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A new, natural way to purify drinking water using the seeds from a tropical tree species could lead to cheaper, more efficient purification processes in the developing world, scientists believe. Researchers at Uppsala University in Sweden say proteins extracted from Moringa oleifeira seeds can sift out impurities in water and bind them together into clusters called flocs, making them easier to separate and remove. Moringa oleifeira, which is widely cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical regions including India, Africa and Latin America, already has a variety of uses – it’s a reliable food source for humans and livestock, and its extracts can be turned into medicine. Now scientists say these seed proteins should be used in water treatment plants to optimise the purification process – in both the developed and the developing worlds. “We can envisage that similar materials could be used in Europe both to produce drinking water and to treat waste water,” said Professor Adrian Rennie, a member of the team at the University of Uppsala. In this project, the team used research facilities at the Institut Laue-Langevin in France and the NIST Center for Neutron Research in the USA. This allowed them to use neutron scattering techniques to unlock the secrets of the seed proteins. “Neutrons are an ideal tool for understanding the internal structure of these complex organic aggregates thanks to a contrast matching technique that only highlights the protein components absorbed to the particles,” said Dr Lionel Porcar of the Institut Laue-Langevin. There is currently a need to develop more sustainable methods of water treatment, in order to meet the requirements of a growing world population. Last month, a £5 million recycling plant opened in Bonnyrigg, Scotland, which uses recycled glass such as beer and wine bottles to create a filtration system that removes parasites and pollutants from water.
Cognitive therapy is the opposite of behavior therapy. Cognitive therapy focuses primarily on the thoughts and emotions that lead to certain behaviors, while behavioral therapy deals with changing and eliminating those unwanted behaviors. However, some therapists practice a type of psychotherapy that focuses on both thoughts and behavior. This type of treatment is called cognitive-behavior therapy. Cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) helps improve a child’s moods, anxiety and behavior by examining confused or distorted patterns of thinking. CBT therapists teach children that thoughts cause feelings and moods which can influence behavior. During CBT, a child learns to identify harmful thought patterns. The therapist then helps the child replace this thinking with thoughts that result in more appropriate feelings and behaviors. Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) looks at the connection between thoughts, feelings and behaviour. CBT can help the child to learn new techniques for dealing with the psychological issue. Cognitive-behavior therapy may be performed by mental health professionals such as licensed psychologists, and counselors. Therapists provide CBT as evidenced by both coursework and supervised clinical experience. Children as young as 6 or 7 may benefit from cognitive-behavior therapy. A child must have the ability to understand concepts such as self-talk and self-instruction, which may be more likely in older children. Several methods of CBT may be used, depending on the particular problem. CBT is considered short-term therapy, with anywhere from 8-16 sessions needed in general. The therapist and child or adolescent develop goals for therapy together, often in close collaboration with parents, and track progress toward goals throughout the course of treatment. The therapist and child/family work together with a mutual understanding that the therapist has theoretical and technical expertise, but the child is the expert on him-or herself. The therapist seeks to help the child discover that he/she is powerful and capable of choosing positive thoughts and behaviors. Children receiving CBT actively participate in treatment in and out of session. Homework assignments often are included in therapy. The skills that are taught in these therapies require practice. Treatment is goal-oriented to resolve present-day problems. Therapy involves working step-by-step to achieve goals. Some of the common types of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy are: Individual cognitive behavioral therapy focuses solely on the child or adolescent and includes one therapist who teaches the child or adolescent the skills needed to overcome his/her challenges. This form of CBT has been proven effective in the treatment of child and adolescent depression and anxiety disorders, as well as substance abuse in adolescents. CBT with Parents Cognitive behavioral therapy that includes parents in the treatment process has been shown through research to be effective in treating children and adolescents with anxiety disorders. Specifically, CBT that teaches parents techniques to help care for anxious youth, including psychoeducation, individual therapy, caregiver coping, and parent training techniques are especially helpful. In this form of therapy, the parents are involved directly in the treatment of their children and are essentially trained in ways to help them handle their children’s fears at home. CBT with Medication Research has shown that pairing cognitive behavioral therapy with psychotropic medications can be effective in treating a child or adolescent’s anxiety symptoms or depression. A child’s care team will be able to prescribe the right medication if he/she believes it to be necessary in your child’s therapy process. Request a Consultation Contact us today to review your need and to discuss the ways we can help!
5. Physical Description The volcano rabbit (scientific name Romerolagus diazi) is more commonly called zacatuche or teporingo by the locals living in the mountainous regions of Mexico where these tiny animals are found. Easily identified by their minute appendages (ears, legs, feet, tail) and thick stubby fur, volcano rabbits are rather small mammals with, adult individuals weighing only 1.3 lbs, making them the second smallest rabbit in the world, following only the pygmy rabbit. These animals are equipped with two upper incisors designed specifically for gnawing, a body feature which sets them apart from rodents. Volcano rabbits are primarily herbivores, meaning to say they feed mostly on plants, especially grasses, that abound within their natural habitats. Examples of their grassy food sources are the leaves and twigs of such plants as Eryngium rosei, Muhlenbergia macroura, and Stipa ichu. Those kept in captivity are typically fed with corn, apples, and oats, while those found living in forests are able to survive on tree bark, herbs, and other greenery. Volcano rabbits prefer to forage for food during dusk or dawn, although some individuals, especially those belonging to the same burrows, have been observed to be active during the daytime as well. 3. Habitat and Range Volcanic rabbits are only found on the rainy mountainous areas of Mexico. Specifically, these are the wet inclines of Tlaloc, Popocatepetl, El Pelado and Iztaccihuatl, to where they are considered endemic. Hunting and selling of these endangered mammals is prohibited, although the Mexican government is facing substantial challenges in implementing these restrictions. Large scale destruction of their natural habitats, such as by logging and burning of the forests to make way for agriculture, has greatly decreased the population of the volcano rabbits, although many conservation parks like the Zoquipan National Park have made significant progress in breeding their colonies. As of yet, no proposal has been set forth by the Mexican government to introduce captive colonies of the Volcano rabbit into the wild. Their populations are affected by climate change as well, and they are classified as an "Endangered' species by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's (IUCN's) Red List of Threatened Species. Volcanic rabbits are known to be crepuscular, which is to say that they are primarily out and about only during the dim conditions of the late afternoons and early mornings. They shed their thick furry coats only once every twelve months, and live in colonies with 2 to 4 other individuals in nests located underground. Being small and lacking sturdy appendages which can be used to defend themselves from larger predators, these animals compensate by being fast on their feet, and will often dart to higher sections of their habitats when they feel threatened. The dark colorations of their fur also helps them blend in with their surroundings, making them a bit of a challenge to hunt. Volcano rabbits reproduce birth their issues within confined surroundings, that is why they need to be kept in spacious nests when raised in captivity. These animals are able to reproduce more than once a year, although they have been found to breed more effectively during the months of March, April, May, and June. Their gestational period is very short, just about 40 days, culminating in the birth of one to three young ones per litter. Those bred in captivity have been found to reach maturity after a month or so. Those in the wild are weaned and able to find their own food after three weeks of remaining in their mothers' nests. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.
When cholesterol becomes a problem Cholesterol is a waxy substance found in every cell in our bodies. It is necessary for production of cells as well as hormones and vitamin D. It also helps with digestion. Most cholesterol production happens in the liver and we produce enough of it on our own. The other source of cholesterol is from food, primarily “fatty” foods such as meats, whole-fat milk and cheese, which can cause the body to produce more cholesterol than it needs. Understanding ‘good’ and ‘bad’ cholesterol You have probably heard about the two types of cholesterol: high-density lipoprotein (HDL, or “good” cholesterol) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL, or “bad” cholesterol). A good way to remember which is which is to think: “L” for low—the lowest of the low—the bad cholesterol. Having too much LDL flowing through the blood causes the LDL to stick to the walls of the arteries. Over time the LDL builds up to form plaque, which narrows the arteries and restricts blood flow, a condition known as atherosclerosis, which may lead to stroke or heart attack. Restricted blood flow is also a risk factor for hypertension (high blood pressure). HDL, on the other hand, does not stick to the walls of the arteries and also has the ability to loosen and remove LDL from arterial walls. A healthy combination of both types of cholesterol is needed for optimal bodily function. Triglycerides, another type of fat in the body, are also a component of cholesterol. Having high triglyceride levels along with unhealthy levels of LDL and HDL further increases your risk for stroke and heart attack. Causes and diagnosis of high cholesterol Having unhealthy cholesterol levels is mostly due to unhealthy behaviors, namely: - Eating a diet high in saturated fat - Living a sedentary (inactive) lifestyle - Being overweight If one or both of your parents, or even your grandparents, also had high cholesterol (hypercholesterolemia), you may also be more likely to have it. This simply means that your body has a tendency to produce more cholesterol than it needs. Cholesterol itself does not cause symptoms. The only way to know if you have high cholesterol and are at risk for coronary artery disease (heart disease) or stroke, is to get a blood test from your doctor. He or she can then explain your results to you and recommend a treatment plan that may include diet and lifestyle changes and cholesterol-lowering medication.
Since 2009, astrophysicists have been puzzled about an excess of gamma ray appearing at the center of the Milky Way. The next decade witnessed a dramatic "tug of war" between two competing hypotheses that were proposed to explain this bizarre phenomenon. The story started back in 2009, when cosmologist Dan Hooper at the University of Chicago first saw a mysterious gamma-ray glow at the center of the Milky Way, based on analyses conducted on the images captured by NASA’s Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. The telescope is on board of a spacecraft launched in 2008 into low Earth orbit, in order to perform gamma ray astronomy observations. Hooper and his co-worker thought that the "aura" was the result of dark matter annihilation. Dark matter is an elusive entity that is believed to make up 27% of the universe's matter-energy continuum (in contrast, normal matter only constitutes 5%) and capable of bending the paths of stars with its gravitational pull. Astronomers have long suspected that our galaxy sits inside a giant pool of dark matter. According to the hypothesis of Hooper and his student, dark matter should also be capable of colliding with each other and releasing high-energy photonic particles such as gamma ray, which contradicts with the commonly accepted idea that they interact exclusively through gravitational force. While some agreed with the dark mattter explanation, others looked somewhere else for answers. In 2015, two studies reexamined the data from Fermi telescopes and found graininess within the glow. If dark matter was behind the massive gamma ray at the galactic center, the spread of photonic energy should have appeared even without any bright spots. Therefore, the authors behind these two works suggested that instead, a large population of pulsars is likely the cause of the glow. First discovered by astrophysicist Jocelyn Bell Burnell, pulsars are highly magnetized, dying stars with ten times or more the mass of our sun. They emit an intensive pulse of electromagnetic radiation, with an interval ranging from milliseconds to seconds. Just as the pulsar theory was gaining momentum and the dark matter theory slowly slipped away, the debate took a bewildering turn: the authors in one of the 2015 studies walked back their earlier conclusion: a flawed technique they used in the study might have misidentified dark matter as pulsars. What's more, a recent report from the International Space Station’s Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer experiment gave the dark matter theory a leg-up: the levels of antiprotons in the galactic center, an indication of the remnant of dark matter collisions, is higher than expected. This finding not only puts the dark matter theory in a more advantageou spot, but also is seen by some as the first indirect prove of dark matter. Hints of Dark Matter from Milky Way's Center Revealed by Gamma-Ray Map (Space.com) Source: the Daily Galaxy
Sailors don't need to read the stars anymore—they've got GPS. But dung beetles do not have GPS. And it now appears that they use the Milky Way as a compass. Dung beetles need a keen sense of direction so they can roll their dung patties away from the communal dung pile, and feast in peace. Ten years ago, Marie Dacke at Lund University in Sweden and her colleagues discovered that some dung beetles use polarized moonlight to keep a straight course. But what’s their plan on moonless nights? Dacke tracked the beetles as they successfully rolled dung away from the center of a circular sandbox. Then she blocked the beetles' starry view with tiny cardboard hats, and set 'em loose again. Without stars to guide them, the beetles traveling twisted, circular paths. Those findings appear in the journal Current Biology. [Marie Dacke et al., Dung Beetles Use the Milky Way for Orientation] The beetles' tiny compound eyes probably aren't sharp enough to make out individual stars. In a planetarium, for example, when only 18 bright stars were illuminated, the beetles got lost. But the faint streak of the Milky Way seems to be just enough light to point them to a dung dining hole—no reservations required. [The above text is a transcript of this podcast.] Also see Dung Beetles Follow the Stars
GMAT Critical Reasoning Questions The main purpose of Critical Reasoning questions is to test your logic and reasoning skills. You will have to define the main point of an argument, determine assumptions of an argument, draw appropriate conclusions from given facts, make parallels relevant to given situations, find weak and strong points of an argument, detect flaws in logic etc. Usually you will need to deal with about 12 Critical Reasoning questions on the test day. Although there are a number of different question types in this section, each GMAT Critical Reasoning question has the same structure. It contains an argument, a question stem, and 5 answer choices. An argument is a short passage at the beginning of every Critical Reasoning question. An argument can deal with any subject in any field, but you don't need to be familiar with the topic. Arguments come from various sources, including scientific articles, political speeches, and extracts from newspapers. Some arguments will be presented as formal statements, while others will take the form of a debate between people. A question stem is a question that you will have to answer after reading the argument. Answer choices are the multiple choice options you have to choose from. - Sample GMAT Critical Reasoning Questions - How to Approach GMAT Critical Reasoning Questions - How to Improve Your GMAT Verbal Score
Lillian R. Lieber Lillian R. Lieber devoted her professional life to introducing modern mathematics to young people and to making them aware of the political and ethical implications of science and mathematics. In her books and lectures, she noted that although as much mathematics was created since 1800 as in the period from the origin of mathematics until 1800, students were not taught any of the modern mathematics until they reached college. She believed that in order to get students excited about mathematics, it was essential to teach the revolutionary aspects of such fields as Galois theory of groups, non-Euclidean geometry, and modern logic. In a series of books, each devoted to a single branch of mathematics or physics, she treated these subjects as well as lattice theory, the theory of infinities, and Einstein’s theory of relativity. Her books, illustrated with whimsical drawings by her husband, Hugh Gray Lieber, were characterized by their free verse style. Each phrase began on a new line to facilitate understanding of the mathematics. However, the mathematics was not oversimplified. For example, her book on lattice theory, a branch of abstract algebra, included enough mathematics to allow an explanation of unsolved research problems. Of equal importance to Lieber was the message or, as she called it, the “moral” of her presentation of mathematics. The postulates of a mathematical field are not self-evident objective truths but are constructions of the human mind that can help us understand different aspects of the world. Non-Euclidean geometry arose when mathematicians questioned the logical necessity of the seemingly obvious postulate that given a line and a point not on that line, one and only one straight line can be drawn through that point parallel to the given line. Lieber argued that questioning old ideas and openness to new ones were central to science and art as well to as mathematics. She believed that science, art, and mathematics (or SAM as she referred to them) are the cornerstones of human culture. She called those intolerant of new ideas in these fields “anti-SAMites.” Anti-SAMites were indifferent to “the good, the true, and the beautiful,” and there was a clear implication that anti-SAMites were responsible for prejudice and war. To Lieber, war was the greatest danger facing humanity, and SAM our greatest hope against its destructive forces. Lillian Rosanoff Lieber, the youngest of three children (see Updates below) of Abraham H. and Clara (Bercinskaya) Rosanoff, was born in Nicolaiev, Russia, on July 26, 1886, and came to the United States in 1891. She received her B.A. degree from Barnard College in 1908, her M.A. from Columbia University in 1911, and her Ph.D. from Clark University in 1914. From 1917 to 1918 she was the head of the physics department at Wells College in Aurora, New York. She taught at the Connecticut College for Women from 1918 to 1920, and joined the mathematics department of Long Island University in 1934. At the time she was hired, Hugh Gray Lieber, whom she had married on October 27, 1926, was head of the department. In 1945, he became chair of the art department and she succeeded him as chair of the mathematics department. She became a full professor in 1947 and remained at Long Island University until her retirement in 1954. Lillian R. Lieber died in Queens, New York, on July 11, 1986, less than a month from her hundredth birthday. The Education of T.C. Mits (1944); The Einstein Theory of Relativity (1945); Galois and the Theory of Groups (1932); Infinity (1953); Lattice Theory: The Atomic Age in Mathematics (1959); Mits, Wits, and Logic. 3d ed. (1960); Non-Euclidean Geometry; or, Three Moons in Mathesis (1940); Take a Number (1946). WWIAJ (1938); WWWIA 7. Lillian R. Lieber was the youngest of four children, not three as is stated above. Her brothers were Denver publisher Joseph Rosenberg, psychiatrist Aaron Rosanoff, and chemist Martin André Rosanoff. How to cite this page Alper, Joseph S.. "Lillian R. Lieber." Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. 1 March 2009. Jewish Women's Archive. (Viewed on May 24, 2015) <http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/lieber-lillian-r>.
Tracheitis is a bacterial infection of the windpipe (trachea). Bacterial tracheitis is most often caused by the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus. It frequently follows a recent viral upper respiratory infection. It affects mostly young children, possibly because their small trachea is easily blocked by swelling. The health care provider will perform a physical exam and listen to the child's lungs. The muscles between the ribs may pull in as the child tries to breathe. This is called intercostal retractions. Tests that may be done to diagnose this condition include: The child often needs to have a tube placed into the airways to help with breathing. This is called an endotracheal tube. The child will receive antibiotics through a vein and oxygen. The health care team will closely monitor the child's breathing. With prompt treatment, the child should recover. Tracheitis is an emergency medical condition. Go to the emergency room if your child has had a recent upper respiratory infection and suddenly has a high fever, a cough that gets worse, and trouble breathing. Bacterial tracheitis; Acute bacterial tracheitis
"Phonics is a method for teaching reading and writing of the English language by developing learners' phonemic awareness—the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate phonemes—in order to teach the correspondence between these sounds and the spelling patterns (graphemes) that represent them." Through phonetics, a student will be taught the basic sounds of all individual alphabets and the combination of alphabets and the combination of alphabets with consonants & vowels. By doing so, a student can easily read a word and tries a difficult word also with ease. The Phonics class helps a child to create interest in reading. Reading becomes easy through phonics as it depends on sound. By doing so, a student can easily read a word and tries a difficult word also with ease. Students will learn vowels, consonants, vowels/consonants diagraphs, ways of spelling, homophones, silent Letters, contractions, letter blends, long vowels, short vowels and so on.. Duration of Phonics Course Phonics is a one year Program. Phonics has 4 levels, Basic, Inter & Advanced. Exams will be conducted after successful completion of each level and certificates will be issued for completing each level. Who can join Phonics? Students from class Lkg to class 2 or any adult can join this program - Phonics improves reading skills. - Phonics improves spoken English skills - Phonics helps to read even difficult English words - Phonics improves vocabulary - Phonics helps to improve fluency of reading & speaking
Information collection, understanding and sharing has been a worthwhile pursuit since the dawn of humanity. At the beginning, now and in the foreseeable future this pursuit will continue, even if the “tools” change. We will continue to use information to make short-term and long-term decisions for our groups and ourselves. But depending upon the sources of the information, we might make good decisions or we might not. It is only until the results of the decisions are evident that we will know if where we ended is where we wanted to be. Sometimes we will make quick decisions and sometimes we will take our own time to make a decision. But in all of these circumstances, we will always hope that the information sources that we used to make our decisions are credible. In order to understand information, we need to understand the various “flavors” of information that we receive. Lets explore them below: - Redundant Information: Think about how many times you have received the same information from two different secondary sources. In your mind, you might be thinking that since two different secondary sources are providing the same information then it must be true. But what if the primary source of the information is the same? What if nothing new has been added to the information that you received? This is the concept of Redundant Information where the primary source of the information is the same and nothing new has been added to it. - Corroborated Information: Think about how many times you have received the same information from two different secondary sources and are sure that the primary sources of the information are different. In your mind, you might be thinking that since the two primary sources are different then it must be true. This is the concept of Corroborated Information where the primary sources of the information are not dependent on each other. - Contradicting Information: Think about how many times you have received the same information from two different secondary sources and found out that they were saying opposite things. This is the concept of Contradicting Information where the information that we receive does not agree with each other. - Perspective-Dependent Information: Think about how many times you have received the same information from two different secondary sources and determine that there are various versions of the truth. One version might be at a high level while another version might be at a lower level. This is the concept of Perspective-Dependent Information where information that you receive has been looked at from top-down, bottom-up and horizontal perspectives. - Biased Information: Lets face it, everyone has biases at some level based on their history, culture, societal norms, politics, religion, age, experiences, interactions with others and various other factors. These biases can creep into the information that we receive from others but also influence us when we make our own decisions. This is the concept of Biased Information where even in front of mounting evidence that challenges your views, you are still holding on to your conscious and unconscious thought processes to make decisions. Now that you understand the various flavors of the information that you receive, it is time to ask the following: In the Future \|Who receives information?\|\|Who should receive information?\| \|What happens to information?\|\|What would happen to information?\| \|Where does information come from?\|\|Where would information come from?\| \|When is information being shared?\|\|When would information be shared?\| \|Why information is collected?\|\|Why should information be collected?\| When you ask the above questions, keep in mind that the information flavors and contexts are closely related. Even if you understand the information flavors being used but do not understand the context around them then your decisions will be skewed. On the other hand, be mindful of only looking at information that confirms your views (aka cherry picking) since you will miss something that might have helped you better understand the world around you.
Ventricles are chambers in the brain that normally contain fluid called cerebrospinal fluid. Usually these chambers contain just the right amount of the fluid for normal brain function. Sometimes, however, too much fluid can build up in the ventricles. This accumulation of fluid leads to a condition called normal pressure When excess fluid builds up, the ventricles enlarge and press against nearby brain tissue. This extra fluid can affect the shape of the brain and lead to brain damage. Normal pressure hydrocephalus, though rare, most often affects older adults, and its symptoms can be similar to those of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. A doctor familiar with these conditions can often tell the difference between these diseases and normal pressure hydrocephalus after special testing. NPH may account for 5 percent of dementia cases in the United States. Facts about the disease Normal pressure hydrocephalus can be caused by a number of underlying conditions, including brain infections, bleeding in the brain, tumors, and injuries. It can also occur for no clear reason. Symptoms, such as difficulty walking, urinary incontinence and cognitive changes, may be experienced.
Bitrate, as the name implies, describes the rate at which bits are transferred from one location to another. In other words, it measures how much data is transmitted in a given amount of time. Bitrate is commonly measured in bits per second (bps), kilobits per second (Kbps), or megabits per second (Mbps). For example, a DSL connection may be able to download data at 768 kbps, while a Firewire 800 connection can transfer data up to 800 Mbps. Bitrate can also describe the quality of an audio or video file. For example, an MP3 audio file that is compressed at 192 Kbps will have a greater dynamic range and may sound slightly more clear than the same audio file compressed at 128 Kbps. This is because more bits are used to represent the audio data for each second of playback. Similarly, a video file that is compressed at 3000 Kbps will look better than the same file compressed at 1000 Kbps. Just like the quality of an image is measured in resolution, the quality of an audio or video file is measured by the bitrate.
Parts of the Teeth – It is very important for every person associated with the work of Dental Office to be familiar with the physiology of a tooth as well as the function of each part of the tooth. Three main parts make up a tooth—the crown, the cervix, and the root. Parts of the Teeth – THE CROWN The crown is the Parts of the Teeth that is utilized for mastication and is visible in the oral cavity. The dental crown can be divided into two Parts of the Teeth—the anatomical crown and the clinical crown. The anatomical crown is the part of the tooth that extends from the incisal or coronal surface to the cervical neck (the cementoenamel junction). It is the part entirely covered by enamel. The cementoenamel junction is formed by the line where the enamel of the crown and cementum of the root meet. Another name for this is the cervical line. The clinical crown is one of the Parts of the Teeth from the incisal edge to the crest of the gingival height. The clinical crown is the part you see above the gum line. The clinical crown height can be greater than the anatomical crown height because of periodontal disease, or it can vary with age. Gingival recession can cause exposure of the root, adding length to the clinical crown. Parts of the Teeth – THE CERVIX The cervix, or neck, is one of the Parts of the Teeth where the anatomic crown meets the anatomic root. This part of the tooth is also referred to as the cementoenamel junction. Parts of the Teeth – THE ROOT The root of the tooth is the part that supports the crown and is usually below the gingiva. This section of the tooth is contained within the bony structures of the supporting maxilla and mandible. The root can be divided into two categories— the anatomic root and the clinical root. The anatomic root is the area from the cervix to the apex (the end of the root) Parts of the Teeth. It is covered with cementum. The clinical root is the distance from the crestal height of the alveolar bone to the apex of the tooth. Parts of the Teeth – The Apex The apex of a tooth is located at the tip of the root. At the end of the root is a small opening— the apical foramen. The function of this tiny opening is to “feed” the tooth. The opening allows blood vessels to carry nourishment to a tooth. A second function of the apical foramen is to allow the entrance of nerves to the tooth. This process is known as innervation of the tooth. COMPOSITION OF THE TEETH A tooth consists of three hard tissue which are Parts of the Teeth, the enamel, dentin and cementum, surrounding a soft tissue— the pulp. The pulp is surrounded by dentin on all sides except at the apical foramen, where it is continuous with the periodontal soft tissue. Parts of the Teeth – Enamel Enamel is the hardest tissue of the entire human body. It is a calcified matrix, which covers the entire anatomical crown of the tooth and protects the dentin (the inner portion of the tooth). It is formed by epithelial cells. It is made up of 96 percent inorganic (calcium and phosphorous) and four percent organic (carbon compounds) material. Another purpose of enamel is to protect the Parts of the Teeth, which is exposed to the oral cavity during mastication. When enamel is mature, no further growth or repair takes place. Parts of the Teeth – Cementum Cementum is a very dense tissue and one of the Parts of the Teeth that covers the clinical root of a tooth. It is composed of approximately 55 percent inorganic material (mainly calcium salts) and 45 percent organic material (mainly collagen). Cementum is of light yellow color and regenerates by forming new layers over older ones. The cementum covers the clinical root and meets the clinical crown at the cementoenamel junction. Sometimes, the cementum and enamel do not meet in a perfect juncture, forming a space which can be sensitive to external stimuli such as heat, cold, chemicals, sweetness, or mechanical stimuli. The primary function of cementum is to anchor a tooth to the bony wall of the socket. Cementum is formed throughout the life of a tooth. When a fracture of the tooth root takes place, the new cementum formed may replace the lost tissue, helping to repair it. Two types of cementum are usually recognized—primary and secondary. Parts of the Teeth – Dentin Dentin, which is one of the Parts of the Teeth, is the material that makes up the hard structure of a tooth. Dentin is harder than bone but softer than enamel. It is covered by the cementum in the root area and enamel in the crown area. The majority of dentin is composed of inorganic materials (70 percent), mainly calcium. The remaining 30 percent is organic material. Dentin is continually formed throughout the life of the tooth. It forms from the outside of a tooth near the enamel and grows inwards towards the pulp. One of the main functions of dentin is pupal protection. If, for example, the dentin is irritated by bacterial decay, cavity preparation, or wearing away, it changes formation and try to do the repair work by formation of Secondary or Reparative Dentin. The dentin thus formed develops in layer called the irregular secondary dentin next to the pupal wall. This dentin is dense and actually forms a layer of insulation over the pulp. An irregular dentin usually forms when severe trauma, such as a deep fracture, is experienced. Dentin continues to develop throughout the life of the tooth. It continues to thicken during this time and eventually invades the pupal chamber. This growth will cause a decrease in the size of the pupal chamber later in a person’s life. Parts of the Teeth – Pulp The pulp is the lifeline of the tooth. The soft tissue of the pulp is found within the hard structures that forms one of the Parts of the Teeth. The area that houses the pulp in the coronal (crown) section is called the pulp chamber The area in the root of a tooth that houses the pulp is called the root canal. Finally, the section at the root apex where the pulpal material enters a tooth is called the apical foramen. The pulp is composed mainly of loose connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerve materials. Its function can be divided into the following four categories: (A) Formation. The external portion of the pulp chamber is lined by odontoblasts (dentin-forming cells). The function of these odontoblasts is in the formation of dentin. The chief function of pulp is to make dentin. The odontoblasts appear as a layer of cells between the pulp and the dentin and are actually part of the pulp. (B) Nutrition. The pulp supplies the tooth with nutrients necessary for the organic portion of the tooth. It also supplies moisture for the tooth to prevent its desiccation (drying). (C) Sensation. The pulp has a very extensive nerve supply. Whenever an external stimulus traumatizes a tooth, the pain is transmitted by the nerves and alerts the brain to the presence of a toothache. (D) Defense. One of the main functions of the pulp is in the formation of secondary dentin for protection whenever an external stimulus causes a pupal reaction. Along with this, the blood supply will form defense cells such as macrophages and fibrocytes for the protection of the tooth.
Definition of ANC ANC: The absolute neutrophil count, the number of white blood cells (WBCs) that are neutrophils. The ANC is not measured directly. It is derived by multiplying the WBC count times the percent of neutrophils in the differential WBC count. The percent of neutrophils consists of the segmented (fully mature) neutrophils) + the bands (almost mature neutrophils). The normal range for the ANC = 1.5 to 8.0 (1,500 to 8,000/mm3). Sample calculation of the ANC: Neutrophils are key components in the system of defense against infection. An absence or scarcity of neutrophils (a condition called neutropenia) makes a person vulnerable to infection. After chemotherapy, radiation, or a blood or marrow transplant, the ANC is usually depressed and then slowly rises, reflecting the fact that the bone marrow is recovering and new blood cells are beginning to grow and mature. In practical clinical terms, a normal ANC is 1.5 or higher; a "safe" ANC is 500-1500; a low ANC is less than 500. A safe ANC means that the patient's activities do not need to be restricted (on the basis of the ANC). Last Editorial Review: 6/14/2012 Back to MedTerms online medical dictionary A-Z List Need help identifying pills and medications? - Allergic Skin Disorders - Bacterial Skin Diseases - Bites and Infestations - Diseases of Pigment - Fungal Skin Diseases - Medical Anatomy and Illustrations - Noncancerous, Precancerous & Cancerous Tumors - Oral Health Conditions - Papules, Scales, Plaques and Eruptions - Scalp, Hair and Nails - Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) - Vascular, Lymphatic and Systemic Conditions - Viral Skin Diseases - Additional Skin Conditions
Published on Mar 12, 2016 Proteomics is something new in the field of biotechnology. It is basically the study of the proteome, the collective body of proteins made y a person's cells and tissues. Since it is proteins, and to a much lesser extent, other types of biological molecules that are directly involved in both normal and diseaseassociated biochemical processes, a more complete understanding of the disease may be gained by directly looking at the proteins present within a diseased cell or tissue and this is achieved through the study of the proteome, Proteomics. For, Proteomics, we need 2-D electrophoresis equipment ot separate the proteins, mass spectrometry to identify them and x-ray crystallography to know more of the structure and function of the proteins. These equipments are essential in the study of proteomics. From The Genome To The Proteome Genomics has provided a vast amount of information linking gene activity with disease. It is now recognized that gene sequence information and pattern of gene activity in a cell do not provide a complete and accurate profile of a protein's abundance or its final structure and state of activity. The day of spotlight of the human genome is now coming to an end. Researchers are now concentrating on the human proteome, the collective body of all the proteins made by a person's cells and tissues. The genome- the full set of information in the body-contains only the recipes for making proteins; it is the proteins that constitute the bricks and mortar of cells and that do most of the work. Moreover it is the proteins that distinguish the various types of cells: although all cells have essentially the same genome, they can vary in which genes are active and thus in which proteins are made. Likewise diseased cells often produce proteins that healthy cells don't and vice versa. Proteome research permits the discovery of new protein markers for diagnostic purposes and of novel molecular targets for drug discovery. All living things contain proteins. The structure of a cell is largely built of proteins. Proteins are complex, three-dimensional substances composed of one or more long, folded polypeptide chains. These chains, in turn, consist of small chemical units called amino acids. There are twenty kinds of amino acids involved in protein production, and any number of them may be linked in any order to form the polypeptide chain. The order of the amino acids in the polypeptide chain is decided by the information contained in DNA structure of the cell's genes. Following this translation, most proteins are chemically changed through post-translation modification (PTM), mainly through the addition of carbohydrate and phosphate groups. Such modification plays an important role in modulating the function of many proteins but the genes do not code it. As a consequence, the information from a single gene can encode as many as fifty different protein species. It is clear that genomic information often does not provide an accurate profile of protein abundance, structure and activity. PROTEOMICS: A DESCRIPTION OF THE METHODOLOGY The exact definition of proteomics varies depending on whom you ask, but most of the scientists agree that it can be broken into three main activities: identifying all the proteins made in a given cell, tissue or organism; determining how these proteins join forces to form networks akin to electrical circuits; and outlining the precise three-dimensional structure of the proteins in an effort to find their Achilles’ heels-that is, where drugs might turn their activity on or off. Though the task seems straightforward, it is not as simple as it seems. The critical pathway of proteome research includes: SAMPLE COLLECTION, HANDLING AND STORAGE Access to relevant body fluid and tissue samples is fundamental to proteome research. Proteome sciences has collected a large bank of clinical samples for its cancer, neurological disease, cardiovascular disease, transplant rejection and diabetes research areas through its ongoing access to the leading hospitals where its collaborative scientists practice. All clinical samples are pathology-authenticated and are accompanied by details medical records to allow the correlation of proteome changes with disease pathology. The sample we have collected will have many proteins included in it. We need to separate these in order to study them. One of the main technologies used is two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Electrophoresis is a technique used in laboratory that results in separation of charged particles and proteins in general are charged particles. Electrophoresis may be in general defined as the movement of a solid phase (the proteins in sample) with respect to a liquid (the buffer solution). The main function of the buffer is to carry the current and to keep the pH of the solution constant during migration. A solid substance called the medium supports buffer solution. Here we use a gel as the substrate. A common material is agarose which is prepared from common seaweed. Purified agarose is in powdered form, and insoluble in water at room temperature, but is soluble in boiling water. When it starts to cool, it undergoes polymerization. The polymers crosslink and form the gel. If more agarose is added, the gel will become more firm. While solution is still hot, we pour it into a mould called casting tray so that it will assume the shape we want. For setting, gel body is immersed in deionised water. Deionised water, an insulator, prevents massive heat generation. Much higher voltage, such as 280 volts can be applied to derive rapid sample migration. Scientists add a mixture of proteins to an edge of the gel. An electric field is applied across the gel. The gel is in the form of a mesh network. In two-dimensional electrophoresis, separation is done according to mass in one direction an according to electric field in the perpendicular direction. Each protein has an individual mass and charge. So they will separate out as individual dots in the gel. Researchers can then isolate each of these proteins for further analysis. Mass spectrometry is a method of protein identification. The instrument used is a mass spectrometer. A mass spectrometer is an apparatus that produces a stream of charged particles from the substance being analyzed, separates the ions into a spectrum according to their mass-to-charge ratios, and determines the relative abundance of each type of ion present. Components of a mass spectrometer Functionally, all mass spectrometers perform three basic tasks: (1) creating ion fragments from sample, (2) sorting ions according to mass-tocharge ratio (3) measuring relative abundance of ion fragments of each mass. Once the ions are formed, they can be sorted based on their energy, momentum or velocity. A measurement of any two of these gives mass-tocharge ratio. Conventionally the method is to use energy and momentum: Inlet system Ion source Mass analyzer on collection system Data handling system More Seminar Topics: Treating Cardiac Disease With Catheter-Based Tissue Heating, Palm Vein Technology, Optical Coherence Tomography, Micro Electronic Pill,
When Sir William Herschel observed Mu Cephei in 1783 he described it as a most beautiful object of a very fine deep garnet colour, that's exceptionally striking when compared to nearby white stars. In fact, Mu Cephei is an extremely luminous red supergiant and one of the reddest known stars of all. It may be the largest star visible to the naked eye with an estimated radius of 1.15 billion kilometres (710 million miles) or 1,650 times that of the Sun. Mu Cephei is located in the far northern constellation of Cepheus. With a declination of +58 degrees, the Garnet star is well placed for Northern Hemisphere based observers and is circumpolar from latitudes greater than 32N. In major cities such as London, Paris, Moscow and New York it never sets. For sky watchers south of 32S, this star never rises at all. In 1848, English astronomer John Russell Hind discovered that Mu Cephei is a variable star, which was later confirmed by German astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Argelander. When at peak brightness of magnitude +3.4, the star is easily visible to the naked eye whereas at minimum brightness of magnitude +5.1, it's more challenging to spot. The average magnitude is +4.1. Since 1881, the variability of Mu Cephei has been continuously monitored. Mu Cephei has a spectral type of M2Ia. As with other red supergiants accurately determining its distance is difficult. The Hipparcos satellite measured a parallax of 0.62 ± 0.52 milliarcseconds, which corresponds to a distance of about 5,258 light-years (1,612 parsecs). However, the margin of error is extremely large and Mu Cephei may be as close as 2,863 light-years or as far as way as 32,638 light-years! An alternative method is a size comparison with a similar but closer star, such as Betelgeuse. Using this technique, Perrin et al in 2005 estimated the distance of Mu Cephei to be 1,272 ± 457 light-years (390 ± 140 parsecs). In the same year, a maximum likelihood estimate of the distance using a kinematics study by Famaey et al gave a value of 1,870 ± 323 light-years (573 ± 99 parsecs). Assuming a distance of 1,870 light-years, Mu Cephei is incredibly large and if located at the centre of the Solar System it would reach somewhere between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn. Currently there are believed to be only a few known stars that are larger than Mu Cephei. These include VY Canis Majoris, KW Sagittarii, KY Cygni, V354 Cephei and VV Cephei. Of these, only VV Cephei is visible to the naked eye. With an average magnitude of +5.0, it's a magnitude fainter than Mu Cephei. In astronomical terms, Mu Cephei doesn't have long to live. It has almost certainly stopped internal hydrogen fusion, and is likely fusing helium into carbon. Whatever the current state, the Garnet star will almost certainly go bang sometime in the "near" future and destroy itself in a massive supernova explosion. Mu Cephei Data Table \|Name\|\|Mu Cephei (μ Cep)\| \|RA (J2000)\|\|21h 43m 30.46s\| \|DEC (J2000)\|\|+58d 46m 48.17s\| \|Apparent Magnitude (Average)\|\|+4.08\| \|Apparent Magnitude (Range)\|\|+3.4 -> +5.1\| \|Period (years)\|\|approx. 2.0 -> 2.5\| \|Distance (light-years)\|\|1,870 ± 323\| \|Temperature (K)\|\|3,690 ± 50\| \|Spectral type\|\|M2 Ia\| \|Other Designations\|\|Herschel's Garnet Star, Erakis, HR 8316, BD+58 2316, SAO 33693\|
Delivery in day(s): 4 CHCECE018 Nurture Creativity in Children Assignment Help 1.Make a list of at least six natural and found materials not mentioned in the text that could be made available to children to create works of art. Six natural and found materials that could be made available to children to creates works of art are, 2.Cotton and old pieces of colorful clothes 3. Various types of plastic bottles 6.Different types of marble 2.Describe an activity that would allow children to use natural and found materials to be creative. Be specific. In 150 words describe what you would do and what children need to do step-by-step. Identify any material that would be needed. You cannot use examples provided in the text. An example of the creative activity by children using natural and found material is, constructing boats by wooden sticks. Children will need: 1.Wooden Sticks of different types of shapes and sizes. The following steps needed to build boats are, Educators let children choose different kinds of wooden sticks for their boats. Posts choosing of sticks children are provided with a picture of a boat and they follow the image to create their own boats. Then they glue the sticks according to the picture of the boat. In this process, the educators should help the children as they are attempting a new thing. After that, they painted their boats and add papers to decorate the boat. Educators must encourage the children to choose the favorite colors of them respectively. Children can use ropes or cenotaph papers for better finishing. Identify three different materials that could be used by children to express themselves creatively. Suggest an activity that would allow them to this for each of the materials you have chosen (that is there should be three separate activities) An example of a creative activity using empty plastic bottles is to give children an opportunity to build several pen stands, flower vases, and paper stands. For instance, they might be given creases, color papers, glue and various shiny objects so that, they can cut the edge of the plastic bottle and attach varied shapes of paper cuttings, shiny objects such as stickers to the bottle by applying glue. Teachers should help children with scissors because they might end up injuring themselves. Children can also use paints to draw lines upon the plastic bottles if they want. Using cotton and old colored clothes children can make stuff toys. At first, they draw a number of outlines of both sides of dolls on the colorful clothes and cut them. Then children can place cotton on a side of the piece of cloth and covered the cotton by the back side of the doll and stitch them using needles to make a toy. However, they need help from the educator in this activity. After that, they can paint eyes and mouth upon the cotton toys. These toys might be inspired from the cartoons, characters from the books or from individual toy collection. Children might create plans paper boats, flowers, cards and jewelry from the art papers. To do this they must be given color pencils, glue, and scissors. They should watch first the process of making these things and then apply those methods to themselves. This creative activity needs lots of concentration and good for children to increase their attention power. Once the paper toys are complete, they can decorate the classroom or their bedrooms by these paper arts. 1.Choose one type of music and complete the following activities. a.Describe the type of music: Jazz music is a music genre originated amongst the African Americans in the United States. Mostly popular in the late 19th and early 20th, jazz has swing and Blue notes, call and response vocals, polyrhythm and improvisation. This kind of music fits dance best for its strong rhythms. b.Provide three examples of this kind of music: Examples of jazz music contain, Michael Buble- Feeling good. Miles Davis- So what. Billie Holiday – Strange Fruit. c.Explain how you would introduce children to this kind of music. Provide at least five examples. Children might be introduced to this kind of music by understanding the meaning of the music while engaging in other activities. 1.The teacher should provide background information about this kind of music in the manner of storytelling which would help to increase the interest of children. 2.Music listening is a very vital activity as children would feel stress- free in class while listening music and jazz music can be introduced then. 3.Reading the lyrics loud is a good exercise to remember the music. An education Center must have a song reading session. 4.Watching videos of this kind of song may help. 5.A good exercise to remember music is by reading out the lyrics loudly. Every education center should have a session for song reading. 2.Choose one kind of dance and complete the following activities. a.Describe the type of dance. For instance, folk dancing represents traditions of countries and regions to the public. This kind of dancing, mainly organize at public gatherings and the style of dancing is so simple that newcomers and amateurs feel less troubled adopting it. English country dance and Irish dance are associated with folk dancing. Different customs according to the religious and traditional beliefs of several regions are used in folk dance. b.Provide three examples of music this dance might be performed to. Folk dancing might be performed to, The black stone stick Rub the bag Farewell to Erin c.Explain how you would introduce children to this kind of music. Provide at least three examples. Children should be provided the chance to witness folk dancing directly. They can learn this kind of dancing and educators can perform folk dance in front of the children. 1.Children at a childhood education and care service often use clay and associated equipment. At the end of an activity, an educator tells the children put the clay away. How effective is this in installing a sense of ownership and responsibility for equipment and material? What would you suggest the educator do? This is not a very helpful way to increase a sense of ownership and responsibility as the educator did not properly instruct and guide children where and how they should put the clay after the activity. There is no clear indication of necessity behind the reason of putting the clay away. The educator must have told children to put the clay in a box and place it at the corner of the room. They should have given children lessons that clay can dry up and other tiny objects might get trapped into it. Engagement with clay for a long time might enhance germ infections in children. 2.A child engages in an art activity places foreign objects in a glue bottle (eg glitter, scraps of paper, pencil shavings). They have done this before and have been warned against doing it in future. What should the educator do to teach the children a sense of responsibility for equipment and materials? Provide a detailed response. The child has been warned for this activity and if same activity still persists then the teachers must teach the child a lesson. The best way to instruct children is to maintain an instruction table where disciplines are listed and the consequences of avoiding them are mentioned also. Of course, the punishments should be logical and relate to the infraction, say if the child disobeys the rules then he or she has to stay one or two hours extra after the session in the detention room or not permitted to play with anything in the classroom all day long. The educator, on the other hand, should not abuse the child verbally, mentally or physically. Always, there should be an exchange of feelings between the child and the educator about how he or she feels. Behavior or habit of the child should be checked not the child. An educator must make clear to the child the fact that why it is a wrong thing to do. 1. Define improvisation as it pertains to creativity. Improvisation is the method of producing or crafting creative products from any kind of materials readily existing in front of the eyes. It enhances creativity and quick judgment power among people. The term denotes for the construction of a device from unusual products in an unplanned manner. Improvisation, in the perspective of art, means a very natural performance without particular or scripted homework. This skill can be used in the field of art, science, academic and non-academic disciplines. 2. You have been asked to role model creativity by showing children what you would create a paper plate. What would you make? Provide a list of steps that you would follow when making your creation and provide details any other devices that would be needed. Examples of creative things made of the paper plate are, a cat, wall hangings, the moon, dresses for dolls, a butterfly, cards, and others. For example, to build wall hangings from paper plate an educator needs paper plates, paints, and brushes, ribbons, and scissors. 1.Cut the edge of the paper plate in different shapes 2.Paint the whole plate with bright colors 3.The educator may draw several scenarios or images of popular cartoon characters upon the plate 4.Make a hole at the top of the plate carefully, and pass a ribbon through it to hang it on the wall. 1. A child creates a picture of their house. In the picture, the child has included a picture of their garden. The educator tells the child the flowers are much too big. The child response that they really like flowers and they wish the flowers in their garden was that big. The educator tells that they should redraw the pictures with the flowers being portrayed realistically. Write a paragraph of approx 100 words in which the educator is allowing the child to communicate their own ideas, interpretations, and expressions. The child here is not being permitted to communicate their own ideas and interpretations. The educator is trying to repress creativity of the child. Individual expressions and creativity face obstacles where children are forced to think in a rational and factual way. The teacher should always help a child to exhibit own unique ideas. When educators criticize mistakes made by the child and overvalue conventionality, it affects creativity. They should not ask children to redo their drawings instead, they must encourage the differentness and the attempts of the child. 2. An educator tells children that they are going to make their own imaginary animal or creatures. They tell children that they should make their animals as crazy and weird as possible. The educators had supplied a large range of materials and equipment for the children to use and tell them to spread out around the room so they have enough space to make their creatures. They also tell children to take their time. Write a paragraph of approx. 100 words in which you comment on whether the educator is allowing the children to communicate their own ideas, interpretations, and expressions. The children are being allowed to express their individual interpretations and creativity without any hindrance in the drawing process. 1.The educator has guaranteed this by not ordering the children what to do. 2.Allowing them to use several materials of their choice to create imaginative animals. 3.Leaving them at their own self 4.Assuring the fact that uniqueness will be valued here. 5.The educator gives children ample time to absorb in creativity. 6.Giving comfort to the children by informing that they don’t have to worried about making a mess. 1. across the road, building works are being carried out. A child points to the bulldozer and says, ‘what’s that?’ the educator replies, ‘That’s a bulldozer.’ The child asks ‘what does it do?’ How would you recommend the educator help the child to find their own answer? Instead of simply telling the definition of a bulldozer the teacher may allow the children to watch what activity the machine is doing. After watching, it thoroughly educator can provide children images of bulldozers in the classroom to identify it with the real one. Children can watch movies or documentary to understand functions of bulldozers properly. In the education center, the teacher must allow children to demonstrate his or her experiences of witnessing bulldozers. Organizing a workshop where children can learn about different machines is a very effective way of offering lessons. These are the healthy way one child can acquire knowledge about new things. 2. A child is playing with toy cash register. They are trying to get the drawer of the cash register to open but have not succeeded. The child asks the educator, ‘How open?’ How would you recommend the educator help the child to find their own answer? The educator at first, need to provide children knowledge regarding what is a cash box. Then the teacher must let the children recognized other cash boxes with the one in front of them. This way they can realize what is the clue to open the toy cash box. Another way of giving information is that the teacher can directly tell them or open the cash box by pressing some buttons as instructed so, that there will be no confusion among the children relating to the procedure of opening the cash box. It is an essential process as it makes children independent while learning new things. 1. Create a conversation an educator might have with a group of four- year- old children that encourage children to talk about their creations, shares enthusiasm for creative work and encourages children to respect and appreciate the creative works of peers. A conversation between the educator and a group of four-year-old children in the classroom during creative works. Educator: ‘Hello Jack, your painting is so beautiful. Who are they in it?’ Jack: ‘Thank you. They are me, my father, mother and little sister standing on the beach.’ Educator: ‘There is so much blue color in your painting, why?’ Jack: ‘Blue is my favorite color.’ Marry: ‘Even my favorite color is also blue.’ Educator: ‘Good, what you have made?’ Mary: ‘A blue rose on the top of a hill.’ Educator: ‘I can see, Marry likes mountain, right.’ Marry: ‘Mountains are huge. They can almost touch the sky.’ Lily: ‘your picture is so delightful, I want to go there.’ Educator: ‘This is a good way to give encouragement to your friend. Look at your picture, what are those cute little things?’ Marry: ‘they are honey bees in a garden full of flowers.’ Educator: ‘Great work Marry. You chose lots of color for your picture.’ 1. A colleague tells you that they believe in strict timetables and if children cannot complete an activity in the time allocated, that is too bad. They say that children will soon learn to hurry up. What would you tell them about the need to allow time for children to be creative over days and weeks and why educators should adopt a creative approach to routine? The timetable is not necessary for the children because, Children often like to do work under pleasure, this drives them to a sense that they are in their comfortable zone and eventually, can do whatever they want. Allocated time is no effective for the children as it sometimes forces them to finish work under pressure and pressure is an obstacle in the path of creativity. Time and routine are fruitless for the children as they cannot absorb in an innovative work without worrying about finishing the other one at the same time. Each child will have a various play or work speed. It allows children to work impulsively. 2. Provide a list of at least 10 creative tasks that might extend over days of weeks. Provide at least five examples. A list of ten creative tasks: 1.Making a terracotta object 2.Making a portrait of a famous person 3.Creating up and adopting a music routine 4.Constructing a wall painting 5.Decorating tree house 6.Creating a picture library 7.Attempting to write about an event 8.Making a dress 10.Making a small flower garden. Five examples are, 1.Making a terracotta object needs time. A child has to burn and dry the clay and then put different designs upon it. Of course, the child requires the help of elders in this process. 2.Creating portrait needs training and concentration. A child has to observe another picture attentive to make a replica of it. 3.Adopting music is a very tuff job but, with time and practice, one can develop his or her singing ability. 4.Decorating a tree house is a strenuous job and requires time. 5.Creating a picture library needs patience and regularity. 1.Identify two techniques you could teach children using different materials and equipment. You cannot use examples provided in the text. Explain the steps that you would follow when teaching the techniques and provide details of any other materials and equipment that would be needed. Simple stone art can be made by children. Demonstrate them how to use different shapes of stones to create an animal, tree or landscape. Usually, people use big stones but children can use small ones or rubber balls to do the task. It is a good plan to start with a workshop while teaching children how to do stone art. For example, they can start by making mini pictures of trees and flowers on a paper by using stones. The teacher should show them how to apply glue on paper first and arrange stones on it systematically after that. Glass painting is a very fun work for children. Provide examples of how to use paints upon a glass with the help of brushes and even one can use fingers to paint on the glass. Post the painting the teacher should guide the children to dry the glasses to capture the full essence of the paintings. 1.Provide two examples of creative activities that might be planned and implemented to provide opportunities for children to collaborate with each other. Provide a detailed description of each activity. Examples might include: Children can participate in dance activities in the education center. Dance activity engages many students and they can learn different styles of dance cheerfully. It can build a sense of collectiveness between them and they could help each other during the activity. Dance activity develops the student-teacher relationship in a healthy way. A group of children is given an assessment of cleaning the school. The teacher can divide the children into small groups of four people and they are provided with blooms, plastic bags and other things necessary to clean garbage. They are given a time frame and informed that which group cleans the garbage at first, they will be rewarded. These activities bring understanding among children and increase their leadership quality. Rewarding process enhance the sense in children that good works have a value in the society. 1.A child has encountered a real problem. They want to play pretend restaurants but some other children using the customs and props needed for this game. How would you help them in problem-solving process? Provide at least three examples. The educator in this situation should train them to: 1.Recognize the problem. It will help the children to realize that two groups want the same thing at a time. It is impossible for two groups to play with one object at the same time. This realization will bring patience to them. 2.Providing solutions. The child can ask the other group if they are willing to join their group or can they lend that equipment to them and play different games. 3.Assess the solution. Suppose the attempt becomes successful and the child gains the opportunity to play with that desired equipment and at the same time meet new friends in the school. 2.Make a list of five questions you could ask a child to help them critically reflect on a puppet they have made. For instance, the questions may be, 1.From where you have learned to create such beautiful puppet? 2. I have been noticing that you could not decide the dress of your puppet. How you manage to give it this dress at the end? 3.Why you colored the hair red? 4.Why don’t you give your puppet a name of your choice? 5.Describe how you have made this puppet? 1.Children have colored pictures of fish. How would you display this work in a meaningful way? Children are usually prone to colorful pictures. Educators in the care center should hang colorful pictures of fish at a distance so the children can see them. Fish can be glued on the board. The Teacher can make different cards out of the colorful fishes. Those fishes can be used as stickers to decorate class books.The educator can help children to draw pictures of the sea on a vast piece of cardboard and attached the fishes there. 2.Children have created three-dimensional angles and baubles made from polystyrene balls for charismas. How would you display this work in a meaningful way? Angles and the baubles might be used in the decoration of bookshelf or a charismas tree can be installed at the center of the room and the tree can be beautified by the angles, baubles along with other decorative equipment. The baubles, on the other hand, can be hung at the corridors of the school at several heights to bring the festive feeling. The teacher can use children names, the date other necessary information and placed the angels and baubles to display. 1.You have been reading a picture book to children. During free play, you notice a small group of children pretending to be the characters from the books. How would you respond to children’s interest in this case? When children show interest in some kind of work, the teacher should cherish this interest and create a series of activities to develop this interest. These activities are, 1.Proving knowledge in them about plays. Introduce in front of them different kinds of plays their origins and history. 2.Organize drama classes where children can actively participate. 3. Discuss with them about the stage decoration, costumes, and props of the drama. 4.Reading session must be arranged so that the children can read their favorite dramas to the whole class. This will develop their fluency in reading books. 5.Make them independent to choose roles of the play about to stage. 6.Ask them about different ending and beginnings of the play, which will increase creativity in them. 2.How would you respond if one group of children demonstrated an interest in dancing and another group of children demonstrated an interest in making music? In this case, the teacher can divide children into two groups, one group with the people who want to dance and the other group of people who wants to play music. The two groups should be separated from each other so that they can practice peacefully while learning new things. On the other side, the educator can engage different groups to say the dance group and the music group to serve a singular purpose. Dance and music can go hand in hand in the school. 1.Suggest at least three ways that creativity in the form of movement can be nurtured. You cannot use examples provided in the text. The examples can be, Playing a kind of music and asking children to listen to the rhythm of that music. After that, instruct them to move anywhere in the room following the rhythm by their foot. Select any kind of music and teach the children how to make clapping sounds in a systematic way after the music. This activity will bring synchronization between them. Leaving children to do anything like dancing, mimicking, addressing dialogues to someone in the rhythm of the music. 2.Suggest at least three ways that creativity in the form of dramatic play can be nurtured. You cannot use examples provided in the text. The Drama itself is a vital part of creative work. Engage children in a theatrical work would enhance their responsibility. A teacher can include several actions like, The teachers can produce the favorite play of children at the school. Help them to construct different stories including the characters of famous plays will correct children’s writing ability at the same time connect them to creative works. Giving children chances to create several props for the drama by their own hands. 1.Provide five examples of opportunities that might be provided for children to practice their developing music and movement skills. Five examples of developing music and movement skills are, 1.Children can work in groups or individually to develop their instrumental skills. 2.The teacher can bring music teachers once a week for teaching music to several children. 3.Parents can encourage their children to participate in various competitions for better acknowledge of music and for strengthening their ability of music. 4.Children should visit often in musical programs if they want. 5.Listening regular music and practice them at home individually or in a group will help them to develop their music and movement skills. 2.In approx 100 words for each describe a play area, both indoors and outdoors, which provides children with opportunities to enjoy the dramatic and imaginative play. An indoor space must be open so that children get enough opportunity of the movement. This place can be ornamented with bright colored papers, lights and a wide range of props for the play. The indoor place normally has a small stage, but a medium size of the stage is necessary for the children to move freely during drama practice. Different pictures of play write paintings of landscapes from the drama and images of previous productions must be hung on the wall of indoor places so that children feel encouragement to do the next production. A separate place for toys and puppets show can be attached to the place for a puppet theater. The Outdoor place should be big. A lawn or garden is suitable for the outdoor spaces. Children of different ages will be there so availability of several toys will make busy many children and there will be no disturbance for practices. The stage should be big with many pillars so that at one time two groups can practice on the stage. It is useful as various places from the drama can be portrayed easily upon the stage. An outdoor space needs to have green rooms for better costume practice of children. The outdoor place should have sitting arrangements so that parents and other people who want to watch practice sessions can feel comfortable. 1.Conduct research to identify some criteria that could be used to evaluate children’s learning reactions to implemented music and movement experiences for a group of two to four years old. For example, children normally use their voices sensitively as they speak, chant or sing. Children can use varied songs and instruments and other sources for voice modulation. Daily practice in a group on a different pitch, tunes and lines will increase their sense of rhythm. Creating short pieces of music involving instruments, voices will help children to memorize songs better. Teachers should show and appreciate music on a daily basis will leave good impacts on children. Educators should invent songs to accompany children’s activity. Identification of a wide variety of sounds from nature or daily life can help to improve their knowledge regarding music. 1.Describe a modification you might make to a music /movement curriculum to stimulate interest and involvement in music and movement experiences, based on evaluation information that indicates that some children are not participating when singing and movement activities are structured and taught. Discuss in 120 to 150 words. Modifications that could be made are, to begin with, simple movement in music. Individual practices are must to gather interest in students about music. Identification of strengths and weaknesses in children is a must. Suppose, a child is strong in musical instruments, but lack clarity in singing. On the other hand, one child has a melodious voice, but has no knowledge of instruments. Such obstacles can be removed with individual practice sessions. Post the single practice session the teacher can involve chorus performance to improve the pitch of the children. Seeing all the children feel confidence in singing a verse could be added if it is not so difficult for any of the children. If some children find difficulty in adopting the verse while others find it simple, then two separate groups can be made by the educator so that all children can actively participate. Summative assessment 1 Who do the national laws and regulations that make up the legislative framework of NQF apply to? How were the national regulations develop? The NQF consists of a national legislative framework that includes national laws and regulations. The legislation concerning to long day care, family day care, outside school hours care, pre- nursery services, and others. The national legislation offers a vast architecture for NQF, with the regulations presenting thorough requirements for services. The regulations were developed through the collective process of emphasizing on the understanding, experiences, and awareness of the stakeholder legislative body. All states, territories and the Australian government to give concentration upon both a constant focus on the outcomes for children and the requirements for decreased regulatory burden for services. What are the seven quality areas that are included in the NQS? The National Quality Standards contains seven quality areas which are essential in providing excellent early childhood education and school age care services. The areas are, 1.Edification program and performance. 2.Children’s security and healthiness. 4.Mutual partnerships with families and communities 5.Connection with children. 6.Headship and service management. How does the EYLF affect the educators’ roles? EYLF conducts several programs to guide early childhood educators in rising quality plans for early childhood to sure that children in all early education and care center, experience superior teaching and learning. It demonstrates the extensive principles, practices, and outcomes needed to maintain learning of young children. It gives strong importance on play based learning and instructs educators to work in collaboration with families. Play based learning is very effective for the children as it enhances the creativity and builds up freeness in them. The EYLF gives stress upon the desirable knowledge, expertise and attitudes exhibit by the early childhood educators. Describe how children’s drawing skills develop over time. At first, when children learn to draw they will only make jarring lines. To do this they will hold the pastel or pencil with their whole hand and move their hand forward and backward on the paper. Their attempts at this early stage are not the effort of portraying the world. Educators must teach them how to hold a pastel and how to draw lines and different structures on the paper. After that, the child will understand and clutch the crayon with the fingers and draw several structures by the help of their wrist. Thus, children’s paintings will become more systematic. At the age of three or four, there is a constant effort in children to represent the world and the surroundings of them. Formally, this effort starts with drawing person and usually, it takes the form of a circle for the head and four lines for hands and legs. In the later stage they learn to detail in drawing and then the replica of a person develops normally. What is dramatic play and how can you encourage children to engage in dramatic play? Provide at least three examples. Dramatic play can be defined as a kind of play in which children participate, recognize and allocate roles, and then perform them out. It is the time when children shatter the barriers of reality; imagine themselves to be someone different from the everyday self. They stage various situations and actions to go with the flow of the play and the roles they have selected to play. Educators can encourage children by ensuring them that there are ample opportunities for them to engage in dramatic plays whenever and wherever they want. Children are provided with multiple materials that can be made, donated or bought from the market. They can carry their personal things as the props for the drama. Materials and props can be applied in different ways that will stimulate their creativity and interest. How can children be encouraged to implement their own ideas when creating? Provide at least four examples. To encourage children to follow their individual ideas, expressions and understanding an educator should; 1.An educator should avoid dictating and instructing children. Instead of that, they should allow them to paint or draw with the help of their imagination. 2.Teachers must let the children choose the colors and contain. 3.They should ensure that uniqueness will be valued and praised. 4.Give comfort to the children to use various equipment and not give orders to them always. What is curiosity? What can children learn as a result of their curiosity? How can children learn about things that they are interested in? Curiosity can be defined as the yearning to know the unknown. Children are normally curious. They are very much keen to know how the world runs and have an internal wish to learn. Curiosity guides children to problem-solving skills, expand their ideas, individuality, and awareness of a wide range of things. It can increase the chance for children to become unique. Children can learn about things by asking questions. It is the natural process with them. They ask questions to gain information and answers about different things in the world. They often quest for the unknown facts relating to science, painting, music, dance, technologies and others. This search for answers develops inventiveness in them. Summarize quality area 5 –relationship with children- of the NQS including regulations and schedules. What policy does it require service providers to have in place? Quality area 5 narrates the relationship between children and educator and emphasizes on connections of an educator with children being responsive and respectful. It supports children’s sense of security and belongings. This type of connection helps the children to feel free in the classroom situation and absorb in playful learning. This quality area should make certain: 1.Polite and reasonable relationships are enhanced and sustained with each other. 2.Each child is maintained to fabricate and preserve responsive and receptive relationships with other children and adults. Regulations and schedules will include: 1.The service offers a written strategy on encouraging guidance of child behavior that reveals existing practice. 2.The use of bodily force and control physical, spoken or emotional punishments and practices which humiliate, disgrace and terrify or intimidate a child are forbidden. Summative assessment 2 Visual art and construction: 1.Identify and select a range of developmentally appropriate visual, music and other sensory stimuli to provide children with experiences of art and beauty. Visual, musical and other sensory stimuli include: Artworks of different people, pictures of various animals, poetry recitations children can listen through CDs, visiting places, spending time with performers of theaters, talks with people who belong to separate cultures. 2.Describe appropriate materials that children might use to create visual art pieces. Appropriate materials might include: Tree leaves, newspapers, pins, boxes made of cardboards, drawing books, woolen balls, spoons and others. 3.You notice a child showing interest in new colors as they spontaneously mixed three colors while painting. Explain how you might respond to the child’s interest. The child’s interest might be increased by giving a new name to the mixed color. All the other children can be asked to follow the directions of how these colors are mixed. The child can be asked to mixed different colors again like before. 4.Providing an example of an inviting, stimulating and safe experience for individual children or small groups of children that will involve them in visual art that incorporates the use of natural materials. The example of using natural materials those stimuli the visual art of the children is, Make sure all the student visit to a beach and then guide them to collect different types of shells and stones. After returning from the beach instructs them to paint those stones and shells with their favorite colors. 5.Children are coloring in a picture of a dragon. One of the children presses down so hard on their pencils that the picture rips. A colleague snap sat the child and tells them that they are silly for making this mistake. Comment on their behavior and the effect it might have on the child. The educator here did a wrong work. Children should not be scold when they made mistakes. It will generate nervousness in them. Instead of that, they should be allowed to do mistakes so that they can learn out of it. The educator should provide the child a new piece of the picture and should instruct how to use crayons smoothly on pictures. 6.You want children to create a picture or model of a fantasy house they would like to live in (eg it might have a soccer field, be all pink of have room fill with lollies). You want them to be as creative as possible. What will you need to supply so that the children are able to use their own ideas? The educator can provide them varieties of materials so that their fantasies become true. Those materials are colored papers, dolls, plastic pins and cliffs, buttons, chocolate raping, dry leaves, small wooden boards and other things. 7.Provide an example of a conversation you might have with children when encouraging them to talk about their creations, asking open questions and encouraging children to respect and appreciate the works of other peers. Educator: ‘well Bella, you might love dolls too much. I have seen different colors of dolls in your exercise book. What make you so passionate about it?’ Bella: ‘Yes, I am very fond of dolls. My mother used to make dolls for me at home. But I like the Japanese types most.’ Rainy: ‘Your dolls are adorable. I wish I could have like this one.’ Educator: ‘Good job Rainy. Everyone should appreciate works of other people like this.’ 8.Children have made masks of animals they have been learning about. Why is it important to display their masks and other creations? Displays of children’s artworks make them feel proud about their creativity. It shows the respect and value of their works in the eye of elder people. This is a very good example for younger students and newcomers in the care center. 9.One of a mask made by the child is not particularly skillful or attractive. What would you do with regard of displaying it? Explain. Although, the mask is less attractive the teacher should display it with other creations as the child put so much effort in it. The educator can personally teach the child about how to improve it later but he or she should not make embarrassed in front of everyone. Dramatic and imaginative play: 1.Describe play areas both indoors and outdoors, which provide children with opportunities to enjoy the dramatic and imaginative play. The Indoor area should be free from furniture and there must be lots of props available for dramatic plays. Outdoor games should have an open space with ample opportunity for children to play with rocks, by-cycles, and other equipment. 2.Identify appropriate experiences to stimulate children’s involvement in dramatic and imaginative activities. Children could meet with theatrical persona if possible; they could read many dramas written by famous authors by the help of elders. They can share their experiences of reading a book to the class. 3.Provide an example of an inviting, stimulating and safe experience for individual children or small groups of children that will involve them in imitative, dramatic and imaginative play. An example would be creating new stories by the children after listening to various stories from the teacher. 4.A group of children is engaged in an imaginative play where they are pretending to be firefighters. You are standing near to the children. One of the children keep asking a lot of questions, such as: ‘why do firefighters wear helmets? ‘Why are fire engines red?’ ‘Why do fire engines have sirens?’ you are becoming tired of all the questions they are asking. What should you do? Although it is tiring, the teacher should not feel irritated by them and tell them to stop. Instead, they can provide student friendly documentary on firefighters to watch and learn from it. 5.Why is role playing an important technique to learn? How would you teach children this technique? Role playing is important to build consciousness among children. It is helpful to stimulate intellect and awareness in children about the observations they have made of real events in life. Children can be taught role playing by demonstrating through acting what events they have seen in their lives. The teacher can give examples of simple events that the students can relate and act it out in front of the whole class. Music and movement: 1.Explain how you might set up the environment in a way that encourages children’s participation in developmentally appropriate music and movement experiences. The environment can be set in a way that will induce fun and freeness among children. Music from animation movies, popular singers can encourage children to participate in music and movement experiences. Instrumental music will help children develop their knowledge regarding musical instruments. 2.A five-year-old is showing great potential spontaneously playing the old piano in the corner. Explain how you might formulate strategies to encourage the development of this child’s individual music potentials/to encourage them to participate. The educator can praise the child’s musical skills. The children can be asked questions about from where he or she learns to play the piano. Other children should be asked to watch how the child is playing the instrument. 3.Explain how you might encourage improvisation with instruments. Improvisation with instruments can be done by inviting musicians in the classroom and while the musician stops playing music the students can be asked to add different tune and pitch to the music. 4.Provide an example of a situation where a program is designed to respond to children’s interests that arise spontaneously as they participate in music and movement experiences. Suppose a child is asking about rock and roll music and dance they have seen in movies or other places then the activities should be helpful enough to measure the children’s interest. Perhaps the teacher can teach them a piece of rock and roll song or dance form. 5.Describe appropriate attitudes and interaction that you should model to encourage children’s input and participation in music and movement experiences. A teacher is a guide to the children. The role of an educator must be to give proper instructions to the children when they are trying new things. Teachers can participate with the children equally and actively in musical movements. 6.Identify stimulating, developmentally appropriate and inclusive music and movement experiences for children aged one or two years of age. One-year-old children can learn simple rhymes in rhythms. Repetition at this age is necessary and the educator must provide help to them by playing music while they are trying to sing. Two-year-old children can adopt better so, they should be provided with little large and complex songs with changing tunes and the educator should help them do repetition of the same tune. 7.Choose a musical instrument that children might use and explain how you would get them to take ownership and responsibility for that instrument. For instance, if a child is using guitar then the teacher should instruct him or her about how to wipe it after use and how to maintain the guitar. 8.Describe a method you might use to evaluate a child’s participation in and reactions to planned music and movement experiences. Examples of methods might include, 1.Documenting children musical performance, 2.Asking every child about their individual experiences. 3.Capturing photos of the performances. 9.Explain what educators use the evaluations for. Educators use the evaluation process to measure strengths and weaknesses in children. They measure each behavior, body language of the children to understand how they are interacting with various processes in the classroom during a musical session.
Anh 6 tiet 55 UNIT 9 THE BODY Lesson 1. A. Part of the body Period 55 ( A1, A2 ) I. Objective : * Identifying parts of the body. II. Language contents : head shoulder arm hand finger chest thigh [θai] leg foot – feet toe Review the structure : What is that? - That is his head. What are those? - Those are his shoulders. Role play Questions- answers Guessing V. Teaching aids:I Role play cards pictures cassette recorder + tape V. Teaching steps: Teacher’s & Ss’ activities Content * Warm up: T hangs the picture of a body on the board.Then asks “ How many part of the body are there?” Well, look at the picture and listen to the tape. Play the tape A1, shows the part of the body. Play the tape again, Ss repeat. - T Give the meaning of NW - Let them repeat then write down. -T fixes the name of each part of the body. Ss reread all new words. Then fix the name of each part of the body again. * While –listening: T shows each part of thebody and asks: What is that? / What are those? - Ss answer the Qs Give the game “ Guessing game”. Use the cues. 1. It is on the top of your body. What is it? 2. They are at the end of your legs. What are + His head (n): 3. It is between your arms. What is it? 4. They are on your hands? What are they? Say the parts of the body again. + Notice “ foot – feet” -Call Ss to show their parts and give the name of Learn by heart new words. Do exercises A1, A2 (P83) Workbook. S1: What are those? S2: Those are his arms. S1: What is that ? S2: That is his head. . . . . . Guess the word:
A capacitor is a device that stores energy in the electric field created between a pair of conductors on which equal but opposite electric charges have been placed. A capacitor is occasionally referred to using the older term condenser. A capacitor consists of two electrodes or plates, each of which stores an opposite charge. These two plates are conductive and are separated by an insulator or dielectric. The charge is stored at the surface of the plates, at the boundary with the dielectric. Because each plate stores an equal but opposite charge, the total charge in the capacitor is always zero. In SI units, a capacitor has a capacitance of one farad (F) when one coulomb (C) of charge causes a potential difference of one volt (V) across the plates. Since the farad is a very large unit, values of capacitors are usually expressed in microfarads (µF) x10-6, nanofarads (nF) x10-9 or picofarads (pF) x10-12. The capacitance is proportional to the surface area of the conducting plate and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. It is also proportional to the permittivity of the dielectric (that is, non-conducting) substance that separates the plates. The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is given by: where ε is the permittivity of the dielectric, A is the area of the plates and d is the spacing between them. Stored energy Edit As opposite charges accumulate on the plates of a capacitor due to the separation of charge, a voltage develops across the capacitor owing to the electric field of these charges. Ever increasing work must be done against this ever increasing electric field as more charge is separated. The energy (measured in joules, in SI) stored in a capacitor is equal to the amount of work required to establish the voltage across the capacitor, and therefore the electric field. The energy stored is given by: where V is the voltage across the capacitor. As electrical circuitry can be modeled by fluid flow, a capacitor can be modeled as a chamber with a flexible diaphragm separating the input from the output. As can be determined intuitively as well as mathematically, this provides the correct characteristics: the pressure across the unit is proportional to the integral of the current, a steady-state current cannot pass through it but a pulse or alternating current can be transmitted, the capacitance of units connected in parallel is equivalent to the sum of their individual capacitance; etc. In electric circuits Edit Circuits with DC sources Edit Electrons cannot directly pass across the dielectric from one plate of the capacitor to the other. When there is a current through a capacitor, electrons accumulate on one plate and electrons are removed from the other plate. This process is commonly called 'charging' the capacitor even though the capacitor is at all times electrically neutral. In fact, the current through the capacitor results in the separation rather than the accumulation of electric charge. This separation of charge causes an electric field to develop between the plates of the capacitor giving rise to voltage across the plates. This voltage V is directly proportional to the amount of charge separated Q. But Q is just the time integral of the current I through the capacitor. This is expressed mathematically as: - I is the current flowing in the conventional direction, measured in amperes - C is the capacitance in farads For circuits with a constant (DC) voltage source, the voltage across the capacitor cannot exceed the voltage of the source. Thus, an equilibrium is reached where the voltage across the capacitor is constant and the current through the capacitor is zero. For this reason, it is commonly said that capacitors block DC current. Circuits with AC sources Edit The capacitor current due to an AC voltage or current source reverses direction periodically. That is, the AC current alternately charges the plates in one direction and then the other. With the exception of the instant that the current changes direction, the capacitor current is non-zero at all times during a cycle. For this reason, it is commonly said that capacitors 'pass' AC current. However, at no time do electrons actually cross between the plates. Since the voltage across a capacitor is the integral of the current, as shown above, with sine waves in AC or signal circuits this results in a phase difference of 90 degrees, the current leading the voltage phase angle. It can be shown that the AC voltage across the capacitor is in quadrature with the AC current through the capacitor. That is, the voltage and current are 'out-of-phase' by a quarter cycle. The amplitude of the voltage depends on the amplitude of the current divided by the product of the frequency of the current with the capacitance, C. The ratio of the voltage amplitude to the current amplitude is called the reactance of the capacitor. This capacitive reactance is given by: - , the angular frequency measured in radians per second - XC = capacitive reactance, measured in ohms - f = frequency of AC in hertz - C = capacitance in farads and is analogous to the resistance of a resistor. Clearly, the reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency. That is, for very high-frequency alternating currents the reactance approaches zero so that a capacitor is nearly a short circuit to a very high frequency AC source. Conversely, for very low frequency alternating currents, the reactance increases without bound so that a capacitor is nearly an open circuit to a very low frequency AC source. Reactance is so called because the capacitor doesn't dissipate power, but merely stores energy. In electrical circuits, as in mechanics, there are two types of load, resistive and reactive. Resistive loads (analogous to an object sliding on a rough surface) dissipate energy that enters them, ultimately by electromagnetic emission (see Black body radiation), while reactive loads (analogous to a spring or frictionless moving object) retain the energy. The impedance of a capacitor is given by: where and is the imaginary unit[]. Hence, capacitive reactance is the negative imaginary component of impedance. The negative sign indicates that the current leads the voltage by 90° for a sinusoidal signal, as opposed to the inductor, where the current lags the voltage by 90°. Also significant is that the impedance is inversely proportional to the capacitance, unlike resistors and inductors for which impedances are linearly proportional to resistance and inductance respectively. This is why the series and shunt impedance formulae (given below) are the inverse of the resistive case. In series, impedances sum. In shunt, conductances sum. This shows that a capacitor has a high impedance to low-frequency signals (when ω is small) and a low impedance to high-frequency signals (when ω is large). This frequency dependent behaviour accounts for most uses of the capacitor (see "Applications", below). When using the Laplace transform[] in circuit analysis, the capacitive impedance is represented in the s domain by: Capacitors and displacement currentEdit The physicist James Clerk Maxwell[] invented the concept of displacement current, dD/dt, to make Ampere's law consistent with conservation of charge in cases where charge is accumulating as in a capacitor. He interpreted this as a real motion of charges, even in vacuum, where he supposed that it corresponded to motion of dipole[] charges in the luminiferous aether[]. Although this interpretation has been abandoned, Maxwell's correction to Ampere's law remains valid. Capacitor networks Edit A capacitor can be used to block the DC Current flowing within the circuit and therefore have important applications in coupling of ac signals between amplifier stages, whilst preventing dc from passing. Series or parallel arrangements Edit - Main article: Series and parallel circuits Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage). Their total capacitance (Ceq) is given by: The current through capacitors in series stays the same, but the voltage across each capacitor can be different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage. Their total capacitance is given by: In parallel, the total charge stored is the sum of the charge in each capacitor. While in series, the charge on each capacitor is the same. One possible reason to connect capacitors in series is to increase the overall voltage rating. In practice, a very large resistor might be connected across each capacitor to ensure that the total voltage is divided appropriately for the individual ratings, rather than by minute differences in the capacitance values. Another application is for use of polarized capacitors in alternating current circuits; the capacitors are connected in series, in reverse polarity, so that at any given time one of the capacitors is not conducting. Capacitor/inductor duality Edit In mathematical terms, the ideal capacitor can be considered as an inverse of the ideal inductor, because the voltage-current equations of the two devices can be transformed into one another by exchanging the voltage and current terms. Just as two or more inductors can be magnetically coupled to make a transformer, two or more charged conductors can be electrostatically coupled to make a capacitor. The mutual capacitance of two conductors is defined as the current that flows in one when the voltage across the other changes by unit voltage in unit time. Capacitors have very many uses in electronic and electrical systems. Energy storage Edit A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it can be used like a temporary battery. The recent commercial availability of very large value capacitors, one farad in size and larger, has enabled such components to allow batteries to be changed in electronic devices without the memory being lost, for instance, or for energy storage for delivery during extreme peak demands, as often found in the enormously powerful car audio systems now seen. Signal processing Edit The energy stored in a capacitor can be used to represent information, either in binary form, as in computers, or in analogue form, as in switched-capacitor circuits and bucket-brigade delay lines. Capacitors can be used in analog circuits as components of integrators or more complex filters and in negative feedback loop stabilization. Signal processing circuits also use capacitors to integrate a current signal. Power supply applications Edit Capacitors are commonly used in power supplies where they smooth the output of a full or half wave rectifier. They can also be used in charge pump circuits as the energy storage element in the generation of higher voltages than the input voltage. Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic devices and larger systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conceal current fluctuations from the primary power source to provide a "clean" power supply for signal or control circuits. Audio equipment, for example, uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum before it gets into the signal circuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power source, and bypass AC currents from the power supply. Capacitors are used in power factor correction. Such capacitors often come as three capacitors connected as a three phase load. Usually, the values of these capacitors are given not in farads but rather as a reactive power in volt-amperes reactive (VAr). The purpose is to match the inductive loading of machinery which contains motors, to make the load appear to be mostly resistive. Capacitors are also used in parallel to interrupt units of a high-voltage circuit breaker in order to distribute the voltage between these units. In this case they are called grading capacitors. In schematic diagrams, a capacitor used primarily for DC charge storage is often drawn vertically in circuit diagrams with the lower, more negative, plate drawn as an arc. The straight plate indicates the positive terminal of the device, if it is polarized (see electrolytic capacitor). Non-polarized electrolytic capacitors used for signal filtering are typically drawn with two curved plates. Other non-polarized capacitors are drawn with two straight plates. Capacitors and inductors are applied together in tuned circuits to select information in particular frequency bands. For example, radio receivers rely on variable capacitors to tune the station frequency. Speakers use passive analog crossovers, and analog equalizers use capacitors to select different audio bands. Signal coupling Edit Because capacitors pass AC but block DC signals (when charged up to the applied dc voltage), they are often used to separate the AC and DC components of a signal. This method is known as AC coupling. (Sometimes transformers are used for the same effect.) Here, a large value of capacitance, whose value need not be accurately controlled, but whose reactance is small at the signal frequency, is employed. Capacitors for this purpose designed to be fitted through a metal panel are called feed-through capacitors, and have a slightly different schematic symbol. Noise filters, motor starters, and snubbersEdit When an inductive circuit is opened, the energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductance collapses quickly, creating a large voltage across the open circuit of the switch or relay. If the inductance is large enough, the energy will generate a spark, causing the contact points to oxidize, deteriorate, or sometimes weld together, or destroying a solid-state switch. A snubber capacitor across the newly opened circuit creates a path for this impulse to bypass the contact points, thereby preserving their life; these were commonly found in contact breaker ignition systems, for instance. Similarly, in smaller scale circuits, the spark may not be enough to damage the switch but will still radiate undesirable radio frequency interference (RFI), which a filter capacitor absorbs. Snubber capacitors are usually employed with a low-value resistor in series, to dissipate energy more slowly and minimize RFI. Such resistor-capacitor combinations are available in a single package. In an inverse fashion, to initiate current quickly through an inductive circuit requires a greater voltage than required to maintain it; in uses such as large motors, this can cause undesirable startup characteristics, and a motor starting capacitor is used to store enough energy to give the current the initial push required to start the motor up. Transducer applications Edit Although capacitors usually maintian a fixed physical structure and utilization varies the electrical voltage and current, the effects of varying the physical and/or electrical characteristics of the dielectric with a fixed electrical supply can also be of use. Capacitors with an exposed and porous dielectric can be used to measure humidity in air. Capacitors with a flexible plate can be used to measure strain or pressure. Capacitors are used as the transducer in condenser microphones, where one plate is moved by air pressure, relative to the fixed position fo the other plate. Some accelerometers use MEMS capacitors etched on a chip to measure the magnitude and direction of the acceleration vector. They are used to detect changes in acceleration, eg. as tilt sensors or to detect free fall, as sensors triggering airbag deployment, and in many other applications. Weapons applications Edit An obscure military application of the capacitor is in an EMP weapon. A plastic explosive is used for the dielectric. The capacitor is charged up and the explosive is detonated. The capacitance becomes smaller, but the charge on the plates stays the same. This creates a high-energy electromagnetic shock wave capable of destroying unprotected electronics for miles around. Ideal and non ideal capacitorsEdit In practice, this ideal model of the capacitor often has to be modified to reflect real world capacitor construction and operation. The most obvious example is electrolytic capacitors, where the capacitor is polarized such that when the voltage is connected in reversed fashion, the capacitor acts as a resistor. Similar problems of dielectric leakage are a constant complication of all capacitor design however, and have led to constant improvements in capacitor design, as the material used for dielectrics has changed from oiled paper to mylar and from ceramic to Teflon. This also addresses the related problem of dielectric stability; oiled or electrolyte soaked paper dries out over time, reducing the capacitance and increasing leakage, a problem reduced in modern components. On the other hand, the requirements of large plate area for reasonably useful capacitor values as well as reasonable packaging resulted in the universal practice of rolling the plate/dielectric sandwich into a cylinder, which was then encapsulated. However, this process also creates an inductance in series with the capacitance, just as introducing a coiled wire of similar characteristics in series with the flat capacitor would; in sensitive circuits, this inductance must be taken into account, either by using a capacitor designed to have lower inductance, or by bypassing a large capacitor with a smaller, noninductive one. This practice has become more common in audiophile-oriented products recently, as inductive problems in low-cost capacitors were demonstrated to degrade high-frequency fidelity. Computers and cell (mobile) phones use surface-mount stacked capacitors, since these devices have no leads and therefore no lead inductance. When the capacitor plates are mounted at right-angles to the ciruit board, the inductance can be made extremely low. To further reduce inductance, wide conductor traces and small gaps are used and the capacitor is shaped accordingly. Dielectric materials can produce unwanted side effects. For example, the dielectric constant of barium titanate[] used in ceramic capacitors changes with temperature and pressure. Such capacitors are sensitive to vibration and flexing, and can cause a type of signal modulation in electronic circuits called microphonics. Capacitor hazards and safetyEdit Capacitors may retain a charge long after power is removed from a circuit; this charge can cause shocks (up to and including electrocution) or damage to connected equipment. Since capacitors have such low equivalent series resistances (ESRs), they have the capacity to deliver large currents into short circuits; this can be dangerous. Care must be taken to ensure that any large or high-voltage capacitor is properly discharged before servicing the containing equipment. For safety purposes, all large capacitors should be discharged before handling. For board-level capacitors, this is done by placing a bleeder resistor across the terminals, whose resistance is large enough that the leakage current will not affect the circuit, but small enough to discharge the capacitor shortly after power is removed. High voltage capacitors should be stored with the terminals shorted to dissipate any stored charge. Large oil-filled old capacitors must be disposed of properly as some contain polychlorinated biphenyls [](PCBs). It is known that waste PCBs can leak into groundwater under landfills. If consumed by drinking contaminated water, PCBs are carcinogenic[], even in very tiny amounts. If the capacitor is physically large it is more likely to be dangerous and may require precautions in addition to those described above. New electrical components are no longer produced with PCBs. Disambiguation: Please keep in mind that PCB in electronics usually means Printed Circuit Board, unlike in chemistry where it may be used as seen above. - Capacitor plague capacitor failures on computer motherboards - Circuit design - Practical capacitors - Practical Capacitors and other Electronics for Robotics - Caltech: Practical capacitor properties - General Atomics Electronic Systems, inc. High Voltage Pulsed Power Capacitors and Systems. - Skeleton NanoLab, Research & Development of advanced capacitors - Howstuffworks.com: How Capacitors Work - CapSite 2006: Introduction to Capacitors - AC circuits "IEEE Spectrum", January, 2005 Vol 42, No. 1, North American Edition. - "The ARRL Handbook for Radio Amateurs, 68th ed", The Amateur Radio Relay League, Newington CT USA, 1991 - "Basic Circuit Theory with Digital Computations", Lawrence P. Huelsman, Prentice-Hall, 1972 - Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society LXXII, Appendix 8, 1782 (Volta coins the word condenser) - A. K. Maini "Electronic Projects for Beginners", "Pustak Mahal", 2nd Edition: March, 1998 (INDIA[]) - Spark Museum (von Kleist and Musschenbroek) - Biography of von Kleist \|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).\|
A delicate ribbon of gas floats eerily in our galaxy. A contrail from an alien spaceship? A jet from a black-hole? Actually this image, taken by NASA's Hubble Space Telescope, is a very thin section of a supernova remnant caused by a stellar explosion that occurred more than 1,000 years ago. On or around May 1, 1006 A.D., observers from Africa to Europe to the Far East witnessed and recorded the arrival of light from what is now called SN 1006, a tremendous supernova explosion caused by the final death throes of a white dwarf star nearly 7,000 light-years away. The supernova was probably the brightest star ever seen by humans, and surpassed Venus as the brightest object in the night time sky, only to be surpassed by the moon. It was visible even during the day for weeks, and remained visible to the naked eye for at least two and a half years before fading away. It wasn't until the mid-1960s that radio astronomers first detected a nearly circular ring of material at the recorded position of the supernova. The ring was almost 30 arcminutes across, the same angular diameter as the full moon. The size of the remnant implied that the blast wave from the supernova had expanded at nearly 20 million miles per hour over the nearly 1,000 years since the explosion occurred. In 1976, the first detection of exceedingly faint optical emission of the supernova remnant was reported, but only for a filament located on the northwest edge of the radio ring. A tiny portion of this filament is revealed in detail by the Hubble observation. The twisting ribbon of light seen by Hubble corresponds to locations where the expanding blast wave from the supernova is now sweeping into very tenuous surrounding gas. The hydrogen gas heated by this fast shock wave emits radiation in visible light. Hence, the optical emission provides astronomers with a detailed "snapshot" of the actual position and geometry of the shock front at any given time. Bright edges within the ribbon correspond to places where the shock wave is seen exactly edge on to our line of sight. Today we know that SN 1006 has a diameter of nearly 60 light-years, and it is still expanding at roughly 6 million miles per hour. Even at this tremendous speed, however, it takes observations typically separated by years to see significant outward motion of the shock wave against the grid of background stars. In the Hubble image as displayed, the supernova would have occurred far off the lower right corner of the image, and the motion would be toward the upper left. SN 1006 resides within our Milky Way Galaxy. Located more than 14 degrees off the plane of the galaxy's disk, there is relatively little confusion with other foreground and background objects in the field when trying to study this object. In the Hubble image, many background galaxies (orange extended objects) far off in the distant universe can be seen dotting the image. Most of the white dots are foreground or background stars in our Milky Way galaxy. This image is a composite of hydrogen-light observations taken with Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys in February 2006 and Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 observations in blue, yellow-green, and near-infrared light taken in April 2008. The supernova remnant, visible only in the hydrogen-light filter was assigned a red hue in the Heritage color image. For additional information, contact: Space Telescope Science Institute, Baltimore, Md. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Object Names: SN 1006, SNR 327.6+14.6 Image Type: Astronomical Acknowledgment: W. Blair (Johns Hopkins University) To access available information and downloadable versions of images in this news release, click on any of the images below:
Lupus is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease. There are three common types of lupus. - Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) is the most serious. SLE can affect almost any organ or system in the body including blood vessels, muscles, joints, the digestive tract, lungs, kidneys, heart and central nervous system. - Discoid lupus causes a raised, scaly, red rash, usually on the face, scalp and neck and may cause scarring. - Drug-induced lupus is a type of lupus which is caused by prescription medications. Symptoms are similar to those of SLE; and once the medication is stopped, the symptoms usually cease. - Neonatal lupus is a rare disease that can affect some newborn babies of women with SLE or certain other immune system disorders. These babies may have a heart defect, skin rash, low blood count, and/or liver problems. However, most infants of mothers with SLE are born healthy.
Proteolytic enzyme, also called protease, proteinase, or peptidase, any of a group of enzymes that break the long chainlike molecules of proteins into shorter fragments (peptides) and eventually into their components, amino acids. Proteolytic enzymes are present in bacteria, archaea, certain types of algae, some viruses, and plants; they are most abundant, however, in animals. There are different types of proteolytic enzymes, which are classified according to sites at which they catalyze the cleavage of proteins. The two major groups are the exopeptidases, which target the terminal ends of proteins, and the endopeptidases, which target sites within proteins. Endopeptidases employ various catalytic mechanisms; within this group are the aspartic endopeptidases, cysteine endopeptidases, glutamic endopeptidases, metalloendopeptidases, serine endopeptidases, and threonine endopeptidases. The term oligopeptidase is reserved for those enzymes that act specifically on peptides. Among the best-known proteolytic enzymes are those that reside in the digestive tract. In the stomach, protein materials are attacked initially by a gastric endopeptidase known as pepsin. When the protein material is passed to the small intestine, proteins, which are only partially digested in the stomach, are further attacked by proteolytic enzymes secreted by the pancreas. These enzymes are liberated in the small intestine from inactive precursors produced by the acinar cells in the pancreas. The precursors are called trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, proelastase, and procarboxypeptidase. Trypsinogen is transformed to an endopeptidase called trypsin by an enzyme (enterokinase) secreted from the walls of the small intestine. Trypsin then activates the precursors of chymotrypsin, elastase, and carboxypeptidase. When the pancreatic enzymes become activated in the intestine, they convert proteins into free amino acids, which are easily absorbed by the cells of the intestinal wall. The pancreas also produces a protein that inhibits trypsin. It is thought that in this manner the pancreas protects itself from autodigestion.
Children with more severe speech and/or language problems often require an assistive means to communicate. We call assistive means Augmentative and Alternatative Communication (AAC). The use of gestures and sign language to supplement speech, and enhance communication, are considered methods of "augmenting" communication. if a child in non-verbal or his/her speech is signicantly unintelligible, visual supports are used to augment and also provide an alternative means to support a child's message. It is important to reassure parents and caregivers that AAC implementation in no way replaces the child's speech, but rather supports his/her speech and means of communication, and speech is always encouraged first and foremost. Low tech refers to the use of tangible picture cards, which can be symbols or real photographs, to allow an alternative means for a child to greet, request, comment, and ask questions. Depending on the child's cognitive and language abilities, some may learn to use a Pragmatic Organisation Dynamic Display (PODD) or a high tech display such as "Proloquo 2 Go" on an iPad. AAC systems always require in-depth assessment and trials, in conjunction with family, professionals, school teams, etc.
Cellular automata are simulations on a linear, square, or cubic grid on which each cell can be in a single state, often just ON and OFF, and where each cell operates on its own, taking the states of its neighbors as input and showing a state as output. One of the simplest examples of these would be a 1-dimensional cellular automaton in which each cell has two states, ON and OFF, which are represented by black and white, and where each cell turns on if at least one of its neighbors are in the ON state. When started from 1 cell, this simply creates a widening black line. When the layers are shown all at once, though, you can see that it makes a pyramidal shape. For example, in the figure above, the second line is generated from doing the rule for all cells in the first line, the third line from the second line, and so on. More complicated figures can be generated from different rules, such as a cellular automaton in which a cell changes to ON if either the cell to it’s top left or top-right is ON, but not if both are on. This creates a Sierpinski Triangle when starting from a single cell: Stephen Wolfram developed a numbering system for all cellular automata which base only on themselves, their left-hand neighbor, and their right-hand neighbor, often called the elementary cellular automata, which looks something like this for the Sierpinski Triangle automata (Rule 18): This code has all possible ON and OFF states for three cells on the top, and the effect that it creates on the cell below them on the bottom. Using this system, we can find that there are 256 different elementary cellular automata. We can also easily create a number for each automaton by simply converting the ON and OFF states at the bottom to 1s and 0s, and then combining them to make a binary number (00010010 in the Sierpinski Triangle example). Then, we convert the binary to decimal and so get the rule number. (1280+640+320+161+80+40+21+10= 18 for the example). We can also do the reverse to get a cellular automata from a number. Using this method, we can create pictures of all 255 elementary cellular automata: Some of these are rather interesting, such as Rule 30 and Rule 110: Whilst some are rather boring, such as Rule 0, which is just white, or Rule 14, which is a single diagonal line. There are many variations on this basic cellular automata type, such as an extension of the code where next-nearest neighbors are also included. This results in 4294967296 different cellular automata, a few of which appear to create almost 3-dimensional patterns such as the 3D Tetrahedrons cellular automata (rule 3283936144 ) which appears to show certain tetrahedral-ish shapes popping out of a plane. There are also totalistic cellular automata, which are created by basing the next cell somehow on the average of the top-left, center, and top-right cells above it. These can have more than two states, and sometimes produce very strange-looking patterns, such as Rule 1599, a 3-state cellular automata: As well as all these, there are continuous-valued cellular automata, which, instead of having cells that can only be in certain states, have the cells have real-number values. Then, at every step a function is applied to the cell that is to be changed as well as it’s neighbors. A good example of this is the Heat cellular automaton, in which the function is ((left_neighbor+old_cell+right_neighbor)/3+ a number between 0 and 1) mod 1). It produces a “boiling” effect, in which it resembles a pot of water slowly boiling on an oven. There are tons more 1-dimensional cellular automata; Stephen Wolfram filled most of an entire (1200 page) book with these. However, there are essentially only 4 classes of cellular automata. The first type is the most boring; it is where the cellular automata evolves into a single, uniform state. An example of this would be the Rule 254 elementary cellular automata (the first example), which eventually evolves into all black. The second type, repetition, is a little more interesting, as it does not evolve into a single state but is instead repetitive. This can include a single line, simple oscillation, or fractal-like behavior, an example of which would be Rule 18. The third type is simply completely chaotic behavior- not very interesting, but definitely more than the previous two- such as in Rule 30. The last type, type 4, is where there are many individual structures that interact, sometimes passing right through, other times blowing up. An example of this would be Rule 110. This type is probably the most interesting to watch, as the eventual outcome is unknown. These 4 types cover nearly any cellular automata, except for the ones which appear to be midway in between the types. We can easily go past 1-dimension and study two-dimensional cellular automata. Probably the most famous of these is Conway’s Game of Life, invented by John Conway in 1970. In it, clusters of cells appear to grow, and then collapse as “gliders” move across the screen. It only uses 4 rules, and easily falls into the category of Class 4 cellular automata. The rules are: 1. Any live cell with less than 2 neighbors dies. (starvation) 2. Any live cell with more than 3 neighbors dies. (overcrowding) 3. Any live cell with 2 or 3 neighbors stays alive. 4. Any dead cell with three live neighbors becomes alive (birth) Here, the neighborhood of a cell is defined as the 8 cells that surround it. When the Game of Life was first shown, tons of people went crazy writing programs for simulating it on computers, and supposedly thousands of hours of computer time were “wasted” simulating these patterns. One worker at a company even installed a “Boss” button for switching the display from Life to whatever he was supposed to be working on when his boss walked by! Conway had offered a $50 dollar prize to whoever could find a pattern that expands infinitely. This could be a sort of glider gun, which shoots out gliders, a puffer, that leaves a trail of debris, or a spacefiller which expands out in all directions. The prize was claimed by Bill Gosper when he discovered the Gosper Glider Gun. Since then, lots of new patterns have been discovered in the Game of Life, such as a puffer train, a hexadecimal counter, a fractal-generator, and even a “computer” which will do practically anything it is programmed to do. There are many other 2-dimensional cellular automata, which can be written in a certain notation which tells with which neighbor-numbers the dead cell turns alive, and for what neighbor-numbers the live cell stays alive. For example, Conway’s Game of Life could be written as B3/S23 . Many other cellular automata can be written using this notation. Some of the more interesting ones are Fredkin’s automaton (B1357/S02468) , which replicates any starting pattern. That’s all it does, no exceptions, so there’s no possibility of making anything like an adder in it. Another interesting one is the “Maze” rule (B3/S12345) , which produces maze-like patterns. Changing the rule to B37/S12345 creates dots that move through the shape. One of the most interesting of these, though, is 2×2 Life (B36/S125) , a rule that is similar in character to Life but has much different patterns. Gliders are also a bit more rare, although there are a lot of interesting oscillators. In rules like these, such as Day & Night (B3678/S3478) it makes almost no difference whether the colors are reversed. Day & Night also, at the end of patterns, has lots of oscillators. Naturally, you can extend this form to allow multiple states. Brian’s Brain (/2/3) is an example of this, in which there are three states, and in which gliders and glider guns are very much common. In fact, Still Lifes are almost nonexistent! The notation above means that a cell in state 1 (and only in state 1) stays alive if it has (null) neighbors, that a dead cell becomes a state 1 cell if it has 2 neighbors, and that there are 3 states (0,1,2) . There are many modifications of this rule, one which causes scaffold-like structures to form, and even one which combines with Conway’s Game of Life! You can easily make your own rules by simply choosing numbers to put in. Many of them appear to just be chaotic, but you can find rules which create rather interesting patterns. A good one is the Star Wars cellular automaton, 345/2/4 , which starts out like the Brian’s Brain rule but soon creates structures which shoot out gliders. A fun thing to do in this rule is to make “Train tracks” which let 1×3 rectangles move around them in both directions. Of course, you can also simulate all of the Life-ish rules by changing the number of states to be 2, so that there are only ON and OFF states. As if all this weren’t enough, there’s even a generalization of the previous into arbitrarily many rules for arbitrarily many states, as a rule table. Basically, the rules are based on a large table that tells the cell in a certain state to change to a different (or the same) state if it has <this> many live neighbors. The different rules for each state makes it easy to get the cellular automaton to do exactly what you want it to do. A good example of this type of rule is the Wireworld cellular automaton, invented by Brian Silverman, in which electrons travel down wires simulating the connections in a computer. It’s easy to make a 1-way gate, an AND gate, a clock, a NOT gate… and nearly everything you’d need to create a computer. In fact, Mark Owen even made a wireworld computer that calculates and displays the prime numbers! Rudy Rucker has also made a lot of Rule Table cellular automata, one of the most interesting being his Cars cellular automaton, which produces racing cars in several types, not usually something you’d expect to see from a cellular automaton. The cars also crash into each other, and, in the process, make rather strange cars. I have also made an interesting cellular automaton, which only uses 2 states, but still shows interesting behavior on wrapped grids, called SkyscraperMakers. In it, large structures are easily made, and there is a very simple puffer which requires only 6 cells. Signals also appear to transfer through the structures, but mostly just lower the towers. There are also cellular automaton rules where only 1 cell is actually active at any one time. An example of this is the Langton’s Ant cellular automaton, in which the moving cell has two rules: 1. If you are on a white square, turn right, flip the color of the square from white to black, and move forward one square. 2. If you are on a black square, turn left, flip the color of the square from black to white, and move forward one square. Although this seems very simple, when the cellular automaton runs on a blank grid the pattern produced is rather chaotic. In fact, you have to wait around 11,000 steps until the “ant” produces a “highway” in which the ant repeats the same pattern over and over. Naturally, there’s a generalization to multiple states and different rules, in which you simply tell the ant what to do when it touches a certain state. It is usually expressed using a string of Rs and Ls to show what direction the ant takes when it touches a certain-colored cell. For example, the classic Langton’s Ant rule could be expressed as RL, meaning that it turns right when it touches a cell of state 0 (white), and turns left when it touches a cell of state 1. Using this generalization, there are some rather interesting cellular automata. For example, LLRR makes a cardiod shape: Whilst one of the longer rules, LRRRRRLLR fills space around itself in a square. Naturally, the infinity of 1-dimensional and 2-dimensional cellular automata wasn’t enough for some people, who proceeded on to 3-dimensional cellular automata. The notation for these is similar to the normal Life notation (i.e., B (something)/S (something)), except that the numbers go from 0 to 26 instead of from 0 to 8. There are some interesting analogs of 2d cellular automata, such as Brian’s Brain, which have been discovered (B4/S) : As well as some new rules, such as the “Clouds” rule (B13,14,17,18,19 /S13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24) in which random patterns quickly form cloud-like blobs and bridges between the blobs. The “clouds” eventually shrink down, sometimes to nothing but sometimes forming rather simple oscillators: There has even been a version of Life in 3D, however, it turns to simple oscillators very quickly. Supposedly, gliders can be formed, but I haven’t seen any. The problem with 3D cellular automata, though, is that computer screens are 2-dimensional. When a computer screen displays a picture of a 3D cellular automata, the front (that we see) may be rather dull, while the other side may be very chaotic, but we wouldn’t know the difference. Also, there may be lots of action inside a blob, but we can’t see what is happening inside. An interesting way to make a 3-dimensional shape out of a cellular automata is to simply stack all the stages of a 2-dimensional cellular automata on top of each other. This makes the cellular automaton seem quite a bit different. Patterns like the Gosper Glider Gun in Conway’s Game of Life turn into a tower with suspension cables on one side, Langton’s Ant into a Sears Tower-like skyscraper, and Brian’s Brain I don’t even want to think about. It’s rather fun to construct these out of blocks (specifically ones that can be joined together) , as the results are often surprising. Part of Wolfram’s book was devoted to designing and finding certain cellular automata that can do anything– calculate what 2+2 is, emulate other cellular automata- even display letters- called Universal cellular automata. The simplest of these to show universal would be Conway’s Game of Life, by making AND gates, OR gates, a memory cell, a 90 degree reflector ,and a NOT gate. Many of these base on bashing gliders together to form certain outcomes, and the NOT gate is the hard one- it needs to use a glider gun, or something to send out gliders, in order to actually be a NOT gate. Once that’s made, the rest is simple. A similar method can be used to show that WireWorld is universal- by making the necessary logic components, various computers can easily be made, such as Mark Owen’s massive prime calculator. There are even constructions made by putting logic gates together such that 1-dimensional cellular automata can be made! Von Neumann also designed a 2-dimensional cellular automata, the sole purpose of which was to show that computers were possible in cellular automata. The rules are quite complex, mostly operate on signals passing through wires and writing cells, and the cellular automaton has a whopping 29 states. Replicators are possible, but they use humongous “tapes” to store how the structure should be built. Now here’s the amazing part: Even 1-dimensional cellular automata can be universal. In particular, Wolfram showed a certain 19-state next-nearest neighbor cellular automaton which, given the right setup, will emulate any other 1-dimensional cellular automata on a huge basis (20 cells per cell). Some examples of it emulating cellular automata are below: In particular, although it is hard to see, the 19-state cellular automaton is emulating rule 90 and rule 30, respectively. Most amazing, though is that, though it is anything but straightforward to prove, Rule 110 is a universal cellular automaton. This was done by showing how it could emulate another 1-dimensional cellular automata class, the cyclic tag system, and working from there. Eventually, Wolfram shows it emulating other elementary cellular automata, computing, and even emulating Turing machines. Quite a lot of cellular automata programs exist (many of them are listed at http://cafaq.com/soft/index.php), so I’ll simply list some of the best ones that I have found. One of my favorite programs is Mirek’s Cellebration (MCell), made by Mirek Wojtowicz, which has quite a lot of cellular automata rules (200+), and even more cellular automata patterns. It has a large Life pattern database, as well as allows you to make your own rules and save them easily. Probably the only problems with this are that the speed of the automaton may vary depending on the number of life cells on the board, and that the software is no longer developed. However, you can add on small extensions and even change the source code of the online Java version. You can either download it here, or see the Java implementation. Another program for simulating cellular automata is Five Cellular Automata, which simulates exactly 5 types of cellular automata: A small generalization of Life, using 4 parameters and q states; The Belousov-Zhabotinsky reaction, as a cellular automaton; a cellular automata in which blobs of colors try to meet with each other, and eventually take over the board; a probabilistic cellular automaton in which “viruses” break out among the population, kill everybody, and eventually die as the population regrows; and lastly, a DLA model. The program simulates all 5 rather well, but it only does those 5, and there are no manual editing features. This makes it so that the program is good for watching, but not useful for any experimentation. You can download it at the Hermetic Systems website. The best of these which is being developed on would easily be Golly, a cellular automata program that has infinite universes, uses Bill Gosper’s speedy Hashlife algorithm, has hundreds of patterns, including a few Life lexicons, and even is scriptable (with examples!) in both Python and Perl. And it reads practically every CA file ever made. The only problem is that completely new rules, such as making a rule table cellular automaton, isn’t very easy unless it’s a Life-like cellular automaton (B something/S something). You can download it at the project’s Sourceforge page. Lastly, there’s CAPOW by Rudy Rucker, which is a program for generating continuous-valued cellular automata. It supports 1D and 2D rules, as well as a number of discrete-valued cellular automata. It also has a mode in which the 2D cellular automata is extruded, based on what state the cell is at, into a 3D grid. It has quite a lot of cellular automata, can make up new ones, and includes a screensaver which shows various cellular automata animating. The only bad part is that it’s a bit confusing to make different rules or make new CA classes. You can download it at Rudy Rucker’s website. There are tons more cellular automata that have not been studied, so the field of Cellular Automata is still an interesting field to explore in and find new and interesting rules.
For 6th, 7th, and 8th graders at The Y.A.L.E. School’s Mansfield campus, science was brought to life as students were given hands-on physics challenges. The young scientists were actively involved in the scientific method as they constructed devices, formed hypotheses and executed the activity to reach a factual conclusion. Each grade was given very specific materials to create a structure, which then was tested for effectiveness. Sixth graders were given two and a half weeks to design a raft using 50 plastic straws, Popsicle sticks and tape or glue of their choice. As a means of investigating buoyancy and water displacement, the mission was for the raft to hold as many uniform balls of clay as possible before sinking. Our 7th graders were challenged to construct the sturdiest bridge possible using 100 popsicle sticks, wood glue and their knowledge of load-bearing geometrical shapes. The soundness of the bridge designs was tested by placing increasingly heavier weights on the bridges until they collapsed. The 8th graders were asked to use the concepts of momentum, force and velocity, combined with their creativity to design a structure that would safely cushion a raw egg in its delicate shell. Sounds easy enough until you add a zip line that sends the egg in its “nest” straight into a wall! As part of a spirited afternoon of experimentation, the sinking, crashing and cracking were taped, photographed and documented on iPads and computers for continued use by the young scientists. Students then developed PowerPoint presentations to show the class detailing their task, materials, concepts used to help decide on their design, methodology in the building process, and the ultimate performance of their craft or contraption. It was an energetic, thorough and effective way to bring science to life in the classroom!
Two blocks, of weights 3.6 N and 7.2 N, are connected by a mass-less string and slide down a 30 degree inclined plane. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the lighter block and the plane is 0.10; that between the heavier block and the plane is 0.20. Assuming that the lighter block leads, find a) the magnitude of the acceleration of the blocks and b) the tension in the string. a) The forces acting on the lighter block are gravitational force, friction and spring tension => Ftotal = m*a where kmu1 is the kinetic friction between the lighter block and the plane and T is the tension of the spring Similarly, for the heavier ... This solution provides calculations for the magnitude of acceleration and tension in a string.
When children with at least average intellectual ability struggle to learn, even with adequate instruction, there is likely something in the way that they are processing information that is underdeveloped, different, or inefficient. At the Learning Center , we recognize that if we are going to effectively impact academic learning problems, we must prepare the brain for learning by strengthening or developing the underlying thinking processes that support academic skills. These include skills such as: - Processing Speed - Auditory processing, language, and communication - Phonemic awareness - Visual processing - Internal timing and organization - Motor coordination and sensory integration - Logic and reasoning - Executive function More information about the Stowell Learning Center can be found at:
Definition - What does Oxygen Deficiency mean? Oxygen deficiency is a condition of shortage of oxygen in the blood of any human being. The condition is also known as asphyxia or hypoxia. Such a condition may severely affect the activities of cells, tissues and organs unless he or she breathes sufficient oxygen immediately. Safeopedia explains Oxygen Deficiency Oxygen is required by human beings for the respiration process. Oxygen enters into the human body through the lungs, then red blood cells carry oxygen to the tissue cells, which then produce energy. Without oxygen or in a shortage of oxygen, people can die within short periods of time. Initial symptoms include dizziness, blackout, nausea, they may also faint as the remaining oxygen in the body is used up. Their organs gradually fail to do their jobs and the victim eventually dies. Oxygen deficiency in the workplace is a health hazard. Workers might feel sick or faint due to oxygen deficiency. The management is therefore, required by the law, to arrange sufficient air flow, oxygen, to avoid such conditions in the workplace. Causes of oxygen deficiency include the following: - In the case of a fire in the building - Leakage of inert gases in a confined space - A layer of nitrogen and other gas in a fuel tank - Contact with some chemicals and gases such as carbon monoxide and phosgene inhalation - Choking due to a sleep disorder, tightness of chest, drowning and allergic reaction to any medicine or overdose - Acute respiratory deficiency syndrome - Respiratory distress or hanging
OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY FOR CHILDREN WITH DYSLEXIA Occupational Therapy for Primary School-Age Children with Dyslexia Primary school-age children lead demanding and challenging lives. During these “middle years” of childhood, the foundation for adult roles in work, recreation, and social interaction is laid. Great development strides are made during these years when children develop competencies in physical, cognitive, and psychosocial skills. The developmental changes between ages 6 and 18 are diverse and span all areas of growth and development. Physical, psychosocial, cognitive, and moral skills are developed, expended, refined, and synchronized so that the individual may become an accepted and productive member of the society. The environment in which the individual develops skills also expands and diversifies. Instead of the boundaries of family and close friends, the environment may now include the school, community, and the church. Because of expectations for development, increasing skill and knowledge base, and environmental expansion, the individual experiences new difficulties and dilemmas. The school or educational experience expands the child’s world and is a transition from a life of relatively free play to a life of structured play, learning, and work. The school and home influence growth and development, requiring adjustment by the parents and the child. Cognitive changes provide the school-age child with the ability to think in a logical manner about the here and now and to understand the relationship between things and ideas ( & , 2004). The thoughts of school–age children are no longer dominated by their perceptions, and thus their ability to understand the world greatly expands. However, in some instances this development does not follow the normal way. Learning disabilities or disorders related to language occur in some children. A specific learning disability is a disorder of the processes involved in understanding and using language, including listening, thinking, speaking, reading, writing, and doing mathematical calculations. Children with learning disabilities often display major discrepancies between their intellectual abilities and academic achievements, which cannot be explained by sensory-motor or cognitive disorders. Frequently, this discrepancy causes difficulty in oral or written expression, reading or listening comprehension, and social skills (, 2006). Dyslexia is an example of a learning disability related to reading which occurs in children. Dyslexia is the most common and perhaps least understood reading disability. It is a condition in which an individual with normal vision is unable to interpret written language and therefore is unable to read. Dyslexic children are usually of normal or better intelligence. Their inability to read is inconsistent with their achievement in other school subjects, such as arithmetic. Spelling ability may or may not be impaired. Sensory deficits and neurological impairment are absent. Confusion in orientation of letters is the prime characteristic. This is manifested by reading from right to left, failure to see (and sometimes to hear) similarities or differences in letters or words, or inability to work out the pronunciation of unfamiliar words. A better-than-normal facility at mirror-reading or -writing is common. Symptoms of frustration are inevitable. The reading disability and its effects on learning and school performance of the child may lead to behavioral problems, delinquency, aggression, withdrawal, and alienation from other children, parents, and teachers. Most studies of reading disability in children have focused on language processing tasks, as opposed to visual-perceptual processing. Children with dyslexia have difficulties processing the phonological level of language. In other words, their difficulty lies primarily in processing at the level of speech sounds as opposed to, for instance, semantics. Individuals with dyslexia are slower and less accurate than typical readers at phonological coding--that is, computing the pronunciation of a visual letter string. They also show reduced phonological awareness; that is, they are slower and less accurate at analyzing or blending the component sounds of words (, 2004) Depending on the degree or condition of the dyslexia, there are differing modes of intervention that are commonly used to restore, improve, or maintain levels of occupational performance for the given scenario. On a basic level, any method that helps children to concentrate on a reading task and excludes distractions should be helpful. Specifically, programs that help children to form sharper perceptual categories for sounds and letters could supplement existing dyslexia interventions (, 2005). Compensation on a functional level involves the occupational therapist helping the child to develop cognitive strategies to bypass the effects of the deficit or to enhance functioning by using areas of strength to make up for cognitive limitations. Compensation on a psychological level refers to helping the child manage the stigma and feelings related to experiencing difficulty and failure with learning that negatively affect self-esteem. Development of the personality or sense of self is largely influenced by how well the child is able to function in areas affected by the disorder. Chronic functional difficulties appear to result in low self-esteem, which is the most common psychological problem for persons with dyslexia (, 2003). Significant and effective attention to functional concerns by occupational therapists and other caregivers appears to promote adaptation, positive self-esteem, and positive self-narratives, resulting in success in areas of difficulty and acceptance of the learning disability (, 2001). Insufficient attention to functional concerns can result in poor adaptation, low self-esteem, and negative self-narratives. Under those circumstances, an individual is ostensibly more likely to deny or even disavow the learning disability. Persons with learning disabilities may employ either or both of these defense mechanisms to protect self-esteem due to the experience of failure and to fears of being identified as or feeling "lazy," "stupid," "crazy," or even "mentally retarded." The role of caregivers, such as parents, occupational therapists and other professionals, is to help persons with dyslexia function, adapt, and compensate and to encourage positive self-esteem and self-narratives. When occupational therapists work with children, they should consider the developmental abilities of the child and the condition that is present in the child. If possible, a parent or a guardian of the child should be around during therapy sessions. comments powered by Disqus
For college student Olivia Lenz, people are “wasting” energy all the time just by swinging their arms or walking down the street. But what if we could capture that energy and use it to charge a small battery? To answer that, Lenz, along with team members Hannah Clevenson and Tanya Miracle, experimented with zinc-oxide nanowires aboard a special reduced-gravity aircraft at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston as part of the agency’s Motivating Undergraduates in Science and Technology (MUST) project. Working under the mentorship of NASA engineer Tamra George, the trio discovered that low-gravity conditions alter the material’s shape and length, producing “new and improved” versions that make better batteries for space suits. In fact, the super-wires might even allow astronauts to harness their movements to power the suit’s electronics. NASA creates short bursts of reduced gravity by putting a modified jet through a series of steep climbs followed by sudden dives, also known as parabolic arcs. Although zinc-oxide nanowires have been grown in several ways in the lab, little is known about nanowire growth in microgravity. In addition to its capacity for energy storage, zinc oxide also has piezoelectric properties, which means it creates a charge when stressed. In addition to its capacity for energy storage, zinc oxide also has piezoelectric properties, which means it creates a charge in response to physical strain like bending or twisting. Piezoelectric materials can harvest energy that is expended during routine tasks, resulting in compact, low-power backup energy sources for lunar or planetary missions. “[Plus,] it can allow members of the military out in the middle of nowhere to charge their electronics without needing the sun or a generator,” Lenz says. Another upside? Zinc oxide is also inexpensive. And because it can hold up to 10 times the charge of lithium, zinc oxide could potentially produce smaller or longer-lasting consumer batteries. Adds Miracle: “The electric car industry could easily use this to their advantage.”
When you are teaching children about different musical instruments, it can be challenging to engage the children by just talking to them. Children often learn more readily when you provide them with a craft to do that is related to musical instruments. For example, you can show the children how to create a clarinet out of different household items and a few basic craft materials, such as paper tubes, colored construction paper and craft glue. Things You'll Need - Wrapping paper tube - Pen knife - Masking tape - Acrylic paint Place a wrapping paper tube onto a table top, and arrange the tube so that it is in a horizontal position. Cut a 6-inch slit into the right side of the tube using a pen knife, then cut another 6-inch slit on the same side opposite from the first slit. Flatten the right side at the slits and tape the slits firmly with masking tape. This will hold the right side into the shape of a clarinet top. Cut out 18 holes along the length of the paper tube using a pen knife. Space the holes at least 1 inch apart. Paint the paper clarinet using acrylic paint to suit your particular artistic style, then let the paint dry for 30 minutes.
Absorption and Attenuation of Sound in Air Overview of Absorption I intend to write some text explaining the general process of absorption of sound in air (viscous effects, thermal conduction effects, and molecular relaxation processes). But, in the mean time, the interactive plot below works and allows for calculation of the absorption coefficient for sound in air. NOTE: This plot is a Computable Document Format (CDF) object created by Mathematica and you will need to install the free Wolfram CDF Player to be able to see it and interact with it. Unfortunately, the CDF player is not yet available for mobile devices. How to Use this Interactive Plot By moving the three sliders you can adjust the values of: - the relative humidity (from 0 to 100%), - the frequency (from 20 Hz up to 40 kHz), - and the temperature (from 0oC to 30oC). The colored curves on the plot represent the following: - The black dashed line represents the classical absorption due to viscous and thermal conduction effects. Viscous and thermal conduction absorption are both proportional to the square of frequency, so on a log-log plot the classical absorption looks like a straight line with a slope of 2. - The Red curve represents the molecular relaxation due to the Nitrogen (N2) molecules that comprise 78% of the air. - The Blue curve represents the molecular relaxation due to the Oxygen (O2) molecules that comprise 21% of the air. - The solid Black curve is the sum total of all three absorption mechanisms. - The two Green lines are guides to show the value of absorption (given as a number in the blue box at the upper left of the plot) for a specified frequency (selected via the Frequency slider).
A disturbance that initiates fracture within the weak layer causing an avalanche. In 90 percent of avalanche accidents, the victim or someone in the victims party triggers the avalanche. Most avalanches are “naturally” triggered, meaning that weather (wind, snow, rain or sun) stress the snowpack to its breaking point. Like a tree falling in the woods, for the most part, we only care about the ones that affect people. Luckily, in 92 percent of avalanche accidents, the avalanche is triggered by the victim or someone in the victim’s party. In other words, most avalanche accidents happen by choice, not chance. These are “human triggered” avalanches. In other words, weather adds stress to the snowpack until it nearly equals the strength of the snowpack. Then, the added weight of a person provides the final thump to initiate a fracture within the buried weak layer. (No, noise does NOT trigger avalanches. It’s a cliché plot device in the movies, but noise is simply not enough force to trigger an avalanche.) \|Trigger Size Required to Initiate an Avalanche\| We can also think of snow stability in terms of the size of trigger required to trigger an avalanche. Notice that when natural avalanches are occurring, the stability meter is pegged out at the top of the scale. That’s why the best sign of avalanche danger is another avalanche on a similar slope.
Solving GED® Word Problems is the fifth of five self-paced lessons in the “Measurement” section. This lesson introduces the problem-solving process as a systematic approach to understanding and solving GED problems. The examples in this lesson include practice in selecting only the information necessary to answer a specific question and in determining whether adequate information has been provided to find a solution. KET’s GED® Geometry Professional Development Online Course is designed to help you review and build your skills and knowledge of geometry concepts and to help you to gain confidence in preparing your learners for a substantial portion of the GED® Mathematics Test. Click on the graphic to begin Lesson 5. NOTE: This course was created based on the 2002 GED® math test. The geometry instruction in this course is still valid, however, for up-to-date information about the 2014 GED® math test, please visit KET’s GED® Test Info: Mathematics online course.
The sill does not cut across preexisting rocks, unlike dykes. Sills are fed by dykes as they form from a lower magma source. The existing rocks must split to create the planes along which the magma moves in. These planes or weakened areas allow the intrusion of a thin sheet-like body of magma paralleling the existing strata. When it cools and crystallises, it is then a sill. \|This article includes text from the public domain 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica.\|
About Heart Rhythm Heart rhythm is the rate and pattern at which your heart beats. Whenever the impulse that signals your heart to beat is interrupted or distorted, your heart rhythm will be irregular, and your heart may not pump blood effectively. While experiencing an irregular heartbeat, also called arrhythmia, you may feel: You can experience irregular heartbeats in your chest, throat or neck. You may feel pounding, racing or your heart skipping. Your heart will beat at a different rate: - Normal: A normal heart beats 60-100 times per minute. - Ventricular tachycarida: If your heart is beating more than 100 times per minute, you may be experiencing ventricular tachycardia. - Bradycardia: If your heart is beating less than 55 times per minute, you may have bradycardia. Atrial fibrilation, or Afib, is the most common type of irregular heartbeat. If you have atrial fibrillation, you experience a rapid heartbeat when certain parts of your heart contract quickly in an irregular pattern. If your health care provider believes you have Afib, you will be tested with coronary angiography, echocardiogram, electrophysiologic study, exercise treadmill test, or a nuclear imaging test. Atrial Fibrillation Causes: Ventricular tachycardia is a rapid heartbeat that begins in the ventricles. A person experiencing ventricular tachycardia may feel chest pain, light-headed, dizzy, or short of breath. They may even faint or lose consciousness Ventricular tachycardia can be diagnosed by an electrocardiogram (EKG) or by an electrophysiology study. Ventricular Tachycardia Causes: - Heart failure - Valvular heart disease - As a result of a heart attack or heart surgery Ventricular Tachycardia Treatment
Call it enrichment, call it higher thinking...the following short clip is a conversation exploring a broader, more comprehensive idea of reading level and can serve as a reminder that we can't judge a book by it's cover or a reader by their level! Guided Reading/Readers Workshop Guided Reading Video Comprehension Strategy Mini Lessons - Frontloading/RW Routines & Procedures, Making Connections, Visualizing, Predicting & Inferring, Questioning, Determining Importance Listening to Reading Reading Response Options Fall Benchmark Training - Powerpoints Fall Benchmark Training Videos 1. Good books are fun and can be great friends to everyone. 2. Language belongs to all of us, and we can all use it creatively to enhance our lives. 3. Stories, values, feelings, ideas and information can be shared with many people through writing. 4. Each child has the potential and the right to become anything they want in life. 5. Every child is young author with a voice and style, reading books by the same author validates this. More Author Study Webites Assigned Authors for Author Studies at Lake Myra - Grade K Authors: Carle, Crews, Ehlert, Henkes, Willems, Wells - Grade 1 Authors: Aliki, Fox, Keats, Zolotow, Lionni, Munsch - Grade 2 Authors: Rylant, Gibbons, de Paolo, Williams, Johnson, Viorst - Grade 3 Authors: Greenfield, Polacco, Say, Yolen, Bunting, Baylor - Grade 4 Authors: George, MacLachlan, Sceiszka, Van Allsburg, Blume, Clements - Grade 5 Authors: Creech, Dahl, Fletcher, Spinelli, Hesse, Avi Phonemic Awareness vs. Phonics - Main focus is on SOUNDS - Deals with SPOKEN language - Students work with manipulating sounds and sounds in words. - Main focus is on looking at LETTERS and their corresponding sounds. - Deals with written print/text/language. - Students work with reading and writing letters, according to their sounds and spelling pattern. Research Base for Month by Month Phonics Teaching Word Identification Skills and Strategies Fluent readers are better able to devote their attention to comprehending text (LaBerge and Samuels, 1974) (National Reading Panel, 2000) Students who experience reading difficulties are most often not fluent (Johns and Berglund, 2002) (National Reading Panel, 2000) (Pinnell et al., 1995) Fluency instruction begins when students can read connected text with 90% or better accuracy (usually by the middle of first grade). If a student misses more than 10% of the words in a passage, then the material is too difficult to use for instruction. Although estimates vary, research suggests that students learn 3,000 to 5,000 words each year and students have a core reading vocabulary of approximately 25,000 words by the end of elementary school (Anderson & Nagy, 1991; Nagy & Herman, 1987). Although students learn a majority of new words incidentally, without direct instruction (Kame’enui, Dixon & Carnin, 1987) pre-teaching the vocabulary of a new text does improve students’ comprehension of that text and overall vocabulary development (Beck, Perfetti & McKeown, 1982). Vocabulary knowledge is significantly related to reading comprehension, decoding, spelling and school achievement (Beck & McKeown, 1991) and students who read more have larger vocabularies (Nagy & Anderson, 1984; Stanovich, 1986). Bringing Words To Life: Robust Vocabulary Instruction by Isabel Beck, Ph.D Text Talk Lesson Plans Text Talk - Explicit Vocabulary Instruction 101 Text Talk Lessons written and compiled by 101 of Utah's Reading First Teachers Tennessee Academic Vocabulary Project Marzano's 6 Step Process for Direct Explicit Vocabulary Instruction Intervention Search Engine at the Florida Center for Reading Research www.fcrr.org/scasearch scroll down and enter the reading strand that is the area of difficulty, and then enter the skill of difficulty, and enter your grade level OR you can enter the DIBELS measure that the child scored below benchmark on and it will generate intervention activities tailor-made for that measure and provide hot links to them instantaneously. Research Based Content Area Reading Instruction (upper grades) Research Based Cognitive Strategies from Mosaic of Thought: Teaching Comprehension in a Reader's Workshop Reading Process Research: Improving Comprehension with Think-Aloud Strategies The Savvy Teacher's Guide: Reading Interventions That Work by Jim Wright founder and creator of www.interventioncentral.com, this guidebook recommended for grades 3-5
The Richter magnitude scale (ML), described above is the best known magnitude scale. Charles Richter developed it in the 1930s for use on earthquakes in southern California, using high-frequency data from nearby or 'local' stations. It is also the scale used by BGS to describe UK earthquakes when using our network of 140 monitoring local stations. Other magnitude scales include body-wave magnitude (mb), and surface wave magnitude (Ms). One of these three scales is generally used, depending on the frequency range and type of signal. Values for the magnitude of a given event may, therefore, vary according to the monitoring agency and preferred scale used. Although moment magnitude (Mw) is considered the most reliable measure of earthquake size, especially for the largest events, it is more difficult to routinely calculate and requires analysis of the frequency spectra of the earthquake.
The law of sines, also called sine rule or sine formula, lets you find missing measures in a triangle when you know the measures of two angles and a side, or two sides and a nonincluded angle. Notice that side a is opposite to angle A. Also, side b is opposite to angle B. Now, how do we know the formula will work? Do this experiment. 1. Draw a scalene triangle on a sheet of paper and label the triangle as the one I did above. 2. Use a ruler to measure sides a, b, and c. 3. Use a protractor to measure angle A, angle B, and angle C. 4. Use the sine rule to verify that it works. I did the same thing for the triangle I drew above and I have found the following measurements. a = 13 cm , b = 13.7 cm, and c = 9.3 cm A = 66 degrees, B = 75 degrees, and C = 42 degrees As you can see, the answers are almost the same. If our measurements were perfect, they will be exactly the same. Use the triangle above and the law of sines to find the length of x and the length of y. Since the sum of the angle in a triangle is 180°, 63 + 71 + n = 180 134 + n = 180, so n = 46°
Beetles – Colorful Insects With Hard Shells and Four Wings Over 300,000 species of beetles live on the earth and over 12,000 beetles live in the U.S. Beetles have a hard shell and four wings. Some beetles cause a lot of damage by eating crops, wood and food. Others help us by pollinating crops or eating harmful insects. Beetles come in many sizes and shapes. The Titan beetle from South America can grow up to 8 inches long, while the Goliath beetle is usually about five inches long. The smallest beetle, the featherwing beetle, can’t be seen without a microscope. Fun Facts about Beetles for Kids - Beetles come in a lot of colors. Beetles can be bright yellow, green, red, orange or purple. They can have stripes or spots. - Beetles are one of the world’s oldest animals. They have been here for over 300,000 years. - Beetles live everywhere – from hot deserts to the polar ice caps. - Most beetles have protective defenses to defend themselves against predators. Ladybugs squirt a yellow blood; some ground beetles squirt acid that burns the skin and eyes. One beetle in Africa is very poisonous. African tribes there use this poison on their darts. - Beetles go through metamorphosis just like all insects. They start as eggs and hatch into larvae. The larvae look like ugly little worms. They’re sometimes called grubs. Later, beetles enter a pupa stage and transform into adult beetles. - Damage: breaking or ruining something - Pollinate: spread pollen from one plant to another so fruit forms - Protective: designed to keep safe - Predator: animal that hunts other animals Learn More All About Beetles Watch this video all about beetles: A video of fun facts about beetles. Question: Do beetles lay eggs? Answer: Beetles, like all insects, lay eggs – sometimes in the thousands! Question: How many legs do beetles have? Answer: Beetles have six legs, like all insects. Cite This Page You may cut-and-paste the below MLA and APA citation examples: MLA Style Citation Declan, Tobin. " Fun Beetles Facts for Kids ." Easy Science for Kids, Oct 2017. Web. 24 Oct 2017. < http://easyscienceforkids.com/all-about-beetles/ >. APA Style Citation Tobin, Declan. (2017). Fun Beetles Facts for Kids. Easy Science for Kids. Retrieved from http://easyscienceforkids.com/all-about-beetles/ Sponsored Links :
While the concept of geologic storage seems simple enough, a CO2 injection well is a surprisingly complicated system. Multiple cement casings and provisions for monitoring are required to ensure that the supercritical fluid reaches only appropriate storage formations and stays there. In particular, steps must be taken to keep the CO2 from interfering with sources of drinking water at shallower depths. In the injection zone itself, special cement must be used to prevent damage to the casing from acids that form when CO2 reacts with the in situ saline solution. A variety of measurement, monitoring, and verification (MMV) technologies will also need to be incorporated into a complete storage system to make sure the CO2is not leaking into the surrounding environment. Some off-the-shelf technologies,such as seismic imaging of subterranean formations, are already being used to trackthe underground migration of injected CO2, and sampling of groundwater couldprove useful for detecting leakage directly. Detecting small rates of leakage over long periods of time, however, will require higher-resolution measurements and the development of highly precise baseline data. More-sensitive MMV techniques thatcan measure the actual amount of CO2 in storage may also be needed for purposes of greenhouse gas mitigation reporting. The issue of leakage is critical from both global and local perspectives. Even gradual leakage from numerous sites may provide enough CO2 reentering the atmosphere to undermine efforts to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations. Locally, leakage from an underground storage site could present an immediate hazard to humans and ecosystems. The most dramatic type of CO2 release would come from a blow-out at an injection well, which could produce high enough concentrations (7–10%) of the gas in the vicinity to endanger human life. Undetected leakage from a faulty well or through ground fractures would probably be more diffuse and primarily affect groundwater and surface ecosystems. In particular, aquifers used as a source of drinking water could be harmed, either by acidification resulting from direct contact with large amounts of CO2 or by the seepage of brines displaced by CO2 during the injection process. Because CO2 is heavier than air, it also could accumulate in lowlying geographic areas or in basements and potentially threaten human health. Research is currently under way to improve CO2 leak detection and develop possible remedial measures. Specifically, MMV technologies are needed that would detect potential leaks long before they pose any danger to water supplies or surface ecosystems. Seismic imaging, for example, can reveal deep subsurface faulting and abandoned wells that might permit leakage by providing a route to the surface, and this type of examination is expected to become a routine part of storage site evaluation. In addition, some experiments are under way to begin to investigate leakage rates for different types of storage and under a variety of injection conditions. Several kinds of remediation techniques also need to be explored, including the extraction and purification of contaminated groundwater, the interception and reinjection of leaking CO2, and the removal of stored CO2 for injection elsewhere. “The available monitoring methods are promising, but more experience is needed to establish detection levels and resolution."”
Gondwanaland, we started out on this big continent. Answer True or False to the following statements. 1. According to the Theory of Evolution, humans evolved from monkeys. (Yes) 2. Evolution is a theory, and therefore is not considered to be a scientific truth. (Yes) 3. Charles Darwin proposed the Theory of Evolution, but he later recanted his theory. 4. Natural Selection is the mechanism by which evolution occurs. (Yes) 5. Theories are supported by facts and evidence, and can be revised if new evidence is found. (Yes) 6. Only atheists (those who do not believe in God) believe the Theory of Evolution. 7. Creationism is another scientific theory that addresses the origins of humans. (No) 8. Because there is a ≥missing link≤, the Theory of Evolution cannot be proven. (No) 9. Schools are required by law to teach the Theory of Evolution. (No) 10. Charles Darwin was the only scientist to propose and support the Theory of Evolution.
A protein found in skeletal muscle, which is absent in sufferers from muscular dystrophy. More example sentences - Muscle-generating stem cells can improve muscle regeneration and deliver the missing protein dystrophin to damaged muscles in a mouse muscular dystrophy model, according to a recent study. - However, in vitro studies have failed to detect any bundling of actin by either intact dystrophin or Dys - 246. - The hallmark of muscular dystrophy is that muscle cells die due to a lack of the muscle protein dystrophin. Definition of dystrophin in: - The British & World English dictionary
- slide 1 of 4 What Is Ocean Floor Topography? The term "topography" implies the study of numerous landforms that exist on or below the earth. Ocean floor topography refers to the different forms in which the ocean floor bottom can exist. You may perceive the ocean floor to be flat and sandy like the beach, but the truth is there are many different surfaces. As scientific knowledge has advanced, the capability to envisage these remote sites has increased significantly. Science has established that the topography of the ocean floor is similar to the ground topography with features such as valleys, mountains, and plateaus. Three quarters of the Earth consists of ocean water. All these details are incorporated on underwater topography maps. - slide 2 of 4 Continental Margin and Oceanic Divisions Radical geological changes are observed at the boundary between the earth and the ocean. This intermediary region is called the Continental Margin. This zone consists of the Outer Continental Shelf followed by the Continental Slopes. The thick and heavy continental stonework is replaced by a thin basalt layer. The Outer Continental Shelf starts as the water begins. This zone is shallow, slopes progressively, and normally holds water that is not very deep. The Continental Shelf width changes significantly depending on the locality, ranging from a few kilometers to hundreds of kilometers. As the Continental Shelf is crossed, the ocean floor descends steeply. These sharply sloping sections are known as the Continental Slopes. They identify the border between the granite of the continent, and the basaltic crust of the ocean. Deep valleys have been observed in the Continental Slopes. It is believed that these valleys have been created due to the earthquakes, or have been eroded by violent ocean currents. The divisions of the ocean water according to depth are known as Abyssal Zones. Each layer has its own characteristic features of pressure, temperature, salinity and biodiversity. The deepest oceanic zone is the hadalpelagic zone that lies between 6,000–11,000 meters. - slide 3 of 4 Mapping the Oceans with Radar Altimetry Radar altimeters have been developed for mapping ocean floor topography, including the valleys and hills of the ocean surface. A microwave pulse is forwarded by these devices to the ocean surface, and time is measured for this signal to return. A microwave radiometer adjusts for any obstruction produced by the atmospheric water vapor. Other adjustments are also necessary because of the ionosphere electrons and the air in the atmosphere. The shape and strength of the return signal presents information regarding the speed of wind, and the height of ocean waves. This data is utilized to determine the speed and direction of the oceanic currents. The variations in the global climate, and heat accumulated in the ocean are also measured. Other ways to explore the seabed involve the use of small manned submarines, ROVs, and baited camera stations. However, the extreme pressure of these depths (almost 1,000 Atm in some depths), makes exploration a very difficult and costly task. - slide 4 of 4 The Extremes of Ocean Floor Life Life on the ocean floor is extremely meager, as on an extensive desert. Marine organisms choose low waters, where the photosynthesis energy is rich, offering abundant food. The oceanic floor has numerous oases, including cold seeps, hydrothermal vents, and whale falls. In the cold seeps, brine filled with methane escapes from the sea floor cracks, providing energy for bacteria. Minerals released from hydrothermal vents are also processed by bacteria. Organisms in these depths depend on sinking organic matter to feed that falls on the ocean floor in the form of marine snow. A whale fall is basically a whale that dies and sinks in the deep ocean. Since scavengers are limited on the floor of the ocean, several years may be required for the consumption of whales. A whale fall may occur as frequently in the deep ocean as one in every 20-25 kilometers of seabed. Since light and food is so scarce, fish have developed large eyes, slow metabolisms, weak muscles and elongated bodies. Many of them are also hermaphroditic, since it is difficult to find a breeding mate in this vastness.
A team of scientists report a communications breakthrough that they say could be used to speed up electronic devices by a factor of one thousand. The University of Pittsburgh team claims to have successfully generated a frequency comb, which entails dividing a single color of light into a series of evenly spaced spectral lines for a variety of uses, that spans more than 100 terahertz (THz, or 1 trillion cycles per second) bandwidth. Terahertz radiation is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum between infrared and microwave light. Hrvoje Petek, a professor of physics and chemistry at Pitt, said that this has been long-awaited discovery in the field. Petek and his team generated the all-optical frequency comb by investigating the optical properties of a silicon crystal and "exciting a coherent collective of atomic motions in a semiconductor silicon crystal" with an intense laser pulse. First, they observed that the amount of reflected light oscillates at 15.6 THz, the highest mechanical frequency of atoms within a silicon lattice. The oscillation then caused additional changes in the absorption and reflection of light, multiplying the fundamental oscillation frequency by up to seven times, which then generated the comb of frequencies extending beyond 100 THz. "Although we expected to see the oscillation at 15.6 THz, we did not realize that its excitation could change the properties of silicon in such dramatic fashion," says Petek. "The discovery was both the result of developing unique instrumentation and incisive analysis by the team members." According to a news release, the team is now investigating the coherent oscillation of electrons, which could further extend the ability of harnessing light-matter interactions from the terahertz- to the petahertz-frequency range. Petahertz frequencies scale up to 1 quadrillion hertz. The research is published in Nature Photonics and is funded by the National Science Foundation.
Artist's impression of the Earth sized planet Kepler 186f orbiting its red dwarf star. Kepler 186f Facts - Kepler 186f is the first discovery of an Earth sized planet known to orbit in the habitable zone around its host star. - The habitable zone is an area around a star where temperatures would allow for the presence of liquid water on a planet's surface. - Due to its small size Kepler 186f is likely to be a rocky planet like Earth. - Kepler 186f orbits a red dwarf star with around half the mass of the Sun, red dwarfs are by far the most common type of star in our galaxy. - Red dwarfs emit far less energy than the sun, as a result Kepler 186f only receives about a third of the sunlight we receive on Earth. - Kepler 186f may be tidally locked with one side of the planet always facing its star and the other in constant darkness. - The force of gravity on Kepler 186f could be very similar to Earth's. - There are four other planets in the Kepler 186 system, all of which orbit extremely closely to their host star. - The Kepler 186 system is located around 500 light years from Earth. Kepler 186f is around 10% larger in radius than planet Earth. Kepler 186f OrbitKepler 186f orbits around its host star at a distance of around 37 million miles (60 million km), the same distance as Mercury orbits the sun, and takes 130 days to make one complete orbit. Kepler 186f Mass and RadiusThe radius of Kepler 186f has been measured at 1.11 times that of Earth, its mass is unknown with estimates ranging from half to twice that of Earth depending on composition and density, a similar composition to Earth would give Kepler 186f a mass of around 1.4 times that of Earth. Kepler 186f HabitabilityThe planet's temperature and composition of its atmosphere are unknown. Kepler 186f orbits on the outer edge of the habitable zone meaning it could possibly require a rather thick atmosphere with high levels of carbon dioxide to produce temperatures warm enough to allow liquid water to flow on its surface. Even so Kepler 186f may be a rather cold world with average temperatures just above 0C (32F) but may still be warm enough to allow life to evolve given the right conditions. Kepler 186f StatisticsHost Star: Kepler 186 Host Star Type: Red Dwarf - M Type Main Sequence Host Star Mass: 48% of Sun Distance from Earth: 500 light years Planets Detected in System: 5 confirmed Discovery Date: April 2014 Detection Method: Transit Exoplanet Type: Super Earth Mass: Unknown, between 0.5 to 2 times that of Earth depending on composition Diameter: Around 8,800 miles (14,300 km) Distance from host star: 37 million miles (60 million km) Orbital Period: 130 days Gravity: Possibly similar to Earth Possibility of Life: With the right atmospheric conditions and composition it is possible life could exist on Kepler 186f Share this page
Some important definitions related to pattern making are discussed below: A pattern may be defined as “a model or replica of the object to be made by casting process, with some modifications”. It is used to form an impression in the moulding sand. Some important points regarding pattern are: (i) Pattern can be made of softwood like pine, hard wood like mahogany, plastics like bake lite and thermosetting or metals like aluminum, steel, or cast iron. (ii) Wood patterns must be made of dried or seasoned wood containing less than 10 percent moisture to avoid warping and distortion of the pattern. (iii) They should not absorb any moisture from the moulding sand and hence the surfaces of these patterns are painted and coated with a waterproof varnish, (iv) A single piece wood pattern can be used for making 20 to 30 moulds, a plastic pattern can be used for 20,000 moulds, and a mecal pattern can be used for upto 90,000 moulds, depending upon the metal of the pattern. Mould or Cavity: The mould or cavity is the impression of a pattern in the moulding sand. During casting process, the cavity is filled with molten metal to get solid casting. The castings are obtained by the solidification of molten metal when poured in the mould cavity. The quality and accuracy of the casting depends upon the pattern making. Functions of Pattern: (i) A pattern is essential for the production of any metal or alloy casting. (ii) A pattern is used to produce the cavity in the moulding sand for pouring the molten-metal. (iii) A properly manufactured pattern reduces the overall cost of casting. (iv) A properly manufactured pattern reduces the casting defects. (v) A properly manufactured pattern provides good surface finish of the casting. (vi) A pattern may have projection known as core prints which helps in positioning of core. (vii) A pattern establish the parting line and parting surfaces in the world. (viii) A pattern, sometimes, may provide with runner, gates and risers used for feeding the molten metal. Pattern Making Tools: The pattern is manufactured in pattern making shop which is related to carpentry’ shop. A pattern maker is basically a caipenter. Hence, a pattern maker uses the same tools as used in carpentry shop. A special scale is used in place of caipentry scale, known as shrink scale or contraction scale in pattern making shop. This scale is longer than the standard 1 – Foot rule. Its length differs for the different metals of the casting. The shrink scales are graduated to shrinkage allowance. Other Tools are: Marking and Measuring Tools: Try square, Bevel square, Straight edge, Metre square, Combination set, Scriber, Marking gauge, Mortise gauge, Calipers, Sprit level etc. Saws, Chisels, Rasp and Files, Planning tools, axe, etc. Mallets, Claw hammer. Gimlet, Ratchet brace, wheel brace, bradwel and auger etc. Bench vice, Bench stop, Clamps and Screws, bar cramp, C-cramp G-cramp, Hand- screw cramp. Screw driver, Pincer, Glass Paper, Oil stones, Scraper, etc. Pattern Design Considerations: The quality and accuracy of casting depends upon the pattern making. A good designed pattern may produce a smooth and sound casting but a bad pattern will always result in poor and defected casting. Therefore, while designing a pattern, following factors must be considered: 1. Proper Material Selection: A proper material for making the pattern should be selected. Metallic patterns has certain advantages like good strength, good surface finish, good dimensional stability, long life, but are expensive than wooden pattern. 2. Proper Type of Pattern: A proper type of pattern should be used for particular application. For example, match plate patterns are best suitable for machine moulding where as both match plate and gated patterns are recommended for producing small components on mass production. 3. Proper Pattern Allowances: A pattern should be provided with all those allowances which are essential for the moulding process and to impart accurate dimensions of the final casting. 4. Dimensionally Accurate and Stable: A pattern should be dimensionally accurate and stable. They should possess good surface finish. 5. Avoid Sharp Edges: A good pattern should be rounded and must not have sharp edges and corners. Smooth and rounded edge pattern has certain advantages. (a) Easy removal of pattern from the moulding box. (b) Easy and smooth flow of metal into the mould cavity. (c) Minimizes casting stresses and strains (d) Produces good castings. 6. Changes in Section Thickness Gradually: Changes in section thickness (if necessary) should be gradual and uniform. It will minimize the stress concentration in casting. 7. Core Joints should be Avoided: Jointed cores should preferably be avoided in order to obtain uniform holes. 8. Position and Size of Core Prints: Core prints provided with the patterns should be of optimum size and suitably located. 9. Proper Colour Code and Storage: All those patterns, used for repeated working should be coated with preservatives, suitably marked, properly colour coded and adequate storage. 10. Maximum Portion should be in Drag: For split patterns, the parting surface should be such that the maximum portion of the pattern remains in the drag.
Natural History: The California Quail feeds on vegetation, seeds, and fruits. It takes cover in brushy vegetation and trees. This species requires a varied habitat with water and openings. This non-migratory bird builds nests in ground depressions from April to August. Because of habitat destruction from urbanization of the San Francisco Peninsula, quail are rare in San Francisco and the Presidio is an important refuge. General Distribution: In the Presidio, this species is mostly found in coastal scrub areas, and in forests, lawns, and areas of ornamentals. It breeds in the Presidio. Frequency: This species is common year round. Identifying Characteristics: This species appears much like a chicken. It is gray with a short black plume curving forward from its head. Did You Know? The Presidio occupies 1,491 acres in northern San Francisco and welcomes over five million visitors annually.
Culturally responsive teaching goes beyond having an understanding of classroom composition. A high level of cultural competence in the classroom involves the ability to read and react to challenging scenarios that stem from cultural variety and differences among students and staff in the learning environment. While virtues of tolerance and respect are paramount in a teacher’s ability to fully embrace a culturally diverse classroom, they don’t necessarily ensure the capacity to navigate the difficult situations. When it comes to acting with a heightened understanding of culture, teachers - at home and those teaching abroad - need to be some of the most well-equipped professionals in the world. What is cultural competence? The National Education Association does a great job of defining cultural competence: Cultural competence is having an awareness of one’s own cultural identity and views about difference, and the ability to learn and build on the varying cultural and community norms of students and their families. It is the ability to understand the within-group differences that make each student unique, while celebrating the between-group variations that make our [world] a tapestry. What is culturally responsive teaching? When a teacher holds a high level of cultural competence and transmits this knowledge and understanding to their students and their families, we have culturally responsive teaching. Ladson-Billings (1994) describes culturally responsive teaching as "a pedagogy that empowers students intellectually, socially, emotionally, and politically by using cultural referents to impart knowledge, skills, and attitudes". Why is cultural competence in the classroom important? Earlier, I referenced “difficult situations” in the classroom. Let’s draw on an example of what one of these difficult situations might look like. Imagine you’re a teacher working full-time in a culturally diverse fourth grades classroom. You have a fantastic relationship with your students and you celebrate the differences among your students every day. Coming up next week is a class sleepover in the gym. You have one student - a recent immigrant from Syria - who hasn’t turned in his parent permission slip. When you remind him to bring the form in, he says he will. Now just two days prior to the class sleepover, the student still hasn’t returned his slip. As a result, you decide to call his mother so she can grant him permission on the phone. However, things go a little bit differently than you’d expected. During the phone call with the boy’s mother, you learn that she does know about the event and that she’s chosen not to give permission for her son to attend. You’re left feeling slightly confused, but mostly disappointed one of your students won’t be able to attend the sleepover with his classmates. In the end, you accept the parent’s decision and unfortunately have to hold the event without him. You did everything you could with the information you had to help your student be there, but you can’t quite wrap your head around the choice his mother made. What if more context and an enhanced understanding of culture would have helped your student make it to the event? What if you’d known that when he and his family came to the United States and joined your school, they weren’t just immigrating to create a better future for themselves, they were escaping a traumatic past? What if you’d known the reason the boy and his family were opposed to the idea of him attending the sleepover was because the last time he’d been separated from his family overnight was when they had been displaced at a refugee camp in Syria? While most applications of cultural responsiveness in the classroom aren’t quite like the scenario we just mapped out, that real life situation does a great job of exemplifying just how vital cultural competence can be. And it’s only getting more integral to your classroom and to your personal success as an educator: There is a cultural gap in many schools across the United States. The most recent projections from the Census Bureau shows that minority students will account for more than half of all students in US public schools by 2020. One out of every five students now speaks a language other than English at home. As a result of this significant student demographic shift, a growing number of US teachers are struggling with how they can better serve students from cultures other than their own. (Teach Away, PRWeb, 2017). How can teachers become culturally responsive? The best way for a teacher to become culturally responsive is through dedicated professional development. We’ve done a lot of research on the professional development for teachers front at Teach Away recently, and one of our key realizations has been that there are plenty of growth-hungry teachers out there, many of whom fund their own professional development and are keen on advancing their culturally responsive teaching strategies. In learning this, we worked with culturally responsive teaching experts to build the online professional development course, Culturally Responsive Teaching: Connecting with students and parents of different cultures. The 90-minute course covers not only the theory behind creating a culturally responsive classroom, but also the practical strategies teacher need to make it happen. Ready to get started? Visit the Culturally Responsive Teaching course page to enroll. Looking for more information on the course or cultural competence? Check out this course review, or learn why teachers abroad need to make cultural competence a priority.
The procedure by which scientists, communally and over periods, attempt to assemble a precise interpretation of the world, is referred to as the scientific method. The desired result is that of an unswerving, non-capricious and consistent portrayal. Perceptions and interpretations of natural phenomena can be influenced by personal and cultural beliefs; however, the application of criteria and standard procedures assists in the minimization of these archetypal persuasions while developing a theory. The scientific method attempts to reduce the presence of prejudice or bias in the assessor when examining theories and hypotheses. The scientific method is comprised of four steps: “1) observation and description of a phenomenon or group of phenomena; 2) formulation of a hypothesis (or hypotheses) to explain the phenomena; 3) use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or to predict quantitatively the results of new observations; and 4) performance of experimental tests of the predictions by several independent experimenters.” (Wolfs, 2007, ¶3.) According to Wolfs, a popular statement is “in science that theories can never be proved, only disproved. There is always the possibility that a new observation or a new experiment will conflict with a long-standing theory.” (Wolfs, 2007, ¶4.) The prosecution and defense in a criminal prosecution will each possess experts attempting to discredit the other. Many times cases have been lost due to technicalities or mishandling of evidence. Law is a play of words and circumstances, the courtroom a theater in which both sides are playing for keeps. High stakes are riding on the outcome for both parties involved: defense counsel desires an acquittal as it builds on their reputation in the legal community and prosecutorial counsel desires a conviction as it builds on their reputation in the legal community. Likewise, forensic expert witnesses generally affiliate with either defense or prosecutorial counsel and are limited to solely testifying on behalf of the side in which a relationship has formed. The reasoning for this policy is simply that their opinions can be misconstrued if it is deemed that the expert possesses a fickle nature or is solely involved for financial compensation in the case. It is par for the course that in the legal arena, theories will always be challenged, as this is the nature of the beast. Moreover, with disproving of a theory or challenging an authority on issues, there is always the possibility of ramifications. For example, Galileo was only pardoned in 1988 by the roman catholic church for disputing the heliocentric solar system position. According to Jerry Bergman, in The Great Galileo Myth, Galileo was actually opposed more so by his scientific colleagues as opposed to religious authorities. The roman catholic church only became involved after receiving undue pressure from the academia community. (Bergman, 2004, ¶2.) Finally, begrudgingly “after all this time Pope John Paul II finally conceded that the church had made a ‘mistake’. 1988! Over three centuries to concede a scientific point that every man of reason had accepted two hundred years before.” (Bergman, 2004, ¶3.) Therefore, it is not for the faint of heart to question titans in religion or science unaware of the potential ramifications, which may lie ahead. The following paragraphs will discuss the four individual steps in the scientific method and their application to forensic science in a criminal investigation. Observation And Description Of A Phenomenon Or A Group Of Phenomena The first step involved in the scientific method is the observation and description of a phenomenon or a group of phenomena. The forensic examiner must observe an incident or situation. How this scientific method step relates to forensic science would be, for example, in a crime scene investigation involving ballistics. The observation would be of a particular bullet impression in an environment. Perhaps the defense in the case would rise in their legal argument that the defendant could not possibly have murdered the victim given the point of entry and point of exit wounds or the type of bullet involved. The forensic examiner on the particular case may have the responsibility of disputing this claim. Forensic ballistic examination in criminal cases is not limited solely to ballistics, rather encompasses bloodstain pattern analysis as well involving projectile. The following paragraph will discuss the formulation of a hypothesis. Formulation Of A Hypothesis (Or Hypotheses) To Explain The Phenomena The second step involved in the scientific method is the formulation of a hypothesis (or hypotheses to explain the phenomena. Essentially, this is the framing of a question or theory around the incident. Perhaps there is a particular firearm in question or perhaps the firearm is undetermined at this juncture. The forensic examiner would then determine whether or not the bullet came from a particular gun in question. Tool mark and firearm examinations would be conducted to determine, consisting of analysis of ammunition, tool mark and firearm evidence, to establish whether the weapon in question was employed during the commission of the crime in question. Trajectory paths would also be examined to conduct the bullet’s route. The following paragraph will discuss the usage of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena or to quantitatively predict new observation results. Use Of The Hypothesis To Predict The Existence Of Other Phenomena, Or To Predict Quantitatively The Results Of New Observations The third step involved in the scientific method is the use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or to predict quantitatively the results of new observations. The hypothesis is the “tentative answer to the question: a testable explanation for what was observed.” (Carter, 1996, ¶13.) The forensic examiner or scientist attempts to explain what has been observed. This cause and effect relationship, the hypothesis is the possible cause, while the observation is the effect. This is not to be confused with a generalization, as a generalization is based on inductive reasoning. The hypothesis is the potential account for the observation. (Carter, 1996, ¶15.) Forensic scientists and all scientists in general: “build on the work of previous researchers, and one important part of any good research is to first do a literature review to find out what previous research has already been done in the field. Science is a process — new things are being discovered and old, long-held theories are modified or replaced with better ones as more data/knowledge is accumulated.” (Carter, 1996, ¶19.) Science is a continually evolving discipline involving ongoing research. Oftentimes experts have presented erroneous opinions, which must be challenged. The following paragraph will discuss the importance of experimental tests conducted by several independent experimenters. Performance Of Experimental Tests Of The Predictions By Several Independent Experimenters The fourth and final step involved in the scientific method is the performance of experimental tests of the predictions by several independent experimenters. This aspect actually denotes whether or not the hypothesis is supported by the results. Once the experimentation has been conducted and predicted results achieved, the hypothesis is reflected to be plausible. The experiment must be a controlled experiment performed by several independent experimenters. The forensic examiners, scientists must “contrast an ‘experimental group’ with a ‘control group.’” (Carter, 1996, 15.) The replication aspect, several experiments, is critical. The experimentation should be attempted various times on various subjects. This is imperative to determine that a result is not simply coincidental, rather intended and certain. Forensics science is critical in the application to law and legal questions as justice is hinging on steadfast and accurate results. Fortunately, science and technology have vastly improved in recent years to reduce the number of erroneous indictments and convictions for the innocent. Likewise, this discipline is reaching perfection in that an offender or culprit is almost certain to be apprehended given the likelihood that minute strands of trace evidence is almost always located at the scene of a crime. Striving for excellence is oftentimes accompanied by adversity, as in Galileo’s stance; according to Bergman, “the actual threat of Galileo to his contemporary scientists was less his position on heliocentricity than his insistence on observation, research, and experimentation to determine reality. It was for this reason that G. A. Magnini, an eminent astronomy professor at Bologna, openly declared that Galileo’s observations, which indicated that Jupiter had satellites, and must be incorrect. Although the scientific revolution emerged gradually, and many of Galileo’s ideas can be traced to before the thirteenth century, Galileo openly challenged the whole system of determining truth that existed then, and therein lay most of his problems” (Bergman, 2004, ¶20.) This essay has discussed the four steps of the scientific method in relationship to forensic science, providing examples of how each step is incorporated into the process during a criminal investigation. The accuracy of the findings of forensic examination is critical in the public’s reliance and the credibility of the criminal justice process. It is important that evidence is not compromised for these experts to perform their craft with conviction. Bergman, J. (2004). The Great Galileo Myth. Retrieved February 3, 2008, from A.D.A.M. Web site: http://www.adam.com.au/bstett/ReligGalileoMyth95.htm Carter, J. (1996). The Scientific Method. Retrieved February 3, 2008, from University of Cincinnati Web site: http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio104/sci_meth.htm Wolfs, F. (2007). Appendix E. Introduction to the Scientific Method. Retrieved February 3, 2008, from University of Rochester Web site: http://teacher.nsrl.rochester.edu/phy_labs/AppendixE/AppendixE.html
Noise, is an objective and measurable physical value that is characterized by its frequency, expressed in hertz, its duration and its level in decibels. Nuisance is difficult to measure and is a feeling of inconvenience that varies from one individual to another, depending on individual factors and context: a noise you choose is less annoying than a noise you are subjected to. There are various indicators used to measure noise or evaluate noise nuisance. The spread of noise around the platform It mainly depends on: - the aircraft: type of aircraft, engine type, aerodynamics, - the flight stage: take-off, landing, - the weather: strength and direction of the wind, temperature, humidity level, atmospheric pressure, cloud ceiling, etc. - other factors: distance separating the source from the receiving point, etc. Measuring flight path noise Since the end of 2003, six stations including four fixed stations have been measuring noise levels around the airport precisely. Combined with weather and air traffic data, these measurements are sent to a central system that makes it possible to view the path of each aircraft within a radius of around 50 kilometres around Bordeaux. This system makes it possible to answer local residents' questions promptly and reliably, and to identify any lack of compliance with a flight procedure. Controlling urban development So as not to expose new populations to nuisances immediately or over time and to preserve aeronautic activity, urban planning rules are enacted and mapped in a Noise Exposure Plan (PEB). The combined efforts of all of the airport's partners have been visible for several years through: - extremely severe limitation of military flights - adoption of "noise reduction" procedures for each runway on take-off and landing - limited use of the secondary runway (11/29) - prohibition of engine tests and use of thrust reversers (except for safety reasons) at night, etc. And over the past few years through: - modification of the landing procedure on runway 11 - a Prevention of Noise in the Environment Plan - an operating decree governing the application of "noise reduction" procedures, etc.
If your child is performing below grade level, is failing or struggling to maintain barely passing grades , or is not achieving to the degree to which you think she is capable, here are some suggestions for beginning to get her the help she needs: - Try not to focus on grades. Adolescents understand that how you do in school matters, but try not to make their value as a person be based on how they do in school. - Advocate for the right environment for your child’s learning style. A school where sitting still and being quiet is the rule, with no hands-on learning, may not be right for your adolescent. - Make sure to focus on what your adolescent is good at because if they are not doing well in school (where they spend most of their time), they are likely feeling bad about themselves. Even though it may seem that they don’t, adolescents thrive on adult approval and need to feel that they are valued. - Words like “lazy” and “stupid” should not be part of your or your adolescent’s vocabulary. Poor performance and a bad attitude are symptoms of a learning difference, not its cause. When adolescents understand why they are having trouble in school and how they can get help in the areas they need support, they can believe again in their potential for success. - Know when to strengthen and when to avoid a weakness. If an adolescent has dysgraphia (poor handwriting) and his school requires written exams, then it may help to get him occupational therapy to improve his hand-eye coordination. If his school allows him to take notes on a laptop and he types well, encourage him to do so. Sometimes a combination of approaches is the way to go. - Praise the process instead of the outcome. Praising a young person for his effort (“I can tell you really thought that through.”) rather than the outcome (“You are good at math!”) can lead to more confidence. - Help kids use their strengths to find confidence and to help compensate for their weaknesses. Figuring out an adolescent’s talent can help to drive her sense of self-worth. - Understand the dangers of perfectionism. Expecting perfection can only lead to eventual disappointment. Learning to put up with mistakes and even failure helps adolescents deal with the realities of the world, where things don’t always turn out as planned, even if we try really hard. - Use the right interventions for the right reasons. The goal of interventions should not be to change grades, but to support healthy growth and development.
Exceptional Student Education (ESE) is a combination of special programs and services exclusively for students with special needs. In some school districts, this is referred to as special education. Schools with a special education program are devoted to providing quality education and catered services to students with physical and/or intellectual disabilities. An intellectual or learning disability is when an individual has well below average intellectual functioning. This can manifest itself in the form of academic delays and reduced function. Autism is one example of an intellectual disability, although many autistic individuals are high functioning and can do just fine in a standard classroom. For the more severe students, a special needs program is necessary. Exceptional Student Education or Special Education teachers must be specially certified. They may hold an education degree in ESE or Special Ed. Different teachers have different methods of teaching exceptional students and many have to change their plans year after year with new students and disabilities. In some districts, behavior-problem children are also placed in Special Education classrooms simply for bad behavior, not due to a disability or special need. This can be distracting both for ESE students and faculty. ESE curriculums are based on state and school district standards. Students may receive extra instruction or assistance from other teachers, instructional assistants, and speech pathologists or therapists. For the most severely disabled students, focus includes developing motor and mobility skills, learning adaptive technology, and undergoing physical therapy. In some cases, students may make sufficient progress to be placed in a standard classroom. They may continue to work with an ESE teacher every day either in or outside of the classroom. The classroom teacher should work closely with the ESE teacher to determine the student’s special needs and to offer continuity in the development and teaching of certain skills.
In aviation, a strake is an aerodynamic surface generally mounted on the fuselage of an aircraft to improve the flight characteristics either by controlling the airflow (acting as large vortex generators) or by simple stabilising effect. Leading edge root extensions (LERX) are also sometimes referred to as wing strakes. On both supersonic and subsonic types, smaller strakes are sometimes applied to the forward fuselage to control the fuselage flow at high angles of attack ; for example the Concorde SST has small nose strakes "to get a better directional stability". For wing strakes, see Leading edge root extension (LERX). Double delta wing aircraft (Concorde, Tupolev Tu-144, Boeing 2707 SST project) featured a forward extended leading edge that may be considered as a wing strake ; it provides the same additional vortex lift at high angle of attack by leading edge suction. One or two ventral strakes are sometimes positioned under the fuselage, as large vortex generators, to provide a better tail surfaces efficiency. Typical examples can be seen on the SOCATA TB family or the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter. Rear strakes - tail fins One or two large fins or strakes are sometimes positioned under the rear fuselage or below the empennage, to provide adequate stability at high angles of attack when the tail fin is shielded from the main airstream by the fuselage and/or the wing wake. Typical examples can be seen on the Piaggio P.180 Avanti, Learjet 60 and Beechcraft 1900D. The Grumman X-29 research aircraft had rear fuselage lateral fins or "Tail fins", sometimes called strakes, continuous with the trailing edge of the main wing. This allowed the positioning of a rear control surface at the end of each fin. Together with the main and forward (canard) wing control surfaces, this effectively gave it a three-surface configuration. Anti-spin leading edge strakes, or spin strakes, or antispin fillet may be placed at the tailplane roots of generally aerobatic aircraft, such as the de Havilland Tiger Moth (British version), Scottish Aviation Bulldog, de Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk. Ventral or dorsal fins increasing the directional stability are also used as anti-spin devices. \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Strakes.\| Certain air-deployed munitions, particularly "dumb" or unguided 500-pound bombs, are often retrofitted with bolt-on strake sets. Designed as an open collar with strakes fitted to the outside face, these strake sets are used to alter and normalize the aerodynamics of the weapon, yielding greater accuracy. As most such munitions were manufactured with only tail-mounted stabilizer fins, the addition of longitudinal strakes proves a much cleaner flow of air around the weapon during its glide, reducing the tendency to yaw and improving terminal accuracy. Strakes are also often found on "smart" or guided munitions as an aid to the guidance system. By stabilizing the slipstream of air traveling over the weapon, the actions of control surfaces are much more predictable and precise, again improving the accuracy of the weapon. - André Peyrat-Armandy, Les avions de transport modernes et futurs, Teknea, 1997, p. 229 - Hoerner, Fluid Dynamic Lift, Double Delta Wings - In Hoerner Fluid Dynamic Lift, "Tail fins - Dorsal and others fins on fuselage" - Miller, J.; The X-Planes, 2nd Printing, Speciality Press (1985) - Nasa TN D-6575, Summary of spin technology as related to the light general-aviation airplanes, fig. 10 - Daroll Stinton, The design of the aeroplane, Lateral and directional stability and spinning, p.461.
By sequencing the genome of an ancient human with unparalleled accuracy, scientists have for the first time revealed the relationship between her species and our own. In 2010, Svante Pääbo of the Max PlanckInstitute and his colleagues sequenced DNA from a finger bone fragment discovered in the Denisova Cave in southern Siberia. They found that it belonged to a young girl of a previously unknown group of archaic humans, dubbed Denisovans. By splitting the DNA double helix and using each of its two strands, the team was able to sequence every position in the Denisovan genome about 30 times over – making the analysis as accurate as one for a present-day human. “This is an extinct genome sequence of unprecedented accuracy,” says Matthias Meyer, the lead author of the study. “For most of the genome we can even determine the differences between the two sets of chromosomes that the Deniosovan girl inherited from her mother and father.” The analysis shows that there was little genetic variation amongst Denisovans, suggesting that despite spreading throughout large parts of Asia, their population was never large for long periods of time. It also shows the genetic changes – some associated with brain function or nervous system development – that distinguish modern humans from their ancient relatives. For their latest study, the team compared the Denisovan genome with those of the Neanderthals and eleven modern humans from around the world. Their findings confirm previous work showing that modern populations from the islands of southeastern Asia share genes with the Denisovans. In addition, the genomes of people from East Asia and South America include slightly more genes from Neanderthals than those of people in Europe. The analysis reveals that there was less genetic variation amongst the Denisovans than in present-day humans, probably because an initially small Denisovan population grew quickly while spreading over a wide geographic range. “If future research of the Neanderthal genome shows that their population size changed over time in similar ways, it may well be that a single population expanding out of Africa gave rise to both the Denisovans and the Neanderthals,” says Pääbo. “This research will help determining how it was that modern human populations came to expand dramatically in size as well as cultural complexity, while archaic humans eventually dwindled in numbers and became physically extinct.”
Why this work matters The internationally acclaimed Yellowstone Wolf Project oversees research and monitoring of wolves in Yellowstone. This program is one of the most detailed studies of a large carnivore in the world, spanning over 25 years since wolves were first reintroduced to the park in 1995. Year-round field research helps biologists gain data on a broad range of topics, including population dynamics, predator-prey interactions, social behavior, genetics, disease, multi-carnivore competition, ecosystem impacts, and human-wolf relationships. Collectively, this work serves the park’s mission to understand and preserve native species and ecological processes, and informs wolf conservation efforts worldwide. What needs to be done Knowledge of Yellowstone’s wolf population and their role in the ecosystem requires year-round monitoring and research. Using skilled field staff and emerging technologies, we are able to collect vital data using the following methods: - VHF and GPS collaring of wolves - Ground observations and telemetry monitoring by skilled field staff - Aerial monitoring flights and GPS satellite data - Population, pack composition, and pup counts - Genetic analyses and disease testing - Seasonal predation studies - Behavioral studies - Territory use and multi-species interactions from VHF/GPS collar data The Yellowstone Wolf Project relies on the funding from Yellowstone Forever’s members and corporate partners to continue this crucial research on Yellowstone’s wolves. What we’ve accomplished The wolf, one of Yellowstone’s most important predators, roamed the landscape and influenced the ecosystem for thousands of years. By the late 1920s, wolves were eradicated from Yellowstone in an effort by the U.S. government to tame the wilderness. Along with the removal of other carnivores like cougars and bears, this action had a profound effect on Yellowstone. In the absence of carnivores, elk numbers boomed which resulted in significant changes in vegetation. Beavers became increasingly rare, and food web dynamics were significantly altered. With the loss of the wolf, the park was missing a keystone species that altered the structure and function of the entire ecosystem. Starting with the watershed Endangered Species Act in the 1970s, and finally in 1995 with all the pieces in place, fourteen gray wolves were captured in Canada and relocated to Yellowstone’s Lamar Valley. In 1996, 17 more Canadian wolves were brought into the park, followed by 10 wolves from northwestern Montana in 1997. The wolf population grew quickly, as pack territories and breeding pairs were established. This monumental undertaking marked the first deliberate attempt to return a top-level carnivore to a large ecosystem. The impacts of wolf recovery have been significant. With their return, Yellowstone’s large carnivore community is fully restored and wolves are once again playing a critical role in Yellowstone’s natural ecological processes. Every year since the Yellowstone Wolf project reintroduced wolves to Yellowstone in 1995, Yellowstone Forever has provided 60% of the project’s yearly budget through private funds. From a donor: To hear a wolf howl with all the answering howls was something I’ll never forget. This is why we continue to give. That’s an experience too few of us have and must be preserved. — Tim S., Connecticut
How will climate change affect birds breeding in the Arctic? We were interested to know what might happen to the bird species that migrate to breed in the Arctic under coming climate change. Millions of birds fly north to breed in the fertile and light filled Arctic summers and then return south to avoid the harsh Arctic winter. Some of these migrations are truely incredible, many species completely dissolve their digestive organs to save weight while migrating, and others fly for days directly across the Pacific Ocean! But as the Arctic warms there will be less and less space that is cool enough to fulfil the habitat requirements for these birds (and all Arctic species). How will this affect them, and could it affect the migratory routes they follow? We picked the 24 shorebird species that breed exclusively in the High Arctic to study to answer these questions. We determined the combination of climatic conditions where each species currently breeds, and looked at where these conditions could be distributed in the Arctic at two points, 6000 years ago and in 2070. We wanted to looked at what their distributions might have been 6000 years ago, as this was at a time called the Mid-Holocene Climatic Optimum, where the Earth’s temperature was slightly warmer than it is are today. As such, it’s a good reference point to see how species respond to mild warming. More than that, we know that some species experienced genetic bottlenecks around this time (meaning something happened to reduce the populations to very small sizes). So if we know that even this mild warming affected species, by comparing how drastic the difference is between that warming period and projected future warming periods, we can have an idea of how bad the impact of future climate change may be. So how much habitat do the birds lose? Let’s look at the percentage of habitat remaining relative to the present in the past and future: In the Mid-Holocene, most birds lost some habitat, but none by more than 50% of current habitat amounts. And genetic data tells us that even this amount of habitat loss had big effects for populations. But when we look forward to 2070, species are losing a lot more habitat. Most species have less than 50% of current habitat remaining, and a few have less than 5% remaining - they have nowhere left to live. This is even more extreme in a “business as usual” scenario where we don’t curb emissions. It’s worth noting that I did this work a few years ago now, and it’s looking like these climate projections are very optimistic. So reality is likely to be even worse. And this could have big impacts on where these species migrate around the world, because the habitat loss isn’t consistent across the Arctic. These maps show where the habitat is located, the darker the colour, the more species live there. You can see it’s pretty well distributed around the Arctic currently, but by far the biggest lossess in the future are from Russia and Alaska. Will we see migratory species almost disappear from these parts of the world? It’s possible. This work points to how essential it is that we keep fighting to reduce emissions as soon as possible, and ensure that we do everything we can to reduce other threats to these birds to give them the best chance of continuing their amazing migrations.
Will Russia someday become the leading superpower of Eurasia? Would this leadership reshape the balance of power in Eurasia and eventually alter geopolitical outcomes in the Middle East? Black Sea waters presented some difficulties for the ancient Mediterranean Greeks who navigated what poetically came to be called the Pontos Axeinos—the Inhospitable Sea. Yet, despite the unpredictability of this ancient body of water for seafarers the surrounding coast of the Black Sea became a stopping point for many ancient tribes and peoples that continued to move northward and westward across Central Asia and Asia Minor into Eastern Europe. Some of whom included the Thracians, Cimmerians, Scythians and later the Mycenaeans, Greeks and Sarmatians. Some of whom left a lasting influence in the region of the Black Sea. By the 8th century the Black Sea region fell largely under the control of the Cimmerians who were later pushed by the Scythians farther into Asia Minor and expectedly northward beyond the Pontic steppes into those lands that are now within the bounds of modern-day Ukraine, Belarus and the Russian Federation. However, even though the Scythians had pushed many of the Cimmerian tribes out of this region of the Black Sea there still remained a remnant of Cimmerians in Crimea, particularly in the narrow lands bordering the Strait of Kerch. This narrow seaway links the Black Sea with the northern Sea of Azov, and the Greeks who sailed this waterway called it the Strait of the Cimmerian Bosphorus, which is situated between the Taman and Crimean peninsulas within the current bounds of the Russian Federation. (The Romans called it the Cimmerianus Bosporus.) Notably, these western migrations of the Cimmerians and Scythians coincided with the expansion of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and the eventual overthrow of Samaria in northern Israel, when many Samarian-Israelites were deported into lands that buffered the Assyrian Empire, mostly north and east of Babylon. Nearly a century later, while the Neo-Assyrians continued to be the dominant empire in Mesopotamia and the Middle East, the Black Sea region began to experience renewed Greek explorations that led to additional settlements along the northern and eastern coastal areas of the Black Sea. In this period the Greeks also established settlements along the Cimmerian Bosphorus, and of particular importance to Greek trade was the city of Panticapaeum (modern Kerch), which was founded by the Milesian Greeks. This important city for trade later became an Athenian protectorate and was ruled for a time by the Archaeanactid dynasty (480–438 BCE), which laid the foundation for a future Bosphoran state that enveloped the Strait of the Cimmerian Bosphorus. Then, in 438/437 BCE a general and Thracian mercenary named Spartocus I came to power in the city of Panticapaeum and established a dynasty (Spartocid) that would generally mark the beginning of the independent Kingdom of the Cimmerian Bosphorus. Then a little more than a century later the Cimmerian Bosphorus, and the land of Crimea, were swallowed up by the empire of Alexander the Great as the Greeks marched through the lands that would later become part of the regional Seleucid Empire and the later Pontic Kingdom. Noting that the latter kingdom was a Hellenistic state of Persian origin and a kingdom that would eventually hold sway over the Cimmerian Bosphorus and Crimea until the coming of the Romans in the first century AD. (The Black Sea was still an Athenian sea in the time of Spartocus I.) By the 15th century part of the Black Sea region and Crimea became a Turkic vassal state of the Ottoman Empire, and it remained as such until the 18th century when the Crimean khanate was annexed into the Russian Empire in April of 1783 by the Russian monarch, Catherine the Great. (The Crimean kingdom was one of the longest lasting republics of the Roman Empire as well as one of the longest lasting khanates of the Ottoman Empire.) Thus, Crimea remained under Russian control from the time of Catherine the Great until it was transferred to become a territory of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1954. However, the reasons for this transfer of territory remain uncertain, but speculation has it that Nikita Khrushchev did this for the sake of unifying the “Russians and Ukrainians” and to continue the “great and indissoluble friendship” that supposedly existed between the Ukrainians and Russians. Creating, then, an historical and political sticking point for a second annexation of Crimea that took place in 2014, a sticking point that became quite apparent in the referendum that voted Crimea back under the Russian Federation. (We can say with some certainty that Russia has no intentions of relinquishing Crimea back to Ukraine.) Consequently, because of the nature of Russia’s military occupation of Crimea, and the continuing dispute offered by Ukraine, the peoples referendum and the subsequent annexation of Crimea by Russia has been regarded as “illegal” by the United Nations, and by the European Union, and by the NATO alliance and obviously by the current government of Ukraine. Giving us then two additional sticking points to consider regarding any solutions to the annexation of Crimea. The first is the long-range consequence of the annexation because it further divided NATO and Russia politically, and it upped the stakes for the geopolitical and military posturing that continues between the alliance and the Russian Federation. The second is the long history of Russia’s embattled involvement with Crimea—and the same could be said of Ukraine—because it sensitizes the geopolitical issues that surround the annexation of Crimea. Bringing us then to further consider the influence of history in resolving the geopolitical issue that is Crimea. For we cannot forget that Crimea was once the final battlefront of the Crimean War that brought Britain, France, Turkey and Sardinia against Russia. This war began over religious differences and problems related to Christian access to holy sites in Jerusalem, and the spark that ignited this war was the riots that broke out in Bethlehem, which prompted Tsar Nicholas I—who blamed the Turks—to intervene in Palestine. Also, the history of Russia is in large measure the history of Ukraine because the city of Kyiv is considered to be the “mother of all Russian cities,” and therefore it will always remain of geopolitical significance to Russia, because having Ukraine under wing means “empire” for the Russian Federation. Thus, we could say that the dispute over Crimea is a dispute over common ground historically for both Russia and Ukraine, and this common ground touches the histories of the Greeks and Persians, particularly so after the conquests of Alexander the Great. What then could we expect in the future regarding Russia, Ukraine and the geopolitical contest over Crimea? We would have to think that the annexation of Crimea was a spark that reignited the belief in a Russian Empire in Eurasia, and such an empire would be incomplete apart from Ukraine and also Belarus, even though the government of Ukraine is currently showing overtures to NATO. Meaning that at this point nothing is settled about the future of Ukraine. Also, it would be difficult to accept that NATO and the European Union would be able to successfully integrate a currently struggling Ukraine into its military and political sphere, only for Ukraine to become a political and military extension of Western Europe that borders on the Russian Federation. In the end, we would have to think that NATO and the European Union will have to make a deal with Russia over the future of Ukraine, and in this deal the cards will expectedly fall in favor of Russia. Bolstering Russia’s increasing political influence and power in Eurasia. We could also expect to see the Russian Federation increasing its involvement in the Balkans, where north meets south, and we could also expect that Russia will show a more concerned interest in its outlet to the Mediterranean Sea. Eventually, however, we could expect to see Russia becoming a major political player in Middle East affairs, particularly in Palestine, because like the United States and the European Union, we see that Russia too has actively signed on to the United Nations mandate to implement a “two-state” solution in Palestine.
Even when you think you’ve got a handle on grammar, you might not realise how easy it is easy to unwittingly venture into lexical territory that would rile your freshman year English teacher. Certainly back in my college days, I had a few teacher’s assistants who would get on my case for using the passive voice. Bright red marker underlined heaps of my prose, with an all-caps warning noting that my argument would be made clearer if I’d only adhere to the active voice when writing papers. At the time, I hadn’t yet discovered what the passive voice was. Alas, I had to learn that the passive voice is abhorred by a select few grammar snobs. (None of whom are likely to have enjoyed the two prior paragraphs.) Here’s what you need to know about the passive versus active voice so you can avoid the sort of writerly mistakes I made in college but definitely never make anymore. First: Active voice In order to understand the passive voice we first need to dive into the more commonly used active voice. Basically, the active voice is being used when the subject of a sentence performs the actions denoted by a verb. As Harvard Historian Mariel Wolfson elaborates for American Journal Experts, “[a]t the most basic level, the active voice emphasises the person or agent who performs an action, in short, the actor.’” Basically, the active voice is a much more commonly used grammatical structure, in which the subject of a sentence is clearly defined. If you’d like an example of the active voice, consider the below: “The boy really loved soccer.” Yes, it’s that simple. The active voice doesn’t leave much room for confusion. As Perdue University’s Online Writing Lab explains: Using active voice for the majority of your sentences makes your meaning clear for readers, and keeps the sentences from becoming too complicated or wordy. Perdue’s definition gets at what most writing instructors are trying to convey when they’re teaching you to write. Using the active voice is straightforward and simple, but that doesn’t necessarily mean the passive voice is to be avoided at all costs. What’s the passive voice? The passive voice flips the active sentence structure on its head. It’s a topsy-turvy kind of way of describing things, as the Writing Centre at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill explains: A passive construction occurs when you make the object of an action into the subject of a sentence. That is, whoever or whatever is performing the action is not the grammatical subject of the sentence. In other words, the verb obscures what the subject of the sentence is doing. An example of a sentence in the passive voice: “The ball was kicked by the boy.” If you were going to write this in the active voice, you’d just go with “The boy kicked the ball,” a sentence that clearly delineates that the subject of the sentence — the boy — did the kicking. As a general rule, passive voice construction usually necessitates using more words than the active voice; as a consequences, your point is more likely to be obscured — and your readers confused — by using the passive voice. Is using the passive voice ever appropriate? It isn’t always crucial (or pleasurable for the reader) to emphasise the main actor of a sentence. As Wolfson explains, “there are many examples where we either cannot or do not want to emphasise the actor, particularly if there is an element of mystery involved.” She uses the passive voice-appropriate example of expressing mysterious developments, in which the main actors are often unknown: - My car was stolen on Sunday night. There are some academic contexts in which the passive voice is even preferred — science writing, for example. When sharing the results of observations and scientific study, researchers often like to lift the onus from the researcher and place it more squarely on the scientific method employed. Passive voice is useful to pull the emphasis of the sentence away from the researcher. It is especially applicable to the “Method” section of scientific journals. When using passive voice, make sure that the performer is either obvious or unimportant. Basically, using the passive voice too much can obscure the point you’re trying to make. So be wise about how you use it, lest you endure being stared down by a judgmental grammar purist.
What is the law of the lever? This is the law of the lever, which was proven by Archimedes using geometric reasoning. It shows that if the distance a from the fulcrum to where the input force is applied (point A) is greater than the distance b from fulcrum to where the output force is applied (point B), then the lever amplifies the input force. What are the 3 types of levers? There are three types of levers: first class, second class and third class. The difference between the three classes depends on where the force is, where the fulcrum is and where the load is. What are 1st 2nd and 3rd class levers? Other examples of first class levers are pliers, scissors, a crow bar, a claw hammer, a see-saw and a weighing balance. Nutcrackers are also an example of a second class lever. Third class lever. With third class levers the effort is between the load and the fulcrum, for example in barbecue tongs. How do you calculate effort force? As with inclined planes, the object to be moved is the resistance force or load and the effort is the force put into moving the load at the other end of the fulcrum. So force=effort=in and resistance = load=out. What is a 1st class lever? First Class Levers In a first class lever, the fulcrum is located between the load and the effort. In a first class lever, the fulcrum is located between the load and the effort. When the fulcrum is closer to the load, then less effort is needed to move the load (©2020 Let’s Talk Science). How do you use a lever? A lever enables people to do work using less force. A lever usually is used to move or lift objects. Sometimes it is used to push against objects, but not actually move them. Levers can be used to exert a large force over a small distance at one end by exerting only a small force over a greater distance at the other. What is a class 2 lever? In class 2 levers, the fulcrum lies at one end, the effort is applied at the other end, and the load is placed at the middle. The closer the load is to the fulcrum, the lesser amount of force needed to lift it. Which lever is most efficient? First- and second-class levers generally are very efficient, especially when the loads are located close to the fulcrum while efforts are further from the fulcrum (Figures A and C). The efficiency of first- and second-class levers will decrease when loads move further from the fulcrum (Figures B and D). Why is a bottle opener a class 2 lever? In a second-class lever, such as a bottle opener, the fulcrum is at one end, the effort at the other, and the load in between. The fulcrum is between the load and the effort. The effort is magnified because the load is closer to the fulcrum. Which is the example for Third Order lever? In a third class lever, the effort is between the load and the fulcrum. Some examples of third class levers include fishing rods, cricket bats and chopsticks. Third class levers are different from first and second class levers because instead of force multipliers, they are speed multipliers. What is lever and examples? The lever makes the work easier. The class of lever depends on the location of the load, force, and fulcrum. Some examples of levers include more than one class, such as a nut cracker, a stapler, nail clippers, ice tongs and tweezers. Other levers, called single class levers include the claw end of a hammer. What is the most common lever in the human body? In a third-class lever, the most common in the human body, force is applied between the resistance (weight) and the axis (fulcrum) (figure 1.23a). Picture someone using a shovel to pick up an object. What is work formula? Work is done when a force that is applied to an object moves that object. The work is calculated by multiplying the force by the amount of movement of an object (W = F * d). What is effort formula? The effort force at a distance of 2 m from the fulcrum can be calculated as. Fe = (1 kg) (9.81 m/s2) (1 m) / (2 m) = 4.9 N. A lever mechanism where the input effort is higher than than the output load is often characterized as a third-class lever mechanism.
For this lesson, I get the students excited about the content by listening to and participating in the Triangle Song by Have Fun Teaching on YouTube. The students get to make triangles with the arms and hands and walk and more with this fun song. It is a great way to focus the students and burn off a little energy before the lesson. After the song, my students take their SmartBoard spots to begin direct instruction. For this portion of the lesson, I use my SmartBoard. If you have a Smartboard, the file Circles and Triangles can easily be downloaded and opened. If you have a different type of interactive whiteboard, you can still use this lesson by opening the file in Smart Notebook Express. There is also a pdf of the slides so you can recreate this part of the lesson. I gather my students in front of the Smartboard. I have cards with each student's name printed on. These cards are used for selecting who will come up to the SmartBoard. I open the first slide (SmartBoard Slide 1) with the lesson objective written in "student friendly" terms. There is a content objective and a language objective to help focus on vocabulary expansion for my English Learners (ELs) to be congruent with SIOP instructional techniques I read these objectives aloud for my students. I can identify the characteristics of circles and triangles and identify whether a shape is a circle or triangle. I can tell a friend if a shape is a circle or a triangle. We progress then progress through the rest of the slides. Slide 2: This is a triangle. Slide 3: A triangle has three straight sides and three corners. I point out the sides and corners for the students. We do not use the term vertices at this point in time. Many of my students do not even know what a corner is in relationship to their own world, so I do not want to complicate the lesson for these students. Slide 4: Is this a triangle? I gather answers for the students. I am amazed that many students say "no" because it is not orientated the way the students generally see a triangle. I explain to the students, It has three sides and three corners so it must be a triangle. Slide 5: Is this a triangle? I again solicit answers from the students. They agree it is not a triangle. I reinforce why it isn't. It does not have three straight sides and three corners. Slide 6: This is a circle. Slide 7: A circle is made up of one curved line. Every spot on the line is an EQUAL distance for the center. I explain to the students that no matter where I am around the outside edge of the circle, I am always the same distance from the center of the circle. I use the colored lines on the circle to help them better understand this characteristic of circles. Slide 8: Is this a circle? The students immediately shout out, "It's an oval!" I am happy they know what an oval is, but I want them to understand why it is not a circle. I want them to use their academic language. I talk them through the fact that different points on the circle are not the same distance from the center. I actually draw lines on the oval to assist their understanding of this concept. Slide 9: Let's sort some shapes! I invite students to come up to the board and sort the shapes. I have them explain the rationale behind where they put each shape. Slide 10: It is time for my students to practice using their academic language with Turn and Talk. Each student has an assigned Turn and Talk partner. I have them hold hands with their partner and raise their hands in the air so I can make sure that everyone has a partner. After everyone has a partner, I say to them. Look at each shape. Which one is a triangle? How do you know? Some students figure out immediately that it is a trick question. I stress to the students that I want them to come with WHY. After it is obvious that everyone has had a chance to talk, I ask a student to share their answer with the class. The student tells the class that both shapes are triangles. I ask the student to explain why. The student tells the class that there are three sides. I repeat the student's answer. Both of these shapes are triangles because they have three sides. It does not matter which way the triangle is sitting. I take my finger and I rotate the shapes on the Smartboard s the students can see that no matter which way I turn the shapes, they are still triangles. The students take their seats at their tables to begin guided practice. For this portion of the lesson, you will need the Circle and Triangle Real World Shape Sort. I print the cards on a colored printer and laminate for durability. I printed four sets of the cards, so there was one set for each table of students in my classroom. The cards should be cut apart. I distribute each set of cards to the tables face down. I pass the cards out around the table so each student gets at least two cards. I then place one set of the larger cards that are labeled circle and triangle at each table. I say to the students, we are going to sort some things that we find in our word as circles and triangles. You will go around the table and hold up just one of your shapes. You will say what it is and what shape it is. For example, if I have a picture of a car tire, I would say, "The tire is a circle". Then place the shape next to the sign that has the circle on it and the next person goes. I want everyone to say the sentence. Don't just put your card down. Keep going around the circle until all of the cards are laid down. The students begin the activity. I circulate around the room to make sure they are sorting the shapes correctly. Because I want my English Language Learners to expand their vocabulary I make sure the students are saying the sentences that describes their shapes. I assist students by naming objects they are not familiar with as well. I check the students sorted cards. The students pick up the cards and we prepare for independent practice. I pass the Circle and Triangle Sorting Activity out to the students and have them put their names on the top of their papers. I then explain to the students, We will be sorting some objects by shape. You will be deciding if the shapes are circles or triangles. I want you to cut apart the shapes and place them on the correct sections of the paper. Do not glue until you have raised your hand for me to check our paper. The students begin working as I move around the room, checking their work. I make sure to check in with my English Language Learners and have them name the different objects that they are sorting. I correct any mistakes that the students may have made. After they have glued the objects down, I have them place the paper in their mailbox.
About This Book A workbook for students of English Language in secondary schools The workbook contains reading comprehension texts and questions that provide practice in developing reading skills through carefully chosen texts and questions that promote thinking and in-depth comprehension. A read-and-write task accompanies each reading comprehension, offering an opportunity for real-world use of language. The workbook can be used in a classroom context with the support of a teacher or as a self-access tool by the more independent language learner if used along with the companion Workbooks Answer Key. 10 Reading comprehension texts A range of question types A range of reading subskills 10 read and write tasks Answers to all questions available in a separate book Develop your reading skills 2 is the higher level workbook in the series Develop your reading skills.
When ray of light passes from a denser medium to a rarer medium, then the refracted my is deviated away from the normal. As a result the angle of refraction becomes greater than the angle of incidence. Suppose AB is the separating surface of glass and air. Glass is denser and air is rarer medium. P is a point in the glass medium. From P a ray of light PQ incidents at point Q of separating surface AB at a small angle. QR is the refracted my in air [Fig: (a)]. In this case the angle of refraction (˄NQR) will be greater than the angle of incidence (˄PQN’). Now in denser medium if the angle of incidence gradually increases, the corresponding angle of refraction in rarer medium will also increase. In this way if the angle of incidence is increased finally for a definite angle of incidence ˄P1QN’ will be obtained [Fig: (b)] for which the refracted my QR will pass along the separating surface AB, i.e. the angle of refraction will be ˄NQR1 = 90°. In this situation the angle of incidence in the denser medium (˄P1QN’) is called the critical angle with respect to the rarer medium. In fig: (b) ˄P1QN’ = θc = critical angle. The value of this critical angle also depends on the nature of the medium and the colour of light.
Kyphosis is an exaggerated rounding of the upper back, sometimes called a hunchback. Most often found in postmenopausal women, when it is referred to as a “dowager’s hump,” it is also fairly common in adolescent girls. At times, kyphosis is a congenital condition and it may also show up in boys between the ages of 10 and 15 as a manifestation of the hereditary disorder known as Scheuermann’s kyphosis. Individuals with osteoporosis or who have connective tissue disorders, such as Marfan syndrome, are also at greater risk of developing kyphosis. Although patients with kyphosis may suffer back pain, stiffness or fatigue, most people with mild cases have no discernible symptoms. Causes of Kyphosis There are many reasons a patient may present with kyphosis. In many cases, kyphosis is simply the result of slouching and is not evidence of any spinal deformity. In such instances, most common in adolescent girls, the condition is called postural kyphosis and requires no medical treatment. Other causes of kyphosis include: - Birth defects of the spine - Osteoporosis resulting in compression fractures - Disc degeneration or arthritis - Scheuermann’s disease, a hereditary disorder - Cancer of the spine, radiation, or chemotherapy - Tumor or infection - Neuromuscular disorders, such as polio or muscular dystrophy - Spinal injury - Certain endocrine disorders - Symptoms of Kyphosis While many patients with kyphosis, apart from their appearance, are asymptomatic, the condition can result in back pain, stiffness and fatigue. Some patients also experience tenderness along the spine. In severe cases, kyphosis may cause difficulty breathing. Diagnosis of Kyphosis Physical examination is usually enough to confirm the abnormal curving of the upper spine. The patient is also checked for any neurological problems below the curve. These may include weakness, unusual sensations, or even some degree of paralysis. In addition to the physical examination, the doctor may request X-rays, a test for neurological function, or an MRI scan to detect any underlying problems. If breathing has been compromised, pulmonary function tests will also be administered. Treatment of Kyphosis Treatment for kyphosis can vary depending on the type and severity of the condition. Mild cases may only necessitate regular monitoring and special exercises to strengthen the back muscles. Pain medication may be prescribed for patients troubled by discomfort. More severe cases of kyphosis may require bracing or surgery to correct the curvature since, left untreated, kyphosis can lead to physical deformity, severe back pain and body image problems. The most common surgical procedure performed is spinal fusion to permanently connect two or more vertebrae. Underlying conditions must also be addressed. Congenital kyphosis requires surgery at an early age and Scheuermann’s disease may necessitate surgery as well, if a back brace and physical therapy are insufficient to relieve symptoms. Patients whose kyphosis is the result of osteoporosis may be prescribed bone-strengthening medication. Patients whose kyphosis is caused by infection or tumor need aggressive treatment with medications or surgery. At a Glance Dr. Federico Girardi MD - Triple fellowship-trained spinal surgeon - Performs over 400 spinal surgeries per year - Professor of orthopedic surgery at Cornell University - Learn more
Pompe disease is a rare inherited disorder, associated with progressive muscle damage and weakness. There are three main types of Pompe disease, classified according to age at onset and severity of symptoms. They are classic infantile-onset Pompe disease, non-classic infantile-onset Pompe disease, and late-onset Pompe disease. Non-classic infantile-onset Pompe disease tends to begin within the first year of life, but later than the classic form that usually appears within a few months of birth. Causes of non-classic infantile-onset Pompe Pompe is a type of glycogen storage disease, a group of conditions associated with abnormalities in the way the body handles glycogen, a large complex sugar that is stored in muscles. Glycogen is normally broken down into smaller sugars, like glucose, to be used as an energy source by cells. Individuals with Pompe disease cannot break down glycogen efficiently, due to defects in an enzyme called acid alpha-glucosidase, which is involved in this process. This is caused by mutations, or abnormalities, in the GAA gene that encodes for acid alpha-glucosidase. When glycogen cannot be broken down properly, it accumulates to toxic levels and causes damage to the surrounding tissues. The disease is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner. This means that for the symptoms to appear, the patient must inherit two mutated copies of GAA — one from the mother and one from the father. So far, over 200 different mutations have been characterized in patients with Pompe disease. Some mutations can cause only slight changes to the enzyme, meaning that it does not work as effectively as it should, while others can cause no enzyme to be made at all. In non-classic infantile-onset Pompe disease, a person has inherited GAA copies that produce very little or no working acid alpha-glucosidase. In general, the lower the enzyme’s activity, the earlier the age of disease onset as the buildup of glycogen occurs more quickly and symptoms will become evident sooner in life. A study, published in the Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases, examined types of GAA mutations associated with non-classic infantile-onset Pompe disease in 31 patients. Most were from Europe, with one patient from the U.S. Results showed that in this subset of patients, around two-thirds of their mutations were of a type termed c.-32-13T>G, which results in a severely reduced amount of functional acid alpha-glucosidase. Non-classic infantile-onset Pompe disease differs in symptoms from the classic infantile-onset form, and is usually less severe. Children show progressive muscle weakness, or myopathy, and delayed development of motor skills, such as rolling over and sitting up. The heart is also less likely to be affected in non-classic infantile-onset Pompe disease. Some patients may experience cardiomegaly, or an enlarged heart, which can lead to heart failure if untreated, but progression is generally slower. Progressive muscle weakness can also lead to severe breathing problems and lung failure if untreated. Initial diagnosis consists of identifying the symptoms of the disease. In some U.S. states, Pompe disease is part of newborn screening. If Pompe disease is suspected based on symptoms, a blood or skin sample may be taken to assess the activity of the acid alpha-glucosidase enzyme. In patients who have the non-classic infantile-onset form, enzyme activity is generally very low or non-existent. A DNA analysis can further confirm the diagnosis if a mutation is detected in the GAA gene. Other indicators include abnormally high levels of some substances, including a type of sugar called tetrasaccharide in the urine, or the enzyme creatine kinase in the blood, which leaks from damaged muscles. There is currently no cure for Pompe disease, but treatments are available to manage symptoms and improve survival. In general, patients with Pompe disease will be offered enzyme replacement therapy (ERT). The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved Genzyme’s Lumizyme (marketed as Myozyme outside of the U.S.) in 2006. Lumizyme’s active ingredient is purified alglucosidase alfa, or a copy of the human alpha-glucosidase enzyme produced in a laboratory. This transiently provides the enzyme to the patient, breaking down glycogen while it is active. But the treatment must be taken regularly. Children may also receive care and support to manage specific symptoms. This may include: - Respiratory support such a mechanical ventilator to help the child inhale and exhale enough air. - Physical therapy to help the child develop motor skills and strengthen key muscles. - Dietary treatments, which may include specific diets or a feeding tube, to ensure the child is getting enough nutrition for proper growth and development. Pompe Disease News is strictly a news and information website about the disease. It does not provide medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. This content is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. Never disregard professional medical advice or delay in seeking it because of something you have read on this website.
In mathematics, a symmetric polynomial is a polynomial P(X1, X2, …, Xn) in n variables, such that if any of the variables are interchanged, one obtains the same polynomial. Formally, P is a symmetric polynomial if for any permutation σ of the subscripts 1, 2, ..., n one has P(Xσ(1), Xσ(2), …, Xσ(n)) = P(X1, X2, …, Xn). Symmetric polynomials arise naturally in the study of the relation between the roots of a polynomial in one variable and its coefficients, since the coefficients can be given by polynomial expressions in the roots, and all roots play a similar role in this setting. From this point of view the elementary symmetric polynomials are the most fundamental symmetric polynomials. A theorem states that any symmetric polynomial can be expressed in terms of elementary symmetric polynomials, which implies that every symmetric polynomial expression in the roots of a monic polynomial can alternatively be given as a polynomial expression in the coefficients of the polynomial. Symmetric polynomials also form an interesting structure by themselves, independently of any relation to the roots of a polynomial. In this context other collections of specific symmetric polynomials, such as complete homogeneous, power sum, and Schur polynomials play important roles alongside the elementary ones. The resulting structures, and in particular the ring of symmetric functions, are of great importance in combinatorics and in representation theory. - 1 Examples - 2 Applications - 3 Relation with the roots of a monic univariate polynomial - 4 Special kinds of symmetric polynomials - 5 Symmetric polynomials in algebra - 6 Alternating polynomials - 7 See also - 8 References Symmetric polynomials in two variables X1, X2: and in three variables X1, X2, X3: There are many ways to make specific symmetric polynomials in any number of variables, see the various types below. An example of a somewhat different flavor is where first a polynomial is constructed that changes sign under every exchange of variables, and taking the square renders it completely symmetric (if the variables represent the roots of a monic polynomial, this polynomial gives its discriminant). On the other hand, the polynomial in two variables is not symmetric, since if one exchanges and one gets a different polynomial, . Similarly in three variables has only symmetry under cyclic permutations of the three variables, which is not sufficient to be a symmetric polynomial. However, the following is symmetric: One context in which symmetric polynomial functions occur is in the study of monic univariate polynomials of degree n having n roots in a given field. These n roots determine the polynomial, and when they are considered as independent variables, the coefficients of the polynomial are symmetric polynomial functions of the roots. Moreover the fundamental theorem of symmetric polynomials implies that a polynomial function f of the n roots can be expressed as (another) polynomial function of the coefficients of the polynomial determined by the roots if and only if f is given by a symmetric polynomial. This yields the approach to solving polynomial equations by inverting this map, "breaking" the symmetry – given the coefficients of the polynomial (the elementary symmetric polynomials in the roots), how can one recover the roots? This leads to studying solutions of polynomials using the permutation group of the roots, originally in the form of Lagrange resolvents, later developed in Galois theory. Relation with the roots of a monic univariate polynomial Consider a monic polynomial in t of degree n with coefficients ai in some field k. There exist n roots x1,…,xn of P in some possibly larger field (for instance if k is the field of real numbers, the roots will exist in the field of complex numbers); some of the roots might be equal, but the fact that one has all roots is expressed by the relation By comparison of the coefficients one finds that These are in fact just instances of Viète's formulas. They show that all coefficients of the polynomial are given in terms of the roots by a symmetric polynomial expression: although for a given polynomial P there may be qualitative differences between the roots (like lying in the base field k or not, being simple or multiple roots), none of this affects the way the roots occur in these expressions. Now one may change the point of view, by taking the roots rather than the coefficients as basic parameters for describing P, and considering them as indeterminates rather than as constants in an appropriate field; the coefficients ai then become just the particular symmetric polynomials given by the above equations. Those polynomials, without the sign , are known as the elementary symmetric polynomials in x1,…,xn. A basic fact, known as the fundamental theorem of symmetric polynomials states that any symmetric polynomial in n variables can be given by a polynomial expression in terms of these elementary symmetric polynomials. It follows that any symmetric polynomial expression in the roots of a monic polynomial can be expressed as a polynomial in the coefficients of the polynomial, and in particular that its value lies in the base field k that contains those coefficients. Thus, when working only with such symmetric polynomial expressions in the roots, it is unnecessary to know anything particular about those roots, or to compute in any larger field than k in which those roots may lie. In fact the values of the roots themselves become rather irrelevant, and the necessary relations between coefficients and symmetric polynomial expressions can be found by computations in terms of symmetric polynomials only. An example of such relations are Newton's identities, which express the sum of any fixed power of the roots in terms of the elementary symmetric polynomials. Special kinds of symmetric polynomials There are a few types of symmetric polynomials in the variables X1, X2, …, Xn that are fundamental. Elementary symmetric polynomials For each nonnegative integer k, the elementary symmetric polynomial ek(X1, …, Xn) is the sum of all distinct products of k distinct variables. (Some authors denote it by σk instead.) For k = 0 there is only the empty product so e0(X1, …, Xn) = 1, while for k > n, no products at all can be formed, so ek(X1, X2, …, Xn) = 0 in these cases. The remaining n elementary symmetric polynomials are building blocks for all symmetric polynomials in these variables: as mentioned above, any symmetric polynomial in the variables considered can be obtained from these elementary symmetric polynomials using multiplications and additions only. In fact one has the following more detailed facts: - any symmetric polynomial P in X1, …, Xn can be written as a polynomial expression in the polynomials ek(X1, …, Xn) with 1 ≤ k ≤ n; - this expression is unique up to equivalence of polynomial expressions; - if P has integral coefficients, then the polynomial expression also has integral coefficients. For example, for n = 2, the relevant elementary symmetric polynomials are e1(X1, X2) = X1+X2, and e2(X1, X2) = X1X2. The first polynomial in the list of examples above can then be written as (for a proof that this is always possible see the fundamental theorem of symmetric polynomials). Monomial symmetric polynomials Powers and products of elementary symmetric polynomials work out to rather complicated expressions. If one seeks basic additive building blocks for symmetric polynomials, a more natural choice is to take those symmetric polynomials that contain only one type of monomial, with only those copies required to obtain symmetry. Any monomial in X1, …, Xn can be written as X1α1…Xnαn where the exponents αi are natural numbers (possibly zero); writing α = (α1,…,αn) this can be abbreviated to Xα. The monomial symmetric polynomial mα(X1, …, Xn) is defined as the sum of all monomials xβ where β ranges over all distinct permutations of (α1,…,αn). For instance one has Clearly mα = mβ when β is a permutation of α, so one usually considers only those mα for which α1 ≥ α2 ≥ … ≥ αn, in other words for which α is a partition of an integer. These monomial symmetric polynomials form a vector space basis: every symmetric polynomial P can be written as a linear combination of the monomial symmetric polynomials. To do this it suffices to separate the different types of monomial occurring in P. In particular if P has integer coefficients, then so will the linear combination. The elementary symmetric polynomials are particular cases of monomial symmetric polynomials: for 0 ≤ k ≤ n one has - where α is the partition of k into k parts 1 (followed by n − k zeros). Power-sum symmetric polynomials For each integer k ≥ 1, the monomial symmetric polynomial m(k,0,…,0)(X1, …, Xn) is of special interest. It is the power sum symmetric polynomial, defined as All symmetric polynomials can be obtained from the first n power sum symmetric polynomials by additions and multiplications, possibly involving rational coefficients. More precisely, - Any symmetric polynomial in X1, …, Xn can be expressed as a polynomial expression with rational coefficients in the power sum symmetric polynomials p1(X1, …, Xn), …, pn(X1, …, Xn). In particular, the remaining power sum polynomials pk(X1, …, Xn) for k > n can be so expressed in the first n power sum polynomials; for example In contrast to the situation for the elementary and complete homogeneous polynomials, a symmetric polynomial in n variables with integral coefficients need not be a polynomial function with integral coefficients of the power sum symmetric polynomials. For an example, for n = 2, the symmetric polynomial has the expression Using three variables one gets a different expression The corresponding expression was valid for two variables as well (it suffices to set X3 to zero), but since it involves p3, it could not be used to illustrate the statement for n = 2. The example shows that whether or not the expression for a given monomial symmetric polynomial in terms of the first n power sum polynomials involves rational coefficients may depend on n. But rational coefficients are always needed to express elementary symmetric polynomials (except the constant ones, and e1 which coincides with the first power sum) in terms of power sum polynomials. The Newton identities provide an explicit method to do this; it involves division by integers up to n, which explains the rational coefficients. Because of these divisions, the mentioned statement fails in general when coefficients are taken in a field of finite characteristic; however it is valid with coefficients in any ring containing the rational numbers. Complete homogeneous symmetric polynomials For each nonnegative integer k, the complete homogeneous symmetric polynomial hk(X1, …, Xn) is the sum of all distinct monomials of degree k in the variables X1, …, Xn. For instance The polynomial hk(X1, …, Xn) is also the sum of all distinct monomial symmetric polynomials of degree k in X1, …, Xn, for instance for the given example All symmetric polynomials in these variables can be built up from complete homogeneous ones: any symmetric polynomial in X1, …, Xn can be obtained from the complete homogeneous symmetric polynomials h1(X1, …, Xn), …, hn(X1, …, Xn) via multiplications and additions. More precisely: - Any symmetric polynomial P in X1, …, Xn can be written as a polynomial expression in the polynomials hk(X1, …, Xn) with 1 ≤ k ≤ n. - If P has integral coefficients, then the polynomial expression also has integral coefficients. For example, for n = 2, the relevant complete homogeneous symmetric polynomials are h1(X1, X2) = X1 + X2 and h2(X1, X2) = X12 + X1X2 + X22. The first polynomial in the list of examples above can then be written as As in the case of power sums, the given statement applies in particular to the complete homogeneous symmetric polynomials beyond hn(X1, …, Xn), allowing them to be expressed in terms of the ones up to that point; again the resulting identities become invalid when the number of variables is increased. An important aspect of complete homogeneous symmetric polynomials is their relation to elementary symmetric polynomials, which can be expressed as the identities - , for all k > 0, and any number of variables n. Since e0(X1, …, Xn) and h0(X1, …, Xn) are both equal to 1, one can isolate either the first or the last term of these summations; the former gives a set of equations that allows one to recursively express the successive complete homogeneous symmetric polynomials in terms of the elementary symmetric polynomials, and the latter gives a set of equations that allows doing the inverse. This implicitly shows that any symmetric polynomial can be expressed in terms of the hk(X1, …, Xn) with 1 ≤ k ≤ n: one first expresses the symmetric polynomial in terms of the elementary symmetric polynomials, and then expresses those in terms of the mentioned complete homogeneous ones. Another class of symmetric polynomials is that of the Schur polynomials, which are of fundamental importance in the applications of symmetric polynomials to representation theory. They are however not as easy to describe as the other kinds of special symmetric polynomials; see the main article for details. Symmetric polynomials in algebra Symmetric polynomials are important to linear algebra, representation theory, and Galois theory. They are also important in combinatorics, where they are mostly studied through the ring of symmetric functions, which avoids having to carry around a fixed number of variables all the time. These are all products of the Vandermonde polynomial and a symmetric polynomial, and form a quadratic extension of the ring of symmetric polynomials: the Vandermonde polynomial is a square root of the discriminant. - Lang, Serge (2002), Algebra, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 211 (Revised third ed.), New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-95385-4, MR 1878556, Zbl 0984.00001 - Macdonald, I.G. (1979), Symmetric Functions and Hall Polynomials. Oxford Mathematical Monographs. Oxford: Clarendon Press. - I.G. Macdonald (1995), Symmetric Functions and Hall Polynomials, second ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-850450-0 (paperback, 1998). - Richard P. Stanley (1999), Enumerative Combinatorics, Vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-56069-1
The bufflehead (Bucephala albeola) is a small sea duck of the genus Bucephala, the Goldeneyes. The genus name is derived from Ancient Greek boukephalos, “bullheaded,” from bous, “bull ” and kephale, “head”, a reference to the oddly bulbous head shape of the species. The Bufflehead ranges from 32–40 cm (13–16 in) long and weighs 270–550 g (9.5–19.4 oz), with the drakes larger than the females. Averaging 35.5 cm (14.0 in) and 370 g (13 oz), it rivals the green-winged teal as the smallest American duck. Adult males are striking black and white, with iridescent green and purple heads and a large white patch behind the eye. Females are grey-toned with a smaller white patch behind the eye and a light underside. [Wikipedia] A buoyant, large-headed duck that abruptly vanishes and resurfaces as it feeds, the tiny Bufflehead spends winters bobbing in bays, estuaries, reservoirs, and lakes. Males are striking black-and-white from a distance. A closer look at the head shows glossy green and purple setting off the striking white patch. Females are a subdued gray-brown with a neat white patch on the cheek. Bufflehead nest in old woodpecker holes, particularly those made by Northern Flickers, in the forests of northern North America. [All About Birds] Bufflehead Facts [All About Birds] - Unlike most ducks, the Bufflehead is mostly monogamous, often remaining with the same mate for several years. - Bufflehead fossils from the late Pleistocene (about 500,000 years ago) have been found in Alaska, California, Florida, Illinois, Kansas, Texas, and Washington. One California fossil that resembles a modern Bufflehead dates to the late Pliocene, two million years ago. - Bufflehead normally lives only in North America, but in winter they occasionally show up elsewhere, including Kamchatka, Japan, Greenland, Iceland, the British Isles, Belgium, France, Finland, and Czechoslovakia. In some of these cases, the birds may have escaped from captivity. - The oldest Bufflehead on record was at least 18 years and 8 months old. It was caught and re-released by a bird bander in New York in 1975.
Braces patients often don't really understands the ins and outs of how they work. Here, we describes some of the basics so you can better understand what goes on in your mouth during orthodontic treatment! At Langley Orthodontics, we know that patients who are informed and knowledgeable about their orthodontic treatment are more likely to make it through without any setbacks. With that fact in mind, we want to share with you how each part of your braces works. What do braces do? Braces straighten your teeth through the application of continuous pressure over an extended period of time. As your teeth shift, the bone around them changes shape as a result of the pressure applied. Braces are made up of a variety of parts, and all these parts serve specific purposes. The following are the basic parts that make up most sets of braces. Arch wires create the pressure that moves the teeth, and are attached to the brackets. These can be clear, tooth-coloured, or metal. Brackets are the small squares that are bonded to each of your teeth. These can made of several different materials, and can be placed on either the fronts or backs of your teeth. Brackets hold the arch wires, which move the teeth, in place. Orthodontic bands are anchors for the brackets that are made of stainless steel. Elastic ties fasten the arch wires to the brackets. They're made of rubber, and come in a wide range of colours. Elastics or rubber bands are attached to hooks on the brackets. Using pressure, these bands move the upper and lower teeth into the correct positions in relation to each other.
Clay minerals in the mud and soil that coat the Earth's surface are part of a clay cycle that breaks down and creates rock in the crust. Clays generated by surface weathering and shallow diagenetic processes are transformed into mature clay mineral assemblages in the mudrocks found in sedimentary basins. During metamorphism, the release of alkali elements and boron from clay minerals generates magmas that are subsequently weathered and recycled, representing the magma-to-mud pathway of the clay cycle. Volcanogenic clay represents an important but hitherto underestimated proportion of recycled clay. Within sedimentary basins, immature clays are transformed to mature and supermature clay assemblages by a series of reactions that generally obey the Ostwald Step Rule. Bedding-parallel microfabric generated by these reactions produce significant changes in the physical properties of deeply buried mudrocks. Clay minerals react to form equilibrium assemblages in 1 × 104 years in some hydrothermal systems, but immature clays may survive for up to 2 × 109 years in mid-continental rift basins. Clay mineral assemblages and the b cell dimension of K-white mica can be used to infer the geotectonic settings of sedimentary basins.
A Patient's Guide to Heart Surgery Valves of the Heart: Circulation of Blood The veins of the body all eventually drain into the right atrium, which is the receiving chamber of the right side of the heart. Once the right atrium is full, the tricuspid valve opens, allowing the de-saturated blood to flow into the right ventricle. The right ventricle then fills with the de-saturated blood. As the pressures begin to change in the right atrium and right ventricle, the tricuspid valve closes. The right ventricle then contracts and pumps the de-saturated blood through the pulmonary valve, and into the lungs. As the de-saturated blood leaves the right ventricle, it passes through the pulmonary valve, which has been closed as the right ventricle was filling. The pulmonary valve opens, allowing the blood to leave the right ventricle and flow to the lungs via the pulmonary artery. Once the right ventricle has emptied, the pulmonary valve closes, thereby keeping the blood from re-entering the right ventricle. As the de-saturated blood passes through the lungs, the carbon dioxide that was added to the red blood cells by the body’s organs is exchanged for a new supply of oxygen. The newly oxygenated blood then flows from the lungs to the left atrium, which is the receiving chamber on the left side of the heart. The valve located in the left atrium is the mitral valve. As the left atrium fills with the newly oxygenated blood, the mitral valve remains closed. As the pressure changes within the left atrium and left ventricle, the mitral valve opens, allowing the oxygenated blood to flow into the left ventricle. As the left ventricle fills, the pressures in the left atrium and left ventricle begin to change. Once the left ventricle is filled, the mitral valve closes as the left ventricle begins to contract. By closing at this time, the mitral valve prevents the oxygenated blood in the left ventricle from flowing back to the lungs. The left ventricle is the pumping chamber of the left side of the heart and is the most muscular portion of the heart. When you hear some say their blood pressure is 120 over 80, it is the left ventricle that is generating these pressures. As the left ventricle contracts, the oxygenated blood leaves the heart and crosses the aortic valve, which is the valve that helps to control the flow of blood out of the heart to the body. The oxygenated blood leaving the left ventricle and crossing the aortic valve enters the main artery of the body, known as the aorta. The aorta then travels to the body’s organs via branches that carry the blood to the individual organs. Once the left ventricle has emptied, the aortic valve closes to keep the blood that has just been pumped out from re-entering the heart. The valves of the heart open and close in a sequential fashion and are critical to normal heart function. Various conditions can affect the function of the heart valves. In general, the two main categories of valve problems are: a) Stenosis and (b) insufficiency or regurgitation. Stenosis is a condition in which the valve narrows and does not open fully. Insufficiency or regurgitation is a condition that prevents the valve from fully closing. Both stenosis and insufficiency may over time cause problems and eventually require surgery to either repair the valve if possible, or replace the valve if a satisfactory repair cannot be performed.
S7L1: Students will investigate the diversity of living organisms and how they can be compared scientifically. S7L1.a: Demonstrate the process for the development of a dichotomous key. S7L2: Students will describe the structure and function of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. S7L2.b: Relate cell structures (cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, chloroplasts, mitochondria) to basic cell functions. Cell Energy Cycle RNA and Protein Synthesis S7L2.c: Explain that cells are organized into tissues, tissues into organs, organs into systems, and systems into organisms. S7L2.d: Explain that tissues, organs, and organ systems serve the needs cells have for oxygen, food, and waste removal. S7L2.e: Explain the purpose of the major organ systems in the human body. S7L3: Students will recognize how biological traits are passed on to successive generations. S7L3.a: Explain the role of genes and chromosomes in the process of inheriting a specific trait. Mouse Genetics (One Trait) Mouse Genetics (Two Traits) S7L4: Students will examine the dependence of organisms on one another and their environments. S7L4.a: Demonstrate in a food web that matter is transferred from one organism to another and can recycle between organisms and their environments. S7L4.b: Explain in a food web that sunlight is the source of energy and that this energy moves from organism to organism. S7L4.c: Recognize that changes in environmental conditions can affect the survival of both individuals and entire species. Rainfall and Bird Beaks S7L4.e: Describe the characteristics of Earth's major terrestrial biomes (i.e., tropical rain forest, savannah, temperate, desert, taiga, tundra, and mountain) and aquatic communities (i.e., freshwater, estuaries, and marine). Coral Reefs 1 - Abiotic Factors Coral Reefs 2 - Biotic Factors S7L5: Students will examine the evolution of living organisms through inherited characteristics that promote survival of organisms and the survival of successive generations of their offspring. S7L5.a: Explain that physical characteristics of organisms have changed over successive generations (e.g. Darwin’s finches and peppered moths of Manchester). S7L5.b: Describe ways in which species on earth have evolved due to natural selection. Evolution: Mutation and Selection Rainfall and Bird Beaks S7L5.c: Trace evidence that the fossil record found in sedimentary rock provides evidence for the long history of changing life forms. Human Evolution - Skull Analysis Correlation last revised: 5/10/2018
In this article published by the National Hog Farmer, nutritionists and microbiome analysts from the University of Minnesota discuss what consequences antimicrobials can have on the gut microbiome. What does microbiome mean? Microbiome refers to all of the microbes present in an area. For example, gut microbiome is the entire population of microorganisms (most of the time bacteria) present in the intestinal tract. The purpose of this research program is to study the effects antimicrobials can have on the bacterial populations present in the gut and how those changes influence the metabolites present in the pig. What is a metabolite? Metabolites are usually small molecules and are created by enzymatic reactions happening through the natural life of a cell or organism. One of the effects of administering tylosin to pigs was the increased growth of bacteria producing short-chain fatty acids in the intestinal flora. The use of this antimicrobial also led to the development of Lactobacillus in the gut. Relating changes in metabolites to the gut microbiome allows for a more complete understanding and investigation of the impact that antibiotics have in enhancing growth. Without completely understanding the mechanism of increased growth, antibiotic alternatives could be used inappropriately without much added benefit.
Industrialized fishing has forced seabirds to change what they eat The bleached bones of seabirds are telling us a new story about the far-reaching impacts of industrial fisheries on today's oceans. Looking at the isotopes of 250 bones from Hawaiian petrels (Pterodroma sandwichensis), scientists have been able to reconstruct the birds' diets over the last 3,000 years. They found an unmistakable shift from big prey to small prey around 100 years ago, just when large, modern fisheries started scooping up fish at never before seen rates. The dietary shift shows that modern fisheries upended predator and prey relationships even in the ocean ocean and have possibly played a role in the decline of some seabirds. "Hawaiian petrels spend the majority of their lives foraging over vast expanses of open ocean. In their search for food, they've done what scientists can only dream of. For thousands of years, they've captured a variety of fish, squid and crustaceans from a large portion of the North Pacific Ocean, and a record of their diet is preserved in their bones," Anne Wiley, lead author of the new paper in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), explains. To conduct their study the researchers turned to a vast collection of Hawaiian petrel bones found in cave colonies, some of them preserved from long before the first humans arrived on the Hawaiian Islands. By comparing the ratio of nitrogen-15 and nitrogen-14 in the bones' isotopes, Wiley and colleagues were able to tell what the generalist predators were eating. The larger the ratio, the bigger the prey. For thousands of years the birds' diet was heavily composed of bigger prey, until nitrogen ratios shrunk around a century ago denoting a suffen shift of small prey species. According to the paper, this "[suggested] a relatively rapid change in the composition of oceanic food webs in the Northeast Pacific." Co-author Peggy Ostrom with Michigan State University calls the findings "alarming," noting that the study is one of the first to discover that industrial fishing has impacted non-target species and food webs even as far as the open ocean. "Because Hawaiian petrels eat such a wide variety of prey over a large area, our results suggest that fishery influence may be widespread and profound in the Pacific," explains Wiley. "Understanding the influence of fisheries on open-ocean food webs has been one of the great mysteries of biological oceanography." Continue reading at MONGABAY.COM. Seabird image via Shutterstock.
MCQ on Solar System + Universe> GK Solar System + Universe> Geography MCQ: A set of important 20 multiple choice questions with answers chosen for various types of govt job exam in India like IAS UPSC SSC, CGL, MTS IAS UPSC Railway and others competitive examinations. Universe is space where all the planets, Stars, Galaxies, comets Black holes etc are found. A universe contains approximately 10^13 number of galaxies. Here are some important objective types of General knowledge for your upcoming exams. Just Click on black box to view answers of each MCQs of our Solar System and Universe 1. Largest Planet of the Inner Planets of Solar system is – 2. Galileo discovered 4 moons in 1660 of which planet? 3. Match the following – i. Largest Planet a. Mercury ii. Brightest planet b. Jupiter iii. Densest Planet c. Earth iv. Smallest planet d. Venus . . i—ii—iii—iv 4. The exact time taken by the earth to rotate one of its own axis is – A: 24 hours B: 23 hours 51 minutes C: 23 hours 48 minutes 46 seconds D: 23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds 23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds. 5. What is the black hole? [CDS 1999, 2001] A: Star that has no atmosphere B: Star with high temperature C: Contracted Star that has high gravitational pull. D: Pulsating star Contracted star that has high gravitational pull. 6. What is great bear ? C: Neutron Star 7. What type of orbit planets have while revolving around the sun? A: Parabolic and Hyperbolic B: Circular and Parabolic C: Elliptical and circular D: Elliptical and Hyperbolic Elliptical and Circular 8. What is the color of lunar sky during day time from moon? 9. What is the distance between Earth and Sun? A: 149 million B: 136 million C: 159 million D: 196 million 10. The Brightest star in the sky observed from earth is – B: Alfa Centauri B: Proxima Centauri 11. Sun Spots are – A: The opposite surface of moon where no light reaches. B: Dark patches of sun surface where temperature fall below 4050 K. C: Black spot on moon D: Polar region of Sun 12. Why pole star always seen at the one point in the sky? A: pole star rotate with the same period of the Earth B: pole star has opposite to the sun from earth C: This is one another star from our galaxy. D: pole star lies in the axis of spin of the earth 13. Parsec is a unit of – A: Measurement of density of star B: Astronomical unit of Distance C: Brightness of Star D: unit of magnetic moment Astronomical unit of Distance 14. What idea we get from the light coming from stars? A: Density of Stars B: Temperature of Stars C: Mass of the Stars D: Size of the stars Temperature of Stars 15. The time period of sun revolve around the galaxy is known as – A: light years B: Astronomical year C: Cosmic Year 16. What is supernova? A: A dying star B: A worm hole C: A special type of comet D: A bright asteroid of size equal to sun A dying star 17. Why the same side of the moon always faces the Earth ? A: Moon rotate its own axis in 365 days B: period of rotation of the moon on its axis and period of revolution around the earth is almost the same. C: Moon has no atmosphere D: Moon rotate around earth in 15 days. 18. Laws of planetary motion discovered by – [Asst Comm 2008] 19. Twelve constellations or Zodiac are referred to which of the following – A: A group of stars B: All planet of solar system C: It is the symbol of Roman God D: none of these A group of stars 20. What is the evidence that comets are the member of our solar system? A: Their properties of compositions B: Their Shape and size C: Their shape of the orbit D: Their structure of tails Their shape of the orbits. Search terms: Quiz from solar system and universe, MCQs on Universe PDF, Important Objective Questions with answers from universe and our solar system. General knowledge short questions from solar system and universe.
Vacuum forming (also know as thermoforming) is where a sheet of plastic is heated to a forming temperature, stretched onto a single-surface mold, and forced against the mold by a vacuum. This process can be used to form plastic into permanent objects such as: Automotive: Thermoformed parts are used in many areas of the automotive industry such as air ducts, interior panels, dashboard assemblies, and seating components. Aerospace and Aviation: Aerospace and aviation are ideal applications for thermoforming due to their requirement for lightweight material and ability to create contoured curved pieces. Building and Construction: Another “heavy” industry application is building and construction, where equipment enclosures, machinery covers, and skylights are common uses for thermoforming. Transportation and Logistics: Heavier and more durable thermoformed pieces are often used in transportation. They may take the form of stackable and reusable trays for products having an unusual finished shape to “square” them to a cube like a pallet for transportation, or, as bins or containers used for both storage and transportation. Packaging: Perhaps nowhere is thermoforming more evident to in everyday use than in packaging. From consumer goods to electronics to medical trays to point of sale displays, thermoformed packaging is an efficient, safe, and clean way to protect a product during transportation and display. Thermoforming is also used heavily in the food industry for clamshell containers and other applications. With the advent of 3D printing it has become possible to produce low cost tooling for the vacuum forming process quickly, with extremely high quality, and with robust materials that can last for thousands of cycles. Some of the 3D printing processes that lend themselves to producing vacuum forming tooling are: FDM: Because thermoforming does not require the high heat level required for some manufacturing processes, FDM parts can usually withstand the heat and pressure required to shape the part. FDM parts can also be sanded, drilled and are inherently porous, allowing a more even vacuum draw and improved part quality. MJF: Some thermoforming, such as mechanical or press forming may require hard strikes of the core plug at a higher heat to induce the shape to an extremely thick-gauged plastic. In the Multi Jet Fusion 3D printing process the layer of powder is selectively fused using a liquid agent and high intensity IR light to melt and form the part layer. Additional layers of powder can be deposited and repeated to create a stronger tool. For certain complex mechanical and press thermoformed parts requiring deep draws, sharp turns within the mold or for complex geometries at higher heat, MJF can produce a tool that can take the required pressure for those methods.
Light switches are simple in design. Current flows through a switch to the load, such as a ceiling light. When you flip the switch off, it breaks the circuit and interrupts the flow of electricity. A basic light switch has two terminals and sometimes a ground terminal. The hot wire from the power source is connected to one of the terminals. The hot wire going to the load (such as a light) is connected to the second terminal. A 3-Way switch is different in two ways. First, it has one more wire connected to it, and second, instead of being on or off, it switches which wire it routes the current to. A three way circuit allows you to operate a fixture or outlet from two different locations. You must use two switches and both switches must be a 3-way switch. A standard switch simply breaks or makes a circuit, it is either "on" or "off". A 3-way switch routes the current down one of two wires called travelers. When both of the two switches make contact through the same traveler wire, a circuit is made. This is how each 3-way switch can, at any time, turn a circuit on or off. Each switch can reroute the current to make or break Do I Need to Replace my Light Switch? When a light switch fails, symptoms can include a loose or wobbly switch or it may be stiff or difficult to push. Lights that flicker may indicate a switch that is shorting. A switch that has failed completely will fail to turn on or in rare cases fail to turn off a circuit. With a 3-way switch circuit, one switch may fail but the other switch continues to work. However, identifying which switch has broken is not always obvious. If both 3-way switches are the same age, it may be worthwhile to replace them both at the same time.
Goblet cells secrete mucus. The mucus traps microorganisms and dust particles in the inhaled air, stopping them from reaching the alveoli. The cilia are hair-like structures on the surface of the epithelial cells. They beat the mucus secreted by the goblet cells. This moves the mucus (plus the trapped microorganisms and dust) upward away from the alveoli towards the throat, where it's swallowed. This helps prevent lung infections. Elastic fibres help the process of breathing out. On breathing in, the lungs inflate and the elastic fibres are stretched. Then, the fibres recoil to help push…
Accidents and natural disasters have long histories; therefore it may seem peculiar at first to think that these could now suddenly become significant factors in choking off economic growth. However, two things have changed. First, growth in human population and proliferation of urban infrastructure are leading to ever more serious impacts from natural and human-caused disasters. Consider, for example, the magnitude 8.7 to 9.2 earthquake that took place on January 26 of the year 1700 in the Cascadia region of the American northwest. This was one of the most powerful seismic events in recent centuries, but the number of human fatalities, though unrecorded, was probably quite low. If a similar quake were to strike today in the same region—encompassing the cities of Vancouver, Canada; Seattle, Washington; and Portland, Oregon—the cost of damage to homes and commercial buildings, highways, and other infrastructure could reach into the hundreds of billions of dollars, and the human toll might be horrific. Another, less hypothetical, example: The lethality of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, which killed between 200,000 and 300,000 people, was exacerbated by the extreme population density of the low-lying coastal areas of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and India. Second, the scale of human influence on the environment today is far beyond anything in the past. In this chapter so far we have considered problems arising from limits to environmental sources of materials useful to society—energy resources, water, and minerals. But there are also limits to the environment’s ability to absorb the insults and waste products of civilization, and we are broaching those limits in ways that can produce impacts of a scale far beyond our ability to contain or mitigate. The billions of tons of carbon dioxide that our species has released into the atmosphere through the combustion of fossil fuels are not only changing the global climate but also causing the oceans to acidify. Indeed, the scale of our collective impact on the planet has grown to such an extent that many scientists contend that Earth has entered a new geologic era—the Anthropocene. Humanly generated threats to the environment’s ability to support civilization are now capable of overwhelming civilization’s ability to adapt and regroup. Ironically, in many cases natural disasters have actually added to the GDP. This is because of the rebound effect, wherein money is spent on disaster recovery that wouldn’t otherwise have been spent. But there is a threshold beyond which recovery becomes problematic: Once a disaster is of a certain size or scope, or if conditions for a rebound are not present, then the disaster simply weakens the economy. Examples of major environmental disasters in 2010 alone include: • January: a major earthquake in Haiti, with its epicenter 16 miles from the capital Port-au-Prince, left 230,000 people dead, 300,000 injured, and 1,000,000 homeless; • April-August: the Deepwater Horizon oil rig exploded in the Gulf of Mexico; the subsequent oil spill was the worst environmental disaster in U.S. history; • May: China’s worst floods in over a decade required the evacuation of over 15 million people; • July-August: Pakistan floods submerged a fifth of the country and killed, injured, or displaced 21 million people, making for the worst natural disaster in southern Asia in decades; • July-August: Russian wildfires, heat wave, and drought caused hundreds of deaths and the widespread failure of crops, resulting in a curtailing of grain exports; the weather event was the worst in recent Russian history. But these were only the most spectacular instances. Smaller disasters included: • February: storms battered Europe; Portuguese floods and mudslides killed 43, while in France at least 51 died; • April: ash from an Iceland volcano wreaked travel chaos, stranding hundreds of thousands of passengers for days; • October: a spill of toxic sludge in Hungary destroyed villages and polluted rivers. This string of calamities continued into early 2011, with deadly, catastrophic floods in Australia, southern Africa, the Philippines, and Brazil. GDP impacts from the 2010 disasters were substantial. BP’s losses from the Deepwater Horizon gusher (which included cleanup costs and compensation to commercial fishers) have so far amounted to about $40 billion. The Pakistan floods caused damage estimated at $43 billion, while the financial toll of the Russian wildfires has been pegged at $15 billion. Add in other events listed above, plus more not mentioned, and the total easily tops $150 billion for GDP losses in 2010 resulting from natural disasters and industrial accidents. This does not include costs from ongoing environmental degradation (erosion of topsoil, loss of forests and fish species). How does this figure compare with annual GDP growth? Assuming world annual GDP of $58 trillion and an annual growth rate of three percent, annual GDP growth would amount to $1.74 trillion. Therefore natural disasters and industrial accidents, conservatively estimated, are already costing the equivalent of 8.6 percent of annual GDP growth. As resource extraction moves from higher-quality to lower-quality ores and deposits, we must expect worse environmental impacts and accidents along the way. There are several current or planned extraction projects in remote and/or environmentally sensitive regions that could each result in severe global impacts equaling or even surpassing the Deepwater Horizon blowout. These include oil drilling in the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas; oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge; coal mining in the Utukok River Upland, Arctic Alaska; tar sands production in Alberta; shale oil production in the Rocky Mountains; and mountaintop-removal coal mining in Appalachia. The future GDP costs of climate change are unknowable, but all indications suggest they will be enormous and unprecedented. The most ambitious effort to estimate those costs so far, the Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change, consisted of a 700-page report released for the British government in 2006 by economist Nicholas Stern, chair of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment at the London School of Economics. The report stated that failure by governments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions would risk causing global GDP growth to lag twenty percent behind what it otherwise might be. The Review also stated that climate change is the greatest and widest-ranging market failure ever seen, presenting a unique challenge for economics. The Stern Review was almost immediately strongly criticized for underestimating the seriousness of climate impacts and the rate at which those impacts will manifest. In April 2008 Stern admitted that, “We underestimated the risks . . . we underestimated the damage associated with temperature increases . . . and we underestimated the probabilities of temperature increases.” The Stern Review is open to criticism not just for its underestimation of climate impacts, but also for its overestimation of the ability of alternative energy sources to replace fossil fuels. The report does not take into account EROEI or other aspects of energy quality that are essential to understanding the economic advantages that fossil fuels have delivered. Since climate is changing mostly because of the burning of fossil fuels, averting climate change is largely a matter of reducing fossil fuel consumption. But as we have seen (and will confirm in more ways in the next chapter), economic growth depends on increasing energy consumption. Due to the inherent characteristics of alternative energy sources, it is extremely unlikely that society can increase its energy production while dramatically curtailing fossil fuel use. Once energy quality factors are taken into account, it is difficult to escape the conclusion that energy substitution will likely be much more expensive than forecast in the Stern Review, and that the price of climate change mitigation—originally estimated at 1 percent of GDP annually in the Review, but later revised to 2 percent—will likely be vastly higher, even ignoring any underestimation of climate change risks and rates. Anther environmental impact that is relatively slow and ongoing and even more difficult to put a price tag on is the decline in the number of other species inhabiting our planet. According to one recent study, one in five plant species faces extinction as a result of climate change, deforestation, and urban growth. Many species have existing or potential economically significant uses; the yew tree, for instance, was until recently considered a “trash tree,” but is now the source for taxol, relied on by tens of thousands of people as a life-saving treatment for breast, prostate, and ovarian cancers. Sales of the drug have amounted to as much as $1.6 billion in some recent years. As species disappear, potential uses and economic rewards disappear with them. Another study, this one by the UN, has determined that businesses and insurance companies now see biodiversity loss as presenting a greater risk of financial loss than terrorism—a problem that governments currently spend hundreds of billions of dollars per year to contain or prevent. Non-human species perform ecosystem services that only indirectly benefit our kind, but in ways that turn out to be crucial. Phytoplankton, for example, are not a direct food source for people, but comprise the base of oceanic food chains—in addition to supplying half of the oxygen produced each year by nature. The abundance of plankton in the world’s oceans has declined 40 percent since 1950, according to a recent study, for reasons not entirely clear. This is one of the main explanations for a gradual decline in atmospheric oxygen levels recorded worldwide. A 2010 study by Pavan Sukhdev, a former banker, to determine a price for the world’s environmental assets, concluded that the annual destruction of rainforests entails an ultimate cost to society of $4.5 trillion—$650 for each person on the planet. But that cost is not paid all at once; in fact, over the short term, forest cutting looks like an economic benefit as a result of the freeing up of agricultural land and the production of timber. Like financial debt, environmental costs tend to accumulate until a crisis occurs and systems collapse. Declining oxygen levels, acidifying oceans, disappearing species, threatened oceanic food chains, changing climate—when considering planetary changes of this magnitude, it may seem that the end of economic growth is hardly the worst of humanity’s current problems. However, it is important to remember that we are counting on growth to enable us to solve or respond to environmental crises. With economic growth, we have surplus money with which to protect rainforests, save endangered species, and clean up after industrial accidents. Without economic growth, we are increasingly defenseless against environmental disasters—many of which paradoxically result from growth itself. Unfortunately, in the case of climate change, there may be a time lag involved (even if we stop carbon emissions today, climate will continue changing for some time due to carbon already in the atmosphere), so that the end of economic growth cannot be counted on to solve the environmental problems that growth has previously generated. The current tragic events in Japan bring an extra poignancy to this, the final excerpt from Chapter 3 of Richard Heinberg's new book 'The End of Growth', which is set for publication by New Society Publishers in September 2011. In this section Richard discusses the role of CLIMATE CHANGE, POLLUTION, ACCIDENTS, ENVIRONMENTAL DECLINE, AND NATURAL DISASTERS as a limitation to economic growth. Source: Post Carbon
Problem Based Learning System To make you feel at home within the educational system of the departments of Pedagogy, Psychology and Sociology, we have put together an introduction. - Basic principles of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) - How are these principles implemented Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a method that is based on the idea that the student plays an active role in the learning process (student-centered education). It is not about lecturing in order to accomplish information transfer (as is the case in traditional educational systems), but rather about active participation of the student in small groups. So most of the time, it’s not the teacher who’s explaining, it’s the students themselves. This student-centered approach stems from the constructivist vision on learning which states that the best way to deal with information is to actively construct knowledge instead of passively consuming it. Image: not receiving but rather actively constructing knowledge. In PBL we use “problems” which are presented to the students in their workgroup. These problems are the starting points of your study; they represent realistic situations and serve as an opening for a discussion. The problem is presented before other types of input (literature, lectures etc.). By presenting a problem, students are provided with a meaningful context (connect to real-life environment) in which they can activate prior knowledge. To give you an idea of how it works, please follow the instructions below (step by step). Carefully read the following text: A newspaper is better than a magazine. A seashore is a better place than the street. At first, it is better to run than to walk. You may have to try several times. It takes some skill but it's easy to learn. Even young children can enjoy it. Once successful, complications are minimal. Birds seldom get too close. Rain however, soaks in very fast. Too many people doing the same thing can also cause problems. One needs lots of room. If there are no complications, it can be very peaceful. A rock will serve as an anchor. If things break loose from it, however, you will not get a second chance. After reading it, put it aside and answer the following questions: • What excites you the most about your studies abroad? • What do you think is the most famous Dutch food? Write down what you remember from the story you have read. Is there much you can remember? Quite hard, right?! If I now tell you that the story is about flying a kite it will probably be easier to understand and remember information from the text. This example shows you that when you know the CONTEXT of information (flying a kite), the information becomes MEANINGFUL and it will result in the ACTIVATION OF PRIOR KNOWLEDGE (about how to fly a kite) which results in better retention of the (new) information you have just read in the text. PBL is implemented by working in small groups (max. 11 students), accompanied by a tutor. The group is presented with a ‘problem’ which will be explored in a structured manner (the 7-step approach). To make sure that the 7-step approach is being conducted during the meetings and that the discussion takes place in a structured way students play different roles (chair, scribe, group mate). More detailed information about the PBL background, the 7-step approach and the different roles can be found in “PBL: step by step” booklet.
Learn something new every day More Info... by email Watson's water hammer pulse is a characteristic medical sign first described by Thomas Watson, M.D. in 1844. It is a pulse that is powerfully pulsating, similar in nature to the pounding of a water hammer. This hyperdynamic pulse occurs when an increased amount of blood is pumped with each stroke of the left ventricle, the largest chamber of the heart. There is also a decreased resistance to outflow of the blood, leading to a widening of the range between the highest and lowest numbers of a blood pressure reading, called the pulse pressure. The Corrigan's pulse, named for Sir Dominic Corrigan, M.D., refers to a water hammer pulse that is detected in the carotid artery, whereas a Watson's water hammer pulse pertains to one detected peripherally in an arm or leg. A pulse is the rhythmic throb of blood flow due to the heartbeat. The pulse can be felt in many sites on the human body. Common sites for checking a pulse include in the neck, at the wrist, on the inside of the elbow, behind the knee, and near the ankle joint. It can also be ascertained by assessing the heartbeats directly using a stethoscope. Both pulse rate and quality reveal the underlying status of the heart and blood vessels. Systolic and diastolic readings constitute the numerical boundaries of blood pressure. They represent opposite ends of the cardiac cycle and the highest and lowest levels of blood pressure for a given individual. The pulse pressure is an indicator of the force that the heart generates each time it contracts. In healthy adults, the pulse pressure in a seated position is approximately 40, but can rise to 100 during exercise. Some studies indicate that the pulse pressure may be a better prognostic indicator of clinical outcome than either the systolic or the diastolic blood pressure alone. There are many symptoms associated with water hammer pulse, the most common of which are muscle weakness and fatigue. Other associated symptoms include shortness of breath, lower extremity swelling, and headache. Patient may experience chest pains and palpitations. Cardiac arrhythmia, irregular heartbeat, may occur due to impaired electrical conduction in the heart chambers. A water hammer pulse is most often associated with a leaking aortic valve. The aortic valve is the valve that normally keeps blood that has been pumped out of the heart from flowing backward into the heart again. Aortic regurgitation or leakage occurs when the valve does not close properly, allowing blood to leak backward through it. As a result, the left ventricle has to pump more blood than usual, with progressive expansion due to the extra workload. The symptoms of aortic regurgitation can range from mild to severe, with some patients having no symptoms for years. Some physiological conditions can cause water hammer pulse, such as pregnancy, fever, and extreme anxiety. Other medical conditions can cause a widened pulse pressure, including anemia, hypertension, and cirrhosis of the liver. It can also occur with a hyperactive thyroid gland. Abnormal connections between arteries and veins, called fistulas, can also produce this pulse. One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK!
Saņem informāciju par jaunajiem Atlants.lv darbiem! Akcija: ZiņotājsPRO uz 6 mēnešiem - bezmaksas!Abonēt bez maksas The Jacksonian Era: Defined The main objective of thise essay was to give a biography of Andrew Jackson and a description of the Jacksonian Era The Jackson Era, running from around 1820 to 1845, was a time of rampant growth and regional diversification. Worldviews and ways of living changed as quickly as in the 20th century. Transportation was revolutionized and the foundation of a manufacturing economy was laid. The Election of 1824 clearly showed that the "era of good feelings" had come to an end. All the candidates were Democratic-Republicans, but personal and sectional interests outweighed political orthodoxy. When results were tallied it was evident that Clay had siphoned-off enough votes from Adams to deny him an electoral m… - The Jacksonian Era: Defined The main objective of thise essay was to give a biography of Andrew Jackson and a description of the Jacksonian Era - The Main Goal of the Olympic Games is to Unite People - The revolutionary era in America E-pasta adrese, uz kuru nosūtīt darba saiti: Saite uz darbu:
Learn About Beryllium - Its Properties and Uses Beryllium is a hard and light metal that has a high melting point and unique nuclear properties, which make it vital to numerous aerospace and military applications. - Atomic Symbol: Be - Atomic Number: 4 - Element Category: Alkaline Earth Metal - Density: 1.85 g/cm³ - Melting Point: 2349°F (1287°C) - Boiling Point: 4476° F (2469 °C) - Mohs Hardness: 5.5 Pure beryllium is an extremely light, strong and brittle metal. With a density of 1.85g/cm3, beryllium is the second lightest elemental metal, behind only lithium. The grey-colored metal is valued as an alloying element because of its high melting point, resistance to creep and shear, as well as its high tensile strength and flexural rigidity. Although only about one-quarter the weight of steel, beryllium is six times as strong. Like aluminum, beryllium metal forms an oxide layer on its surface that helps to resist corrosion. The metal is both non-magnetic and non-sparking -- properties valued in the oil and gas field -- and it has a high thermal conductivity over a range of temperatures and excellent heat dissipation properties. Beryllium's low x-ray absorption cross section and high neutron scattering cross section make it ideal for x-ray windows and as a neutron reflector and neutron moderator in nuclear applications. Although the element has a sweet taste, it is corrosive to tissue and inhalation can lead to a chronic, life-threatening allergic disease known as berylliosis. Although first isolated in the late 18th century, a pure metal form of beryllium was not produced until 1828. It would be another century before commercial applications for beryllium developed. The French chemist Louis-Nicholas Vauquelin initially named his newly discovered element 'glucinium' (from the Greek glykys for 'sweet') due to its taste. Friedrich Wohler, who was concurrently working on isolating the element in Germany, preferred the term beryllium and it was, ultimately, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry that decided the term beryllium was to be used. While research into the metal's properties continued through the 20th century, it was not until the realization of beryllium's useful properties as an alloying agent in the early 20th century that commercial development of the metal began. Beryllium is extracted from two types ores; beryl (Be3Al2(SiO3)6) and bertrandite (Be4Si2O7(OH)2). While Beryl generally has a higher beryllium content (three to five percent by weight), it is more difficult to refine than bertrandite, which on average contains less than 1.5 percent beryllium. The refining processes of both ores, however, are similar and can be carried out in a single facility. Because of its added hardness, beryl ore must first be pretreated by melting in an electric arc furnace. The molten material is then plunged into water, producing a fine powder referred to as 'frit'. Crushed bertrandite ore and frit are first treated with sulfuric acid, which dissolves beryllium and other metals present, resulting in a water-soluble sulfate. The beryllium-containing sulfate solution is diluted with water and fed into tanks that contain hydrophobic organic chemicals. While beryllium attaches to the organic material, the water-based solution retains iron, aluminum, and other impurities. This solvent extraction process can be repeated until the desired beryllium content is concentrated in the solution. The beryllium concentrate is next treated with ammonium carbonate and heated, thereby precipitating beryllium hydroxide (BeOH2). High purity beryllium hydroxide is the input material for major applications of the element, including copper beryllium alloys, beryllia ceramics, and pure beryllium metal manufacturing. In order to produce high-purity beryllium metal, the hydroxide form is dissolved in ammonium bifluoride and heated to above 1652°F (900°C), creating a molten beryllium fluoride. After being cast into molds, the beryllium fluoride is mixed with molten magnesium in crucibles and heated. This allows pure beryllium to separate from the slag (waste material). After separated from the magnesium slag, beryllium spheres that measure about 97 percent pure remain. Excess magnesium is burned off by further treatment in a vacuum furnace, leaving beryllium that is up to 99.99 percent pure. The beryllium spheres are normally converted to powder via isostatic pressing, creating a powder that can be used in the production of beryllium-aluminum alloys or pure beryllium metal shields. Beryllium can also be readily recycled from scrap alloys. However, the quantity of recycled materials is variable and limited due to its use in dispersive technologies, such as electronics. The beryllium present in copper-beryllium alloys used in electronics are difficult to collect and when collected are first sent for copper recycling, which dilutes the beryllium content to an uneconomical amount. Due to the strategic nature of the metal, accurate production figures for beryllium are difficult to attain. However, global production of refined beryllium materials is estimated to be roughly 500 metric tonnes. Mining and refining of beryllium in the US, which accounts for as much as 90 percent of global production, is dominated by Materion Corp. Formerly known as Brush Wellman Inc., the company operates the Spor Mountain bertrandite mine in Utah and is the world's largest producer and refiner of beryllium metal. While beryllium is only refined in the US, Kazakhstan, and China, beryl is mined in a number of countries, including China, Mozambique, Nigeria, and Brazil. Beryllium uses can be categorized into five areas: - Consumer electronics and telecommunications - Industrial components and commercial aerospace - Defense and military Walsh, Kenneth A. Beryllium Chemistry and Processing. ASM Intl (2009). US Geological Survey. Minerals Yearbook 2011. Beryllium. Brian W. Jaskula. Beryllium Science & Technology Association. About Beryllium. Vulcan, Tom. HardAssetInvestor.com. Beryllium Basics: Building On Strength As A Critical & Strategic Metal Follow Terence on Google+
Credit: Brocken Inaglory License: CC BY-NC 3.0 Light interference occurs when two light waves interact with each other. Light interference often creates beautiful patterns, such as those on the surface of the bubbles shown above. When light hits a soap bubble, one light ray is reflected by the outer layer of soap, while another light ray will travel through that layer and get reflected by the inner layer of soap. Since these waves have traveled slightly different differences, the waves are no longer perfectly synchronized, this causes beautiful patterns as a result of the interference. This chapter explained the nature of interference and interference patterns, and the diffraction of light waves. The use of diffraction gratings was discussed. Regardless of the number of slits, light shining through small slits in a blocking object will create an interference pattern. In single slits, this pattern is a result of light diffraction around the back of each side of the slit, while double slits and diffraction gratings create interference due to light shining through each slit.
Susan Cole - B.S. Degree in Early Childhood and Elementary Education Third GRADE CURRICULUM In Third grade, students learn to function more independently. They are ready to learn more complex concepts and attempt more difficult problems. Their reading and writing skills will become more developed as they learn to write in paragraphs using proper grammar and punctuation. In Math, Third graders will solve story problems with multiple steps, use measurement equations, and work with fractions. There will be a greater emphasis on mastering multiplication and division tables. Students will also learn to recognize geometric shapes and read a thermometer. In Science, Third graders will be introduced to the wonders of the five senses, classifying animals and learning about their habitats, and studying basic weather information. In History and Social Studies, students will become more familiar with the 50 different States and their Capitals as well as learn more about the men and women who played an important part in American History. GENERAL SKILLS AND CONCEPTs Our Bible curriculum focuses on helping students understand that God is their creator, who loves them and cares deeply for them. The students continue to develop and deepen their relationship with God as they listen to Bible lessons, memorize scripture, sing praise songs and pray together during a morning devotion and Bible class. Scripture memorization is utilized and Bible characters are studied so students will learn to trust in God’s promises and apply Godly virtues to their lives.
It is said that long ago lived two Incan kings, Illimani and Illampu. Both were wealthy and each owned vast quantities of land in the Kollasuyo (now the Altiplano, or Bolivian highlands in Western Bolivia). Each also had one son. Jealous of each other’s wealth, one of the kings mounted an attack against the other and during combat, each was mortally wounded. Although both of their sons had been against the war to begin with, upon their death beds each made their son promise to avenge their death by warring against each other. Bound by their promises to their fathers, a second battle ensued and this time, as history always repeats itself, the sons each mortally wounded the other. However, unlike their fathers, before dying the princes forgave one another and made their servants promise to bury them side by side on the battlefield. Pachamama (known as Mother Earth or Mother Nature, and sometimes referred to as the Goddess of Fertility) appeared to the princes before they died. She told them they should not be punished for their fathers’ wrongdoing. So she caused the stars of their fathers to fall from the sky. Upon crashing to the earth they formed the snow-covered mountains you can still see on the Altiplano today, which have been named Illimani and Illampu, and are the two highest mountains in the region. It is said the rivers that form when their snowcaps melt are actually their tears of regret and these fertilize the valleys where the Kantuta now grows. The Kantuta is considered a symbol of unity because its two primary colors (red and yellow) were the colors used by the king’s sons. Green is the color of hope. By the way, did you know that Bolivia actually has two national flowers?
Researchers at the Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS) have induced light rays to behave in a way that defies the laws of reflection and refraction, while producing some weird fun-house images on the way. The discovery has meant a rewriting of the rule books for the centuries-old mathematical laws that predict the path of a ray of light bouncing off a surface or traveling from one medium into another. "Using designer surfaces, we've created the effects of a fun-house mirror on a flat plane," says co-principal investigator Federico Capasso. "Our discovery carries optics into new territory and opens the door to exciting developments in photonics technology." The conventional laws governing the way light moves from one medium to another - from air to glass, say - predict the angles of reflection and refraction based only on the incident (incoming) angle and the properties of the two media. But while studying the behavior of light impinging on surfaces patterned with metallic nanostructures, the researchers realized that the usual equations didn't cover the bizarre phenomena observed in the lab. Essentially, the group's discovered that the boundary between two media, if specially patterned, can itself behave like a third medium. "Ordinarily, a surface like the surface of a pond is simply a geometric boundary between two media, air and water," explains Nanfang Yu, a research associate in Capasso's lab. "But now, in this special case, the boundary becomes an active interface that can bend the light by itself." What makes the difference is an array of tiny gold antennas etched into the surface of the silicon used in Capasso's lab and structured on a scale much thinner than the wavelength of the light hitting it. This means that, unlike in a conventional optical system, the engineered boundary between the air and the silicon imparts an abrupt phase shift - a phase discontinuity - to the crests of the light wave crossing it. Each antenna in the array is a tiny resonator that can trap the light for a given amount of time before releasing it. A gradient of different types of nanoscale resonators across the surface of the silicon can effectively bend the light before it even begins to propagate through the new medium. The resulting phenomenon breaks the old rules, creating beams of light that reflect and refract in arbitrary ways, depending on the surface pattern. The textbooks now need to be changed, adding a new term to the equations - the gradient of phase shifts imparted at the boundary. "By incorporating a gradient of phase discontinuities across the interface, the laws of reflection and refraction become designer laws, and a panoply of new phenomena appear," says Zeno Gaburro, a visiting scholar in Capasso's group. "The reflected beam can bounce backward instead of forward. You can create negative refraction. There is a new angle of total internal reflection."
Defining life is tricky because of the wide variety of organisms that exist on Earth. However, there are some basic, major functional characteristics of all organisms that distinguish them from inorganic materials. Among these important distinctions are reproduction, evolution, a need for food and specialization of tasks in the organelles of cells. One of the most important functional characteristics of all organisms is that they must posses an ability to reproduce and create more of the same organism. Animals reproduce sexually; simpler, single-cell organisms reproduce by division through the process of mitosis. Plants reproduce either sexually or asexually. The information needed for an organism to create new organisms is encoded in DNA and RNA; in multicellular organisms, the cells that create new organisms are produced through a process known as meiosis, which involves splitting the genetic code in half so that it can combine with the information from another organism. All living organisms must subsist on some form of food source in order to give them energy to power their functions. Organisms that make their own food internally are known as autotrophs. All plants and several types of bacteria and protists are autotrophs because they make their food using sunlight, water and carbon dioxide (a process known as photosynthesis). Organisms that cannot make their own food are known as heterotrophs. Heterotrophs gain their energy by consuming other organisms. Another important characteristic of an organism is the ability to evolve and adapt based on its surrounding. This process of evolution is directly affected by natural selection, which ensures that organisms that have developed helpful features survive long enough to pass those features down to their offspring. For example, flowers have adapted bright colors to attract bees so that the bees will spread their pollen, and all terrestrial-based animals have adapted lungs from gills so that they can breathe on the surface. Organisms also have cells that help divide the tasks which the organism needs to do in order to survive. Most bacteria are classified as prokaryotes because they are relatively simple cells that lack a cell nucleus; all other organisms are classified as eukaryotes. Important organelles in the cell include chloroplast in photosynthesizing organisms (because chlorophyll in the the chloroplast is what captures sunlight) and mitochondria in plants and animals, which contains the DNA and RNA.
I’m always looking for ways to add a “thinking” dimension to class activities, and if I can do that with a lot of speaking, and reading, and writing practice then I’m a happy teacher indeed! This activity was very simple. I told students that I wanted them to create a “how to” project and present it in two formats. That was the language practice. Then, they compared both presentations and decided which approach would be the most effective method to teach someone else. That was the thinking practice. Of course, students had already read and followed the instructions in other “how to” articles, like this one about creating a tornado in a bottle. This practice helped them learn the language they would need in order to create instructions. Then, they chose their topic, in this case, “How to make an origami fortune teller.” First students made fortune tellers and came up with the English they’d need for their instructions. Then, they worked together to write their instructions in a list. Since this pair was mixed age, it was natural to assign the older, more advanced student the role of writer. The younger student in the pair helped come up with the language, but this division of labor made the challenge more equal. Next they chose their two formats. Their first choice was video. The younger student read the steps from their list, and the older student provided the model. The second format was a Power Point presentation combining pictures and text. In dividing tasks this time, the older student typed the text into the text boxes and the younger student coordinated the photos. In our next class, we watched the video and the slide show and compared both to see which one would be the best way to teach someone else how to make a fortune teller. Their final choice? The power point presentation because people could spend as much time as they needed to understand each step. If you’ve never seen a fortune teller in action, here’s a video showing one way we used them to practice vocabulary.
About 75 % of Esperanto's vocabulary comes from Latin and Romance languages (especially French), about 20 % comes from Germanic languages (German and English), and the rest comes mainly from Slavic languages (Russian and Polish) and Greek (mostly scientific terms). The words derived from Romance languages were chosen to be as recognizable as possible throughout the world. For example, the word "radio", although technically Romance, is now used internationally. Someone knowing only Russian and looking at a text in Esperanto would immediately recognize perhaps 40 % of the words, without even having studied the language. Esperanto is phonetic: every word is pronounced exactly as it is spelled. There are no "silent" letters or exceptions.
Pharaohs and Kings The study of ancient forms of leadership and other related factors has always outlined an interesting account. The style of leadership and the cooperation maintained by the subjects become the main area of concern in among other aspects. During the reign of the pharaohs in Egypt, and that of the medieval kings, it is believed that religion took the center stage. This is especially evident in the fact that kings and/or Pharaohs were accorded the highest of respect as it was believed that they were chosen by God. In addition, subjects were forced to observe other aspects regarding the welfare of the king either in life or in death. The picture, therefore, comprises of the pharaohs in Egypt and the kings of the medieval era. Their accounts might seem to portray some similarities in the way matters were handled, but they surely pose huge differences. Ancient pharaohs of Egypt, in this case, had their own share of accounts that probably interest many people. It is believed that they existed within a total of 30 dynasties whereby more than 170 rulers exercised their authority. Egyptian pharaohs were considered as both divine figures and mortal beings with their subjects giving them the required attention. The issue of divinity was applied by the subjects’ perception of the king as Horus or in other words the protector of the sun god. On the other hand, once a pharaoh met his death he became considered as Osiris or the ruler of the dead. Therefore the Pharaoh’s corpse was given the best care ever, in order to ensure that they performed their duties in death accordingly. Ancient Egyptians also believed that if the former pharaoh was not accorded the respect he required certain traditional codes would be violated and disaster would strike thereafter. This was actually the primary idea that gave birth to the famous mummies of ancient Egypt (Peggy 55). The kings’ bodies were preserved in special tombs that were furnished to the fullest. The items included furniture, gold, food and sometimes sculptures that depicted the presence of servants around the king. Offerings made to the body were set to be continued for very long periods of time after the king passed away. The ancient Egyptian throne was kind of organized in terms of structure but was marred with controversies at the same time. The basic structure stipulated that it was to be inherited from the father by his son, but mysterious disappearances of the would-be successors characterized the scene most of the time. It is believed that such candidates were killed or eliminated to pave way for certain individuals. New kingdoms came and passed whereby, shifting of hands from one family to the other was common yet against the original concept of the kingdoms’ structure. In order to protect the leadership from slipping out of their families; it is believed that rulers resulted to marrying their daughters, sisters, granddaughters and their brothers but the plan had its limitations as well. Leadership still changed hands and this further culminated into a very complicated description of the Egyptian kingdom. Nevertheless, the old Egyptian kingdom is credited with having established a government of stability along the Nile valley. It is also understood that they heavily depended on water from river Nile to a greater extent, to support their course (Peggy 57). Some of the most remarkable and perhaps the landmarks of ancient Egyptian success are embodied in the Pyramids and tombs built under the influence of the kings. The structures were either built under the supervision of the king or for the purpose of burying the king bin a befitting manner. According to Peggy (68) The pyramids of Egypt stand out as world class marvels even today and represent the architectural intellect of ancient Egyptians amongst many other factors. It is believed that tombs specifically built for the king were first to be discovered and gave birth to the idea of the pyramid. Tombs were used to shelter the corpses of dead kings and almost resembled the pyramids if not for the flattened tops. Built under the supervision of the king, the pyramids supposedly portray the prowess of local Egyptian workers as opposed to the notion that they were actually built by slaves. Most of the builders were believed to be permanent employees in Pharaoh’s home while others were simply villagers induced into the building process. Architects in the process were able to attain a pyramid shape by improvising methods that still amaze people today. On the other hand priests and astronomers combined their efforts in choosing the sites for the pyramid, in accordance with sacred constellations. The pyramids remain as the most prolific symbols of ancient Egyptian kingdoms and portray the extent of leadership qualities of the kings. It is also remembered that the ancient Egyptian kingdom was gender sensitive since women were also part of the leadership roles experienced during the period. Even though ancient times were dominated by men in terms of culture, a clique of women managed to crop up and rule the kingdom. The most remarkable names that characterized the field in terms of gender were, Hatshepsut and Cleopatra. Hatshepsut managed to rule for 20 years but her term was stopped after she disappeared under unclear circumstances (Peggy 23). Medieval kings, on the other hand, are believed to have lived beautiful lives with enough power, privilege, and wealth. During their times they were placed at the highest societal levels and only the Catholic Church leaders could rival their worth. They were appointed in a divine way just like the pharaohs of Egypt if not for a few dissimilarities (Fossier 45). Medieval periods, like ancient Egyptian times, observed enough respect to divinity unlike the case today. The kings, in this case, were believed to have been chosen by God himself and thus they achieved the highest degree of authority. In other words, medieval kings lived like small gods and wielded extreme power and wealth. Unlike the pharaohs who were duly respected by the subject, medieval kings were known to generate lots of controversy in the way they handled matters in their kingdoms. Their extreme powers led to turmoil and their reigns were usually short lived. They resulted in forming survival tactics that involved conquering other kingdoms to make sure that their kingdoms enlarged. Therefore, leadership issues in both the two accounts were subject to controversy albeit with contrasting aspects. As leadership changed hands in the medieval period it is important to note that the kings left behind legacies worth a lot of praise. The Renaissance, in particular, is an example of the fruits of good work done by these kings in improving the lifestyles of the people. Education and living standards underwent considerable transformations and this replicated the situation in Egypt during the period of pharaohs. This was despite a few cases of kings being selfish and only considering their personal goals. Generally, they had the tendency of inclining towards the magnificent wealth and power, but they left behind a legacy worth praises. Just like the Egyptian pharaohs, medieval kings were also proud of arts and other societal aspects. Apart from influencing the King James Version of the Bible, they had one aspect that almost resembled the pyramids of Egypt in terms of symbolizing power. The round table became a symbol of unity and was born in the era of King Arthur (Pitts 8). The nexus of the round table was to bring all the knights together in an environment that suggested equality for all. The round table was designed in such a way that all the knights attending the meetings felt equal since no person sat at a supposed high table. The strategy was able to solve conflicts whenever they arose without members feeling submissive to anyone, not even the king. The code of chivalry was observed by the knights on the round table and represented the values of honesty, loyalty, and valor. Every seat on the table was accorded the required respect and played a major role in the leadership. Just like the pyramids of Egypt, the round table became the representation of pride and depth within the kingdom for the king and subjects alike. Even though little manpower was involved in making the table, as compared to the pyramid, they all represent same aspects that gave pride and honor to the kingdoms. Just like the period in which the pharaohs ruled, middle age women were holistically under the rule of men in the society. They were submissive to their fathers, brothers, and husbands and they attracted punishment whenever they disobeyed men. The only difference was that medieval women were not able to rise to leadership positions like Egyptian women did. However, there were few women, particularly queens, who were credited with helping their men succeed in all ways possible. They became very famous but never ascended to the throne (Pitts 8). Get a Price Quote It is evident that both systems embraced the monarch system of leadership that brought forward lots of benefits to the people. Egyptians were introduced to the aspect of civilization as a result of their leadership and system of beliefs. The medieval kings also introduced improved education and general welfare of their people through their leadership. Generally, the two societies had some identical prospects that were only diversified by the avenues used. The kings used uncouth tactics for Ascension and survival but with different perspectives. Women were also in the limelight but ancient Egypt had the most remarkable stint since their women managed to lead fully.
Friday, December 3, 2010 Find and fill your mind with NEW WORDS :) Sight words are the glue for sentences. Words such as – and, all, away, go, help, it, is – are all sight words. They are critical to sentence building. Many kids pick up on sight words quickly. Age appropriate books are filled with sight words. But age appropriate books also have many new words. Providing word searches for these ‘new’ words can turn a competent young reader into a sophisticated young reader. Fujimini Island provides a word search on their website. Let your child hunt for words and watch their vocabulary grow quick and strong.
Learn about this topic in these articles: capital at Warangal Warangal was the ancient capital of the Kakatiyas, an Andhra dynasty that flourished in the 12th century ce. Warangal’s fort, lying southeast of the present-day city, was once surrounded by two walls; traces of the outer wall remain, as do the four stone gateways ( sanchars) of the inner wall. The Khush Mahal, an audience hall dating to the 14th century,... history of India In the eastern Deccan the Kakatiya dynasty was based in parts of what is now Andhra Pradesh state and survived until the Turkish attack in the 14th century. The Eastern Calukyas ruled in the Godavari River delta, and in the 13th century their fortunes were tied to those of the Colas. The Eastern Gangas, ruling in Kalinga, came into conflict with the Turks advancing down the Ganges River valley... significance to Andhra Pradesh state ...poets, Nannaya, began translating the Sanskrit epic, Mahabharata into Telugu, marking the birth of Telugu as a literary medium. During the 12th and 13th centuries the dynasty of the Kakatiyas of Warangal (now in Telangana) extended Andhra power militarily and culturally, and during their regime the commercial expansion of the Andhras toward Southeast Asia reached its peak.
Hummingbirds are small birds in the family Trochilidae. They are distinguished by their ability to hover in mid-air by rapidly flapping their wings, 15 to 80 times per second. They are named for the characteristic hum made by their wings, and are the only birds that can deliberately fly backwards. Hummingbirds are attracted to many flowering plantsâ€”shrimp plants, fuchsias, many penstemonsâ€”especially those with red flowers. They feed on the nectar of these plants and are important pollinators, especially of deep-throated flowers. Most species of hummingbird also take insects, especially when feeding young.
The Need for Humane Education Humane education can play an important role in creating a compassionate and caring society which would take benign responsibility for ourselves, each other, our fellow animals and the earth. As regards our fellow animals, humane education works at the root causes of human cruelty and abuse of animals. There is now abundant scientific evidence that animals are sentient beings, with the capacity to experience ‘feelings’. They have the ability to enjoy life’s basic gifts as well as the ability to suffer emotionally (as well as physically) through cruel or unkind treatment, deprivation and incarceration. This new understanding of the sentience of animals has huge implications for the way we treat them, the policies and laws we adopt, and the way in which we educate our children. 'Sentience' is the ability to experience consciousness, feelings and perceptions; including the ability to experience pain, suffering and states of wellbeing. Humane education is the building block of a humane and ethically responsible society. When educators carry out this process using successfully tried and tested methods, what they do for learners is to: - Help them to develop a personal understanding of ‘who they are’ – recognizing their own special skills, talents, abilities and fostering in them a sense of self-worth. - Help them to develop a deep feeling for animals, the environment and other people, based on empathy, understanding and respect. - Help them to develop their own personal beliefs and values, based on wisdom, justice, and compassion. - Foster a sense of responsibility that makes them want to affirm and to act upon their personal beliefs. In essence, it sets learners upon a valuable life path, based on firm moral values. In a well-structured humane education program, younger children are initially introduced to simple animal issues, and the exploration of animal sentience and needs. Then, gradually, learners begin to consider a whole range of ethical issues (animal, human and environmental) using resources and lesson plans designed to generate creative and critical thinking, and to assist each individual in tapping in to their inbuilt ‘moral compass’. Importantly, humane education has the potential to spur the development of empathy and compassion. Empathy is believed to be the critical element often missing in society today and the underlying reason for callous, neglectful and violent behavior. There is a well-documented link between childhood cruelty to animals and later criminality, violence and anti-social behavior; and humane education can break this cycle and replace it with one of compassion, empathy and personal responsibility. If we are to build stable and peaceful societies, then humane education must play a vital role in childhood development. Research has also shown that humane education has an even wider range of positive social and educational outcomes. These even extend to areas such as: bullying, teenage pregnancies, drug-taking, racism, and the persecution of minority groups. It has also been shown to increase school attendance rates, enhance school relationships and behavior, and to improve academic achievement. Learners who demonstrate respect for others and practice positive interactions, and whose respectful attitudes and productive communication skills are acknowledged and rewarded, are more likely to continue to demonstrate such behavior. Students who feel secure and respected can better apply themselves to learning. Students who are encouraged to understand and live by their own moral compass find it easier to thrive in educational environments and in the wider world. Humane education should be an essential part of a student’s education as it reduces violence and builds moral character. It is needed to develop an enlightened society that has empathy and respect for life, thus breaking the cycle of violence and abuse. Humane education should be an essential part of a student’s education as it reduces violence and builds moral character. It is needed to develop an enlightened society that has empathy and respect for life, thus breaking the cycle of violence and abuse. The development of ethics and values in society is something that we ignore at our peril. These must be included in the schools’ curriculum, with humane education at the core. When animals are abused and badly treated in a home, there’s a strong chance that people are also being abused in that home by way of child abuse, spouse abuse, and/or abuse of the elderly. When a home is not a safe and caring place for animals it is not a safe and caring place for people either. Research by psychologists, sociologists and criminologists has proved the link between animal abuse and human abuse. This research over the last 40 years shows that ‘the first strike’ – a person’s first act of violence – is usually aimed at an animal and should be seen as a danger sign for other members of the family. (Source: Humane Society of the United States: First Strike: The Violence Connection.) There has always been anecdotal evidence supporting the connection between animal cruelty and violent behavior against people. The 'Son of Sam' murderer in New York City, for example, reportedly (Washington Star, 1977) hated dogs and killed a number of neighborhood animals. Another newspaper article (Washington Post, 1979) reported a mass killer as having immersed cats in containers of battery acid as a child. Albert De Salvo, the notorious Boston Strangler, trapped dogs and cats, placed them in orange crates, and shot arrows through the boxes (Fucini, 1978). In addition to this anecdotal evidence, there have now been a number of psychological studies carried out which show links between childhood cruelty to animals and later criminality. In some cases, such acts were a precursor to child abuse. Some of these reports were commissioned by humane societies in an attempt to persuade Government authorities of the seriousness of animal cruelty cases, including the Kellert/Felthouse study. The Kellert/Felthouse study, confirmed a strong correlation between childhood cruelty to animals and future antisocial and aggressive behavior. It stressed the need for researchers, clinicians and societal leaders to be alert to the importance of childhood animal cruelty, and suggested that the evolution of a more gentle and benign relationship in human society might be enhanced by our promotion of a more positive and nurturing ethic between children and animals. Such path-finding studies are of key importance for society and educators alike. Amongst their findings are: - In one community in England, 83% of families with a history of animal abuse had been identified as having children at risk from abuse or neglect; - Of 57 families treated by New Jersey's Division of Youth and Family Services for incidents of child abuse, pets had been abused in 88% of cases, usually by the parent; - A behavioral triad of cruelty to animals, bed wetting and fire setting in childhood is strongly indicative of likely violent behavior in adulthood; and - There is a significantly higher incidence of behavior involving cruelty to animals, usually prior to age 25, in people who go on to commit mass or serial murders. A useful book which brings together research in this area and charts some actions already being taken to address this problem is: 'Child Abuse, Domestic Violence, and Animal Abuse: Linking the Circles of Compassion for Prevention and Intervention' by Frank Ascione and Phil Arkow, and published by Purdue University Press The book can be ordered from online bookshops. Arkow points out: - While being kind to animals is certainly a nice thing to do, and is certainly the right thing to do, it is only when people in leadership positions recognize that animal abuse has adverse effects on humans, that animal maltreatment will become culturally unacceptable and real, lasting changes will be made. - The abuse of animals is often the first step on the slippery slope of desensitization, the first step down that slope of a lack of empathy and violence. - All too often animals are the first victims and what should be seen as a red flag or warning marker, is readily dismissed by parents and teachers as ‘oh well, boys will be boys’, or ‘it’s only a rabbit, what’s the big deal?’ - Children who grow up in abusive environments frequently become abusers themselves. By linking bullying and other antisocial behaviors with animal abuse, teachers can help their students take home a sense of empathy – not just for animals, but also for their peers and family, and a sense of responsibility to their community. Another important book, which includes scientific research on the connection between animal abuse and child abuse is ‘The Link between Animal Abuse and Human Violence’ (2009), which is edited by Professor Andrew Linzey (Director of the Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics), and comprises the work of 36 international academics in fields as varied as the Social Sciences, Criminology, Developmental Psychology, Human Rights, Applied Childhood Studies, Behavioral Science, and Child Welfare. The book can be ordered from online bookshops. ‘The Link between Animal Abuse and Human Violence’ reveals that animal abuse has a domino effect. When adults disrespect, neglect, abuse or harm an animal, it starts a process of desensitization or loss of feeling in our children – they become able to witness the neglect, hurting, harming or killing of an animal without feeling a response. Once children become desensitized, ‘habituation’ quickly sets in. Habituation to neglect and cruelty means that abuse has become a routine part of a child’s life and is accepted as normal. Importantly, desensitization directly opposes the crucial development in early childhood of empathy. Lack of empathy leads to dehumanization because it slows down children’s emotional development, and they are not able to realize their full potential as emotionally mature adults. What is clear from ‘The Link Between Animal Abuse and Human Violence’ is that modern socio-scientific thinking suggests that animal abuse, because of its potential to damage emotional development, can be viewed as a form of child abuse that can lead to lifelong disability including: - Less ability to learn, and learning problems - Less or no ability to build or maintain satisfactory social relationships - Inappropriate behavior and/or feelings In addition, adults who are under-developed emotionally are more likely to resort to violence to solve problems. Abusive adults pass on this handicap to the next generation. When someone is ill-treated or relegated to a demeaning position in society, they often respond by venting their frustration on someone whose societal position is even lower than their own. By destroying or tormenting the weak, such as an animal or a child, the oppressor becomes the master who has, in turn, tortured them. The anger is directed at an innocent instead of the perpetrator of their own victimization, and it is difficult to break the cycle of abuse. Humane education is needed to develop an enlightened society that has empathy and respect for life, thus breaking the cycle of abuse. The aim is to create a culture of caring. It is also a sound investment - working on the prevention of criminality and antisocial behavior, which can have a massive societal cost, both in terms of reduction in 'quality of life' and in financial costs incurred through criminal damage, maintenance of law enforcement systems, court costs, prison systems and juvenile work. An academic whose research supports the view that humane education should be a vital component of every day learning is Dr. Kai Horsthemke from South Africa. He is an educational philosopher at the University of Witwatersrand School of Education, and received international academic acknowledgement when his paper ‘Rethinking Humane Education’ was published in the October 2009 issue of the British journal Ethics and Education. Horsthemke points out: - The increase in violence in South African schools, as elsewhere, has been associated with a general ‘decline in moral values’ - Taking these concepts and principles (justice, equality and rights) seriously requires extending and employing them beyond the human realm - Humane education incorporates guidance in moral reasoning and critical thinking and engages both rationality and individual responsibility - Decline in moral values is counteracted by an approach that combines caring with respect for rights, in order to contribute towards erasing human violence and abuse. Dr. Horsthemke suggests that environmental and humane education may well be “the most reliable way of halting the rapid deterioration of the world and ourselves, having potentially long term benefits for both humans and nonhumans”. The following claims were made for humane education by the US National Parent-Teacher Association Congress in 1933: "Children trained to extend justice, kindness, and mercy to animals become more just, kind and considerate in their relations to one another. Character training along these lines in youths will result in men and women of broader sympathies; more humane, more law-abiding - in every respect more valuable - citizens. Humane education is the teaching in schools and colleges of the nations the principles of justice, goodwill, and humanity towards all life. The cultivation of the spirit of kindness to animals is but the starting point toward that larger humanity that includes one's fellow of every race and clime. A generation of people trained in these principles will solve their international difficulties as neighbors and not as enemies." The practice and reinforcement of kindness, of care and compassion towards animals, through formal and non-formal educational processes, is viewed as having a range of positive spin-offs in terms of pro-social attitudes towards people of a different gender, ethnic group, race, culture or nation. The National Link Coalition is a Resource Center on the Link between Animal Abuse and Human Violence, which includes national and international ‘Link’ coalitions. “In addition to causing pain and suffering to the animals, animal abuse can be a sentinel indicator and predictor - one of the earliest ‘red flag’ warning signs of concurrent or future violent acts. Abusers and impressionable children who witness or perpetrate abuse become desensitized to violence and the ability to empathize with victims. Abuse is often cyclical and inter-generational. The earlier professionals can intervene to break the cycles of violence, the higher the rate of success.” “As a teacher with 30 years’ experience, I do not believe that we can solve violence in our society with high fences and razor wire. If we are to fight violence effectively and uplift our communities for a sustainable future, we will have to reach into the hearts of learners and develop that vital quality called 'empathy'.” Cape Town school teacher Vivienne Rutgers The main objective of humane education is the development and nurturing of EMPATHY. Empathy means: I identify with the way you feel. Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of another being. Simon Baron-Cohen is a Professor of Developmental Psychopathology at the University of Cambridge, England. In his book, The Science of Evil: On Empathy and the Origins of Cruelty, he offers a new theory on what causes people to behave with extreme cruelty. He suggests that ‘evil’ can be explained as a complete lack of empathy. He also looks at social and environmental factors that can reduce empathy, including neglect and abuse. The Science of Evil: On Empathy and the Origins of Cruelty (2011) is published by Basic Books, and can be ordered at online bookshops. Baron-Cohen points out: - As a scientist I want to understand what causes people to treat others as if they were mere objects - The challenge is to explain how people are capable of causing extreme hurt, by moving the debate into the realm of science - Let's start by substituting the concept of 'evil', with the term 'empathy erosion', a condition that arises when we objectify others. This has the effect of devaluing them, and erosion of empathy is a state of mind that can be found in any culture. Empathy, says Professor Baron-Cohen, is like 'a dimmer switch' on a light - with a range from low to medium to high. When empathy is dimmed, it causes us to think only of our own interests. When we are solely in the 'I' mode, our empathy is switched off. Baron-Cohen has developed a scale from 0–6 to measure the differing degrees of empathy among people. Level Zero is when an individual has no empathy at all. At Level 6, an individual displays remarkable empathy. The majority of people fall between Levels 2-4 on the scale. Baron-Cohen's Barometer of Empathy Level 0 - People have no empathy at all. These people find relationships difficult and they cannot understand how another is feeling. They may or may not be cruel to others. - Empathy is the most valuable social resource in our world. It is puzzling that in school or parenting curricula empathy figures hardly at all, and in politics, business, the courts, or policing, it is rarely, if ever, on the agenda. The erosion of empathy is a critical global issue of our time - It relates to the health of our communities, be they small (like families) or big (like nations) - Without empathy we risk the breakdown of relationships, become capable of hurting others, and cause conflict. With empathy, we have a resource to resolve conflict, increase community cohesion, and dissolve another person's pain - We must put empathy back on the agenda. We need to realize what a powerful resource we as a species have, at our very fingertips, if only we prioritize it. Empathy is one of the most frequently cited affective components of moral development (Emde et al., 1987; Gibbs, 1991; Hoffman, 1987). Typically empathy is understood to be natural and to have a biological base as well as to be a source of moral reason and more mature moral affect. However, whilst young children often have an intuitive grasp that actions - such as hitting and stealing - are prima facie wrong, the child's moral concepts do not reflect a fully developed moral system. For example, although young children view it as wrong to keep all of the classroom toys to oneself and not share any of them with the other children (Damon 1977, Nucci 1981, Smetana 1981), pre-schoolers think it is quite all right to keep all of the favored toys to oneself as long as one shares the remainder (Damon 1977, 1980). Thus, while the young child's morality is structured by concepts of justice, it reflects a rather egocentric moral perspective. The early development of empathy helps to prevent further development of this egocentric perspective. Teaching empathy is not just about helping learners to recognize consequences, but also to feel these – even when they relate to others. It turns a self-centered perspective into an ‘other-centered’ and altruistic perspective. This leads to a more enlightened and compassionate outlook. It also leads to a deeper search for the moral compass within. Young children demonstrate a natural feeling for animals, which can be used to develop their empathy and compassion at an early stage. This serves as a firm base for the future moral development of learners. Humane Education is the single biggest medium in our hands today to nurture and develop the gift of EMPATHY in our children "In what other subject do you learn to love, care and protect?"Hewston, Grade 10, participant in a Humane Education pilot project, Cape Town See this YouTube video: Dr. Neil deGrasse Tyson, American astrophysicist and Director of the Hayden Planetarium, discusses the human-animal connection from a scientific standpoint – and makes a call for the development of empathy through humane education for school children. Many people consider empathy and compassion to have the same meaning, and they are frequently used interchangeably. However, they are actually quite different: As we have seen above, empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of another. It is an emotional response to a person’s situation or well-being. The ability to empathize can sometimes be developed when you try to understand how another individual may be feeling – imaging yourself in the same situation and thus feeling the same emotions as the person you are feeling empathy for. However, although you feel the same emotions, you do not take actions on your feelings; you do nothing to alleviate the emotions of the person/animal you are feeling empathy for. On the other hand, when you feel compassion, you have more of a desire to take action. You can understand a person or animal’s pain and suffering. You place yourself in the shoes of the individual, but you feel that you want to do something to relieve the pain and suffering. Compassion is an emotion which calls for action. You are motivated to take action to ensure a positive outcome. So, the ultimate aim of humane education should be the development of compassion, with empathy as an important step in this process. This can be encouraged by the inclusion of practical programs to take action for animals, and the development of a volunteering ethos more generally. The word ‘ethics’ is derived from the Greek word ethikos meaning moral. The field of ethics is also called ‘moral philosophy’. Ethics has been defined as a set of moral principles or a code, and would incorporate aspects such as right, wrong, good, evil, duties and responsibilities. They consider what is good for the individual and for society, and the nature of duties that people owe to themselves, one another, animals and the environment. In addition to ethics as a moral code (prescribing what humans ought or ought not to do in terms of right and wrong), ethics also refer to the study and development of one's ethical standards. As laws, social norms and feelings/motivations can deviate from what is ethical, it is necessary to constantly examine and study one's own moral beliefs and moral conduct in order to strive towards lives that meet sound moral standards. Humane education can help children to begin the process of ethical decision-making, and building moral character. Ethics and morals relate respectively to theory and practice. Ethics denotes the theory of right action and the greater good, while morals indicate their practice. ‘Moral’ has a dual meaning. The first indicates a person's comprehension of morality and his capacity to put it into practice. In this meaning, the opposite is ‘amoral’, indicating an inability to distinguish between right and wrong. The second denotes the active practice of those values. In this sense, the opposite is ‘immoral’, referring to actions that counter ethical principles. Values are part of ethics in the sense that they are ideals or beliefs that a person or social group holds dear. They are what people think is right and wrong, good and bad, desirable and undesirable. The world today is experiencing an unprecedented crisis of morals and values. At the same time, there is increasing recognition of the serious impact the destructive and self-obsessive nature of mankind is having on the environment, social relationships and global harmony. Various projects and campaigns are developed in an attempt to address these problems, usually on a piecemeal basis - save this tree, this species, promote peace in a particular region. But in reality, the way to tackle these problems is at source, by beginning the process that will teach children - the citizens of tomorrow – an ethical perspective and a personal sense of responsibility, coupled with a compassionate and caring attitude towards others, animals and the environment. While every person develops his or her strongest notions about ethics early in life, ideas about the right conduct grow and change with experience. Strategies can be employed to strengthen ethical decision-making at all ages, but this is particularly effective in children Practical wisdom cannot be acquired by simply learning general rules. Learners also need to acquire, through critical and creative thinking and practice, those deliberative, emotional, and social skills that enable them to put their general understanding of well-being into practice in ways that are suitable to each occasion. Thus the way in which humane education is taught (see the section on ‘Methodology’) is an important factor in maximizing its contribution to moral development. Lessons should be specifically designed to include critical analysis, creativity and empathy-building in order to help learners to discover their own ‘moral compass’ and to develop their own values systems. So what is a moral compass? We humans have this inbuilt guidance or ‘compass’ that speaks to us of right and wrong. Our duty to our learners is to assist them to reach inside and access or interpret this compass, so its guidance can be used when they are faced with hard decisions and difficult situations. The wisdom they are developing will affect their character, values, and morality. Values that come from the heart provide a foundation of strength and goodness that lasts a lifetime, and can be brought into play whenever new challenges arise. In our new fast-moving world, the development of wisdom is crucial. Humane education has the potential to provide insight and wisdom – which will affect both the morality and the character of learners. In an age where most of education seeks to train the brain, this is education that seeks to open the heart to the promptings, compassion and empathy within. Values that come from the heart provide a foundation of strength and goodness that lasts a lifetime, and can be bought into play whenever humans are challenged by any new situation. "Just then, in my great tiredness and discouragement, the phrase, Reverence for Life, struck me like a flash. As far as I knew, it was a phrase I had never heard nor ever read. I realized at once that it carried within itself the solution to the problem that had been torturing me. Now I knew that a system of values which concerns itself only with our relationship to other people is incomplete and therefore lacking in power for good. Only by means of reverence for life can we establish a spiritual and humane relationship with both people and all living creatures within our reach. Only in this fashion can we avoid harming others, and, within the limits our capacity, go to their aid whenever they need us."Reverence for Life, Albert Schweitzer There have been many attempts to introduce ‘peace education’ in schools. To do this successfully, the root causes of conflict and violence need to be examined, and educational programs developed to address these. This can be complicated – particularly for younger children. However, there are already existing ‘tried and tested’ educational programs available, including humane education – which creates a culture of empathy and caring by stimulating the moral development of individuals to form a compassionate, responsible and just society. There is more information below and in this web resource more generally on why humane education can form a vital part of peace education. Key Sources of Conflict It is scarcely surprising that peace education is given increasing importance in modern society, give the increase of conflict and violence we are currently witnessing. We are becoming more materialistic, more individualistic and selfish, and increasingly driven by the quest for worldly success and prosperity. Growth of economies and acquisitive personal aspirations lead to conflicts over scarce resources. Lack of equity can also contribute to conflict … but even this would not be a problem if these was a spirit of interconnectedness and giving in society. But our priorities and values are changing – mostly to the detriment of wisdom, compassion and – ultimately - our own happiness. We increasingly communicate through trite, short-hand phrases, adopting and justifying ideologies, instead of developing our own insights and wisdom. Soul-searching and personal development are no longer prioritized, as conformity is easier and more likely to gain peer acceptance. Importantly, we are also becoming more urbanized, and losing our deep connection to nature and animals – and often to our human support systems (our families and communities). Working at the Root Peace will not be achieved by patchwork reforms. The development of peace has to begin with understanding ourselves and the nature of the world we live in. As we have seen, we humans have a built in ‘code’ that speaks to us of right and wrong. Our duty to our learners is to assist them to reach inside and interpret this code, so its guidance can be used when they are faced with hard decisions and difficult situations. The wisdom they are developing will affect their character, values, and morality. Values that come from the heart provide a foundation of strength and goodness that lasts a lifetime, and can be brought into play whenever new challenges arise. In our new fast-moving world, the development of wisdom is crucial. Conventional education is the transfer of knowledge to pass examinations and – sometimes – to gain employment. This is significantly lacking for the development of the whole human. In many ‘developing’ countries, education is still by rote, passing on formulaic learning with no development of insights, intelligence and values. In such cases, Universal Primary Education is of little value in providing much-needed life skills? World Animal Net strongly advocates the educational approach for the development of peaceful societies, working at the root of the problem for sustainable change. We consider humane education to be a vital pillar of this work. Humane education should be an essential part of a student’s education as it reduces violence and builds moral character. It can also play a significant role in the development of stable, caring and peaceful societies. In addition to humane education, there are also other educational initiatives that could also help towards the development of stable, caring and peaceful societies, including: morals and values education, emotional intelligence education, conflict avoidance/resolution education and environmental education. Ideally, these programs could be coordinated – and optimum methodologies used - to provide an integrated educational solution. I don't know what your destiny will be, but one thing I do know: the only ones among you who will be really happy are those who have sought and found how to serve."Albert Schweitzer Humane education can play a large role in improving happiness. This is both overall happiness – in terms of total well-being (people, animals and the environment) - and individual happiness. This is because it has the potential to develop learners socially, psychologically and ethically – as well as increasing compassion and empathy, and creating a feeling of interconnectedness with animals, nature and other people. The 2013 World Happiness Report confirmed that ‘social, psychological, and ethical factors are crucially important in individual happiness’. This probably seems somewhat quaint and far-fetched in the modern era (post 1800), where happiness has come to be associated largely with material conditions, especially income and consumption. However, any ‘happiness’ associated with material conditions can only be transient. What is of greater – and lasting – importance is the deep happiness which comes from the inner peace developed from living a life which matters … compassionate and altruistic, and fulfilling our full potential. A life lived in harmony with nature and all life, instead of an ego-centred existence. The World Happiness Report speaks of ‘Eudaimonia’, which is sometimes translated as happiness, and often as ‘flourishing’, to convey the sense of deep and persistent well-being. This kind of virtue not only attends to the individual’s thriving, but also to the community’s harmony. Eudaimonia is the telos, the end goal of human beings; the highest good. In the words of Bertrand Russell: “The happiness that is genuinely satisfying is accompanied by the fullest exercise of our faculties and the fullest realisation of the world in which we live.” In the great pre-modern traditions concerning happiness, whether Buddhism in the East, Aristotelianism in the West, or the great religious traditions, happiness is determined not by an individual’s material conditions (wealth, poverty, health, illness) but by the individual’s moral character. Aristotle spoke of virtue as the key to eudaimonia. This is why the World Happiness report advocates a return to ‘virtue ethics’ as one part of the strategy to raise happiness in society. The Global Economic Ethic (2009) established an overarching global ethical framework with the fundamental principle of ‘humanity’. With the principle of ‘humanity’, the Global Economic Ethic identified four basic values: - Non-violence and respect for life, including respect for human life and respect for the natural environment; - Justice and solidarity, including rule of law, fair competition, distributive justice, and solidarity; - Honesty and tolerance, including truthfulness, honesty, reliability, toleration of diversity, and rejection of discrimination because of sex, race, nationality, or beliefs; and - Mutual esteem and partnership, including fairness and sincerity. As we can see, these are all values that can be derived from humane education – particularly non-violence and respect for all life. Matthieu Ricard, the author of the book ‘Happiness – A Guide to Developing Life’s Most Important Skill’ states: "It is only by the constant cultivation of wisdom and compassion that we can really become the guardians and inheritors of happiness." “Compassion, the very act of feeling concern for other people’s well-being, appears to be one of the positive emotions, like joy and enthusiasm. This corroborates the research of psychologists showing that the most altruistic members of a population are also those who enjoy the highest sense of satisfaction in life.”
Brief SummaryRead full entry BiologyIn the past, the attractive Soemmerring's gazelles used to gather in their hundreds as they undertook seasonal migrations (2). Today, this magnificent sight is rare, as the gazelle is seldom seen in herds composed of more than 15 individuals. These are often herds of females and their young, accompanied by a single adult male on his territory. The territorial male marks his range with dung, and should another male venture onto his land, aggressive confrontations may ensue (2). Such encounters involve scraping their horns on the ground (3), head-flicking, and yanking their opponent's horns sideways in an attempt to destabilise their rival (2). Mating in Soemmerring's gazelle peaks between September and November (2). After a gestation of around 198 days, the female gives birth to a single calf that lies well hidden in grass until it is strong enough to keep up with its mother (3). This usually takes about a month (2), during which time the mother returns to her calf only to nurse it (3). By the age of six months the calves are weaned, and by just 18 months the gazelle is sexually mature and capable of reproducing. Soemmerring's gazelles live for up to 14 years (2). Soemmerring's gazelles feed primarily on grasses (5); their narrow muzzle and mobile lips enable them to carefully select the best quality grass (3). The main predators of Soemmerring's gazelle include cheetahs, lions, leopards, Cape hunting dogs, hyenas and even pythons (3).
Ask the class: Present and discuss some of memorial ideas that can be found in the Teachers' Background. Some are for Ground Zero and others are for different events. Design a fitting memorial for Ground Zero and/or write a poem to remember the events. Ideas might include: Students should include an explanation of the thinking behind their design. - A statue representing the victims - A symbol of hope - A monument that draws its design from the World Trade Center - A peace park Students could construct a model of their memorial. Limit the size of the models (about 30cm in height should be fine) so that the ideas can be displayed more easily. Students present their ideas and/or poems and give their reasons for their designs. Ground Zero memorial ideas: Other memorials around the world: - Two piers could project out into New York Harbour. Each would be divided into 110 'floors'. As visitors pass over each floor they encounter the story of what happened on that floor, including names of victims. - An park and an underground memorial could be connected by a circular pool. The pool's 3,000 pieces of blue stained glass would form the ceiling of the underground memorial and would be illuminated by day and by night. The pool would be curved like the top of a sphere and its colours will suggest the Earth. Hiroshima Memorial Peace Park Washington DC World War II Memorial - It contains very moving displays of the effects of the atomic bombing. - In front of the building is a statue called Mother and Child in the Storm and the Fountain of Prayer. - Colourful origami cranes are left on most of the memorials, monuments and statues in the park as a symbol of visitors' wish for Peace. - Consists of the Rainbow Pool surrounded in a circular pattern with 56 pillars to represent the unity of the US states and territories during the war. - Visitors will enter the sunken plaza on ramps which will pass by two giant arches that represent the two fronts of the war. - Inside there will be a Freedom Wall covered with 4,000 gold stars, each representing 100 Americans that died during World War II. For all links and resources click at top right.
Heat transfer and efficiency: Sankey diagrams Sankey diagrams summarise all the energy transfers taking place in a process. The thicker the line or arrow, the greater the amount of energy involved. This Sankey diagram for an electric lamp shows that most of the electrical energy is transferred as heat rather than light. Energy can be transferred usefully, stored or dissipated. It cannot be created or destroyed. Notice that 100 J of electrical energy is supplied to the lamp. Of this, 10 J is transferred to the surroundings as light energy. The remainder, 90 J (100 J – 10 J) is transferred to the surroundings as heat energy. The energy transfer to light energy is the useful transfer. The rest is ‘wasted’: it is eventually transferred to the surroundings, making them warmer. This ‘wasted’ energy eventually becomes so spread out that it becomes less useful. Ordinary electric lamps contain a thin metal filament that glows when electricity passes through it. However, most of the electrical energy is transferred as heat energy instead of light energy. This is the Sankey diagram for a typical filament lamp. Modern energy-saving lamps and LEDs (light-emitting diodes) work in a different way: they transfer a greater proportion of electrical energy as light energy. This is the Sankey diagram for a typical energy-saving lamp. From the diagram, you can see that much less electrical energy is transferred, or 'wasted', as heat energy from the energy-saving lamp. It's more efficient than the filament lamp. The efficiency of a device such as a lamp can be calculated: efficiency = useful energy out ÷ total energy in (for a decimal efficiency) efficiency = (useful energy out ÷ total energy in) × 100 (for a percentage efficiency) The efficiency of the filament lamp is 10 ÷ 100 = 0.10 (or 10 percent).This means that 10 percent of the electrical energy supplied is transferred as light energy (90 percent is transferred as heat energy).The efficiency of the energy-saving lamp is 75 ÷ 100 = 0.75 (or 75 percent). This means that 75 percent of the electrical energy supplied is transferred as light energy (25 percent is transferred as heat energy).
The Legislative Process This section provides an overview of the stages and processes involved in making or changing a law. Green and White Papers The process of making a law sometimes begins with a discussion document, called a Green Paper. This is drafted in the Ministry or department dealing with the particular issue in order to show the way that it is thinking on a particular policy. It is then published so that anyone who is interested can give comments, suggestions and ideas. The Green Paper is sometimes followed by a more refined discussion document, called a White Paper, which is a broad statement of government policy. This is drafted by the relevant department or a task team designated by the Minister of that department. Comment may again be invited from interested parties. The relevant parliamentary Committees may propose amendments or other proposals and then send the policy paper back to the Ministry for further discussion and final decisions. A Bill is the draft version of a law or Act. It may be proposing either an entirely new Act, or an amendment to an existing Act, or it can simply repeal an existing Act. This section outlines some of the processes and requirements that can take place before a Bill becomes a law. It deals with the various types of Bills and who may initiate a Bill. The following section tracks how a Bill becomes a law. The Constitution provides the full details which are not included here. Bills before Parliament There are four main types of Bills that come before Parliament: - ordinary Bills that do not affect the provinces (section 75 of the Constitution); - ordinary Bills that affect the provinces (section 76 of the Constitution); - Money Bills (section 77 of the Constitution); and - Bills amending the Constitution (section 74 of the Constitution); and The process of classifying a Bill into one of the four categories above is called "tagging" and will determine the procedures the Bill must follow to become law. Bills are tagged by the Joint Tagging Mechanism (JTM), a Committee consisting of the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly and the Chairperson and Permanent Deputy Chairperson of the National Council of Provinces. They are advised by the Parliamentary Law Adviser. The JTM decides on the classification of the Bill by consensus. (For more detail on the functions and procedure of the JTM, please refer to the Joint Rules of Parliament, as amended on 24 March 1999.) 1. Ordinary Bills that do not affect the provinces (Section 75 Bills) An ordinary Bill that does not affect the provinces can only be introduced in the National Assembly (NA). Once it has been passed by the NA, it must be sent to the National Council of Provinces (NCOP). In this case, delegates in the NCOP vote individually and the Bill must be passed by a majority of delegates present. If the NCOP rejects a Bill or proposes its own amendments, the Bill is returned to the NA which will pass the Bill with or without taking into account the NCOP amendments or it may decide not to proceed with the Bill. The NCOP's role in Bills that do not affect the provinces is therefore a limited one. It can delay a Section 75 Bill, but it cannot prevent it from being passed. 2. Ordinary Bills that affect the provinces (Section 76 Bills) A Bill that affects the provinces may be introduced in either the NA or the NCOP, but must be considered in both Houses. Members of the NCOP do not vote as individuals on Section 76 Bills but rather as provincial delegations. Each provincial delegation has one vote so there are nine possible votes regarding Bills that affect the provinces. These Bills must also be discussed by each provincial legislature so that each legislature can give its NCOP delegation a voting mandate. This makes it necessary to have six-week legislative cycles so that a number of Bills can go to each province at one time. Bills are usually considered by a provincial Committee, which may hold public hearings on the Bill to receive comments and suggestions. These Committees make recommendations to their legislatures, which then decide on their position on each Bill and mandate their NCOP delegation accordingly. The four special delegates to the NCOP (who are supposed to be chosen according to their expertise and knowledge of the Bills being debated) go to Cape Town to join the six permanent delegates. The full delegation of ten people participate in the national debate on the Bills, thus enabling the provinces to contribute to national legislation that affects them. The delegation then casts its one vote on behalf of its province and in accordance with the provincial legislature's mandate. The NCOP must pass, amend or reject a section 76 Bill. If the Bill was introduced in the NA, however, the NA can override the NCOP decision with a two thirds majority of its Members. 3. Money Bills (Section 77 Bills) Money Bills allocate public money for a particular purpose or impose taxes, levies or duties. They can only be introduced by the Minister of Finance and they must be introduced in the National Assembly. They follow the same procedure as that for Bills that do not affect the provinces (Section 75 Bills). The 2008 Money Bills Amendment Procedure and Related Matters Act is the legislation that permits Parliament to not only debate but also amend Money Bills. 4. Constitutional Amendments (Section 74 Bills) As the highest law in the land, the Constitution is the foundation for a democratic society and protects the rights of all people. There are special requirements and procedures, therefore, in order to amend the Constitution. All of them require special majorities so that changes cannot be made by a minority. For example, amending the Bill of Rights requires a vote of two-thirds of the membership of the National Assembly and the support of six provinces in the NCOP. All constitutional amendments that affect the provinces must be passed by both Houses. Amendments which affect only certain provinces, must be passed by those provinces. Other amendments do not need to be passed by the NCOP but all amendments, whether or not they must be passed by the NCOP, must be submitted to the NCOP for public debate. In addition, minimum times are laid down for different stages of the legislative process. All constitutional amendments must be published in the Government Gazette with a call for public comment at least 30 days before being introduced in Parliament. After the Bill which proposes amendments to the Constitution is tabled, 30 days must pass before it can be put to a vote in the National Assembly. Bills before the Provincial Legislature There are two different types of Bills that come before provincial legislatures: - Bills other than Money Bills; - Money Bills; 1. Bills other than Money Bills An ordinary Bill is introduced in the provincial legislature and is referred to the relevant Standing Committee. Either public hearings may be held to hear the public's views regarding the Bill or a Standing Committee may invite interested parties to make written submissions to the Committee. The Committee then considers the Bill and may propose amendments to it. After consideration by the Committee, a report with recommendations on the Bill is submitted to the House. A debate takes place on the objectives and principles of the Bill in the House and the MPLs vote. If there is a majority of votes in favour of the Bill, the Bill is passed. If there is no majority, the Bill is rejected. 2. Money Bills A Bill that appropriates money or imposes taxes, levies or duties is called a Money Bill. Only the MEC responsible for Finance is able to introduce a Money Bill in the House. Money Bills are referred to the Committee of Finance for discussion for a maximum of seven working days. After discussion, the Committee submits a report to the House. The Committee is not allowed to propose any amendments to the Bill, as there is not yet legislation that allows this. How a Bill becomes a Law The initiation of Bills A Bill can be initiated and written by a number of bodies. By a Minister or an MEC Most national and provincial Bills are drawn up by a Minister at national level or an MEC at provincial level. By an MP or an MPL Bills drawn up by individual Members are called Private Members Bills. A Committee concerned with Members' legislature proposals in each House decides whether the Bill meets certain criteria (which could include financial implications) and can be introduced into the House. By a Committee Parliament has recently drafted rules and procedures enabling a Committee to initiate a Bill. Bills tabled in Parliament Most Bills tabled in Parliament are introduced by the Executive and are either - ordinary Bills that do not affect the provinces (Section 75 Bills); or - ordinary Bills that affect the provinces (Section 76 Bills). 1. Bills that do not affect the provinces (section 75 Bills) A draft Bill, which has been drafted by a government department, is submitted by the relevant Minister to the Cabinet for approval. The state law advisers must refine and approve the draft Bill. The Bill is then introduced and tabled in the National Assembly for what is known as the First Reading. The Bill is also published in the Government Gazette. The Bill is then referred to the relevant Committee in the National Assembly which considers the Bill and may agree to it, propose amendments or reject the Bill, generally after a process of public consultation. The Second Reading then takes place where the Bill is debated and voted on at a sitting of the National Assembly. If there is a majority of votes in favour, the Bill is passed and the Bill is then referred to the NCOP for consideration. The NCOP can accept or reject the Bill or propose amendments to it: - If the NCOP passes the Bill without amendments, it goes to the President for his assent and signature and the Bill then becomes law. The Act appears in the Government Gazette and comes into effect on a date determined by the President. - If the NCOP proposes amendments to or rejects the Bill, it must go back to the National Assembly for reconsideration. The National Assembly can pass the Bill with or without the NCOP amendments, or it can reject the Bill. Note: While both Houses must consider Bills that do not affect the provinces, the NA may actually override the NCOP and pass the Bill despite opposition by the NCOP. It then submits the Bill, either in its original form or with amendments, to the National Assembly with a report. 2. Bills that affect the provinces (Section 76 Bills) Schedule 4 of the Constitution lists the matters that affect the provinces and which therefore have to be dealt with in Section 76 Bills. These include casinos; racing; gambling; cultural matters; disaster management; education excluding tertiary education; environment; health services; housing; population development; public transport; tourism; trade; traditional leadership; welfare services; and child care facilities. Bills that affect the provinces may be introduced in either the National Assembly or the NCOP. Once introduced in Parliament, Bills are also sent to the provincial legislatures so that they can begin considering them. If the Bill is tabled in the National Assembly: - The Bill is introduced by a Cabinet Member or a Deputy Minister, or a Member or Committee of the National Assembly. - The Bill will be referred to a National Assembly Committee for consideration. Sometimes public hearings will be held. - The National Assembly would then either pass, amend or reject the Bill. If it passes the Bill or amends it, the Bill (with any amendments) is referred to the NCOP. If the Bill is tabled in the National Council of Provinces: - The Bill can only be introduced by a Member or Committee of the NCOP. - The Bill will be sent to an NCOP Committee, which will receive a briefing on the Bill so that the NCOP Members can tell their respective provincial legislatures about the Bill. - It is then considered by each of the nine provincial legislatures. The NCOP Members will go back to their provinces so that they can participate in the debate in their own provincial legislatures. - Each provincial legislature will refer the Bill to a Committee, which will consider the Bill and may hold provincial public hearings on the Bill. The NCOP Members get a voting mandate from their provincial legislatures. Each provincial delegation has one vote on each Bill. The NCOP delegates then return to Cape Town with a negotiating mandate. The NCOP Committee considers the Bill and negotiation takes place among the nine provincial delegations. - If the NCOP passes the Bill, it goes to the President for his assent and signature. - If the NCOP rejects or amends the Bill it goes back to the National Assembly for reconsideration. - If the National Assembly accepts the amended Bill, it goes to the President for his assent. If the National Assembly rejects the NCOP amendments, the Bill goes to a Mediation Committee comprising of Members from the National Assembly and Members of the NCOP. - If the Mediation Committee is unable to agree within 30 days of the Bill's referral to it, the Bill lapses. - A Mediation Committee may agree on - the Bill as passed by the National Assembly; - the amended Bill as passed by the NCOP; - another version of the Bill Note: While the NCOP has more power to change section 76 Bills than section 75 Bills, if a Bill has been introduced in the NA, the NA is once again able to disregard the NCOP and pass Section 76 legislation with a two thirds majority vote. If a section 76 Bill is introduced in the NCOP, the Bill lapses if agreement cannot be reached between the two Houses Before a new Act comes into force, it has to be "enacted". This involves the President declaring the Act's commencement date in the Government Gazette. Acts are only enacted once the responsible department has indicated that it is ready and has the capacity to implement the new law. Bills tabled in the Provincial Legislature Schedule 5 of the Constitution of South Africa lists the areas over which the provinces have exclusive legislative control. These areas include ambulance services; libraries other than national libraries; provincial cultural matters; provincial sport; beaches and recreation facilities; cemeteries; funeral parlours and crematoria, cleansing, markets; municipal parks and recreation. - A Bill may be drawn up by a Member of Executive Council (MEC), a Member of Provincial Legislature (MPL) or a Committee. - The draft Bill is presented to and approved by the Executive Council. - The Bill is published in the Provincial Gazette, and notices are placed in various newspapers which bring the Bill to the attention of the public. After this, the public has at least 14 days to comment on the Bill. - The Speaker introduces the Bill to the House and decides which is the best Committee to deal with the Bill. - The MPLs in the Committee debate the Bill and propose amendments, generally after a process of public consultation. - The House votes and, if there is a majority of votes, the Bill is passed. - It then goes to the Premier of the province for signature and becomes a provincial Act. The provincial Act must be published promptly and takes effect when published or on a date determined in terms of the Act. - If there is no majority, the Bill is rejected. - IDASA's Political Information & Monitoring Service (1998), Down Government Avenue - Gauteng Legislature (1996) A People's Guide to the Gauteng Legislature - Constitution of South Africa, Annotated Version - Taylor, Mandy (1998) How a Bill becomes Law (paper presented at a Parliamantary Monitoring Group training workshop, 1998) - Public Education Department, Parliament of RSA, Parliament, Making Democracy Work - Legislative Training Programme, School of Government, University of the Western Cape Draft Information Handbook for Members of Legislatures - Northern Cape Legislature Northern Cape Legislature Manual - Section 76 Diagram compiled by Alison Tilley, Black Sash Trust - National Advocacy Monitor
The Year 2000 problem (also known as the Y2K problem, the Millennium bug, the Y2K bug, or simply Y2K) was a problem for both digital (computer-related) and non-digital documentation and data storage situations which resulted from the practice of abbreviating a four-digit(2000) year to two digits(00). Y2K was the common abbreviation for the year 2000 software problem. The abbreviation combines the letter Y for “year”, and k for the SI unit prefix kilo meaning 1000; hence, 2K signifies 2000. It was also named the Millennium Bug because it was associated with the popular (rather than literal) roll-over of the millennium, despite the fact that the problem could have occurred at the end of any ordinary century. Many computer programs stored years with only two decimal digits; for example, 1980 would be stored as 80. Some such programs could not distinguish between the year 2000 and the year 1900. This could cause a complete failure and cause date comparisons to produce incorrect results. Some embedded systems, making use of similar date logic, were expected to fail and cause utilities and other crucial infrastructure to fail. Special committees were set up by governments to monitor remedial work and contingency planning, particularly by crucial infrastructures such as telecommunications, utilities and the like, to ensure that the most critical services had fixed their own problems and were prepared for problems with others Date bugs similar to Y2K - 9 September 1999 - Even before 1 January 2000 arrived, there were also some worries about 9 September 1999 (albeit lesser compared to those generated by Y2K). Because this date could also be written in the numeric format 9/9/99, it could have conflicted with the date value 9999, frequently used to specify an unknown date. It was thus possible that database programs might act on the records containing unknown dates on that day. Somewhat similar to this is the end-of-file code 9999, used in older programming languages. While fears arose that some programs might unexpectedly terminate on that date, the bug was more likely to confuse computer operators than machines. - Leap years - Mostly, a year is a leap year if it is evenly divisible by four. A year divisible by 100, however, is not a leap year on the Gregorian calendar unless it is also divisible by 400. For example, 1600 was a leap year, but 1700, 1800 and 1900 were not. Some programs may have relied on the oversimplified rule that a year divisible by four is a leap year. This method works fine for the year 2000 (because it is a leap year), and will not become a problem until 2100, when older legacy programs will likely have long since been replaced. Other programs contained incorrect leap year logic, assuming for instance that no year divisible by 100 could be a leap year. An assessment of this leap year problem including a number of real life code fragments appeared in 1998. - Year 2038 problem - The original UNIX timestamp (time_t) stores a date and time as a signed 32-bit integer representing the number of seconds since January 1, 1970. During and after 2038, this number will exceed 231 − 1, the largest number representable by a signed 32-bit integer, causing the Year 2038 problem (also known as Unix Millennium bug, or Y2K38). To solve this problem, many systems and languages have switched to a 64-bit timestamp, or supplied alternatives which are 64-bit. Documented errors Before 2000 On 28 December 1999, 10,000 card swipe machines issued by HSBC and manufactured by Racal stopped processing credit and debit card transactions. The stores relied on paper transactions until the machines started working again on 1 January. Reported problems include: - In Sheffield, United Kingdom, incorrect Down’s syndrome test results were sent to 154 pregnant women and two abortions were carried out as a direct result of a Y2K bug. Four Down’s syndrome babies were also born to mothers who had been told they were in the low-risk group. - In Ishikawa, Japan, radiation-monitoring equipment failed at midnight; however, officials stated there was no risk to the public. - In Onagawa, Japan, an alarm sounded at a nuclear power plant at two minutes after midnight. - In Japan, at two minutes past midnight, Osaka Media Port, a telecommunications carrier, found errors in the date management part of the company’s network. The problem was fixed by 02:43 and no services were disrupted. - In Japan, NTT Mobile Communications Network (NTT DoCoMo), Japan’s largest cellular operator, reported on 1 January 2000, that some models of mobile telephones were deleting new messages received, rather than the older messages, as the memory filled up. - In Australia, bus-ticket-validation machines in two states failed to operate. - In the United States, 150 slot machines at race tracks in Delaware stopped working. - In the United States, the U.S. Naval Observatory, which runs the master clock that keeps the country’s official time, gave the date on its website as Jan. 1, 19100. - In France, the national weather forecasting service, Meteo France, said a Y2K bug made the date on a webpage show a map with Saturday’s weather forecast as “01/01/19100”. This also occurred on other websites, including att.net, at the time a general-purpose portal site primarily for AT&T WorldNet customers in the United States.

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