridor. Their request was denied. In the meantime, the heat and the unsanitary conditions of the refugee camp were killing off the Kyrgyz refugees at an alarming rate. Turkey, which was under the military coup rule of General Kenan Evren, stepped in, and resettled the entire group in the Lake Van region of Turkey in 1982. The village of Ulupamir (or "Great Pamir" in Kyrgyz) in Erciş in Van Province was given to these, where more than 5,000 of them still reside today. The documentary film 37 Uses for a Dead Sheep – the Story of the Pamir Kirghiz was based on the life of these Kyrgyz in their new home. Some Kyrgyz returned to Wakhan in October 1979, following the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. They are found around the Little Pamir.
China
The Kyrgyz form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. There are more than 145,000 Kyrgyz in China. They are known in Mandarin Chinese as Kē'ěrkèzī zú.
In the 19th century, Russian settlers on traditional Kirghiz land drove a lot of the Kirghiz over the border to China, causing their population to increase in China. Compared to Russian controlled areas, more benefits were given to the Muslim Kirghiz on the Chinese controlled areas. Russian settlers fought against the Muslim nomadic Kirghiz, which led the Russians to believe that the Kirghiz would be a liability in any conflict against China. The Muslim Kirghiz were sure that in an upcoming war, that China would defeat Russia.
The Kirghiz of Xinjiang revolted in the 1932 Kirghiz rebellion, and also participated in the Battle of Kashgar (1933) and again in 1934.
They are found mainly in the Kizilsu Kirghiz Autonomous Prefecture in the southwestern part of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, with a smaller remainder found in the neighboring Wushi (Uqturpan), Aksu, Shache (Yarkand), Yingisar, Taxkorgan and Pishan (Guma), and in Tekes, Zhaosu (Monggolkure), Emin (Dorbiljin), Bole (Bortala), Jinghev (Jing) and Gongliu County in northern Xinjiang. In Akto County, the Akto Turkmen, a former Kyrgyz tribe, now speaks Uyghur.
A peculiar group, also included under the "Kyrgyz nationality" by the PRC official classification, are the so-called "Fuyu Kyrgyz". It is a group of several hundred Yenisei Kirghiz (Khakas people) people whose forefathers were relocated from the Yenisei river region to Dzungaria by the Dzungar Khanate in the 17th century, and upon defeat of the Dzungars by the Qing dynasty, they were relocated from Dzungaria to Manchuria in the 18th century, and who now live in Wujiazi Village in Fuyu County, Heilongjiang Province. Their language (the Fuyü Gïrgïs dialect) is related to the Khakas language.
Certain segments of the Kyrgyz in China are followers of Tibetan Buddhism.
Pakistan
Kyrgyz are the only Turkic people native to Pakistan. The Kyrgyz in Pakistan live mostly in the north, primarily Chitral, where Kyrgyz is the only Turkic language spoken in Pakistan. There are only a few thousand left, and many have assimilated with Pashtun or the Kho. They used to dominate the region of Gilgit-Baltistan. There are also Afghan refugees of Kyrgyz origin in Pakistan. Some also come from Kyrgyzstan from the Soviet-Afghan War where some defected and settled in Pakistan. There are also Kyrgyz nationals who work in Pakistan.
See also
Chala Kazak
Kyrgyz language
History of Kyrgyzstan
Culture of Kyrgyzstan
Notes
References
Sources
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Further reading
Kyzlasov, L.R. "Mutual relationship of terms Khakas and Kyrgyz in written sources of 6–12th centuries". Peoples of Asia and Africa, 1968.
Zuev, Yu.A. "Kirgiz – Buruts". Soviet Ethnography, 1970, No 4, .
Shahrani, M. Nazif. (1979) The Kirghiz and Wakhi of Afghanistan: Adaptation to Closed Frontiers and War. University of Washington Press. 1st paperback edition with new preface and epilogue (2002). .
Kyrgyz Republic, by Rowan Stewart and Susie Steldon, by Odyssey publications.
Books by Chokan Valikhanov
Aado Lintrop, "Hereditary Transmission in Siberian Shamanism and the Concept of the Reality of Legends"
2002 Smithsonian folklife festival
Kyrgyz Healing Practices: Some Field Notes
Politics of Language in the Ex-Soviet Muslim States: Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan by Jacob M. Landau and Barbara Kellner-Heinkele. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 2001.
Culture of Kyrgyz Republic.Well made JAPANESE pages.
Kyrgyz Textile Art
Yu Taishan. "A Note On The Geographical Location Of Jiankun". International Journal of Eurasian Studies, Beijing, 2019, No. 9. – pp. 1––5. In Chinese.
External links
Kirghiz tribal tree, Center for Culture and Conflict Studies, US Naval Postgraduate School
Ethnic groups in Kyrgyzstan
Ethnic groups in Pakistan
Ethnic groups in Afghanistan
Ethnic groups in Uzbekistan
Ethnic groups in China
Turkic peoples of Asia
Modern nomads
Pastoralists
Nomadic groups in Eurasia
Muslim communities in Asia
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