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http://www.foo.be/cours/dess-20092010/ethical.tex
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\documentclass{beamer}
% Copyright (c) 2001,2002,2003,2004,2005 Alexandre Dulaunoy <[email protected]>
% Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
% under the terms of the GNU General Public License, Version 2.0
% or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
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\usepackage[english]{babel}
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
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%
% The following info should normally be given in you main file:
%
\title{Ethics in Computer Science}
\subtitle {Ethics and Social Responsibility in this Computer Security
(Honeynet) Workshop}
\keywords {security digitial society legal framework ethics honeynet
copyright privacy}
\subject {How to deal with the ethical issues inside the workshop ?}
\author{Alexandre Dulaunoy}
\institute{
ASBL CSRRT-LU (Computer Security Research and Response Team Luxembourg)\\
http://www.csrrt.org/}
\begin{document}
\frame{\titlepage}
\section*{Introduction - Legal Framework}
\frame{
\nameslide{CSRRT-LU}
\frametitle{Computer Security Research and Response Team Luxembourg}
\begin{itemize}
\item CSRRT-LU provides a cooperative and virtual organization for
working with individuals, groups and industries. Everybody is
welcome to participate in the various research projects in
computer security.
\pause
\item The association was initially created to host the Honeynet
project of Luxembourg but has grown to host other security projects.
\pause
\item One of the goals of CSRRT-LU is to try to find ways to
improve technical approaches for identifying and preventing
security flaws, for limiting the damage from attacks, and for
ensuring that systems continue to provide essential services
despite of compromises or failures.
\pause
\item Current projects are : Honeylux, Mobile Security, Flowop, ...
\end{itemize}
\note{Notes\\Scope of the course and the legal "instability" of Honeynet research}
%\tableofcontents[pausesections,part=1]
}
\subsection{Copyright - Author Rights}
\frame{
\nameslide{Copyright / Author Rights}
\frametitle{Copyright / Author Rights}
\begin{itemize}
\item A copyright is a set of exclusive rights granted by ``government''
for a limited time (70 years after the death of the
author) to protect the particular form, way or manner in which an
idea or information is expressed by an author.
\item Copyright is the anglo-saxon term for the patrimonial rights of the
author in Europe.\\
\item Copyright applies to any creative or artistic works like literary
works, movies, painting, photographs... and software.\\
\end{itemize}
\structure{Software authors (including Malware authors) use copyright for licensing their software.}
%\tableofcontents[pausesections,part=2]
\note{Notes\\Berne convention, Directive 2001/29/CE, law about authors rights}
}
\subsection{Privacy}
\frame{
\nameslide{Privacy}
\frametitle{Privacy}
\begin{itemize}
\item Privacy is the ability of an individual or group to stop
information about themselves from becoming known to people other
than those they choose to give the information to.\\
\item Privacy laws exist in lot of countries including the Grand-Duchy
of Luxembourg (a very strict transposition of the Privacy EU Directive).\\
\item Computer Security is often seen as a tool for protecting privacy
but also as a tool for limiting privacy.\\
\end{itemize}
\structure{Privacy is a fundamental right including the information society.}
%\tableofcontents[pausesections,part=2]
}
\subsection{Honeynets/pots - where do they stand ?}
\frame{
\nameslide{Honeynets/Honeypots - where do they stand ?}
\frametitle{Honeynets/Honeypots - where do they stand ?}
A (possible) definition :
\it{A honeypot is an information system resource whose
values lies in an unauthorized or illicit usage of that resource.}
Where are the Honeynets in the legal and social framework ?
\begin{itemize}
\item Entrapment issues - inducing people to make action by providing
vulnerable services.\\
\item Data collected inside honeynets - what can we do to respect the
laws ?\\
\item Liability issue - Are honeynets operator liable for attacks
launched from their honeynets ?
\end{itemize}
Honeynets are mainly used for research purposes (like CSRRT-LU is
doing) but this can be difficult to keep a high-level of ethics.
%\tableofcontents[pausesections,part=2]
}
\section*{Honeynets/pots - Practical Issues}
\subsection{Example of issues in the Honeylux project}
\frame {
\nameslide {Example of legal issues in the Honeylux project}
\frametitle {Example of legal issues in the Honeylux project}
Here is a non-exhaustive list of legal issues
\begin{itemize}
\item Copyrighted materials provided by the attackers in a Honeynet
\item Extracted exploits (software) from Honeynets - can we
distribute the exploits ?
\item Private information exchanged in private IRC channel or emails
\item Attackers is attacking multiple host - when and how to inform
the possible targets ?
\item ...
\end{itemize}
}
\subsection{Honeynets/pots - Your ethical role in the workshop}
\frame {
\nameslide {Your ethical role in the workshop}
\frametitle {Your ethical role in the workshop}
\begin{itemize}
\item It's very difficult to define ethical behavior in new research
area of computer science
\item You often must rely on your sense of right and wrong
\item The data provided for the workshop is covering a small scale
of the common issues (privacy, author rights)
\item You are playing an active role in the discipline :
philosophical questions are also important in computer
science...
\item When doing analysis of the data captured, don't forget the
social and ethical aspect.
\end{itemize}
}
\section*{Conclusion}
\frame {
\nameslide {Conclusion}
\frametitle {Conclusion}
\begin{itemize}
\item Risks are part of the Honeynet research but can be safely deployed
\item Returns are quite important in learning new approach in computer security
\item Legal framework is quite complex but basic concept can be
understood by any computer scientist
\item ...but don't hide the other aspects.
\item The social aspect of Honeynet technologies is still
evolving... you can be part of the evolution.
\item Feel free to participate and add social aspect in the final
report for the workshop.
\end{itemize}
}
\section*{Q and A}
\frame {
\nameslide {Q and A}
\frametitle {Q and A}
\begin{itemize}
\item Thanks for listening.
\item http://www.csrrt.org.lu/
\item [email protected]
\end{itemize}
%%\includegraphics[scale=0.50]{Hack2005lu-banner.png}
}
\end{document}
|
http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/michael-lowy-franz-kafka-and-libertarian-socialism.tex
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theanarchistlibrary.org
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\title{Franz Kafka and Libertarian Socialism}
\date{1997}
\author{Michael Löwy}
\subtitle{}
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\par
Clearly, the work of Franz Kafka cannot be reduced to a political doctrine of any kind. Kafka did not give speeches but fashioned individuals and situations. In his work, he expressed a \emph{Stimmung} or sense of feelings and attitudes. The symbolic world of literature cannot be reduced to the discursive world of ideologies. Literary work is not an \emph{abstract conceptual system }similar to philosophical or political doctrines but rather the creation of a concrete imaginary universe of individuals and things.\footnote{Cf. Lucien Goldmann, “Materialisme dialectique et histoire de la littérature,” \emph{Recherches Dialectiques}, Paris: Gallimard, 1959. pp. 45–64.}
However none of this should be an obstacle to making use of the passages, bridges, and subterranean links between his anti-authoritarian spirit, his libertarian sensibility, and his sympathies for anarchism on the one hand, and his principal writings on the other. These passages provide us with privileged access to what can be termed the \emph{internal landscape} of Kafka’s work.
Kafka’s socialist leanings were evident very early on in his life. According to his childhood friend and schoolmate — Hugo Bergmann, they had a slight falling out during their last academic year (1900–1901) because “his socialism and my Zionism were much too strident.”\footnote{Hugo Bergmann, Memories of Franz Kafka in \emph{Franz Kafka Exhibition (Catalogue)}. The Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem. 1969. p. 8.} What kind of socialism are we talking about?
Accounts by three Czech contemporaries document Kafka’s sympathies for Czech libertarian socialists and their participation in some of their activities. During the early 1930s, Max Brod was conducting research for his novel \emph{Stefan Rott} which would be published in 1931. In the course of his investigations, one of the founders of the Czech anarchist movement — Michal Kacha — informed Brod that Kafka used to attend meetings of the \emph{Mladych Klub} (Youth Club) which was a libertarian, anti-militarist, and anti-clerical organization with which many Czech writers including Stanislav Neumann, Michal Mares, and Jaroslav Hasek were associated. This information was later “confirmed by another source” and he incorporated it into his work. In his novel, Brod recounted that Kafka:
\begin{quote}
often attended the meetings of the circle and sat there without saying a word. Kacha liked Kafka and called him “Klidas” which can be translated as “taciturn” or, more precisely in the Czech vernacular, the “colossus of silence.”
\end{quote}
Brod never doubted the veracity of this account which he once again cited in his biography of Kafka.\footnote{Max Brod, \emph{Franz Kafka}, pp. 135–136.}
The second testimony comes from the anarchist writer — Michal Mares — who had gotten to know Kafka from frequently running into him on the street since they were neighbors. According to Mares’ account published by Klaus Wagenbach in 1958, Kafka had accepted his invitation in October 1909 to come to a demonstration against the execution of the Spanish libertarian teacher — Francisco Ferrer. In the course of 1910–1912, Kafka attended anarchist conferences on free love, the Paris Commune, peace, in opposition to the execution of the Paris activist — Liabeuf, which were organized by the Youth Club, the anti-militarist and anti-clerical Vilem Koerber Association, and the Czech Anarchist Movement. Mares also claims that Kafka had posted a bail of five crowns to get his friend out of jail. Like Kacha, Mares stressed Kafka’s silence:
\begin{quote}
To the best of my knowledge, Kafka belonged to none of these anarchist organizations but, as a man exposed and sensitive to social problems, he was strongly sympathetic to them. Yet despite his interest in these meetings, given his frequent attendance, he never took part in the discussions.
\end{quote}
This interest is evident from his reading — Kropotkin’s \emph{Speech of a Rebel} which was a gift from Mares, and the writings of the Reclus brothers, Mikhail Bakunin, and Jean Grave. It also extended to his sympathies:
\begin{quote}
The fate of the French anarchist, Ravachol, or the tragedy of Emma Goldman who edited \emph{Mother Earth} touched him very deeply.\footnote{Michal Mares, “Comment j’ai connue Franz Kafka,” published as an appendix to Klaus Wagenbach. \emph{Franz Kafka: Années de jeunesse} \emph{(1883–1912)}, Paris: Mercury of France, 1967). pp. 253.}
\end{quote}
This account initially appeared in a Czech journal in 1946 in a slightly different version and passed without notice.\footnote{Michal Mares, “Meetings with Franz Kafka,” \emph{Literarni Noviny} no. 15 (1946). p. 85 and after. This version is cited in the Klaus Wagenbach’s other book, \emph{Franz Kafka ins Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten}, Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1964. p. 70.} In 1958, Karl Wagenbach published his remarkable book on Kafka’s youth which was the first to shed light on the writer’s ties to the Prague libertarian underground. The book reprinted the account of Mares in the form of an appendix but on this occasion, the information sparked a series of polemics which questioned the credibility of its claims.
The third document is \emph{Conversations with Kafka} by Gustav Janouch which first came out in 1951 and was republished in 1968 in a considerably enlarged edition. This account relates to meetings starting in 1920 with the Prague writer during the last years of his life and suggests that Kafka retained his sympathy for the libertarians to the very end. Not only did he describe the Czech anarchists as “very polite and high-spirited,” “so polite and friendly that one is obliged to believe their every word” but the political and social ideas he voiced in the course of these conversations retained the strong influence of libertarian thought.
Take for example his definition of capitalism as “a system of relations of dependence” where “everything is arranged hierarchically and everything is in chains.” This statement is typically anarchist because of its emphasis on the authoritarian character of the system and not on economic exploitation as in Marxism. Even his skeptical attitude toward the organized labor movement seems inspired by his libertarian suspicions toward parties and political institutions. Behind the marching workers:
\begin{quote}
there are the secretaries, bureaucrats, professional politicians, all the modern sultans for whom they are paving the way to power\dots{} The revolution has evaporated and all that remains is the mud of a new bureaucracy. The chains of tortured humanity are made of the official papers of ministries.\footnote{G. Janouch. \emph{Kafka M’a dit}, Paris: Calmann-Levy, 1952. pp. 70, 71, 135, 107, 108, 141.}
\end{quote}
In the 1968 second edition which was supposed to have reproduced the complete version of Janouch’s notes, lost after the war and recovered much later, he recalled the following exchange with Kafka:
\begin{quote}
You have studied the life of Ravochol?
Yes and not just Ravochol but also the lives of various other anarchists. I have immersed myself in the biographies and ideas of Godwin, Proudhon, Stirner, Bakunin, Kropotkin, Tucker, and Tolstoi. I have made contact with various groups and attended meetings. In short, I have invested a great deal of time and money on this. In 1910, I took part in meetings held by Czech anarchists in a Karolinental tavern called\emph{ Zum kannonenkreuz} where the anarchist Youth Club met\dots{} Max Brod accompanied me to these meetings many times but, in the main, he did not find them very agreeable\dots{} For me, it was very serious business. I was on the trail of Ravachol. He led me straight to Erich Muehsam, Arthur Holitscher, and the Viennese anarchist Rudolf Grossmann\dots{} They all sought thanklessly to realize human happiness. I understood them. But\dots{} I was unable to continue marching alongside them for long.\footnote{G. Janouch, \emph{Conversations avec Kafka}, Paris: Maurice Nadeau, 1978. pp. 118–119.}
\end{quote}
In the general view of commentators, this second version is less credible than the first owing most conspicuously to its mysterious origins in notes once lost and now found. We must also point out an obvious error on a specific point of interest to us. By his own admission, Max Brod not only never went along with his friend to meetings of the anarchist club but was also totally unaware of Kafka’s participation in the activity of the Prague libertarians.
\begin{center}
* * *
\end{center}
The hypothesis suggested by these documents — Kafka’s interest in libertarian ideas — is confirmed by some references in his private writings. For example, we find this categorical imperative in his diary: “Do not forget Kropotkin!”
In a November 1917 letter to Max Brod, he expressed his enthusiasm for a project of the journal \emph{News of the Fight Against the Will of Power} proposed by an anarchist Freudian — Otto Gross.\footnote{F. Kafka. \emph{Diaries und Briefe}, Frankfurt: Fischer Publishing House, 1975. p. 196. See on Kafka and Otto Gross, G. Baioni, \emph{Kafka: Letteratura} \emph{ed Ebraiasmo} Turin: Einaudi, 1979. pp. 203–205.} Neither should we overlook the libertarian spirit which seems to inspire some of his statements. One example would be the terse, caustic remark that he uttered one day to Max Brod while talking about the place where he worked — the Social Security Bureau where workers who were accident victims went to plead their cases:
\begin{quote}
How humble these people are. They come to beg at our feet instead of taking the building by storm and stripping it bare. They come to beg at our feet.\footnote{M. Brod, \emph{Franz Kafka}, Paris: Gallimard, 1945. pp. 132–133.}
\end{quote}
Very probably, the various accounts — especially the last two — contain inaccuracies and exaggerations. With respect to Mares, Klaus Wagenbach acknowledged that “certain details are perhaps false” or, at least, “overstated.” Similarly according to Max Brod, Mares like many other contemporaries who knew Kafka “tend to exaggerate,” especially as regards the extent of their close friendship with the writer.\footnote{See K. Wagenbach, \emph{Franz Kafka: Années de jeuness} \dots{} (1958) p. 213 and \emph{Franz Kafka in Selbstzeugnissen}, (1964) p. 70. and Max Brod, \emph{Streitsbares} \emph{Leben 1884–1968}, Munich-Berlin-Vienna: F.A. Herbig. 1969. p. 170. and \emph{Ueber Franz Kafka}, Frankfurt: Fischer Library. p. 190.}
It is one thing to notice contradictions or exaggerations in these documents but it is quite another to \emph{reject them in their entirety} by characterizing the information on the ties between Kafka and the Czech anarchists as “pure legend.” This is the attitude of some specialists including Eduard Goldstücker, Hartmut Binder, Ritchie Robertson, and Ernst Pawel. The first is a Czech Communist literary critic and the other three are authors of Kafka biographies whose value cannot be denied.
According to Goldstücker, “the principal reason for my skepticism on the legend of a prolonged and close contact between Kafka and the anarcho-communists is the fact that in no part of the work of Kafka does one find indications that he was familiar with their thought.” In his view, Kafka’s attitude toward the working class was not that of “modern socialism” but rather that of the utopian socialists “who long preceded Marx.”\footnote{E. Goldstücker. “\emph{Uber Franz Kafka aus der Prager Perspektive}” 1963 in Goldstücker, Kautman, Reimann (ed.) \emph{Franz Kafka aus Prager Sicht}, Prague, 1965. pp. 40–45.}
A few remarks on this strange reasoning:
\begin{enumerate}[1.]
\item\relax
the term “anarcho-communism” is far from adequate to describe clubs of such diverse orientations ranging from anarcho-syndicalism to libertarian pacifism.
\item\relax
Anarchism is not defined by a common attitude toward the working class (different positions exist on this subject in the libertarian tradition) but by its rejection of all authority and the state as instituted authority.
\item\relax
Anarchist doctrine was conceived before Marx and libertarian socialism is not constituted in relation to his work.
\end{enumerate}
Hartmut Binder is the author of a very detailed and erudite biography of Kafka. He is also the most energetic proponent of the thesis that the ties between Kafka and the Prague anarchist community are a “legend” which belongs to the “realm of the imagination.” Klaus Wagenbach is accused of having utilized sources “congenial to his ideology” such as Kacha, Mares, and Janouch which lack “credibility or are even deliberate falsifications.”\footnote{H. Binder. \emph{Kafka-Handbuch}, volume 1. \emph{Der Mensch und seine} \emph{Zeit}, Stuttgart: Alfred Kroener. 1979. pp. 361–362.}
In the opinion of Binder:
\begin{quote}
the mere fact that Brod did not learn of these alleged activities until several years after the death of Kafka\dots{} weighs heavily against the credibility of this information. Because it is almost unimaginable that Brod who had gone on two holiday trips with Kafka during this period and with whom he met daily\dots{} could have been ignorant of the interest of his best friend in the anarchist movement\dots{} If this is really unimaginable (the “almost” leaves a margin of doubt\dots{}), then why is it that the central figure, i.e., Max Brod, considered this information perfectly reliable since he used it in both his novel \emph{Stefan Rott} and in the biography of his friend?
\end{quote}
Much the same criticism applies to another of Binder’s arguments:
\begin{quote}
Listening in a smoke-filled pub to the political discussions of a group acting outside the law\dots{} This is a situation unimaginable for somebody with Kafka’s personality. However this situation did not seem strange to Max Brod who also knew a few things about Kafka’s personality\dots{} In fact, nothing in Kafka’s work leads us to believe that he had such a superstitious respect for the law!\footnote{Ibid. pp. 362–363. The notion that Kafka could have concealed some information would not have been surprising to Brod who emphasized in his biography:\par \emph{Unlike myself, Kafka had a closed nature and did not open up his soul to anyone, not even to me. I knew very well that he sometimes kept important things to himself.}\par Nax Brod. \emph{Streitbares Leben}, pp. 46–47.}
\end{quote}
\begin{center}
* * *
\end{center}
In an attempt to dispose, once and for all, of the testimony of Michal Mares, Binder refers insistently to a letter of Kafka to Milena Jesenska-Polak in which he refers to Mares as a “nodding acquaintance.” Binder makes the following argument:
\begin{quote}
Kafka expressly underscores that his relation with Mares is only that of a \emph{Gassenbekanntschaft} (nodding acquaintance). This is the clearest indication that Kafka never went to anarchist meetings.\footnote{Binder, \emph{Kafka-Handbuch}, 1. p. 364. Cf. Kafka. \emph{Lettres á Milena}, Paris: Gallimard, 1988. p. 270.}
\end{quote}
The least one can say about this line of argument is that an obvious \emph{non-sequitur} lies between the premise and the conclusion! Even if their encounters were limited to meetings in the street because Kafka’s house was close to Mares’ place of work, this does not preclude Mares passing on literature and inviting Kafka to meetings and demonstrations, confirming his presence at some of these activities, and even making him a present of a book by Kropotkin on one occasion.
As material proof of his ties to Kafka, Mares had in his possession a postcard sent to him by the writer which was dated December 9, 1910. While this is impossible to verify, Mares also claimed that he received several letters from his friend which had disappeared during the numerous house searches to which he was subjected during this period. Binder does not deny the existence of this document but, pouncing on the fact that the card was addressed to “Josef Mares” and not Michal, he claims to have uncovered new proof of the “fictions” concocted by the witness. It seems totally improbable that a year after meeting Mares and attending several sessions of the Youth Club along with him, Kafka “does not even know his proper given name.” This argument does not hold water for a very simple reason. According to the German edition of the correspondence between Kafka and Milena, the original given name of Kacha was not Michal but\dots{} Josef.\footnote{M. Mares in Wagenbach, \emph{Franz Kafka:} \emph{Années de jeunesse}, p. 254. H. Binder, \emph{Kafka-Handbuch}, 1, pp. 363–364. F. Kafka, \emph{Briefe an Milena}, Frankfurt: S, Fischer, 1983. p. 336 (editors’ note).}
The entire discussion in Hartmut Binder’s book gives the painful impression of being a deliberate and systematic attempt to seize upon every minor pretext. His aim appears to be to eliminate from Kafka’s image what conservatives would deem the dark shadow of suspicion that he took part in meetings organized by the Prague libertarians.
A few years later in his biography of Kafka which, by the way, is a book very worthy of interest, Ernst Pawel seems to uphold Binder’s thesis. In his words, it is high time that we “laid to rest one of the great myths” about Kafka. This would be the “legend of a conspiratorial Kafka working within the Czech anarchist group called the Youth Club.” This legend is the product of the “fertile imagination of the ex-anarchist Michal Mares who in his somewhat fanciful memoirs published in 1946 describes Kafka as a friend and comrade who participated in anarchist meetings and demonstrations”:
\begin{quote}
This narrative is completely belied by all that is known of his life, friends, and character. Why would he have wanted to conceal his commitment from close friends whom he saw on a daily basis.\footnote{Binder, op cit. p. 365.}
\end{quote}
This “legend” is easy to debunk because it bears no resemblance to what any of the sources in question claimed. Mares, Janouch, and Kacha (who goes unmentioned by Pawel) never said that Kafka was a “plotter within an anarchist group.” Mares explicitly insisted on the fact that Kafka was a member of no organization. In any event, Kafka was not engaged in a “conspiracy” but taking part in meetings which were in most cases open to the public. As for “keeping things secret from his close friends” meaning Max Brod, we have already demonstrated the inanity of this line of argument.
Ernst Pawel provides another argument to bolster his thesis. Prague police records “do not contain the slightest allusion to Kafka.”\footnote{E. Pawel, ibid. p. 162.} The argument is inadequate. It is not very likely that the police would have held onto the names of all those people who attended public meetings organized by the various libertarian clubs. They would be interested in the “ringleaders” and heads of the associations rather than people who listened and said nothing\dots{}
Pawel differs from Binder in his willingness to recognize the validity of the facts suggested by these accounts in a more diluted version. Kafka really did take part in these kind of meetings but only as “an interested spectator.” Moreover he sympathized with the “philosophical and non-violent anarchism of Kropotkin and Alexander Herzen.”\footnote{Ibid. pp. 162–163. In another chapter of the book, Pawel refers to Kafka as a “metaphysical anarchist not much given to party politics” — a definition which seems to me very much on the mark. As for Janouch’s memoirs, Pawel considers them as “plausible” but “subject to caution.” (p. 80).}
We will now examine the point of view of Ritchie Robertson who is the author of a remarkable essay on the life and work of the Prague Jewish writer. In his opinion, the information furnished by Kacha and Mares must be “treated with skepticism.” His principal arguments on this point are borrowed from Goldstücker and Binder. How would it have been possible that Brod was in the dark about the participation of his friend in these meetings? How much value can one attach to the testimony of Mares since he was only a \emph{Gassenbekanntschaft }(nodding acquaintance) of Kafka? There is no point in repeating my earlier rebuttal to these kinds of objections which lack any real consistency.
Entirely new and interesting in Robertson’s book is the attempt to put forward an alternative interpretation of Kafka’s political ideas which, according to him, would be neither socialist nor anarchist but \emph{romantic}. In Robertson’s opinion, this anti-capitalist romanticism would be of neither the left nor the right.\footnote{R. Robertson, \emph{Kafka, Judaism, Politics, and Literature}, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985. pp. 140–141:\par \emph{If one is inquiring into Kafka’s political leanings, it is, in fact, misleading to think in terms of the usual antithesis between left and right. The appropriate context would be the ideology which Michael Löwy has labelled “romantic anti-capitalism.” \dots{} Romantic anti-capitalism (to use Löwy’s term, though “anti-industrialism” might be more accurate had many different versions\dots{} but as a general ideology, it transcended the opposition of left and right.}} But if romantic anti-capitalism is a matrix common to certain forms of conservative and revolutionary thought — and in this sense, it does effectively transcend the traditional divisions between the left and the right — it nevertheless remains a fact that romantic authors clearly positioned themselves around one of the two poles of this vision of the world: reactionary romanticism or revolutionary romanticism.\footnote{I attempted to analyze romanticism in my book \emph{Pour une sociologie des intellectuels revolutionnaires. L’evolution politique de Lukacs 1909–1929}, Paris: PUF, 1976 (cited by R. Robertson in the English translation published in London in 1979) and more recently with my friend Robert Sayre in \emph{Revolte et melancholie. Le romanticisme á contre-courant de la modernité}, Paris Payot, 1992.}
In fact, anarchism, libertarian socialism, and anarcho-syndicalism provide a paradigmatic example of a “romantic anti-capitalism of the left.” As a result, defining Kafka’s thought as romantic seems to me entirely pertinent but it does not mean that he is not “of the left” or, more concretely, a romantic socialist of a libertarian tendency. As is the case with all romantics, his critique of modern civilization is tinged with nostalgia for the past which, for him, is represented by the Yiddish culture of the Jewish communities of Eastern Europe. With notable insight, André Breton wrote that “in marking the present minute,” Kafka’s thought “turns symbolically backwards with the hands of the clock of the synagogue” of Prague.\footnote{A. Breton, Presentation of Kafka in his \emph{Anthologie de l’humour noir}, Paris: Sagittarius: 1950. p. 263.}
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The interesting thing about the anarchist episode in Kafka’s biography (1909–1912) is that it provides us with one of the most useful keys for illuminating our understanding of his work, especially his writings from 1912 onward. I make a point of saying \emph{one of the keys} because the charm of this work also comes from its polysemantic character which makes it irreducible to any univocal interpretation. The libertarian ethos is manifested in different situations which are at the heart of his principal literary texts but, first and foremost, it can be found in the radically critical fashion in which the haunting and terrifying face of unfreedom is represented: authority. As André Breton put it so well: “No other work militates so strongly against the admission of a sovereign principle external to that of the person doing the thinking.”\footnote{A. Breton, \emph{Anthology de l’humour noir}, p. 264.}
An anti-authoritarianism of libertarian inspiration runs through Kafka’s novels in a movement toward “depersonalization” and a growing reification: from paternal and personal authority toward an administrative and anonymous authority.\footnote{For a more detailed analysis of anarchism and romanticism, I refer you to my book \emph{Redemption et Utopie: Le Judaisme libertaire en Europe central}, Paris: PUF, 1988. chapter 5.} Yet once more, he is not acting out of any \emph{political doctrine} but from a state of mind and critical sensibility whose principal weapon is \emph{irony}, \emph{humor}, that \emph{black humor} which, according to André Breton, is “a supreme revolt of the spirit.”\footnote{Breton. “Lightning Rod,” Introduction to \emph{Anthologie de l’humour noir}. p. 11.}
This attitude has intimate personal roots in Kafka’s relations with his father. For the writer, the despotic authority of the pater familias is the archetype of political tyranny. In his \emph{Letter to the Father} (1919), Kafka recalled that “in my eyes, you assumed an enigmatic character like a tyrant for whom the law is not based upon reflection but his own person.” Confronted with the brutal, unjust, and arbitrary treatment meted out to employees by his father, he instinctively began to identify with the victims:
\begin{quote}
What made the store insufferable for me was that it reminded me too much of my own situation with respect to you\dots{} This is why I belong, of necessity, to the employees’ party.\footnote{Kafka, \emph{Letter to the Father}, 1919, in \emph{Préparatifs de noce a la campagne}, Paris: Gallimard, 1957. pp. 165, 179.}
\end{quote}
The principal characteristics of authoritarianism noted in Kafka’s literary work are:
\begin{enumerate}[1.]
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\emph{Arbitrariness}: decisions imposed from above without any moral, rational, or human justification while often making inordinate and absurd demands upon the victim.
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\emph{Injustice}: blame is wrongly considered to be self-evident with no need for proof, and punishment is totally disproportionate to the “mistake” (non-existent or trivial).
\end{enumerate}
In his first major literary piece, \emph{The Verdict} (1912), Kafka focuses on paternal authority. This is also one of his rare works where the hero (Georg Bendemann) seems to submit wholly and without resistance to the authoritarian verdict: the order given by the father to his son to drown himself in the river! Comparing this novel with \emph{The Trial}, Milan Kundera observes:
\begin{quote}
The resemblance between the two accusations, condemnations and executions betray the continuity which ties together the closed familial “totalitarianism” with Kafka’s grand visions.\footnote{M. Kundera, “Something left Behind,” \emph{Le Debat} no. 6. June 1981. p. 58.} The difference between them is that in the two great novels (\emph{The Trial} and \emph{The Castle}), there is a perfectly anonymous and invisible “totalitarian” power at work.
\end{quote}
In this respect, \emph{Amerika} (1912–1914) represents an intermediate work. The authoritarian characters are either paternal figures (Karl Rossmann’s father or Uncle Jakob) or the top hotel administrators (the head of staff or the chief porter). But even the latter retain an aspect of personal tyranny in combining bureaucratic indifference with a petty and brutal individual despotism. The symbol of this punitive authoritarianism leaps up at you from the first page of the book. Demystifying American democracy represented by the famous Statue of Liberty standing in the entrance to New York harbor, Kafka replaces the torch in her hand with a sword. In a world without justice or freedom, naked force and arbitrary power seem to hold undivided sway. The hero’s sympathy goes out to the victims of this society. The driver in the first chapter is an example of “the suffering of a poor man at the hands of the powerful.” There is also Thèrèse’s mother driven to suicide by hunger and poverty. Karl Rossmann finds his only friends and allies among the poor: Thèrèse herself, the students, the residents of a working class neighborhood who refuse to turn him over to the police because, as Kafka discloses in a revealing aside, “workers are not on the side of the authorities.”\footnote{F. Kafka, \emph{Amerika}. Frankfurt: Fischer Publishing House 1956. pp. 15, 161.}
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The major turning point in Kafka’s work is the novel, \emph{Penal Colony}, written shortly after \emph{Amerika}. There are few texts in universal literature which present authority with such an unjust and murderous face. Authority is not bound up with the power of an individual such as the camp commandant (old and new) who plays only a secondary role in the story. Instead, authority inheres in an \emph{impersonal mechanism}.
The context of the story is colonialism — French in this instance. The officers and commandants of the colony are French while the lowly soldiers, dockers, and victims awaiting execution are the people “indigenous” to the country who “do not understand a word of French.” A native soldier is sentenced to death by officers for whom juridical doctrine can be summed up in a few words which are the quintessence of the arbitrary: Guilt should never be questioned! The soldier’s execution must be carried out by a torture device which slowly carves the words: “Honor thy superiors” into his flesh with needles.
The central character of the novel is not the traveler who watches the events unfold with mute hostility. Neither is it the prisoner who scarcely shows any reaction, the officer who presides over the execution, nor the commandant of the colony. The main character is \emph{the machine itself}.
The entire story is centered on this sinister apparatus which, more and more in the course of a very detailed explanation given by the officer to the traveler, comes to appear an \emph{end-in-itself}. The apparatus does not exist to execute the man but rather the victim exists for the sake of the apparatus. The native soldier provides a body upon which the machine can write its aesthetic masterpiece, its bloody inscription illustrated with many “flourishes and embellishments.” The officer is only a servant of the machine and is finally sacrificed himself to this insatiable Moloch.\footnote{F. Kafka, “In the Penal Colony,” \emph{Erzaehlung und kleine Prosa}. New York: Schocken Books, 1946. pp. 181.}
What concrete “power machine” and “apparatus of Authority” sacrificing human lives did Kafka have in mind? The \emph{Penal Colony} was written in October 1914, three months after the outbreak of the Great War.
In \emph{The Trial} and \emph{The Castle}, one finds authority to be a hierarchical, abstract, and \emph{impersonal} “apparatus.” Despite their brutal, petty, and sordid characters, the bureaucrats are only cogs in this machine. As Walter Benjamin acutely observed, Kafka writes from the perspective of a “modern citizen who realizes that his fate is being determined by an impenetrable bureaucratic apparatus whose operation is controlled by procedures which remain shadowy even to those carrying out its orders and \emph{a fortiori} to those being manipulated by it.”\footnote{W. Benjamin, Letter to G. Scholem, 1938. \emph{Correspondance}, Paris: Aubier. 1980. II. p. 248.}
Kafka’s work is deeply rooted in his Prague surroundings. As André Breton remarked, Kafka’s writings “encompass all the charms and magic of Prague” but are at the same time perfectly universal.\footnote{A. Breton. \emph{Anthologie de l’humour noir} Paris: Sagittaire, 1950. p. 263.} Contrary to what is often asserted, his two major novels are not a critique of the old Austro-Hungarian imperial state but deal with the most modern state apparatus. Kafka’s critique of the state touches upon its anonymous impersonal character insofar as this alienated, hypostatized, and autonomous bureaucratic system is becoming transformed into an end-in-itself.
A passage from \emph{The Castle} is particularly illuminating in this regard. In a scene which is a masterpiece of black humor, the town mayor describes the official apparatus as an independent machine which seems to work “by itself”:
\begin{quote}
One might say that the administrative organism could no longer put up with the strain and irritation it had to endure for years because of dealing with the same trivial business and that it has begun to pass sentence on itself, bypassing the functionaries.\footnote{F. Kafka, \emph{Le Chateau}, Paris: Gallimard. 1972. p. 562.}
\end{quote}
Kafka had a profound insight into the way the bureaucratic machine operates like a blind network of gears in which the relations between individuals become a thing or an independent object. This is one of the most modern, topical, and \emph{lucid} aspects of Kafka’s work.
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The libertarian inspiration is inscribed into the heart of Kafka’s novels. When he speaks to us of the \emph{state}, it is in the form of “administration” or “justice” as an impersonal system of domination which crushes, suffocates, or kills individuals. This is an agonizing, opaque, and unintelligible world where unfreedom prevails. \emph{The Trial} is often presented as a prophetic work. With his visionary imagination, the author had foreseen the justice of the totalitarian state and the Nazi or Stalinist show trials. Despite being a Soviet fellow traveler, Bertold Brecht made a telling remark about Kafka in a conversation with Walter Benjamin in 1934 (even before the Moscow show trials):
\begin{quote}
Kafka had only one problem, that of organization. What he grasped was our anguish before the ant-hill state, the way that people themselves are alienated by the forms of their common existence. And he foresaw specific forms of alienation like, for example, the methods of the GPU.\footnote{Cf. Walter Benjamin, \emph{Essais sur Brecht}, Paris: Maspero, 1969. p. 132.}
\end{quote}
Without casting any doubt on this homage to the prescience of the Prague writer, it should nevertheless be kept in mind that Kafka is not describing “exceptional” states in this work. One of the most important ideas suggested by his work, bearing an obvious relationship to anarchism, \emph{is the alienated and oppressive nature }of the “normal” legal and constitutional state. It is clearly stated in the early pages of \emph{The Trial}:
\begin{quote}
K. lived in a country with a legal constitution, there was universal peace, all the laws were in force; who, then, dared seize him in his own dwelling?\footnote{F. Kafka, \emph{The Trial}, New York: Schoken, 1970. p. 4; \emph{Der Prozess}, Frankfurt: Fischer, 1979, p. 91.}
\end{quote}
Like his friends among the Czech anarchists, he seemed to consider \emph{every form of state}, and the state as such, to be an authoritarian and liberticidal hierarchy.
By their inherent nature, the state and its justice are both systems founded on lies. Nothing illustrates this better than the dialogue in \emph{The Trial} between K. and the priest on the subject of the parable of the guardian of the law. For the priest, “to question the dignity of the guardian would be to question the law.” This is the classic argument of all the representatives of order. K. objects that if one adopts this view, “we have to believe everything that the warder tells us” which to him seems impossible:
\begin{quote}
— No, says the priest. We are not obliged to accept everything he says as true. It suffices that it is accepted as necessary.
— A mournful opinion, said K\dots{} . It elevates the lie to the stature of a world principle.\footnote{F. Kafka. \emph{The Trial}, p. 220.}
\end{quote}
As Hannah Arendt rightly observed in her essay on Kafka, the priest’s speech reveals:
\begin{quote}
the sacred theology and innermost conviction of bureaucrats to be a belief in necessity for its own sake. Bureaucrats are, in the last analysis, the functionaries of necessity.\footnote{H. Arendt. \emph{Sechs Essays}. Heidelberg: Lambert-Schneider, 1948. p. 133.}
\end{quote}
Finally, the state and judges administer less the management of justice than the hunt for victims. In imagery comparable to the substitution of a sword for the torch of liberty in \emph{Amerika}, we see in \emph{The Trial} that a painting by Titorelli which is supposed to represent the Goddess of Justice becomes transfigured in the right light into a celebration of the Goddess of the Hunt. The bureaucratic and judicial hierarchy constitutes an immense organization which according to Joseph K., the victim of \emph{The Trial}:
\begin{quote}
not only employs venal guards, stupid inspectors and examining magistrates \dots{} but also sustains an entire magistracy of high rank with its indispensable retinue of valets, clerks, gendarmes, and other auxiliaries, perhaps even \emph{executioners}. I do not flinch before the word.\footnote{\emph{The Trial}, pp. 45–46. My emphasis ML.}
\end{quote}
In other words, state authority kills. Joseph K. will make the acquaintance of executioners in the last chapter of the book when two functionaries put him to death “like a dog.”
For Kafka, the dog represents an ethical category — if not a metaphysical one. The dog is actually all those who submit slavishly to the authorities whoever they may be. The merchant — Block — forced to his knees before the lawyer, is a typical example:
\begin{quote}
This was no longer a client. This was the lawyer’s dog. If the lawyer had ordered him to crawl under the bed as if it were a kennel, and bark, Block would have done so with pleasure.
\end{quote}
The shame which must outlive Joseph K. (the last word of \emph{The Trial}) is death “like a dog,” submitting without resistance to the executioners. This is also the case with the prisoner in \emph{The Penal Colony} who does not even make an attempt to escape and behaves with “dog-like submission.”\footnote{F. Kafka. \emph{The Trial}, p. pp. 193–194, 227. \emph{Le Procès}, Paris: Gallimard, 1985. pp. 283, 309, 325, and “In der Strafkolonie,” p. 181.}
The young Karl Rossmann in \emph{Amerika} is an example of somebody who attempts — not always successfully — to resist the authorities. For him, this means not becoming a dog like “those who are unwilling to offer any resistance.” The refusal to submit and crawl like a dog appears to be the first step toward walking upright toward freedom. But Kafka’s novels have neither a positive hero nor future utopias. They only try to show the \emph{facies hippocratica} of our epoch with irony and lucidity.
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It is no accident that the word “Kafkaesque” has entered our current vocabulary. The term denotes an aspect of social reality that sociology and political science tend to overlook. With his libertarian sensibility, Kafka has succeeded marvelously in capturing the \emph{oppressive} and \emph{absurd} nature of the bureaucratic nightmare, the opacity, the impenetrable and incomprehensible character of the rules of the state hierarchy as they are seen \emph{from below and the outside}. This runs contrary to social science which generally confines itself to examining the bureaucratic machine from the “inside” and taking the point of view of those “at the top,” the authorities, and institutions: its “functional” or “dysfunctional,” “rational” or “pre-rational” character.\footnote{As Miche Carrouges has perceptively emphasized:\par \emph{Kafka renounces the corporate perspective of the men of law, those educated and very eminent people who believe they understand the whys and wherefores of the law. He considers them and the law from the viewpoint of the masses of poor subjects who submit without understanding.\par But since he is Kafka, he raises this ordinary naive ignorance to the stature of supreme irony overflowing with suffering and humor, mystery and clarity. He unmasks all that there is of human ignorance in judicial knowledge and of human knowledge in the ignorance of the downtrodden.}\par M. Carrouges. In the Laughter and the Tears of Life. \emph{Cahiers de la Compagnie M. Renaud,} \emph{J.L. Barrault}, Paris, Julliard, October 1957, p. 19.}
Social science has not yet formulated a concept for the “oppressive effect” of a reified bureaucratic apparatus which undoubtedly constitutes one of the most characteristic phenomena of modern societies which millions of men and women run across daily. Meanwhile, this essential dimension of social reality will continue to be conjured up by reference to Kafka’s work.
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Michael Löwy is the Research Director of the National Center for Scientific Research in Paris. He has written widely on political philosophy and intellectual history. His article “Socialism and Christianity in the Work of Ignazio Silone” appeared in \emph{New Politics} \#20.
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The Anarchist Library
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Michael Löwy
Franz Kafka and Libertarian Socialism
1997
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Retrieved on 16 August 2010 from \href{http://ww3.wpunj.edu/\%7Enewpol/issue23/lowy23.htm}{ww3.wpunj.edu}
from \emph{New Politics}, vol. 6, no. 3 (new series), whole no. 23, Summer 1997\forcelinebreak Translated from the French by Patrick Flaherty
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\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {section}{\numberline {11}The latest PEG test Grammar, fresh annotations completed}{133}}
\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {section}{\numberline {12}Appendix: The Trial.85 Grammar}{194}}
\@writefile{toc}{\contentsline {section}{\numberline {13}Appendix: old version notes for this document}{217}}
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%% @texfile{
%% filename = "tubguide.tex",
%% version = "1.22",
%% date = "2016/09/26",
%% filetype = "TUGboat Authors' Guide",
%% copyright = "Copyright 1989, 1992, 2006, 2012-2016 TeX Users Group.
%% Unlimited copying and redistribution of this file
%% are permitted as long as this file is not
%% modified. Modifications (and redistribution of
%% modified versions) are also permitted, but only if
%% the resulting file is renamed."
%% email = "[email protected]",
%% codetable = "ISO/ASCII",
%% keywords = "tex users group, tugboat, plain authors' guide",
%% supported = "yes",
%% abstract = "This file is an updated version of the file
%% that produced the original Authors' Guide in
%% TUGboat 10, no. 3, November 1989.",
%% }
%% $Id: tubguide.tex 157 2016-09-26 23:34:10Z karl $
%% *********************************************************
%%
%% TeXing this file requires the following files:
%% TUGBOAT.STY (version 1.09+)
%% TUGBOAT.CMN (version 1.08+) (loaded by TUGBOAT.STY)
%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\input tugboat.sty
% tugboat.sty used to default to this, and no point in changing lots of
% text to fix overfull boxes.
\StretchyTenPointSpacing
\StretchyNinePointSpacing
\StretchyEightPointSpacing
\enablemetacode
\everyverbatim{\enablemetacode}
\def\halfline{\vskip 0.5\baselineskip \ignoreendline}
% ****************************************************************
\pageno=1
\def\rtitlex{\def\tubfont{\tenpoint\rm}\TUB{} Authors' Guide, May 2012}
\def\midrtitle{}
\title *\TUB\/ authors' guide*
\author * Barbara Beeton *
\address * American Mathematical Society\\
201 Charles Street\\
Providence, RI 02904-2294 *
\netaddress * [email protected] *
\author * Ron Whitney *
%\address * \TUG *
%\netaddress * [email protected] *
\vfootnote{}{Revised March 1992, May 2006, May 2012, September 2016; the
original appeared in
\tubissue 10(3), November 1989.}
\article
With this report we hope to fill a lacuna (some might say ``void'')
whose existence we have been attributing to the usual factors: tight
schedules, alternative priorities and warty \TeX\ code. We now feel
the macros in use for \TUB\/ have stabilized to the extent that
documentation and suggestions for authors will remain fairly constant,
and we hope this article can serve as a reasonable guide to
preparation of manuscripts for \TUB. Authors who have used the \TUB\/
macros before will note several changes (including more modern names
for the style files). Suggestions and comments are quite welcome at
the addresses listed below.
\TUB\/ was originally typeset with a package based only on \plain.
Later, as demand for style files follows wherever \LaTeX-devotees
wander, a \TUB\/ variant of the \LaTeX\ {\tt article} class was also
created\Dash see |ltugboat.cls| and its documentation in the separate
package |tugboat| (|http://ctan.org/pkg/tugboat|) . The two macro sets
yield much the same output, and many input conventions are identical,
with differences where they seemed natural.
Below we describe various aspects of the \TUB\/ package for the
\plain-based macros. We conclude with some general suggestions to help
make the lives of those on the receiving end of (any kind of) electronic
copy a little easier.
\head * The \plain-based macros: {\tt tugboat.sty} *
The macros are contained in two files, |tugboat.sty| and
|tugboat.cmn|.\footnote{$^1$}{1) A file |tugproc.sty| is also
distributed, but no longer used. 2) |tugboat.cmn| used to be named {\tt
tugboat.com}, but that notation was in conflict with conventions of
\acro{MS-DOS} and other operating systems; no conflicts are known to
exist for the new name.}
\subhead * General description of tags * We attempt wherever possible to
tag the various elements of \TUB\/ articles in a ``generic'' way,
modified in some respects by convenience. Authors and editors need
tools to shape their articles to the form they desire, but we also wish
to encourage a tagging style which is appropriate for electronic
interchange. It seems unfair to expect much thought from authors
concerning the markup of their information if we only provide a bag of
widgets and do-hickies to hack and pound an article together. The tags
whose use we encourage are the higher-level tags that mark the logical
document structure. Below these are formatting macros that we recognize
may be essential for certain applications. Both sorts of tags are
described in the following article.
Generally, to ``mark up'' the data <foo>, a tag |\xxx| will precede
<foo> and |\endxxx| will follow (thus: |\xxx <foo>\endxxx|). We use
the |{...}| form to delimit arguments of lower-level formatting
macros. Optional commands follow tags and are enclosed in
|[\lastoption][...]|, \`a la \LaTeX. Several options may be enclosed
within one set of square brackets, or each
option may be enclosed in its own set of brackets. These ``options''
are actually just \TeX{} commands, and it is always possible to
insert raw \TeX{} code as an option. Such practice violates truly
generic markup, but it is {\it helpful\/} and at least confines
The Raw and Dirty to a smaller area.
\subtext
Perhaps a little more detail is of use to some readers here.
Upon encountering a tag, the general operational scheme of the
macros is as follows:
\verbatim[\makecomment\%]%
[\def\lquote{`}\def\rquote{'}\makeescape\|\makebgroup\`\makeegroup\']%
[\displaystyle{\everypar{\hangindent2\parindent}\advance\baselineskip by 1pt}]
<read tag>
\begingroup
<set defaults>
\the\every...
<read options>
<branch to appropriate action,|hfil|break|ignoreendline
using `|rm|lquote|lquote'argument|/`|rm|rquote|rquote' as necessary>
<cleanup>
\endgroup
\endverbatim
The scheme shows that code inserted as an option is localized and that
it may be used to override certain defaults and to guide branching.
Things are not always simple, however. Sometimes parameters are set
after a branch is taken (e.g.\ the macros might only call |\raggedright|
after determining whether the mode is ``|\inline|'' or
``|\display|''), and, despite localization, parameter setting might
affect the current paragraph if a branch has yet to be taken.
This is {\it not\/} to say the macros don't work, but rather that
those authors who venture beyond the documented regions of the
macros should do so with their eyes open.
\endtext
For convenience, we also allow the |*| as a delimiter for the
higher-level tags; thus we could use either
||\title \TUB\/ Authors' Guide \endtitle||
or
||\title * \TUB\/ Authors' Guide *||
to indicate the title of this paper. To typeset a \ast{} within text
delimited by |*|, the \plain\ control sequence |\ast| has been extended
to give
\ast{} in text and the usual $\ast$ in math.
\subtext
This markup scheme may suffer at the hands of \TeX's parsing mechanism
when tagged data is nested. In these cases, one may group (|{...}|)
embedded data so that \TeX{} knows to proceed to the next |\end...|
or |*|.
\endtext
In the cases where we show extra spaces and carriage returns around
arguments in this article, those (discretionary) spaces are
accommodated in the macros. Thus, for example, when the argument to
|\title| above is typeset, |\ignorespaces| and |\unskip| surround it
and the extra spaces have no untoward effect. Spaces are also
gobbled between options.
\subhead * Outer form *
At the outermost level, a source file will have the form (using the
|*...*| delimiters):
\verbatim[\makeescape\|]
\input tugboat.sty
|halfline
<perhaps additional macros for article>
|halfline
\title * <title> *
\author * <author> *
\address * <address> *
\netaddress * <network address> *
|halfline
\article
|vellipsis
<body of article>
|vellipsis
\makesignature
\endarticle
\endverbatim
Data preceding |\article| is saved and typeset when |\article|
is encountered. Each author should have his/her own
||
\author ...
\address ...
\netaddress ...
||
block, and the macros will do their best to combine the information
properly in the appropriate places. Explicit linebreaks can be
achieved within any of these items via |\\|. Title and authors are,
of course, set at the beginning of an article; the address
information is listed separately in a ``signature'' near the end of
an article, and is present for the convenience of those who might
photocopy excerpts from an issue of \TUB. |\makesignature| does the
typesetting work. Generally authors are listed separately in the
signature. In cases where authors and addresses are to be combined,
one may use |\signature{...}| and |\signaturemark| with some or all
of
||
\theauthor {<author number>}
\theaddress {<author number>}
\thenetaddress {<author number>}
||
to get the desired result. For example, for an article with%
\footnote{$^2$}{\xEdNote The \TUB{} email address shown in examples
was current when this article first appeared, but is now obsolete;
it has been left intact to avoid other problems. The correct address
is now {\tt [email protected]}.}
\verbatim[\outputtofile{ray.vbm}]
\author * Ray Goucher *
\address * \TUG *
\netaddress *[email protected]*
\author * Karen Butler *
\address * \TUG *
\netaddress *[email protected]*
\endverbatim
we could say
\verbatim[\outputtofile{sig.vbm}]
\signature {
\signaturemark
\theauthor1 and \theauthor2\\
\theaddress1\\
\thenetaddress1}
\endverbatim
to obtain the signature
\begingroup
\authornumber=0
\input ray.vbm
\input sig.vbm
\makesignature
\medskip
\endgroup
\noindent
Use of at least |\thenetaddress| is recommended for this just so that
the network address gets formatted properly. The optional command
|[\lastoption][\network{...}]| will introduce the network address
with a network name, so
||[\outputtofile{code.vbm}]
\netaddress[\network{Internet}]
* [email protected] *
||
produces
{\authornumber=1
\input code.vbm
\figure[\mid\nofloat] \leftline{\kern\parindent\thenetaddress1} \endfigure
}
\leavevmode|\endarticle| marks the end of input and is defined as
|\vfil\end| for most uses. We redefine it as |\endinput| to
assemble streams of articles in \TUB.
\subhead * Section heads *
Heads of sections, subsections, etc.\ are introduced with |\head|,
|\subhead|, etc., respectively. The underlying macros all use
|\head|, so |\endhead| is the long-form ending for all these tags.
For example, the first two heads of this article could have been
keyed as
||
\head The \plain-based macros:
{\tt tugboat.sty} \endhead
||
and
||
\subhead General description of
tags \endhead
||
In \TUB\/ style, the paragraph following a first-level head is not
indented. This is achieved by a look-ahead mechanism which gobbles
|\par|s and calls |\noindent|. Actually all of the |\...head| tags
gobble pars and spaces after their occurrence. This allows one to
enter a blank line in the source file between head and text, such
practice being a visual aid to your friendly \TUB\/ editors (if not to
you). Be careful of that |\noindent| after a first-level head:
you will be in horizontal mode after the |\head *...*|, so spaces
which {\it appear\/} innocuous, may not be so.
\subhead * Lists *
Lists are everywhere, and a simple list hierarchy can
transform a one-dimensional typesetting problem into something
nasty. All of which is to say, we are certainly not done with
this area of tagging, but here are the available macros.
Not surprisingly, |\list| marks the beginning of a list. A list
can be itemized, wherein each item is tagged with |\item|, or
unitemized wherein items are delimited by |^^M| (the end of your
input line). The itemized
style is the default and |[\lastoption][\unitemized]| will get
the other. Tags for the items default to the |\bullet|
($=\bullet$), but can be changed by feeding an argument to
|\tag{...}|. The |[\lastoption][\tag{...}]| option
used with |\list| assigns the tag for each item of the entire
list, while |[\lastoption][\tag{...}]| used with |\item| changes
only the tag for that item. The obvious dynamical tags are available
with options
\verbatim[\makeescape\|\makebgroup\`\makeegroup\']
\numbered
\romannumeraled
\lettered `|rm(lowercase)'
\Lettered `|rm(uppercase)'
\endverbatim
Lists can be set in several columns by setting |\cols=...|. The
columns are aligned on their top baselines and the user must
break the columns with |\colsep|. Thus,
\verbatim[\outputtofile{code.vbm}]
\list[\unitemized\numbered][\cols=2]
Fourscore
and seven
years ago
our fathers
\colsep
brought forth
on this
continent
\endlist
\endverbatim
yields
\input code.vbm
|\everylist| is a token register which is scanned at the beginning
of each list
after the default parameters are set and before
options are read. If you want all your lists numbered, for example,
you might insert ||\everylist{\numbered}|| at the top of your file
rather than giving an option to each list.
Implementation of sublists is under construction.
\subhead * Verbatim modes *
There are several variations on this theme. In each case, text is
printed in a typewriter font and (almost) all input characters
produce the glyph in the font position of their character-code (i.e.\
you get what you type, no escaping it). In addition to the long form
||\verbatim...\endverbatim|| the \verbinline|\endverbatim\ character
can be used to enter and leave verbatim mode, acting as a toggle much
as the |$| does with math. \verbinline|...|\endverbatim\space
produces inline verbatim text, while \verbinline||...||\endverbatim
displays its output. |\verbatim| itself defaults to display form,
but |\verbatim[\inline]| and its contraction |\verbinline| (both
terminated by |\endverbatim|) produce the inline form. |^^M| yields
a space inline, and a new paragraph in display. Generally, for
snippets of text we use the \verbinline|...|\endverbatim form, and
for longer items the
||[\makeescape\!]
\verbatim
!vellipsis
\endverbatim
||
form (although \verbinline||...||\endverbatim is a good way to
display a single line of code).
The display verbatim output is in nine-point typewriter by default, as
shown in this document. We've found the extra characters of width
gained as a result are very useful. If |\smallverbdisplay| is defined
to be a no-op, it will be in the usual ten-point. (This change was
introduced in 2012.)
As well as formatting verbatim text between |\verbatim| and
|\endverbatim|, |\verbatim| can read and write data from and to
files. We find this variant useful in ({\it almost\/}) guaranteeing
consonance between macros in use and their published listings.
||[\makeescape\!]
\verbatim[\inputfromfile{foo.inp}]
!vellipsis
\endverbatim
||
will incorporate the contents of file |foo.inp| in the listing before
the text between |\verbatim| and |\endverbatim|. The shortened form
||\verbfile{foo.inp}\endverbatim|| accomplishes the above in the case
that the text is empty. While the code around the data, |foo.inp|,
above looks excessively long, do remember the implementation
uses the basic |\verbatim| macro, so options can also be read after
the filename. For example,
||
\verbfile{foo.inp}[\numbered]
\endverbatim
||
would number the lines of the listing.
We often rearrange code supplied to us so
that it fits in the narrow measure of \TUB's two-column format, and
we sometimes make corrections to macro sets (you thought you were
perfect!). Since errors can (and do\Dash we aren't perfect either)
creep in with these modifications, we use the above technique to
maintain consistency between the listing published in \TUB\/ and the
underlying macros used for examples.
To write out information, use
||[\makeescape\!]
\verbatim[\outputtofile{foo.out}]
!vellipsis
\endverbatim
||
An added bonus here is that characters which get internalized as
moribund ``letters'' or ``others'' in the process of listing them,
can return revitalized for perhaps their real use when written out to
another file and read in again. The example above involving Ray
and Karen was coded as
||[\makeescape\/][\makeactive\!][\def!{\VertChar}]
... to get the desired result. For
example, for an article with
\verbatim[\outputtofile{ray.vbm}]
\author * Ray Goucher *
/vellipsis
\endverbatim
we could say
\verbatim[\outputtofile{sig.vbm}]
\signature {
\signaturemark
\theauthor1 and \theauthor2\\
\theaddress1\\
\thenetaddress1}
\endverbatim
to obtain the signature
\begingroup
\authornumber=0
\input ray.vbm
\input sig.vbm
\makesignature
\endgroup
||
This is perhaps not the most edifying example, but you get the gist.
(We localize the process of storing and retrieving these
authors and addresses so as not to clobber our own.)
We would encourage our authors to use these mechanisms for connecting
verbatim text to external files for the sake of maintaining
consistency between active code and its documentation.
\leavevmode|\verbatim| scans to |\endverbatim| (a 12-token sequence
since the |\| is of type `other' after |\verbatim| gets going). Only
this sequence of characters will interrupt the scan. On the other
hand, \verbinline|\endverbatim and \verbinline||\endverbatim scan to
the next \verbinline|\endverbatim and \verbinline||\endverbatim,
respectively. Needless to say, one should use forms of |\verbatim|
to set text which contains \verbinline|\endverbatim (and
\verbinline|\endverbatim or \verbinline||\endverbatim to set text
containing |\endverbatim| if you are writing an article like this
one). Both the \verbinline|\endverbatim and |\verbatim| tags scan
ahead for the usual |[\lastoption][| to check for options. In those
rare cases when the |[\lastoption][| is really supposed to be the
first character of the verbatim text, use the option
|[\lastoption][\lastoption]| to stop option parsing. For example, to
show ||[\lastoption][\lastoption]|| we keyed
\verbatim
|[\lastoption][\lastoption]|
\endverbatim
There are situations where one wants to typeset most things verbatim,
but ``escape'' to format something exceptional. For example, the
insertions of metacode given in the listings above require some
access to the italic font. By giving the option
|[\lastoption][\makeescape\!]| to |\verbatim|, the |!| is made an
escape character in that block. Thus,
||[\makeescape\/]
\verbatim[\makeescape\!]
/vellipsis
...!it...
/vellipsis
\endverbatim
||
really calls the italic font in the middle of the listing (one might
also want to use |\makebgroup| and |\makeegroup| in the options to define
characters to localize this call; see p.~7). Situations
will dictate preferences for what character may be used as an escape
(we use the \verbinline|\endverbatim, |!|, and |/| in this article).
There is also a means of changing the setup of every occurrence of
verbatim mode. The contents of token register |\everyverbatim|
is scanned after the defaults of verbatim mode
have been set. In this article, for example, we have made
|[\makeother\<]<| active and defined it in such a way that
|[\makeother\<]<...>| typesets as metacode. Since |\verbatim|
ordinarily changes |[\makeother\<]<| to type `other' on startup, we key
||\everyverbatim{\enablemetacode}|| at the beginning of the file
to have the proper adjustment made whenever verbatim is started.
When ``escaping'' within a verbatim block, one should be aware that
spaces and carriages returns are {\it active\/} and hence not gobbled
as usual. Using the |!| as the active character, one might key
||[\makeescape\/]
\verbatim[\makeescape\!]
/vellipsis
!vskip .5!baselineskip
/vellipsis
\endverbatim
||
to get an extra half line of space in the middle of the listing. The
space and carriage return on this line, however, cause problems. The
space expands to |\ifvmode\indent\fi\space| and \TeX\ will not like
the |\indent| after |\vskip|. The |^^M| expands to
|\leavevmode\endgraf|, and therefore puts an extra line into the
listing. The solutions, in this case, are to drop the space and to
use |!ignoreendline| (which just gobbles the |^^M|), but one should
be aware, generally, that some thought may be required in these situations.
The option |[\lastoption][\numbered]| causes the lines of a
verbatim listing to be numbered, while |[\lastoption][\ruled]|
places rules around the whole thing:
\verbatim[\numbered\ruled]
<code>
<more code>
<yet more code>
...
\endverbatim
The option |[\lastoption][\continuenumbers]| picks up the numbering
where it last left off.
\verbatim[\continuenumbers]
<more>
<and more>
...
\endverbatim
The code underlying |\verbatim| in display style implements each line
as a paragraph and places math-display-size whitespace above and
below the verbatim section. Page and column breaks {\it are\/}
permitted within these listings. To prohibit breaks at specific
points or globally, one must insert penalties or redefine |^^M| to
insert |\nobreak| in the vertical list at the end of each
``paragraph'' (i.e.\ line). We should also note that the bottom of
such a verbatim listing is implemented so that ensuing
text may or may not start a new paragraph depending on whether an
intervening blank line (or |\par|) is or is not present.
\subhead * Figures and page layout *
Figures are keyed as
\verbatim[\makeescape\|]
\figure
|halfline
<vertical mode material>
|halfline
\endfigure
\endverbatim
These are generally implemented as single-column floating
top-insertions, but the options |[\lastoption][\mid]| and
|[\lastoption][\bot]| can change specific items to be mid- or
bottom-insertions, respectively. Here we recommend that the
long-form terminator be used ({\it not\/} the |*...*| form). One can
think of the information ``passed'' as being ``long'' in the sense of
possibly containing paragraphs, this being a mnemonic device only.
The primary reason for the recommendation is that one is (in some
sense, maybe) more likely to encounter a rogue |*| in longer text
than in shorter text and hence more likely to encounter a surprising
result due to a macro stopping short at the wrong |*|.
\subtext
Perhaps here is a natural place to mention also that these macros
sometimes read their arguments and then act, and sometimes act on the
fly, not actually storing an argument as a string of tokens at all.
|\title|, for example, is in the former category, while |\figure| is
in the latter. Reasons may vary for the choice in
methods. Storing a string of tokens as an argument does not allow
re-interpretation of the category codes of the underlying
character string. Thus, storing
the ``argument'' of |\figure| all at once might misinterpret some
characters which should appear as verbatim text. For this reason we
set figures as we go and just close off the box with |\endfigure|. On
the other hand, using information in multiple situations (e.g.\
titles and running heads) requires storing the information as a token
string, not as a typeset list.
When text delimited by |*...*| is read as an argument, the |*|s are
dropped by the parsing process. When the text is handled on the fly,
the first |*| is gobbled and the second is made active to perform
whatever action is necessary at the close of the macro. When
possible, we prefer to operate on the fly since nested tags are
handled properly in that case and no memory is consumed to store
arguments. Examination of |tugboat.sty| will show which case applies
in a given situation, but this general knowledge may help when trying
to debug those situations in which an unexpected |*| has disrupted
things.
\endtext
A primitive |\caption{...}| option is available to |\ulap|
(i.e.\ lap upward) its argument into the figure space, but
formatting of the caption is left to the user. For example,
the code:
\verbatim[\outputtofile{code.vbm}]
\figure[\top]
[\caption{\centerline{Odd Fig.~1}}]
\vbox to 5pc{}
\endfigure
\endverbatim
produces the figure at the top of this column or the next.
\input code.vbm
Figures spanning columns at the top and bottom of a page are currently
supported only on the first page of an article, but we expect they
will soon be allowed on any page (a general rewrite of the output
routine is in progress). |\twocolfigure| (terminated by |\endfigure|)
starts up such a figure and currently {\it must\/} occur before any
material has been typeset on the first page (i.e.\ {\it before\/}
|\article|).
Macros |\onecol|, |\twocol|, and |\threecol| provide one-, two-, and
three-column layouts, but these cannot currently be intermixed on a
page. We hope to provide automatic column-balancing and convenient
switching between one- and two-column format within a year.
|\newpage| in each format is defined to fill and eject enough columns
to get to the next page. |\newcol| is just |\par\vfill\eject|.
\subhead * Command list summary *
Tags are listed in the order discussed. Options are
listed under tags.
||
\title
\author
\address
\netaddress
\network
\signature
\article
\makesignature
\endarticle
\head
\subhead
\subsubhead
\list
\numbered
\romannumeraled
\lettered
\Lettered
\ruled
\tag{...}
\item
\tag{...}
\everylist
\verbatim
\numbered
\ruled
\inputfromfile{...}
\outputtofile{...}
\verbinline
\verbfile
\figure
\mid
\bot
\caption{...}
\twocolfigure
||
and \verbinline|\endverbatim and \verbinline||\endverbatim input syntax.
\head * Common abbreviations and utilities *
Definitions of a number of commonly used abbreviations such as |\MF|
and |\BibTeX| are contained in |tugboat.cmn|. Please use these whenever
possible rather than creating your own. We will add to the list as
necessary.
A nicety for the sake of appearance is the command |\acro|, which
sets an acronym in caps one size smaller than the surrounding text.
Compare CTAN (full size), \CTAN{} (|\acro{CTAN}|) and {\smc ctan}
(small caps). Acronyms in |tugboat.cmn| use |\acro| consistently,
except in (some) bibliographies.
Several other constructions that we have found useful for both
\plain- and \LaTeX-style input have been incorporated in
|tugboat.cmn|. Various |\*lap|\,s (|\ulap|, |\dlap|, |\xlap|,
|\ylap|, |\zlap|) and |\*smash|\,es provide means of setting type
which ``laps'' into neighboring regions.
|\Dash| is an em-dash with surrounding thinspaces, our preferred style.
|\slash| is a breakable slash.
|\cs{foo}| typesets |\foo|, just like \verbinline|\foo|\endverbatim (but
since |\cs| is the usual \TUB\ \LaTeX\ convention, we support it here too).
The macro
\verbatim
\makestrut [<ascender dimen>;
<descender dimen>]
\endverbatim
allows {\it ad hoc\/} construction of
struts.
|\makeatletter| |\catcode|s the |@| for internal control-sequences.
There are also more general functions
\verbatim
\makeescape
\makebgroup
\makeegroup
\makeletter
\makeother
\makeactive
\endverbatim
that change the category of a given character into the type mentioned
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\subhead * Issue makeup *
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We also put notes into the file since there are many things to
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\head * General coding suggestions *
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Those who create code find it much easier to read and understand their
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good method of hiding control sequences so that they will not be
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\head * Electronic documentation and submissions *
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http://ctan.org/pkg/tugboat-plain||
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\smallskip
The \TUB\ home page on the web is |http://tug.org/TUGboat|.
\makesignature
\endarticle
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\documentclass[a4paper,12pt]{article}
\newcommand\ds{\displaystyle}
\begin{document}
\parindent=0pt
QUESTION
Determine whether or not the following sequence is convergent\\
$\ds a_n=\frac{1+n(-1)^n}{n}$ for $n=1,2,\ldots$
\bigskip
ANSWER
$\ds a_n=\frac{1+n(-1)^n}{n}=\frac{1}{n}+(-1)^n.$ As $n\to\infty$
the $\ds \frac{1}{n}$ term tends to 0 but\\
$(-1)^n=\left\{\begin{array}{cc}+1&n\textrm{ even}\\-1&n\textrm{
odd}\end{array}\right.$\\ Thus the terms of the sequence alternate
between +1 and $-1$, approximately, so the sequence is not
convergent.
\end{document}
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%&LaTeX
\documentclass{article}
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
\usepackage{textcomp}
\begin{document}
\begin{thebibliography}{1}
\bibitem{Hite_etal2006} Hite, M. M., Bourassa, M. A., \& O{\textquoteright}Brien, J. J. (2006). Vorticity-Based Detection Of Tropical Cyclones. In \textit{14th Conference on Interactions of the Sea and Atmosphere, American Meteorological Society, Atlanta, Ga, USA} (cdrom).
\end{thebibliography}
\end{document}
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\[\lim_{{\tau\to 0}}\left(a/\tau;q\right)_{{n}}\tau^{n}=\lim_{{\sigma\to\infty}}%
\left(a\sigma;q\right)_{{n}}\sigma^{{-n}}=(-a)^{n}q^{{\binom{n}{2}}},\]
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\documentclass[10pt,a4paper]{article}
% Packages
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\usepackage{setspace} % For line height
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%\usepackage{opensans} % Can't make this work so far. Shame. Would be lovely.
\usepackage[normalem]{ulem} % For underlining links
% Most of the following are not required for the majority
% of cheat sheets but are needed for some symbol support.
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% This two commands together give roughly
% the right line height in the tables
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\renewcommand{\familydefault}{\sfdefault}
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\begin{tabulary}{5.8cm}{C}
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\vspace{-7pt}
{\parbox{\dimexpr\textwidth-2\fboxsep\relax}{\noindent
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\vspace{-2pt}Not Yet Published.\\
Updated 28th September, 2017.\\
Page {\thepage} of \pageref{LastPage}.
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\vspace{-5pt}
%\includegraphics[width=48px,height=48px]{dave.jpeg}
Measure your website readability!\\
www.readability-score.com
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\end{multicols}}
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\raggedright
\raggedcolumns
% Set font size to small. Switch to any value
% from this page to resize cheat sheet text:
% www.emerson.emory.edu/services/latex/latex_169.html
\footnotesize % Small font.
\begin{multicols*}{2}
\begin{tabularx}{8.4cm}{p{0.76 cm} x{2.964 cm} x{3.876 cm} }
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% Row 0
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{\bf{\#}} & {\bf{Attribute}} & {\bf{Description}} \tn
% Row Count 2 (+ 2)
% Row 1
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1 & א-ל & G‑d — mighty in compassion to give all creatures according to their need; \tn
% Row Count 6 (+ 4)
% Row 2
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
2 & רַחוּם & rachum — merciful, that humankind may not be distressed \tn
% Row Count 9 (+ 3)
% Row 3
\SetRowColor{white}
3 & \seqsplit{וְחַנּוּן} & ve'chanun — and gracious if humankind is already in distress \tn
% Row Count 13 (+ 4)
% Row 4
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
4 & אֶרֶךְ \seqsplit{אַפַּיִם} & erech apayim — slow to anger; (once, to the righteous) \tn
% Row Count 16 (+ 3)
% Row 5
\SetRowColor{white}
5 & אֶרֶךְ \seqsplit{אַפַּיִם} & erech apayim — slow to anger; (repeated again for the wicked) \tn
% Row Count 20 (+ 4)
% Row 6
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
6 & \seqsplit{וְרַב-חֶסֶד} & ve'rav chesed — and plenteous in kindness \tn
% Row Count 23 (+ 3)
% Row 7
\SetRowColor{white}
7 & וֶאֱמֶת & ve'emet — and truth \tn
% Row Count 25 (+ 2)
% Row 8
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
8 & נֹצֵר חֶסֶד & notzer chesed — keeping kindness \tn
% Row Count 27 (+ 2)
% Row 9
\SetRowColor{white}
9 & \seqsplit{לָאֲלָפִים} & laalafim — unto thousands \tn
% Row Count 29 (+ 2)
% Row 10
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
10 & נֹשֵׂא עָוֹן & noseh avon — forgiving iniquity \tn
% Row Count 31 (+ 2)
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}
\vfill
\columnbreak
\begin{tabularx}{8.4cm}{p{0.76 cm} x{2.964 cm} x{3.876 cm} }
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
\mymulticolumn{3}{x{8.4cm}}{\bf\textcolor{white}{Attributes of Mercy according to Kabbalah: (cont)}} \tn
% Row 11
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
11 & \seqsplit{וָפֶשַׁע} & vafeshah — and transgression \tn
% Row Count 2 (+ 2)
% Row 12
\SetRowColor{white}
12 & \seqsplit{וְחַטָּאָה} & vechata'ah — and sin \tn
% Row Count 4 (+ 2)
% Row 13
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
13 & \seqsplit{וְנַקֵּה} & venakeh — and pardoning \tn
% Row Count 6 (+ 2)
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}---}
\SetRowColor{LightBackground}
\mymulticolumn{3}{x{8.4cm}}{The kabbalists take this approach to the words that are counted as an Attribute} \tn
\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}---}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}
\begin{tabularx}{8.4cm}{X}
\SetRowColor{DarkBackground}
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\hhline{>{\arrayrulecolor{DarkBackground}}-}
\end{tabularx}
\par\addvspace{1.3em}
% That's all folks
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\end{document}
|
http://blog.eternityqjl.top/SS_test1.tex
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eternityqjl.top
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\documentclass[UTF8]{ctexart}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\usepackage{amsmath}
\usepackage[colorlinks=true]{hyperref}
\usepackage{listings}
\lstset{
language=Matlab,
escapeinside=``,
numbers=left,
numberstyle=\tiny,
breaklines=true,
backgroundcolor=\color{lightgray!40!white},
frame=single,
framerule=0pt,
extendedchars=false,
keywordstyle=\color{blue!70}\bfseries,
basicstyle=\ttfamily,
commentstyle=\ttfamily\color{green!40!black},
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\usepackage{geometry}
\geometry{papersize={21cm,29.7cm}}
\geometry{left=2.5cm, right=2.5cm, top=2.5cm, bottom=2.5cm}
\usepackage{lmodern}
\usepackage{fancyhdr}
\pagestyle{fancy}
\rhead{信号与系统-实验报告}
\lhead{实验1}
\cfoot{\thepage}
\begin{document}
\begin{titlepage}
\vspace*{0.5cm}
\begin{figure}[h]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.9\linewidth]{logo}
\end{figure}
\vspace*{1.0cm}
\begin{center}
\fontsize{45pt}{0}\textbf{实验报告（本科）} \\
\vspace*{1cm}
\Huge{\textbf{——信号与系统课程}}
\end{center}
\vspace*{2.0cm}
\begin{center}
\LARGE 学\qquad号：\ \underline{\makebox[200pt]{2018141231122}} \\
\LARGE 姓\qquad名：\ \underline{\makebox[200pt]{乔佳龙}} \\
\LARGE 专\qquad业：\ \underline{\makebox[200pt]{自动化}} \\
\LARGE 日\qquad期：\ \underline{\makebox[200pt]{2020年3月22日}} \\
\LARGE 实验题目：\ \underline{\makebox[200pt]{线性时不变系统}} \\
\LARGE 实验内容：\ \underline{\makebox[200pt][l]{信号的产生（sin, square,}}\\
\underline{\makebox[296pt][l]{sinc, exp，sawtooth），波形的绘制和}} \\
\underline{\makebox[296pt][l]{分析，卷积的计算。}} \\
% \underline{\makebox[296pt][l]{}} \\
% \underline{\makebox[296pt][l]{}} \\
% \underline{\makebox[296pt][l]{}} \\
\end{center}
\end{titlepage}
\newpage
\tableofcontents
\newpage
%1
\section{理论计算}
%1.1
\subsection[第3题（1）]{第3题（1）求\texorpdfstring{$x_1(t)=1.5e^{-2t}u(t)$}{x1}，\texorpdfstring{$x_2(t)=cos(t2)[u(t)-u(t-2)]$}{x2}的卷积积分\texorpdfstring{$y_1(t)=x_1(t)*x_2(t)$}{y1}。 }
\begin{align}
y_1(t)
& =\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty}x_2(\tau)x_1(t-\tau)\mathrm{d}\tau \\
& =\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty}\cos(2\tau)[u(\tau)-u(\tau -2)]\times1.5\times e^{-2(t-\tau)}u(t-\tau)\mathrm{d}\tau \\
& =\int_{0}^{2}1.5\times \cos(2\tau)e^{-2(t-\tau)}u(t-\tau) \mathrm{d}\tau \\
& = \begin{cases}
0,\ t\leq0 \\
\int_{0}^{t}1.5\times \cos(2\tau)e^{-2(t-\tau)}\mathrm{d}\tau,\ 0 < t < 2 \\
\int_{0}^{2}1.5\times \cos(2\tau)e^{-2(t-\tau)}\mathrm{d}\tau,\ t \geq2
\end{cases} \\
& = \begin{cases}
0,\ t\leq0 \\
\frac{3}{8}[\sin(2t)+\cos(2t)-e^{-2t}], \ 0 < t < 2 \\
\frac{3}{8}[(\sin(4)+\cos(4))e^{4-2t}-e^{-2t}], \ t \geq 2
\end{cases}
\end{align}
%1.2
\subsection[第3题（2）]{第三题（2）求\texorpdfstring{$x_3[n]=(-\frac{2}{3})^n u[n-1]$}{x3}，\texorpdfstring{$x_4[n]=(-1)^{n+1}u[n-1]-(-2)^{n-2}u[n-2]$}{x4}的卷积和\texorpdfstring{$y_2[n]
=x_3[n]*x_4[n]$}{y2}}
\begin{align}
y_2[n]
&=x_3[n]*x_4[n] \\
&=((-\frac{2}{3})^n u[n-1])*((-1)^{n+1}u[n-1]-(-2)^{n-2}u[n-2]) \\
&=\sum_{k=-\infty}^{+\infty}(-\frac{2}{3})^k u[k-1]((-1)^{n-k+1}u[n-k+1]-(-2)^{n-k-2}u[n-k-2]) \\
&=\sum_{k=1}^{+\infty}(-\frac{2}{3})^k ((-1)^{n-k+1}u[n-k+1]-(-2)^{n-k-2}u[n-k-2]) \\
&=
\begin{cases}
0, \ n<0 \\
\sum_{k=1}^{+\infty}(-\frac{2}{3})^k (-1)^{n-k+1}u[n-k+1], \ 0 \leq n \leq 2 \\
\sum_{k=1}^{+\infty}(-\frac{2}{3})^k ((-1)^{n-k+1}u[n-k+1]-(-2)^{n-k-2}u[n-k-2]),\ n>2
\end{cases}
\end{align}
\paragraph{
所以，代入可求得以下结果：
}
\begin{align}
y_2[0]&=-\frac{2}{3} \\
y_2[1]&=\frac{10}{9} \\
y_2[2]&=-\frac{37}{27} \\
y_2[3]&=\frac{184}{81}
\end{align}
\newpage
%2
\section{仿真结果（程序、时域图、频域图）}
%2.1
\subsection{第1题}
\subsubsection{程序}
\begin{lstlisting}
%range of independent variable t
t=-4:0.001:4;
%sine function
subplot(3,2,1)
x1=sin(pi.*t);
plot(t,x1,'Color','\#0072BD','LineWidth',1)
title('sin function: $$ x_1=\sin(\pi t) $$','Interpreter','latex')
xlim([-5,5])
xticks(-5:1:5)
yticks(-1:0.5:1)
xlabel('t')
ylabel('$$x_1$$','Interpreter','latex')
grid on
%sinc function
subplot(3,2,2)
x2=sinc(pi*t);
plot(t,x2,'Color','\#0072BD','LineWidth',1)
title('sinc function: $$ x_2=\mathrm{sinc}(\pi t) $$','Interpreter','latex')
xlim([-5,5])
xticks(-5:1:5)
grid on
%imaginary exponent signal
subplot(3,2,3)
x3=exp(-1i*pi*t);
plot(t,x3,'Color','\#77AC30','LineWidth',1)
title('$$ x_3=e^{-i \pi t} $$','Interpreter','latex')
xlim([-5,5])
xticks(-5:1:5)
grid on
%real exponent signal
subplot(3,2,4)
x4=exp(-t);
plot(t,x4,'Color','\#77AC30','LineWidth',1)
title('$$x_4=e^{-t}$$','Interpreter','latex')
xlim([-5,5])
xticks(-5:1:5)
grid on
%square wave signal(T: 2, duty circle: 30%, amplitude: +1.5/-1.5)
subplot(3,2,5)
x5=1.5*square(2*t,30);
plot(t,x5,'Color','\#A2142F','LineWidth',1)
title('Square wave signal(T = 2, duty circle = 30%, amplidute = +1.5/-1.5)')
xlim([-5,5])
xticks(-5:1:5)
grid on
%Triangular wave (T: 1, amplitude: 1)
subplot(3,2,6)
x6=sawtooth(2*pi*t,0.8);
plot(t,x6,'Color','\#A2142F','LineWidth',1)
title('Triangular wave (T = 1, amplitude = 1)')
xlim([-5,5])
xticks(-5:1:5)
grid on
\end{lstlisting}
\subsubsection{时域图}
\begin{figure}[h]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=1\linewidth]{signal1}
\end{figure}
%2.2
\subsection{第2题（1）}
\subsubsection{程序}
\begin{lstlisting}
clc
clear
close all
%range of independent variable t
t=-10:0.001:10;
%x(t)
x1=sinc((1/pi)*t);
plot(t,x1,'Color','\#0072BD','LineWidth',1)
xlim([-12,12])
ylim([-0.4,1.2])
xlabel('t')
grid on
title('Comparison of $$x(t)\ and \ x(-t+2)$$','Interpreter','latex')
hold on
%x(-t+2)
x2=sinc((1/pi)*(-t+2));
plot(t,x2,'Color','\#D95319','LineWidth',1)
%legend
legend('$$\mathrm{sinc}(\frac{t}{\pi})$$','$$\mathrm{sinc}(\frac{-t+2}{\pi})$$','Interpreter','latex')
\end{lstlisting}
\subsubsection{时域图}
\begin{figure}[h]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=1\linewidth]{signal2_1}
\end{figure}
%2.3
\subsection{第2题（2）}
\subsubsection{程序}
\begin{lstlisting}
clc
clear
close all
%2-2
%x_N[n]
subplot(2,1,1)
x1=linspace(-5,9,15);
y1=[0.5,1.5,2,1,0, 0.5,1.5,2,1,0, 0.5,1.5,2,1,0,];
stem(x1,y1,'filled','LineWidth',1)
title('$$X_N[n]; \ N=5$$','Interpreter','latex')
xlim([-5,10])
ylim([0,2.5])
xticks(-5:1:10)
grid on
%x_N[-n]
subplot(2,1,2)
x2=linspace(-4,10,15);
y2=[0,1,2,1.5,0.5, 0,1,2,1.5,0.5, 0,1,2,1.5,0.5,];
stem(x2,y2,'filled','LineWidth',1,'MarkerEdgeColor','r')
title('$$X_N[-n]; \ N=5$$','Interpreter','latex')
xlim([-5,10])
ylim([0,2.5])
xticks(-5:1:10)
grid on
\end{lstlisting}
\subsubsection{时域图}
\newpage
\begin{figure}[h]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=1\linewidth]{signal2_2}
\end{figure}
%2.4
\subsection{第3题}
\subsubsection{程序}
\begin{lstlisting}
clc
clear
close all
%convolution y1(t)
%range of independent variable t0 of x1(t) and x2(t)
t0 = -5:0.1:5;
%x1(t)
subplot(2,3,1)
x1 = 1.5*exp(-2*t0).*stepfun(t0,0);
plot(t0,x1,'LineWidth',1,'Color','\#0072BD')
title('$$x_1(t)=1.5 e^{-2t}u(t)$$','Interpreter','latex')
xlabel('$$t$$','Interpreter','latex')
xticks(-5:1:5)
grid on
%x2(t)
subplot(2,3,2)
x2 = cos(2*t0).*(stepfun(t0,0)-stepfun(t0,2));
plot(t0,x2,'LineWidth',1,'Color','\#7E2F8E')
title('$$x_2(t)=\cos(2t)[u(t)-u(t-2)]$$','Interpreter','latex')
xlabel('$$t$$','Interpreter','latex')
xticks(-5:1:5)
grid on
%y1(t)
%range of independent variable t1 of y1(t)
t1 = -10:0.1:10;
subplot(2,3,3)
y1 = conv(x1,x2);
plot(t1,y1,'LineWidth',1,'Color','\#A2142F')
title('$$y_1(t)=x_1(t)*x_2(t)$$','Interpreter','latex')
xlabel('$$t$$','Interpreter','latex')
xticks(-10:1:10)
grid on
hold on
%convolution y2[n]
%range of independent variable n0 of x3[n] and x4[n]
n0=-4:1:6;
%x3[n]
subplot(2,3,4)
x3 = ((-2/3).^n0).*stepfun(n0,1);
stem(n0,x3,'filled','LineWidth',1,'Color','\#0072BD')
title('$$x_3[n]=(-\frac{2}{3})^n u[n-1]$$','Interpreter','latex')
xlabel('$$n$$','Interpreter','latex')
xlim([-5,7])
xticks(-5:1:7)
grid on
%x4[n]
subplot(2,3,5)
x4 = (-1).^(n0+1).*stepfun(n0,-1)-((-2).^(n0-2)).*stepfun(n0,2);
stem(n0,x4,'filled','LineWidth',1,'Color','\#7E2F8E')
title('$$x_4[n]=(-1)^{n+1}u[n-1]-(-2)^{n-2}u[n-2]$$','Interpreter','latex')
xlabel('$$n$$','Interpreter','latex')
xlim([-5,7])
xticks(-5:1:7)
grid on
%y2[n]
%range of independent variable n1 of y2[n]
ly2 = 2.*n0(1);
hy2 = 2.*n0(end);
n1 = ly2:1:hy2;
subplot(2,3,6)
y2 = conv(x3,x4);
stem(n1,y2,'filled','LineWidth',1,'Color','\#A2142F')
title('$$y_2[n]=x_3[n]*x_4[n]$$','Interpreter','latex')
xlabel('$$n$$','Interpreter','latex')
xlim([-9,13])
xticks(-9:1:13)
grid on
\end{lstlisting}
\subsubsection{时序图}
\begin{figure}[h]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=1\linewidth]{signal3}
\end{figure}
\newpage
%3
\section{结果分析及问题回答}
%3.1
\subsection{第2题（1）}
\paragraph{
二者的相位相差2。因为$sinc(t)$函数是一个偶函数，将其沿y轴变换为$sinc(-t)$时波形不变，与原函数保持一致，所以二者只是存在大小为2的相位差。
}
\subsection{第2题（2）}
\paragraph{
两图像的周期和自变量的取值范围时相同的，区别是每个周期内各自变量处的取值顺序不同，将第一幅图中每个周期内的图像都进行反转即可得到第二幅图。这也及将第一幅图沿y轴变换后得到的结果。
}
\subsection{第3题（1）}
\paragraph{
Matlab中的conv(a,b)函数是通过两个向量a、b计算卷积的，因此如果要计算连续函数的卷积，就需要将函数的自变量区间划分为很小的区间，这样就能计算得到连续函数的卷积。但是，我发现一些问题，对自变量取不同的小区间宽度时得到的结果并不相同，如下所示，这个问题还未解决，存在疑惑。
}
\subsection{第3题（2）}
\paragraph{
从第一部分的理论计算中我们可以得到以下函数值：
}
\begin{align}
y_2[0]&=-\frac{2}{3} \\
y_2[1]&=\frac{10}{9} \\
y_2[2]&=-\frac{37}{27} \\
y_2[3]&=\frac{184}{81}
\end{align}
\paragraph{
而使用用数学工具Matlab仿真得到的结果如图上图所示，二者相等，所以仿真结果正确。
}
\begin{figure}[h]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=1\linewidth]{signal3_2}
\end{figure}
\newpage
%4
\section{调试分析及总结}
\subsection{程序调试分析}
\subsubsection{问题1：conv(a,b)函数的使用}
最初在使用conv函数的结果y与自变量t作图时经常会出现以下的报错：
\begin{lstlisting}
Error using plot
Vectors must be the same length.
\end{lstlisting}
通过查阅Matlab文档发现，使用conv(a,b)函数求得的卷积结果的向量长度发生了变化，长度变为了a的长度加上b的长度再减1，所以在作卷积结果图时需要对自变量的范围做出更改，将原函数自变量的最小值和最大值都乘以2即可。
\subsubsection{问题2：m程序编写的顺序}
最初写作图的plot函数和相关参数设置语句时没有注意程序的先后顺序，以下面的程序为例：
\begin{lstlisting}
subplot(2,3,1)
x1 = 1.5*exp(-2*t0).*stepfun(t0,0);
title('$$x_1(t)=1.5 e^{-2t}u(t)$$','Interpreter','latex')
xlabel('$$t$$','Interpreter','latex')
xticks(-5:1:5)
grid on
plot(t0,x1,'LineWidth',1,'Color','\#0072BD')
\end{lstlisting}
该程序中将title、xlabel、grid on等控制图的参数的语句写在了plot函数的前面，导致这些参数设置无法在图中显示。解决方法时将这些语句放在plot函数后即可。以后写程序过程中需要注意顺序，以免再发生这种问题。
\subsubsection{
其他：第一次调试LaTex程序中发现的问题
}
这部分内容我写在了自己的博客中。
\subsection{总结}
\paragraph{
\quad 这是信号与系统课程的第一次实验，主要是来学习Matlab的基本操作内容，以及计算线性时不变系统中的卷积，通过理论计算和使用软件仿真来实现。实验中主要存在的问题有：\\
\\
1.对于Matlab软件的基本操作和一些基本的函数内容不熟悉，导致编写程序的过程中经常出错。需要多查询Matlab的官方文档，并且通过实验逐渐熟悉常用的内容。 \\
\\
2.实验顺序的问题。这次实验我没有先进行理论计算再进行软件仿真，导致刚开始并没有发现隐含的一些问题，最后需要反反复复地重复。所以在今后的实验中在仿真前要先进行理论计算，做到心中有数，对仿真的结果有一个预期，这样才能达到更好的效果。
}
\end{document}
|
http://ctan.dcc.uchile.cl/macros/luatex/latex/simurgh/tex/simurgh-backref.sty
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uchile.cl
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CC-MAIN-2019-30
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text/x-tex
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application/x-tex
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crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-30/segments/1563195524972.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20190716221441-20190717003441-00158.warc.gz
| 35,875,671 | 954 |
\NeedsTeXFormat{LaTeX2e}
\ProvidesPackage{simurgh-backref}[2013/09/18 v0.01a changes to `backref.sty']
\def\backrefpagesname{\if@RTL صفحات\else pages\fi}
\def\BR@Latincitex[#1]#2{%
\BRorg@Latincitex[{#1}]{#2}%
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\PackageInfo{backref}{** backref set up for natbib **}%
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\endinput
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https://web.evanchen.cc/twitch/Ep112-INMO-2023-6-Solution.tex
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evanchen.cc
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CC-MAIN-2023-14
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application/x-tex
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application/x-tex
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crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296943845.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20230322145537-20230322175537-00380.warc.gz
| 678,875,965 | 2,561 |
\documentclass[11pt]{scrartcl}
\usepackage{evan}
\begin{document}
\title{INMO 2023/6}
\subtitle{Evan Chen}
\author{Twitch Solves ISL}
\date{Episode 112}
\maketitle
\section*{Problem}
Euclid has a tool called \emph{cyclos} which allows him to do the following:
\begin{itemize}
\ii Given three non-collinear marked points,
draw the circle passing through them.
\ii Given two marked points,
draw the circle with them as endpoints of a diameter.
\ii Mark any intersection points of two drawn circles
or mark a new point on a drawn circle.
\end{itemize}
Show that given two marked points,
Euclid can draw a circle centered at one of them and passing through the other,
using only the cyclos.
\section*{Video}
\href{https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kR3Tzw5JIUU&list=PLi6h8GM1FA6yHh4gDk_ZYezmncU1EJUmZ}{\texttt{https://youtu.be/kR3Tzw5JIUU}}
\section*{External Link}
\url{https://aops.com/community/p26888633}
\newpage
\section*{Solution}
We start with the following lemmas.
Observe first that given any non-right nondegenerate triangle $ABC$:
\begin{itemize}
\ii Draw $(AB)$, $(BC)$, $(CA)$ to get feet $D$, $E$, $F$.
\ii Draw $(AEF)$, $(BFD)$, $(CDE)$ to get the orthocenter $H$.
\ii Note also that $(BCH)$ is the reflection of $(ABC)$ across $\ol{BC}$.
So, we may reflect a circle over a chord.
\end{itemize}
Suppose we're given to start a circle $\gamma$ with diameter $\ol{AD}$.
Pick points $B$ and $C$ on $\gamma$ so that $ABC$ is acute.
\begin{claim*}
We may construct get the reflection $B'$ of $A$ across $B$.
\end{claim*}
\begin{proof}
Let $\delta_B$ be any circle through $A$ and $B$ other than $\gamma$ or
$(AB)$ (for example one may let the third vertex be the foot from
the orthocenter of $ABC$ to line $BD$).
Reflect both $\delta_B$ and $\gamma$ about $\ol{BD}$.
\end{proof}
\begin{center}
\begin{asy}
pair A = dir(110);
pair B = dir(210);
pair C = dir(330);
pair D = dir(290);
filldraw(unitcircle, opacity(0.1)+orange, red+1.4);
draw(A--D, red);
pair B_prime = 2*B-A;
pair C_prime = 2*C-A;
draw(circumcircle(A, B_prime, C_prime), deepgreen);
draw(circumcircle(B_prime, B, D), red+dashed);
pair V = foot(orthocenter(A, B, C), B, D);
draw(circumcircle(A, B, V), blue);
draw(circumcircle(B_prime, B, V), blue+dashed);
dot("$A$", A, dir(A));
dot("$B$", B, dir(B));
dot("$C$", C, dir(C));
dot("$D$", D, dir(D));
dot("$B'$", B_prime, dir(B_prime));
dot("$C'$", C_prime, dir(C_prime));
dot(V);
/* -----------------------------------------------------------------+
| TSQX: by CJ Quines and Evan Chen |
| https://github.com/vEnhance/dotfiles/blob/main/py-scripts/tsqx.py |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
A = dir 110
B = dir 210
C = dir 330
D = dir 290
unitcircle / 0.1 orange / red+1.4
A--D / red
B' = 2*B-A
C' = 2*C-A
circumcircle A B' C' / deepgreen
circumcircle B' B D / red dashed
V .= foot (orthocenter A B C) B D
circumcircle A B V / blue
circumcircle B' B V / blue dashed
*/
\end{asy}
\end{center}
Define $C'$ similarly. Then $(AB'C')$ is the desired circle by homothety.
\end{document}
|
https://www.mathematik.tu-dortmund.de/lsiii/cms/bibtex/40001299.tex
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tu-dortmund.de
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CC-MAIN-2021-21
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@TECHREPORT{KuzminTurek2000a,
author = {Kuzmin, D. and Turek, S.},
title = {Efficient numerical techniques for flow simulation in bubble column reactors},
year = {2000},
month = jan,
institution = {Fakult\"{a}t f\"{u}r Mathematik, TU Dortmund},
note = {Ergebnisberichte des Instituts f\"{u}r Angewandte Mathematik, Nummer 196},
}
|
https://mirror.anarhija.net/tr.anarchistlibraries.net/mirror/d/da/devrimci-anarsist-faaliyet-korona-krizine-dikkat-paylasma-ve-dayanismayla-beraberce.tex
|
anarhija.net
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CC-MAIN-2020-34
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crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-34/segments/1596439736057.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200810145103-20200810175103-00578.warc.gz
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\title{Korona Krizine Dikkat! Paylaşma ve Dayanışmayla Beraberce}
\date{21.03.2020}
\author{Devrimci Anarşist Faaliyet}
\subtitle{}
% https://groups.google.com/d/topic/comp.text.tex/6fYmcVMbSbQ/discussion
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{\usekomafont{title}{\huge Korona Krizine Dikkat! Paylaşma ve Dayanışmayla Beraberce\par}}%
\vskip 1em
\vskip 2em
{\usekomafont{author}{Devrimci Anarşist Faaliyet\par}}%
\vskip 1.5em
\vskip 3em
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\vfill
{\usekomafont{date}{21.03.2020\par}}%
\end{center}
\end{titlepage}
\cleardoublepage
Bir krizle daha karşı karşıyayız. Krizin adı Korona. Korona salgını bölge bölge, gün gün ilerliyor. Virüs elden ele, nefesten nefese bulaşıyor; camda, kumaşta, metalde, plastikte yaşıyor.
\forcelinebreak
Virüsün belirtileri belli. Kuluçka süresini, hastalığın nasıl başladığını ve nasıl sonlandığını her gün dinliyor ve izliyoruz. Virüsü tanıyoruz, o da bizi tanıyor; yani yeni yeni tanışıyoruz. Yarın ne yapıp ne yapmayacağını bilmiyoruz. Değişecek mi? Değişmiş halleriyle insanlığı yenecek mi? Ya da insanlık virüsü durduracak mı? Virüsü yenecek mi? Bunlar şimdilik bilinmezler.
\forcelinebreak
Aşı, Covid-19, hastalık, pandemik, salgın, tedavi gibi sağlıksal tanımları içeren bir terminoloji bir anda katıldı günlük konuşmalarımıza ve gündelik yaşantımıza. Bu sağlıksal sorun yavaş yavaş aştı kendisini ve yaşamsal bir krize dönüştü. Ekonomik ve sosyal tüm yaşamımız alt üst oldu.
Virüsü durdurmak için geçici uygulamalarla, genelgelerle tüm dünyada yeni bir yaşam yaratılıyor. Bencilliğin, rekabetin ve ihtirasın yani iktidarın dünyası perçinleniyor. Yalnızlık artıyor. Toplumsal dayanışma, bu yalnızlık yüzünden mahallelerde komşudan komşuya yapılamıyor. Toplumda yalnızlaşan birey, devletin-hükümetin kurumlarının ve kapitalizmin şirketlerinin adaletine kalıyor. Yani adaletsizliğe!
Korona artık bir kriz. Bir virüs salgını olarak başlayan bu sağlıksal gündem, ekonomik ve sosyal bir adalet gündemine dönüşmüştür. Tarih, yüzlerce salgının kendini krize dönüştürmesini yazar. Her salgın, ilahi ve ilahi olmayan iktidarı kuvvetlendirir; bireyi hiçleştirir, hasta sayısı ya da yaşamını yitirmiş ölü sayısı olarak istatiksel bir sayıya indirger. Hiçleşen birey hiçleşen toplum demektir. Başta şaşıran ve saçmalayan iktidar da bir iktidarsızlık süreci yaşar. Önce ortadan kaybolurlar çünkü korkarlar. Yavaş yavaş bu süreç atlatılır ve sonra her şey kontrollerindeymiş gibi davranarak iktidarlarını perçinlemek isterler. Şimdi Korona krizinin hangi evresindeyiz bu bilinmez ama hükümet standart salgın sürecindeki iktidar davranışlarını yapıyor.
\forcelinebreak
Korona tehlikeli mi? Tabi ki tehlikeli ve biz kazandığıyla yaşayan, katı yatı olmayanlar için daha da tehlikeli. Çünkü bizim için kriz arttıkça ekonomide olumsuz etkileşimler de artacak. Gündelik yaşamı idame ettirmeye çalışırken ihtiyaçlar karşılanamayacak. Sosyal yalnızlaşma, kaygı ve korkuyla artacak. Paranoyaklık ve umursamazlık paralel bir yükselişteyken toplumsal iletişim azalacak. Bunlar, salgın süreçlerinde örgütsüz toplumların yaşadığı gerçekler. Salgın süreçlerinde her şeyden daha çok ihtiyacımız olan şey örgütlülüktür.
Korona krizine örgütlü bir şekilde karşı koymalıyız. Adaletine inanmadığımız devletin ve kapitalist şirketlerin şefkatinde değil toplumsal paylaşma, dayanışma ilişkilerini kuvvetlendirerek yaşamımızı kazanabiliriz.
Öncelikle ödemediğimiz-ödeyemediğimiz için faturalarımız kesilmeden tüm arkadaş dostları aramak ve hal hatır sormakla başlayabiliriz. Buna ihtiyacımız yok mu? Var. Sonrasında tanıdığımız tanımadığımız tüm komşularımıza selamımızı vermeliyiz. Dikkatli davranarak belli mesafeleri koruyarak komşularımıza bir ihtiyaçlarının olup olmadığını sormalıyız. Sorunlara beraber cevaplar aramalıyız. Bireysel ekonomimize ve enerjimize paralel paylaşma dayanışma iletişimimizi planlamalıyız. Planlarımıza çevremizdeki arkadaş ve dostlarımızı çağırmalıyız. Korona krizi bilgilerini verileştirerek bireysel yorumlarımızı kuvvetlendirmeliyiz. Paranoyaklık ve umursamazlık hastalıklarına kapılmamalı, çevremizde kapılanları da uyarmalıyız. Bu iki hastalığın, salgını arttıran iki unsur olduğunu unutmamalıyız. Ekonomik sorunları çözemeyeceğimizi düşünmeden, kişiler arası ekonomik olandan olmayana köprüler kurmaya çalışmalıyız. Faturalardan dolayı elektrik, gaz, su gibi ihtiyaçların kapatılmasını veya kesilmesini beraberce engellemeliyiz (Şimdilik Ankara, İstanbul gibi bir kaç belediye gaz ve su kesilmeyeceğini açıkladı).
Bu özörgütlenme çabalarımız çalışmalarımız sonrasında toplumsal muhalefetin örgütlü topluluklarıyla ilişkilenmeliyiz. Biz Devrimci Anarşist Faaliyet olarak bu paylaşma dayanışma sürecinin örgütlenmesinin bir kuvveti olarak davranacağız. Biz birbirimize lazımız.
Kurtuluş yok tek başına! Ya hep beraber ya hiç birimiz!
\forcelinebreak
Paylaşma Dayanışma için: 05531340334
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Anarşist Kütüphane
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\includegraphics[width=0.25\textwidth]{logo-en.pdf}
\bigskip
\end{center}
\strut
\vfill
\begin{center}
Devrimci Anarşist Faaliyet
Korona Krizine Dikkat! Paylaşma ve Dayanışmayla Beraberce
21.03.2020
\bigskip
24.03.2020 tarihinde https:\Slash{}\Slash{}anarsistfaaliyet.org\Slash{}sokak\Slash{}korona-krizine-dikkat-paylasma-ve-dayanismayla-beraberce\Slash{} 'den alındı.
\bigskip
\textbf{tr.anarchistlibraries.net}
\end{center}
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%tex file for ISCIE International Symposium on
% Stochastic Systems Theory and Its Applications
%
%
%latex209
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%latex2e
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\begin{document}
\date{}
\title{\LARGE{\bf
The 43rd ISCIE International Symposium on Stochastic\\
Systems Theory and Its Applications\\
Instruction for Authors}
}
\author{
Taro Ritsumei \\
Dept.~of Elecrical and Electronic Engineering, Ritsumeikan University\\
1-1-1 Noji-Higashi, Kusatsu City, Shiga 525-8577, Japan\\
\\E-mail: [email protected]
}
\maketitle
\thispagestyle{empty}
%ABSTRACT
\abstract{
This document provides instructions for authors for preparing and submitting
the manuscripts for the Proceedings of the 43rd ISCIE International Symposium
on Stochastic System Theory and Its Applications.
This document (including this abstract) itself is an example of the desired layout
for camera-ready papers.
The guidelines detailed in this document will enable the Conference to maintain
uniformity in the final proceedings and to avoid additional publication charges.
To ensure high-quality proceedings, readability of your original manuscript is of
paramount importance.
Also, adherence to deadlines is critical because a great portion of the publication
process is performed sequentially.
}
\section{Introduction}
The manuscript for the Proceedings should be prepared in accordance with the present
instructions.
The Symposium Proceedings will be published by CD-ROM from the electronic file
prepared by the author(s).
Authors are requested to prepare the camera-ready manuscripts on {\bf A4} paper,
written in English, in {\bf PDF} format.
The size of the electronic file should not exceed {\bf 5MB}.
The manuscript should not exceed {\bf 10 pages} (6 pages are recommended) including
figures, tables, photos, references and appendices.
The author who wishes to write the manuscript more than 10 pages or more than 5MB
memory should contact with the SSS'11 Steering Committee for permission.
On A4 paper, the Conference requires a font size of {\bf 10 points or greater}.
Some technical formatting programs print mathematical formulas in italic type, with
subscripts and superscripts in a slightly smaller font size.
In order to assure a high-quality Proceedings, all manuscripts will be reviewed and
only accepted ones will appear in the Proceedings.
\section{Preparation of Exact Size Manuscripts}
Your paper must be prepared in actual size (i.e., exactly how it is to appear in the
proceedings) with {\bf single spacing in two columns}.
To ensure uniformity of appearance for the proceedings, the papers should conform to
the following specifications.
\begin{enumerate}
\item[$\bullet$]
The top margin of the first page, i.e. the distance from the top edge of the paper
to the title, should be {\bf 30mm}.
\item[$\bullet$]
The top margins of the second, and the subsequent pages should be {\bf 26mm}.
\item[$\bullet$]
The text should be centered, and both the left and right margins should be {\bf 16mm}.
\item[$\bullet$]
The column width should be {\bf 84mm}.
\item[$\bullet$]
The space between the two columns is {\bf 10mm}.
\item[$\bullet$]
The bottom margins for all pages should be no less than {\bf 26mm}.
\end{enumerate}
If your paper deviates significantly from these specifications, it may not be
included in the proceedings.
\section{Manuscript Style}
Regarding the styles of your manuscript, please conform to the following
instructions.
\subsection{Title}
The title should be centered across the top of the first page and should
be in a distinctive point size or font.
\subsection{Author's Names and Address}
The authors' names and addresses should be centered below the title.
It is desirable that these lines are typed in at least eleven point font size,
but the particular point sizes and fonts are not critical and are left to the
direction of the authors.
Times new Roman 12 point is suggested.
Please include your E-Mail address.
\subsection{Headings}
Main headings are to be column centered in a bold font without an underline.
They may be numbered, if so desired.
Subheadings should be in a bold font or underlined lowercase with initial
capitals.
They should start at the left-hand margin on a separate line.
Sub-subheadings are to be in a bold font or underlined type.
They should be indented and run in at the beginning of the paragraph.
\subsection{Figures and Tables}
Figures and photos should be consecutively numbered like Fig{.}~1, Fig{.}~2,
Figures should be inserted near their citation or at the end of the manuscript.
Large figures and tables may span across both columns if necessary.
Figure captions should be placed below the figures.
\subsection{References}
List and number all references at the end of the paper as shown below.
Number reference citations consecutively in square brackets [1].
\subsection{Page Numbers}
Do not write page numbers on your manuscript.
These will be inserted later by the proceedings printer together with
the session number and conference identifications.
\section{Manuscript Submission}
Authors are requested to send their manuscripts electronically by
{\bf October 21, 2011} on the web:
\begin{center}
http://sci-sss.org/sss2011/submission/submission.php
\end{center}
\section{Conclusions}
Please make an extra effort to adhere to these guidelines as the quality
of the publications depends on you.
Thank you for your cooperation and contribution.
We are looking forward to seeing you at the 43rd ISCIE International Symposium
on Stochastic Systems Theory and Its Applications (SSS'11).
\begin{thebibliography}{99}
\bibitem{foo}
R. E. Kalman and R. S. Bucy:
New Results in linear filtering and prediction,
{\it Trans. ASME, J. Basic Eng.}, 82 D, pp.95-108, 1960.
\bibitem{bar}
A. H. Jazwinsky:
{\it Stochastic Process and Filtering Theory}, Academic Press, N.Y., 1970.
\end{thebibliography}
\end{document}
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\seminar{Seminar za numerično analizo}
Seminar za numerično analizo vodi Bor Plestenjak.
V letu 2013 je imel seminar 28 sestankov.
V povprečju je bilo na seminarju 13 udeležencev.
Podatki o delu seminarja so dostopni na naslovu
\url{http://www.fmf.uni-lj.si/si/obvestila/agregator/seminar-numericna-analiza/}.
\begin{seznam}
%\predavanje {AVTORJI} {NASLOV} {DEL} {DATUM} {TRAJANJE}
\predavanje {Andrej Kmet}
{Chebfun - Funkcije predstavljene v točkah Čebiševa} {2} {9.~1.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Jolanda Modic}
{Inverzni problem lastnih vrednosti za evklidsko razdaljne matrike} {1} {16.~1.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Jolanda Modic}
{Inverzni problem lastnih vrednosti za evklidsko razdaljne matrike} {2} {20.~2.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Jolanda Modic}
{Inverzni problem lastnih vrednosti za evklidsko razdaljne matrike} {3} {27.~2.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Žiga Povalej}
{Metode smeri spusta v večkriterijski optimizaciji} {1} {6.~3.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Žiga Povalej}
{Metode smeri spusta v večkriterijski optimizaciji} {2} {13.~3.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Žiga Povalej}
{Metode smeri spusta v večkriterijski optimizaciji} {3} {20.~3.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Karla Počkaj}
{Konstrukcija $G^1$ Hermitovega racionalnega gibanja stopnje šest} {} {27.~3.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Marjetka Krajnc}
{Dualna konstrukcija prostorskih racionalnih PH krivulj} {1} {3.~4.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Marjetka Krajnc}
{Dualna konstrukcija prostorskih racionalnih PH krivulj} {2} {10.~4.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Boštjan Kovač}
{Aproksimacija krožnega loka (ukrivljenosti) z B\'{e}zierovimi krivuljami} {1} {17.~4.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Boštjan Kovač}
{Aproksimacija krožnega loka (ukrivljenosti) z B\'{e}zierovimi krivuljami} {2} {24.~4.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Tadej Kanduč}
{Aproksimacijski in interpolacijski zlepki nad triangulacijami} {1} {8.~5.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Tadej Kanduč}
{Aproksimacijski in interpolacijski zlepki nad triangulacijami} {2} {15.~5.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Bor Plestenjak}
{Numerična metoda za računanje vrednosti parametra $\lambda$, kjer ima matrika $A + \lambda B$ večkratno lastno vrednost} {} {22.~5.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Mojca Premuš}
{Predstavitev magistrskega dela: Uporaba metode naj\-manj\-ših kvadratov} {1} {29.~5.} {2 uri}
\predavanje {Mojca Premuš}
{Predstavitev magistrskega dela: Uporaba metode naj\-manj\-ših kvadratov} {2} {5.~6.} {2 uri}
\predavanje {Jolanda Modic}
{Poročilo s poletne šole G2S3} {} {8.~10.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Andrej Muhič}
{Matlabove mex funkcije, uporaba BLASa in LAPACKa v C++-u} {1} {15.~10.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Andrej Muhič}
{Matlabove mex funkcije, uporaba BLASa in LAPACKa v C++-u} {2} {22.~10.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Jaka Špeh}
{Uvod v izogeometrično analizo} {} {29.~10.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Andrej Muhič}
{Matlabove mex funkcije, uporaba BLASa in LAPACKa v C++-u} {3} {5.~11.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Jan Grošelj}
{Powell-Sabinovi zlepki} {1} {13.~11.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Jan Grošelj}
{Powell-Sabinovi zlepki} {2} {20.~11.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Bor Plestenjak}
{Polarni razcep matrike} {} {27.~11.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Jan Kralj}
{Posplošitev Arnoldijevega algoritma na nelinearen problem lastnih vrednosti} {} {4.~12.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Marjetka Krajnc}
{Prostorske PB krivulje in konformna ogrodja} {1} {11.~12.} {1 ura}
\predavanje {Marjetka Krajnc}
{Prostorske PB krivulje in konformna ogrodja} {2} {18.~12.} {1 ura}
\end{seznam}
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$c_{{2m}}^{{\nu}}(0)=0,$
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<p>
<strong>This is an old revision of the document!</strong>
</p>
<hr />
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\lhead{\Large \bf Keywords: Dso}
\rhead{\Large \bf List of Publications}
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\begin{center}
\end{center}
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\Large {\bf Journal Articles}\\[-8mm]
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\normalsize
\normalsize
\item \parbox[t]{150mm}{
\rm
J. Engel, V. Koltun and D. Cremers,\\ {\bf Direct Sparse Odometry,}\\ March\ 2018.}
\item \parbox[t]{150mm}{
\rm
P. Bergmann, R. Wang and D. Cremers,\\ {\bf Online Photometric Calibration of Auto Exposure Video for Realtime Visual Odometry and SLAM,}\\ {\em{IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters (RA-L)}},\ 3:\ 627-634,\ April\ 2018,\ {\bf ICRA'18 Best Vision Paper Award - Finalist}.}
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D. Schubert, N. Demmel, L. von Stumberg, V. Usenko and D. Cremers,\\ {\bf Rolling-Shutter Modelling for Visual-Inertial Odometry,}\\ November\ 2019.}
\normalsize
\item \parbox[t]{150mm}{
\rm
L. von Stumberg, V. Usenko and D. Cremers,\\ {\bf Direct Sparse Visual-Inertial Odometry using Dynamic Marginalization,}\\ May\ 2018.}
\item \parbox[t]{150mm}{
\rm
X. Gao, R. Wang, N. Demmel and D. Cremers,\\ {\bf LDSO: Direct Sparse Odometry with Loop Closure,}\\ {\em{iros}},\ October\ 2018.}
\item \parbox[t]{150mm}{
\rm
N. Yang, R. Wang, J. Stueckler and D. Cremers,\\ {\bf Deep Virtual Stereo Odometry: Leveraging Deep Depth Prediction for Monocular Direct Sparse Odometry,}\\ {\em{eccv}},\ September\ 2018,\ {\bf Oral Presentation}.}
\normalsize
\item \parbox[t]{150mm}{
\rm
R. Wang, M. Schw\"orer and D. Cremers,\\ {\bf Stereo DSO: Large-Scale Direct Sparse Visual Odometry with Stereo Cameras,}\\ {\em{International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV)}},\ Venice, Italy,\ October\ 2017.}
\normalsize
\item \parbox[t]{150mm}{
\rm
J. Engel, V. Usenko and D. Cremers,\\ {\bf A Photometrically Calibrated Benchmark For Monocular Visual Odometry,}\\ {\em{arXiv:1607.02555}},\ July\ 2016.}
\item \parbox[t]{150mm}{
\rm
J. Engel, V. Koltun and D. Cremers,\\ {\bf Direct Sparse Odometry,}\\ {\em{arXiv:1607.02565}},\
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%ĆWICZENIE 2.
%Przygotuj ten dokument w LaTeX-u zgodnie z wydrukowaną odpowiedzią.
%Cały tekst znajduje się poniżej
Abstrakt
Lorem Ipsum jest tekstem stosowanym jako przykładowy wypełniacz w przemyśle poligraficznym. Został po raz pierwszy użyty w XV w. przez nieznanego drukarza do wypełnienia tekstem próbnej książki. Pięć wieków później zaczął być używany przemyśle elektronicznym, pozostając praktycznie niezmienionym. Spopularyzował się w latach 60. XX w. wraz z publikacją arkuszy Letrasetu, zawierających fragmenty Lorem Ipsum, a ostatnio z zawierającym różne wersje Lorem Ipsum oprogramowaniem przeznaczonym do realizacji druków na komputerach osobistych, jak Aldus PageMaker.
Tytuł 1
Lorem Ipsum jest tekstem stosowanym jako przykładowy wypełniacz w przemyśle poligraficznym. Został po raz pierwszy użyty w XV w. przez nieznanego drukarza do wypełnienia tekstem próbnej książki. Pięć wieków później zaczął być używany przemyśle elektronicznym, pozostając praktycznie niezmienionym. Spopularyzował się w latach 60. XX w. wraz z publikacją arkuszy Letrasetu, zawierających fragmenty Lorem Ipsum, a ostatnio z zawierającym różne wersje Lorem Ipsum oprogramowaniem przeznaczonym do realizacji druków na komputerach osobistych, jak Aldus PageMaker. Lorem Ipsum jest tekstem stosowanym jako przykładowy wypełniacz w przemyśle poligraficznym. Został po raz pierwszy użyty w XV w. przez nieznanego drukarza do wypełnienia tekstem próbnej książki. Pięć wieków później zaczął być używany przemyśle elektronicznym, pozostając praktycznie niezmienionym. Spopularyzował się w latach 60. XX w. wraz z publikacją arkuszy Letrasetu, zawierających fragmenty Lorem Ipsum, a ostatnio z zawierającym różne wersje Lorem Ipsum oprogramowaniem przeznaczonym do realizacji druków na komputerach osobistych, jak Aldus PageMaker.
Podtytuł
Lorem Ipsum jest tekstem stosowanym jako przykładowy wypełniacz w przemyśle poligraficznym. Został po raz pierwszy użyty w XV w. przez nieznanego drukarza do wypełnienia tekstem próbnej książki. Pięć wieków później zaczął być używany przemyśle elektronicznym, pozostając praktycznie niezmienionym. Spopularyzował się w latach 60. XX w. wraz z publikacją arkuszy Letrasetu, zawierających fragmenty Lorem Ipsum, a ostatnio z zawierającym różne wersje Lorem Ipsum oprogramowaniem przeznaczonym do realizacji druków na komputerach osobistych, jak Aldus PageMaker. Lorem Ipsum jest tekstem stosowanym jako przykładowy wypełniacz w przemyśle poligraficznym. Został po raz pierwszy użyty w XV w. przez nieznanego drukarza do wypełnienia tekstem próbnej książki. Pięć wieków później zaczął być używany przemyśle elektronicznym, pozostając praktycznie niezmienionym. Spopularyzował się w latach 60. XX w. wraz z publikacją arkuszy Letrasetu, zawierających fragmenty Lorem Ipsum, a ostatnio z zawierającym różne wersje Lorem Ipsum oprogramowaniem przeznaczonym do realizacji druków na komputerach osobistych, jak Aldus PageMaker.
Tytuł 2
Lorem Ipsum jest tekstem stosowanym jako przykładowy wypełniacz w przemyśle poligraficznym. Został po raz pierwszy użyty w XV w. przez nieznanego drukarza do wypełnienia tekstem próbnej książki. Pięć wieków później zaczął być używany przemyśle elektronicznym, pozostając praktycznie niezmienionym. Spopularyzował się w latach 60. XX w. wraz z publikacją arkuszy Letrasetu, zawierających fragmenty Lorem Ipsum, a ostatnio z zawierającym różne wersje Lorem Ipsum oprogramowaniem przeznaczonym do realizacji druków na komputerach osobistych, jak Aldus PageMaker. Lorem Ipsum jest tekstem stosowanym jako przykładowy wypełniacz w przemyśle poligraficznym. Został po raz pierwszy użyty w XV w. przez nieznanego drukarza do wypełnienia tekstem próbnej książki. Pięć wieków później zaczął być używany przemyśle elektronicznym, pozostając praktycznie niezmienionym. Spopularyzował się w latach 60. XX w. wraz z publikacją arkuszy Letrasetu, zawierających fragmenty Lorem Ipsum, a ostatnio z zawierającym różne wersje Lorem Ipsum oprogramowaniem przeznaczonym do realizacji druków na komputerach osobistych, jak Aldus PageMaker.
Podtytuł
Lorem Ipsum jest tekstem stosowanym jako przykładowy wypełniacz w przemyśle poligraficznym. Został po raz pierwszy użyty w XV w. przez nieznanego drukarza do wypełnienia tekstem próbnej książki. Pięć wieków później zaczął być używany przemyśle elektronicznym, pozostając praktycznie niezmienionym. Spopularyzował się w latach 60. XX w. wraz z publikacją arkuszy Letrasetu, zawierających fragmenty Lorem Ipsum, a ostatnio z zawierającym różne wersje Lorem Ipsum oprogramowaniem przeznaczonym do realizacji druków na komputerach osobistych, jak Aldus PageMaker. Lorem Ipsum jest tekstem stosowanym jako przykładowy wypełniacz w przemyśle poligraficznym. Został po raz pierwszy użyty w XV w. przez nieznanego drukarza do wypełnienia tekstem próbnej książki. Pięć wieków później zaczął być używany przemyśle elektronicznym, pozostając praktycznie niezmienionym. Spopularyzował się w latach 60. XX w. wraz z publikacją arkuszy Letrasetu, zawierających fragmenty Lorem Ipsum, a ostatnio z zawierającym różne wersje Lorem Ipsum oprogramowaniem przeznaczonym do realizacji druków na komputerach osobistych, jak Aldus PageMaker.
Spis treści
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https://fifthestate.anarchistlibraries.net/library/276-september-1976-hold-the-pickle-hold-your-fire.tex
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anarchistlibraries.net
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\includegraphics[keepaspectratio=true,height=0.75\textheight,width=\textwidth]{2-s-276-september-1976-hold-the-pickle-hold-your-f-1.png}
\end{figure}
B.K. Brings You the All New SELF-BURGER!!!
A new feature at our inner-city Burger King allows you, the customer, to come through our doors in search of a hamburger and take a chance on becoming hamburger yourself! Continuing our policy of giving random surprises to our customers, Burger King regional supervisor Dan Dilldy hired an armed guard equipped with a double-barreled sawed-off shotgun.
In case of an attempted robbery by one of the local junkies, all the lucky customers (and employees) become likely targets and possible candidates for customer-burger of the month.
In the interests of a safer, crime-free urban environment, we at BK are doing our small part to bring you the modern American police state.
Towards the brutalization of everyday life.
\section{HAVE IT OUR WAY}
% begin final page
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Fifth Estate Collective
Hold the pickle, Hold your fire
(mock ad for Burger King)
\bigskip
\href{https://www.fifthestate.org/archive/276-september-1976/hold-the-pickle-hold-your-fire}{\texttt{https://www.fifthestate.org/archive/276-september-1976/hold-the-pickle-hold-your-fire}}
Fifth Estate \#276, September 1976
\bigskip
\textbf{fifthestate.anarchistlibraries.net}
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http://porocila.imfm.si/2020/mat/clani/saksida.tex
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% A. objavljene znanstvene monografije
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% Mentor pri magistrskih delih (bolonjski študij)
% 2. RITOVŠEK, Tanja. Shannon-Nyquistov izrek vzorčenja in zgoščeno zaznavanje : magistrsko delo. Ljubljana: [T. Ritovšek], 2020. IX, 67 str., ilustr. https://repozitorij.uni-lj.si/Dokument.php?id=136635&lang=slv. [COBISS.SI-ID 33238787]
{Mentorstvo pri enem magistrskem delu (bolonjski študij)}
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% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
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% Urednik
% 1. Obzornik Mat.\ Fiz.. SAKSIDA, Pavle (področni urednik 2004-). Ljubljana: Društvo matematikov, fizikov in astronomov Slovenije, 1951-. ISSN 0473-7466. http://www.obzornik.si/. [COBISS.SI-ID 753412]
%--------------------------------------------------------
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\mathcode`\^^E="023A % \lnot
\mathcode`\^^F="3232 % \in
\mathcode`\^^G="0119 % \pi
\mathcode`\^^H="0115 % \lambda
\mathcode`\^^I="010D % \gamma
\mathcode`\^^J="010E % \delta
\mathcode`\^^K="3222 % \uparrow
\mathcode`\^^L="2206 % \pm
\mathcode`\^^M="2208 % \oplus
\mathcode`\^^N="0231 % \infty
\mathcode`\^^O="0140 % \partial
\mathcode`\^^P="321A % \subset
\mathcode`\^^Q="321B % \supset
\mathcode`\^^R="225C % \cap
\mathcode`\^^S="225B % \cup
\mathcode`\^^T="0238 % \forall
\mathcode`\^^U="0239 % \exists
\mathcode`\^^V="220A % \otimes
\mathcode`\^^W="3224 % \leftrightarrow
\mathcode`\^^X="3220 % \leftarrow
\mathcode`\^^Y="3221 % \rightarrow
\mathcode`\^^Z="8000 % \ne
\mathcode`\^^[="2205 % \diamond
\mathcode`\^^\="3214 % \le
\mathcode`\^^]="3215 % \ge
\mathcode`\^^^="3211 % \equiv
\mathcode`\^^_="225F % \lor
\mathcode`\ ="8000 % \space
\mathcode`\!="5021
\mathcode`\'="8000 % ^\prime
\mathcode`\(="4028
\mathcode`\)="5029
\mathcode`\*="2203 % \ast
\mathcode`\+="202B
\mathcode`\,="613B
\mathcode`\-="2200
\mathcode`\.="013A
\mathcode`\/="013D
\mathcode`\:="303A
\mathcode`\;="603B
\mathcode`\<="313C
\mathcode`\=="303D
\mathcode`\>="313E
\mathcode`\?="503F
\mathcode`\[="405B
\mathcode`\\="026E % \backslash
\mathcode`\]="505D
\mathcode`\_="8000 % \_
\mathcode`\{="4266
\mathcode`\|="026A
\mathcode`\}="5267
\mathcode`\^^?="1273 % \smallint
% INITEX sets \uccode`x=`X and \uccode `X=`X for all letters x,
% and \lccode`x=`x, \lccode`X=`x; all other values are zero.
% No changes to those tables are needed in plain TeX format.
% INITEX sets \sfcode x=1000 for all x, except that \sfcode`X=999
% for uppercase letters. The following changes are needed:
\sfcode`\)=0 \sfcode`\'=0 \sfcode`\]=0
% The \nonfrenchspacing macro will make further changes to \sfcode values.
% Finally, INITEX sets all \delcode values to -1, except \delcode`.=0
\delcode`\(="028300
\delcode`\)="029301
\delcode`\[="05B302
\delcode`\]="05D303
\delcode`\<="26830A
\delcode`\>="26930B
\delcode`\/="02F30E
\delcode`\|="26A30C
\delcode`\\="26E30F
% N.B. { and } should NOT get delcodes; otherwise parameter grouping fails!
% To make the plain macros more efficient in time and space,
% several constant values are declared here as control sequences.
% If they were changed, anything could happen; so they are private symbols.
\chardef\@ne=1
\chardef\tw@=2
\chardef\thr@@=3
\chardef\sixt@@n=16
\chardef\@cclv=255
\mathchardef\@cclvi=256
\mathchardef\@m=1000
\mathchardef\@M=10000
\mathchardef\@MM=20000
% Allocation of registers
% Here are macros for the automatic allocation of \count, \box, \dimen,
% \skip, \muskip, and \toks registers, as well as \read and \write
% stream numbers, \fam codes, \language codes, and \insert numbers.
\message{registers,}
% When a register is used only temporarily, it need not be allocated;
% grouping can be used, making the value previously in the register return
% after the close of the group. The main use of these macros is for
% registers that are defined by one macro and used by others, possibly at
% different nesting levels. All such registers should be defined through
% these macros; otherwise conflicts may occur, especially when two or more
% more macro packages are being used at once.
% The following counters are reserved:
% 0 to 9 page numbering
% 10 count allocation
% 11 dimen allocation
% 12 skip allocation
% 13 muskip allocation
% 14 box allocation
% 15 toks allocation
% 16 read file allocation
% 17 write file allocation
% 18 math family allocation
% 19 language allocation
% 20 insert allocation
% 21 the most recently allocated number
% 22 constant -1
% New counters are allocated starting with 23, 24, etc. Other registers are
% allocated starting with 10. This leaves 0 through 9 for the user to play
% with safely, except that counts 0 to 9 are considered to be the page and
% subpage numbers (since they are displayed during output). In this scheme,
% \count 10 always contains the number of the highest-numbered counter that
% has been allocated, \count 14 the highest-numbered box, etc.
% Inserts are given numbers 254, 253, etc., since they require a \count,
% \dimen, \skip, and \box all with the same number; \count 19 contains the
% lowest-numbered insert that has been allocated. Of course, \box255 is
% reserved for \output; \count255, \dimen255, and \skip255 can be used freely.
% It is recommended that macro designers always use
% \global assignments with respect to registers numbered 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, and
% always non-\global assignments with respect to registers 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 255.
% This will prevent ``save stack buildup'' that might otherwise occur.
\count10=22 % allocates \count registers 23, 24, ...
\count11=9 % allocates \dimen registers 10, 11, ...
\count12=9 % allocates \skip registers 10, 11, ...
\count13=9 % allocates \muskip registers 10, 11, ...
\count14=9 % allocates \box registers 10, 11, ...
\count15=9 % allocates \toks registers 10, 11, ...
\count16=-1 % allocates input streams 0, 1, ...
\count17=-1 % allocates output streams 0, 1, ...
\count18=3 % allocates math families 4, 5, ...
\count19=0 % allocates \language codes 1, 2, ...
\count20=255 % allocates insertions 254, 253, ...
\countdef\insc@unt=20 % the insertion counter
\countdef\allocationnumber=21 % the most recent allocation
\countdef\m@ne=22 \m@ne=-1 % a handy constant
\def\wlog{\immediate\write\m@ne} % write on log file (only)
% Here are abbreviations for the names of scratch registers
% that don't need to be allocated.
\countdef\count@=255
\dimendef\dimen@=0
\dimendef\dimen@i=1 % global only
\dimendef\dimen@ii=2
\skipdef\skip@=0
\toksdef\toks@=0
% Now, we define \newcount, \newbox, etc. so that you can say \newcount\foo
% and \foo will be defined (with \countdef) to be the next counter.
% To find out which counter \foo is, you can look at \allocationnumber.
% Since there's no \boxdef command, \chardef is used to define a \newbox,
% \newinsert, \newfam, and so on.
\outer\def\newcount{\alloc@0\count\countdef\insc@unt}
\outer\def\newdimen{\alloc@1\dimen\dimendef\insc@unt}
\outer\def\newskip{\alloc@2\skip\skipdef\insc@unt}
\outer\def\newmuskip{\alloc@3\muskip\muskipdef\@cclvi}
\outer\def\newbox{\alloc@4\box\chardef\insc@unt}
\let\newtoks=\relax % we do this to allow plain.tex to be read in twice
\outer\def\newhelp#1#2{\newtoks#1#1\expandafter{\csname#2\endcsname}}
\outer\def\newtoks{\alloc@5\toks\toksdef\@cclvi}
\outer\def\newread{\alloc@6\read\chardef\sixt@@n}
\outer\def\newwrite{\alloc@7\write\chardef\sixt@@n}
\outer\def\newfam{\alloc@8\fam\chardef\sixt@@n}
\outer\def\newlanguage{\alloc@9\language\chardef\@cclvi}
\def\alloc@#1#2#3#4#5{\global\advance\count1#1by\@ne
\ch@ck#1#4#2% make sure there's still room
\allocationnumber=\count1#1%
\global#3#5=\allocationnumber
\wlog{\string#5=\string#2\the\allocationnumber}}
\outer\def\newinsert#1{\global\advance\insc@unt by\m@ne
\ch@ck0\insc@unt\count
\ch@ck1\insc@unt\dimen
\ch@ck2\insc@unt\skip
\ch@ck4\insc@unt\box
\allocationnumber=\insc@unt
\global\chardef#1=\allocationnumber
\wlog{\string#1=\string\insert\the\allocationnumber}}
\def\ch@ck#1#2#3{\ifnum\count1#1<#2%
\else\errmessage{No room for a new #3}\fi}
% Here are some examples of allocation.
\newdimen\maxdimen \maxdimen=16383.99999pt % the largest legal <dimen>
\newskip\hideskip \hideskip=-1000pt plus 1fill % negative but can grow
% LaTeX change: the PLAIN \centering dimension conflicts with
% LaTeX's \centering command, so it is redefined to \@centering.
% This dimension is used by LaTeX.
\newskip\@centering \@centering=0pt plus 1000pt minus 1000pt
\newdimen\p@ \p@=1pt % this saves macro space and time
\newdimen\z@ \z@=0pt % can be used both for 0pt and 0
\newskip\z@skip \z@skip=0pt plus0pt minus0pt
\newbox\voidb@x % permanently void box register
% And here's a different sort of allocation:
% For example, \newif\iffoo creates \footrue, \foofalse to go with \iffoo.
\outer\def\newif#1{\count@\escapechar \escapechar\m@ne
\expandafter\expandafter\expandafter
\edef\@if#1{true}{\let\noexpand#1=\noexpand\iftrue}%
\expandafter\expandafter\expandafter
\edef\@if#1{false}{\let\noexpand#1=\noexpand\iffalse}%
\@if#1{false}\escapechar\count@} % the condition starts out false
\def\@if#1#2{\csname\expandafter\if@\string#1#2\endcsname}
{\uccode`1=`i \uccode`2=`f \uppercase{\gdef\if@12{}}} % `if' is required
% Assign initial values to TeX's parameters
\message{parameters,}
% All of TeX's numeric parameters are listed here,
% but the code is commented out if no special value needs to be set.
% INITEX makes all parameters zero except where noted.
\pretolerance=100
\tolerance=200 % INITEX sets this to 10000
\hbadness=1000
\vbadness=1000
\linepenalty=10
\hyphenpenalty=50
\exhyphenpenalty=50
\binoppenalty=700
\relpenalty=500
\clubpenalty=150
\widowpenalty=150
\displaywidowpenalty=50
\brokenpenalty=100
\predisplaypenalty=10000
% \postdisplaypenalty=0
% \interlinepenalty=0
% \floatingpenalty=0, set during \insert
% \outputpenalty=0, set before TeX enters \output
\doublehyphendemerits=10000
\finalhyphendemerits=5000
\adjdemerits=10000
% \looseness=0, cleared by TeX after each paragraph
% \pausing=0
% \holdinginserts=0
% \tracingonline=0
% \tracingmacros=0
% \tracingstats=0
% \tracingparagraphs=0
% \tracingpages=0
% \tracingoutput=0
\tracinglostchars=1
% \tracingcommands=0
% \tracingrestores=0
% \language=0
\uchyph=1
% \lefthyphenmin=2 \righthyphenmin=3 set below
% \globaldefs=0
% \maxdeadcycles=25 % INITEX does this
% \hangafter=1 % INITEX does this, also TeX after each paragraph
% \fam=0
% \mag=1000 % INITEX does this
% \escapechar=`\\ % INITEX does this
\defaulthyphenchar=`\-
\defaultskewchar=-1
% \endlinechar=`\^^M % INITEX does this
\newlinechar=-1
\delimiterfactor=901
% \time=now % TeX does this at beginning of job
% \day=now % TeX does this at beginning of job
% \month=now % TeX does this at beginning of job
% \year=now % TeX does this at beginning of job
\showboxbreadth=5
\showboxdepth=3
\errorcontextlines=5
\hfuzz=0.1pt
\vfuzz=0.1pt
\overfullrule=5pt
\hsize=6.5in
\vsize=8.9in
\maxdepth=4pt
\splitmaxdepth=\maxdimen
\boxmaxdepth=\maxdimen
% \lineskiplimit=0pt, changed by \normalbaselines
\delimitershortfall=5pt
\nulldelimiterspace=1.2pt
\scriptspace=0.5pt
% \mathsurround=0pt
% \predisplaysize=0pt, set before TeX enters $$
% \displaywidth=0pt, set before TeX enters $$
% \displayindent=0pt, set before TeX enters $$
\parindent=20pt
% \hangindent=0pt, zeroed by TeX after each paragraph
% \hoffset=0pt
% \voffset=0pt
% \baselineskip=0pt, changed by \normalbaselines
% \lineskip=0pt, changed by \normalbaselines
\parskip=0pt plus 1pt
\abovedisplayskip=12pt plus 3pt minus 9pt
\abovedisplayshortskip=0pt plus 3pt
\belowdisplayskip=12pt plus 3pt minus 9pt
\belowdisplayshortskip=7pt plus 3pt minus 4pt
% \leftskip=0pt
% \rightskip=0pt
\topskip=10pt
\splittopskip=10pt
% \tabskip=0pt
% \spaceskip=0pt
% \xspaceskip=0pt
\parfillskip=0pt plus 1fil
\thinmuskip=3mu
\medmuskip=4mu plus 2mu minus 4mu
\thickmuskip=5mu plus 5mu
% We also define special registers that function like parameters:
\newskip\smallskipamount \smallskipamount=3pt plus 1pt minus 1pt
\newskip\medskipamount \medskipamount=6pt plus 2pt minus 2pt
\newskip\bigskipamount \bigskipamount=12pt plus 4pt minus 4pt
\newskip\normalbaselineskip \normalbaselineskip=12pt
\newskip\normallineskip \normallineskip=1pt
\newdimen\normallineskiplimit \normallineskiplimit=0pt
\newdimen\jot \jot=3pt
\newcount\interdisplaylinepenalty \interdisplaylinepenalty=100
\newcount\interfootnotelinepenalty \interfootnotelinepenalty=100
% Definitions for preloaded fonts
\def\magstephalf{1095 }
\def\magstep#1{\ifcase#1 \@m\or 1200\or 1440\or 1728\or 2074\or 2488\fi\relax}
% Fonts assigned to \preloaded are not part of "plain TeX",
% but they are preloaded so that other format packages can use them.
% For example, if another set of macros says "\font\ninerm=cmr9",
% TeX will not have to reload the font metric information for cmr9.
% LaTeX font definitions are taken from the file LFONTS.TEX,
% so all of PLAIN's font definitions are commented out.
%\message{fonts,}
%
%\font\tenrm=cmr10 % roman text
%\font\preloaded=cmr9
%\font\preloaded=cmr8
%\font\sevenrm=cmr7
%\font\preloaded=cmr6
%\font\fiverm=cmr5
%
%\font\teni=cmmi10 % math italic
%\font\preloaded=cmmi9
%\font\preloaded=cmmi8
%\font\seveni=cmmi7
%\font\preloaded=cmmi6
%\font\fivei=cmmi5
%
%\font\tensy=cmsy10 % math symbols
%\font\preloaded=cmsy9
%\font\preloaded=cmsy8
%\font\sevensy=cmsy7
%\font\preloaded=cmsy6
%\font\fivesy=cmsy5
%
%\font\tenex=cmex10 % math extension
%
%\font\preloaded=cmss10 % sans serif
%\font\preloaded=cmssq8
%
%\font\preloaded=cmssi10 % sans serif italic
%\font\preloaded=cmssqi8
%
%\font\tenbf=cmbx10 % boldface extended
%\font\preloaded=cmbx9
%\font\preloaded=cmbx8
%\font\sevenbf=cmbx7
%\font\preloaded=cmbx6
%\font\fivebf=cmbx5
%
%\font\tentt=cmtt10 % typewriter
%\font\preloaded=cmtt9
%\font\preloaded=cmtt8
%
%\font\preloaded=cmsltt10 % slanted typewriter
%
%\font\tensl=cmsl10 % slanted roman
%\font\preloaded=cmsl9
%\font\preloaded=cmsl8
%
%\font\tenit=cmti10 % text italic
%\font\preloaded=cmti9
%\font\preloaded=cmti8
%\font\preloaded=cmti7
%
%\message{more fonts,}
%\font\preloaded=cmu10 % unslanted text italic
%
%\font\preloaded=cmmib10 % bold math italic
%\font\preloaded=cmbsy10 % bold math symbols
%
%\font\preloaded=cmcsc10 % caps and small caps
%
%\font\preloaded=cmssbx10 % sans serif bold extended
%
%\font\preloaded=cmdunh10 % Dunhill style
%
%\font\preloaded=cmr7 scaled \magstep4 % for titles
%\font\preloaded=cmtt10 scaled \magstep2
%\font\preloaded=cmssbx10 scaled \magstep2
%
%\font\preloaded=manfnt % METAFONT logo and dragon curve and special symbols
%
%% Additional \preloaded fonts can be specified here.
%% (And those that were \preloaded above can be eliminated.)
%
%\let\preloaded=\undefined % preloaded fonts must be declared anew later.
%
%\skewchar\teni='177 \skewchar\seveni='177 \skewchar\fivei='177
%\skewchar\tensy='60 \skewchar\sevensy='60 \skewchar\fivesy='60
%
%\textfont0=\tenrm \scriptfont0=\sevenrm \scriptscriptfont0=\fiverm
%\def\rm{\fam\z@\tenrm}
%\textfont1=\teni \scriptfont1=\seveni \scriptscriptfont1=\fivei
%\def\mit{\fam\@ne} \def\oldstyle{\fam\@ne\teni}
%\textfont2=\tensy \scriptfont2=\sevensy \scriptscriptfont2=\fivesy
%\def\cal{\fam\tw@}
%\textfont3=\tenex \scriptfont3=\tenex \scriptscriptfont3=\tenex
%\newfam\itfam \def\it{\fam\itfam\tenit} % \it is family 4
%\textfont\itfam=\tenit
%\newfam\slfam \def\sl{\fam\slfam\tensl} % \sl is family 5
%\textfont\slfam=\tensl
%\newfam\bffam \def\bf{\fam\bffam\tenbf} % \bf is family 6
%\textfont\bffam=\tenbf \scriptfont\bffam=\sevenbf
%\scriptscriptfont\bffam=\fivebf
%\newfam\ttfam \def\tt{\fam\ttfam\tentt} % \tt is family 7
%\textfont\ttfam=\tentt
% Macros for setting ordinary text
\message{macros,}
\def\frenchspacing{\sfcode`\.\@m \sfcode`\?\@m \sfcode`\!\@m
\sfcode`\:\@m \sfcode`\;\@m \sfcode`\,\@m}
\def\nonfrenchspacing{\sfcode`\.3000\sfcode`\?3000\sfcode`\!3000%
\sfcode`\:2000\sfcode`\;1500\sfcode`\,1250 }
\def\normalbaselines{\lineskip\normallineskip
\baselineskip\normalbaselineskip \lineskiplimit\normallineskiplimit}
\def\^^M{\ } % control <return> = control <space>
\def\^^I{\ } % same for <tab>
\def\lq{`} \def\rq{'}
\def\lbrack{[} \def\rbrack{]}
\let\endgraf=\par \let\endline=\cr
\def\space{ }
\def\empty{}
\def\null{\hbox{}}
\let\bgroup={ \let\egroup=}
% In \obeylines, we say `\let^^M=\par' instead of `\def^^M{\par}'
% since this allows, for example, `\let\par=\cr \obeylines \halign{...'
{\catcode`\^^M=\active % these lines must end with %
\gdef\obeylines{\catcode`\^^M\active \let^^M\par}%
\global\let^^M\par} % this is in case ^^M appears in a \write
\def\obeyspaces{\catcode`\ \active}
{\obeyspaces\global\let =\space}
\def\loop#1\repeat{\def\body{#1}\iterate}
\def\iterate{\body \let\next\iterate \else\let\next\relax\fi \next}
\let\repeat=\fi % this makes \loop...\if...\repeat skippable
\def\thinspace{\kern .16667em }
\def\negthinspace{\kern-.16667em }
\def\enspace{\kern.5em }
\def\enskip{\hskip.5em\relax}
\def\quad{\hskip1em\relax}
\def\qquad{\hskip2em\relax}
\def\smallskip{\vskip\smallskipamount}
\def\medskip{\vskip\medskipamount}
\def\bigskip{\vskip\bigskipamount}
\def\nointerlineskip{\prevdepth-1000\p@}
\def\offinterlineskip{\baselineskip-1000\p@
\lineskip\z@ \lineskiplimit\maxdimen}
\def\vglue{\afterassignment\vgl@\skip@=}
\def\vgl@{\par \dimen@\prevdepth \hrule height\z@
\nobreak\vskip\skip@ \prevdepth\dimen@}
\def\hglue{\afterassignment\hgl@\skip@=}
\def\hgl@{\leavevmode \count@\spacefactor \vrule width\z@
\nobreak\hskip\skip@ \spacefactor\count@}
\def~{\penalty\@M \ } % tie
\def\slash{/\penalty\exhyphenpenalty} % a `/' that acts like a `-'
\def\break{\penalty-\@M}
\def\nobreak{\penalty \@M}
\def\allowbreak{\penalty \z@}
\def\filbreak{\par\vfil\penalty-200\vfilneg}
\def\goodbreak{\par\penalty-500 }
\def\eject{\par\break}
\def\supereject{\par\penalty-\@MM}
\def\removelastskip{\ifdim\lastskip=\z@\else\vskip-\lastskip\fi}
\def\smallbreak{\par\ifdim\lastskip<\smallskipamount
\removelastskip\penalty-50\smallskip\fi}
\def\medbreak{\par\ifdim\lastskip<\medskipamount
\removelastskip\penalty-100\medskip\fi}
\def\bigbreak{\par\ifdim\lastskip<\bigskipamount
\removelastskip\penalty-200\bigskip\fi}
% \line changed to \@@line because LaTeX redefines \line
\def\@@line{\hbox to\hsize}
\def\leftline#1{\@@line{#1\hss}}
\def\rightline#1{\@@line{\hss#1}}
\def\centerline#1{\@@line{\hss#1\hss}}
% end of LaTeX \line -> \@@line change
\def\rlap#1{\hbox to\z@{#1\hss}}
\def\llap#1{\hbox to\z@{\hss#1}}
\def\m@th{\mathsurround=\z@}
\def\underbar#1{$\setbox\z@\hbox{#1}\dp\z@\z@
\m@th \underline{\box\z@}$}
\newbox\strutbox
\setbox\strutbox=\hbox{\vrule height8.5pt depth3.5pt width\z@}
\def\strut{\relax\ifmmode\copy\strutbox\else\unhcopy\strutbox\fi}
\def\hidewidth{\hskip\hideskip} % for alignment entries that can stick out
\def\ialign{\everycr{}\tabskip\z@skip\halign} % initialized \halign
\newcount\mscount
\def\multispan#1{\omit \mscount#1
\loop\ifnum\mscount>\@ne \sp@n\repeat}
\def\sp@n{\span\omit\advance\mscount\m@ne}
% LaTeX has its own tabbing environment, so PLAIN's is disabled.
%
%\newif\ifus@ \newif\if@cr
%\newbox\tabs \newbox\tabsyet \newbox\tabsdone
%
%\def\cleartabs{\global\setbox\tabsyet\null \setbox\tabs\null}
%\def\settabs{\setbox\tabs\null \futurelet\next\sett@b}
%\let\+=\relax % in case this file is being read in twice
%\def\sett@b{\ifx\next\+\let\next\relax
% \def\next{\afterassignment\s@tt@b\let\next}%
% \else\let\next\s@tcols\fi\next}
%\def\s@tt@b{\let\next\relax\us@false\m@ketabbox}
%\def\tabalign{\us@true\m@ketabbox} % non-\outer version of \+
%\outer\def\+{\tabalign}
%\def\s@tcols#1\columns{\count@#1 \dimen@\hsize
% \loop\ifnum\count@>\z@ \@nother \repeat}
%\def\@nother{\dimen@ii\dimen@ \divide\dimen@ii\count@
% \setbox\tabs\hbox{\hbox to\dimen@ii{}\unhbox\tabs}%
% \advance\dimen@-\dimen@ii \advance\count@\m@ne}
%
%\def\m@ketabbox{\begingroup
% \global\setbox\tabsyet\copy\tabs
% \global\setbox\tabsdone\null
% \def\cr{\@crtrue\crcr\egroup\egroup
% \ifus@\unvbox\z@\lastbox\fi\endgroup
% \setbox\tabs\hbox{\unhbox\tabsyet\unhbox\tabsdone}}%
% \setbox\z@\vbox\bgroup\@crfalse
% \ialign\bgroup&\t@bbox##\t@bb@x\crcr}
%
%\def\t@bbox{\setbox\z@\hbox\bgroup}
%\def\t@bb@x{\if@cr\egroup % now \box\z@ holds the column
% \else\hss\egroup \global\setbox\tabsyet\hbox{\unhbox\tabsyet
% \global\setbox\@ne\lastbox}% now \box\@ne holds its size
% \ifvoid\@ne\global\setbox\@ne\hbox to\wd\z@{}%
% \else\setbox\z@\hbox to\wd\@ne{\unhbox\z@}\fi
% \global\setbox\tabsdone\hbox{\box\@ne\unhbox\tabsdone}\fi
% \box\z@}
\def\hang{\hangindent\parindent}
\def\textindent#1{\indent\llap{#1\enspace}\ignorespaces}
\def\item{\par\hang\textindent}
\def\itemitem{\par\indent \hangindent2\parindent \textindent}
\def\narrower{\advance\leftskip\parindent
\advance\rightskip\parindent}
% LaTeX has its own sectioning macros
%\outer\def\beginsection#1\par{\vskip\z@ plus.3\vsize\penalty-250
% \vskip\z@ plus-.3\vsize\bigskip\vskip\parskip
% \message{#1}\leftline{\bf#1}\nobreak\smallskip\noindent}
\outer\def\proclaim #1. #2\par{\medbreak
\noindent{\bf#1.\enspace}{\sl#2\par}%
\ifdim\lastskip<\medskipamount \removelastskip\penalty55\medskip\fi}
\def\raggedright{\rightskip\z@ plus2em \spaceskip.3333em \xspaceskip.5em\relax}
\def\ttraggedright{\tt\rightskip\z@ plus2em\relax} % for use with \tt only
\chardef\%=`\%
\chardef\&=`\&
\chardef\#=`\#
\chardef\$=`\$
\chardef\ss="19
\chardef\ae="1A
\chardef\oe="1B
\chardef\o="1C
\chardef\AE="1D
\chardef\OE="1E
\chardef\O="1F
\chardef\i="10 \chardef\j="11 % dotless letters
\def\aa{\accent23a}
\def\l{\char32l}
\def\L{\leavevmode\setbox0\hbox{L}\hbox to\wd0{\hss\char32L}}
\def\leavevmode{\unhbox\voidb@x} % begins a paragraph, if necessary
\def\_{\leavevmode \kern.06em \vbox{\hrule width.3em}}
\def\AA{\leavevmode\setbox0\hbox{h}\dimen@\ht0\advance\dimen@-1ex%
\rlap{\raise.67\dimen@\hbox{\char'27}}A}
\def\mathhexbox#1#2#3{\leavevmode
\hbox{$\m@th \mathchar"#1#2#3$}}
\def\dag{\mathhexbox279}
\def\ddag{\mathhexbox27A}
\def\S{\mathhexbox278}
\def\P{\mathhexbox27B}
\def\oalign#1{\leavevmode\vtop{\baselineskip\z@skip \lineskip.25ex%
\ialign{##\crcr#1\crcr}}} % put characters over each other
\def\ooalign{\lineskiplimit-\maxdimen \oalign}
% LaTeX change: \d, \b, \c redefined to work in a moving argument.
\def\pd#1{\oalign{#1\crcr\hidewidth.\hidewidth}}
\def\d{\protect\pd}
\def\pb#1{\oalign{#1\crcr\hidewidth
\vbox to.2ex{\hbox{\char22}\vss}\hidewidth}}
\def\b{\protect\pb}
\def\pc#1{\setbox\z@\hbox{#1}\ifdim\ht\z@=1ex\accent24 #1%
\else{\ooalign{\hidewidth\char24\hidewidth\crcr\unhbox\z@}}\fi}
\def\c{\protect\pc}
% end of LaTeX change to \d, \b, \c
\def\copyright{{\ooalign{\hfil\raise.07ex\hbox{c}\hfil\crcr\mathhexbox20D}}}
% LaTeX change: \ldots is redefined to do essentially what Plain's \dots does,
% so ...
\def\dots{\ldots}
\def\TeX{T\kern-.1667em\lower.5ex\hbox{E}\kern-.125emX}
\def\`#1{{\accent18 #1}}
\def\'#1{{\accent19 #1}}
\def\v#1{{\accent20 #1}} \let\^^_=\v
\def\u#1{{\accent21 #1}} \let\^^S=\u
\def\=#1{{\accent22 #1}}
\def\^#1{{\accent94 #1}} \let\^^D=\^
\def\.#1{{\accent95 #1}}
\def\H#1{{\accent"7D #1}}
\def\~#1{{\accent"7E #1}}
\def\"#1{{\accent"7F #1}}
% LaTeX change: Make \t work in a moving argument.
\def\pt#1{{\edef\next{\the\font}\the\textfont1\accent"7F\next#1}}
\def\t{\protect\pt}
% LaTeX change: \kern\z@ added to end of \hrulefill and \dotfill
% to make them work in `tabular' and `array' environments.
% (Change made 24 July 1987).
\def\hrulefill{\leaders\hrule\hfill\kern\z@}
\def\dotfill{\cleaders\hbox{$\m@th \mkern1.5mu.\mkern1.5mu$}\hfill\kern\z@}
\def\rightarrowfill{$\m@th\mathord-\mkern-6mu%
\cleaders\hbox{$\mkern-2mu\mathord-\mkern-2mu$}\hfill
\mkern-6mu\mathord\rightarrow$}
\def\leftarrowfill{$\m@th\mathord\leftarrow\mkern-6mu%
\cleaders\hbox{$\mkern-2mu\mathord-\mkern-2mu$}\hfill
\mkern-6mu\mathord-$}
\mathchardef\braceld="37A \mathchardef\bracerd="37B
\mathchardef\bracelu="37C \mathchardef\braceru="37D
\def\downbracefill{$\m@th\braceld\leaders\vrule\hfill\braceru
\bracelu\leaders\vrule\hfill\bracerd$}
\def\upbracefill{$\m@th\bracelu\leaders\vrule\hfill\bracerd
\braceld\leaders\vrule\hfill\braceru$}
% LaTeX change: \bye is eliminated.
%\outer\def\bye{\par\vfill\supereject\end}
% Macros for math setting
\message{math definitions,}
\let\sp=^ \let\sb=_
\def\,{\mskip\thinmuskip}
\def\>{\mskip\medmuskip}
\def\;{\mskip\thickmuskip}
\def\!{\mskip-\thinmuskip}
\def\*{\discretionary{\thinspace\the\textfont2\char2}{}{}}
{\catcode`\'=\active \gdef'{^\bgroup\prim@s}}
\def\prim@s{\prime\futurelet\next\pr@m@s}
\def\pr@m@s{\ifx'\next\let\nxt\pr@@@s \else\ifx^\next\let\nxt\pr@@@t
\else\let\nxt\egroup\fi\fi \nxt}
\def\pr@@@s#1{\prim@s} \def\pr@@@t#1#2{#2\egroup}
{\catcode`\^^Z=\active \gdef^^Z{\not=}} % ^^Z is like \ne in math
{\catcode`\_=\active \global\let_=\_} % _ in math is either subscript or \_
\mathchardef\alpha="010B
\mathchardef\beta="010C
\mathchardef\gamma="010D
\mathchardef\delta="010E
\mathchardef\epsilon="010F
\mathchardef\zeta="0110
\mathchardef\eta="0111
\mathchardef\theta="0112
\mathchardef\iota="0113
\mathchardef\kappa="0114
\mathchardef\lambda="0115
\mathchardef\mu="0116
\mathchardef\nu="0117
\mathchardef\xi="0118
\mathchardef\pi="0119
\mathchardef\rho="011A
\mathchardef\sigma="011B
\mathchardef\tau="011C
\mathchardef\upsilon="011D
\mathchardef\phi="011E
\mathchardef\chi="011F
\mathchardef\psi="0120
\mathchardef\omega="0121
\mathchardef\varepsilon="0122
\mathchardef\vartheta="0123
\mathchardef\varpi="0124
\mathchardef\varrho="0125
\mathchardef\varsigma="0126
\mathchardef\varphi="0127
\mathchardef\Gamma="7000
\mathchardef\Delta="7001
\mathchardef\Theta="7002
\mathchardef\Lambda="7003
\mathchardef\Xi="7004
\mathchardef\Pi="7005
\mathchardef\Sigma="7006
\mathchardef\Upsilon="7007
\mathchardef\Phi="7008
\mathchardef\Psi="7009
\mathchardef\Omega="700A
\mathchardef\aleph="0240
\def\hbar{{\mathchar'26\mkern-9muh}}
\mathchardef\imath="017B
\mathchardef\jmath="017C
\mathchardef\ell="0160
\mathchardef\wp="017D
\mathchardef\Re="023C
\mathchardef\Im="023D
\mathchardef\partial="0140
\mathchardef\infty="0231
\mathchardef\prime="0230
\mathchardef\emptyset="023B
\mathchardef\nabla="0272
\def\surd{{\mathchar"1270}}
\mathchardef\top="023E
\mathchardef\bot="023F
\def\angle{{\vbox{\ialign{$\m@th\scriptstyle##$\crcr
\not\mathrel{\mkern14mu}\crcr
\noalign{\nointerlineskip}
\mkern2.5mu\leaders\hrule height.34pt\hfill\mkern2.5mu\crcr}}}}
\mathchardef\triangle="0234
\mathchardef\forall="0238
\mathchardef\exists="0239
\mathchardef\neg="023A \let\lnot=\neg
\mathchardef\flat="015B
\mathchardef\natural="015C
\mathchardef\sharp="015D
\mathchardef\clubsuit="027C
\mathchardef\diamondsuit="027D
\mathchardef\heartsuit="027E
\mathchardef\spadesuit="027F
\mathchardef\coprod="1360
\mathchardef\bigvee="1357
\mathchardef\bigwedge="1356
\mathchardef\biguplus="1355
\mathchardef\bigcap="1354
\mathchardef\bigcup="1353
\mathchardef\intop="1352 \def\int{\intop\nolimits}
\mathchardef\prod="1351
\mathchardef\sum="1350
\mathchardef\bigotimes="134E
\mathchardef\bigoplus="134C
\mathchardef\bigodot="134A
\mathchardef\ointop="1348 \def\oint{\ointop\nolimits}
\mathchardef\bigsqcup="1346
\mathchardef\smallint="1273
\mathchardef\triangleleft="212F
\mathchardef\triangleright="212E
\mathchardef\bigtriangleup="2234
\mathchardef\bigtriangledown="2235
\mathchardef\wedge="225E \let\land=\wedge
\mathchardef\vee="225F \let\lor=\vee
\mathchardef\cap="225C
\mathchardef\cup="225B
\mathchardef\ddagger="227A
\mathchardef\dagger="2279
\mathchardef\sqcap="2275
\mathchardef\sqcup="2274
\mathchardef\uplus="225D
\mathchardef\amalg="2271
\mathchardef\diamond="2205
\mathchardef\bullet="220F
\mathchardef\wr="226F
\mathchardef\div="2204
\mathchardef\odot="220C
\mathchardef\oslash="220B
\mathchardef\otimes="220A
\mathchardef\ominus="2209
\mathchardef\oplus="2208
\mathchardef\mp="2207
\mathchardef\pm="2206
\mathchardef\circ="220E
\mathchardef\bigcirc="220D
\mathchardef\setminus="226E % for set difference A\setminus B
\mathchardef\cdot="2201
\mathchardef\ast="2203
\mathchardef\times="2202
\mathchardef\star="213F
\mathchardef\propto="322F
\mathchardef\sqsubseteq="3276
\mathchardef\sqsupseteq="3277
\mathchardef\parallel="326B
\mathchardef\mid="326A
\mathchardef\dashv="3261
\mathchardef\vdash="3260
\mathchardef\nearrow="3225
\mathchardef\searrow="3226
\mathchardef\nwarrow="322D
\mathchardef\swarrow="322E
\mathchardef\Leftrightarrow="322C
\mathchardef\Leftarrow="3228
\mathchardef\Rightarrow="3229
\def\neq{\not=} \let\ne=\neq
\mathchardef\leq="3214 \let\le=\leq
\mathchardef\geq="3215 \let\ge=\geq
\mathchardef\succ="321F
\mathchardef\prec="321E
\mathchardef\approx="3219
\mathchardef\succeq="3217
\mathchardef\preceq="3216
\mathchardef\supset="321B
\mathchardef\subset="321A
\mathchardef\supseteq="3213
\mathchardef\subseteq="3212
\mathchardef\in="3232
\mathchardef\ni="3233 \let\owns=\ni
\mathchardef\gg="321D
\mathchardef\ll="321C
\mathchardef\not="3236
\mathchardef\leftrightarrow="3224
\mathchardef\leftarrow="3220 \let\gets=\leftarrow
\mathchardef\rightarrow="3221 \let\to=\rightarrow
\mathchardef\mapstochar="3237 \def\mapsto{\mapstochar\rightarrow}
\mathchardef\sim="3218
\mathchardef\simeq="3227
\mathchardef\perp="323F
\mathchardef\equiv="3211
\mathchardef\asymp="3210
\mathchardef\smile="315E
\mathchardef\frown="315F
\mathchardef\leftharpoonup="3128
\mathchardef\leftharpoondown="3129
\mathchardef\rightharpoonup="312A
\mathchardef\rightharpoondown="312B
\def\joinrel{\mathrel{\mkern-3mu}}
\def\relbar{\mathrel{\smash-}} % \smash, because - has the same height as +
\def\Relbar{\mathrel=}
\mathchardef\lhook="312C \def\hookrightarrow{\lhook\joinrel\rightarrow}
\mathchardef\rhook="312D \def\hookleftarrow{\leftarrow\joinrel\rhook}
\def\bowtie{\mathrel\triangleright\joinrel\mathrel\triangleleft}
\def\models{\mathrel|\joinrel=}
\def\Longrightarrow{\Relbar\joinrel\Rightarrow}
% LaTeX Change: \longrightarrow and \longleftarrow redefined to make
% then robust.
\def\longrightarrow{\protect\@lra}
\def\@lra{\relbar\joinrel\rightarrow}
\def\longleftarrow{\protect\@lla}
\def\@lla{\leftarrow\joinrel\relbar}
% End of LaTeX change to \longrightarrow and \longleftarrow
\def\Longleftarrow{\Leftarrow\joinrel\Relbar}
\def\longmapsto{\mapstochar\longrightarrow}
\def\longleftrightarrow{\leftarrow\joinrel\rightarrow}
\def\Longleftrightarrow{\Leftarrow\joinrel\Rightarrow}
\def\iff{\;\Longleftrightarrow\;}
\mathchardef\ldotp="613A % ldot as a punctuation mark
\mathchardef\cdotp="6201 % cdot as a punctuation mark
\mathchardef\colon="603A % colon as a punctuation mark
% LaTeX change: make \ldots work outside math mode too.
\def\@ldots{\mathinner{\ldotp\ldotp\ldotp}}
\def\ldots{\protect\pldots}
\def\pldots{\relax\ifmmode\@ldots\else\mbox{$\@ldots\,$}\fi}
% End of LaTeX change to \ldots
\def\cdots{\mathinner{\cdotp\cdotp\cdotp}}
\def\vdots{\vbox{\baselineskip4\p@ \lineskiplimit\z@
\kern6\p@\hbox{.}\hbox{.}\hbox{.}}}
\def\ddots{\mathinner{\mkern1mu\raise7\p@\vbox{\kern7\p@\hbox{.}}\mkern2mu
\raise4\p@\hbox{.}\mkern2mu\raise\p@\hbox{.}\mkern1mu}}
\def\acute{\mathaccent"7013 }
\def\grave{\mathaccent"7012 }
\def\ddot{\mathaccent"707F }
\def\tilde{\mathaccent"707E }
\def\bar{\mathaccent"7016 }
\def\breve{\mathaccent"7015 }
\def\check{\mathaccent"7014 }
\def\hat{\mathaccent"705E }
\def\vec{\mathaccent"017E }
\def\dot{\mathaccent"705F }
\def\widetilde{\mathaccent"0365 }
\def\widehat{\mathaccent"0362 }
\def\overrightarrow#1{\vbox{\ialign{##\crcr
\rightarrowfill\crcr\noalign{\kern-\p@\nointerlineskip}
$\hfil\displaystyle{#1}\hfil$\crcr}}}
\def\overleftarrow#1{\vbox{\ialign{##\crcr
\leftarrowfill\crcr\noalign{\kern-\p@\nointerlineskip}
$\hfil\displaystyle{#1}\hfil$\crcr}}}
\def\overbrace#1{\mathop{\vbox{\ialign{##\crcr\noalign{\kern3\p@}
\downbracefill\crcr\noalign{\kern3\p@\nointerlineskip}
$\hfil\displaystyle{#1}\hfil$\crcr}}}\limits}
\def\underbrace#1{\mathop{\vtop{\ialign{##\crcr
$\hfil\displaystyle{#1}\hfil$\crcr\noalign{\kern3\p@\nointerlineskip}
\upbracefill\crcr\noalign{\kern3\p@}}}}\limits}
\def\skew#1#2#3{{#2{#3\mkern#1mu}\mkern-#1mu}{}}
\def\lmoustache{\delimiter"4000340 } % top from (, bottom from )
\def\rmoustache{\delimiter"5000341 } % top from ), bottom from (
\def\lgroup{\delimiter"400033A } % extensible ( with sharper tips
\def\rgroup{\delimiter"500033B } % extensible ) with sharper tips
\def\arrowvert{\delimiter"33C000 } % arrow without arrowheads
\def\Arrowvert{\delimiter"33D000 } % double arrow without arrowheads
\def\bracevert{\delimiter"33E000 } % the vertical bar that extends braces
\def\Vert{\delimiter"26B30D } \let\|=\Vert
\def\vert{\delimiter"26A30C }
\def\uparrow{\delimiter"3222378 }
\def\downarrow{\delimiter"3223379 }
\def\updownarrow{\delimiter"326C33F }
\def\Uparrow{\delimiter"322A37E }
\def\Downarrow{\delimiter"322B37F }
\def\Updownarrow{\delimiter"326D377 }
\def\backslash{\delimiter"26E30F } % for double coset G\backslash H
\def\rangle{\delimiter"526930B }
\def\langle{\delimiter"426830A }
\def\rbrace{\delimiter"5267309 } \let\}=\rbrace
\def\lbrace{\delimiter"4266308 } \let\{=\lbrace
\def\rceil{\delimiter"5265307 }
\def\lceil{\delimiter"4264306 }
\def\rfloor{\delimiter"5263305 }
\def\lfloor{\delimiter"4262304 }
\def\bigl{\mathopen\big}
\def\bigm{\mathrel\big}
\def\bigr{\mathclose\big}
\def\Bigl{\mathopen\Big}
\def\Bigm{\mathrel\Big}
\def\Bigr{\mathclose\Big}
\def\biggl{\mathopen\bigg}
\def\biggm{\mathrel\bigg}
\def\biggr{\mathclose\bigg}
\def\Biggl{\mathopen\Bigg}
\def\Biggm{\mathrel\Bigg}
\def\Biggr{\mathclose\Bigg}
\def\big#1{{\hbox{$\left#1\vbox to8.5\p@{}\right.\n@space$}}}
\def\Big#1{{\hbox{$\left#1\vbox to11.5\p@{}\right.\n@space$}}}
\def\bigg#1{{\hbox{$\left#1\vbox to14.5\p@{}\right.\n@space$}}}
\def\Bigg#1{{\hbox{$\left#1\vbox to17.5\p@{}\right.\n@space$}}}
\def\n@space{\nulldelimiterspace\z@ \m@th}
\def\choose{\atopwithdelims()}
\def\brack{\atopwithdelims[]}
\def\brace{\atopwithdelims\{\}}
\def\sqrt{\radical"270370 }
\def\mathpalette#1#2{\mathchoice{#1\displaystyle{#2}}%
{#1\textstyle{#2}}{#1\scriptstyle{#2}}{#1\scriptscriptstyle{#2}}}
\newbox\rootbox
\def\root#1\of{\setbox\rootbox\hbox{$\m@th\scriptscriptstyle{#1}$}
\mathpalette\r@@t}
\def\r@@t#1#2{\setbox\z@\hbox{$\m@th#1\sqrt{#2}$}
\dimen@\ht\z@ \advance\dimen@-\dp\z@
\mkern5mu\raise.6\dimen@\copy\rootbox \mkern-10mu \box\z@}
\newif\ifv@ \newif\ifh@
\def\vphantom{\v@true\h@false\ph@nt}
\def\hphantom{\v@false\h@true\ph@nt}
\def\phantom{\v@true\h@true\ph@nt}
\def\ph@nt{\ifmmode\def\next{\mathpalette\mathph@nt}%
\else\let\next\makeph@nt\fi\next}
\def\makeph@nt#1{\setbox\z@\hbox{#1}\finph@nt}
\def\mathph@nt#1#2{\setbox\z@\hbox{$\m@th#1{#2}$}\finph@nt}
\def\finph@nt{\setbox\tw@\null
\ifv@ \ht\tw@\ht\z@ \dp\tw@\dp\z@\fi
\ifh@ \wd\tw@\wd\z@\fi \box\tw@}
\def\mathstrut{\vphantom(}
\def\smash{\relax % \relax, in case this comes first in \halign
\ifmmode\def\next{\mathpalette\mathsm@sh}\else\let\next\makesm@sh
\fi\next}
\def\makesm@sh#1{\setbox\z@\hbox{#1}\finsm@sh}
\def\mathsm@sh#1#2{\setbox\z@\hbox{$\m@th#1{#2}$}\finsm@sh}
\def\finsm@sh{\ht\z@\z@ \dp\z@\z@ \box\z@}
\def\cong{\mathrel{\mathpalette\@vereq\sim}} % congruence sign
\def\@vereq#1#2{\lower.5\p@\vbox{\baselineskip\z@skip\lineskip-.5\p@
\ialign{$\m@th#1\hfil##\hfil$\crcr#2\crcr=\crcr}}}
\def\notin{\mathrel{\mathpalette\c@ncel\in}}
\def\c@ncel#1#2{\ooalign{$\hfil#1\mkern1mu/\hfil$\crcr$#1#2$}}
\def\rightleftharpoons{\mathrel{\mathpalette\rlh@{}}}
\def\rlh@#1{\vcenter{\hbox{\ooalign{\raise2pt
\hbox{$#1\rightharpoonup$}\crcr
$#1\leftharpoondown$}}}}
\def\buildrel#1\over#2{\mathrel{\mathop{\kern\z@#2}\limits^{#1}}}
\def\doteq{\buildrel\textstyle.\over=}
\def\log{\mathop{\rm log}\nolimits}
\def\lg{\mathop{\rm lg}\nolimits}
\def\ln{\mathop{\rm ln}\nolimits}
\def\lim{\mathop{\rm lim}}
\def\limsup{\mathop{\rm lim\,sup}}
\def\liminf{\mathop{\rm lim\,inf}}
\def\sin{\mathop{\rm sin}\nolimits}
\def\arcsin{\mathop{\rm arcsin}\nolimits}
\def\sinh{\mathop{\rm sinh}\nolimits}
\def\cos{\mathop{\rm cos}\nolimits}
\def\arccos{\mathop{\rm arccos}\nolimits}
\def\cosh{\mathop{\rm cosh}\nolimits}
\def\tan{\mathop{\rm tan}\nolimits}
\def\arctan{\mathop{\rm arctan}\nolimits}
\def\tanh{\mathop{\rm tanh}\nolimits}
\def\cot{\mathop{\rm cot}\nolimits}
\def\coth{\mathop{\rm coth}\nolimits}
\def\sec{\mathop{\rm sec}\nolimits}
\def\csc{\mathop{\rm csc}\nolimits}
\def\max{\mathop{\rm max}}
\def\min{\mathop{\rm min}}
\def\sup{\mathop{\rm sup}}
\def\inf{\mathop{\rm inf}}
\def\arg{\mathop{\rm arg}\nolimits}
\def\ker{\mathop{\rm ker}\nolimits}
\def\dim{\mathop{\rm dim}\nolimits}
\def\hom{\mathop{\rm hom}\nolimits}
\def\det{\mathop{\rm det}}
\def\exp{\mathop{\rm exp}\nolimits}
\def\Pr{\mathop{\rm Pr}}
\def\gcd{\mathop{\rm gcd}}
\def\deg{\mathop{\rm deg}\nolimits}
\def\bmod{\mskip-\medmuskip\mkern5mu
\mathbin{\rm mod}\penalty900\mkern5mu\mskip-\medmuskip}
\def\pmod#1{\allowbreak\mkern18mu({\rm mod}\,\,#1)}
\def\cases#1{\left\{\,\vcenter{\normalbaselines\m@th
\ialign{$##\hfil$&\quad##\hfil\crcr#1\crcr}}\right.}
\def\matrix#1{\null\,\vcenter{\normalbaselines\m@th
\ialign{\hfil$##$\hfil&&\quad\hfil$##$\hfil\crcr
\mathstrut\crcr\noalign{\kern-\baselineskip}
#1\crcr\mathstrut\crcr\noalign{\kern-\baselineskip}}}\,}
\def\pmatrix#1{\left(\matrix{#1}\right)}
\newdimen\p@renwd
% LaTeX: following command is moved after the \tenex font is defined
% by LFONTS
%\setbox0=\hbox{\tenex B} \p@renwd=\wd0 % width of the big left (
\def\bordermatrix#1{\begingroup \m@th
\setbox\z@\vbox{\def\cr{\crcr\noalign{\kern2\p@\global\let\cr\endline}}%
\ialign{$##$\hfil\kern2\p@\kern\p@renwd&\thinspace\hfil$##$\hfil
&&\quad\hfil$##$\hfil\crcr
\omit\strut\hfil\crcr\noalign{\kern-\baselineskip}%
#1\crcr\omit\strut\cr}}%
\setbox\tw@\vbox{\unvcopy\z@\global\setbox\@ne\lastbox}%
\setbox\tw@\hbox{\unhbox\@ne\unskip\global\setbox\@ne\lastbox}%
\setbox\tw@\hbox{$\kern\wd\@ne\kern-\p@renwd\left(\kern-\wd\@ne
\global\setbox\@ne\vbox{\box\@ne\kern2\p@}%
\vcenter{\kern-\ht\@ne\unvbox\z@\kern-\baselineskip}\,\right)$}%
\null\;\vbox{\kern\ht\@ne\box\tw@}\endgroup}
\def\openup{\afterassignment\@penup\dimen@=}
\def\@penup{\advance\lineskip\dimen@
\advance\baselineskip\dimen@
\advance\lineskiplimit\dimen@}
% LaTeX change: \eqalign eliminated, since it is replaced by the
% eqnarray environment.
%
%\def\eqalign#1{\null\,\vcenter{\openup\jot\m@th
% \ialign{\strut\hfil$\displaystyle{##}$&$\displaystyle{{}##}$\hfil
% \crcr#1\crcr}}\,}
\newif\ifdt@p
\def\displ@y{\global\dt@ptrue\openup\jot\m@th
\everycr{\noalign{\ifdt@p \global\dt@pfalse
\vskip-\lineskiplimit \vskip\normallineskiplimit
\else \penalty\interdisplaylinepenalty \fi}}}
\def\@lign{\tabskip\z@skip\everycr{}} % restore inside \displ@y
\def\displaylines#1{\displ@y
\halign{\hbox to\displaywidth{$\@lign\hfil\displaystyle##\hfil$}\crcr
#1\crcr}}
% LaTeX: The following \eqalign type macros are eliminated, since
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% \iffalse meta-comment
%
% Copyright (C) 2017-2020
% The LaTeX3 Project and any individual authors listed elsewhere
% in this file.
%
% This file is part of the LaTeX base system.
% -------------------------------------------
%
% It may be distributed and/or modified under the
% conditions of the LaTeX Project Public License, either version 1.3c
% of this license or (at your option) any later version.
% The latest version of this license is in
% http://www.latex-project.org/lppl.txt
% and version 1.3c or later is part of all distributions of LaTeX
% version 2008 or later.
%
% This file has the LPPL maintenance status "maintained".
%
% The list of all files belonging to the LaTeX base distribution is
% given in the file `manifest.txt'. See also `legal.txt' for additional
% information.
%
% The list of derived (unpacked) files belonging to the distribution
% and covered by LPPL is defined by the unpacking scripts (with
% extension .ins) which are part of the distribution.
%
% \fi
% Filename: ltnews28.tex
%
% This is issue 28 of LaTeX News.
\documentclass{ltnews}
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
\usepackage{lmodern,url,hologo}
\providecommand\acro[1]{\textsc{#1}}
\providecommand\meta[1]{$\langle$\textit{#1}$\rangle$}
\publicationmonth{April}
\publicationyear{2018}
\publicationissue{28}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
\tableofcontents
\setlength\rightskip{0pt plus 3em}
\section{A new home for \LaTeXe{} sources}
In the past the development version of the \LaTeXe{} source files has
been managed in a Subversion source control system with read access
for the public. This way it was possible to download in an emergency
the latest version even before it was released to CTAN and made its
way into the various distributions.
We have recently changed this setup and now manage the sources using
Git and placed the master sources on GitHub at
\begin{quote}
\url{https://github.com/latex3/latex2e}
\end{quote}
where we already store the sources
for \pkg{expl3} and other work. As before, direct write access is restricted
to \LaTeX{} Project Team members, but everything is publicly accessible
including the ability to download, clone (using Git) or checkout
(using SVN). More details are given in~\cite{Mittelbach:TB39-1}.
\section{Bug reports for core \LaTeXe{}}
For more than two decades we used GNATS, an open source bug tracking
system developed by the FSF. While that has served us well in the past
it started to show its age more and more. So as part of this move we
also decided to finally retire the old \LaTeX{} bug database and replace
it with the standard ``Issue Tracker'' available at Github.
The requirements and the workflow for reporting a bug in the core
\LaTeX{} software is documented at
\begin{quote}
\url{https://www.latex-project.org/bugs/}
\end{quote}
and with further details also discussed in~\cite{Mittelbach:TB39-1}.
\section{UTF-8: the new default input encoding}
The first \TeX{} implementations only supported reading 7-bit
\acro{ascii} files---any accented or otherwise ``special'' character
had to be entered using commands, if it could be represented at
all. For example to obtain an ``\"a'' one would enter \verb=\"a=, and to
typeset a ``\ss'' the command \verb=\ss=. Furthermore fonts at that
time had 128 glyphs inside, holding the \acro{ascii} characters, some
accents to build composite glyphs from a letter and an accent, and a
few special symbols such as parentheses, etc.
With 8-bit \TeX{} engines such as \hologo{pdfTeX} this situation changed
somewhat: it was now possible to process 8-bit files, i.e., files that
could encode 256 different characters. However, 256 is still a fairly
small number and with this limitation it is only possible to encode a
few languages and for other languages one would need to change the
encoding (i.e., interpret the character positions 0--255 in a
different way). The first code points 0--127 were essentially normed
(corresponding to \acro{ascii}) while the second half 128--255 would
vary by holding different accented characters to support a certain set
of languages.
Each computer used one of these encodings when storing or interpreting
files and as long as two computers used the same encoding it was
(easily) possible to exchange files between them and have them
interpreted and processed correctly.
But different computers may have used different encodings and given
that a computer file is simply a sequence of bytes with no indication for
which encoding is intended, chaos could easily happen and has
happened. For example, the German word ``Gr\"o\ss e'' (height) entered on a
German keyboard could show up as ``Gr\v T\`ae'' on a different
computer using a different encoding by default.
So in summmary the situation wasn't at all good and it was clear in
the early nineties that \LaTeXe{} (that was being developed to provide
a \LaTeX{} version usable across the world) had to provide a solution
to this issue.
The \LaTeXe{} answer was the introduction of the \package{inputenc}
package~\cite{Mittelbach:Brno95} through which it is possible to
provide support for multiple encodings. It also allows to correctly
process a file written in one encoding on a computer using a different
encoding and even supports documents where the encoding changes
midway.
Since the first release of \LaTeXe{} in 1994, \LaTeX{} documents that
used any characters outside \acro{ascii} in the source (i.e. any
characters in the range of 128--255) were supposed to load
\package{inputenc} and specify in which file encoding they were
written and stored.
%
If the \package{inputenc} package was not loaded then \LaTeX{} used a
``raw'' encoding which essentially took each byte from the input file
and typeset the glyph that happened to be in that position in the
current font---something that sometimes produces the right result but
often enough will not.
In 1992 Ken Thompson and Rob Pike developed the UTF-8 encoding scheme
which enables the encoding of all Unicode characters within 8-bit sequences.
Over time this encoding has gradually taken over the world,
replacing the legacy 8-bit encodings used before. These days all major
computer operating systems use UTF-8 to store their files and it
requires some effort to explicitly store files in one of the legacy
encodings.
As a result, whenever \LaTeX{} users want to use any accented
characters from their keyboard (instead of resorting to \verb=\"a= and
the like) they always have to use
\begin{verbatim}
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
\end{verbatim}
in the preamble of their documents as otherwise \LaTeX{} will produce
gibberish.
\subsection{The new default}
With this release, the default encoding for \LaTeX\ files has been
changed from the ``fall through raw'' encoding to UTF-8 if used with
classic \TeX\ or \hologo{pdfTeX}. The implementation is essentially
the same as the existing UTF-8 support from
\verb|\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}|.
The \hologo{LuaTeX} and \hologo{XeTeX} engines always supported the
UTF-8 encoding as their native (and only) input encoding, so with
these engines \package{inputenc} was always a no-op.
This means that with new documents one can assume UTF-8 input and it
is no longer required to always specify
\verb|\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}|. But if this line is present it
will not hurt either.
\subsection{Compatibility}
For most existing documents this change will be transparent:
\begin{itemize}
\item documents using only \acro{ascii} in the input file and
accessing accented characters via commands;
\item documents that specified the encoding of their file via an
option to the \package{inputenc} package and then used 8-bit
characters in that encoding;
\item documents that already had been stored in UTF-8 (whether or not
specifying this via \package{inputenc}).
\end{itemize}
Only documents that have been stored in a legacy encoding and used
accented letters from the keyboard \emph{without} loading
\package{inputenc} (relying on the similarities between the input used
and the T1 font encoding) are affected.
These documents will now generate an error that they contain invalid
UTF-8 sequences. However, such documents may be easily processed by
adding the new command \verb|\UseRawInputEncoding| as the first line
of the file. This will re-instate the previous ``raw'' encoding
default.
\verb|\UseRawInputEncoding| may also be used on the command line to
process existing files without requiring the file to be edited
\begin{verbatim}
pdflatex '\UseRawInputEncoding \input' file
\end{verbatim}
will process the file using the previous default encoding.
Possible alternatives are reencoding the file to UTF-8 using a tool
(such as recode or iconv or an editor) or adding the line
\begin{flushleft}
\verb= \usepackage[=\meta{encoding}\verb=]{inputenc}=
\end{flushleft}
to the preamble specifying the \meta{encoding} that fits the file
encoding. In many cases this will be \texttt{latin1} or
\texttt{cp1252}. For other encoding names and their meaning see the
\package{inputenc} documentation.
As usual, this change may also be reverted via the more general
\package{latexrelease} package mechanism, by speciying a release date
earlier than this release.
\subsection{BOM: byte order mark handling}
When using Unicode the first bytes of a file may be a, so called, BOM
character (byte order mark) to indicate the byte oder used in the
file. While this is not required with UTF-8 encoded files (where the
byte order is known) it is nevertheless allowed by the standard and
some editors add that byte sequence to the beginning of a file. In the
past such files would have generated a ``Missing begin document''
error or displayed strange characters when loaded at a later stage.
With the addition of UTF-8 support to the kernel it is now possible to
identify and ignore such BOMs characters even before
\verb=\documentclass= so that these issues will no longer be showing
up.
\section[A general rollback concept]
{A general rollback concept for packages and classes}
In 2015 a rollback concept for the \LaTeX{} kernel was introduced.
Providing this feature allowed us to make corrections to the
software (which more or less didn't happen for nearly two decades)
while continuing to maintain backward compatibility to the highest
degree.
In this release we have now extended this concept to
the world of packages and classes which was not covered
initially. As the classes and the extension packages have different
requirements compared to the kernel, the approach is different (and
simplified). This should make it easy for package developers to
apply it to their packages and authors to use when necessary.
The documentation of this new feature is given in an article
submitted to TUGboat and also available from our
website~\cite{Mittelbach:TB39-2}.
\section[Integration of \pkg{remreset} and \pkg{chngcntr} packages]
{Integration of \pkg{remreset} and \pkg{chngcntr} packages
into the kernel}
With the optional argument to \cs{newcounter} \LaTeX{} offers to
automatically reset counters when some counter is stepped, e.g.,
stepping a \texttt{chapter} counter resets the \texttt{section}
counter (and recursively all other heading counters). However, what
was until now missing was a way to undo such a link between counters
or to link two counters after they have been defined.
This can be now be done with \cs{counterwithin} and \cs{counterwithout},
respectively. In the past one had to load the \pkg{chngcntr} package
for this. For the programming level we also added
\cs{@removefromreset} as the counterpart of the already existing
\cs{@addtoreset} command. Up to now this was offered by the
\pkg{remreset} package.
\section{Testing for undefined commands}
\LaTeX\ packages often use a test \verb|\@ifundefined| to test if a command
is defined. Unfortunately this had the side effect of \emph{defining}
the command to \verb|\relax| in the case that it had no definition.
The new release uses a modified definition
(using extra testing possibilities available in \hologo{eTeX}. The new definition
is more natural, however code that was relying on the side effect of the
command being tested being defined if it was previously undefined may have to add
\verb|\let\|\meta{command}\verb|\relax|.
\section{Changes to packages in the tools category}
\subsection{\LaTeX{} table columns with fixed widths}
Frank published a short paper in
TUGboat~\cite{Mittelbach:TB38-2-213} on producing tables that have
columns with fixed widths. The outlined approach using column
specifiers ``\texttt{w}'' and ``\texttt{W}'' has now been integrated
into the \pkg{array} package.
\subsection{Obscure overprinting with \pkg{multicol} fixed}
A rather peculiar bug was reported on StackExchange for
\pkg{multicol}. If the column/page breaking was fully controlled by
the user (through \cs{columnbreak}) instead of letting the environment
do its job and if then more \cs{columnbreak} commands showed up on the
last page then the balancing algorithm was thrown off track.
As a result some parts of the columns did overprint each other.
The fix required a redesign of the output routines used by
\pkg{multicol} and while it ``should'' be transparent in other cases
(and all tests in the regession test suite came out fine) there is the
off-chance that code that hooked into internals of \pkg{multicol}
needs adjustment.
\section{Changes to packages in the amsmath category}
With this release of \LaTeX{} a few minor issues with \pkg{amsmath}
have been corrected.
\subsection{Updated user's guide}
Furthermore, \texttt{amsldoc.pdf}, the AMS user's
guide for the \pkg{amsmath} package~\cite{amsldoc}, has been updated
from version~2.0 to~2.1 to incorporate changes and corrections made
between 2016 and 2018.
\begin{thebibliography}{9}
\bibitem{Mittelbach:TB39-1} Frank Mittelbach:
\emph{New rules for reporting bugs in the \LaTeX{} core software}.
In: TUGboat, 39\#1, 2018.
\url{https://www.latex-project.org/publications/}
\bibitem{Mittelbach:Brno95} Frank Mittelbach:
\emph{\LaTeXe{} Encoding Interface --- Purpose, concepts, and
Open Problems}.
Talk given in Brno June 1995.
\url{https://www.latex-project.org/publications/}
\bibitem{Mittelbach:TB39-2} Frank Mittelbach:
\emph{A rollback concept for packages and classes}.
Submitted to TUGboat.
\url{https://www.latex-project.org/publications/}
\bibitem{Mittelbach:TB38-2-213} Frank Mittelbach:
\emph{\LaTeX{} table columns with fixed widths}.
In: TUGboat, 38\#2, 2017.
\url{https://www.latex-project.org/publications/}
\bibitem{amsldoc} American Mathematical Society and The \LaTeX3 Project:
\emph{User's Guide for the \texttt{amsmath} package} (Version 2.1).
April 2018.
Available from
\url{https://www.ctan.org}
and distributed as part of every \LaTeX{} distribution.
\end{thebibliography}
\end{document}
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\documentclass[ngerman]{article}
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
\usepackage{babel}
\setlength{\parindent}{0pt}
\setlength{\parskip}{1ex plus 0.2ex minus 0.1ex}
\usepackage{dcolumn,longtable,hhline,colortbl}
\usepackage[table]{xcolor}
\setlongtables%
\begin{document}
\def\slash#1{\textbackslash#1}
\title{The \textsf{colortbl} package\footnote{1.\,"Ubersetzungsversion,
letzte "Anderung 15.\,3. 2009}}
\author{{\huge David Carlisle}\\ (\"Ubersetzung: Anne-Katrin Leich \& Christine
R"omer)}
\date{\today}
\maketitle
\begin{abstract}
Durch das flexible Setzen farbiger `Felder' erm"oglicht dieses Paket die
Hintergrundgestaltung definierter Spalten in Tabellen. Dazu werden das \textsf{array}- und
das \textsf{color}-Paket ben"otigt.
\end{abstract}
\section{Einleitung}
Das Paket \textsf{colortbl} dient dem Einf"arben von Tabellen (d.\,h. der farbigen
Gestaltung von
Fl"achen hinter Tabelleneintr"agen). Es "ahnelt Timothy Van Zandts \textsf{colortab}-Paket.
Die innere Anwendungsstruktur ist zwar anders, \textsf{colortab} benutzt aber wie
\textsf{colortbl} nicht nur Tabellen-Konstruktionen von \LaTeX, sondern auch die anderer
Formate. \textsf{colortbl} basiert also auf \LaTeX (und dessen \textsf{color}- und
\textsf{array}- Pakete).
Zum Vergleich zun"achst eine einfache Tabelle:
\begin{center}
\begin{minipage}{.75\textwidth}
\begin{verbatim}
\begin{tabular}{|l|c|}
eins & zwei\\
drei & vier
\end{tabular}
\end{verbatim}
\end{minipage}
{\bfseries
\begin{tabular}{|l|c|}
eins&zwei\\
drei&vier
\end{tabular}}
\end{center}
\section{ Der \slash \textsf{columncolor}-Befehl}
Die folgenden Beispiele demonstrieren verschiedene Anwendungsm"oglichkeiten des durch
\textsf{colortbl} eingef"uhrten \slash \textsf{columncolor}-Befehls. Die vertikalen Linien,
durch |
definiert, werden bewusst in allen Beispielen verwendet, um die Positionierung der Spalten
zu verdeutlichen. Auch wenn Sie vielleicht letztendlich nicht farbige
Felder \emph{und} vertikale Linien verwenden m"ochten.
Der hier genannte \slash \textsf{columncolor}-Befehl sollte (nur) als Argument im Sinne
der >
column-Definition gebraucht werden, um ein farbiges Feld hinter die definierte Spalte zu
legen. Er kann in der einleitenden Pr"aambel als Argument von \textsf{array}-,
\textsf{tabular}- und auch in \slash{multicolumn}-Definitionen eingesetzt werden.
Der elementare Quelltext lautet:\\
\slash \textsf{columncolor}[<\emph{color model}>]\{<\emph{colour}>\}
[<\emph{left overhang}>][<\emph{right overhang}>]
Das erste Argument (oder die ersten beiden, falls das optionale Argument in Anspruch
genommen wird) ist das "ubliche Argument des \textsf{color}-Pakets wie es
auch bei \slash \textsf{color} auftritt.
Die letzten beiden Argumente geben an, nach welchem Abstand das Feld hinter dem breitesten
Tabelleneintrag endet.
Wenn das Argument \emph{rechter "Uberhang} nicht in Anspruch genommen wird, entspricht es
dem Argument \emph{linker "Uberhang}. Bleiben beide undefiniert, entsprechen sie dem vorgegebenen
Wert von \slash \textsf{tabcolsep} (im \textsf{tabular}-Paket) oder
\slash \textsf{arraycolsep} (im \textsf{array}-Paket).
Setzt man die "Uberhang-Argumente auf $0 \textrm{pt}$, tritt folgender Effekt ein:
\begin{center}
\begin{minipage}{.75\textwidth}
\begin{verbatim}
|>{\columncolor[gray]{.8}[0pt]}l|
>{\color{white}%
\columncolor[gray]{.2}[0pt]}l|
\end{verbatim}
\end{minipage}
{\bfseries
\begin{tabular}{%
|>{\columncolor[gray]{.8}[0pt]}l|
>{\color{white}%
\columncolor[gray]{.2}[0pt]}l|
}
eins & zwei\\
drei & vier
\end{tabular}}
\end{center}
Der voreingestellte "Uberhang von \slash \textsf{tabcolsep} produziert folgendes Layout:
\begin{center}
\begin{minipage}{.75\textwidth}
\begin{verbatim}
|>{\columncolor[gray]{.8}}l|
>{\color{white}%
\columncolor[gray]{.2}}l|
\end{verbatim}
\end{minipage}
{\bfseries
\begin{tabular}{%
|>{\columncolor[gray]{.8}}l|
>{\color{white}%
\columncolor[gray]{.2}}l|
}
eins & zwei\\
drei & vier
\end{tabular}}
\end{center}
M"oglicherweise bedarf man einer Definition, die zwischen diesen Extrembeispielen liegt.
Ein Betrag von .5\slash \textsf{tabcolsep} sieht dann so aus:
\begin{center}
\begin{minipage}{.75\textwidth}
\begin{verbatim}
|>{\columncolor[gray]{.8}[.5\tabcolsep]}l|
>{\color{white}%
\columncolor[gray]{.2}[.5\tabcolsep]}l|
\end{verbatim}
\end{minipage}
{\bfseries
\begin{tabular}{%
|>{\columncolor[gray]{.8}[.5\tabcolsep]}l|
>{\color{white}\columncolor[gray]{.2}[.5\tabcolsep]}l|
}
eins & zwei\\
drei & vier
\end{tabular}}
\end{center}
\textsf{colortbl} sollte mit den meisten anderen Paketen kompatibel sein, die mit der
Syntax des \textsf{array}-Pakets vereinbar sind. Im Einzelfall arbeitet es mit
\textsf{longtable} und \textsf{dcolumn}, wie es das folgende Beispiel zeigt:
\errorcontextlines10
\newcolumntype{A}{%
>{\color{white}\columncolor{red}[.5\tabcolsep]%
\raggedright}%
p{2cm}}
\newcolumntype{B}{%
>{\columncolor{blue}[.5\tabcolsep]%
\color{yellow}\raggedright}
p{3cm}}
\newcolumntype{E}{%
>{\large\bfseries
\columncolor{cyan}[.5\tabcolsep]}c}
\newcolumntype{F}{%
>{\color{white}
\columncolor{magenta}[.5\tabcolsep]}c}
\newcolumntype{G}{%
>{\columncolor[gray]{0.8}[.5\tabcolsep][\tabcolsep]}l}
\newcolumntype{H}{>{\columncolor[gray]{0.8}}l}
3.3 so wie im folgenden verbatim-Text zu verwenden ist am besten, aber
dann besteht die Notwendigkeit die Version vom Juni 1996 von
\textsf{dcolumn} zu benutzen, dann nehme man hier -1.
\newcolumntype{C}{%
>{\columncolor{yellow}[.5\tabcolsep]}%
D{.}{\cdot}{-1}}
\newcolumntype{I}{%
>{\columncolor[gray]{0.8}[\tabcolsep][.5\tabcolsep]}%
D{.}{\cdot}{-1}}
\setlength\minrowclearance{2pt}
Ehe die Tabelle beginnt, sollte ein kleiner Leerraum eingef"ugt werden:
\slash \textsf{setlength}\slash \textsf{minrowclearance}\{$2\textrm{pt}$\}
\begin{longtable}{ABC}
\multicolumn{3}{E}{Bsp. f"ur eine lange Tabelle}\\
\multicolumn{2}{F}{die ersten beiden Spalten}&
\multicolumn{1}{F}{die dritte Spalte}\\
\multicolumn{2}{F}{p-type} &
\multicolumn{1}{F}{D-type (\textsf{dcolumn})}\endfirsthead
\multicolumn{3}{E}{Bsp. f"ur eine lange Tabelle (Fortsetzung)}\\
\multicolumn{2}{F}{die ersten beiden Spalten} &
\multicolumn{1}{F}{die dritte Spalte}\\
\multicolumn{2}{F}{p-type} &
\multicolumn{1}{F}{D-type (\textsf{dcolumn})}\endhead
\multicolumn{3}{E}{Fortsetzung folgt\ldots}\endfoot
\multicolumn{3}{E}{Ende}\endlastfoot
P-column & und eine &12.34\\
\multicolumn{1}{G}{Total}&
\multicolumn{1}{H}{(falsch)}&
\multicolumn{1}{I}{100.6}\\
Ein etwas l"angerer Text in der ersten Spalte & bbb & 1.2\\
aaa & und etwas mehr Text in der zweiten Spalte & 1.345\\
\multicolumn{1}{G}{Total} &
\multicolumn{1}{H}{(falsch)} &
\multicolumn{1}{I}{100.6}\\
aaa & bbb & 1.345\\
Beachten Sie, dass sich die farbigen Linien der Breite der l"angsten
Tabelleneintr"age anpassen. & bbb &1.345\\
aaa & bbb &100\\
aaa & Abh"angig vom Treiber enstehen dort, wo sich Felder beeinflussen, unansehnliche
L"ucken oder Linien. Sie k"onnen dann durch die Definition von "Uberhang-Komponenten
angrenzende Fl"achen derselben Farbe erzeugen oder durch \textsf{noalign} `negative
Felder'zwischen Zeilen einf"ugen. & 12.4\\
aaa & bbb & 45.3\\
\end{longtable}
Dieses Beispiel zeigt ein wenig ansprechendes Layout, ist jedoch farbenfroh gestaltet.
F"ur den vollst"andigen Quelltext "offnen sie die Quelldatei
\textsf{colortbl.dtx}. Die
verwendeten Spalten-Typen finden Sie aber auch hier:
\begin{verbatim}
\newcolumntype{A}{%
>{\color{white}\columncolor{red}[.5\tabcolsep]%
\raggedright}%
p{2cm}}
\newcolumntype{B}{%
>{\columncolor{blue}[.5\tabcolsep]%
\color{yellow}\raggedright}
p{3cm}}
\newcolumntype{C}{%
>{\columncolor{yellow}[.5\tabcolsep]}%
D{.}{\cdot}{3.3}}
\newcolumntype{E}{%
>{\large\bfseries
\columncolor{cyan}[.5\tabcolsep]}c}
\newcolumntype{F}{%
>{\color{white}
\columncolor{magenta}[.5\tabcolsep]}c}
\newcolumntype{G}{%
>{\columncolor[gray]{0.8}[.5\tabcolsep][\tabcolsep]}l}
\newcolumntype{H}{>{\columncolor[gray]{0.8}}l}
\newcolumntype{I}{%
>{\columncolor[gray]{0.8}[\tabcolsep][.5\tabcolsep]}%
D{.}{\cdot}{3.3}}
\end{verbatim}
\section{Benutzung der `"Uberhang'-Argumente f"ur \textsf{tabular*}}
Die bisher aufgef"uhrten Optionen eignen sich f"ur tabular, aber wie sieht es mit
\textsf{tabular*} aus?
In diesem Fall ist die Gestaltung farbiger Felder schwieriger. Die
Anwendung des
\TeX Befehls \slash \textsf{leader}, der zum Einf"ugen breiterer farbiger Felder dient,
"ahnelt \emph{glue}. \slash \textsf{tabskip} glue, das bei \textsf{tabular*}
(und in diesem Fall auch bei \textsf{longtable}) zwischen den Spalten eingef"ugt wird,
muss ein `wirklicher glue-Befehl' sein, keine `leader-Anweisung'.
Mit einigen Einschr"ankungen kann aber auch hier die "Uberhang-Funktion genutzt werden.
Beachten Sie nachfolgend die erste Beispieltabelle. Mit \textsf{tabular*} kann in der Pr"aambel
eine Breite von 3\,cm festgelegt werden:
\begin{center}
\begin{minipage}{.6\textwidth}
\begin{verbatim}
\begin{tabular*}{3cm}{%
@{\extracolsep{\fill}}
>{\columncolor[gray]{.8}[0pt][20mm]}l
>{\columncolor[gray]{.8}[5mm][0pt]}l
@{}}
\end{verbatim}
\end{minipage}
{\bfseries
\begin{tabular*}{3cm}{%
@{\extracolsep{\fill}}
>{\columncolor[gray]{.8}[0pt][20mm]}l
>{\columncolor[gray]{.8}[5mm][0pt]}l
@{}%
}
eins & zwei\\
drei & vier
\end{tabular*}}
\end{center}
Das Feld kann auf 4\,cm verbreitert werden, aber fordern Sie Ihr Gl"uck nicht mit einer
weiteren Verbreiterung auf 5\,cm heraus \ldots
\begin{center}
\bfseries
\begin{tabular*}{4cm}{%
@{\extracolsep{\fill}}
>{\columncolor[gray]{.8}[0pt][20mm]}l
>{\columncolor[gray]{.8}[5mm][0pt]}l
@{}%
}
eins & zwei\\
drei & vier
\end{tabular*}\hfill
\begin{tabular*}{5cm}{%
@{\extracolsep{\fill}}
>{\columncolor[gray]{.8}[0pt][20mm]}l
>{\columncolor[gray]{.8}[5mm][0pt]}l
@{}%
}
eins & zwei\\
drei & vier
\end{tabular*}
\end{center}
\section{Der \slash \textsf{rowcolor}-Befehl}
Wie demonstriert, kann die Farbe von definierten Zeilen einer Tabelle mit Hilfe des
\slash \textsf{multicolumn}-Befehls ver"andert werden. Besteht Ihre Tabelle hingegen
prinzipiell aus \emph{rows}, k"onnten Sie dies als unvorteilhaft empfinden. Aus diesem
Grund wurde der Befehl \slash \textsf{rowcolor} eingef"uhrt\footnote{Zum Teil auf Kosten
der Komplexit"at von colortbl.}.
\slash \textsf{rowcolor} arbeitet mit den gleichen Argument-Strukturen wie
\slash \textsf{columncolor}. Der Befehl muss zu \emph{Beginn} der Zeile eingef"ugt werden.
Spart man die optionalen "Uberhang-Argumente wieder aus, entsprechen diese den Defintionen
der \slash \textsf{columncolor}-Befehle der entsprechenden Spalte, bzw. der Defintiion
von\\
\slash \textsf{tabcolsep} (oder \slash \textsf{arraycolsep} im \textsf{array}-Paket).
Konkurrieren bei einem Tabelleneintrag eine \slash \textsf{columncolor}-Definition aus der
Tabellen-Pr"aambel und eine \slash \textsf{rowcolor}-Festlegung vom Beginn der jeweiligen
Zeile miteinander, setzt sich der \slash \textsf{rowcolor}-Befehl durch. Der
\slash \textsf{multicolumn}-Befehl darf >\{\slash \textsf{rowcolor}\ldots\ enthalten,
sodass die voreingestellten Farben der betreffenden Zeile und Spalte aufgehoben werden.
\begin{center}
\begin{minipage}{.75\textwidth}
\begin{verbatim}
\begin{tabular}{|l|c|}
\rowcolor[gray]{.9}
eins & zwei\\
\rowcolor[gray]{.5}
drei & vier
\end{tabular}
\end{verbatim}
\end{minipage}
{\bfseries
\begin{tabular}{|l|c|}
\rowcolor[gray]{.9}
eins & zwei\\
\rowcolor[gray]{.5}
drei & vier
\end{tabular}}
\end{center}
\section{Der \slash \textsf{cellcolor} Befehl}
Die Einstellung der Hintergrundfarbe kann auch auf eine einzelne Zelle beschr"ankt werden,
indem zu Beginn der Befehl \slash \textsf{multicolumn}{1\}\{>\slash
\textsf{rowcolor}\ldots, (oder
\slash \textsf{columncolor}, wenn keine Zeilenfarbe eingestellt ist) eingegeben wird. Hier treten
jedoch Defizite auf: 1)~Es hindert die Daten in der Zelle, die F"arbung
auszul"osen; 2)~die Defintionen f"ur die Ausrichtung der Tabelle m"ussen aus dem Tabellenkopf
kopiert werden und sind anf"allig f"ur Fehlermeldungen, insbesondere bei
p\{\} Spalten; 3)~die Anweisung \slash \textsf{multicolumn}\{1\} ist unsinnig. Ersatzweise gibt es
den \slash \textsf{cellcolor}-Befehl, der wie \slash \textsf{columncolor}
und \slash \textsf{rowcolor} funktioniert, aber beide aufhebt. \slash
\textsf{cellcolor} kann auf jede einzuf"arbende Tabellenzelle angewendet werden.
\section{Linien einf"arben}
Sie ben"otigen auch farbige Linien?
Das Einf"arben von Linien bedarf keiner speziellen Befehle. Verwenden Sie
einfach !\{\slash \textsf{color}\{green\}\slash \textsf{vline}\} an Stelle von |. Die Leerstelle
zwischen || ist im Normalfall wei"s. Um diese farbig zu gestalten, erweitern Sie die
"Uberhangeinstellung der vorangehenden Spalte (zu \slash \textsf{tabcolsep}
+ \slash \textsf{arrayrulewidth} + \slash \textsf{doublerulesep}). Oder entfernen Sie die glue-Regel
bzw. ersetzen Sie diese durch eine farbige Linie der erforderten St"arke,
wie nachfolgend:
\begin{verbatim}
{\color{green}\vline}
@{\color{yellow}\vrule width \doublerulesep}
!{\color{green}\vline}
\end{verbatim}
Es sollte sich der gleiche Abstand wie bei || ergeben, nur mit entsprechender Farbigkeit.
Allerdings stellt sich das Einf"arben von \slash \textsf{hline} und \slash
\textsf{cline} als etwas kniffliger heraus. Deshalb wurden extra Befehle eingef"uhrt (die dann auch
auf vertikale Linien angewendet werden k"onnen).
\section{\slash \textsf{arrayrulecolor}}
\slash \textsf{arrayrulecolor} ben"otigt die gleichen Argumentfestlegungen
wie \slash \textsf{color}. Es handelt sich um eine globale Deklaration, die alle folgenden
horizontalen und vertikalen Linien in Tabellen betrifft. Sie kann
folgenderma"sen definiert werden: Wird au"serhalb einer jeden Tabelle, zu Beginn einer Zeile oder
als > Definition innerhalb einer Tabellenpr"aambel in der Tabellenmitte eine Regel eingef"ugt, gilt
diese nur f"ur alle folgenden Linien. Alle vertikalen Linien vor der Regel erhalten diejenige Farbe,
welche in der Tabellenpr"aambel festgelegt wurde.
\section{\slash \textsf{doublerulesepcolor}}
Wenn die Linien bunt sind, m"ochten Sie m"oglicherweise die wei"sen L"ucken, die durch || und
\slash \textsf{hline}\slash \textsf{hline} entstanden sind, auch farbig gestalten.
\slash \textsf{doublerulesepcolor} funktioniert wie \slash
\textsf{arrayrulecolor}. Zu beachten ist, dass \textsf{longtable} den Leerraum, der zwischen
\slash \textsf{hline}\slash \textsf{hline} entsteht, bei einem
Seitenumbruch beibeh"alt. (\TeX\
l"oscht diesen Leeraum automatisch, jedoch die gef"arbte Fl"ache, welche
vorher von \slash \textsf{doublerulesep} genutzt wurde,
ist im Prinzip eine dritte Linie in einer anderen Farbe als die beiden
anderen Linien. Linien sind aber hingegen nicht so einfach zu l"oschen.)
\begin{center}
\setlength\arrayrulewidth{2pt}\arrayrulecolor{blue}
\setlength\doublerulesep{2pt}\doublerulesepcolor{yellow}
\begin{minipage}{.75\textwidth}
\begin{verbatim}
\setlength\arrayrulewidth{2pt}\arrayrulecolor{blue}
\setlength\doublerulesep{2pt}\doublerulesepcolor{yellow}
\begin{tabular}{||l||c||}
\hline\hline
eins & zwei\\
drei & vier\\
\hline\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{verbatim}
\end{minipage}
{\bfseries
\begin{tabular}{|l||c||}
\hline\hline
eins&zwei\\
drei&vier\\
\hline\hline
\end{tabular}}
\end{center}
\section{Mehr Spa"s mit \slash \textsf{hhline}}
Die obigen Befehle arbeiten mit \slash \textsf{hhline} des \textsf{hhline}-Pakets. Wie auch
immer\\
\textsf{hhline} geladen wird, es gibt neben diesem Paket noch eine andere M"oglichkeit. Es
kann >\{\slash \textsf{ldots}\} genutzt werden, um Defintionen hinzuzuf"ugen, welche zu den
- oder = \textsf{column}-Regel passen. Insbesondere k"onnen \slash
\textsf{arrayrulecolor}- oder \slash \textsf{doublerulesepcolor}-Festlegungen erg"anzt werden.
Viele Stilhandb"ucher warnen davor, innerhalb von Tabellen Regeln
einzuf"ugen. Ich vermag es nicht, mir
vorzustellen, was jene Kritiker aus dem folgenden Regenbogen-Beispiel gemacht h"atten:
\begin{center}
\setlength\arrayrulewidth{5pt}
\setlength\doublerulesep{5pt}
\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{2}
\definecolor{orange}{cmyk}{0,0.61,0.87,0}
\definecolor{indigo}{cmyk}{0.8,0.9,0,0}
\definecolor{violet}{cmyk}{0.6,0.9,0,0}
\newcommand\rainbowline[1]{%
\hhline{%
>{\arrayrulecolor {red}\doublerulesepcolor[rgb]{.3,.3,1}}%
|#1:=%
>{\arrayrulecolor{orange}\doublerulesepcolor[rgb]{.4,.4,1}}%
=%
>{\arrayrulecolor{yellow}\doublerulesepcolor[rgb]{.5,.5,1}}%
=%
>{\arrayrulecolor {green}\doublerulesepcolor[rgb]{.6,.6,1}}%
=%
>{\arrayrulecolor {blue}\doublerulesepcolor[rgb]{.7,.7,1}}%
=%
>{\arrayrulecolor{indigo}\doublerulesepcolor[rgb]{.8,.8,1}}%
=%
>{\arrayrulecolor{violet}\doublerulesepcolor[rgb]{.9,.9,1}}%
=:#1|%
}}
\arrayrulecolor{red}
\doublerulesepcolor[rgb]{.3,.3,1}
\begin{tabular}{||*7{>{\columncolor[gray]{.9}}c}||}
\rainbowline{t}%
\arrayrulecolor{violet}\doublerulesepcolor[rgb]{.9,.9,1}
Richard&of&York&gave&battle&in&
\multicolumn{1}{>{\columncolor[gray]{.9}}c||}{vain}\\
\rainbowline{}%
1&2&3&4&5&6&
\multicolumn{1}{>{\columncolor[gray]{.9}}c||}{7}\\
\rainbowline{b}%
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\begin{verbatim}
\newcommand\rainbowline[1]{%
\hhline{%
>{\arrayrulecolor {red}\doublerulesepcolor[rgb]{.3,.3,1}}%
|#1:=%
>{\arrayrulecolor{orange}\doublerulesepcolor[rgb]{.4,.4,1}}%
=%
>{\arrayrulecolor{yellow}\doublerulesepcolor[rgb]{.5,.5,1}}%
=%
>{\arrayrulecolor {green}\doublerulesepcolor[rgb]{.6,.6,1}}%
=%
>{\arrayrulecolor {blue}\doublerulesepcolor[rgb]{.7,.7,1}}%
=%
>{\arrayrulecolor{indigo}\doublerulesepcolor[rgb]{.8,.8,1}}%
=%
>{\arrayrulecolor{violet}\doublerulesepcolor[rgb]{.9,.9,1}}%
=:#1|%
}}
\arrayrulecolor{red}
\doublerulesepcolor[rgb]{.3,.3,1}%
\begin{tabular}{||*7{>{\columncolor[gray]{.9}}c}||}
\rainbowline{t}%
\arrayrulecolor{violet}\doublerulesepcolor[rgb]{.9,.9,1}
Richard & of & York & gave &battle & in &
\multicolumn{1}{>{\columncolor[gray]{.9}}c||}{vain}\\
\rainbowline{}%
1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 &
\multicolumn{1}{>{\columncolor[gray]{.9}}c||}{7}\\
\rainbowline{b}%
\end{tabular}
\end{verbatim}
\section{Weniger Spa"s mit \slash \textsf{cline}}
Mit \slash \textsf{cline} erzeugte Linien k"onnen durch \slash
\textsf{arrayrulecolor} eingef"arbt werden. Tritt jedoch in der folgenden Zeile ein Befehl zur
Erzeugung eines Farbfelds auf, "uberdeckt dieser die Linienf"arbung. Das
ist ein kleines `Feature' von \slash \textsf{cline}. Wenn Sie colortbl verwenden, sollten Sie
innerhalb des \slash \textsf{hhline}-Arguments anstelle von \slash
\textsf{cline} besser den - Linientyp verwenden
\section{Der \slash \textsf{minrowclearance} Befehl}
Weil colortbl jeden Tabelleneintrag verpacken und berechnen muss, um zu ermitteln wie lang die
Linien gezogen werden m"ussen, dachte ich daran, das \slash
\textsf{minrowclearance}-Feature zu erg"anzen. Denn manchmal ber"uhren Eintr"age eine
vorhergehende \slash \textsf{hline} oder den Anfang eines Farbfeldes, das durch dieses Layout
definiert wurde. Um sicher zu gehen, dass das nicht passiert, sollten
\slash \textsf{extrarowsep} und \slash \textsf{arraystretch} erg"anzt werden. Dies reguliert den
Abstand der Linien angemessen. Manchmal m"ochte man aber trotzdem "uber einem gro"sen Eintrag einen
extra Platzhalter einf"ugen. F"ur einen kleinen Leerraum k"onnen sie den
Befehl \slash \textsf{minrowclearance} einf"ugen. (Die H"ohe einer Tabellenzeile sollte die H"ohe
eines Gro"sbuchstabens plus dieses Leerraums aber nicht "uberschreiten, sonst wirkt die
Tabellenaufteilung unvorteilhaft.)
Donald Arseneaus Paket \textsf{tabls} verwendet einen "ahnlichen \slash
\textsf{tablinesep}-Befehl. Ich gab meinem Befehl den gleichen Namen, um eine Kompatibilit"at mit
\textsf{tabls} zu erm"oglichen. Aber \textsf{tabls} ist, wenn man es einbindet, recht schwierig und
verh"alt sich vermutlich anders. Deshalb verwende ich jetzt einen anderen Namen.
\end{document}
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\begin{center} {Szilasi S. Z. publik\'aci\'oi:
\footnote[0]{Ez a lista a NWKUTLST v4.59 (\' \i rta: Zolnai L\'aszl\'o) \'es a \LaTeX\ alkalmaz\'as\'aval k\'esz\"ult.\\Kelt: 2018/10/19\\Jelmagyar\'azat:\\$^{1}$Jelenleg az ATOMKI kutat\'oja,\\$^{2}$Jelenleg nem az ATOMKI kutat\'oja, de az volt,\\$^{3}$Magyar, de nem ATOMKI-s szerz\H o,\\$^{4}$K\"ulf\"oldi szerz\H o,\\$^{+}$A szerz\H o felt\"untette az ATOMKI-t a cikk fejzet\'eben.}
} \end{center}
\setcounter{publ} { 0}
\begin{list}%
{\arabic{publ}.}{\usecounter{publ}\setlength{\rightmargin}{\leftmargin}}
\begin{center} {Konf. abstract, poszter, el\H oad\'as} \end{center}
\item Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Bartha L.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Uzonyi I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Hunyadi I.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Kiss \'A. Z.$^{2}$$^{+}$: {\it Proton beam micromachining in Debrecen, Hungary.} 16th European Conference on Solid-State Transducers. Prague, Czech Republic, 15-18 Sept., 2002 (CD-ROM){ \bf 0} (2002)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Barad\'acs E.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it Protonnyal\'abos mikromegmunk\'al\'as.} Fizikus V\'andorgyűl\'es. Szombathely, 2004. augusztus 24-27.{ \bf 0} (2004)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Barad\'acs E.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Daruka I.$^{3}$, Raics P.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Cserh\'ati Cs.$^{3}$, Dobos E.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it PMMA melting under proton beam exposure.} 9th International Conference on Nuclear Microprobe Technology and Applications. Cavtat, Dubrovnik, Croatia, 13-17 Sept., 2004{ \bf 0} (2004)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Budai J.$^{3}$, T\'oth Z.$^{3}$, Petrik P.$^{4}$, Barad\'acs E.$^{2}$$^{+}$: {\it Refractive index depth profile in PMMA due to proton irradiation.} 10th Conference on Nuclear Microprobe Technology and Applications. Singapore, 9-14 July, 2006{ \bf 0} (2006)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$;N
\item Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Juh\'asz \'A.$^{3}$, Szommer P.$^{3}$, Barad\'acs E.$^{2}$$^{+}$: {\it Hardness changes in PMMA due to proton beam micromachining (Abstr.: No.: 75-ICNMTA-A0025, p. 191).} 10th Conference on Nuclear Microprobe Technology and Applications. Singapore, 9-14 July, 2006{ \bf 0} (2006)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Husz\'ank R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Simon A.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szikra D.$^{3}$, Nov\'ak M.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it Ion-beam irradiation of PDMS polymer.} 11th International Conference on Nuclear Microprobe Technology and Applications. 3rd International Workshop on Proton Beam Writing. Debrecen, Hungary, 20-25 July, 2008{ \bf 0} (2008)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Husz\'ank R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Vad K.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it Preliminary experiments on creating a microreactor by proton microbeam.} 11th International Conference on Nuclear Microprobe Technology and Applications. 3rd International Workshop on Proton Beam Writing. Debrecen, Hungary, 20-25 July, 2008{ \bf 0} (2008)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Fenemore R. E. F.$^{4}$, Fekete Z.$^{2}$$^{+}$, D\"ucs\H o Cs.$^{3}$: {\it Si micro-turbine by proton beam writing and porous silicon micromachining.} 11th International Conference on Nuclear Microprobe Technology and Applications. 3rd International Workshop on Proton Beam Writing. Debrecen, Hungary, 20-25 July, 2008{ \bf 0} (2008)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$;N
\item Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Husz\'ank R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Cserh\'ati Cs.$^{3}$, Csik A.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it PDMS patterning by proton microbeam.} 11th International Conference on Nuclear Microprobe Technology and Applications. 3rd International Workshop on Proton Beam Writing. Debrecen, Hungary, 20-25 July, 2008{ \bf 0} (2008)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Husz\'ank R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it Applications of proton beam irradiated PDMS for micro-optical purposes.} 11th International Conference on Nuclear Microprobe Technology and Applications. 3rd International Workshop on Proton Beam Writing. Debrecen, Hungary, 20-25 July, 2008{ \bf 0} (2008)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item G\'al G. A. B.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Angyal A.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Csedreki L.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Furu E.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Husz\'ank R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Kert\'esz Zs.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Kiss \'A. Z.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Simon A.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szikszai Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szoboszlai Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Uzonyi I.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it Nagyfelbont\'as\'u komplex analitikai vizsg\'alatok magfizikai m\'odszerekre alapozva.} 14. Magfizikus Tal\'alkoz\'o. J\'avork\'ut, 2009. szeptember 3-4.{ \bf 0} (2009)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Husz\'ank R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it Proton beam micromachining in Debrecen, Hungary.} Engineering and Characterisation of Nanostructures by Photon, Ion Beam, and Nuclear Methods. ERASMUS Intensive Programme 2009. Bad Honnef, Germany, 7-16 May, 2009{ \bf 0} (2009)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item G\'al G. A. B.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Juh\'asz Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Biri S.$^{1}$$^{+}$, M\'at\'efi-Tempfli M.$^{3}$, M\'at\'efi-Tempfli S.$^{3}$: {\it Nanokapill\'arisok rendezetts\'eg\'enek vizsg\'alata p\'aszt\'az\'o transzmisszi\'os ionmikroszk\'opi\'aval (Abstr.: p. 19).} Fizikus V\'andorgyűl\'es. P\'ecs, 2010. augusztus 24-27.{ \bf 0} (2010)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, G\'al G. A. B.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Juh\'asz Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Biri S.$^{1}$$^{+}$, M\'at\'efi-Tempfli M.$^{3}$, M\'at\'efi-Tempfli S.$^{3}$: {\it Scanning transmission ion microscopy on A1203 nanocapillary arrays (Abstr.: p.143).} 12th International Conference on Nuclear Microprobe Technology and Applications. Leipzig, Germany, 26-30 July, 2010{ \bf 0} (2010)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, G\'al G. A. B.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Juh\'asz Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Biri S.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Sulik B.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it Scanning transmission ion microscopy of polycarbonate nanocapillaries (Abstr.: p. 144).} 12th International Conference on Nuclear Microprobe Technology and Applications. Leipzig, Germany, 26-30 July, 2010{ \bf 0} (2010)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Husz\'ank R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Budai J.$^{3}$, Szikra D.$^{3}$, P\'apa Z.$^{3}$, T\'oth Z.$^{3}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it Chemical and refractive index depth profile in PDMS polymer due to MeV ion irradiation.} 12th International Conference on Nuclear Microprobe Technology and Applications. Leipzig, Germany, 26-30 July, 2010{ \bf 0} (2010)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Husz\'ank R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szikra D.$^{3}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it A study of molecular structural change depth profile in PMMA due to MeV proton irradiation.} 12th International Conference on Nuclear Microprobe Technology and Applications. Leipzig, Germany, 26-30 July, 2010{ \bf 0} (2010)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Juh\'asz Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Herczku P.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Kov\'acs S. T. S.$^{1}$$^{+}$, R\'acz R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Biri S.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, G\'al G. A. B.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Sulik B.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it Ion-guiding and blocking of ion transmission in dense polycarbonate nanocapillary arrays at 3 keV Ar7+ impact.} 5th Conference on Elementary Processes in Atomic Systems. CEPAS 2011. Belgrade, Serbia, 21-25 June, 2011{ \bf 0} (2011)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Juh\'asz Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Herczku P.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Kov\'acs S. T. S.$^{1}$$^{+}$, R\'acz R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Biri S.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, G\'al G. A. B.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, P\'alink\'as J.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Sulik B.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it Time development of guided transmission of ions and neutral formation in polycarbonate nanocapillaries. (Abstr.: p. 270).} 16th International Conference Physics of Highly Charged Ions. Heidelberg, Germany, 2-7 Sept., 2012{ \bf 0} (2012)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Nagy G. U. L.$^{1}$$^{+}$, et al.$^{3}$: {\it PDMS compaction by heavy ions.} 13th International Conference on Nuclear Microprobe Technology and Applications. Lisbon, Portugal, 22-27 July, 2012{ \bf 0} (2012)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Rout B.$^{4}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, et al.$^{3}$: {\it Ion beam materials analysis and modifications at keV to MeV energies at the University of North Texas.} 12th International Conference on Applications of Nuclear Techiques. CRETE 13: Crete, Greece, 23-29 June, 2013{ \bf 0} (2013)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$;N
\item Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szab\'o A. T. T.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Nagy G. U. L.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Husz\'ank R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Barad\'acs E.$^{2}$$^{+}$, F\"urjes P.$^{4}$, Fekete Z.$^{2}$$^{+}$, J\'arv\'as G.$^{3}$, Szigeti M.$^{3}$, Hajba L.$^{4}$, Bodn\'ar J.$^{4}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Guttman A.$^{3}$: {\it Creation of double tilted pillar structures for microfluidic applications.} 14th International Conference on Nuclear Microprobe Technology and Applications. Padova, Italy, 6-11 July, 2014{ \bf 0} (2014)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$;N
\item J\'arv\'as G.$^{3}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Husz\'ank R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szab\'o A. T. T.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Nagy G. U. L.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, F\"urjes P.$^{4}$, Holczer E.$^{4}$, Fekete Z.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Szigeti M.$^{3}$, Hajba L.$^{4}$, Bodn\'ar J.$^{4}$, Guttman A.$^{3}$: {\it Tilted micropillars: A new alternative to increase microfluidic cell capture efficiency.} 12th International Interdisciplinary Meeting on Bioanalysis. CECE 2015. Brno, Chech Republic, 21-23 Sept., 2015{ \bf 0} (2015)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$;N
\item Husz\'ank R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Cserh\'ati Cs.$^{3}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it New applications of PDMS resist in creating high aspect ration microstructures and novel microfluidic devices by combining soft lithography and PBW method (Abstr.: p. 33).} 15th International Conference on Nuclear Microprobe Technology and Applications. ICNMTA. Lanzhou, China, 31 July - 5 Aug., 2016{ \bf 0} (2016)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Manuel J. E.$^{4}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, et al.$^{3}$: {\it Design and construction of an electrostatic quadrupole doublet lens for nuclear microprobe application.} 15th International Conference on Nuclear Microprobe Technology and Applications. ICNMTA. Lanzhou, China, 31 July - 5 Aug., 2016{ \bf 0} (2016)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$;N
\begin{center} {Egy\'eb abstract, poszter, el\H oad\'as} \end{center}
\item Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Bartha L.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Dobos E.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Uzonyi I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Sz\' \i ki G. \'A.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Kiss \'A. Z.$^{2}$$^{+}$, van Kan J. A.$^{4}$, Bettiol A. A.$^{4}$, Watt F.$^{4}$: {\it 3D mikromegmunk\'al\'as protonnyal\'abbal.} BME Elektronikus Eszk\"oz\"ok Tansz\'eke, Budapest, egyetemi el\H oad\'as. 2002. okt\'ober 15.{ \bf 0} (2002)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$;N
\item Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Bartha L.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Dobos E.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Uzonyi I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Sz\' \i ki G. \'A.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Kiss \'A. Z.$^{2}$$^{+}$, van Kan J. A.$^{4}$, Bettiol A. A.$^{4}$, Watt F.$^{4}$: {\it 3D mikromegmunk\'al\'as protonnyal\'abbal.} ELFT Anyagtudom\'anyi Szakcsoport 2002. \'Evi \H oszi Iskola. Visegr\'ad, 2002. szeptember 23-25.{ \bf 0} (2002)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$;N
\item Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, D\"ucs\H o Cs.$^{3}$, F\"urjes P.$^{4}$, Cserh\'ati Cs.$^{3}$: {\it Mikromegmunk\'al\'as protonnyal\'abbal.} ELFT Fizikus V\'andorgyűl\'es. Eger, 2007. augusztus 22-24.{ \bf 0} (2007)0-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$;N
\begin{center} {\'Evk\"onyv } \end{center}
\item Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, G\'omez-Morilla I.$^{4}$, Abraham M. H.$^{4}$, Kiss \'A. Z.$^{2}$$^{+}$: {\it Proton Beam Micromachining on PMMA, Foturan and CR-39 materials.} Atomki Annual Report 2002{ \bf 0} (2003)75-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$;N
\item Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Barad\'acs E.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Cserh\'ati Cs.$^{3}$, Dar\'oczi L.$^{3}$: {\it Proton Beam Micromachined Gear-wheels and racks.} Atomki Annual Report 2003{ \bf 0} (2004)63-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Barad\'acs E.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Daruka I.$^{3}$, Raics P.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Cserh\'ati Cs.$^{3}$, Dobos E.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it PMMA melting under proton beam exposure.} Atomki Annual Report 2004{ \bf 0} (2005)76-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Barad\'acs E.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Csige I.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it Proton Beam Writing.} Atomki Annual Report 2005{ \bf 0} (2006)74-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it The micromachined logo of Atomki.} Atomki Annual Report 2006{ \bf 0} (2007)68-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Budai J.$^{3}$, T\'oth Z.$^{3}$, Petrik P.$^{4}$, Barad\'acs E.$^{2}$$^{+}$: {\it Refractive index depth profile in PMMA due to proton irradiation.} Atomki Annual Report 2006{ \bf 0} (2007)69-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$;N
\item Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Sipka S.$^{3}$, Sulik B.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Juh\'asz Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Cserh\'ati Cs.$^{3}$: {\it Polymer microcapillaries created by P-beam Writing.} Atomki Annual Report 2007{ \bf 0} (2008)76-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Borb\'ely-Kiss I.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Husz\'ank R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Kert\'esz Zs.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Kiss \'A. Z.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Koltay E.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Simon A.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szab\'o Gy.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Szikszai Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szoboszlai Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Uzonyi I.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it Laboratory of Ion Beam Applications at ATOMKI.} Atomki Annual Report 2008{ \bf 0} (2009)1-14./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Husz\'ank R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Vad K.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it First experiments on a microcrater created by proton microbeam.} Atomki Annual Report 2008{ \bf 0} (2009)68-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, F\"urjes P.$^{4}$, Fekete Z.$^{2}$$^{+}$, D\"ucs\H o Cs.$^{3}$: {\it Si Micro-turbine by Proton Beam Writing and Porous Silicon Micromachining.} Atomki Annual Report 2008{ \bf 0} (2009)69-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$;N
\item Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Kiss \'A. Z.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Simon A.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Kert\'esz Zs.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szikszai Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Uzonyi I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Husz\'ank R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szoboszlai Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Angyal A.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Csedreki L.$^{1}$$^{+}$, G\'al G. A. B.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Major I.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it Organization of ICNMTA2008.} Atomki Annual Report 2008{ \bf 0} (2009)76-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Husz\'ank R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Cserh\'ati Cs.$^{3}$, Csik A.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it PDMS patterning by proton beam.} Atomki Annual Report 2008{ \bf 0} (2009)67-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Husz\'ank R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Csik A.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it Fabrication of optical devices in poly(dimethylsiloxane) by proton microbeam.} Atomki Annual Report 2009{ \bf 0} (2010)79-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item G\'al G. A. B.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Juh\'asz Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Biri S.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Cserh\'ati Cs.$^{3}$, Csik A.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Sulik B.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it Scanning transmission ion microscopy of polycarbonate nanocapillaries.} Atomki Annual Report 2011{ \bf 0} (2012)67-67./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Husz\'ank R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, et al.$^{3}$: {\it Compaction of PDMS due to proton beam irradiation.} Atomki Annual Report 2011{ \bf 0} (2012)68-68./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Husz\'ank R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szikra D.$^{3}$, V\'aczi T.$^{3}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Nagy I.$^{4}$: {\it Chemical charges in PMMA as a function of depth due to proton beam irradiation.} Atomki Annual Report 2011{ \bf 0} (2012)69-69./ 0.000$^{ 0}$;N
\item Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Hegman N.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Csik A.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it Creation of convex microlenses in PDMS with focused MeV ion beam.} Atomki Annual Report 2011{ \bf 0} (2012)91-91./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Juh\'asz Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Herczku P.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Kov\'acs S. T. S.$^{1}$$^{+}$, R\'acz R.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Biri S.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Rajta I.$^{1}$$^{+}$, G\'al G. A. B.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Szilasi S. Z.$^{1}$$^{+}$, P\'alink\'as J.$^{1}$$^{+}$, Sulik B.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it Blocking effect for ions and neutrals in guided transmission of 3 keV Ar7+ through dense polycarbonate nanocapillary arrays.} Atomki Annual Report 2012{ \bf 0} (2013)64-64./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\end{list}
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\begin{document}
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\rhead{\textbf{A. P{}. M. E. P{}.}}
\lhead{\small Baccalauréat ES}
\lfoot{\small{Polynésie}}
\rfoot{\small{9 juin 2005}}
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\begin{center} {\Large \textbf{\decofourleft~Baccalauréat ES Polynésie 9 juin 2005~\decofourright}}
\end{center}
\vspace{0,5cm}
\textbf{\textsc{Exercice 1} \hfill 6 points}
\textbf{Commun à tous les candidats}
\medskip
Une entreprise étudie la progression de ses bénéfices ou pertes, évalués au premier janvier de chaque année, depuis le $1 \up{er}$ janvier 1999. Chaque année est identifiée par son rang.
À l'année 1999 est attribué le rang $0$ et à l'année $1999 + n$ le rang $n$ ainsi 2001 a le rang 2.
Le tableau ci-dessous indique pour chaque rang $x_{i}$ d'année le bénéfice ou perte réalisé, exprimé en milliers d'euros et noté $y_{i}$.
\begin{center}
\begin{tabularx}{0.85\linewidth}{|*{7}{>{\centering\arraybackslash}X|}}\hline
$x_{i}$ &0 &1 &2 &3 &4 &5 \\ \hline
$y_{i}$ &$- 25,000$ &$-3,111$ &9,892 &17,788 &22,598 &25,566 \\ \hline
\end{tabularx}
\end{center}
On cherche à approcher ces bénéfices par une fonction.
Soit $f$ la fonction définie sur $[0~;~+ \infty[$ par
\[f(x) = - \text{e}^{\left(-\frac{x}{2}+ 4 \right)} + 30.\]
On note $\mathcal{C}_{f}$ sa courbe représentative dans un repère orthonormal \Oij{} d'unités graphiques 1 cm pour une unité en abscisses et 1 cm pour 4 unités en ordonnées.
\medskip
\begin{enumerate}
\item On considère que l'approximation des bénéfices par $f$ est satisfaisante si la somme des carrés des écarts entre les valeurs observées $y_{i}$ et les valeurs approchées $f\left(x_{i}\right)$ est inférieure à $0,5$.
L'approximation par $f$ est-elle satisfaisante ? (Le résultat obtenu à l'aide de la calculatrice constituera une justification acceptable pour cette question.)
\item
\begin{enumerate}
\item Déterminer la limite de $f$ en $+ \infty$.
\item En déduire que $\mathcal{C}_{f}$ admet une asymptote D dont on précisera l'équation.
\item Étudier la position de $\mathcal{C}_{f}$ par rapport à D.
\end{enumerate}
\item
\begin{enumerate}
\item Étudier les variations de $f$ sur $[0~;~+ \infty[$ et dresser le tableau de variations.
\item Déterminer le coefficient directeur de la tangente T à $\mathcal{C}_{f}$ au point d'abscisse $0$.
\end{enumerate}
\item
\begin{enumerate}
\item En utilisant le modèle que constitue la fonction $f$, en quelle année le bénéfice évalué au $1 \up{er}$ janvier dépassera-t-il \np{29800} euros ?
\item Ce bénéfice atteindra-t-il \np{30000} euros ? Justifier.
\end{enumerate}
\item Construire $\mathcal{C}_{f}$, en faisant apparaître tous les éléments graphiques mis en évidence dans les questions précédentes.
\end{enumerate}
\vspace{0,5cm}
\textbf{\textsc{Exercice 2} \hfill 5 points}
\textbf{Pour les candidats n'ayant pas suivi l'enseignement de spécialité}
\medskip
Une urne contient des jetons bleus, des jetons blancs et des jetons rouges.
$10\,\%$ des jetons sont bleus et il y a trois fois plus de jetons blancs que de jetons bleus.
Un joueur tire un jeton au hasard.
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\begin{itemize}
\item[] S'il est rouge, il remporte le gain de base.
\item[] S'il est blanc, il remporte le carré du gain de base.
\item[] S'il est bleu, il perd le cube du gain de base.
\end{itemize}
\setlength\parindent{0mm}
\medskip
\begin{enumerate}
\item On suppose que le gain de base est 2 euros.
\begin{enumerate}
\item Déterminer la loi de probabilité sur l'ensemble des résultats possibles.
\item Calculer le gain moyen que l'on peut espérer réaliser sur un grand nombre de tirages.
\end{enumerate}
\item On cherche à déterminer la valeur $g_{0}$ du gain de base, telle que le gain moyen réalisé sur un grand nombre de tirages soit maximal. Le résultat sera arrondi au centime d'euro.
Soit $x$ le gain de base en euros.
\begin{enumerate}
\item Montrer que le problème posé revient à étudier les éventuels extremums de la fonction $f$ définie sur $[0~;~+ \infty[$ par
\[f(x) = - 0,1x^3 + 0,3x^2 + 0,6x.\]
\item On désigne par $f'$ la fonction dérivée de $f$ sur l'intervalle $[0~;~+ \infty[$. Déterminer $f'(x)$.
\item En déduire le sens de variation de $f$ sur $[0~;~+ \infty[$.
\item Conclure sur le problème posé.
\end{enumerate}
\end{enumerate}
\vspace{0,5cm}
\textbf{\textsc{Exercice 2} \hfill 5 points}
\textbf{Pour les candidats ayant suivi l'enseignement de spécialité}
\medskip
L'espace est muni d'un repère orthonormal \Oijk.
La figure de l'annexe représente un pavé droit ; le point O est le milieu de [AD].
Soit P le milieu du segment [EF].
\medskip
\begin{enumerate}
\item
\begin{enumerate}
\item Quel ensemble de points de l'espace a pour équation $z =2$ ?
\item Déterminer une équation du plan (ABF).
\item En déduire un système d'équations qui caractérise la droite (EF).
\end{enumerate}
\item
\begin{enumerate}
\item Quelles sont les coordonnées des points A, G et P ?
\item Placer sur la figure le point Q de coordonnées (0~;~0,5~;~0).
\item Déterminer une équation cartésienne du plan (APQ).
\end{enumerate}
\item
\begin{enumerate}
\item Construire sur la figure les segments [PQ] et [AG].
\item Le point G appartient-il au plan (APQ) ? Justifier.
\end{enumerate}
\item On construit la figure précédente à l'aide d'un logiciel de géométrie, puis on demande au logiciel de représenter le point d'intersection des droites (AG) et (PQ). Quelle pourrait être la réponse de l'ordinateur ?
\end{enumerate}
\vspace{0,5cm}
\textbf{\textsc{Exercice 3} \hfill 4 points}
\textbf{Commun à tous les candidats}
\medskip
Cet exercice est un questionnaire à choix multiples ; pour chacune des quatre questions, une et une seule affirmation est exacte.
\textbf{Indiquez sur votre copie le numéro de la question et recopiez l'affirmation exacte ; aucune justification n'est demandée sauf pour la question 4.}
\textsl{Barème des trois premières questions} :
\textsl{À chaque question est attribué} 1 \textsl{point.}
\textsl{Une réponse inexacte enlève} 0,5 \textsl{point.}
\textsl{Une question sans réponse ne rapporte ni n'enlève aucun point.}
\textsl{Si le total des points est négatif, la note attribuée à l'exercice est ramenée à zéro.}
\medskip
\begin{enumerate}
\item Soient $A$ et $B$ deux évènements. Il est possible que :
$\bullet~~p(A) = 0,8\quad \text{et} \quad p(B) = 0,4\quad \text{et} \quad p(A \cap B) = 0,1.$
$\bullet~~p(A) = 0,7\quad \text{et} \quad p(B) = 0,5 \quad \text{et} \quad p(A \cap B) = 0,2.$
$\bullet~~p(A) = 0,8\quad \text{et} \quad p(B) = 0,9\quad \text{et} \quad p(A \cap B) = - 0,1.$
\item Soient $A$ et $B$ deux évènements indépendants tels que $p(A) = 0,3$ et \\$p(B) = 0,2$. Alors :
\setlength\parindent{5mm}
\begin{itemize}
\item[$\bullet~$] $p(A \cap B) = 0,5.$
\item[$\bullet~$] Les informations précédentes ne suffisent pas à calculer $p(A \cap B)$.
\item[$\bullet~$] $p(A \cap B) = 0,06.$
\end{itemize}
\setlength\parindent{0mm}
\item Si $A$ et $B$ sont deux évènements incompatibles mais non impossibles, alors $A$ et $B$ sont indépendants.
\setlength\parindent{5mm}
\begin{itemize}
\item[$\bullet~$] Cette affirmation est vraie.
\item[$\bullet~$] Cette affirmation est fausse.
\item[$\bullet~$] On ne peut pas savoir.
\end{itemize}
\setlength\parindent{0mm}
\item On justifiera soigneusement la réponse à cette question.
On répète quatre fois de manière indépendante une expérience aléatoire dont la probabilité de succès est 0,35. Alors la probabilité d'obtenir au moins un succès est :
\setlength\parindent{5mm}
\begin{itemize}
\item[$\bullet~$] environ 0,015.
\item[$\bullet~$] environ 0,821.
\item[$\bullet~$] environ 0,985.
\end{itemize}
\setlength\parindent{0mm}
\end{enumerate}
\vspace{0,5cm}
\textbf{\textsc{Exercice 4} \hfill 5 points}
\textbf{Commun à tous les candidats}
\medskip
Soit $f$ une fonction définie et dérivable sur $[-2~;~10]$. La courbe $\mathcal{C}_{f}$ ci-dessous est la représentation graphique de la fonction $f$ dans un repère orthonormal.
On précise que le point d'abscisse 4,83 de $\mathcal{C}_{f}$ a pour ordonnée 1,86 et que cette valeur est le maximum de la fonction $f$.
On note $\mathcal{C}_{F}$ la courbe représentative de la primitive $F$ de $f$ qui s'annule en 1. On précise que le point A(5~;~5,43) appartient à $\mathcal{C}_{F}$.
On note $\mathcal{C}_{f'}$ la courbe représentative de la fonction dérivée $f'$ de $f$.
\smallskip
\emph{Toutes les estimations graphiques seront données à $0,25$ près. Les résultats des calculs numériques seront arrondis à $10^{-2}$.}
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\uput[dl](0,0){O} \uput[d](0.5,0){$\vect{\imath}$} \uput[l](0,0.5){$\vect{\jmath}$}
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\begin{enumerate}
\item
\begin{enumerate}
\item Déterminer graphiquement sur quel(s) intervalle(s) $\mathcal{C}_{f'}$ est située en dessous de l'axe des abscisses.
\item Déterminer, en justifiant, l'équation réduite de la tangente à $\mathcal{C}_{F}$ en A.
\item Préciser, en justifiant, le sens de variation de $F$ sur l'intervalle $[-2~;~10]$.
\end{enumerate}
\item
\begin{enumerate}
\item Déterminer $\displaystyle\int_{1}^5 f(t)\,\text{d}t$.
\item Rappeler la formule de la valeur moyenne d'une fonction sur un intervalle $[a~;~b]$ et donner une interprétation de cette notion dans le cas où $f$ est positive.
\item Donner la valeur moyenne de $f$ sur l'intervalle [1 ; 5].
\end{enumerate}
\end{enumerate}
\newpage
\begin{center}\textbf{Annexe à rendre avec la copie}
\vspace{1cm}
\textbf{Exercice 2 (spécialité)}
\vspace{2cm}
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\[\mathop{R_{J}\/}\nolimits\!\left(x,y,z,p\right)=\frac{3}{2\sqrt{z}p}\left(%
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\title{Organized Anarchism in the Anti-Capitalist Struggle}
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\author{Common Cause Ottawa}
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\textbf{Why we need organisation — and principles to follow}
\section{Prelude}
This booklet is based on a presentation made by two members of Common Cause Ottawa at the \textbf{“Capitalism and Confrontation: Grassroots Responses to Empire, Ecology and Political Economy”} conference in March 2010 held at Carleton University. We thank the conference organizers, the Critical Social Research Collaborative (CSRC), for allowing us to participate.
Common Cause Ottawa is a branch of the Ontario provincial anarchist organization, Common Cause (www.linchpin.ca)
\begin{center}
* * *
\end{center}
Capitalism has proven itself to be completely inadequate to meet basic human needs. At the dawn of the twenty first century, the world is deeply divided into have and have-nots. Extreme inequalities have been intensifying since the 1970s. While a minority of the world’s population lives in opulence, the masses struggle in poverty (Schmidt and van der Walt, 2009, pp. 10–11). The latest crisis that has plagued the global economy for the past few years has exacerbated these inequalities even further.
The solution to this crisis must be a revolutionary solution. The problem is not that the current manifestation of capitalism is defective or corrupt, but rather that the entire system is flawed. The trouble is not with the administration of the system, but rather with the system itself (Berkman, 2003, p.73). As such it is necessary to put an end to capitalism altogether. Reformism is destined to fail because reforms fail to address the exploitative basis of capitalism. Reformists
\begin{quote}
believe in good faith that it is possible to eliminate the existing social evils by recognizing and respecting, in practice if not in theory, the basic political and economic institutions which are the cause of, as well as the prop that supports these evils (Malatesta, 1965).
\end{quote}
The point here is not to advocate some type of ideological purity. Reforms can make huge differences in the day to day life of the people. Reformism is a type of harm reduction, and while harm reduction undeniably saves lives, the root problems need to be addressed in a manner that goes beyond mere reforms.
However, while a revolutionary solution is necessary, it is far from inevitable. The current economic crisis is the worst the world has seen since the Great Depression. It is important to bear in mind that in much of the world the Great Depression did not lead to socialism or even social democracy, but rather to fascism in much of Western Europe and the consolidation of Stalinism in the Soviet Union (Notheastern Federation of Anarcho-Communists, 2010).
Although there is popular dissatisfaction with the current system, libertarian socialist alternatives do not currently have popular support. The current crisis may open up opportunities to attack capitalism from the left, but it also presents dangers for the rise of the most reactionary elements in capitalist society. If anti-capitalists fail to provide a viable and coherent solution to this current crisis of capitalism, the door will be left wide open for reactionary opportunists to exploit public anger. The growth and influence of the Tea Party movement in the United States is evidence of how anti-capitalists have failed to present convincing solutions to the masses.
While careful critique and analysis of the current system remain essential, the more difficult task that anti-capitalists are faced with is developing an alternative to capitalism. As was pointed out during a recent talk hosted by the Workers Solidarity Movement in Ireland, “It’s not enough to fight capitalism, you need to know what to replace it with, and you have to make that alternative the most popular one around and that would be the most important task for revolutionaries today” (Workers Solidarity Movement, 2010). With that in mind, this paper intends to sketch out the basis for a viable alternative to the current state capitalist system.
In setting out to find alternatives, it is essential to have a clear idea of the principles that any possible alternative would be based on. The three main principles that anarchists wish to base any society on are liberty, equality, and solidarity (Kropotkin, 2007, p. 156). These three principles set the basic groundwork for the basis of any alternative system. There is a lot of room to maneuver within the parameters of these principles, but it is essential that they serve as a guide for any society. It is also important to recognize that these three principles must be taken together as a package, they cannot stand on their own. Each one of these principles is at best hollow and meaningless unless it is accompanied by the other two.
Building on these three guiding principles, it is possible to begin to define anarchism in slightly more concrete terms. At the beginning of \emph{Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice}, Rudolph Rocker (2004) defines anarchism as
\begin{quote}
a definite intellectual current of social thought, whose adherents advocate the abolition of economic monopolies and of all political and social coercive institutions within society. In place of the capitalist economic order, Anarchists would have a free association of all productive forces based upon cooperative labour, which would have for its sole purpose the satisfying of the necessary requirements of every member of society. In place of the present national states with their lifeless machinery of political and bureaucratic institutions, Anarchists desire a federation of free communities which shall be bound to one another by their common economic and social interests and arrange their affairs by mutual agreement and free contract (p. 1).
\end{quote}
The key insight provided by this definition is the recognition that freedom must exist on the economic, political and social level. Just as the principles of liberty, equality, and, solidarity cannot be separated from each other, the application of said principles must take place on each of the political, economic, and social levels. The struggle against capitalism is indispensible but it is not the only struggle that needs to take place. Anarchists insist that emancipatory struggle is class-based but recognize that there is no place for reductionism.
\begin{quote}
The broad anarchist tradition stresses class, but this should not be mistaken for a crude workerism\dots{} The stress on class also does not mean a narrow focus on economic issues. What characterizes the broad anarchist tradition is not economism but a concern with struggling against the many injustices of the present (Schmidt and van der Walt, 2009, p. 7).
\end{quote}
Anarchism must be based on class, but it must also be feminist, indigenist, anti-racist, anti-ableist, anti-heteronormative, etc. In order to be consistent with anarchist principles, all forms of hierarchy must be opposed. A victory against one form of oppression is at best an incomplete victory. Hierarchies and oppressions cannot be dealt with implicitly or at a later date, they must be confronted head on the minute that they are recognized, and this organizing must be done prefiguratively, the means of ending all oppressions must themselves be based on the principles of freedom, equality, and solidarity.
The concept of intersectionality is useful here. It is counterproductive to rank the importance of various social struggles. There are no “primary” and “secondary” struggles (Shannon and Rogue, 2010). Social struggles cannot easily be separated, nor should they be, they must be fought as a single struggle for complete liberation.
Anarchism provides a theoretical framework to seek out and oppose all forms of hierarchy and oppression. For example, during the Mexican Revolution the liberal revolutionaries such as Madero had a racist and paternalistic view towards the indigenous population. They viewed native peoples as an inferior and backwards race that ought to have no say in the operations of a “democratic” government. This racist view of the indigenous population was indistinguishable from the views held by those in the Porifirato dictatorship. On the other hand, anarchists, led by Ricardo Flores Magon, fought hard for the rights of indigenous peoples and viewed indigenous civilizations as viable alternative models to the state capitalist system (Maldonado Alvarado, 2004, pp. 59–66).
This difference of attitude does not result from the fact that Flores Magon and the other anarchists were personally more enlightened than their less radical counterpart, but rather a direct result of ideology. If an ideology allows for one form of hierarchy (in society, in politics, or in economics), it is much easier to accept a series of other oppressions. Anarchism however does not allow for any form of hierarchy to exist. This does not mean that anarchists are always successful at identifying and addressing all types of hierarchies (Wright, 1994). There is also the possibility of the existence of oppressions hitherto unidentified (Chomsky, 2005 pp. 221–222). However, it does mean that while any form of racism, sexism, ableism, etc. could possibly be assimilated into a capitalist or statist worldview, they could never be assimilated into an anarchist worldview, provided that one consistently upholds anarchist principles.
One of the major debates within anarchism is over how or even whether anarchists ought to be organized. This debate between anarchists who advocate for formal organization (organizationalists) and those who prefer looser networks of association tends to be characterized by advocates of the latter tendency as a generational divide (anti-organizationalists). David Graeber (2002) speaks of the “new anarchists” who are organized in loosely based “affinity” groups. While Andrej Grubacic (2003) characterizes the divide as one between
\begin{quote}
two co-existing generations within anarchism: people whose political formation took place in the 60s and 70s (which is actually a reincarnation of the second and third generations), and younger people who are much more informed, among other elements, by indigenous, feminist, ecological and culture-criticism thinking. The former exists as various Anarchist Federations, the IWW (Industrial Workers of the World), IWA (International Workers Association), NEFAC (Northeastern Federation of Anarcho-Communists) and the like. The latter’s incarnation is most prominent in the networks of the new social movement
\end{quote}
Characterizing this debate as a generational one grossly misrepresents the reality. Following Grubacic’s formula, there are a significant number of activists involved in anarchist organization whose political formation must have taken place decades before they were even born. Also incorrect is the implication that organizationalists are class reductionists that ignore indigenous, feminist, ecological, and cultural struggle.
The debate between organizationalists and anti organizationalists is not at all new. It has been ongoing in the anarchist community for at least a century. On the heels of the failure of anarchists to prevent the consolidation of the Bolshevik dictatorship following the Russian Revolution, a group of exiled Russian and Ukranian anarchists called the Dielo Trouda (Workers’ Cause) wrote of “this disease of disorganization (that has) introduced itself into the organism of the anarchist movement and has shaken it for dozens of years” (Dielo Trouda, 1926).
It is very tempting for anarchists to reject most forms of organization. After all, the types of organizations that most people are used to dealing with are hardly non hierarchical groups that adhere to anarchist principles. Mainstream political parties, unions, and NGOs tend to have power placed at the top. It is understandable that anarchists would be skeptical of organization. However, the problem with most organizations is how, not that they are organized.
The enemy is not organization, but hierarchy and as Malatesta (1897) points out, “organization, far from creating authority, is the only cure for it and the only means whereby each one of us will get used to taking an active and conscious part in the collective work and cease being passive instruments in the hands of leaders”. As long as organizations are based on anarchist principles, they are not only effective, but essential tools in combating hierarchy and oppression.
Lack of formal organization actually tends to create structures that are contrary to anarchist principles. Just because these structures are informal, it does not mean that they do not exist. Jo Freeman (1970), writing about the difficulties facing the way the feminist movement was organized, demonstrates this point in her essay, “The Tyranny of Structurelessness”. Those activists who are best connected and most privileged tend to become part of an informal elite who wield significant power over others, often without even being conscious of it.
\begin{quote}
As long as the women’s liberation movement stays dedicated to a form of organisation which stresses small, inactive discussion groups among friends, the worst problems of unstructuredness will not be felt. But this style of organisation has its limits; it is politically inefficacious, exclusive and discriminatory against those women who are not or cannot be tied into the friendship networks. Those who do not fit into what already exists because of class, race, occupation, parental or marital status, or personality will inevitably be discouraged from trying to participate. Those who do not fit in will develop vested interests in maintaining things as they are.
\end{quote}
She also points out the political ineffectiveness of small, unstructured groups who are often only able to accomplish small scale tasks.
\begin{quote}
Purely educational work is no longer such an overwhelming need. The movement must go on to other tasks. It now needs to establish its priorities, articulate its goals and pursue its objectives in a co-ordinated way. To do this it must be organised locally, regionally and nationally.
\end{quote}
If these organizations do not exist, people will tend to turn to other organizations because “at least they are doing something”. This was evident during the Russian Revolution when large numbers of anarchists joined the Bolsheviks, not for ideological reasons, but because the Bolsheviks were actually organized and accomplishing something. This process is unfortunately visible today, as masses of people angry with the system are turning towards right wing movements in order to express that anger. Anarchists need to create coherent organizations that can attract mass popular support.
In order for an organization to be coherent and to maintain anarchist principles, the Dielo Trouda (1926) suggested that it contain four basic elements. These are theoretical unity, tactical unity, collective responsibility, and federalism. There is no magic formula for how an organization must operate, but these four elements are some basic general guidelines for the operation of any effective anarchist organization.
Theoretical unity means that there should be general agreement on what the goals and principles of the organization are in order to avoid paralyzing infighting as much as possible. This means that the anarchist principles of liberty, equality, and solidarity need to be agreed upon by all members. Related to theoretical unity is tactical unity. There should be general agreement over what methods the organization will adopt in order to reach its goals. The organization should not be working in several different and contradictory directions, but rather in a common direction. There is a lot of room for disagreement on details, but the guiding principles and tactics must be agreed upon. An organization is generally formed around common principles and it only makes sense to exclude individuals and ideas that do not work towards those goals. There is no contradiction between this and liberty. Individuals are obviously free to form their own groups or work in no groups at all if they so desire, while working with the organization in areas where interests and principles do converge.
There is a disappointing tendency towards individualism among some anarchists. While individual rights are essential, they can not exist outside of a collective. Because of that, collective responsibility is necessary. Any revolution must be collective in nature and the same holds true for any revolutionary organization. This collective responsibility goes in both directions. Individuals are responsible to the collective, but the collective is also responsible to individuals. This might best be summed up by the Three Musketeers’ motto, “all for one and one for all.”
While centralism places the power of the organization in the hands of a few in a top down structure, federalism is organized from the bottom up. This allows for all individuals to share the same amount of power. There can be a lot of flexibility in the specific details of how an organization operates, but only federalism provides the structure for real meaningful democratic decision-making. Any member in a position of added responsibility, such as a delegate, must be answerable to the group as a whole and never the other way around. These positions should also be temporary and recallable in order to prevent the formation of any centralized authoritarian structure.
Capitalism must be opposed wholesale. Reforms may be helpful in softening up some of its harsher aspects, but the exploitative nature of the system cannot be done away with through reform. Not all forms of oppression can be placed at the feet of capitalism. A project for true liberation must include the struggle to end all oppressions and hierarchy, a revolution against capitalism is a necessary but not sufficient condition for liberation. Anarchists recognize the need to identify and oppose oppression wherever it may exist. Identifying as an anarchist is not important, but identifying, agreeing with and acting upon anarchist principles is essential. Any free society must be based on the principles of liberty, equality, and solidarity.
In order to arrive at such a society, anarchists and those struggling for anarchist principles need to be organized. The structures of the organization need to reflect anarchist principles; they also need to be formal and clear, or else the door will be open for the creation of informal elites. Currently there are a number of such organizations around the world, including Common Cause in Ontario, Canada, that are picking up in the traditions of mass organized anarchism of past periods of revolutionary struggle. These organizations provide the seeds of hope for the development of a society based on liberty, equality, and solidarity.
\section{References}
Berkman, Alexander (2003). \emph{What is Anarchism?} Oakland, CA: AK Press.
Chomsky, Noam (2005). \emph{Chomsky on Anarchism}. Oakland: AK Press.
Dielo Truda (1926) \emph{The Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (draft)}. Retrieved from
\href{http://www.struggle.ws/pdfs/leaflets/platform/platformA4.pdf}{www.struggle.ws}
Freeman, Jo (1970). \emph{The Tyranny of Structurelessness}. Retrieved from \href{http://struggle.ws/pdfs/tyranny.pdf}{struggle.ws}.
Graeber, David (2002). “The New Anarchists”. \emph{New Left Review}, 13. Retrieved from \href{http://www.newleftreview.org/A2368}{www.newleftreview.org}
Grubacic, Andrej (2003). \emph{Towards Another Anarchism. WSF: Challenging Empires}. Retrieved from \href{http://www.choike.org/documentos/wsf\_s107\_grubacic.pdf}{www.choike.org}
Kroptkin, Peter (2007). \emph{The Conquest of Bread}. Oakland, CA: AK Press
Malatesta, Errico (1965). “Majorities and Minorities and Other Essays”. In Richards, Vern (Ed), \emph{Malatesta Life and Ideas}. London: Freedom Press
Malatesta, Errico (1897). \emph{Anarchy and Organization}. Retrieved from \href{http://www.spunk.org/texts/writers/malatest/sp001864.html}{www.spunk.org}
Maldonado Alvarado, Benjamin (2004). \emph{La Utopia Magonista}. Oaxaca, Mexico: Colegio de Investigadores en Education de Oaxaca S.C.
Notheastern Federation of Anarcho-Communists (2010). \emph{Nature of the Period: Backgrounds and Perspectives}. Retrieved from \href{http://libcom.org/library/nature-period-background-perspectives-nefac}{libcom.org} .
Rocker, Rudolph (2004). \emph{Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice}. Oakland, Ca: AK Press
Schmidt, Micheal and van der Walt, Lucien. (2009). \emph{Black Flame: The Revolutionary Class Politics of Anarchism and Syndicalism}. Oakland, CA: AK Press
Shannon, Deric and Rogue, J (2010). \emph{Refusing to Wait: Anarchism and Intersectionality}. Retrieved from \href{http://www.anarkismo.net/article/14923}{www.anarkismo.net}
Workers Solidarity Movement (2010). \emph{Will we see a Revolution in our Time?}. Retrieved from \href{http://www.anarkismo.net/article/16500}{www.anarkismo.net}
Wright, Colin (1994). “Anarchism, Feminism, and the Individual”. \emph{Social Anarchism}, 19. Retrieved from \href{http://www.socialanarchism.org/mod/magazine/display/5/index.php}{www.socialanarchism.org}
% begin final page
\clearpage
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% the page would be odd on an even one.
\ifthispageodd{\strut\thispagestyle{empty}\clearpage}{}
% new page for the colophon
\thispagestyle{empty}
\begin{center}
The Anarchist Library
\smallskip
Anti-Copyright
\bigskip
\includegraphics[width=0.25\textwidth]{logo-en}
\bigskip
\end{center}
\strut
\vfill
\begin{center}
Common Cause Ottawa
Organized Anarchism in the Anti-Capitalist Struggle
2010
\bigskip
Retrieved on 12 May 2011 from \href{http://linchpin.ca/English/Booklet-039Organized-Anarchism-Anti-Capitalist-Struggle039}{linchpin.ca}
[email protected]\forcelinebreak www.linchpin.ca\forcelinebreak PO Box 347, Station E, 772 Dovercourt Rd, Toronto ON, Canada, M6H 4E3
\bigskip
\textbf{theanarchistlibrary.org}
\end{center}
% end final page with colophon
\end{document}
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\input zb-basic
\input zb-matheduc
\iteman{ZMATH 2016e.00264}
\itemau{Grudzinski, Olaf}
\itemti{What hinders and what supports the learning of mathematics. (Was behindert und was f\"ordert das Erlernen von Mathematik?)}
\itemso{Paravicini, Walther (ed.) et al., Hanse-Kolloquium zur Hochschuldidaktik der Mathematik 2014. Beitr\"age zum gleichnamigen Symposium am 7. und 8. November 2014 an der Westf\"alischen Wilhelms-Universit\"at M\"unster. M\"unster: WTM-Verlag (ISBN 978-3-942197-99-1/pbk+ebook). Schriften zur Hochschuldidaktik Mathematik 2, 253-270 (2016).}
\itemab
Zusammenfassung: Als erstes gehe ich kurz auf die hohen Erwartungen ein, die heutzutage an die Didaktik gestellt werden, und gestatte mir einige grunds\"atzliche Anmerkungen zu folgenreichen Fallstricken der Didaktik. Da man die Tragweite der einzelnen Einflussfaktoren sicherlich erst dann richtig einsch\"atzen kann, wenn man ein klares Bildungsziel vor Augen hat, spreche ich anschlie{\ss}end den Bildungswert der Mathematik an. Dazu bedarf es einer Vorbemerkung \"uber das Wesen der modernen Mathematik und das moderne mathematische Handwerk. Im Anschluss an die Ausf\"uhrungen zum Bildungswert benenne ich eine Reihe von Einflussfaktoren und kommentiere einige davon. Dabei spreche ich zuerst die inneren Grundeinstellungen an, die das Handeln eines jeden Menschen ma{\ss}geblich pr\"agen, und komme danach auf zahlreiche nachteilige kulturelle und gesellschaftliche Randbedingungen zu sprechen. Abschlie{\ss}end f\"uhre ich einige Abhilfema{\ss}nahmen an, ohne R\"ucksicht auf die Frage zu nehmen, wie realistisch ihre Umsetzung jeweils ist.
\itemrv{~}
\itemcc{D10 A30}
\itemut{university teaching; didactics of mathematics; teaching; teacher education; history of mathematics; mathematics in the 19th century; mathematics in the 20th century; set theory; mathematical logic; student attitudes; sociocultural aspects; educational system}
\itemli{}
\end
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%&bagpipe
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%
%% GodSaveIreland.tex
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\newpitch\newgrace\noautoglue
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% for line 1
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\def\bartwo{\notes
\grg\pcps bc\etn\thrwd\pcps db\etn\grN\qla\etn\grg\pcps aN\enotes\xbarre}
\def\barthree{\notes
\grg\pcps Na\etn\thrwd\pcps de\etn\grg\pcpgs f\gre\f\etn\grg\pcps ed\enotes\xbarre}
\def\barfour{\notes
\dble\he\etn\grip\qle\etn\grg\pcps db\enotes}
%
% for line 2
\def\barfive{\barone}
\def\barsix{\notes
\grg\pcps bc\etn\thrwd\pcps db\etn\grN\qla\etn\grg\pcps fe\enotes\xbarre}
\def\barseven{\notes
\thrwd\pcps dc\etn\grg\pcps db\etn\grg\pcps ca\etn\grg\pscp ce\enotes\xbarre}
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\thrwd\hd\etn\slurd\qld\enotes}
%
% for line 3
\def\barnine{\notes
\dblf\qlf\etn\gre\qlf\etn\grg\pcps fe\etn\grg\pcps db\enotes\xbarre}
\def\barten{\notes
\grN\ha\etn\thrwd\hd\enotes\xbarre}
\def\bareleven{\notes
\dble\qle\etn\gra\qle\etn\grg\pcps fe\etn\grg\pcps df\enotes\xbarre}
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%
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\def\barthirteen{\barfive}
\def\barfourteen{\barsix}
\def\barfifteen{\barseven}
\def\barsixteen{\bareight}
%
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\line{\moyen God Save Ireland\hss
\rm March\hss revised \today\hss}
\bigskip
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\reprmorceau
\pickup{\grN\qla}
\barnine\barten\bareleven\bartwelve\alaligne
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\barthirteen\barfourteen\barfifteen\barsixteen\finmorceau
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\documentclass[11pt]{article}
% Engine-specific settings
% Detect pdftex/xetex/luatex, and load appropriate font packages.
% This is inspired by the approach in the iftex package.
% pdftex:
\ifx\pdfmatch\undefined
\else
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
\fi
% xetex:
\ifx\XeTeXinterchartoks\undefined
\else
\usepackage{fontspec}
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% luatex:
\ifx\directlua\undefined
\else
\usepackage{fontspec}
\fi
% End engine-specific settings
\usepackage{amsmath,amssymb}
\usepackage{fullpage}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\usepackage[svgnames]{xcolor}
\usepackage{url}
\urlstyle{same}
\usepackage[makestderr]{pythontex}
\restartpythontexsession{\thesection}
\usepackage[framemethod=TikZ]{mdframed}
\newcommand{\pytex}{Python\TeX}
\renewcommand*{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}
\title{\pytex\ Gallery}
\author{Geoffrey M.\ Poore}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
\begin{abstract}
\pytex\ allows you to run Python code from within \LaTeX\ documents and automatically include the output. This document serves as an example of what is possible with \pytex.\footnote{Since \pytex\ runs Python code (and potentially other code) on your computer, documents using \pytex\ have a greater potential for security risks than do standard \LaTeX\ documents. You should only compile \pytex\ documents from sources you trust.}
\end{abstract}
\section{General Python interaction}
We can typeset code that is passed to Python, and bring back the results.
This can be simple. For example, \pyb{print('Python says hi!')} returns the following:
\begin{quote}
\printpythontex
\end{quote}
Or we could access the printed content verbatim (it might contain special characters):
\begin{quote}
\printpythontex[verb]
\end{quote}
Python interaction can also be more complex. \pyb{print(str(2**2**2) + r'\endinput')} returns \printpythontex. In this case, the printed result includes \LaTeX\ code, which is correctly interpreted by \LaTeX\ to ensure that there is not an extra space after the 16. Printed output is saved to a file and brought back in via \verb|\input|, and the \verb|\endinput| command stops input immediately, before \LaTeX\ gets to the end of the line and inserts a space character there, after the 16.
Printing works, but as the last example demonstrates, you have to be careful about spacing if you have text immediately after the printed content. In that case, it's usually best to assemble text within a \pytex\ environment and store the text in a variable. Then you can bring in the text later, using the \pygment{latex}{\py} command. The \pygment{latex}{\py} command brings in a string representation of its argument. First we create the text.
\begin{pyblock}
mytext = '$1 + 1 = {0}$'.format(1 + 1)
\end{pyblock}
Then we bring it in: \py{mytext}. The \pygment{latex}{\py} command can even bring in verbatim content.
We don't have to typeset the code we're executing. It can be hidden.\pyc{mystring=r'\textbf{This is a message from Python}'} And then we can access it later: \py{mystring}.
It is also possible to perform variable substitution or string interpolation. The earlier result could be recreated: \pys{$1 + 1 = !{1+1}$}.
\section{Pygments highlighting}
\pytex\ supports syntax highlighting via Pygments. Any language supported by Pygments can be highlighted. Unicode is supported. Consider this snippet copied and pasted from a Python 3 interactive session. (Using random strings of Unicode for variable names is probably not a good idea, but \pytex\ will happily highlight it for you.)
\begin{pygments}{pycon}
>>> âæéöø = 123
>>> ßçñðŠ = 456
>>> âæéöø + ßçñðŠ
579
\end{pygments}
There is also a Pygments command for inline use: \pygment{latex}{\pygment}.
\section{Python console environment}
\pytex\ includes an environment that emulates a Python interactive session. Commands are entered within the environment, each line is treated as input to an interactive session, and the result is typeset.
\begin{pyconsole}[][frame=single]
x = 123
y = 345
z = x + y
z
def f(expr):
return(expr**4)
f(x)
print('Python says hi from the console!')
\end{pyconsole}
It is possible to refer to the values of console variables later on in inline contexts, using the \pygment{latex}{\pycon} command. For example, the value of $z$ was \pycon{z}.
\section{Basic SymPy interaction}
\pytex\ allows us to perform algebraic manipulations with SymPy and then properly typeset the results.
We create three variables, and define $z$ in terms of the other two.
\begin{sympyblock}
var('x, y, z')
z = x + y
\end{sympyblock}
Now we can access what $z$ is equal to:
\[z=\sympy{z}\]
Many things are possible, including some very nice calculus.
\begin{sympyblock}
f = x**3 + cos(x)**5
g = Integral(f, x)
\end{sympyblock}
\[\sympy{g}=\sympy{g.doit()}\]
It's easy to use arbitrary symbols in equations.
\begin{sympyblock}
phi = Symbol(r'\phi')
h = Integral(exp(-phi**2), (phi, 0, oo))
\end{sympyblock}
\[\sympy{h}=\sympy{h.doit()}\]
\section{Plots with matplotlib}
We can create plots with matplotlib, perfectly matching the plot fonts with the document fonts. No more searching for the code that created a figure!
It is possible to pass page dimensions and similar contextual information from the \LaTeX\ side to the Python side. If you want your figures to be, for example, a particular fraction of the page width, you can pass the value of \pygment{latex}{\textwidth} to the Python side, and use it in creating your figures. See \pygment{latex}{\setpythontexcontext} in the main documentation for details.
You may want to use matplotlib's PGF backend when creating plots.
\begin{pylabblock}
rc('text', usetex=True)
rc('font', family='serif')
rc('font', size=10.0)
rc('legend', fontsize=10.0)
rc('font', weight='normal')
x = linspace(0, 10)
figure(figsize=(4, 2.5))
plot(x, sin(x), label='$\sin(x)$')
xlabel(r'$x\mathrm{-axis}$')
ylabel(r'$y\mathrm{-axis}$')
legend(loc='lower right')
savefig('myplot.pdf', bbox_inches='tight')
\end{pylabblock}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics{myplot.pdf}
\end{center}
\section{Basic pylab interaction}
\begin{pylabblock}
from scipy.integrate import quad
myintegral = quad(lambda x: e**-x**2, 0, inf)[0]
\end{pylabblock}
\[ \int_0^\infty e^{-x^2}\,dx = \pylab{myintegral} \]
\section{An automated derivative and integral table}
\pytex\ allows some amazing document automation, such as this derivative and integral table. Try typing that by hand, fast!
\begin{sympyblock}[][numbers=left,frame=single,framesep=5mm,label=An Automated Derivative and Integral Table]
from re import sub
var('x')
# Create a list of functions to include in the table
funcs = ['sin(x)', 'cos(x)', 'tan(x)',
'sin(x)**2', 'cos(x)**2', 'tan(x)**2',
'asin(x)', 'acos(x)', 'atan(x)',
'sinh(x)', 'cosh(x)', 'tanh(x)']
print(r'\begin{align*}')
for func in funcs:
# Put in some vertical space when switching to arc and hyperbolic funcs
if func == 'asin(x)' or func == 'sinh(x)':
print(r'&\\')
myderiv = 'Derivative(' + func + ', x)'
myint = 'Integral(' + func + ', x)'
print(latex(eval(myderiv)) + '&=' +
latex(eval(myderiv + '.doit()')) + r'\quad & \quad')
print(latex(eval(myint)) + '&=' +
latex(eval(myint+'.doit()')) + r'\\')
print(r'\end{align*}')
\end{sympyblock}
\printpythontex
\section{Step-by-step solutions}
Using SymPy, it is possible to typeset step-by-step solutions. In this particular case, we also use the \verb|mdframed| package to place a colored background behind our code.
\begin{mdframed}[linecolor=Green,innerrightmargin=30pt,innerleftmargin=30pt,leftmargin=-30pt,rightmargin=-30pt,backgroundcolor=Black!5,skipabove=10pt,skipbelow=10pt,roundcorner=5pt,frametitle={Step-by-Step Integral Evaluation},frametitlealignment=\center,splitbottomskip=6pt,splittopskip=12pt]
\begin{sympyblock}[][numbers=left]
x, y, z = symbols('x,y,z')
f = Symbol('f(x,y,z)')
# Define limits of integration
x_llim = 0
x_ulim = 2
y_llim = 0
y_ulim = 3
z_llim = 0
z_ulim = 4
print(r'\begin{align*}')
# Notice how I define f as a symbol, then later as an actual function
left = Integral(f, (x, x_llim, x_ulim), (y, y_llim, y_ulim), (z, z_llim, z_ulim))
f = x*y + y*sin(z) + cos(x+y)
right = Integral(f, (x, x_llim, x_ulim), (y, y_llim, y_ulim), (z, z_llim, z_ulim))
print(latex(left) + '&=' + latex(right) + r'\\')
# For each step, I move limits from an outer integral to an inner, evaluated
# integral until the outer integral is no longer needed
right = Integral(Integral(f, (z, z_llim, z_ulim)).doit(), (x, x_llim, x_ulim),
(y, y_llim, y_ulim))
print('&=' + latex(right) + r'\\')
right = Integral(Integral(f, (z, z_llim, z_ulim), (y, y_llim, y_ulim)).doit(),
(x, x_llim, x_ulim))
print('&=' + latex(right) + r'\\')
right = Integral(f, (z, z_llim, z_ulim), (y, y_llim, y_ulim),
(x, x_llim, x_ulim)).doit()
print('&=' + latex(right) + r'\\')
print('&=' + latex(N(right)) + r'\\')
print(r'\end{align*}')
\end{sympyblock}
\end{mdframed}
\printpythontex
\section{Including stderr}
\pytex\ allows code to be typset next to the stderr it produces. This requires the package option \verb|makestderr|.
\begin{pyblock}[errorsession][numbers=left]
x = 123
y = 345
z = x + y +
\end{pyblock}
This code causes a syntax error:
\stderrpythontex[verbatim][frame=single]
The package option \verb|stderrfilename| allows the file name that appears in the error message to be customized.
\end{document}
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cheswick.com
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\documentclass[12pt]{book}
\usepackage{parskip}
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%% \usepackage{mathptmx} % times roman
%%\usepackage{lucidabr} % lucida bright
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bookmarksnumbered=true,bookmarksopenlevel=3,
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pdfauthor={William A. Alcott},
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\author{William A. Alcott}
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\pagenumbering{roman}
\frontmatter
The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Young Man's Guide, by William A. Alcott
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Title: The Young Man's Guide
Author: William A. Alcott
Release Date: December 14, 2007 [eBook \#23860]
Language: English
***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE YOUNG MAN'S GUIDE***
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THE YOUNG MAN'S GUIDE.
by
WM. A. ALCOTT.
Twelfth Edition.
Boston:
Perkins and Marvin.
1838.
Entered, according to act of Congress, in the year 1835,
By Perkins \& Marvin,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of
Massachusetts.
TO THE READER.
When I commenced this work, my object was a mere compilation. There
were many excellent books for young men, already in circulation, but
none which I thought unexceptionable; and some of them contained
sentiments which I could not approve. I sat down, therefore, intending
to make selections from the choicest parts of them all, and prepare an
unexceptionable and practical manual; such an one as I should be
willing to see in the hands of any youth in the community.
In the progress of my task, however, I found much less that was wholly
in accordance with my own sentiments, than I had expected. The result
was that the project of \textit{compiling}, was given up; and a work prepared,
which is chiefly \textit{original}. There are, it is true, some quotations
from `Burgh's Dignity of Human Nature,' 'Cobbett's Advice to Young
Men,' `Chesterfield's Advice,' and Hawes' Lectures; but in general what
I have derived from other works is re-written, and much modified. On
this account it was thought unnecessary to refer to authorities in the
body of the work.
The object of this book is to \textit{elevate} and \textit{reform}. That it may prove
useful and acceptable, as a means to these ends, is the hearty wish of
THE AUTHOR
Boston, Dec. 9, 1833.
ADVERTISEMENT TO THE FIRST EDITION.
The great purpose of the Young Man's Guide, is the formation of such
character in our young men as shall render them the worthy and useful
and happy members of a great republic. To this end, the author enters
largely into the means of improving the \textit{mind}, the \textit{manners} and the
\textit{morals};---as well as the proper management of \textit{business}. Something
is also said on \textit{amusements}, and \textit{bad habits}. On the subject of
\textit{marriage} he has, however, been rather more full than elsewhere. The
importance of this institution to every young man, the means of
rendering it what the Creator intended, together with those incidental
evils which either accompany or follow---some of them in terrible
retribution---the vices which tend to oppose His benevolent purposes,
are faithfully presented, and claim the special attention of every
youthful reader.
* * * * *
ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND EDITION.
The rapid sale of a large edition of this work, and the general tribute
of public praise which has been awarded to its merits, instead of
closing the eyes of the Publishers or the Author against existing
defects, have, on the contrary, only deepened their sense of obligation
to render the present edition as perfect as possible; and no pains have
been spared to accomplish this end. Several new sections have been
added to the work, and some of the former have been abridged or
extended.
* * * * *
ADVERTISEMENT TO THE THIRD EDITION.
An increasing demand for the Young Man's Guide, evinced by the sale of
more than five thousand copies of the work in a few months, have
induced the publishers to give a third edition, with some amendments
and additions by the author; who has also derived important suggestions
from gentlemen of high literary and moral standing, to whom the work
had been submitted for examination.
THE PUBLISHERS.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION. Mistakes in regard to the disposition and management
of the young. 19-26
This text was converted to LaTeX by means of \textbf{GutenMark} software (version Jul 12 2014).
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\tableofcontents
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\mainmatter
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\gutchapter{CHAPTER I.---IMPORTANCE OF AIMING HIGH IN THE FORMATION OF CHARACTER.}
Section I. Importance of having a high standard of action.---The young should determine to rise. We may usually become what we desire to be. An anecdote. Studying the lives of eminent and useful men. 27-30
Section II. Motives to action.---A regard to our own happiness. To family and friends. To society. To country. To the will of God. The love of God, the highest motive. 31-38
Section III. Industry.---No person has a right to live without labor. Determine to labor as long as you live. Mistaken method of teaching industry. Labor in the open air. Manual labor schools. 38-43
Section IV. Economy.---False and true; Examples of the false. Time is money. Sixty minutes shown to be an hour. Economical habits. 1. Do every thing at the time. Anecdote. 2. Every thing should have its place. Examples. 43-47
Section V. Indolence.---The indolent only half human. Characteristics of an indolent man. His epitaph. 47-49
Section VI. Early Rising and rest.---He who would rise early, must \textit{retire} early. Morning air. Advantages of early rising. 1. Things go better through the day. 2. Morning hours more \textit{agreeable}. 3. Danger of the \textit{second nap}. 4. Early risers long-lived. 5. One hour's sleep before midnight worth two after. 6. Saving of \textit{time} and \textit{money}. Estimates. Examples of early rising. 49-55
Section VII. Duty to Parents.---Reasons. 1. For the sake of our own reputation. 2. From love to our parents. 3. Better to \textit{suffer} wrong, than to \textit{do} wrong. 4. Nothing gained by going away. Franklin an exception to the general rule. No sight more beautiful than a well ordered and happy family. Obedience the great lesson of life. 56-59
Section VIII. Faithfulness.---Our duty to our employers. Common error of the young. Examples. The Mahratta prince. 59-61
Section IX. On Forming Temperate Habits.---Drunkenness and gluttony. Indulgence short of these Indulgences very \textit{expensive}. Spending time at meals. Water drinkers the best guests. Temperate habits tend to health. Ecclesiasticus. Examples of rational living. Tea, coffee, soups, and all warm drinks injurious. General rules. 62-70
Section X. Suppers.---Customs of our ancestors; and of the Jews. Advantages gained by avoiding suppers. Eating-houses. 70-73
Section XI. Dress.---Its uses. Neither be first nor last in a fashion. Fondness for dress. Women not often misled by dress. 73-75
Section XII. Bashfulness and Modesty.---We \textit{may} be both bashful and impudent. Bashfulness injurious. Set up for just what we are, and no more. 76-78
Section XIII. Politeness and Good Breeding.---Not to be despised. In what good breeding consists. How acquired. Ten plain rules. 78-82
Section XIV. Personal Habits.---Business of the day planned in the morning. Dressing, shaving, \&c. Shaving with cold water. Anecdote. 82-88
Section XV. Bathing and Cleanliness.---Connection of Cleanliness with Moral Purity. Neglect of this subject. 88-89
Section XVI. Little Things.---Not to be disregarded. Zimmerman. The world \textit{made up} of little things. 89-93
Section XVII. Anger, and the means of restraining it. Avoid the first steps. An error in education. Opinion of Dr. Darwin. The Quaker and the Merchant. Zimmerman's method of \textit{overcoming} anger. Unreasonableness of returning evil for evil. 93-99
\gutchapter{CHAPTER II.---ON THE MANAGEMENT OF BUSINESS.}
Section I. Commencing Business.---Avoid debt. Do not begin too early. Facts stated. Why young men do not take warning. Students of Medicine and Divinity. Examples for imitation. 100-108
Section II. Importance of Integrity.---Thieves and robbers respect it. What it is. Many kinds of dishonesty. 1. Concealing the market price. 2. Misrepresenting it. 3. Selling unsound or defective goods, and calling them sound and perfect. Quack medicines. 4. Concealing defects. 5. Lowering the value of things we wish to buy. 6. Use of false weights and measures. Other kinds of dishonesty. 108-115
Section III. Method.---Memorandum book; its uses. Rules for doing much business in little time. 116-117
Section IV. Application to Business.---Every person ought to have one principal object of pursuit, and steadily pursue it. Perseverance of a shopkeeper. All \textit{useful} employments respectable. Character of a \textit{drone}. 117-120
Section V. Proper Time and Season of doing Business.---When to deal with the gloomy; the intemperate; those unhappy in domestic life; men involved in public concerns. 120-122
Section VI. Buying upon Trust.---Live within our income. \textit{Calculate.} Buy nothing but what you need. Estimates and examples to show the folly of credit. Not intended as lessons of stinginess. 122-127
Section VII. We should endeavor to do our business ourselves. Four reasons. Trusting dependants. We can do many little things without hindrance. 127-130
Section VIII. Over Trading.---A species of \textit{fraud}. Arises from a desire to get rich rapidly. Wickedness of monopolies. 130-131
Section IX. Making contracts beforehand. Always make bargains beforehand. Three reasons. If possible, reduce every thing to writing. 131-132
Section X. How to know with whom to deal.---Two rules. How to detect a knave. All men by nature, avaricious. Avoid those who boast of \textit{good bargains}. Avoid sanguine promisers. 133-135
Section XI. How to take Men as they are.---How to regard a miser; a passionate man; a slow man; the covetous; those ruled by their wives; the boasting; the mild tempered; the bully. Six sorts of people from whom you are not to expect much aid or sympathy in life: the sordid, the lazy, the busy, the rich, those miserable from poverty, and the silly. 136-140
Section XII. Of desiring the good opinion of others.---Those not far from ruin who \textit{don't care}.---The other extreme to be avoided. 140-141
Section XIII. Intermeddling with the affairs of others.---Matchmakers. Taking sides in quarrels. Ishmaelites. 142-143
Section XIV. On keeping Secrets.---Who may safely be trusted. Anecdotes. 143-145
Section XV. Fear of Poverty.---Little real poverty in this country. Shame of being thought poor leads to worse evils than poverty itself. Fear of poverty often a cause of suicide. 145-150
Section XVI. Speculation.---The habit early formed. It is a species of gaming. Its sources. 150-152
Section XVII. Lawsuits.---Avoid the law. Litigiousness, a disease. Consider what is gained by it. Examples of loss. Subdue the passions which lead to it. Lawsuits unnecessary. 152-156
Section XVIII. Hard dealing.---Its unchristian nature. \textit{Two prices.} Habits of the Mohammedans. 156-157
\gutchapter{CHAPTER III.---ON AMUSEMENTS AND INDULGENCES.}
Section I. On Gaming.---Every gambler a robber. The \textit{first} player. Gaming \textit{produces} nothing. Corrupts manners. Discourages industry. Opinions of Locke and others. What tremendous evils it leads to. France, England. Different sorts of gaming. 1. \textit{Cards}, \textit{dice}, and \textit{billiards}. 2. \textit{Shooting matches.} These brutal practices still sometimes tolerated. 3. \textit{Horse racing} and \textit{cock fighting}. A recent bull fight. 158-171
Section II. On Lotteries.---Lotteries the \textit{worst} species of Gaming. They are a species of swindling. Estimates to show their folly. Appeal to the reader. 171-176
Section III. The Theatre.---A school of vice. Injurious to health. Diseases produced by it. Its danger to morals. Opinions and facts from Griscom, Rousseau, Hawkins, Tillotson, Collier, Hale, Burgh, and Plato. Anecdote. Antiquity of theatres. No safety but in \textit{total abstinence}. 176-183
Section IV. Use of Tobacco.---1. \textit{Smoking.} Picture of its evils in Germany. Tobacco consumed in the United States. When it was introduced. None recommend it to their children. A most powerful poison. Savages fond of it, in proportion to their degradation. No poisonous plant, so much used, except the \textit{betel} of India. How smoking can be abolished. 2. \textit{Chewing.} Apologies for the practice. Tobacco \textit{does not} preserve teeth. 3. \textit{Taking snuff.} Disgust and danger of this habit. 183-191
Section V. Useful Recreations.---Recreations in the open air. Playing ball; quoits; nine pins, \&c. Skating. Dancing. Its uses and dangers. Reading sometimes a recreation. Sports of the field considered. 191-194
\gutchapter{CHAPTER IV.---IMPROVEMENT OF THE MIND.}
Section I. Habits of Observation.---We should keep our `eyes open.' Anecdote from Dr. Dwight. Avoid pedantry. Anecdote of a surgeon;---of the elder and younger Pliny. 195-199
Section II. Rules for Conversation.---Rules of profiting from it. Hear others. Do not interrupt them. Avoid those who use vulgar or profane language. Speak late yourself. Avoid great earnestness. Never be overbearing. 199-202
Section III. On Books and Study.---How to overcome a dislike to them. Lyceums, Travels, Histories, Newspapers. A common mistake. Education only the key to knowledge. Men have commenced students at 40. Franklin always a learner. We can find \textit{time} for study. \textit{Practical Studies.} 1. \textit{Geography.} How to study it. Its importance. 2. \textit{History.} How pursued. 3. \textit{Arithmetic.} \textit{Practical} arithmeticians. The mere use of the pen and pencil do not give a knowledge of this branch. 4. \textit{Chemistry}, and other Natural Sciences. Usefulness of Chemistry. 5. \textit{Grammar} and \textit{Composition}. One method of obtaining a \textit{practical} knowledge of these branches. 6. \textit{Letter writing}. 7. \textit{Voyages}, \textit{travels}, and \textit{biography}. 8. \textit{Novels.} Not recommended, especially to those who have little leisure. 9. \textit{Newspapers.} Newspapers, though productive of much evil, on the whole useful. Five rules to assist the reader in making a judicious selection. Politics. History and constitution of our country studied. 10. \textit{Keeping a Journal.} Examples. Other ways of improving the mind. Blank book, with pencil in our pockets. 11. \textit{Preservation of Books and Papers.} Books should be covered; kept clean; used with dry hands. Turning down leaves. Using books for pillows, props to windows, seats, \&c. 202-229
\gutchapter{CHAPTER V.---SOCIAL AND MORAL IMPROVEMENT.}
Section I. Female Society, in general.---Both sexes should be educated together. What we are to think of those who despise female society. How it polishes and improves us. 230-234
Section II. Advice and Friendship of Mothers. 234-235
Section III. Society of Sisters---Attentions due them. Their benefit. 236-237
Section IV. General Remarks and Advice.---Too great intimacy. Avoid trifling. Beware of idolatry. 238-241
Section V. Lyceums and other Social Meetings.---Value of Lyceums, and courses of lectures. How they might be improved. Their cheapness. 241-243
Section VI. Moral Instruction.---Sabbath Schools and Bible Classes. Value of the latter. 243-244
Section VII. Of Female Society in reference to Marriage.---Every youth should keep matrimony in view. Particular advice. The wish to marry, prudently indulged, will have a great influence on our character. Error of a pedagogue. 244-250
\gutchapter{CHAPTER VI.---MARRIAGE.}
Section I. Why Matrimony is a duty.---Importance of the subject. Considered as a school. Early marriage. Objections. Seven great evils from late marriages. 251-258
Section II. General Considerations.---Husbands and wives gradually resemble each other. Considerations for those who embark in matrimony. 258-262
Section III. Female Qualifications for Matrimony.---1. \textit{Moral Excellence.} 2. \textit{Common Sense.} 3. \textit{Desire for improvement.} 4. \textit{Fondness for children.} Miserable condition of a husband or wife, where this is wanting. 5. \textit{Love of domestic concerns.} Evils of ignorance on this point. Fashionable education in fault. 6. \textit{Sobriety.} Definition of the term. An anecdote. Love of mental and bodily excitement usually connected. 7. \textit{Industry.} How to judge whether a person is industrious. 8. \textit{Early rising.} A mark of industry. Late rising difficult of cure. 9. \textit{Frugality.} Its importance shown. 10. \textit{Personal Neatness.} Its comforts. 11. \textit{A good temper.} Its importance illustrated. 12. \textit{Accomplishments.} 263-305
\gutchapter{CHAPTER VII.---CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR.}
Section I. Inconstancy and Seduction.---Constancy. Its importance illustrated by an example. Cruelty of sporting with the affections of a female. Opinion of Burgh. 306-313
Section II. Licentiousness.---Most common in cities. New Orleans. Hint to legislators. A horrid picture. Not wholly imaginary. Avoid the first erring step. Example of premature decrepitude. Anecdote of C. S. Solitary vice. This vice compared with intemperance. A set of wretches exposed. Apologies sometimes made. Nature of the evils this error produces. The law of God. Medical testimony. Entire celibacy, or purity, not unfavorable to health. Youth ought to consider this, and study the human frame. Causes of the error in question. 1. \textit{False delicacy.} Our half Mohammedan education. 2. \textit{Books}, \textit{Pictures}, \&c. Great extent of this evil. Opinion of Dr. Dwight. 3. \textit{Obscene and improper songs.} Anecdote of a schoolmaster. 4. \textit{Double entendres.} Parental errors. \textit{Evening Parties.} 314-337
Section III. Diseases of Licentiousness. Nine or ten of them enumerated. The ninth described. Four examples of suffering. When the young ought to tremble. Happiness of having never erred. What books may be safely and usefully consulted. Extract from Rees' Cyclopedia. Other forms of disease. Of excess. All degrees of vice are excessive. Duties of Parents as guides to the young. Obligations of Medical men. Concluding Remarks. 337-354
\gutchapter{ADDITIONAL CHAPTER.}
Section I. Choice of Friends. Importance of a few female friends. Caution necessary in making a choice. Story of Lucius---his mistake. Reflections. Character of friends. Select a small number only.
Section II. Rudeness of manners. Wearing hats in the house---its tendency. Practical questions. Manners in families.
Section III. Self-praise. Egotism. We should say little about ourselves.
\gutchapter{INTRODUCTION.}
The young are often accused of being thoughtless, rash, and unwilling to be advised.
That the former of these charges is in a great measure just, is not denied. Indeed, what else could be expected? They are \textit{thoughtless}, for they are yet almost strangers to the world, and its cares and perplexities. They are forward, and sometimes \textit{rash}; but this generally arises from that buoyancy of spirits, which health and vigor impart. True, it is to be corrected, let the cause be what it may; but we shall correct with more caution, and probably with greater success, when we understand its origin.
That youth are \textit{unwilling to be advised}, as a general rule, appears to me untrue. At least I have not found it so. When the feeling does exist, I believe it often arises from parental mismanagement, or from an unfortunate method of advising.
The infant seeks to grasp the burning lamp;---the parent endeavors to dissuade him from it. At length he grasps it, and suffers the consequences. Finally, however, if the parent manages him properly, he learns to follow his advice, and obey his indications, in order to avoid pain. Such, at least, is the natural result of \textit{rational} management. And the habit of seeking parental counsel, once formed, is not easily eradicated. It is true that temptation and forgetfulness may lead some of the young \textit{occasionally} to grasp the \textit{lamp}, even after they are told better; but the consequent suffering generally restores them to their reason. It is only when the parent neglects or refuses to give advice, and for a long time manifests little or no sympathy with his child, that the habit of filial reliance and confidence is destroyed. In fact there are very few children indeed, however improperly managed, who do not in early life acquire a degree of this confiding, inquiring, counsel-seeking disposition.
Most persons, as they grow old, forget that they have ever been young themselves. This greatly disqualifies them for social enjoyment. It was wisely said; 'He who would pass the latter part of his life with honor and decency, must, when he is young, consider that he shall one day be old, and when he is old, remember that he has once been young.' But if forgetfulness on this point disqualifies a person for \textit{self} enjoyment, how much more for that which is social?
Still more does it disqualify us for giving advice. While a lad, I was at play, one day, with my mates, when two gentlemen observing us, one of them said to the other; 'Do you think you ever acted as foolishly as those boys do?' `Why yes; I suppose I did;' was the reply. `Well,' said the other, `I never did;---I \textit{know} I never did.'
Both of these persons has the name of parent, but he who could not believe he had ever acted like a child himself, is greatly destitute of the proper parental spirit. He never---or scarcely ever---puts himself to the slightest inconvenience to promote, directly, the happiness of the young, even for half an hour.
He supposes every child ought to be grave, like himself. If he sees the young engaged in any of those exercises which are really adapted to their years, he regards it as an entire loss of time, besides being foolish and unreasonable. He would have them at work, or at their studies. Whereas there is scarcely any thing that should give a parent more pleasure than to see his children, in their earliest years, enjoying that flow of spirits, which leads them forth to active, vigorous, blood-stirring sports.
Of all persons living, he who does not remember that he has once been young, is the most completely disqualified for giving youthful counsel. He obtrudes his advice occasionally, when the youth is already under temptation, and borne along with the force of a vicious current; but because he disregards it, he gives him up as heedless, perhaps as obstinate. If advice is afterwards asked, his manners are cold and repulsive. Or perhaps he frowns him away, telling him he never \textit{follows} his advice, and therefore it is useless to \textit{give} it. So common is it to treat the young with a measure of this species of roughness, that I cannot wonder the maxim has obtained that the young, generally, 'despise counsel.' And yet, I am fully convinced, no maxim is farther from the truth.
When we come to the very close of life, we cannot transfer, in a single moment, that knowledge of the world and of human nature which an experience of 70 years has afforded us. If, therefore, from any cause whatever, we have not already dealt it out to those around us, it is likely to be lost;---and lost for ever. Now is it not a pity that what the young would regard as an invaluable treasure, could they come at it in such a manner, and at such seasons, as would be \textit{agreeable} to them, and that, too, which the old are naturally so fond of distributing, should be buried with their bodies?
Let me counsel the young, then, to do every thing they can, consistently with the rules of good breeding, to draw forth from the old the treasures of which I have been speaking. Let them even make some sacrifice of that buoyant feeling which, at their age, is so apt to predominate. Let them conform, for the time, in some measure, to the gravity of the aged, in order to gain their favor, and secure their friendship and confidence. I do not ask them wholly to forsake society, or their youthful pastimes for this purpose, or to become grave \textit{habitually}; for this would be requiring too much. But there are moments when old people, however disgusted they may be with the young, do so far unbend themselves as to enter into cheerful and instructive conversation. I can truly say that when a boy, some of my happiest hours were spent in the society of the aged---those too, who were not always what they should have been. The old live in the past, as truly as the young do in the future. Nothing more delights them than to relate stories of `olden time,' especially when themselves were the \textit{heroes}. But they will not relate them, unless there is somebody to hear. Let the young avail themselves of this propensity, and make the most of it. Some may have been heroes in war; some in travelling the country; others in hunting, fishing, agriculture or the mechanic arts; and it may be that here and there one will boast of his skill, and relate stories of his success in that noblest of arts and employments---the making of his fellow creatures wise, and good, and happy.
In conversation with all these persons, you will doubtless hear much that is uninteresting. But where will you find any thing pure or perfect below the sun? The richest ores contain dross. At the same time you cannot fail, unless the fault is your own, to learn many valuable things from them all. From war stories, you will learn history; from accounts of travels, geography, human character, manners and customs; and from stories of the good or ill treatment which may have been experienced, you will learn how to secure the one, and avoid the other. From one person you will learn \textit{one} thing; from another something else. Put these shreds together, and in time you will form quite a number of pages in the great book of human nature. You may thus, in a certain sense, live several lives in one.
One thing more is to be remembered. The more you \textit{have}, the more you are bound to \textit{give}. Common sense, as well as the Scripture, says, 'It is more blessed to give than to receive.' Remember that as you advance in years you are bound to avoid falling into the very errors which, `out of your own mouth' you have `condemned' in those who have gone before you; and to make yourselves as acceptable as you can to the young, in order to secure their confidence, and impart to them, little by little, those accumulated treasures of experience which you have acquired in going through life, but which must otherwise, to a very great extent, be buried with you in your graves.
But, my young friends, there is one method besides conversation, in which you may come at the wisdom of the aged; and that is through the medium of books. \textit{Many} old persons have \textit{written} well, and you cannot do better than to avail yourselves of their instructions. This method has even one advantage over conversation. In the perusal of a book, you are not so often prejudiced or disgusted by the repulsive and perhaps chilling manner of him who wrote it, as you might have been from his conversation and company.
I cannot but indulge the hope that you will find some valuable information and useful advice in \textit{this} little book. It has cost me much labor to embody, in so small a compass, the results of my own experience on such a variety of subjects, and to arrange my thoughts in such a manner as seemed to me most likely to arrest and secure your attention. The work, however, is not wholly the result of my own experience, for I have derived many valuable thoughts from other writers.
An introductory chapter or preface is usually rather dry, but if this should prove sufficiently interesting to deserve your attention till you have read it, and the table of contents, thoroughly, I have strong hopes that you will read the rest of the book. And in accordance with my own principles, I believe you will try to follow my advice; for I take it for granted that none will purchase and read this work but such as are willing to be advised. I repeat it, therefore---I go upon the presumption that my advice will, in the main, be followed. Not at every moment of your lives, it is true; for you will be exposed on all sides to temptation, and, I fear, sometimes fall. But when you come to review the chapter (for I hope I have written nothing but what is worth a second reading) which contains directions on that particular subject wherein you have failed, and find, too, how much you have suffered by neglecting counsel, and rashly seizing the \textit{lamp}, I am persuaded you will not soon fall again in that particular direction.
In this view, I submit these pages to the youth of our American States. If the work should not please them, I shall be so far from attributing it to any fault or perversity of theirs, that I shall at once conclude I have not taken a wise and proper method of presenting my instructions.
\gutchapter{THE YOUNG MAN'S GUIDE.}
\gutchapter{CHAPTER I.}
On the Formation of Character.
SECTION I. \textit{Importance of aiming high, in the formation of character.}
To those who have carefully examined the introduction and table of contents, I am now prepared to give the following general direction; \textit{Fix upon a high standard of character.} To be \textit{thought} well of, is not sufficient. The point you are to aim at, is, the greatest possible degree of usefulness.
Some may think there is danger of setting \textit{too high} a standard of action. I have heard teachers contend that a child will learn to write much faster by having an \textit{inferior copy}, than by imitating one which is comparatively perfect; `because,' say they, 'a pupil is liable to be discouraged if you give him a \textit{perfect} copy; but if it is only a little in advance of his own, he will take courage from the belief that he shall soon be able to equal it.' I am fully convinced, however, that this is not so. The \textit{more} perfect the copy you place before the child, provided it be \textit{written}, and not \textit{engraved}, the better. For it must always be \textit{possible} in the nature of things, for the child to imitate it; and what is not absolutely impossible, every child may reasonably be expected to aspire after, on the principle, that whatever man \textit{has done}, man \textit{may} do.
So in human conduct, generally; whatever is possible should be aimed at. Did my limits permit, I might show that it is a part of the divine economy to place before his rational creatures a perfect standard of action, and to make it their duty to come up to it.
He who only aims at \textit{little}, will \textit{accomplish} but little. \textit{Expect} great things, and \textit{attempt} great things. A neglect of this rule produces more of the difference in the character, conduct, and success of men, than is commonly supposed. Some start in life without any leading object at all; some with a low one; and some aim high:---and just in proportion to the elevation at which they aim, will be their progress and success. It is an old proverb that he who aims at the sun, will not reach it, to be sure, but his arrow will fly higher than if he aims at an object on a level with himself. Exactly so is it, in the formation of character, except in one point. To reach the sun with a arrow is an impossibility, but a youth may aim high without attempting impossibilities.
Let me repeat the assurance that, as a general rule, \textit{you may be whatever you will resolve to be}. Determine that you will be useful in the world, and you \textit{shall} be. Young men seem to me utterly unconscious of what they are capable of being and doing. Their efforts are often few and feeble, because they are not awake to a full conviction that any thing great or distinguished is in their power.
But whence came en Alexander, a C{\ae}sar, a Charles XII, or a Napoleon? Or whence the better order of spirits,---a Paul, an Alfred, a Luther, a Howard, a Penn, a Washington? Were not these men once like yourselves? What but self exertion, aided by the blessing of Heaven, rendered these men so conspicuous for usefulness? Rely upon it,---what these men once \textit{were}, you \textit{may be}. Or at the least, you may make a nearer approach to them, than you are ready to believe. Resolution is almost omnipotent. Those little words, \textit{try}, and \textit{begin}, are sometimes great in their results. `I can't,' never accomplished any thing;---'I will try,' has achieved wonders.
This position might be proved and illustrated by innumerable facts; but one must suffice.
A young man who had wasted his patrimony by profligacy, whilst standing, one day, on the brow of a precipice from which he had determined to throw himself, formed the sudden resolution to regain what he had lost. The purpose thus formed was kept; and though he began by shoveling a load of coals into a cellar, for which he only received twelve and a half cents, yet he proceeded from one step to another till he more than recovered his lost possessions, and died worth sixty thousand pounds sterling.
You will derive much advantage from a careful perusal of the lives of eminent individuals, especially of those who were \textit{good} as well as great. You will derive comparatively little benefit from reading the lives of those scourges of their race who have drenched the earth in blood, except so far as it tends to show you what an immense blessing they \textit{might} have been to the world, had they devoted to the work of human improvement those mighty energies which were employed in human destruction. Could the physical and intellectual energy of Napoleon, the order and method of Alfred, the industry, frugality, and wisdom of Franklin and Washington, and the excellence and untiring perseverance of Paul, and Penn, and Howard, be united in each individual of the rising generation, who can set limits to the good, which they might, and inevitably would accomplish! Is it too much to hope that some happier age will witness the reality? Is it not even probable that the rising generation may afford many such examples?
SECTION II. \textit{On Motives to action.}
Not a few young men either have no fixed principles, no governing motive at all, or they are influenced by those which are low and unworthy. It is painful to say this, but it is too true. On such, I would press the importance of the following considerations.
Among the motives to action which I would present, the first is a regard to \textit{your own happiness}. To this you are by no means indifferent at present. Nay, the attainment of happiness is your primary object. You seek it in every desire, word, and action. But you sometimes mistake the road that leads to it, either for the want of a friendly hand to guide you, or because you refuse to be guided. Or what is most common, you grasp at a smaller good, which is near, and apparently certain, and in so doing cut yourselves off from the enjoyment of a good which is often infinitely greater, though more remote.
Let me urge, in the second place, a regard for the family to which you belong. It is true you can never fully know, unless the bitterness of ingratitude should teach you, the extent of the duty you owe to your relatives; and especially to your parents. You \textit{cannot} know---at least till you are parents yourselves,---how their hearts are bound up in yours. But if you do not \textit{in some measure} know it, till this late period, you are not fit to be parents.
In the third place, it is due to society, particularly to the neighborhood or sphere in which you move, and to the \textit{associations} to which you may belong, that you strive to attain a very great elevation of character. Here, too, I am well aware that it is impossible, at your age, to perceive fully, how much you have it in your power to contribute, if you will, to the happiness of those around you; and here again let me refer you to the advice and guidance of aged friends.
But, fourthly, it is due to the nation and age to which you belong, that you fix upon a high standard of character. This work is intended for American youth. \textit{American!} did I say? This word, alone, ought to call forth all your energies, and if there be a slumbering faculty within you, arouse it to action. Never, since the creation, were the youth of any age or country so imperiously called upon to exert themselves, as those whom I now address. Never before were there so many important interests at stake. Never were such immense results depending upon a generation of men, as upon that which is now approaching the stage of action. These rising millions are destined, according to all human probability, to form by far the greatest nation that ever constituted an entire community of freemen, since the world began. To form the character of these millions involves a greater amount of responsibility, individual and collective, than any other work to which humanity has ever been called. And the reasons are, it seems to me, obvious.
Now it is for you, my young friends, to determine whether these weighty responsibilities shall be fulfilled. It is for you to decide whether this \textit{greatest} of free nations shall, at the same time, be the \textit{best}. And as every nation is made up of individuals, you are each, in reality, called upon daily, to settle this question: 'Shall the United States, possessing the most ample means of instruction within the reach of nearly all her citizens, the happiest government, the healthiest of climates, the greatest abundance of the best and most wholesome nutriment, with every other possible means for developing all the powers of human nature, be peopled with the most vigorous, powerful, and happy race of human beings which the world has ever known?'
There is another motive to which I beg leave, for one moment, to direct your attention. You are bound to fix on a high standard of action, from the desire of obeying the will of God. \textit{He} it is who has cast your lot in a country which---all things considered---is the happiest below the sun. \textit{He} it is who has given you such a wonderful capacity for happiness, and instituted the delightful relations of parent and child, and brother and sister, and friend and neighbor. I might add, \textit{He} it is, too, who has given you the name \textit{American},---a name which alone furnishes a passport to many civilized lands, and like a good countenance, or a becoming dress, prepossesses every body in your favor.
But what young man is there, I may be asked, who is not influenced more or less, by all the motives which have been enumerated? Who is there that does not seek his own happiness? Who does not desire to please his parents and other relatives, his friends and his neighbors? Who does not wish to be distinguished for his attachment to country and to liberty? Nay, who has not even some regard, in his conduct, to the will of God?
I grant that many young men, probably the most of those into whose hands this book will be likely to fall, are influenced, more or less, by all these considerations. All pursue their own happiness, no doubt. By far the majority of the young have, also, a general respect for the good opinion of others, and the laws of the Creator.
Still, do not thousands and tens of thousands mistake, as I have already intimated, in regard to what really promotes their own happiness? Is there any certainty that the greatest happiness of a \textit{creature} can be secured without consulting the will of the Creator? And do not those young persons greatly err, who suppose that they can secure a full amount, even of earthly blessings, without conforming, with the utmost strictness, to those rules for conduct, which the Bible and the Book of Nature, so plainly make known?
Too many young men expect happiness from wealth. This is their great object of study and action, by night and by day. Not that they suppose there is an inherent value in the wealth itself, but only that it will secure the means of procuring the \textit{happiness} they so ardently desire. But the farther they go, in the pursuit of wealth, for the sake of happiness, especially if successful in their plans and business, the more they forget their original purpose, and seek wealth for the \textit{sake} of wealth. To \textit{get rich}, is their principal motive to action.
So it is in regard to the exclusive pursuit of sensual pleasure, or civil distinction. The farther we go, the more we lose our original character, and the more we become devoted to the objects of pursuit, and incapable of being roused by other motives.
The laws of God, whether we find them in the constitution of the universe around us, or go higher and seek them in the revealed word, are founded on a thorough knowledge of human nature, and all its tendencies. Do you study natural science---the laws which govern matter, animate and inanimate? What is the lesson which it constantly inculcates, but that it is man's highest interest not to violate or attempt to violate the rules which Infinite Wisdom has adopted; and that every violation of his laws brings punishment along with it? Do you study the laws of God, as revealed in the Bible? And do not they, too, aim to inculcate the necessity of constant and endless obedience to his will, at the same time that their rejection is accompanied by the severest penalties which heaven and earth can inflict? What, in short, is the obvious design of the Creator, wherever and whenever any traces of his character and purposes can be discovered? What, indeed, but to show us that it is our most obvious duty and interest to love and obey Him?
The young man whose highest motives are to seek his own happiness, and please his friends and neighbors, and the world around him, does much. This should never be denied. He merits much---not in the eye of God, for of this I have nothing to say in this volume---but from his fellow men. And although he may have never performed a single action from a desire to obey God, and make his fellow men really \textit{better}, as well as happier, he may still have been exceedingly useful, compared with a large proportion of mankind.
But suppose a young man possesses a character of this stamp---and such there are. How is he ennobled, how is the dignity of his nature advanced, how is he elevated from the rank of a mere companion of creatures,---earthly creatures, too,---to that of a meet companion and fit associate for the inhabitants of the celestial world, and the Father of all; when to these traits, so excellent and amiable in themselves, is joined the pure and exalted desire to pursue his studies and his employments, his pleasures and his pastimes---in a word, every thing---even the most trifling concern which is \textit{worth} doing, exactly as God would wish to have it done; and make the \textit{means} of so doing, his great and daily study?
This, then, brings us to the highest of human motives to action, the love of God. Thou shalt love the Lord thy God supremely, and thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself, are the two great commands which bind the human family together. When our love to God is evinced by pure love to man, and it is our constant prayer, 'Lord what wilt thou have me to \textit{do};' then we come under the influence of motives which are worthy of creatures destined to immortality. When it is our meat and drink, from a sacred regard to the Father of our spirits, and of all things in the universe, material and immaterial, to make every thought, word and action, do good---have a bearing upon the welfare of one or more, and the more the better---of our race, then alone do we come up to the dignity of our nature, and, by Divine aid, place ourselves in the situation for which the God of nature and of grace designed us.
* * * * *
I have thus treated, at greater length than I had at first intended, of the importance of having an \textit{elevated aim}, and of the \textit{motives to action}. On the \textit{means} by which young men are to attain this elevation, it is the purpose of this little work to dwell plainly and fully. These \textit{means} might be classed in three great divisions; \textit{viz}. \textit{physical}, \textit{mental}, and \textit{moral}. Whatever relates to the health, belongs to the first division; whatever to the improvement of the mind, the second; and the formation of good manners and virtuous habits, constitutes the third. But although an arrangement of this sort might have been more logical, it would probably have been less interesting to the reader. The means of religious improvement, appropriately so called, require a volume of themselves.
SECTION III. \textit{Industry.}
Nothing is more essential to usefulness and happiness in life, than habits of industry. `This we commanded you,' says St. Paul, 'that if any would not work, neither should he eat.' Now this would be the sober dictate of good sense, had the apostle never spoken. It is just as true now as it was 2,000 years ago, that no person possessing a sound mind in a healthy body, has a right to live in this world without labor. If he claims an existence on any other condition, let him betake himself to some other planet.
There are many kinds of labor. Some which are no less useful than others, are almost exclusively mental. You may make your own selection from a very wide range of employments, all, perhaps, equally important to society. \textit{But something you must do.} Even if you happen to inherit an ample fortune, your health and happiness demand that you should labor. To live in idleness, even if you have the means, is not only injurious to yourself, but a species of fraud upon the community, and the children,---if children you ever have,---who have a claim upon you for what you can earn and do.
Let me prevail with you then, when I urge you to set out in life fully determined to depend chiefly on yourself, for pecuniary support; and to be in this respect, independent. In a country where the general rule is that a person shall rise,---if he rise at all,---by his own merit, such a resolution is indispensable. It is usually idle to be looking out for support from some other quarter. Suppose you should obtain a place of office or trust through the friendship, favor, or affection of others; what then? Why, you hold your post at uncertainties. It may be taken from you at almost any hour. But if you depend on yourself alone, in this respect, your mountain stands strong, and cannot very easily be moved.
He who lives upon any thing except his own labor, is incessantly surrounded by rivals. He is in daily danger of being out-bidden; his very bread depends upon caprice, and he lives in a state of never ceasing fear. His is not, indeed, the dog's life, '\textit{hunger} and idleness,' but it is worse; for it is `idleness with \textit{slavery};' the latter being just the price of the former.
Slaves, are often well \textit{fed} and decently \textit{clothed}; but they dare not \textit{speak}. They dare not be suspected even to \textit{think} differently from their master, despise his acts as much as they may;---let him be tyrant, drunkard, fool, or all three at once, they must either be silent, or lose his approbation. Though possessing a thousand times his knowledge, they yield to his assumption of superior understanding; though knowing it is they who, in fact, do all that he is paid for doing, it is destruction to them to \textit{seem as if they thought} any portion of the service belonged to themselves.
You smile, perhaps, and ask what all this tirade against slavery means. But remember, there is slavery of several kinds. There is \textit{mental} slavery as well as bodily; and the former is not confined to any particular division of the United States.
Begin, too, with a determination to labor through life. There are many who suppose that when they have secured to themselves a competence, they shall sit with folded arms, in an easy chair, the rest of their days, and enjoy it. But they may be assured that this will never do. The very fact of a person's having spent the early and middle part of life in active usefulness, creates a necessity, to the body and mind, of its continuance. By this is not meant that men should labor as \textit{hard} in old age, even in proportion to their strength, as in early life. Youth requires a great variety and amount of action, maturity not so much, and age still less. Yet so much as age does, in fact, demand, is more necessary than to those who are younger. Children are so tenacious of life, that they do not \textit{appear} to \textit{suffer immediately}, if exercise is neglected; though a day of reckoning must finally come.
Hence we see the reason why those who retire from business towards the close of life, so often become diseased, in body and mind; and instead of enjoying life, or making those around them happy, become a source of misery to themselves and others.
Most people have a general belief in the importance of industrious habits; and yet not a few make strange work in endeavoring to form them. Some attempt to do it by compulsion; others by flattery. Some think it is to be accomplished by set lessons, in spite of example; others by example alone.
A certain father who was deeply convinced of the importance of forming his sons to habits of industry, used to employ them whole days in removing and replacing heaps of stones. This was well intended, and arose from regarding industry as a high accomplishment; but there is some danger of defeating our own purpose in this way, and of producing \textit{disgust}. Besides this, labor enough can usually be obtained which is obviously profitable.
All persons, without exception, ought to labor more or less, every day in the open air. Of the truth of this opinion, the public are beginning to be sensible; and hence we hear much said, lately, about manual labor schools. Those who, from particular circumstances, cannot labor in the open air, should substitute in its place some active mechanical employment, together with suitable calisthenic or gymnastic exercises.
It is a great misfortune of the present day, that almost every one is, by his own estimate, \textit{raised above his real state of life}. Nearly every person you meet with is aiming at a situation in which he shall be exempted from the drudgery of laboring with his hands.
Now we cannot all become `\textit{lords}' and `\textit{gentlemen},' if we would. There must be a large part of us, after all, to make and mend clothes and houses, and carry on trade and commerce, and, in spite of all that we can do, the far greater part of us must actually \textit{work} at something; otherwise we fall under the sentence; 'He who will not \textit{work} shall not \textit{eat}.' Yet, so strong is the propensity to be \textit{thought} `gentlemen;' so general is this desire amongst the youth of this proud money making nation, that thousands upon thousands of them are, at this moment, in a state which may end in starvation; not so much because they are too \textit{lazy} to earn their bread, as because they are too \textit{proud}!
And what are the \textit{consequences}? A lazy youth becomes a burden to those parents, whom he ought to comfort, if not support. Always aspiring to something higher than he can reach, his life is a life of disappointment and shame. If marriage \textit{befall} him, it is a real affliction, involving others as well as himself. His lot is a thousand times worse than that of the common laborer. Nineteen times out of twenty a premature death awaits him: and, alas! how numerous are the cases in which that death is most miserable, not to say ignominious!
SECTION IV. \textit{On Economy.}
There is a false, as well as a true economy. I have seen an individual who, with a view to economy, was in the habit of splitting his wafers. Sometimes a thick wafer can be split into two, which will answer a very good purpose; but at others, both parts fall to pieces. Let the success be ever so complete, however, all who reflect for a moment on the value of time, must see it to be a losing process.
I knew a laboring man who would hire a horse, and spend the greater part of a day, in going six or eight miles and purchasing half a dozen bushels of grain, at sixpence less a bushel than he must have given near home. Thus to gain fifty cents, he subjected himself to an expense, in time and money, of one hundred and fifty. These are very common examples of defective economy; and of that `withholding' which the Scripture says `tends to poverty.'
Economy in time is economy of money---for it needs not Franklin to tell us that time is equivalent to money. Besides, I never knew a person who was economical of the one, who was not equally so of the other. Economy of time will, therefore, be an important branch of study.
But the study is rather difficult. For though every young man of common sense knows that an hour is \textit{sixty minutes}, very few seem to know that sixty minutes make an hour. On this account many waste fragments of time,---of one, two, three or five minutes each---without hesitation, and apparently without regret;---never thinking that fifteen or twenty such fragments are equal to a full hour. 'Take care of the pence, the pounds will take care of themselves,' is not more true, than that hours will take care of themselves, if you will only secure the minutes.[1]
In order to form economical habits, several important points must be secured. You must have for every \textit{purpose} and \textit{thing} a \textit{time}, and \textit{place}; and every thing must be done \textit{at the time}, and all things put \textit{in their place}.
1. \textit{Every thing must be done at the time.} Whether you attempt little or much, let every hour have its employment, in business, study, social conversation, or diversion; and unless it be on extraordinary occasions, you must not suffer your plan to be broken. It is in this way that many men who perform an incredible amount of business, have abundant leisure. And it is for want of doing business systematically that many who effect but little, never find much leisure. They spend their lives in literally `doing nothing.'
An eminent prime minister of Holland was asked how he could perform such a vast amount of business, as it was known he did, and yet have so much leisure. `I do every thing at the time;' was the reply.
Some of you will say you have no room for any plan of your own; that your whole time is at the will of your master, or employer. But this is not so. There are few persons who are so entirely devoted to others as not to have minutes, if not hours, every day, which they can call their own. Now here it is that character is tried and proved. He alone who is wise in small matters, will be wise in large ones. Whether your unoccupied moments amount in a day to half an hour, or an hour, or two hours, have something to do in each of them. If it be social conversation, the moment your hour arrives, engage in it at once; if study, engage at once in that. The very fact that you have but a very few minutes at your command, will create an interest in your employment during that time.
Perhaps no persons read to better purpose than those who have but very little leisure. Some of the very best minds have been formed in this manner. To repeat their names would be to mention a host of self educated men, in this and in other countries. To show what can be done, I will mention one fact which fell under my own observation. A young man, about fifteen years of age, unaccustomed to study, and with a mind wholly undisciplined, read Rollin's Ancient History through in about three months, or a fourth of a year; and few persons were ever more closely confined to a laborious employment than he was during the whole time. Now to read four such works as Rollin in a year, is by no means a matter to be despised.
2. \textit{Every thing should have its place.} Going into a shop, the other day, where a large number of persons were employed, I observed the following motto, in large letters, pasted on the side of the room; 'Put every thing in its proper place.' I found the owner of the shop to be a man of order and economy.
An old gentleman of my acquaintance, who always had a place for every thing, made it a rule, if any thing was out of its place, and none of his children could find it, to blame the whole of them. This was an unreasonable measure, but produced its intended effect. His whole family follow his example; they have a place for every thing, and they put every thing in its place.
Unless both the foregoing rules are observed, true economy does not and cannot exist. But without economy, life is of little comparative value to ourselves or others. This trait of character is \textit{generally} claimed, but more \textit{rarely} possessed.
\begin{quotation}
[1] A teacher, who has been pleased to say much in behalf of this work, and to do much to extend its circulation, in a late letter, very modestly, but properly makes the following inquiry; 'Has not Dr. Franklin's precept, \textit{time is money}, made many misers? Is it not used without sufficient qualification?'\end{quotation}
\begin{quotation}
There is no good thing, nor any good advice, but what may be abused, if used or taken \textit{without qualification}. There may be misers in regard to time, as well as money; and no one can become miserly in the one respect without soon becoming so in the other. He who cannot or rather will not give any portion of his time to promote the happiness of those around him, in the various ways of doing good, which perpetually offer, lest it should take from his means of earning property, is as much to be pitied as he who hoards all his dollars and cents. Still it is true that youth should husband well their time, and avoid wasting either that or their money.\end{quotation}
SECTION V. \textit{Indolence.}
One of the greatest obstacles in the road to excellence, is indolence. I have known young men who would reason finely on the value of time, and the necessity of rising early and improving every moment of it. Yet I have also known these same \textit{aspiring} young men to lie dozing, an hour or two in the morning, after the wants of nature had been reasonably, and more than reasonably gratified. You can no more rouse them, with all their fine arguments, than you can a log. There they lie, completely enchained by indolence.
I have known others continually complain of the shortness of time; that they had no time for business, no time for study, \&c. Yet they would lavish hours in yawning at a public house, or hesitating whether they had better go to the theatre or stay; or whether they had better get up, or indulge in `a little more slumber.' Such people wear the most galling chains, and as long as they continue to wear them there is no reasoning with them.
An indolent person is scarcely human; he is half quadruped, and of the most stupid species too. He may have good intentions of discharging a duty, while that duty is at a distance; but let it approach, let him view the time of action as near, and down go his hands in languor. He \textit{wills}, perhaps; but he \textit{un}wills in the next breath.
What is to be done with such a man, especially if he is a young one? He is absolutely good for nothing. Business tires him; reading fatigues him; the public service interferes with his pleasures, or restrains his freedom. His life must be passed on a bed of down. If he is employed, moments are as hours to him---if he is amused, hours are as moments. In general, his whole time eludes him, he lets it glide unheeded, like water under a bridge. Ask him what he has done with his morning,---he cannot tell you; for he has lived without reflection, and almost without knowing whether he has lived at all.
The indolent man sleeps as long as it is possible for him to sleep, dresses slowly, amuses himself in conversation with the first person that calls upon him, and loiters about till dinner. Or if he engages in any employment, however important, he leaves it the moment an opportunity of talking occurs. At length dinner is served up; and after lounging at the table a long time, the evening will probably be spent as unprofitably as the morning: and this it may be, is no unfair specimen of his whole life. And is not such a wretch, for it is improper to call him a man---good for nothing? What is he good for? How can any rational being be willing to spend the precious gift of life in a manner so worthless, and so much beneath the dignity of human nature? When he is about stepping into the grave, how can he review the past with any degree of satisfaction? What is his history, whether recorded here or there,---in golden letters, or on the plainest slab---but, 'he was born' and `he died!'
SECTION VI. \textit{Early Rising and Rest.}
Dr. Rush mentions a patient of his who thought himself wonderfully abstinent because he drank no spirituous or fermented liquors, \textit{except a bottle of wine or so}, after dinner!
In like manner some call it early to retire at \textit{ten or eleven o'clock}. Others think \textit{ten very late}. Dr. Good, an English writer on medicine, in treating of the appropriate means of preventing the gout in those who are predisposed to it, after giving directions in regard to diet, drink, exercise, \&c., recommends an early hour of retiring to rest. 'By all means,' says he, `you should go to bed by eleven.'
To half the population of New England such a direction would seem strange; but by the inhabitants of cities and large towns, who already begin to ape the customs and fashions of the old world, the caution is well understood. People who are in the habit of making and attending parties which commence at 9 or 10 o'clock in the evening, can hardly be expected to rise with the sun.
We hear much said about the benefit of the morning air. Many wise men have supposed the common opinion on this subject to be erroneous; and that the mistake has arisen from the fact that being refreshed and invigorated by rest, the change is \textit{within} instead of \textit{without}; that our physical frames and mental faculties are more healthy than they were the previous evening, rather than that the surrounding atmosphere has altered.
Whether the morning air is \textit{more} healthy or not, it is certainly healthy enough. Besides, there are so many reasons for early rising that if I can persuade the reader to go to bed early, I shall have little fear of his lying late in the morning.
1st. He who rises early and plans his work, and early sets himself about it, generally finds his business go well with him the whole day. He has taken time by the foretop; and will be sure to go before, or \textit{drive} his business; while his more tardy neighbor 'suffers his business to drive him.' There is something striking in the feeling produced by beginning a day's work thus seasonably. It gives an impulse to a man's thoughts, speech, and actions, which usually lasts through the day. This is not a mere whim, but sober fact; as can be attested by thousands. The person who rises late, usually pleads (for mankind are very ingenious in defence of what falls in with their own inclinations,) that he does as much in the progress of the day, as those who rise early. This may, in a few instances, be true; but in general, facts show the reverse. The motions of the early riser will be more lively and vigorous all day. He may, indeed, become dull late in the evening, but he ought to be so.
Sir Matthew Hale said that after spending a Sunday well, the rest of the week was usually prosperous. This is doubtless to be accounted for---in part at least---on the above principle.
2. In the warm season, the morning is the most agreeable time for labor. Many farmers and mechanics in the country perform a good half day's work before the people of the city scarcely know that the sun shines.[2]
3. To lie snoring late in the morning, assimilates us to the most beastly of animals. Burgh, an ingenious English writer, justly observes; 'There is no time spent more stupidly than that which some luxurious people pass in a morning between sleeping and waking, after nature has been fully gratified. He who is awake may be doing something: he who is asleep, is receiving the refreshment necessary to fit him for action: but the hours spent in dozing and slumbering can hardly be called existence.'
The late Dr. Smith, of Yale College, in his lectures, used to urge on his hearers never to take `\textit{the second nap}.' He said that if this rule were steadily and universally followed by persons in health,---there would be no dozing or oversleeping. If, for once, they should awake from the first nap before nature was sufficiently restored, the next night would restore the proper balance. In laying this down as a rule, Dr. Smith would, of course, except those instances in which we are awakened by accident.
4. It has been remarked by experienced physicians that they have seldom, if ever, known a person of great age, who was not an early riser. In enumerating the causes of longevity, Rush and Sinclair both include early rising.
5. It is a trite but just maxim that one hour's sleep before midnight is worth two afterward. Why it is so, would perhaps be difficult to say. The power of habit is great, and as the majority of children are trained to go to bed early, perhaps this will in part account for the fact. So when the usual hour for meal arrives, a given amount of food eaten at the time, is digested in a more healthy and regular manner than if eaten one, or two, or three hours afterwards. Again, nature certainly intended man should exercise during the day, and sleep in the night. I do not say the \textit{whole} night; because in the winter and in high northern latitudes, this would be devoting an unreasonable portion of time to sleep. It would hardly do to sleep three or four months. But in all countries, and in all climates, we should try to sleep half our hours before midnight.
6. The person who, instead of going to bed at nine, sits up till eleven, and then sleeps during two hours of daylight the following morning, is grossly negligent of economy. For, suppose he makes this his constant practice, during his whole \textit{business} life, say fifty years. The extra oil or tallow which he would consume would not be estimated at less than one cent an evening; which, in fifty years would be \$182.50. Not a very large sum to be sure; but, to every \textit{young} man, worth saving; since, to a community of 1,000 young men, the amount would be no less than \$182,500. Then the loss in health and strength would be far greater, though it is obvious that it cannot so easily be computed.
7. Once more. If an hour's sleep before midnight is worth more than an hour in the morning, then an hour in the morning is of course worth less than an hour before midnight, and a person must sleep a greater number of hours in the morning to obtain an equal amount of rest. A person retiring at eleven and rising at eight, would probably get no more rest, possibly less, than a person who should sleep from nine to five;---a period one hour shorter. But if so, he actually loses an hour of time a day. And you well know, if Franklin had not told you so, that \textit{time is money}.
Now, if we estimate the value of this time at ten cents an hour for one person in four, of the population of the United States---and this is probably a fair estimate---the loss to an individual in a year, or 313 working days, would be \$31.30; and in 50 years \$1,565. A sum sufficient to buy a good farm in many parts of the country. The loss to a population equal to that of the United States, would, in fifty years, be no less than five thousand and eighty-six millions of dollars!
But this is not the whole loss. The time of the young and old is beyond all price for the purposes of mental and moral improvement. Especially is this true of the precious golden hours of the morning. Think, then, of the immense waste in a year! At twelve hours a day, more than a million of years of valuable time are wasted annually in the United States.
I have hitherto made my estimates on the supposition that we do not sleep too much, in the aggregate, and that the only loss sustained arises from the \textit{manner of procuring it}. But suppose, once more, we sleep an hour too much daily. This involves a waste just twice as great as that which we have already estimated.
Do you startle at these estimates! It is proper that many of you should. You have misspent time enough. Awake your `drowsy souls,' and shake off your stupid habits. Think of Napoleon breaking up the boundaries of kingdoms, and dethroning kings, and to accomplish these results, going through with an amount of mental and bodily labor that few constitutions would be equal to, with only \textit{four hours of sleep in the twenty-four}. Think of Brougham too, who \textit{works} as many hours, perhaps, as any man in England, and has as much influence, and yet sleeps as few; \textit{i.e}., only four. A hundred persons might be named, and the list would include some of the greatest benefactors of their race, who never think of sleeping more than \textit{six} hours a day. And yet many of you are scarcely contented with eight!
Would you conquer as Bonaparte did---not states, provinces, and empires,---but would you aspire to the high honor of conquering yourselves, and of extending your conquests intellectually and morally, you must take the necessary steps. The path is a plain one; requiring nothing but a little moral courage. `What man has done, man may do.' I know you do not and ought not to aspire to conquer kingdoms, or to become prime ministers; but you ought to aspire to get the victory over yourselves:---a victory as much more noble than those of Napoleon, and C{\ae}sar, and Alexander, as intellectual and moral influence are superior to mere brute force.
\begin{quotation}
[2] Dr. Franklin, in view of the latter fact, wrote a humorous Essay, at Paris, in which he labored hard to show the people of that luxurious and dissipated city, that the sun gives light as soon as it rises.\end{quotation}
SECTION VII. \textit{On Duty to Parents.}
It was the opinion of a very eminent and observing man, that those who are obedient to parents, are more healthy, long lived, and happy than those who are disobedient. And he reasons very fairly on the subject.
Now I do not know whether the promise annexed to the fifth command, (whatever might have been intended, as addressed to the Jews,) has any special reference to happiness in this life. I only know that in general, those who are obedient to parents are apt to be virtuous in other respects; for the virtues as well as the vices usually go in companies. But that virtue in general tends to long life and happiness, nobody will entertain a doubt.
I am sorry, however, to find that the young, when they approach adult years, are apt to regard authority as irksome. It should not be so. So long as they remain under the parental roof, they ought to feel it a pleasure to conform to the wishes of the parents in all the arraignments of the family, if not absolutely unreasonable. And even in the latter case, it is my own opinion---and one which has not been hastily formed, either---that it would be better to submit, with cheerfulness; and for three reasons.
1st. For the sake of your own reputation; which will always be \textit{endangered} by disobedience, however unjust the parental claim may be.
2d. From a love of your parents, and a sense of what you owe them for their kind care; together with a conviction that perfect rectitude is not to be expected. You will find error, more or less, every where around you---even in yourselves; why should you expect perfection in your parents?
3d. Because it is better to \textit{suffer} wrong than to \textit{do} wrong. Perhaps there is nothing which so improves human character, as suffering wrongfully; although the world may be slow to admit the principle. More than this; God himself has said a great deal about \textit{obedience to parents}.
If real evils multiply so that a young man finds he cannot remain in his father's house, without suffering not only in his feelings, but permanently in his temper and disposition, I will not say that it is never best to leave it. I do not believe, however, there is \textit{often} any such necessity. Of those who leave their paternal home on this plea, I believe nine hundred and ninety-nine in a thousand might profitably remain, if they would; and that a very large number would find the fault in themselves---in their own temper, disposition or mistaken views---rather than in their parents.
And what is to be \textit{gained} by going away? Unfortunately this is a question too seldom asked by restless, or headstrong youths; and when asked and answered, it is usually found that their unhappy experience proves the answer to have been incorrect. I have seldom known a youth turn out well who left his parents or his guardian or master. On this subject, Franklin, I know, is often triumphantly referred to; but for one such instance as that, I hazard nothing in saying there are hundreds of a contrary character. Within the circle of my own observation, young men who leave in this manner, have wished themselves back again a thousand times.
But be this as it may, so long as you remain in the family, if you are 70 years of age, by all means yield to authority implicitly, and if possible, cheerfully. Avoid, at least, altercation and reproaches. If things do not go well, fix your eye upon some great example of suffering wrongfully, and endeavor to profit by it.
There is no sight more attractive than that of a well ordered family; one in which every child, whether five years old or fifty, submits cheerfully to those rules and regulations which parental authority has thought fit to impose. It is, to use a strong expression, an image of heaven. But, exactly in the same proportion, a family of the contrary character resembles the regions below.
Nor is this all. It is an ancient maxim,---and however despised by some of the moderns, none can be more true,---that he only is fit to command who has first learned to obey. Obedience, is, in fact, the great lesson of human life. We first learn to yield our will to the dictates of parental love and wisdom. Through them we learn to yield submissively to the great laws of the Creator, as established in the material world. We learn to avoid, if possible, the flame, the hail, the severity of the cold, the lightning, the tornado, and the earthquake; and we do not choose to fall from a precipice, to have a heavy body fall on us, to receive vitriol or arsenic into our stomachs, (at least in health) or to remain a very long time, immersed in water, or buried in the earth. We submit also to the government under which we live. All these are lessons of obedience. But the Christian goes farther; and it is his purpose to obey not only all these laws, but any additional ones he may find imposed, whether they pertain to material or immaterial existences.
In short, he who would put himself in the most easy position, in the sphere allotted him by the Author of Nature, must learn \textit{to obey},---often implicitly and unconditionally. At least he must know how to obey: and the earlier this knowledge is acquired, and corresponding habits established, the better and happier will he find his condition, and the more quiet his conscience.
SECTION VIII. \textit{Faithfulness.}
Hardly any thing pleases me more in a young man, than faithfulness to those for whom he is employed, whether parents, guardians, masters, or others.
There appears to be a strange misapprehension, in the minds of many, in regard to this point. There are few who will not admit, in theory, whatever may be their practice, that they ought to be faithful to their parents. And by far the majority of the young doubtless perceive the propriety of being faithful to their masters; so long at least, as they are present. I will even go farther and admit that the number of young men---sons, wards, apprentices, and servants---who would willingly be so far unfaithful as to do any thing positively wrong because those who are set over them happen to be absent, is by no means considerable.
But by faithfulness to our employers, I mean something more than the mere doing of things because we are \textit{obliged} to do them, or because we \textit{must}. I wish to see young men feel an interest in the well being and success of their employers; and take as good care of their concerns and property, whether they are present or absent, as if they were their own. The youth who would be more industrious, persevering, prudent, economical, and attentive in business, if the profits were his own, than he now is, does not in my opinion come up to the mark at which he should aim.
The great apology for what I call unfaithfulness to employers, is, `What shall I get by it?' that is, by being faithful. I have seen many a young man who would labor at the employment regularly assigned him, during a certain number of hours, or till a certain job was completed, after which he seemed unwilling to lift a finger, except for his own amusement, gratification, or emolument. A few minutes' labor might repair a breach in a wall or corn crib, and save the owner many dollars' worth of property, but it is passed by! By putting a few deranged parcels of goods in their proper place, or writing down some small item of account, which would save his employer much loss of time or money, or both, a faithful clerk might often do a great service. Would he not do it, if the loss was to be his own? Why not then do it for his employer?
Those who neglect things, or perform them lazily or carelessly, because they imagine they shall get nothing for it, would do well to read the following story of a devoted and faithful domestic; which I suppose to be a fact. It needs no comment.
A Mahratta Prince, in passing through a certain apartment, one day, discovered one of his servants asleep with his master's slippers clasped so tightly to his breast, that he was unable to disengage them. Struck with the fact, and concluding at once, that a person who was so jealously careful of a trifle, could not fail to be faithful when entrusted with a thing of more importance, he appointed him a member of his body-guards. The result proved that the prince was not mistaken. Rising in office, step by step, the young man soon became the most distinguished military commander in Mahratta; and his fame ultimately spread through all India.
SECTION IX. \textit{On Forming Temperate Habits.}
`Be temperate in all things,' is an excellent rule, and of very high authority.
\textit{Drunkenness} and \textit{Gluttony} are vices so degrading, that advice is, I must confess, nearly lost on those who are capable of indulging in them. If any youth, unhappily initiated in these odious and debasing vices, should happen to see what I am now writing, I beg him to read the command of God, to the Israelites, Deut. xxi. The father and mother are to take the bad son 'and bring him to the elders of the city; and they shall say to the elders, this our son will not obey our voice: he is a \textit{glutton} and a \textit{drunkard}. And all the men of the city shall stone him with stones, that he die.' This will give him some idea of the odiousness of his crime, at least in the sight of Heaven.
But indulgence \textit{far short} of gross drunkenness and gluttony is to be deprecated; and the more so, because it is too often looked upon as being no crime at all. Nay, there are many persons, who boast of a refined taste in matters connected with eating and drinking, who are so far from being ashamed of employing their thoughts on the subject, that it is their boast that they do it.
Gregory, one of the Christian fathers, says: 'It is not the \textit{quantity} or the \textit{quality} of the meat, or drink, but the \textit{love of it}, that is condemned:' that is to say, the indulgence beyond the absolute demands of nature; the hankering after it; the neglect of some duty or other for the sake of the enjoyments of the table. I believe, however, there \textit{may} be error, both in \textit{quantity} and \textit{quality}.
This \textit{love} of what are called `good eating and drinking,' if very unamiable in grown persons, is perfectly hateful in a \textit{youth}; and, if he \textit{indulge} in the propensity, he is already half ruined. To warn you against acts of fraud, robbery, and violence, is not here my design. Neither am I speaking against acts which the jailor and the hangman punish, nor against those moral offences which all men condemn, but against indulgences, which, by men in general, are deemed not only \textit{harmless}, but \textit{meritorious}; but which observation has taught me to regard as destructive to human happiness; and against which all ought to be cautioned, even in their boyish days.
Such indulgences are, in the first place, very \textit{expensive}. The materials are costly, and the preparation still more so. What a monstrous thing, that, in order to satisfy the appetite of one person there must be one or two others \textit{at work constantly}.[3] More fuel, culinary implements, kitchen room: what! all these merely to tickle the palate of four or five people, and especially people who can hardly pay their bills! And, then, the \textit{loss of time}---the time spent in pleasing the palate!
``A young man,'' says an English writer, ``some years ago, offered himself to me, as an \textit{amanuensis}, for which he appeared to be perfectly qualified. The terms were settled, and I requested him to sit down, and begin; but looking out of the window, whence he could see the church clock, he said, somewhat hastily, 'I \textit{cannot} stop \textit{now} sir, I must go to \textit{dinner}.' `Oh!' said I, 'you \textit{must} go to dinner, must you! Let the dinner, which you \textit{must} wait upon to-day, have your constant services, then; for you and I shall never agree.'
``He had told me that he was in \textit{great distress} for want of employment; and yet, when relief was there before his eyes, he could forego it for the sake of getting at his eating and drinking three or four hours sooner than was necessary.''
This anecdote is good, so far as it shows the folly of an unwillingness to deny ourselves in small matters, in any circumstances. And yet punctuality, even at meals, is not to be despised.
\textit{Water-drinkers} are universally \textit{laughed at}: but, it has always seemed to me, that they are amongst the most welcome of guests, and that, too, though the host be by no means of a niggardly turn. The truth is, they give \textit{no trouble}; they occasion \textit{no anxiety} to please them; they are sure not to make their sittings \textit{inconveniently long}; and, above all, their example teaches \textit{moderation} to the rest of the company.
Your notorious `lovers of good cheer' are, on the contrary, not to be invited without \textit{due reflection}. To entertain one of them is a serious business; and as people are not apt voluntarily to undertake such pieces of business, the well-known `lovers of good eating and drinking' are left, very generally, to enjoy it by themselves, and at their own expense.
But, all other considerations aside, \textit{health}, one of the most valuable of earthly possessions, and without which all the rest are worth nothing, bids us not only to refrain from \textit{excess} in eating and drinking, but to stop short of what might be indulged in without any \textit{apparent} impropriety.
The words of ECCLESIASTICUS ought to be often read by young people. 'Eat modestly that which is set before thee, and \textit{devour} not, lest thou be \textit{hated}. When thou sittest amongst many, reach not thine hand out first of all. \textit{How little is sufficient for a man well taught! A wholesome sleep} cometh of a temperate belly. Such a man \textit{riseth up in the morning}, and is \textit{well at ease with himself}. Be not too hasty of meats; for excess of meats bringeth sickness, and choleric disease cometh of gluttony. By surfeit have many perished, and he that \textit{dieteth himself prolongeth his life}. Show not thy valiantness in wine; for wine hath destroyed many.'
How true are these words! How well worthy of a constant place in our memories! Yet, what pains have been taken to apologize for a life contrary to these precepts! And, what punishment can be too great, what mark of infamy sufficiently signal, for those pernicious villains of talent, who have employed that talent in the composition of \textit{Bacchanalian songs}; that is to say, pieces of fine and captivating writing in praise of one of the most odious and destructive vices in the black catalogue of human depravity!
`Who,' says the eccentric, but laborious Cobbett, 'what man, ever performed a greater quantity of labor than I have performed? Now, in a great measure, I owe my capability to perform this labor to my disregard of dainties. I ate, during one whole year, one mutton chop every day. Being once in town, with one son (then a little boy) and a clerk, while my family was in the country, I had, for several weeks, nothing but legs of mutton. The first day, a leg of mutton boiled or \textit{roasted}; second, \textit{cold}; third, \textit{hashed}; then, leg of mutton \textit{boiled}; and so on.
'When I have been by myself, or nearly so, I have \textit{always} proceeded thus: given directions for having \textit{every day the same thing}, or alternately as above, and every day exactly at the same hour, so as to prevent the necessity of any \textit{talk} about the matter. I am certain that, upon an average, I have not, during my life, spent more than \textit{thirty-five minutes a day at table}, including all the meals of the day. I like, and I take care to have, good and clean victuals; but, if wholesome and clean, that is enough. If I find it, by chance, \textit{too coarse} for my appetite, I put the food aside, or let somebody do it; and leave the appetite to gather keenness.'
* * * * *
Now I have no special desire to recommend \textit{mutton chops} to my readers, nor to hold out the example of the individual whose language I have quoted, as worthy of general imitation. There is one lesson to be learned, however. Cobbett's never tiring industry is well known. And if we can rely on his own statements in regard to his manner of eating, we see another proof that what are called `dainties,' and even many things which are often supposed to be necessaries, are very far from being indispensable to health or happiness.
I am even utterly \textit{opposed} to the rapid eating of which he speaks. In New England especially, the danger is on the other side. 'Were it not from respect to others, I never would wish for more than eight minutes to eat my dinner in,' said a merchant to me one day. Now \textit{I} can \textit{swallow} a meal at any time, in \textit{five} minutes; but this is not \textit{eating}. If it is, the teeth were made---as well as the saliva---almost in vain. No! this \textit{swallowing} down a meal in five or even ten minutes, so common among the active, enterprising, and industrious people of this country, is neither healthy, nor decent, nor economical. And instead of spending only \textit{thirty-five minutes} a day in eating; every man, woman, and child ought, as a matter of duty, to spend about \textit{twice} the time in that way. This would give the teeth and salivary glands an opportunity to come up to the work which God in nature assigned them. We may indeed cheat them for a time, but not with impunity, for a day of reckoning will come; and some of our rapid eaters will find their bill (in stomach or liver complaints, or gout or rheumatism) rather large. They will probably lose more time in this way, than they can possibly save by eating rapidly.
The idea of preventing conversation about what we eat is also idle, though Dr. Franklin and many other wise men, thought otherwise. Some of our students in \textit{commons} and elsewhere, suppose themselves highly meritorious because they have adopted the plan of appointing one of their number to read to the company, while the rest are eating. But they are sadly mistaken. Nothing is gained by the practice. On the contrary, much is lost by it. The bow cannot always remain bent, without injury. Neither can the mind always be kept `toned' to a high pitch. \textit{Mind} and \textit{body} must and will have their relaxations.
I am not an advocate for \textit{wasting time} or for \textit{eating more} than is necessary. Nay, I even believe, on the contrary, with most \textit{medical} men, that we generally eat about twice as much as nature requires. But I do say, and with emphasis, that food must be \textit{masticated}.
Before I dismiss the subject of temperance, let me beseech you to resolve to free yourselves from slavery to \textit{tea} and \textit{coffee}. Experience has taught me, that they are \textit{injurious to health}. Even my habits of sobriety, moderate eating, and early rising, were not, until I left off using them, sufficient to give me that complete health which I have since had.
I do not undertake to prescribe for others exactly; but, I do say, that to pour down regularly, every day, a quart or two of \textit{warm liquid}, whether under the name of tea, coffee, soup, grog, or any thing else, is greatly injurious to health. However, at present, what I have to represent to \textit{you, is the great deduction which they make, from your power of being useful}, and also from your \textit{power to husband your income}, whatever it may be, and from whatever source arising. These things \textit{cost} something; and wo to him who forgets, or never knows, till he pays it, how large a bill they make---in the course of a year.
How much to be desired is it, that mankind would return once more, to the use of no other drink than that pure beverage which nature prepared for the sole drink of man! So long as we are in health, we need no other; nay, we have no right to any other. It is the testimony of all, or almost all whose testimony is worth having, that water is the best known drink. But if water is \textit{better} than all others, \textit{all others are}, of course, \textit{worse than water}.
As to food and drink \textit{generally}, let me say in conclusion, that \textit{simplicity} is the grand point to aim at. Water, we have seen, is the sole drink of man; but there is a great variety of food provided for his sustenance. He is allowed to select from this immense variety, those kinds, which the experience of mankind generally, combined and compared with his own, show to be \textit{most useful}. He can \textit{live} on almost any thing. Still there is a \textit{choice} to be observed, and so far as his circumstances permit, he is in duty bound to exercise that choice. God has said by his servant Paul; 'Whether ye eat or drink, or whatsoever ye do,' \&c.
What we believe to be most useful to us, though at first disagreeable, we may soon learn to prefer. Our habits, then, should be early formed. We should always remember these two rules, however. 1st. The fewer different articles of food used at any one meal, the better; however excellent in their nature those may be which are left untasted. 2. Never eat a moment longer than the food, if well masticated, actually \textit{revives} and \textit{refreshes} you. The moment it makes you feel heavy or dull, or palls upon the taste, \textit{you have passed the line of safety}.
SECTION X. \textit{On Suppers.}
\textit{Suppers}, properly so called, are confined, in a considerable degree, to cities; and I was at first in doubt whether I should do as much good by giving my voice against them, as I should of mischief by spreading through the country the knowledge of a wretched practice. But farther reflection has convinced me that I ought to offer my sentiments on this subject.
By suppers, I mean a fourth meal, just before going to bed. Individuals who have eaten quite as many times during the day as nature requires, and who take their tea, and perhaps a little bread and butter, at six, must go at nine or ten, they think, and eat another hearty meal. Some make it the most luxurious repast of the day.
Now many of our plain country people do not know that such a practice exists. They often eat too much, it is true, at \textit{their} third meal, but their active habits and pure air enable them to digest it better than their city brethren could. Besides, their third meal never comes so late, by several hours, as the suppers of cities and towns.
Our English ancestors, 200 years ago, on both sides of the Atlantic, dined at eleven, took tea early, and had no suppers. So it was with the Jews of old, one of the healthiest nations that ever lived beyond the Mediterranean. They knew nothing of our modern dinners at three or four, and suppers at nine, ten, or eleven.
But not to `take something late at night with the rest,' would at present be regarded as `vulgar,' and who could endure it? Here, I confess, I tremble for some of my readers, whose lot it is to be cast in the city, lest they should, in this single instance, hesitate to `take advice.' But I will hope for better things.
If you would give your stomach a season of repose, as well as the rest of your system; if you would sleep soundly, and either dream not at all, or have your dreams pleasant ones; if you would rise in the morning with your head clear, and free from pain, and your mouth clean and sweet, instead of being parched, and foul; if you would unite your voice---in spirit at least---with the voices of praise to the Creator, which ascend every where unless it be from the dwellings of creatures that should be men,---if, in one word, you would lengthen your lives several years, and increase the enjoyment of the last thirty years 33 per cent. without diminishing that of the first forty, then I beg of you to abstain from \textit{suppers}!
I am acquainted with one individual, who partly from a conviction of the injury to himself, and partly from a general detestation of the practice, not only abstains from every thing of the kind, but from long observation of its effects, goes to the other extreme, and seldom takes even a \textit{third} meal. And I know of no evil which arises from it. On the contrary, I believe that, for him, no course could be better. Be that as it may, adult individuals should never eat more than three times a day, nor should they ever partake of any food, solid or liquid, within three or four hours of the period of retiring to rest.
But if eating ordinary suppers is pernicious, what shall we say of the practice which some indulge who aspire to be pillars in church or state, with others of pretensions less lofty, of going to certain eating houses, at a very late hour, and spending a considerable portion of the night---not in eating, merely, but in quaffing poisonous draughts, and spreading noxious fumes, and uttering language and songs which better become the inmates of Pandemonium, than those of the counting-house, the college, or the chapel! If there be within the limits of any of our cities or towns, scenes which answer to this horrid picture, let 'it not be told in Gath, or published in the streets of Askelon,' lest the fiends of the pit should rejoice;---lest the demons of darkness should triumph.
\begin{quotation}
[3] I have occasionally seen four or five persons in constant employ, solely to supply the wants of a family of the same number, whose health, \textit{collectively}, required an amount of physical labor adequate to their own wants.\end{quotation}
SECTION XI. \textit{On Dress.}
The object of dress is fourfold: 1st. It is designed as a covering; 2d.
As a means of warmth; 3d. As a defence; 4th. To improve our appearance.
These purposes of dress should all be considered; and in the order here presented. That dress, which best answers all these purposes combined, both as respects the material and the \textit{form} or \textit{fashion}, is unquestionably the best and most appropriate. It is certainly true that the impressions which a person's first appearance makes upon the minds of those around him are deep and permanent, and the subject should receive a measure of our attention, on this account. It is only a slight tax which we pay for the benefits of living in civilized society. When, however, we sacrifice every thing else to appearance, we commit a very great error. We make that first in point of importance, which ought to be fourth.
Let your dress be as cheap as may be without shabbiness, and endeavor to be neither first nor last in a fashion. Think more about the cleanliness, than the gloss or texture of your clothes. Be always as clean as your occupation will permit; but never for one moment believe that any human being, who has good sense, will love or respect you \textit{merely} on account of a fine or costly coat.
Extravagance in the haunting of \textit{play-houses}, in \textit{horses}, in every thing else, is to be avoided, but in young men, extravagance in \textit{dress} particularly. This sort of extravagance, this waste of money on the decoration of the body, arises solely from vanity, and from vanity of the most contemptible sort. It arises from the notion, that all the people in the street, for instance, will be \textit{looking at you}, as soon as you walk out; and that they will, in a greater or less degree, think the better of you on account of your fine dress.
Never was a notion more false. Many sensible people, that happen to see you, will think nothing at all about you: those who are filled with the same vain notion as you are, will perceive your attempt to impose on them, and despise it. Rich people will wholly disregard you, and you will be envied and hated by those who have the same vanity that you have, without the means of gratifying it.
Dress should be suited, in some measure, to our condition. A surgeon or physician need not dress exactly like a carpenter; but, there is no reason why any body should dress in a very \textit{expensive} manner. It is a great mistake to suppose, that they derive any \textit{advantage} from exterior decoration.
For after all, men are estimated by other \textit{men} according to their capacity and willingness to be in some way or other \textit{useful}; and, though, with the foolish and vain part of \textit{women}, fine clothes frequently do something, yet the greater part of the sex are much too penetrating to draw their conclusions solely from the outside appearance. They look deeper, and find other criterions whereby to judge. Even if fine clothes should obtain you a wife, will they bring you, in that wife, \textit{frugality}, \textit{good sense}, and that kind of attachment which is likely to be lasting?
Natural beauty of person is quite another thing: this always has, it always will and must have, some weight even with men, and great weight with women. But, this does not need to be set off by expensive clothes. Female eyes are, in such cases, discerning; they can discover beauty though surrounded by rags: and, take this as a secret worth half a fortune to you, that women, however vain they may be themselves, \textit{despise vanity in men}.
SECTION XII. \textit{Bashfulness and Modesty.}
Dr. Young says, `The man that blushes is not quite a brute.' This is undoubtedly true; yet nothing is more clear, as Addison has shown us, than that a person may be both bashful and impudent.
I know the world commend the former quality, and condemn the latter; but I deem them both evils. Perhaps the latter is the greater of the two. The proper medium is true modesty. This is always commendable.
We are compelled to take the world, in a great measure, as it is. We can hardly expect men to come and buy our wares, unless we advertise or expose them for sale. So if we would commend ourselves to the notice of our fellow men, we must set ourselves up,---not for something which we are not;---but for what, upon a careful examination, we find reason to think we are. Many a good and valuable man has gone through \textit{this} life, without being properly estimated; from the vain belief that true merit could not always escape unnoticed. This belief, after all, is little else but a species of fatalism.
By setting ourselves up, I do not mean puffing and pretending, or putting on airs of haughtiness or arrogance; or any affectation whatever. But there are those---and some of them are persons of good sense, in many respects, who can scarcely answer properly, when addressed, or look the person with whom they are conversing in the face; and who often render themselves ridiculous \textit{for fear they shall be so}. I have seen a man of respectable talents, who, in conversation never raised his eyes higher than the tassels of his friend's boots; and another who could never converse without turning half or three quarters round, so as to present his shoulder or the backside of his head, instead of a plain, honest face.
I have known young men \textit{injured} by bashfulness. It is vain to say that it should not be so. The world is not what it should be, in many respects; \textit{and I must insist} that it is our duty, to take it as it is, in order to make it better, or even in order to live in it with comfort. He that \textit{thinks} he \textit{shall} not, most surely \textit{will} not, please. A man of sense, and knowledge of the world, will assert his own rights, and pursue his own purposes as steadily and uninterruptedly as the most impudent man living; but then there is at the same time an air of modesty in all he does; while an overbearing or impudent \textit{manner} of doing the same things, would undoubtedly have given offence. Hence a certain wise man has said; 'He who knows the world will not be too bashful; and he who knows himself will never be impudent.'
Perpetual embarrassment in company or in conversation, is sometimes even construed into meanness. Avoid,---if you can do it, without too great a sacrifice---every appearance of deserving a charge so weighty.
SECTION XIII. \textit{Politeness and Good-Breeding.}
Awkwardness is scarcely more tolerable than bashfulness. It must proceed from one of two things; either from not having kept good company, or from not having derived any benefit from it. Many very worthy people have certain odd tricks, and ill habits, that excite a prejudice against them, which it is not easy to overcome. Hence the importance of \textit{good-breeding}.
Now there are not a few who despise all these \textit{little things} of life, as they call them; and yet much of their lives is taken up with them, small as they are. And since these self same little things cannot be dispensed with, is it not better that they should be done in the easiest, and at the same time the pleasantest manner possible?
There is no habit more difficult to attain, and few so necessary to possess, as perfect good-breeding. It is equally inconsistent with a stiff formality, an impertinent forwardness, and an awkward bashfulness. True Christian education would seem to include it; and yet unfortunately, Christians are not always polite.
Is it not surprising that we may sometimes observe, in mere men of the world, that kind of carriage which should naturally be expected from an individual thoroughly imbued with the spirit of Christianity, while his very neighbors, who are professing Christians, appear, by their conduct, to be destitute of such a spirit? Which, then, in practice (I mean so far as this fact is concerned) are the best Christians? But I know what will be the answer; and I know that these things ought not so to be.
No good reason can be given why a Christian should not be as well-bred as his neighbor. It is difficult to conceive how a person can follow the rules given in the Sermon on the Mount, without being, and showing himself to be, well-bred. I have even known men who were no friends to the bible, to declare it as their unequivocal belief that he whose life should conform to the principles of that sermon, could not avoid being \textit{truly polite}.
There are not a few who \textit{confound} good-breeding with affectation, just as they confound a reasonable attention to dress with foppery. This calling things by wrong names is very common, how much soever it may be lamented.
\textit{Good-breeding}, or true politeness, is the art of showing men, by external signs, the internal regard we have for them. It arises from good sense, improved by good company. Good-breeding is never to be learned, though it may be \textit{improved}, by the study of books; and therefore they who attempt it, appear stiff and pedantic. The really well-bred, as they become so by use and observation, are not liable to affectation. You see good-breeding in all they do, without seeing the art of it. Like other habits, it is acquired by practice.
An engaging manner and genteel address may be out of our power, although it is a misfortune that it should be so. But it is in the power of every body to be kind, condescending, and affable. It is in the power of every person who has any thing to say to a fellow being, to say it with kind feelings, and with a sincere desire to please; and this, whenever it is done, will atone for much awkwardness in the manner of expression. Forced complaisance is foppery; and affected easiness is ridiculous.
Good-breeding is, and ought to be, an amiable and persuasive thing; it beautifies the actions and even the looks of men. But the \textit{grimace} of good-breeding is not less \textit{odious}.
In short, good-breeding is a forgetting of ourselves so far as to seek what may be agreeable to others, but in so artless and delicate a manner as will scarcely allow them to \textit{perceive} that we are so employed; and the regarding of ourselves, not as the centre of motion on which every thing else is to revolve, but only as one of the wheels or parts, in a vast machine, embracing other wheels and parts of equal, and perhaps more than equal importance. It is hence utterly opposed to selfishness, vanity, or pride. Nor is it proportioned to the supposed riches and rank of him whose favor and patronage you would gladly cultivate; but extends to all. It knows how to contradict with respect; and to please, without adulation.
The following are a few plain directions for attaining the character of a well-bred man.
1. Never weary your company by talking too long, or too frequently.
2. Always look people in the face when you address them, and generally when they are speaking to you.
3. Attend to a person who is addressing you. Inattention marks a trifling mind, and is a most unpardonable piece of rudeness. It is even an \textit{affront}; for it is the same thing as saying that his remarks are not \textit{worth} your attention.
4. Do not interrupt the person who is speaking by saying \textit{yes}, or \textit{no}, or \textit{hem}, at every sentence; it is the most useless thing that can be. An occasional assent, either by word or action, may be well enough; but even a nod of assent is sometimes repeated till it becomes disgusting.
5. Remember that every person in a company likes to be the \textit{hero} of that company. Never, therefore, engross the whole conversation to yourself.
6. Learn to sit or stand still, while another is speaking to you. You will not of course be so rude as to dig in the earth with your feet, or take your penknife from your pocket and pair your nails; but there are a great many other little movements which are scarcely less clownish.
7. Never anticipate for another, or \textit{help him out}, as it is called. This is quite a rude affair, and should ever be avoided. Let him conclude his story for himself. It is time enough for you to make corrections or additions afterward, if you deem his account defective. It is also a piece of impoliteness to interrupt another in his remarks.
8. Say as little of \textit{yourself} and \textit{your friends} as possible.
9. Make it a rule never to accuse, without due consideration, any body or association of men.
10. Never try to appear more wise or learned than the rest of the company. Not that you should \textit{affect} ignorance; but endeavor to remain within your own proper sphere.
SECTION XIV. \textit{Personal Habits.}
I have elsewhere spoken of the importance of early rising. Let me merely request you, in this place, to form a \textit{habit} of this kind, from which no ordinary circumstances shall suffer you to depart. Your first object after rising and devotion, should be to take a survey of the business which lies before you during the day, making of course a suitable allowance for exigencies. I have seldom known a man in business thrive---and men of business we all ought to be, whatever may be our occupation---who did not rise early in the morning, and plan his work for the day. Some of those who have been most successful, made it a point to have this done before daylight. Indeed, I was intimately acquainted with one man who laid out the business of the day, attended family worship, and breakfasted before sunrise; and this too, at all seasons of the year.
Morning gowns and slippers are very useful things, it is said. But the reasons given for their utility are equally in favor of \textit{always} wearing them. `They are loose and comfortable.' Very well: Should not our dress always be loose? `They save \textit{other clothes}.' Then why not wear them all day long? The truth, after all, is, that they are \textit{fashionable}, and as we usually give the \textit{true} reason for a thing \textit{last}, this is probably the principal reason why they are so much in use. I am pretty well convinced, however, that they are of little real use to him who is determined to eat his bread 'in the sweat of his face,' according to the Divine appointment.
Looking-glasses are useful in their place, but like many other conveniences of life, by no means indispensable; and so much abused, that a man of sense would almost be tempted, for the sake of example, to lay them aside. Of all wasted time, none is more \textit{foolishly} wasted than that which is employed in \textit{unnecessary} looking at one's own pretty face.
This may seem a matter of small consequence; but nothing can be of small importance to which we are obliged to attend \textit{every day}. If we dressed or shaved but once a year, or once a month, the case would be altered; but this is a piece of work that must be done once every day; and, as it may cost only about \textit{five minutes} of time, and may be, and frequently is, made to cost \textit{thirty}, or even \textit{fifty minutes}; and, as only fifteen minutes make about a fiftieth part of the hours of our average daylight; this being the case, it is a matter of real importance.
SIR JOHN SINCLAIR asked a friend whether he meant to have a son of his (then a little boy) taught Latin? `No,' said he, 'but I mean to do something a great deal better for him.' `What is that?' said Sir John. `Why,' said the other, 'I mean to teach him \textit{to shave with cold water, and without a glass}.'
My readers may smile, but I can assure them that Sir John is not alone. There are many others who have adopted this practice, and found it highly beneficial. One individual, who had tried it for years, has the following spirited remarks on the subject.
'Only think of the inconvenience attending the common practice! There must be \textit{hot water}; to have this there must be \textit{a fire}, and, in some cases, a fire for that purpose alone; to have these, there must be a \textit{servant}, or you must light a fire yourself. For the want of these, the job is put off until a later hour: this causes a stripping and another dressing bout: or, you go in a slovenly state all that day, and the next day the thing must be done, or cleanliness must be abandoned altogether. If you are on a journey, you must wait the pleasure of the servants at the inn before you can dress and set out in the morning; the pleasant time for travelling is gone before you can move from the spot: instead of being at the end of your day's journey in good time, you are benighted, and have to endure all the great inconveniences attendant on tardy movements. And all this from the apparently insignificant affair of shaving. How many a piece of important business has failed from a short delay! And how many thousand of such delays daily proceed from this unworthy cause!'
These remarks are especially important to those persons in boarding-houses and elsewhere, for whom hot water, if they use it, must be expressly prepared.
Let me urge you never to say I cannot go, or do such a thing, till I am shaved or dressed. Take care always to BE \textit{shaved and dressed}, and then you will always be ready to act. But to this end the habit must be formed in early life, and pertinaciously adhered to.
There are those who can truly say that to the habit of adhering to the principles which have been laid down, they owe much of their success in life; that however sober, discreet, and abstinent they might have been, they never could have accomplished much without it. We should suppose by reasoning beforehand, that the \textit{army} could not be very favorable to steady habits of this or any other kind; yet the following is the testimony of one who had made the trial.
'To the habit of early rising and husbanding my time well, more than to any other thing, I owed my very extraordinary promotion in the army. I was \textit{always ready}. If I had to mount guard at \textit{ten}, I was ready at \textit{nine}: never did any man, or any thing, wait one moment for me. Being, at an age \textit{under twenty years}, raised from corporal to sergeant major \textit{at once}, over the heads of thirty sergeants, I should naturally have been an object of envy and hatred; but this habit of early rising really subdued these passions.
'Before my promotion, a clerk was wanted to make out the morning report of the regiment. I rendered the clerk unnecessary; and, long before any other man was dressed for the parade, my work for the morning was all done, and I myself was on the parade ground, walking, in fine weather, for an hour perhaps.
'My custom was this: to get up, in summer, at daylight, and in winter at four o'clock; shave, dress, even to the putting of my sword-belt over my shoulder, and having my sword lying on the table before me, ready to hang by my side. Then I ate a bit of cheese, or pork, and bread. Then I prepared my report, which was filled up as fast as the companies brought me in the materials. After this, I had an hour or two to read, before the time came for any duty out of doors, unless when the regiment, or part of it, went out to exercise in the morning. When this was the case, and the matter was left to me, I always had it on the ground in such time as that the bayonets glistened in the \textit{rising sun}; a sight which gave me delight, of which I often think, but which I should in vain endeavor to describe.
'If the \textit{officers} were to go out, eight or ten o'clock was the hour. Sweating men in the heat of the day, or breaking in upon the time for cooking their dinner, puts all things out of order, and all men out of humor. When I was commander, the men had a long day of leisure before them: they could ramble into the town or into the woods; go to get raspberries, to catch birds, to catch fish, or to pursue any other recreation, and such of them as chose, and were qualified, to work at their trades. So that here, arising solely from the early habits of one very young man, were pleasant and happy days given to hundreds.'
For my own part, I confess that only a few years since, I should have laughed heartily at some of these views, especially the cold water system of shaving. But a friend whom I esteemed, and who shaved with cold water, said so much in its favor that I ventured to make the trial; and I can truly say that I would not return to my former slavery to hot water, if I had a servant who had nothing else to do but furnish it. I cannot indeed say with a recent writer (I think in the Journal of Health) that cold water is a great deal \textit{better} than warm; but I can and do say that it makes little if any difference with me which I use; though on going out into the cold air immediately afterward, the skin is more likely to chap after the use of warm water than cold. Besides I think the use of warm water more likely to produce eruptions on the skin.---Sometimes, though not generally, I shave, like Sir John Sinclair, without a glass; but I would never be enslaved to one, convenient as it is.
SECTION XV. \textit{Bathing and Cleanliness.}
Cleanliness of the body has, some how or other, such a connection with mental and moral purity, (whether as cause or effect---or both---I will not undertake now to determine) that I am unwilling to omit the present opportunity of urging its importance. There are those who are so attentive to this subject as to wash their whole bodies in water, either cold or warm, every day of the year; and never to wear the same clothes, during the day, that they have slept in the previous night. Now this habit may by some be called whimsical; but I think it deserves a \textit{better name}. I consider this extreme, if it ought to be called an extreme, as vastly more safe than the common extreme of \textit{neglect}.
Is it not shameful---\textit{would} it not be, were human duty properly understood---to pass months, and even years, without washing the whole body once? There are thousands and tens of thousands of both sexes, who are exceedingly nice, even to fastidiousness, about externals;---who, like those mentioned in the gospel, keep clean the 'outside of the cup and the platter,'---but alas! how is it within? Not a few of us,---living, as we do, in a land where soap and water are abundant and cheap---would blush, if the whole story were told.
This chapter, if extended so far as to embrace the whole subject of cleanliness of person, dress, and apartments, and cold and warm bathing, would alone fill a volume; a volume too, which, if well prepared, would be of great value, especially to all young men. But my present limits do not permit of any thing farther. In regard to \textit{cold bathing}, however, allow me to refer you to two articles in the third volume of the Annals of Education, pages 315 and 344, which contain the best directions I can give on this subject.
SECTION XVI. \textit{On Little Things.}
There are many things which, viewed without any reference to prevailing habits, manners, and customs, appear utterly unworthy of attention; and yet, after all, much of our happiness will be found to depend upon them. We are to remember that we live---not alone, on the earth---but among a \textit{multitude}, each of whom claims, and is entitled to his own estimate of things. Now it often happens that what \textit{we} deem a \textit{little} thing, another, who views the subject differently, will regard as a matter of importance.
Among the items to which I refer, are many of the customary salutations and civilities of life; and the modes of \textit{dress}. Now it is perfectly obvious that many common phrases which are used at meeting and separating, during the ordinary interviews and concerns of life, as well as in correspondence, are in themselves wholly unmeaning. But viewed as an introduction to things of more importance, these little words and phrases at the opening of a conversation, and as the language of hourly and daily salutation, are certainly useful. They are indications of good and friendly feeling; and without them we should not, and could not, secure the confidence of some of those among whom we are obliged to live. They would regard us as not only unsocial, but selfish; and not only selfish, but proud or misanthropic.
On account of meeting with much that disgusts us, many are tempted to avoid society generally. The frivolous conversation, and still more frivolous conduct, which they meet with, they regard as a waste of time, and perhaps even deem it a duty to resign themselves to solitude. This, however, is a great mistake. Those who have been most useful to mankind acted very differently. They mingled with the world, in hopes to do something towards reforming it. The greatest of philosophers, as well as of Christians;---even the FOUNDER of Christianity himself---sat down, and not only sat down, but ate and drank in the society of those with whose manners, and especially whose vices, he could have had no possible sympathy.
Zimmerman, who has generally been regarded as an apostle of solitude, taught that men ought not to 'reside in deserts, or sleep, like owls, in the hollow trunks of trees.' `I sincerely exhort my disciples,' says he, 'not to absent themselves morosely from public places, nor to avoid the social throng; which cannot fail to afford to judicious, rational, and feeling minds, many subjects both of amusement and instruction. It is true, that we cannot relish the pleasures and taste the advantages of society, without being able to give a patient hearing to the tongue of folly, to excuse error, and to bear with infirmity.'
In like manner, we are not to disregard wholly, our dress. It is true that the shape of a hat, or the cut of a coat may not add to the strength of the mind, or the soundness of the morals; but it is also true that people form an opinion often from our exterior appearance; and will continue to do so: and first impressions are very difficult to be overcome. If we regard our own usefulness, therefore, we shall not consider the fashion or character of our dress as a little thing in its results. I have said elsewhere that we ought neither to be the first nor the last in a fashion.
We should remember, also, that the \textit{world}, in its various parts and aspects, is made up of little things. So true is this, that I have sometimes been very fond of the paradoxical remark, that 'little things are great things;' that is, in their \textit{results}. For who does not know that throughout the physical world, the mightiest results are brought about by the silent working of small causes? It is not the tornado, or the deluge, or even the occasional storm of rain, that renews and animates nature, so much as the gentle breeze, the soft refreshing shower, and the still softer and gentler dews of heaven.
So in human life, generally, they are the little things often, that produce the mightier results. It is he who takes care of pence and farthings, not he who neglects them, that thrives. It is he alone who guards his lips against the first improper word,---trifling as it may seem---that is secure against future profanity. He who indulges one little draught of alcoholic drink, is in danger of ending a tippler; he who gives loose to one impure thought, of ending the victim of lust and sensuality. Nor is it one single gross, or as it were accidental act, viewed as insulated from the rest---however injurious it may be---that injures the body, or debases the mind, so much as the frequent repetition of those smaller errors, whose habitual occurrence goes to establish the predominating choice of the mind, or affection of the soul.
Avoid then, the pernicious, the fatal error, that \textit{little} things are of no consequence: little sums of money, little fragments of time, little or trifling words, little or apparently unimportant actions. On this subject I cannot help adopting---and feeling its force too,---the language of a friend of temperance in regard to those who think themselves perfectly secure from danger, and are believers in the harmlessness of \textit{little} things. `I tremble,' said he, 'for the man that does not tremble for himself.'
SECTION XVII. \textit{Of Anger, and the means of restraining it.}
There is doubtless much difference of native temperament. One person is easily excited, another, more slowly. But there is a greater difference still, resulting from our habits.
If we find ourselves easily led into anger, we should be extremely careful how we indulge the first steps that lead towards it. Those who naturally possess a mild temper may, with considerable safety, do and say many things which others cannot. Thus we often say of a person who has met with a misfortune, `It is good enough for him;' or of a criminal who has just been condemned to suffer punishment, 'No matter; he deserves it.' Or perhaps we go farther, and on finding him acquitted, say, 'He ought to have been hanged, and even hanging was too good for him.'
Now all these things, in the mouths of the irritable, lead the way to an indulgence of anger, however unperceived may be the transition. It is on this principle that the saying of St. John is so strikingly true; `He that hateth his brother is a murderer;' that is, he that indulges hatred has the seeds within him, not only of out-breaking anger, but of murder.
It is on this account that I regret the common course taken with children in relation to certain smaller tribes of the animal creation. They are allowed not only to destroy them,---(which is doubtless often a duty,) but to destroy them in \textit{anger}; to indulge a permanent hatred towards them; and to think this hatred creditable and scriptural. When such feelings lead us to destroy even the most troublesome or disgusting reptiles or insects \textit{in anger}, we have so far prepared the way for the indulgence of anger towards our fellow creatures, whenever their conduct shall excite our displeasure.
We can hence see why he who has a violent temper should always speak in a low voice, and study mildness and sweetness in his tones. For loud, impassioned, and boisterous tones certainly excite impassioned feelings. So do all the \textit{actions} which indicate anger. Thus Dr. Darwin has said that any individual, by using the language and actions of an angry person, towards an imaginary object of displeasure, and accompanying them by threats, and blows, with a doubled or clinched fist, may easily work himself into a rage. Of the justice of this opinion I am fully convinced, from actual and repeated experiments.
If we find ourselves apt to be angry, we should endeavor to avoid the road which leads to it. The first thing to be done, is to govern our voice. On this point, the story of the Quaker and the merchant may not be uninstructive.
A merchant in London had a dispute with a Quaker gentleman about the settlement of an account. The merchant was determined to bring the action \textit{into court},---a course of proceeding to which the Quaker was wholly opposed;---he therefore used every argument in his power to convince the merchant of his error; but all to no purpose.
Desirous of making a final effort, however, the Quaker called at the house of the merchant, one morning, and inquired of the servant if his master was at home. The merchant hearing the inquiry from the top of the stairs, and knowing the voice, called out, loudly, 'Tell that rascal I am not at home.' The Quaker, looking up towards him, said calmly; `Well, friend, may God put thee in a better mind.'
The merchant was struck with the meekness of the reply, and after thinking more deliberately of the matter, became convinced that the Quaker was right, and he in the wrong. He requested to see him, and after acknowledging his error, said, 'I have one question to ask you. How were you able to bear my abuse with so much patience?'
`Friend,' replied the Quaker, 'I will tell thee. I was naturally as hot and violent as thou art. But I knew that to indulge my temper was sinful, and also very foolish. I observed that men in a passion always spoke very loud; and I thought if I could control my voice, I should keep down my passions. I therefore made it a rule never to let it rise above a certain key; and by a careful observance of this rule, I have, with the blessing of God, entirely mastered my natural temper.'
When you are tempted by the conduct of those around you, to be angry, endeavor to consider the matter for a few moments. If your temper be so impetuous that you find this highly difficult, you may adopt some plan or device for gaining time. Some recommend counting twenty or thirty, deliberately. The following anecdote of the celebrated Zimmerman is exactly in point, and may afford useful hints for instruction.
Owing in part to a diseased state of body, Zimmerman was sometimes irritable. One day, a Russian princess and several other ladies entered his apartment to inquire after his health; when, in a fit of petulance, he rose, and requested them to leave the room. The prince entered some time afterward, when Zimmerman had begun to repent of his rashness, and after some intervening conversation, advised him, whenever he felt a disposition to treat his friends so uncivilly again, to repeat, \textit{mentally}, the Lord's prayer. This advice was followed, and with success. Not long afterward the same prince came to him for advice in regard to the best manner of controlling the violence of those transports of affection towards his young and amiable consort, in which young and happy lovers are so apt to indulge. `My dear friend,' said Zimmerman, 'there is no expedient which can surpass your own. Whenever you feel yourself overborne by passion, you have only to repeat the Lord's prayer, and you will be able to reduce it to a steady and permanent flame.'
By adopting Zimmerman's rule, we shall, as I have already observed, gain time for reflection, than which nothing more is needed. For if the cause of anger be a report, for example, of injury done to us by an absent person, either in words or deeds, how do we know the report is true? Or it may be only partly true; and how do we know, till we consider the matter well, whether it is worth our anger at all? Or if at all, perhaps it deserves but a little of it. It may be, too, that the person who said or did the thing reported, did it by mistake, or is already sorry for it. At all events, nothing can be gained by haste; much \textit{may} be by delay.
If a passionate person give you ill language, you ought rather to pity than be angry with him, for anger is a species of disease. And to correct one evil, will you make another? If his being angry is an evil, will it mend the matter to make \textit{another} evil, by indulging in passion yourself? Will it cure his disease, to throw yourself into the same distemper? But if not, then how foolish is it to indulge improper feelings at all!
On the same principles, and for the same reasons, you should avoid returning railing for railing; or reviling for reproach. It only kindles the more heat. Besides, you will often find silence, or at least very gentle words, as in the case of the Quaker just mentioned, the best return for reproaches which could be devised. I say the best `return;' but I would not be understood as justifying any species of \textit{revenge}. The kind of \textit{return} here spoken of is precisely that treatment which will be most likely to cure the distemper in the other, by making him see, and be sorry for, his passion.
If the views taken in this section be true, it is easy to see the consummate folly of all violence, whether between individuals or collective bodies, whether it be by \textit{striking}, \textit{duelling}, or \textit{war}. For if an individual or a nation has done wrong, will it annihilate that wrong to counteract it by \textit{another} wrong? Is it not obvious that it only makes two evils, where but one existed before? And can two \textit{wrongs} ever make one \textit{right} action? Which is the most rational, when the choice is in our power, to add to one existing evil, another of similar or greater magnitude; or to keep quiet, and let the world have but one cup of misery instead of two?
Besides, the language of Scripture is \textit{every where} full and decided on this point. `Recompense to no man evil for evil,' and 'wo to him by whom the offence cometh,' though found but once or twice in just so many words, are in fact, some of the more prominent doctrines of the New Testament; and I very much doubt whether you can read many pages, in succession, in any part of the bible, without finding this great principle enforced. The daily example of the Saviour, and the apostles and early Christians, is a full confirmation of it, in practice.
\gutchapter{CHAPTER II.}
On the Management of Business.
SECTION I. \textit{On commencing Business.}
Young men are usually in haste to commence business for themselves. This is an evil, and one which appears to me to be increasing. Let me caution my readers to be on their guard against it.
The evils of running in debt will be adverted to elsewhere. I mention the subject in this place, because the earlier you commence business, the greater the necessity of resorting to credit. You may, indeed, in some employments, begin on a very small scale; but this is attended with serious disadvantages, especially at the present day, when you must meet with so much competition. Perhaps a few may be furnished with capital by their friends, or by inheritance. In the latter case they may as well \textit{use} their money, if they receive it; but I have already endeavored to show that it is generally for the interest of young men to rely upon their own exertions. It is extremely difficult for a person who has ever relied on others, to act with the same energy as those who have been thrown upon their own resources.[4] To learn the art of inheriting property or receiving large gifts, and of acting with the same energy as if left wholly to our own resources, must be reserved, I believe, for future and wiser generations of our race.
I repeat it, therefore, every person had better defer going into business for himself, until he can stand entirely on his own footing. Is it asked how he can have funds from his own resources, before he has actually \textit{commenced} business for himself? Why the thing is perfectly easy. He has only to labor a few years in the service of another. True it is, he may receive but moderate wages during this time; but on the other hand, he will be subjected to little or no risk.
Let 1,000 young men, at the age of 30 years, enter into business with a given amount of capital, all acquired by their own hard earnings, and let them pursue their business 30 years faithfully; that is, till they are 60 years of age. Let 1,000 others commence at the age of 20, with three times the amount of capital possessed by the former, but at the same time either inherited, or loaned by their friends, and let them pursue their calling till \textit{they} are 60 years of age; or for a period of 40 years. We will suppose the natural talents, capacity for doing business, and expenditures---in fact every thing,---the same, in both cases. Now it requires no gift of prophecy to foretell, with certainty, that at 60 years of age a far greater proportion of the 1,000, who began at 30 and depended solely on their own exertions, will be men of wealth, than of those who began at 20 with three times their capital. The reason of these results is found in the very nature of things, as I have shown both above, and in my remarks on industry.
But these views are borne out by facts. Go into any city in the United States, and learn the history of the men who are engaged in active and profitable business, and are thriving in the world, and my word for it, you will find the far greater part began life with nothing, and have had no resources whatever but their own head and hands. And in no city is this fact more strikingly verified than in Boston. On the other hand, if you make a list of those who fail in business from year to year, and learn their history, you will find that a very large proportion of them relied on inheritances, credit, or some kind of foreign aid in early life;---and not a few begun very young.
There is no doctrine in this volume, which will be more unpopular with its readers, than this. Not a few will, I fear, utterly disbelieve it. They look at the exterior appearance of some young friend, a little older than themselves, who has been \textit{lifted} into business and gone on a year or two, and all appears fair and encouraging. They long to imitate him. Point them to a dozen others who have gone only a little farther, and have made shipwreck, and it weighs nothing or next to nothing with them. They suspect mismanagement, (which doubtless sometimes exists) and think \textit{they} shall act more wisely.
In almost every considerable shop in this country may be found young men who have nearly served out their time as apprentices, or perhaps have gone a little farther, even, and worked a year or two as journeymen. They have been industrious and frugal, and have saved a few hundred dollars. This, on the known principles of human nature, has created a strong desire to make additions; and the desire has increased in a greater ratio than the sum. They are good workmen, perhaps, or if not, they generally think so; and those who have the least merit, generally have the most confidence in themselves. But if there be one who \textit{has} merit, there is usually in the neighborhood some hawk-eyed money dealer, who knows that he cannot better invest his funds than in the hands of active young men. This man will search him out, and offer to set him up in business; and his friends, pleased to have him noticed, give security for payment. Thus flattered, he commonly begins; and after long patience and perseverance, he may, by chance, succeed. But a much greater number are unsuccessful, and a few drown their cares and perplexities in the poisoned bowl, or in debauchery;---perhaps both---thus destroying their minds and souls; or, it may be, abruptly putting an end to their own existence.
Young men are apt to reason thus with themselves. 'I am now arrived at an age when others have commenced business and succeeded. It is true I may not succeed; but I know of no reason why my prospects are not as good as those of A, B, and C, to say the least. I am certainly as good a workman, and know as well how to manage, and attend to my own concerns, without intermeddling with those of others. It is true my friends advise me to work as a journeyman a few years longer; but it is a hard way of living. Besides, what shall I learn all this while, that I do not already know? They say I shall be improving in the \textit{practical} part of my business, if not in the \textit{theory} of it. But shall I not improve while I work for myself? Suppose I make blunders. Have not others done the same? If I fall, I must get up again. Perhaps it will teach me not to stumble again. The fact is, old people never think the young know or can do any thing till they are forty years old. I am determined to make an effort. A good opportunity offers, and such a one may never again occur. I am confident I shall succeed.'
How often have I heard this train of reasoning pursued! But if it were correct, how happens it that those facts exist which have just been mentioned? More than this; why do almost all men assert gratuitously after they have spent twenty years in their avocation, that although they thought themselves wise when they began their profession, they were exceedingly ignorant? Who ever met with a man that did not feel this ignorance more sensibly after twenty years of experience, than when he first commenced?
This self flattery and self confidence---this ambition to be men of business and begin to figure in the world,---is not confined to any particular occupation or profession of men, but is found in all. Nor is it confined to those whose object in life is \textit{pecuniary} emolument. It is perhaps equally common among those who seek their happiness in ameliorating the condition of mankind by legislating for them, settling their quarrels, soothing their passions, or curing the maladies of their souls and bodies.
Perhaps the evil is not more glaring in any class of the community than in the medical profession. There is a strong temptation to this, in the facility with which licenses and diplomas may be obtained. Any young man who has common sense, if he can read and write tolerably, may in some of the States, become a knight of the lancet in three years, and follow another employment a considerable part of the time besides. He has only to devote some of his \textit{extra} hours to the study of anatomy, surgery, and medicine, recite occasionally to a practitioner, as ignorant, almost, as himself; hear one series of medical lectures; and procure certificates that he has studied medicine `three years,' including the time of the lectures; and he will be licensed, almost of course. Then he sallies forth to commit depredations on society at discretion; and how many he kills is unknown. 'I take it for granted, however,' said a President of a College, three years ago, who understood this matter pretty well, 'that every half-educated young physician, who succeeds at last in getting a \textit{reputable} share of practice, must have rid the world, rather prematurely, of some dozen or twenty individuals, at the least, in order to qualify himself for the profession.'
The evil is scarcely more tolerable, as regards young ministers, except that the community in general have better means of knowing when they are imposed upon by ignorance or quackery in this matter, than in most other professions. The principal book for a student of theology is in the hands of every individual, and he is taught to read and understand it. The great evil which arises to students of divinity themselves from entering their profession too early, is the loss of health. Neither the minds nor the bodies of young men are equal to the responsibilities of this, or indeed of any other profession or occupation, at 20, and rarely at 25. Nothing is more evident than that young men, generally, are losers in the end, both in a pecuniary point of view and in regard to health, by commencing business before 30 years of age. But this I have already attempted to show.
As regards candidates for the ministry, several eminent divines are beginning to inculcate the opinion, with great earnestness, that to enter fully upon the active duties of this laborious vocation before the age I have mentioned, is injurious to themselves and to the cause they wish to promote---the cause of God. And I hope their voices will be raised louder and louder on this topic, till the note of remonstrance reaches the most distant villages of our country.
It has often occurred to me that every modest young man, whatever may be his destination, \textit{might} learn wisdom from consulting the history of the YOUNG MAN OF NAZARETH as well as of the illustrious reformer who prepared the way for him.[5] \textit{Our} young men, since newspapers have become so common, are apt to think themselves thoroughly versed in law, politics, divinity, \&c.; and are not backward to exhibit their talents. But who is abler at disputation than HE who at twelve years of age proved a match for the learned doctors of law at Jerusalem? Did he, whose mind was so mature at twelve, enter upon the duties of \textit{his} ministry (a task more arduous than has ever fallen to the lot of any \textit{human} being) at 18 or 20 years of age? But why not, when he had so much to do?---Or did he wait till he was in his 30th year?
The great question with every young man should not be, When can I get such assistance as will enable me to commence business;---but, Am I well \textit{qualified} to commence? Perfect in his profession, absolutely so, no man ever will be; but a measure of perfection which is rarely if ever attained under 30 years of age, is most certainly demanded. To learn the simplest handicraft employment in some countries, a person must serve an apprenticeship of at least \textit{seven years}. Here, in America, half that time is thought by many young men an intolerable burden, and they long to throw it off. They wish for what they call a better order of things. The consequences of this feeling, and a growing spirit of insubordination, are every year becoming more and more deplorable.
\begin{quotation}
[4] This fact, so obvious to every student of human nature, has sometimes given rise to an opinion that orphans make their way best in the world. So far as the business of making money is concerned, I am not sure but it is so.\end{quotation}
[5] Even Timothy---\textit{young} Timothy as he has been often
called---was probably in his 30th year when he was ordained.
SECTION II. \textit{Importance of Integrity.}
Every one will admit the importance of integrity in all his dealings, for however dishonest he may be himself, he cannot avoid perceiving the necessity of integrity in others. No society could exist were it not for the measure of this virtue which remains. Without a degree of \textit{confidence}, in transacting business with each other, even the savage life would be a thousand times more savage than it now is. Without it, a gang of thieves or robbers could not long hold together.
But while all admit the sterling importance of strict integrity, how few practise it! Let me prevail when I entreat the young not to hazard either their reputation or peace of mind for the uncertain advantages to be derived from unfair dealing. It is \textit{madness}, especially in one who is just beginning the world. It would be so, if by a single unfair act he could get a fortune; leaving the loss of the soul out of the question. For if a trader, for example, is once generally known to be guilty of fraud, or even of taking exorbitant profits, there is an end to his reputation. Bad as the world is, there is some respect paid to integrity, and wo be to him who forgets it.
If a person habitually allows himself in a single act not sanctioned by the great and golden rule of loving others as we do ourselves, he has entered a road whose everlasting progress is downward. Fraudulent in \textit{one} point, he will soon be so in another---and another; and so on to the end of the chapter, if there be any end to it. At least no one who has gone a step in the downward road, can assure himself that this will not be the dreadful result.
An honest bargain is that only in which the fair market price or value of a commodity is mutually allowed, so far as this is known. The market price is usually, the equitable price of a thing. It will be the object of every honest man to render, in all cases, an equivalent for what he receives. Where the market price cannot be known, each of the parties to an honest contract will endeavor to come as near it as possible; keeping in mind the rule of doing to others as they would desire others to do to them in similar circumstances. Every bargain not formed on these principles is, in its results, unjust; and if intentional, is fraudulent.
There are a great many varieties of this species of fraud.
1. \textit{Concealing the market price.} How many do this; and thus buy for less, and sell for more than a fair valuation! Why so many practise this kind of fraud, and insist at the same time that it is no fraud at all, is absolutely inconceivable, except on the supposition that they are blinded by avarice. For they perfectly know that their customers would not deal with them at any other than market prices, except from sheer ignorance; and that the advantage which they gain, is gained by misapprehension of the real value of the commodities. But can an honest man take this advantage? Would he take it of a child? Or if he did, would not persons of common sense despise him for it?
But why not as well take advantage of a child as of a man? Because, it may be answered, the child does not know the worth of what he buys or sells; but the man does, or might. But in the case specified, it is evident he \textit{does not} know it, if he did he would not make the bargain. And for proof that such conduct is downright fraud, the person who commits it, has only to ask himself whether he would be willing others should take a similar advantage of \textit{his} ignorance. `I do as I agree,' is often the best excuse such men can make, when reasoned with on the injustice of their conduct, without deciding the question, whether their agreement is founded on a desire to do right.
2. Others \textit{misrepresent the market price}. This is done in various ways. They heard somebody say the price in market was so or so; or such a one bought at such or such a price, or another sold at such a price: all of which prices, purchases, and sales are \textit{known positively} to be different from those which generally prevail. Many contrive to satisfy their consciences in this way, who would by no means venture at once upon plain and palpable lying.
3. The selling of goods or property which is \textit{unsound and defective}, under direct professions that it is sound and good, is another variety of this species of fraud. It is sometimes done by direct lying, and sometimes by indefinite and hypocritical insinuations. Agents, and retailers often assert their wares to be good, because those of whom they have received them \textit{declare} them to be such. These declarations are often believed, because the seller appears or professes to believe them; while in truth, he may not give them the least credit.
One of the grossest impositions of this kind---common as it is---is practised upon the public in advertising and selling nostrums as safe and valuable medicines. These are ushered into newspapers with a long train of pompous declarations, almost always false, and \textit{always} delusive. The silly purchaser buys and uses the medicine chiefly or solely because it is sold by a respectable man, under the sanction of advertisements to which that respectable man lends his countenance. Were good men to decline this wretched employment, the medicines would probably soon fall into absolute discredit; and health and limbs and life would, in many instances, be preserved from unnecessary destruction.
4. Another species of fraud consists in \textit{concealing the defects} of what we sell. This is the general art and villany of that class of men, commonly called \textit{jockeys}; a class which, in reality, embraces some who would startle at the thought of being such;---and whole multitudes who would receive the appellation with disdain.
The common subterfuge of the jockey is, that he gives no false accounts; that the purchaser has eyes of his own, and must judge of the goods for himself. No defence can be more lame and wretched; and hardly any more impudent.
No purchaser can possibly discover many of the defects in commodities; he is therefore obliged to depend on the seller for information concerning them. All this the seller well knows, and if an honest man, will give the information. Now as no purchaser would buy the articles, if he knew their defects, except at a reduced price, whenever the seller does not give this information, and the purchaser is \textit{taken in}, it is by downright villany, whatever some may pretend to the contrary. Nor will the common plea, that if they buy a bad article, they have a right to sell it again as well as they can, ever justify the wretched practice of selling defective goods, at the full value of those which are more perfect.
5. A fraud, still meaner, is practised, when we endeavor to \textit{lower the value of such commodities as we wish to buy}. 'It is naught, it is naught, says the buyer, but when he hath gone his way he boasteth,' is as applicable to our times, as to those of Solomon. The ignorant, the modest, and the necessitous---persons who should be the last to suffer from fraud,---are, in this way, often made victims. A decisive tone and confident airs, in men better dressed, and who are sometimes supposed to know better than themselves, easily bear down persons so circumstanced, and persuade them to sell their commodities for less than they are really worth.
Young shopkeepers are often the dupes of this species of treatment. Partly with a view to secure the future custom of the stranger, and partly in consequence of his statements that he can buy a similar article elsewhere at a much lower price, (when perhaps the quality of the other is vastly inferior) they not unfrequently sell goods at a positive sacrifice---and what do they gain by it? The pleasure of being laughed at by the purchaser, as soon as he is out of sight, for suffering themselves to be \textit{beaten down}, as the phrase is; and of having him boast of his bargain, and trumpet abroad, without a blush, the value of the articles which he had just been decrying!
6. I mention the use of \textit{false weights and measures} last, not because it is a less heinous fraud, but because I hope it is less frequently practised than many others. But it is a lamentable truth that weights and measures are \textit{sometimes} used when they are \textit{known} to be false; and quite often when they are \textit{suspected} to be so. More frequently still, they are used when they have been permitted to become defective through inattention. They are often formed of perishable materials. To meet this there are in most of our communities, officers appointed to be sealers of weights and measures. When the latter are made of substances known to be liable to decay or wear, the proprietor is unpardonable if he does not have them frequently and thoroughly examined.
I have only adverted to some of the more common kinds of fraud; such as the young are daily, and often hourly exposed to, and against which it is especially important, not only to their own reputation, but to their success in business, that they should be on their guard. I will just \textit{enumerate} a few others, for my limits preclude the possibility of any thing more than a bare enumeration.
1. Suffering borrowed articles to be injured by our negligence. 2. Detaining them in our possession longer than the lender had reason to expect. 3. Employing them for purposes not contemplated by the lender. 4. The returning of an article of inferior value, although in \textit{appearance} like that which was borrowed. 5. Passing suspected bank bills, or depreciated counterfeit or clipped coin. Some persons are so conscientious on this point, that they will sell a clipped piece for \textit{old metal}, rather than pass it. But such rigid honesty is rather rare. 6. The use of pocket money, by the young, in a manner different from that which was known to be contemplated by the parent, or master who furnished it. 7. The employment of time in a different manner from what was intended; the mutilating, by hacking, breaking, soiling, or in any other manner wantonly injuring buildings, fences, and other property, public or private;---and especially crops and fruit trees. 8. Contracting debts, though ever so small, without the almost certain prospect of being able to pay them. 9. Neglecting to pay them at the time expected. 10. Paying in something of less value than we ought. 11. Breaches of trust. 12. Breaking of promises. 13. Overtrading by means of borrowed capital.
SECTION III. \textit{Method in Business.}
There is one class of men who are of inestimable value to society---and the more so from their scarcity;---I mean \textit{men of business}. It is true you could hardly offer a greater insult to most persons than to say they are not of this class; but you cannot have been very observing not to have learned, that they who most deserve the charge will think themselves the most insulted by it.
Nothing contributes more to despatch, as well as safety and success in business, than method and regularity. Let a person set down in his memorandum book, every morning, the several articles of business that ought to be done during the day; and beginning with the first person he is to call upon, or the first place he is to go to, finish that affair, if possible, before he begins another; and so on with the rest.
A man of business, who observes this method, will hardly ever find himself hurried or disconcerted by forgetfulness. And he who sets down all his transactions in writing, and keeps his accounts, and the whole state of his affairs, in a distinct and accurate order, so that at any time, by looking into his books, he can see in what condition his concerns are, and whether he is in a thriving or declining way;---such a one, I say, deserves properly the character of a man of business; and has a pretty fair prospect of success in his plans.[6] But such exactness seldom suits the man of pleasure. He has other things in his head.
The way to transact a great deal of business in a little time, and to do it well, is to observe three rules. 1. Speak to the point. 2. Use no more words than are necessary, fully to express your meaning. 3. Study beforehand, and set down in writing afterwards, a sketch of the transaction.
To enable a person to \textit{speak} to the point, he must have acquired, as one essential pre-requisite, the art of \textit{thinking} to the point. To effect these objects, or rather \textit{this} object, as they constitute in reality but \textit{one}, is the legitimate end of the study of grammar; of the importance of which I am to speak elsewhere. This branch is almost equally indispensable in following the other two rules; but here, a thorough knowledge of numbers, as well as of language, will be demanded.
\begin{quotation}
[6] A gentleman of my acquaintance assures me that he always leaves his books, accounts, \&c., in so complete a state, on going to bed, that if he should die during the night, every thing could be perfectly understood. This rule he adheres to, as a matter of duty; not only to his fellow men, but to God.\end{quotation}
SECTION IV. \textit{Application to Business.}
There is one piece of prudence, above all others, absolutely necessary to those who expect to raise themselves in the world by an employment of any kind; I mean a constant, unwearied application to the main pursuit. By means of persevering diligence, joined to frugality, we see many people in the lowest and most laborious stations in life, raise themselves to such circumstances as will allow them, in their old age, that relief from \textit{excessive} anxiety and toil which are necessary to make the decline of life easy and comfortable.
Burgh mentions a merchant, who, at first setting out, opened and shut his shop every day for several weeks together, without selling goods to the value of two cents; who by the force of application for a course of years, rose, at last, to a handsome fortune. But I have known many who had a variety of opportunities for settling themselves comfortably in the world, yet, for want of steadiness to carry any scheme to perfection, they sunk from one degree of wretchedness to another for many years together, without the least hopes of ever getting above distress and pinching want.
There is hardly an employment in life so trifling that it will not afford a subsistence, if constantly and faithfully followed. Indeed, it is by indefatigable diligence alone, that a fortune can be acquired in any business whatever. An estate procured by what is commonly called a lucky hit, is a rare instance; and he who expects to have his fortune made in that way, is about as rational as he who should neglect all probable means of earning, in hopes that he should some time or other find a treasure.
There is no such thing as continuing in the same condition without an income of some kind or other. If a man does not bestir himself, poverty must, sooner or later, overtake him. If he continues to expend for the necessary charges of life, and will not take the pains to gain something to supply the place of what he deals out, his funds must at length come to an end; and the misery of poverty fall upon him at an age when he is less able to grapple with it.
No employment that is really useful to mankind deserves to be regarded as mean. This has been a stumbling stone to many young men. Because they could not pursue a course which they deemed sufficiently respectable, they neglected business altogether until so late in life that they were ashamed to make a beginning. A most fatal mistake. Pin making is a minute affair, but will any one call the employment a mean one? If \textit{so}, it is one which the whole civilized world encourage, and to which they are under lasting obligation daily. Any useful business ought to be reputable, which is reputably followed.
The character of a drone is always, especially among the human species, one of the most contemptible. In proportion to a person's activity for his own good and that of his fellow creatures, he is to be regarded as a more or less valuable member of society. If all the idle people in the United States were to be buried in one year, the loss would be trifling in comparison with the loss of only a \textit{very few} industrious people. Each moment of time ought to be put to proper use, either in business, in improving the mind, in the innocent and necessary relaxations and entertainments of life, or in the care of the moral and religious part of our nature. Each moment of time is, in the language of theology, a monument of Divine mercy.
SECTION V. \textit{Proper Time of Doing Business.}
There are times and seasons for every lawful purpose of life, and a very material part of prudence is to judge rightly, and make the best of them. If you have to deal, for example, with a phlegmatic gloomy man, take him, if you can, over his bottle. This advice may seem, at first view, to give countenance to a species of fraud: but is it so? These hypochondriacal people have their fits and starts, and if you do not take them when they are in an agreeable state of mind, you are very likely to find them quite as much below par, as the bottle raises them above. But if you deal with them in this condition, they are no more \textit{themselves} than in the former case. I therefore think the advice correct. It is on the same principles, and in the same belief, that I would advise you, when you deal with a covetous man, to propose your business to him immediately after he has been receiving, rather than expending money. So if you have to do with a drunkard, call on him in the morning; for then, if ever, his head is clear.
Again; if you know a person to be unhappy in his family, meet him abroad if possible, rather than at his own house. A statesman will not be likely to give you a favorable reception immediately after being disappointed in some of his schemes. Some people are always sour and ill humored from the hour of rising till they have dined.
And as in persons, so in things, the \textit{time} is a matter of great consequence; an eye to the rise and fall of goods; the favorable season of importing and exporting;---these are some of the things which require the attention of those who expect any considerable share of success.
It is not certain but some dishonest person, under shelter of the rule, in this chapter, may gratify a wish to take unfair advantages of those with whom he deals. But I hope otherwise; for I should be sorry to give countenance, for one moment, to such conduct. My whole purpose (in this place) is to give direction to the young for securing their own rights; not for taking away the rights of others. The man who loves his neighbor as himself, will not surely put a wrong construction on what I have written. I would fain hope that there is no departure here or elsewhere, in the book, from sound christian morality; for it is the bible, on which I wish to see all moral rules based.
SECTION VI. \textit{Buying upon Trust.}
`Owe no man any thing,' is an apostolic injunction; and happy is he who has it in his power to obey. In my own opinion, most young men possess this power, did they perceive the importance of using it by \textit{commencing} right. It is not so difficult a thing always to purchase with ready money, as many people imagine. The great difficulty is to moderate our desires and diminish our wants within bounds proportioned to our income. We can expend much, or live on little; and this, too, without descending to absolute penury. It is truly surprising to observe how people in similar rank, condition, and circumstances, contrive to \textit{expend} so very differently. I have known instances of young men who would thrive on an income which would not more than half support their neighbors in circumstances evidently similar.
Study therefore to live within your income. To this end you must \textit{calculate}. But here you will be obliged to learn much from personal experience, dear as her school is, unless you are willing to learn from that of others. If, for example, your income is \$600 a year, and you sit down at the commencement of the year and calculate on expending \$400, and saving the remainder, you will be very liable to fail in your calculation. But if you call in the experience of wiser heads who have travelled the road of life before you, they will tell you that after you have made every reasonable allowance for necessary expenses during the year, and believe yourself able to lay up \$200, you will not, once in ten times, be able to save more than \textit{two thirds} of that sum---and this, too, without any sickness or casualty.
It is an important point \textit{never to buy what you do not want}. Many people buy an article merely because it is cheap, and they can have credit. It is true they imagine they shall want it at some future time, or can sell it again to advantage. But they would not buy at present, if it cost them cash, from their pockets. The mischief is that when the day of payment is distant, the cost seems more trifling than it really is. Franklin's advice is in point; 'Buy what thou hast no need of, and ere long thou shalt sell thy necessaries;'---and such persons would do well to remember it.
The difference between credit and ready money is very great. Innumerable things are not bought at all with ready money, which would be bought in case of trust; so much easier, is it, to \textit{order} a thing than to \textit{pay} for it. A future day, a day of payment must come, to be sure; but that is little thought of at the time. But if the money were to be drawn out the moment the thing was received or offered, these questions would arise; Can I not do without it? Is it indispensable? And if I do not buy it, shall I suffer a loss or injury greater in amount than the cost of the thing? If these questions were put, every time we make a purchase, we should seldom hear of those suicides which disgrace this country, and the old world still more.
I am aware that it will be said, and very truly, that the concerns of merchants, the purchasing of great estates, and various other large transactions, cannot be carried on in this manner; but these are rare exceptions to the rule. And even in these cases, there might be much less of bills and bonds, and all the sources of litigation, than there now is. But in the every day business of life, in transactions with the butcher, the baker, the tailor, the shoemaker, what excuse can there be for pleading the example of the merchant, who carries on his work by ships and exchanges?
A certain young man, on being requested to keep an account of all he received and expended, answered that his business was not to keep account books: that he was sure not to make a mistake as to his income; and that as to his expenditure, the purse that held his money, would be an infallible guide, for he never bought any thing that he did not immediately pay for. I do not mean to recommend to young men not to keep written accounts, for as the world is, I deem it indispensable.
Few, it is believed, will deny that they generally pay, for the same article, a fourth part more, in the case of trust, than in that of ready money. Suppose now, the baker, butcher, tailor, and shoemaker, receive from you \$400 a year. Now, if you multiply the \$100 you lose, by not paying ready money, by 20, you will find that at the end of twenty years, you have a loss of \$2,000, besides the accumulated interest.
The fathers of the English \textit{church}, forbade selling on trust at a higher price than for ready money, which was the same thing in effect as to \textit{forbid trust}; and this was doubtless one of the great objects those wise and pious men had in view; for they were fathers in legislation and morals, as well as in religion. But we of the present age, seem to have grown wiser than they, and not only make a difference in the price, regulated by the difference in the mode of payment, but no one is expected to do otherwise. We are not only allowed to charge something for the \textit{use} of the money, but something additional for the \textit{risk} of the loss which may frequently arise,---and most frequently does arise---from the misfortunes of those to whom we thus assign our goods on trust.
The man, therefore, who purchases on trust, not only pays for being credited, but he also pays his share of what the tradesman loses by his general practice of selling upon trust; and after all, he is not so good a customer as the man who purchases cheaply with ready money. His \textit{name}, indeed, is in the tradesman's book, but with that name the tradesman cannot buy a fresh supply of goods.
Infinite, almost, are the ways in which people lose by this sort of dealing. Domestics sometimes go and order things not wanted at all; at other times more than is wanted. All this would be obviated by purchasing with ready money; for whether through the hands of the party himself, or those of some other person, there would always be an actual counting out of the money. Somebody would see the thing bought, and the money paid. And as the master would give the steward or housekeeper a purse of money at the time, \textit{he} would see the money too, would set a proper value upon it, and would just desire to know upon what it had been expended.
Every man, who purchases for ready money, will naturally make the amount of the purchase as low as possible, in proportion to his means. This care and frugality will make an addition to his means; and therefore, at the end of his life, he will have a great deal more to spend, and still be as rich as if he had been trusted all his days. In addition to this, he will eat, and drink, and sleep \textit{in peace}, and avoid all the endless papers, and writings, and receipts, and bills, and disputes, and lawsuits, inseparable from the credit system.
This is by no means intended as a lesson of \textit{stinginess}, nor is it any part of my purpose to inculcate the plan of \textit{heaping up} money. But purchasing with ready money really gives you more money to purchase with; you can afford to have a greater quantity and variety of enjoyments. In the town, it will tend to hasten your pace along the streets, for the temptation at the windows is answered in a moment by clapping your hand upon your pocket; and the question; 'Do I really want it?' is sure to recur immediately; because the touch of the money will put the thought into your mind.
Now supposing you to have a fortune, even beyond your actual wants, would not the money which you might save in this way, be very well applied in acts of real benevolence? Can you walk or ride a mile, in the city or country, or go to half a dozen houses; or in fact can you open your eyes without seeing some human being, born in the same country with yourself, and who, on that account alone, has some claim upon your good wishes and your charity? Can you, if you would, avoid seeing one person, if no more, to whom even a small portion of your annual savings would convey gladness of heart? Your own feelings will suggest the answer.
SECTION VII. \textit{Of entrusting Business to others.}
`If you wish to have your business done, go; if not, send.' This is an old maxim; and one which is no less true than old. Every young man, on setting out in the world, should make it a rule, never to trust any thing \textit{of consequence} to another, which he can, without too much difficulty, perform himself.
1. Because, let a person have my interest ever so much at heart, I am sure I regard it \textit{more} myself.
2. Nothing is more difficult than to know, in all cases, the characters of those we confide in. How can we expect to understand the characters of others, when we scarcely know our own? Which of us can know, positively, that he shall never be guilty of another vice or weakness, or yield to another temptation, and thus forfeit public confidence? Who, then, will needlessly trust another, when he can hardly be sure of himself?
3. No substitute we can employ, can \textit{understand} our business as well as ourselves.
4. We can change our measures according to changing circumstances; which gives us those opportunities of doing things in the best way, of which another will not feel justified in availing himself.
As for dependants of every kind, it should ever be remembered that their master's interest sometimes possesses only the second place in their hearts. Self-love, with such, will be the ruling principle of action; and no fidelity whatever will prevent a person from bestowing a good deal of thought upon his own concerns. But this must, of necessity, break in more or less upon his diligence in consulting the interest of his employers. How men of business can venture, as they sometimes do, to trust concerns of great importance, for half of every week in the year, (which is half the whole year) to dependants, and thus expect others to take care of their business, when they will not be at the trouble of minding it themselves, is to me inconceivable! Nor does the detection, from time to time, of fraud in such persons, seem at all to diminish this practice.
There is a maxim among business people, 'never to do that for themselves which they can pay another for doing.' This, though true to a certain extent, is liable to abuse. If every body, without discrimination, could be \textit{safely} trusted, the maxim might be \textit{more} just; since nothing is more obvious than that laborers are often at hand, whose time can be bought for a much less sum of money than you would yourself earn in the meantime. I have often known people make or mend little pieces of furniture, implements of their occupations, \&c. to save expense, when they could have earned, at their labor during the same time, twice the sum necessary to pay a trusty and excellent workman for doing it.
But, as I have already observed, persons are not always at hand, in whom you can confide; so that the certainty of having a thing done right, is worth much more than the loss of a little time. Besides, God has never said \textit{how much} we must do in this world. We are indeed to do all we can, and at the same time do it well; but \textit{how much that is}, we must judge. He is not necessarily the most useful man who does even the greatest amount of good;---but he who does the most good, attended with the least evil.
But we should remember that what \textit{others} do, is not done by \textit{ourselves}. Still, an individual may often do many little things without any hindrance to his main object. For example, I would not thank a person to make or mend my pen, or shave me; because I can write as much, or perform as much business of any kind, in a week or month---probably more---if I stop to mend my pens, shave myself daily, make fires, saw and split wood, \&c. as if I do not. And the same is true of a thousand other things.
SECTION VIII. \textit{Over Trading.}
I have already classed this among the frauds into which business men are in danger of falling; and I cannot but think its character will be pretty well established by what follows.
Over trading is an error into which many industrious, and active young men are apt to run, from a desire of getting rich more rapidly than they are able to do with a smaller business. And yet profusion itself is not more dangerous. Indeed, I question whether idleness brings more people to ruin than over trading.
This subject is intimately connected with \textit{credit}, for it is the credit system that gives such facilities to over trading. But of the evils of credit I have treated fully elsewhere I will only add, under this head, a few remarks on one particular species of trading. I refer to the conduct of many persons, with large capitals, who, for the sake of adding to a heap already too large, monopolize the market,---or trade for a profit which they know dealers of smaller fortunes cannot possibly live by. If such men really think that raising themselves on the ruin of others, in this manner, is justifiable, and that riches obtained in this manner are fairly earned, they must certainly have either neglected to inform themselves, or stifled the remonstrances of conscience, and bid defiance to the laws of God.
SECTION IX. \textit{Making Contracts beforehand.}
In making bargains---with workmen, for example---always do it beforehand, and never suffer the matter to be deferred by their saying they will leave it to your discretion.
There are several reasons why this ought to be done. 1st. It prevents any difficulty afterward; and does no harm, even when the intentions of both parties are perfectly good. 2d. If you are dealing with a knave, it prevents him from accomplishing any evil designs he may have upon you. 3d. Young people are apt to be deceived by appearances, both from a credulity common to their youth and inexperience, and because neither the young nor the old have any certain method of knowing human character by externals. The most open hearted are the most liable to be imposed upon by the designing.
It will be well to have all your business---of course all contracts---as far as may be practicable, in writing. And it would be well if men of business would make it a constant rule, whenever and wherever it is possible, to draw up a minute or memorial of every transaction, subscribed by both, with a clause signifying that in case of any difference, they would submit the matter to arbitration.
Nothing is more common than for a designing person to put off the individual he wishes to take advantage of, by saying; \textit{We shan't disagree. I'll do what's right about it; I won't wrong you, \&c.} And then when accounts come to be settled, and the party who thinks himself aggrieved, says that he made the bargain with the expectation of having such and such advantages allowed him, \textit{No}, says the sharper, \textit{I never told you any such thing}.
It is on this account that you cannot be too exact in making contracts; nor is there indeed any safety in dealing with deceitful and avaricious people, after you have taken all the precaution in your power.
SECTION X. \textit{How to know with whom to deal.}
There are two maxims in common life that seem to clash with each other, most pointedly. The first is, 'Use every precaution with a stranger, that you would wish you had done, should he turn out to be a villain;' and secondly, 'Treat every man as an honest man, until he proves to be otherwise.'
Now there is good advice in both these maxims. By this I mean that they may both be observed, to a certain extent, without interfering with each other. You may be cautious about hastily becoming acquainted with a stranger, and yet so far as you have any concern with him, treat him like an honest man. No \textit{reasonable} person will complain if you do not unbosom yourself to him at once. And if he is unreasonable, you will not \textit{wish} for an intimate acquaintance with him.
My present purpose is to offer a few hints, with a view to assist you in judging of the characters of those with whom it may be your lot to deal. Remember, however, that like all things human, they are imperfect. All I can say is that they are the best I can offer.
There is something in knavery that will hardly bear the inspection of a piercing eye; and you may, more generally, observe in a sharper an unsteady and confused look. If a person is persuaded of the uncommon sagacity of one before whom he is to appear, he will hardly succeed in mustering impudence and artifice enough to bear him through without faltering. It will, therefore, be a good way to try one whom you have reason to suspect of a design upon you, by fixing your eyes upon his, and bringing up a supposition of your having to do with one whose integrity you suspected; stating what you would do in such a case. If the person you are talking with be really what you expect, he will hardly be able to keep his countenance.
It will be a safe rule,---though doubtless there are exceptions to it,---to take mankind to be more or less avaricious. Yet a great love of money is a great enemy to honesty. The aged are, in this respect, more dangerous than the young. It will be your wisdom ever to be cautious of \textit{aged} avarice; and especially of those who, in an affected and forced manner, bring in religion, and talk much of \textit{duty} on all occasions; of all smooth and fawning people; of those who are very talkative, and who, in dealing with you, endeavor to draw off your attention from the point in hand by incoherent or random expressions.
I have already advised you how to proceed with those of whom you have good reason to be suspicious. But by all means avoid entertaining unnecessary suspicions of your fellow beings; for it will usually render both you and them the more miserable. It is often owing to a consciousness of a designing temper, in ourselves, that we are led to suspect others.
If you hear a person boasting of having got a remarkably good bargain, you may generally conclude him by no means too honest; for almost always where one gains much in a bargain, the other loses. I know well that cases occur where both parties are gainers, but not greatly so. And when you hear a man triumph in gaining by another's loss, you may easily judge of his character.
Let me warn you against the sanguine promisers. Of these there are two sorts. The first are those who from a foolish custom of fawning upon all those whom they meet with in company, have acquired a habit of promising great favors which they have no idea of performing. The second are a sort of warm hearted people, who while they lavish their promises have some thoughts of performing them; but when the time comes, and the sanguine fit is worn off, the trouble or expense appears in another light; the promiser cools, and the expectant is disappointed.
Be cautious of dealing with an avaricious and cruel man, for if it should happen by an unlucky turn of trade that you should come into the power of such a person, you have nothing to expect but the utmost rigor of the law.
In negotiating, there are a number of circumstances to be considered; the neglect of any of which may defeat your whole scheme. These will be mentioned in the next section.
SECTION XI. \textit{How to take Men as they are.}
Such a knowledge of human character as will enable us to treat mankind according to their dispositions, circumstances, and modes of thinking, so as to secure their aid in all our \textit{laudable} purposes, is absolutely indispensable. And while all men boast of their knowledge of human nature, and would rather be thought ignorant of almost every thing else than this, how obvious it is that there is nothing in regard to which there exists so much ignorance!
A miser is by no means a proper person to apply to for a favor that will \textit{cost} him any thing. But if he chance to be a man of principle, he \textit{may} make an excellent partner in trade, or arbitrator in a dispute about property; for he will have patience to investigate little things, and to stand about trifles, which a generous man would scorn. Still, as an honest man, and above all as a Christian, I doubt whether it would be quite right thus to derive advantage from the vices of another. In employing the miser, you give scope to his particular vice.
A passionate man will fly into a rage at the most trifling affront, but he will generally forget it nearly as soon, and be glad to do any thing in his power to make up with you. It is not therefore so dangerous to disoblige \textit{him}, as the gloomy, sullen mortal, who will wait seven years for an opportunity to do you mischief.
A cool, slow man, who is somewhat advanced in age, is generally the best person to advise with. For despatch of business, however, make use of the young, the warm, and the sanguine. Some men are of no character at all; but always take a tinge from the last company they were in. Their advice, as well as their assistance, is usually good for nothing.
It is in vain to think of finding any thing very valuable in the mind of a covetous man. Avarice is generally the vice of abject spirits. Men who have a very great talent at making money, commonly have no other; for the man who began with nothing, and has accumulated wealth, has been too busy to think of improving his mind; or indeed, to think of any thing else but property.
A boaster is always to be suspected. His is a natural infirmity, which makes him forget what he is about, and run into a thousand extravagances that have no connection with the truth. With those who have a tolerable knowledge of the world, all his assertions, professions of friendship, promises, and threatenings, go for nothing. Trust him with a secret, and he will surely discover it, either through vanity or levity.
A meek tempered man is not quite the proper person for you; his \textit{modesty} will be easily \textit{confounded}.---The talkative man will be apt to forget himself, and blunder out something that will give you trouble.
A man's ruling passion is the key by which you may come at his character, and pretty nearly guess how he will act in any given circumstances, unless he is a wit or a fool; \textit{they} act chiefly from caprice.
There are likewise connections between the different \textit{parts} of men's characters, which it will be useful for you to study. For example, if you find a man to be hasty and passionate, you may generally take it for granted he is open and artless, and so on. Like other general rules, however, this admits of many exceptions.
A bully is usually a coward. When, therefore, you unluckily have to deal with such a man, the best way is to make up to him boldly, and answer him with firmness. If you show the least sign of submission, he will take advantage of it to use you ill.
There are six sorts of people, at whose hands you need not expect much kindness. The \textit{sordid and narrow minded}, think of nobody but themselves. The \textit{lazy} will not take the trouble to oblige you. The \textit{busy} have not time to think of you. The overgrown \textit{rich man}, is above regarding any one, how much soever he may stand in need of assistance. The \textit{poor and unhappy} often have not the ability. The good natured \textit{simpleton}, however willing, is \textit{incapable} of serving you.[7]
The \textit{age} of the person you are to deal with is also to be considered. \textit{Young} people are easily drawn into any scheme, merely from its being new, especially if it falls in with their love of pleasure; but they are almost as easily discouraged from it by the next person they meet with. They are not good counsellors, for they are apt to be precipitate and thoughtless; but are very fit for action, where you prescribe them a track from which they know they must not vary. Old age, on the contrary, is slow but sure; very cautious; opposed to new schemes and ways of life; inclining, generally, to covetousness; fitter to \textit{consult} with you, than to \textit{act} for you; not so easily won by fair speeches or long reasonings; tenacious of old opinions, customs, and formalities; apt to be displeased with those, especially younger people, who pretend to question their judgment; fond of deference, and of being listened to. Young people, in their anger, mean less than they say; old people more. You may make up for an injury with most young men; the old are generally more slow in forgiving.
The fittest character to be concerned with in business, is, that in which are united an inviolable integrity, founded upon rational principles of virtue and religion, a cool but determined temper, a friendly heart, a ready hand, long experience and extensive knowledge of the world; with a solid reputation of many years' standing, and easy circumstances.
\begin{quotation}
[7] These statements may seem to require a little qualification. There are \textit{two sorts} of \textit{busy} men. One sort are busy, as the result of \textit{benevolent purpose}. These are often among the best of mankind; and though always \textit{busy} in carrying out their plans, they find time to perform a thousand little acts of goodness, notwithstanding.---It has, indeed, been sometimes said, that when a great public enterprise is about to be undertaken, which requires the aid of individual contributions, either of time or money, those who are most busy, and from whom we might naturally expect the least, often do the \textit{most}. It is also said that men of business have the most leisure; and it sometimes seems to be true, where they methodize their plans properly. These maxims, however, apply with the most force to men devoted to a higher purpose than the worship of this world---men who live for God, and the good of his universe, generally.\end{quotation}
\begin{quotation}
There are also two sorts of \textit{rich} men. Some men may have property in their hands to an immense amount, without possessing a worldly spirit. The \textit{rich} man referred to above, is of another sort. He is the man who '\textit{gets all he can}, and \textit{keeps} all he can \textit{get}.' This is probably the gospel definition of the term, a \textit{rich man}, who, it is said, can no more enter a world of spiritual enjoyment than a camel or a cable can go through 'the eye of a needle.'\end{quotation}
SECTION XII. \textit{Of desiring the good opinion of others.}
A young man is not far from ruin, when he can say, without blushing, \textit{I don't care what others think of me}. To be insensible to public opinion, or to the estimation in which we are held by others, by no means indicates a good and generous spirit.
But to have a due regard to public opinion is one thing, and to make that opinion the principal rule of action, quite another. There is no greater weakness than that of letting our happiness depend \textit{too much} upon the opinion of others. Other people lie under such disadvantages for coming at our true characters, and are so often misled by prejudice for or against us, that if our own conscience condemns us, their approbation can give us little consolation. On the other hand, if we are sure we acted from honest motives, and with a reference to proper ends, it is of little consequence if the world should happen to find fault. Mankind, for the most part, are so much governed by fancy, that what will win their hearts to-day, will disgust them to-morrow; and he who undertakes to please every body at all times, places, and circumstances, will never be in want of employment.
A wise man, when he hears of reflections made upon him, will consider whether they are \textit{just}. If they are, he will correct the faults in question, with as much cheerfulness as if they had been suggested by his dearest friend.
I have sometimes thought that, in this view, enemies were the best of friends. Those who are merely friends in name, are often unwilling to tell us a great many things which it is of the highest importance that we should know. But our enemies, from spite, envy, or some other cause, mention them; and we ought on the whole to rejoice that they do, and to make the most of their remarks.
SECTION XIII. \textit{Intermeddling with the affairs of others.}
There are some persons who never appear to be \textit{happy}, if left to themselves and their own reflections. All their enjoyment seems to come from without; none from within. They are ever for having something to do with the affairs of others. Not a single petty quarrel can take place, in the neighborhood, but they suffer their feelings to be enlisted, and allow themselves to ``take sides'' with one of the parties. Those who possess such a disposition are among the most miserable of their race.
An old writer says that 'Every one should mind his own business; for he who is perpetually concerning himself about the good or ill fortune of others, will never be at rest.' And he says truly.
It is not denied that some men are professionally bound to attend to the concerns of others. But this is not the case supposed. The bulk of mankind will be happier, and do more for others, by letting them alone; at least by avoiding any of that sort of meddling which may be construed into officiousness.
Some of the worst meddlers in human society are those who have been denominated \textit{match-makers}. A better name for them, however, would be match-\textit{breakers}, for if they do not actually break more matches than they make, they usually cause a great deal of misery to those whom they are instrumental in bringing prematurely together.
Many people who, in other respects, pass for excellent, do not hesitate to take sides on almost all occasions, whether they know much about the real merits of the case or not. Others judge, at once, of every one of whom they hear any thing evil, and in the same premature manner.
All these and a thousand other kinds of `meddling' do much evil. The tendency is to keep men like Ishmael, with their hands against every man, and every man's hands against theirs.
SECTION XIV. \textit{On Keeping Secrets.}
It is sometimes said that in a good state of society there would be no necessity of \textit{keeping} secrets, for no individual would have any thing to conceal. This \textit{may} be true; but if so, society is far---very far---from being as perfect as it ought to be. At present we shall find no intelligent circle, except it were the society of the glorified above, which does not require occasional secrecy. But if there are secrets to be kept, somebody must keep them.
Some persons can hardly conceal a secret, if they would. They will promise readily enough; but the moment they gain possession of the fact, its importance rises in their estimation, till it occupies so much of their waking thoughts, that it will be almost certain, in some form or other, to escape them.
Others are not very anxious to conceal things which are entrusted to them. They may not wish to make mischief, exactly; but there is a sort of recklessness about them, that renders them very unsafe confidants.
Others again, when they promise, mean to perform. But no sooner do they possess the \textit{treasure} committed to their charge, than they begin to grow forgetful of the \textit{manner} of coming by it. And before they are aware, they reveal it.
There are not many then, whom it is safe to trust. These you will value as they do diamonds, in proportion to their scarcity.
But there \textit{are} individuals who merit your highest confidence, if you can but find them. Husbands, where a union is founded as it ought to be, can usually trust their wives. This is one of the prominent advantages of matrimony. It gives us an opportunity of unbosoming our feelings and views and wishes not only with safety, but often with \textit{sympathy}.
But confidence may sometimes be reposed, in other circumstances. Too much reserve makes us miserable. Perhaps it were better that we should suffer a little, now and then, than that we should never trust.
As an instance of the extent to which mankind can sometimes be confided in, and to show that celibacy, too, is not without this virtue, you will allow me to relate, briefly, an anecdote.
A certain husband and wife had difficulties. They both sought advice of a single gentleman, their family physician. For some time there was hope of an amicable adjustment of all grievances; but at length every effort proved vain, and an open quarrel ensued. But what was the surprise of each party to learn by accident, some time afterward, that both of them had sought counsel of the same individual, and yet he had not betrayed the trust.
In a few instances, too, secrets have been confided to husbands, without their communicating them to their wives; and the contrary. This was done, however, by particular request. It is a requisition which, for my own part, I should be very unwilling to make.
SECTION XV. \textit{Fear of Poverty.}
The ingenious but sometimes fanciful Dr. Darwin, reckons the fear of poverty as a disease, and goes on to prescribe for it.
The truth is, there is not much \textit{real} poverty in this country. Our very paupers are rich, for they usually have plenty of wholesome food, and comfortable clothing, and what could a Croesus, with all \textit{his} riches, have more? Poverty exists much more in imagination than in reality. The \textit{shame of being thought poor}, is a great and fatal weakness, to say the least. It depends, it is true, much upon the fashion.
So long as the phrase `he is a good man,' means that the person spoken of is rich, we need not wonder that every one wishes to be thought richer than he is. When adulation is sure to follow wealth, and when contempt would be sure to follow many if they were not wealthy; when people are spoken of with deference, and even lauded to the skies because their riches are very great; when this is the case, I say, we need not wonder if men are ashamed to be thought poor. But this is one of the greatest dangers which young people have to encounter in setting out in life. It has brought thousands and hundreds of thousands to pecuniary ruin.
One of the most amiable features of \textit{good} republican society is this; that men seldom boast of their riches, or disguise their poverty, but speak of both, as of any other matters that are proper for conversation. No man shuns another because he is poor; no man is preferred to another because he is rich. In hundreds and hundreds of instances have men in this country, not worth a shilling, been chosen by the people to take care of their rights and interests, in preference to men who ride in their carriages.
The shame of being thought poor leads to everlasting efforts to \textit{disguise} one's poverty. The carriage---the domestics---the wine---the spirits---the decanters---the glass;---all the table apparatus, the horses, the dresses, the dinners, and the parties, must be kept up; not so much because he or she who keeps or gives them has any pleasure arising therefrom, as because not to keep and give them, would give rise to a suspicion of \textit{a want of means}. And thus thousands upon thousands are yearly brought into a state of real poverty, merely by their great anxiety not to be thought poor. Look around you carefully, and see if this is not so.
In how many instances have you seen amiable and industrious families brought to ruin by nothing else but the fear they \textit{should} be? Resolve, then, from the first, to set this false shame at defiance. When you have done that, effectually, you have laid the corner-stone of mental tranquillity.
There are thousands of families at this very moment, struggling to keep up appearances. They feel that it makes them miserable; but you can no more induce them to change their course, than you can put a stop to the miser's laying up gold.
Farmers accommodate themselves to their condition more easily than merchants, mechanics, and professional men. They live at a greater distance from their neighbors; they can change their style of living without being perceived; they can put away the decanter, change the china for something plain, and the world is none the wiser for it. But the mechanic, the doctor, the attorney, and the trader cannot make the change so quietly and unseen.
Stimulating drink, which is a sort of criterion of the scale of living,---(or scale to the plan,)---a sort of key to the tune;---this is the thing to banish first of all, because all the rest follow; and in a short time, come down to their proper level.
Am I asked, what is a glass of wine? I answer, \textit{it is every thing}. It creates a demand for all the other unnecessary expenses; it is injurious to health, and must be so. Every bottle of wine that is drank contains a portion of \textit{spirit}, to say nothing of other drugs still more poisonous; and of all friends to the doctors, alcoholic drinks are the greatest. It is nearly the same, however, with strong tea and coffee. But what adds to the folly and wickedness of using these drinks, the parties themselves do not always drink them by \textit{choice}; and hardly ever because they believe they are useful;---but from mere ostentation, or the fear of being thought either \textit{rigid} or \textit{stingy}. At this very moment, thousands of families daily use some half a dozen drinks, \textit{besides the best}, because if they drank water only, they might not be regarded as genteel; or might be suspected of poverty. And thus they waste their property and their health.
Poverty frequently arises from the very virtues of the impoverished parties. Not so frequently, I admit, as from vice, folly, and indiscretion; but still very frequently. And as it is according to scripture not to `despise the poor, \textit{because} he is poor,' so we ought not to honor the rich merely because he is rich. The true way is to take a fair survey of the character of a man as exhibited in his conduct; and to respect him, or otherwise, according to a due estimate of that character.
Few countries exhibit more of those fatal terminations of life, called suicides, than \textit{this}. Many of these unnatural crimes arise from an unreasonable estimate of the evils of poverty. Their victims, it is true, may be called insane; but their insanity almost always arises from the dread of poverty. Not, indeed, from the dread of the want of means for sustaining life, or even \textit{decent} living; but from the dread of being thought or known to be poor;---from the dread of what is called falling in the scale of society.[8]
Viewed in its true light, what is there in poverty that can tempt a man to take away his own life? He is the same man that he was before; he has the same body and the same mind. Suppose he can foresee an alteration in his \textit{dress} or his \textit{diet}, should he kill himself on that account? Are these all the things that a man wishes to live for?
I do not deny that we ought to take care of our means, use them prudently and sparingly, and keep our expenses always within the limits of our income, be that what it may. One of the effectual means of doing this, is to purchase with ready money. On this point, I have already remarked at length, and will only repeat here the injunction of St. Paul; `Owe no man any thing;' although the fashion of the whole world should be against you.
Should you regard the advice of this section, the counsels of the next will be of less consequence; for you will have removed one of the strongest inducements to speculation, as well as to overtrading.
\begin{quotation}
[8] I should be sorry to be understood as affirming that a majority of suicidal acts are the result of intemperance;---by no means. My own opinion is, that if there be a single vice more fruitful of this horrid crime than any other, it is gross sensuality. The records of insane hospitals, even in this country will show, that this is not mere conjecture. As it happens, however, that the latter vice is usually accompanied by intemperance in eating and drinking, by gambling, \&c., the blame is commonly thrown, not on the principal agent concerned in the crime, but on the accomplices.\end{quotation}
SECTION XVI. \textit{On Speculation.}
Young men are apt to be fond of \textit{speculation}. This propensity is very early developed---first in the family---and afterwards at the school. By \textit{speculation}, I mean the purchasing of something which you do not want for use, solely with a view to sell it again at a large profit; but on the sale of which there is a hazard.
When purchases of this sort are made with the person's own cash, they are not so unreasonable, but when they are made by one who is deeply indebted to his fellow beings, or with money borrowed for the purpose, it is not a whit better than gambling, let the practice be defended by whom it may: and has been in every country, especially in this, a fruitful source of poverty, misery, and suicide. Grant that this species of gambling has arisen from the facility of obtaining the fictitious means of making the purchase, still it is not the less necessary that I beseech you not to practise it, and if engaged in it already, to disentangle yourself as soon as you can. Your life, while thus engaged, is that of a gamester---call it by what smoother name you may. It is a life of constant anxiety, desire to overreach, and general gloom; enlivened now and then, by a gleam of hope or of success. Even that success is sure to lead to farther adventures; till at last, a thousand to one, that your fate is that of `the pitcher to the well.'
The great temptation to this, as well as to every other species of gambling, is, the \textit{success of the few}. As young men, who crowd to the army in search of rank and renown, never look into the ditch that holds their slaughtered companions, but have their eye constantly fixed on the commander-in-chief; and as each of them belongs to the \textit{same profession}, and is sure to be conscious that he has equal merit, every one dreams himself the suitable successor of him who is surrounded with \textit{aides-de-camp}, and who moves battalions and columns by his nod;---so with the rising generation of `speculators.' They see those whom they suppose nature and good laws made to black shoes, or sweep chimneys or streets, rolling in carriages, or sitting in palaces, surrounded by servants or slaves; and they can see no earthly reason why they should not all do the same. They forget the thousands, and tens of thousands, who in making the attempt, have reduced themselves to beggary.
SECTION XVII. \textit{On Lawsuits.}
In every situation in life, avoid the law. Man's nature must be changed, perhaps, before lawsuits will entirely cease; and yet it is in the power of most men to avoid them, in a considerable degree.
One excellent rule is, to have as little as possible to do with those who are \textit{fond} of litigation; and who, upon every slight occasion, talk of an appeal to the law. This may be called a \textit{disease}; and, like many other diseases, it is contagious. Besides, these persons, from their frequent litigations, contract a habit of using the technical terms of the courts, in which they take a pride, and are therefore, as companions, peculiarly disgusting to men of sense. To such beings a lawsuit is a luxury, instead of being regarded as a source of anxiety, and a real scourge. Such men are always of a quarrelsome disposition, and avail themselves of every opportunity to indulge in that which is mischievous to their neighbors.
In thousands of instances, men go to law for the indulgence of mere anger. The Germans are \textit{said} to bring \textit{spite-actions} against one another, and to harass their poorer neighbors from motives of pure revenge. But I hope this is a mistake; for I am unwilling to think so ill of that intelligent nation.
Before you decide to go to law, consider well the \textit{cost}, for if you win your suit and are poorer than you were before, what do you gain by it? You only imbibe a little additional anger against your opponent; you injure him, but at the same time, injure yourself more. Better to put up with the loss of one dollar than of two; to which is to be added, all the loss of time, all the trouble, and all the mortification and anxiety attending a lawsuit. To set an attorney at work to worry and torment another man, and alarm his family as well as himself, while you are sitting quietly at home, is baseness. If a man owe you money which he cannot pay, why add to his distress, without even the \textit{chance} of benefiting yourself? Thousands have injured themselves by resorting to the law, while very few, indeed, ever bettered their condition by it.
Nearly a million of dollars was once expended in England, during the progress of a single lawsuit. Those who brought the suit expended \$444,000 to carry it through; and the opposite party was acquitted, and only sentenced to pay the cost of prosecution, amounting to \$318,754. Another was sustained in court fifty years, at an enormous expense. In Meadville, in Pennsylvania, a petty law case occurred in which the damages recovered were only ten dollars, while the costs of court were one hundred. In one of the New England States, a lawsuit occurred, which could not have cost the parties less than \$1,000 each; and yet after all this expense, they mutually agreed to take the matter out of court, and suffer it to end where it was. Probably it was the wisest course they could possibly have taken. It is also stated that a quarrel occurred between two persons in Middlebury, Vermont, a few years since, about \textit{six eggs}, which was carried from one court to another, till it cost the parties \$4,000.
I am well acquainted with a gentleman who was once engaged in a lawsuit, (than which none perhaps, was ever more just) where his claim was one to two thousand dollars; but it fell into such a train that a final decision could not have been expected in many months;---perhaps not in years. The gentleman was unwilling to be detained and perplexed with waiting for a trial, and he accordingly paid the whole amount of costs to that time, amounting to \$150, went about his business, and believes, to this hour, that it was the wisest course he could have pursued.
A spirit of litigation often disturbs the peace of a whole neighborhood, perpetually, for several generations; and the hostile feeling thus engendered seems to be transmitted, like the color of the eyes or the hair, from father to son. Indeed it not unfrequently happens, that a lawsuit in a neighborhood, a society, or even a church, awakens feelings of discord, which never terminate, but at the death of the parties concerned.
How ought young men, then, to avoid, as they would a pestilence, this fiend-like spirit! How ought they to labor to settle all disputes---should disputes unfortunately arise,---without this tremendous resort! On the strength of much observation,---\textit{not experience}, for I have been saved the pain of learning in that painful school, on this subject,---I do not hesitate to recommend the settlement of such difficulties by arbitration.
One thing however should be remembered. Would you dry up the river of discord, you must first exhaust the fountains and rills which form it. The moment you indulge one impassioned or angry feeling against your fellow being, you have taken a step in the high road which leads to litigation, war and murder. Thus it is, as I have already told you, that `He that hateth his brother is a murderer.'
I have heard a father---for he hath the name of parent, though he little deserved it---gravely contend that there was no such thing as avoiding quarrels and lawsuits. He thought there was one thing, however, which might prevent them, which was to take the litigious individual and 'tar and feather' him without ceremony. How often is it true that mankind little know `what manner of spirit they are of;' and to how many of us will this striking reproof of the Saviour apply!
Multitudes of men have been in active business during a long life, and yet avoided every thing in the shape of a lawsuit. 'What man has done, man may do;' in this respect, at the least.
SECTION XVIII. \textit{On Hard Dealing.}
Few things are more common among business-doing men, than \textit{hard dealing}; yet few things reflect more dishonor on a Christian community. It seems, in general, to be regarded as morally right,---in defiance of all rules, whether \textit{golden} or not,---to get as 'good a bargain' in trade, as possible; and this is defended as unavoidable, on account of the \textit{state of society}! But what \textit{produced} this state of society? Was it not the spirit of avarice? What will change it for the better? Nothing but the renunciation of this spirit, and a willingness to sacrifice, in this respect, for the public welfare.
We are \textit{pagans} in this matter, in spite of our professions. It would be profitable for us to take lessons on this subject from the Mohammedans. They never have, it is said, but one price for an article; and to ask the meanest shopkeeper to lower his price, is to \textit{insult} him. Would this were the only point, in which the Christian community are destined yet to learn even from Mohammedans.
To ask one price and take another, or to offer one price and give another, besides being a loss of time, is highly dishonorable to the parties. It is, in fact, a species of lying; and it answers no one advantageous purpose, either to the buyer or seller. I hope that every young man will start in life with a resolution never to be \textit{hard in his dealings}.
`It is an evil which will correct itself;' say those who wish to avail themselves of its present advantages a little longer. But when and where did a general evil correct itself? When or where was an erroneous practice permanently removed, except by a change of public sentiment? And what has ever produced a change in the public sentiment but the determination of individuals, or their combined action?
While on this topic, I will hazard the assertion---even at the risk of its being thought misplaced---that great effects are yet to be produced on public opinion, in this country, by associations of spirited and intelligent young men. I am not now speaking of associations for political purposes, though I am not sure that even these \textit{might} not be usefully conducted; but of associations for mutual improvement, and for the correction and elevation of the public morals. The ``Boston Young Men's Society,'' afford a specimen of what may be done in this way; and numerous associations of the kind have sprung up and are springing up in various parts of the country. Judiciously managed, they must inevitably do great good;---though it should not be forgotten that they \textit{may} also be productive of immense evil.
\gutchapter{CHAPTER III.}
On Amusements and Indulgences.
SECTION I. \textit{On Gaming.}
Even Voltaire asserts that 'every gambler is, has been, or will be a robber.' Few practices are more ancient, few more general, and few, if any, more pernicious than gaming. An English writer has ingeniously suggested that the Devil himself might have been the first player, and that he contrived the plan of introducing games among men, to afford them temporary amusement, and divert their attention from themselves. `What numberless disciples,' he adds, 'of his sable majesty, might we not count in our own metropolis!'
Whether his satanic majesty has any very direct agency in this matter or not, one thing is certain;---gaming is opposed to the happiness of mankind, and ought, in every civilized country, to be suppressed by public opinion. By gaming, however, I here refer to those cases only in which property is at stake, to be won or lost. The subject of \textit{diversions} will be considered in another place.
Gaming is an evil, because, in the first place, it is a practice which \textit{produces} nothing. He who makes two blades of grass grow where but one grew before, has usually been admitted to be a public benefactor; for he is a \textit{producer}. So is he who combines or arranges these productions in a useful manner,---I mean the mechanic, manufacturer, \&c. He is equally a public benefactor, too, who produces \textit{mental} or \textit{moral} wealth, as well as physical. In gaming, it is true, property is shifted from one individual to another, and here and there one probably gains more than he loses; but nothing is actually \textit{made}, or \textit{produced}. If the whole human family were all skilful gamesters, and should play constantly for a year, there would not be a dollar more in the world at the end of the year, than there was at its commencement. On the contrary, is it not obvious that there would be much \textit{less}, besides even an immense loss of time?[9]
But, secondly, gaming favors corruption of manners. It is difficult to trace the progress of the gamester's mind, from the time he commences his downward course, but we know too well the goal at which he is destined to arrive. There may be exceptions, but not many; generally speaking, every gamester, sooner or later travels the road to perdition, and often adds to his own wo, by dragging others along with him.
Thirdly, it discourages industry. He who is accustomed to receive large sums at once, which bear no sort of proportion to the labor by which they are obtained, will gradually come to regard the moderate but constant and certain rewards of industrious exertion as insipid. He is also in danger of falling into the habit of paying an undue regard to hazard or chance, and of becoming devoted to the doctrine of fatality.
As to the few who are skilful enough to gain more, on the whole, than they lose, scarcely one of them pays any regard to prudence or economy in his expenditures. What is thus lightly acquired, is lightly disposed of. Or if, in one instance in a thousand, it happens otherwise, the result is still unfavorable. It is but to make the miser still more a miser, and the covetous only the more so. Man is so constituted as to be unable to bear, with safety, a rapid accumulation of property. To the truth of this, all history attests, whether ancient or modern, sacred or profane.
The famous philosopher Locke, in his `Thoughts on Education,' thus observes: 'It is certain, gaming leaves no satisfaction behind it to those who reflect when it is over; and it no way profits either body or mind. As to their estates, if it strike so deep as to concern them, it is a \textit{trade} then, and not a \textit{recreation}, wherein few thrive; and at best a thriving gamester has but a poor trade of it, who fills his pockets at the price of his reputation.'
In regard to the \textit{criminality} of the practice, a late writer has the following striking remarks.
'As to gaming, it is always \textit{criminal}, either in itself or in its tendency. The basis of it is covetousness; a desire to take from others something for which you have neither given, nor intend to give an equivalent. No gambler was ever yet a happy man, and few gamblers have escaped being positively miserable. Remember, too, that to game for \textit{nothing} is still \textit{gaming}; and naturally leads to gaming for \textit{something}. It is sacrificing time, and that, too, for the worst of purposes.
'I have kept house for nearly forty years; I have reared a family; I have entertained as many friends as most people; and I never had cards, dice, a chess board, nor any implement of gaming under my roof. The hours that young men spend in this way, are hours murdered; precious hours that ought to be spent either in reading or in writing; or in rest; preparatory to the duties of the dawn.
'Though I do not agree with those base flatterers who declare the army to be \textit{the best school for statesmen}, it is certainly a school in which we learn, experimentally, many useful lessons; and in this school I learned that men fond of gaming, are rarely, if ever, trust-worthy. I have known many a decent man rejected in the way of promotion, only because he was addicted to gaming. Men, in that state of life, cannot \textit{ruin} themselves by gaming, for they possess no fortune, nor money; but the taste for gaming is always regarded as an indication of a radically bad disposition; and I can truly say that I never in my whole life---and it has been a long and eventful one---knew a man fond of gaming, who was not, in some way or other, unworthy of confidence. This vice creeps on by very slow degrees, till, at last, it becomes an ungovernable passion, swallowing up every good and kind feeling of the heart.'
For my own part I know not the \textit{names} of cards; and could never take interest enough in card-playing to remember them. I have always wondered how sober and intelligent people, who have consciences, and believe the doctrine of accountability to God---how professing Christians even, as is the case in some parts of this country, can sit whole evenings at cards. Why, what notions have they of the value of time? Can they conceive of Him, whose example we are bound to follow, as engaged in this way? The thought should shock us! What a Herculean task Christianity has yet to accomplish!
The excess of this vice has caused even the overthrow of empires. It leads to conspiracies, and creates conspirators. Men overwhelmed with debt, are always ready to obey the orders of any bold chieftain who may attempt a decisive stroke, even against government itself. Catiline had very soon under his command an army of scoundrels. `Every man,' says Sallust, 'who by his follies or losses at the gaming table had consumed the inheritance of his fathers, and all who were sufferers by such misery, were the friends of this perverse man.'
Perhaps this vice has nowhere been carried to greater excess than in France. There it has its administration, its chief, its stockholders, its officers, and its priests. It has its domestics, its pimps, its spies, its informers, its assassins, its bullies, its aiders, its abettors,---in fact, its scoundrels of every description; particularly its hireling swindlers, who are paid for decoying the unwary into this `hell upon earth,' so odious to morality, and so destructive to virtue and Christianity.
In England, this vice has at all times been looked upon as one of pernicious consequence to the commonwealth, and has, therefore, long been prohibited. The money lost in this way, is even recoverable again by law. Some of the laws on this subject were enacted as early as the time of Queen Anne, and not a few of the penalties are very severe. Every species of gambling is strictly forbidden in the British army, and occasionally punished with great severity, by order of the commander in chief. These facts show the state of public opinion in that country, in regard to the evil tendency of this practice.
Men of immense wealth have, in some instances, entered gambling houses, and in the short space of an hour have found themselves reduced to absolute beggary. 'Such men often lose not only what their purses or their bankers can supply, but houses, lands, equipage, jewels; in fine, every thing of which they call themselves masters, even to their very clothes; then perhaps a pistol terminates their mortal career.'
Fifteen hours a day are devoted by many infatuated persons in some countries to this unhappy practice. In the middle of the day, while the wife directs with prudence and economy the administration of her husband's house, he abandons himself to become the prey of rapacious midnight and \textit{mid-day} robbers. The result is, that he contracts debts, is stripped of his property, and his wife and children are sent to the alms-house, whilst he, perhaps, \textit{perishes in a prison}.
My life has been chiefly spent in a situation where comparatively little of this vice prevails. Yet, I have known one individual who divided his time between hunting and gaming. About four days in the week were regularly devoted to the latter practice. From breakfast to dinner, from dinner to tea, from tea to nine o'clock, this was his regular employment, and was pursued incessantly. The man was about seventy years of age. He did not play for very large sums, it is true; seldom more than five to twenty dollars; and it was his uniform practice to retire precisely at nine o'clock, and without supper.
Generally, however, the night is more especially devoted to this employment. I have occasionally been at public houses, or on board vessels where a company was playing, and have known many hundreds of dollars lost in a single night. In one instance, the most horrid midnight oaths and blasphemy were indulged. Besides, there is an almost direct connection between the gambling table and brothel; and the one is seldom long unaccompanied by the other.
Scarcely less obvious and direct is the connection between this vice and intemperance. If the drunkard is not always a gamester, the gamester is almost without exception intemperate. There is for the most part a union of the three---horrible as the alliance may be---I mean gambling, intemperance, and debauchery.
There is even a species of intoxication attendant on gambling. \textit{Rede}, in speaking of one form of this vice which prevails in Europe, says; 'It is, in fact, a PROMPT MURDERER; irregular as all other games of hazard---rapid as lightning in its movements---its strokes succeed each other with an activity that redoubles the ardor of the player's blood, and often deprives him of the advantage of reflection. In fact, a man after half an hour's play, who for the whole night may not have taken any thing stronger than water, has all the appearance of drunkenness.' And who has not seen the flushed cheek and the red eye, produced simply by the excitement of an ordinary gaming table?
It is an additional proof of the evil of gaming that every person devoted to it, \textit{feels} it to be an evil. Why then does he not refrain? Because he has sold himself a slave to the deadly habit, as effectually as the drunkard to his cups.
Burgh, in his Dignity of Human Nature, sums up the evils of this practice in a single paragraph:
'Gaming is an amusement wholly unworthy of rational beings, having neither the pretence of exercising the body, of exerting ingenuity, or of giving any natural pleasure, and owing its entertainment wholly to an unnatural and vitiated taste;---the cause of infinite loss of time, of enormous destruction of money, of irritating the passions, of stirring up avarice, of innumerable sneaking tricks and frauds, of encouraging idleness, of disgusting people against their proper employments, and of sinking and debasing all that is truly great and valuable in the mind.'
Let me warn you, then, my young readers,---nay, more, let me \textit{urge} you never to enter this dreadful road. Shun it as you would the road to destruction. Take not the first step,---the moment you do, all may be lost. Say not that you can command yourselves, and can stop when you approach the confines of danger. So thousands have thought as sincerely as yourselves---and yet they fell. 'The probabilities that we shall fall where so many have fallen,' says Dr. Dwight, 'are millions to one; and the contrary opinion is only the dream of lunacy.'
When you are inclined to think yourselves safe, consider the multitudes who once felt themselves equally so, have been corrupted, distressed, and ruined by gaming, both for this world, and that which is to come. Think how many families have been plunged by it in beggary, and overwhelmed by it in vice. Think how many persons have become liars at the gaming table; how many perjured; how many drunkards; how many blasphemers; how many suicides. `If Europe,' said Montesquieu, 'is to be ruined, it will be ruined by gaming.' If the United States are to be ruined, gaming in some of its forms will be a very efficient agent in accomplishing the work.
Some of the most common games practised in this country, are cards, dice, billiards, shooting matches, and last, though not \textit{least}, lotteries. Horse-racing and cockfighting are still in use in some parts of the United States, though less so than formerly. In addition to the general remarks already made, I now proceed to notice a few of the particular forms of this vice.
1. CARDS, DICE, AND BILLIARDS.
The foregoing remarks will be applicable to each of these three modes of gambling. But in regard to cards, there seems to be something peculiarly enticing. It is on this account that youth are required to be doubly cautious on this point. So bewitching were cards and dice regarded in England, that penalties were laid on those who should be found playing with them, as early as the reign of George II. Card playing, however, still prevails in Europe, and to a considerable extent in the United States. There is a very common impression abroad, that the mere \textit{playing} at cards is in itself innocent: that the danger consists in the tendency to excess; and against excess most people imagine themselves sufficiently secure. But as 'the best throw at dice, is to throw them away,' so the best move with cards would be, to commit them to the flames.
2. SHOOTING MATCHES.
This is a disgraceful practice, which was formerly in extensive use in these States at particular seasons, especially on the day preceding the annual Thanksgiving. I am sorry to say, that there are places where it prevails, even now. Numbers who have nothing better to do, collect together, near some tavern or grog-shop, for the sole purpose of trying their skill at shooting fowls. Tied to a stake at a short distance, a poor innocent and helpless fowl is set as a mark to furnish sport for idle men and boys.
Could the creature be put out of its misery by the first discharge of the musket, the evil would not appear so great. But this is seldom the case. Several discharges are usually made, and between each, a running, shouting and jumping of the company takes place, not unfrequently mingled with oaths and curses.
The object of this infernal torture being at length despatched, and suspended on the muzzle of the gun as a trophy of victory, a rush is made to the bar or counter, and brandy and rum, accompanied by lewd stories, and perhaps quarrelling and drunkenness, often close the scene.
It rarely fails that a number of children are assembled on such occasions, who listen with high glee to the conversation, whether in the field or at the inn. If it be the grossest profaneness, or the coarsest obscenity, they will sometimes pride themselves in imitating it, thinking it to be manly; and in a like spirit will partake of the glass, and thus commence the drunkard's career.---This practice is conducted somewhat differently in different places, but not essentially so.
It is much to the credit of the citizens of many parts of New England that their good sense will not, any longer, tolerate a practice so brutal, and scarcely exceeded in this respect by the cockfights in other parts of the country. As a substitute for this practice a circle is drawn on a board or post, of a certain size, and he who can hit within the circle, gains the fowl. This is still a species of \textit{gaming}, but is divested of much of the ferocity and brutality of the former.
3. HORSERACING AND COCKFIGHTING.
It is only in particular sections of the United States that public opinion tolerates these practices extensively. A horserace, in New England, is a very rare occurrence. A cockfight, few among us have ever witnessed. Wherever the cruel disposition to indulge in seeing animals fight together is allowed, it is equally degrading to human nature with that fondness which is manifested in other countries for witnessing a bull fight. It is indeed the \textit{same} disposition, only existing in a smaller degree in the former case than in the latter.
Montaigne thinks it a reflection upon human nature itself that few people take delight in seeing beasts caress and play together, while almost every one is pleased to see them lacerate and worry one another.
Should your lot be cast in a region where any of these inhuman practices prevail, let it be your constant and firm endeavor, not merely to keep aloof from them yourselves, but to prevail on all those over whom God may have given you influence, to avoid them likewise. To enable you to face the public opinion when a point of importance is at stake, it will be useful to consult carefully the first chapter of this work.
I am sorry to have it in my power to state that in the year 1833 there was a \textit{bull fight} four miles southward of Philadelphia. It was attended by about 1500 persons; mostly of the very lowest classes from the city. It was marked by many of the same evils which attend these cruel sports in other countries, and by the same reckless disregard of mercy towards the poor brutes who suffered in the conflict. It is to be hoped, however, for the honor of human nature, that the good sense of the community will not permit this detestable custom to prevail.
\begin{quotation}
[9] Every man who enjoys the privileges of civilized society, owes it to that society to earn as much as he can; or, in other words, improve every minute of his time. He who loses an hour, or a minute, is the price of that hour debtor to the community. Moreover, it is a debt which he can never repay.\end{quotation}
SECTION II. \textit{On Lotteries.}
Lotteries are a species of gambling; differing from other kinds only in being tolerated either by the law of the land, or by that of public opinion. The proofs of this assertion are innumerable. Not only young men, but even married women have, in some instances, become so addicted to ticket buying, as to ruin themselves and their families.
From the fact that efforts have lately been made in several of the most influential States in the Union to suppress them, it might seem unnecessary, at first view, to mention this subject. But although the letter of the law may oppose them, there is a portion of our citizens who will continue to buy tickets clandestinely; and consequently somebody will continue to sell them in the same manner. Penalties will not suppress them at once. It will be many years before the evil can be wholly eradicated. The flood does not cease at the moment when the windows of heaven are closed, but continues, for some time, its ravages. It is necessary, therefore, that the young should guard themselves against the temptations which they hold out.
It may be said that important works, such as monuments, and churches, have been completed by means of lotteries. I know it is so. But the profits which arise from the sale of tickets are a tax upon the community, and generally upon the poorer classes: or rather they are a species of swindling. That good is sometimes done with these ill-gotten gains, is admitted; but money procured in any other unlawful, immoral, or criminal way, could be applied to build bridges, roads, churches, \&c. Would the advantages thus secured, however, justify an unlawful means of securing them? Does the end sanctify the means?
It is said, too, that individuals, as well as associations, have been, in a few instances, greatly aided by prizes in lotteries. Some bankrupts have paid their debts, \textit{like} honest men, with them. This they might do with stolen money. But cases of even this kind, are rare. The far greater part of the money drawn in the form of prizes in lotteries, only makes its possessor more avaricious, covetous, or oppressive than before. Money obtained in this manner commonly ruins mind, body, or estate; sometimes all three.
Lottery schemes have been issued in the single State of New York, in twelve years, to the amount of \$37,000,000. If other States have engaged in the business, in the same proportion to their population, the sum of all the schemes issued in the United States within that time has been \$240,000,000. A sum sufficient to maintain in comfort, if not affluence, the entire population of some of the smaller States for more than thirty years.
Now what has been gained by all this? It is indeed true, that the discount on this sum, amounting to \$36,000,000, has been expended in paying a set of men for \textit{one} species of labor. If we suppose their average salary to have been \$500, no less than 6,000 clerks, managers, \&c., may have obtained by this means, a support during the last twelve years. But what have the 6,000 men \textit{produced} all this while? Has not their whole time been spent in receiving small sums (from five to fifty dollars) from individuals, putting them together, as it were, in a heap, and afterwards distributing a part of it in sums, with a few exceptions, equally small?---Have they added one dollar, or even one cent to the original stock? I have already admitted, that he who makes two blades of grass grow where only one grew before, is a benefactor to his country; but these men have not done so much as that.
A few draw prizes, it has been admitted. Some of that few make a good use of them. But the vast majority are injured. They either become less active and industrious, or more parsimonious and miserly; and not a few become prodigals or bankrupts at once. In any of these events, they are of course unfitted for the essential purposes of human existence. It is not given to humanity to \textit{bear} a sudden acquisition of wealth. The best of men are endangered by it. As in knowledge, so in the present case, what is gained by hard digging is usually retained; and what is gained easily usually goes quickly. There is this difference, however, that the moral character is usually lost with the one, but not always with the other.
These are a part of the evils connected with lotteries. To compute their sum total would be impossible. The immense waste of money and time (and time is money) by those persons who are in the habit of buying tickets, to say nothing of the cigars smoked, the spirits, wine, and ale drank, the suppers eaten, and the money lost at cards, while lounging about lottery offices, although even this constitutes but a \textit{part} of the waste, is absolutely incalculable. The suffering of wives, and children, and parents, and brothers, and sisters, together with that loss of health, and temper, and reputation, which is either directly or indirectly connected, would swell the sum to an amount sufficient to alarm every one, who intends to be an honest, industrious, and respectable citizen.
It is yours, my young friends, to put a stop to this tremendous evil. It is your duty, and it should be your pleasure, to give that \textit{tone} to the public sentiment, without which, in governments like this, written laws are powerless.
Do not say that the influence of \textit{one person} cannot effect much. Remember that the power of example is almost omnipotent. In debating whether you may not venture to buy one more ticket, remember that if you do so, you adopt a course which, if taken by every other individual in the United States (and who out of thirteen millions has not the same \textit{right} as yourself?) would give abundant support to the whole lottery system, with all its horrors. And could you in that case remain guiltless? Can the fountains of such a sickly stream be pure? You would not surely condemn the waters of a mighty river while you were one of a company engaged in filling the springs and rills that unite to form it. Remember that just in proportion as you contribute, by your example, to discourage this species of gambling, just in the same proportion will you contribute to stay the progress of a tremendous scourge, and to enforce the execution of good and salutary laws.
With this pernicious practice, I have always been decidedly at war. I believe the system to be wholly wrong, and that those who countenance it, in any way whatever, are wholly inexcusable.
SECTION III. \textit{On Theatres.}
Much is said by the friends of theatres about what they \textit{might} be; and not a few persons indulge the hope that the theatre may yet be made a school of morality. But my business at present is with it \textit{as it is}, and as it has hitherto been. The reader will be more benefited by existing \textit{facts} than sanguine anticipations, or visionary predictions.
A German medical writer calculates that one in 150 of those who frequently attend theatres become diseased and die, from the impurity of the atmosphere. The reason is, that respiration contaminates the air; and where large assemblies are collected in close rooms, the air is corrupted much more rapidly than many are aware. Lavoisier, the French chemist, states, that in a theatre, from the commencement to the end of the play, the oxygen or vital air is diminished in the proportion of from 27 to 21, or nearly one fourth; and consequently is in the same proportion less fit for respiration, than it was before. This is probably the general truth; but the number of persons present, and the amount of space, must determine, in a great measure, the rapidity with which the air is corrupted. The pit is the most unhealthy part of a play-house, because the carbonic acid which is formed by respiration is heavier than atmospheric air, and accumulates near the floor.
It is painful to look round on a gay audience of 1500 persons, and consider that ten of this number will die in consequence of breathing the bad air of the room so frequently, and so long. But I believe this estimate is quite within bounds.
There are however other results to be dreaded. The practice of going out of a heated, as well as an impure atmosphere late in the evening, and often without sufficient clothing, exposes the individual to cold, rheumatism, pleurisy, and fever. Many a young lady,---and, I fear, not a few young gentlemen,---get the consumption by taking colds in this manner.
Not only the health of the body, but the mind and morals, too, are often injured. Dr. Griscom, of New York, in a report on the causes of vice and crime in that city, made a few years since, says; 'Among the causes of vicious excitement in our city, none appear to be so powerful in their nature as theatrical amusements. The number of boys and young men who have become determined thieves, in order to procure the means of introduction to the theatres and circuses, would appal the feelings of every virtuous mind, could the whole truth be laid open before them.
'In the case of the feebler sex, the result is still worse. A relish for the amusements of the theatre, without the means of indulgence, becomes too often a motive for listening to the first suggestion of the seducer, and thus prepares the unfortunate captive of sensuality for the haunts of infamy, and a total destitution of all that is valuable in the mind and character of woman.'
The following fact is worthy of being considered by the friends and patrons of theatres. During the progress of one of the most ferocious revolutions which ever shocked the face of heaven, theatres, in Paris alone, multiplied from six to twenty-five. Now one of two conclusions follow from this: Either the spirit of the times produced the institutions, or the institutions cherished the spirit of the times; and this will certainly prove that they are either the parents of vice or the offspring of it.
The philosopher Plato assures us, that 'plays raise the passions, and prevent the use of them; and of course are dangerous to morality.'
`The seeing of \textit{Comedies},' says Aristotle, 'ought to be forbidden to young people, till age and discipline have made them proof against debauchery.'
Tacitus says, 'The German women were guarded against danger, and preserved their purity by having no play-houses among them.'
Even Ovid represents theatrical amusements as a grand source of corruption, and he advised Augustus to suppress them.
The infidel philosopher Rousseau, declared himself to be of opinion, that the theatre is, in all cases, a school of vice. Though he had himself written for the stage, yet, when it was proposed to establish a theatre in the city of Geneva, he wrote against the project with zeal and great force, and expressed the opinion that every friend of pure morals ought to oppose it.
Sir John Hawkins, in his life of Johnson, observes:---'Although it is said of plays that they teach morality, and of the stage that it is the mirror of human life, these assertions are mere declamation, and have no foundation in truth or experience. On the contrary, a play-house, and the regions about it, are the very hot-beds of vice.'
Archbishop Tillotson, after some pointed and forcible reasoning against it, pronounces the play-house to be `the devil's chapel,' 'a nursery of licentiousness and vice,' and 'a recreation which ought not to be allowed among a civilized, much less a Christian people.'
Bishop Collier solemnly declared, that he was persuaded that 'nothing had done more to debauch the age in which he lived, than the stage poets and the play-house.'
Sir Matthew Hale, having in early life experienced the pernicious effects of attending the theatre, resolved, when he came to London, never to see a play again, and to this resolution he adhered through life.
Burgh says; 'What does it avail that the piece itself be unexceptionable, if it is to be interlarded with lewd songs or dances, and tagged at the conclusion with a ludicrous and beastly farce? I cannot therefore, in conscience, give youth any other advice than to avoid such diversions as cannot be indulged without the utmost danger of perverting their taste, and corrupting their morals.'
Dr. Johnson's testimony on this subject is nearly as pointed as that of Archbishop Tillotson; and Lord Kaimes speaks with much emphasis of the `poisonous influence,' of theatres.
Their evil tendency is seldom better illustrated than by the following anecdote, from an individual in New York, on whose statements we may place the fullest reliance.
'F. B. a young man of about twenty-two, called on the writer in the fall of 1831 for employment. He was a journeyman printer; was recently from Kentucky; and owing to his want of employment, as he said, was entirely destitute, not only of the comforts, but the necessaries of life. I immediately procured him a respectable boarding house, gave him employment, and rendered his situation as comfortable as my limited means would permit.
'He had not been with me long, before he expressed a desire to go to the theatre. Some great actor was to perform on a certain night, and he was very anxious to see him. I warned him of the consequences, and told him, my own experience and observation had convinced me that it was a very dangerous place for young men to visit. But my warning did no good. He neglected his business, and went. I reproved him gently, but retained him in my employment. He continued to go, notwithstanding all my remonstrances to the contrary. At length my business suffered so much from his neglecting to attend to it as he ought, that I was under the necessity of discharging him in self-defence. He got temporary employment in different offices of the city, where the same fault was found with him. Immediately after, he accepted a situation of bar-keeper in a porter house or tavern attached to the theatre. His situation he did not hold long---from what cause, I know not.
'He again applied to me for work; but as his habits were not reformed, I did not think it prudent to employ him, although I said or did nothing to injure him in the estimation of others. Disappointed in procuring employment in a business to which he had served a regular apprenticeship, being pennyless, and seeing no bright prospect for the future, he enlisted as a common soldier in the United States' service.
'He had not been in his new vocation long, before he was called upon, with other troops, to defend our citizens from the attacks of the Indians. But when the troops had nearly reached their place of destination, that `invisible scourge,' the cholera, made its appearance among them. Desertion was the consequence, and among others who fled, was the subject of this article.
'He returned to New York---made application at several different offices for employment, without success. In a few days news came that he had been detected in pilfering goods from the house of his landlord. A warrant was immediately issued for him---he was seized, taken to the police office---convicted, and sentenced to six months' hard labor in the penitentiary. His name being published in the newspapers, in connection with those of other convicts---was immediately recognised by the officer under whom he had enlisted.---This officer proceeds to the city---claims the prisoner---and it is at length agreed that he shall return to the United States' service, where he shall, for the first six months, be compelled to roll sand as a punishment for desertion, serve out the five years for which he had enlisted, and then be given up to the city authorities, to suffer for the crime of pilfering.
'It is thus that we see a young man, of good natural abilities, scarcely twenty-three years of age, compelled to lose six of the most valuable years of his life, besides ruining a fair reputation, and bringing disgrace upon his parents and friends, from the apparently harmless desire of seeing dramatic performances. Ought not this to be a warning to others, who are travelling on, imperceptibly in the same road to ruin?'
* * * * *
Theatres are of ancient date. One built of wood, in the time of Cicero and C{\ae}sar, would contain 80,000 persons. The first stone theatre in Rome, was built by Pompey, and would contain 40,000. There are one or two in Europe, at the present time, that will accommodate 4,000 or 5,000.
In England, until 1660, public opinion did not permit \textit{females} to perform in theatres, but the parts were performed by boys.
If theatres have a reforming tendency, this result might have been expected in France, where they have so long been popular and flourishing. In 1807, there were in France 166 theatres, and 3968 performers. In 1832 there were in Paris alone 17, which could accommodate 21,000 persons. But we do not find that they reformed the Parisians; and it is reasonable to expect they never will.
Let young men remember, that in this, as well as in many other things, there is only one point of security, \textit{viz}. total abstinence.
SECTION IV. \textit{Use of Tobacco.}
1. SMOKING.
Smoking has every where, in Europe and America, become a tremendous evil; and if we except Holland and Germany, nowhere more so than in this country. Indeed we are already fast treading in the steps of those countries, and the following vivid description of the miseries which this filthy practice entails on the Germans will soon be quite applicable to the people of the United States, unless we can induce the rising generation to turn the current of public opinion against it.
'This plague, like the Egyptian plague of frogs, is felt every where, and in every thing. It poisons the streets, the clubs, and the coffee-houses;---furniture, clothes, equipage, persons, are redolent of the abomination. It makes even the dulness of the newspapers doubly narcotic: every eatable and drinkable, all that can be seen, felt, heard or understood, is saturated with tobacco;---the very air we breathe is but a conveyance for this poison into the lungs; and every man, woman, and child, rapidly acquires the complexion of a boiled chicken. From the hour of their waking, if nine-tenths of their population can be said to awake at all, to the hour of their lying down, the pipe is never out of their mouths. One mighty fumigation reigns, and human nature is smoked dry by tens of thousands of square miles. The German physiologists compute, that of 20 deaths, between eighteen and thirty-five years, 10 originate in the waste of the constitution by smoking.'
This is indeed a horrid picture; but when it is considered that the best estimates which can be made concur in showing that tobacco, to the amount of \$16,000,000, is consumed in the United States annually, and that by far the greater part of this is in smoking cigars, there is certainly room for gloomy apprehensions. What though we do not use the dirty pipe of the Dutch and Germans? If we only use the \textit{tobacco}, the mischief is effectually accomplished. Perhaps it were even better that we should lay out a part of our money for pipes, than to spend the whole for tobacco.
Smoking is indecent, filthy, and rude, and to many individuals highly offensive. When first introduced into Europe, in the 16th century, its use was prohibited under very severe penalties, which in some countries amounted even to cutting off the nose. And how much better is the practice of voluntarily burning up our noses, by making a chimney of them? I am happy, however, in being able to state, that this unpardonable practice is now abandoned in many of the fashionable societies in Europe.
There is one remarkable fact to be observed in speaking on this subject. No parent ever teaches his child the use of tobacco, or even encourages it, except by his example. Thus the smoker virtually condemns himself in the very `thing which he alloweth.' It is not precisely so in the case of spirits; for many parents directly encourage the use of that.
Tobacco is one of the most powerful poisons in nature. Even the physician, some of whose medicines are so active that a few grains, or a few drops, will destroy life at once, finds tobacco too powerful for his use; and in those cases where it is most clearly required, only makes it a last resort. Its daily use, in any form, deranges, and sometimes destroys the stomach and nerves, produces weakness, low spirits, dyspepsy, vertigo, and many other complaints. These are its more immediate effects.
Its remoter effects are scarcely less dreadful. It dries the mouth and nostrils, and probably the brain; benumbs the senses of smell and taste, impairs the hearing, and ultimately the eye-sight. Germany, a \textit{smoking} nation, is at the same time, a \textit{spectacled} nation. More than all this; it dries the blood; creates thirst and loss of appetite; and in this and other ways, often lays the foundation of intemperance. In fact, not a few persons are made drunkards by this very means. Dr. Rush has a long chapter on this subject in one of his volumes, which is well worth your attention. In addition to all this, it has often been observed that in fevers and other diseases, medicines never operate well in constitutions which have been accustomed to the use of tobacco.
Of the expense which the use of it involves, I have already spoken. Of the \$16,000,000 thus expended, \$9,000,000 are supposed to be for smoking Spanish cigars; \$6,500,000 for smoking American tobacco, and for chewing it; and \$500,000 for snuff.
Although many people of real intelligence become addicted to this practice, as is the case especially among the learned in Germany, yet it cannot be denied that in general, those individuals and \textit{nations} whose mental powers are the weakest, are (in proportion to their means of acquiring it) most enslaved to it. To be convinced of the truth of this remark, we have only to open our eyes to facts as they exist around us.
All ignorant and savage \textit{nations} indulge in extraordinary stimulants, (and tobacco among the rest,) whenever they have the means of obtaining them; and in proportion to their degradation. Thus it is with the native tribes of North America; thus with the natives of Africa, Asia, and New Holland; thus with the Cretins and Gypsies. Zimmerman says, that the latter 'suspended their predatory excursions, and on an appointed evening in every week, assemble to enjoy their guilty spoils in the fumes of \textit{strong waters} and \textit{tobacco}.' Here they are represented as indulging in idle tales about the character and conduct of those around them; a statement which can very easily be believed by those who have watched the effects produced by the fumes of stimulating beverages much more `\textit{respectable}' than spirits or tobacco smoke.
The quantity which is used in civilized nations is almost incredibly great. England alone imported, in 1829, 22,400,000 lbs. of unmanufactured tobacco. There is no narcotic plant---not even the tea plant---in such extensive use, unless it is the \textit{betel} of India and the adjoining countries. \textit{This} is the leaf of a climbing plant resembling ivy, but of the pepper tribe. The people of the east chew it so incessantly, and in such quantities, that their lips become quite red, and their teeth black---showing that it has affected their whole systems. They carry it about them in boxes, and offer it to each other in compliment, as the Europeans do snuff; and it is considered uncivil and unkind to refuse to accept and chew it. This is done by the women as well as by the men. Were we disposed, we might draw from this fact many important lessons on our own favored stimulants.
In view of the great and growing evil of smoking, the practical question arises; `What shall be done?' The answer is---Render it unfashionable and disreputable. Do you ask, '\textit{How} is this to be accomplished?' Why, how has alcohol been rendered unpopular? Do you still say, `One person alone cannot effect much?' But so might any person have said a few years ago, in regard to spirits. Individuals must commence the work of reformation in the one case, as well as in the other; and success will then be equally certain.
2. CHEWING.
Many of the remarks already made apply with as much force to the use of tobacco in every form, as to the mere habit of smoking. But I have a few additional thoughts on chewing this plant.
There are never wanting excuses for any thing which we feel strongly inclined to do. Thus a thousand little frivolous pleas are used for chewing tobacco. One man of reputed good sense told me that his tobacco probably cost him nothing, for if he did not use it, he 'should be apt to spend as much worth of time in \textit{picking and eating summer fruits}, as would pay for it.' Now I do not like the practice of eating even summer fruits between meals; but they are made to be eaten moderately, no doubt; and if people will not eat them \textit{with} their food, it is generally a less evil to eat them between meals, than not at all. But the truth is, tobacco chewers never relish these things at any time.
The only plea for chewing this noxious plant, which is entitled to a serious consideration is, that it tends to preserve the teeth. This is the strong hold of tobacco chewers---not, generally, when they commence the practice, but as soon as they find themselves slaves to it.
Now the truth appears to be this:
1. 'When a tooth is decayed in such a manner as to leave the nerve exposed, there is no doubt that the powerful stimulus of tobacco must greatly diminish its sensibility. But there are very many other substances, less poisonous, whose occasional application would accomplish the same result, and without deadening, at the same time, the sensibilities of the whole system, as tobacco does.
2. The person who chews tobacco, generally puts a piece in his mouth immediately after eating. This is immediately moved from place to place, and not only performs, in some measure, the offices of a brush and toothpick, but produces a sudden flow of saliva; and in consequence of both of these causes combined, the teeth are effectually cleansed; and cleanliness is undoubtedly one of the most effectual preventives of decay in teeth yet known. Yet there are far better means of cleansing the mouth and teeth after eating than by means of tobacco.
If there be any other known reasons why tobacco should preserve teeth, I am ignorant of them. There are then no arguments of any weight for using it; while there are a multitude of very strong reasons against it. I might add them, in this place, but it appears to me unnecessary.
3. TAKING SNUFF.
I have seen many individuals who would not, on any account whatever, use spirits, or chew tobacco; but who would not hesitate to dry up their nasal membranes, injure their speech, induce catarrhal affections, and besmear their face, clothes, books, \&c. with \textit{snuff}. This, however common, appears to me ridiculous. Almost all the serious evils which result from smoking and chewing, follow the practice of snuffing powdered tobacco into the nose. Even Chesterfield opposes it, when after characterizing all use of tobacco or snuff, in any form, as both vulgar and filthy, he adds: 'Besides, snuff-takers are generally very dull and shallow people, and have recourse to it merely as a fillip to the brain; by all means, therefore, avoid the filthy custom.' This censure, though rather severe, is equally applicable to smoking and chewing.
Naturalists say there is one species of maggot fly that mistakes the odor of some kinds of snuff for that of putrid substances, and deposits its eggs in it. In warm weather therefore, it must be dangerous to take snuff which has been exposed to these insects; for the eggs sometimes hatch in two hours, and the most tremendous consequences might follow. And it is not impossible that some of the most painful diseases to which the human race are liable, may have been occasionally produced by this or a similar cause. The `tic douloureux' is an example.
A very common disease in sheep is known to be produced by worms in cavities which communicate with the nose. Only a little acquaintance with the human structure would show that there are a number of cavities in the bones of the face and head, some of which will hold half an ounce each, which communicate with the nose, and into which substances received into this organ occasionally fall, but cannot escape as easily as they enter.
SECTION V. \textit{Useful Recreations.}
The young, I shall be told, must and will have their recreations; and if they are to be denied every species of gaming, what shall they do? 'You would not, surely, have them spend their leisure hours in gratifying the senses; in eating, drinking, and licentiousness.'
By no means. Recreations they must have; active recreation, too, in the open air. Some of the most appropriate are playing ball, quoits, ninepins, and other athletic exercises; but in no case for money, or any similar consideration. \textit{Skating} is a good exercise in its proper season, if followed with great caution. \textit{Dancing}, for those who sit much, such as pupils in school, tailors and shoemakers, would be an appropriate exercise, if it were not perpetually abused. By assembling in large crowds, continuing it late at evening, and then sallying out in a perspiration, into the cold or damp night air, a thousand times more mischief has been done, than all the benefit which it has afforded would balance. It were greatly to be wished that this exercise might be regulated by those rules which human experience has indicated, instead of being subject to the whim and caprice of fashion. It is a great pity an exercise so valuable to the sedentary, and especially those who \textit{sit} much, of both sexes, should be so managed as to injure half the world, and excite against it the prejudices of the other half.
I have said that the young must have recreations, and generally in the open air. The reason why they should usually be conducted in the open air, is, that their ordinary occupations too frequently confine them within doors, and of course in an atmosphere more or less vitiated. Farmers, gardeners, rope makers, and persons whose occupations are of an active nature, do not need out-of-door sports at all. Their recreations should be by the fire side. Not with cards or dice, nor in the company of those whose company is not worth having. But the book, the newspaper, conversation, or the lyceum, will be the appropriate recreations for these classes, and will be found in the highest degree satisfactory. For the evening, the lyceum is particularly adapted, because laboring young men are often too much fatigued at night, to think, closely; and the lyceum, or conversation, will be more agreeable, and not less useful. But the family circle may of itself constitute a lyceum, and the book or the newspaper may be made the subject of discussion. I have known the heads of families in one neighborhood greatly improved, and the whole neighborhood derive an impulse, from the practice of meeting one evening in the week, to read the news together, and converse on the more interesting intelligence of the day.
Some strongly recommend `the sports of the field,' and talk with enthusiasm of `hunting, coursing, fishing;' and of `dogs and horses.' But these are no recreations for me. True they are \textit{healthy} to the body; but not to the morals. This I say confidently, although some of my readers may smile, and call it an affectation of sensibility. Yet with Cowper,
'I would not enter on my list of friends
The man who needlessly sets foot upon a worm.'
If the leading objects of field sports were to procure sustenance, I would not say a word. But the very term \textit{sports}, implies something different. And shall we sport with \textit{life}---even that of the inferior animals? That which we cannot give, shall we presumptuously dare to take away, and as our only apology say, `Am I not in sport?'
Besides, other amusements equally healthy, and if we are accustomed to them, equally pleasant, and much more rational, can be substituted. What they are, I have mentioned, at least in part. How a sensible man, and especially a Christian, can hunt or fish, when he would not do it, were it not for the pleasure he enjoys in the cruelty it involves;---how, above all, a wise father can recommend it to his children, or to others, I am utterly unable to conceive!
\gutchapter{CHAPTER IV.}
Improvement of the Mind.
SECTION I. \textit{Habit of Observation.}
`Your eyes open, your thoughts close, will go safe through the world,' is a maxim which some have laid down; but it savors rather too much of selfishness. 'You may learn from others all you can, but you are to give them as little opportunity as possible for learning from you,' seems to be the language, properly interpreted. Suppose every one took the advice, and endeavored to keep his thoughts close, for fear he should either be misunderstood, or thought wanting in wisdom; what would become of the pleasures of conversation? Yet these make up a very considerable item of the happiness of human life.
I have sometimes thought with Dr. Rush, that taciturnity, though often regarded as a mark of wisdom, is rather the effect of a 'want of ideas.' The doctor mentions the taciturnity of the American Indians as a case in point. Even in civilized company, he believes that with one or two exceptions, an indisposition to join in conversation 'in nine cases out of ten, is a mark of stupidity,' and presently adds; 'Ideas, whether acquired from books or by reflection, produce a \textit{plethora} in the mind, which can only be relieved by depletion from the pen or tongue.'
`Keep your eyes open,' however, is judicious advice. How many who have the eyes of their body open, keep the eyes of the soul perpetually shut up. `Seeing, they see not.' Such persons, on arriving at the age of three or four score, \textit{may} lay claim to superior wisdom on account of superior age, but their claims ought not to be admitted. A person who has the eyes both of his mind and body open, will derive more wisdom from one year's experience, than those who neglect to observe for themselves, from ten. Thus at thirty, with ten years acquaintance with men, manners and things, a person \textit{may} be wiser than another at three times thirty, with seven times ten years of what he calls experience. Sound practical wisdom, cannot, it is true, be rapidly acquired any where but in the school of experience, but the world abounds with men who are old enough to be wise, and yet are very ignorant. Let it be your fixed resolution not to belong to this class.
But in order to have the mental eyes open, the external eyes should be active. We should, as a general rule, see what is going on around us. There are indeed seasons, occurring in the school or the closet, when abstraction is desirable; but speaking generally, we should 'keep our eyes open.'
It is hence easy to see why some men who are accounted learned, are yet in common life very great fools. Is it not because their eyes have been shut to every thing but books, and schools, and colleges, and universities?
The late Dr. Dwight was an eminent instance of keeping up an acquaintance both with books, and the world in which he lived and acted. In his walks, or wherever he happened to be, nothing could escape his eye. `Not a bird could fly up,' says one of his students, `but he observed it.' And he endeavored to establish the same habit of observation in others. Riding in a chaise, one day, with a student of his, who was apt to be abstracted from surrounding things, he suddenly exclaimed, almost indignant at his indifference, 'S------ keep your eyes open!' The lesson was not lost. It made a deep impression on the mind of the student. Though by no means distinguished in his class, he has outstripped many, if not the most of them, in actual and practical usefulness; and to this hour, he attributes much of his success to the foregoing circumstance.
There is a pedantry in these things, however, which is not only fulsome, but tends to defeat our very purpose. It is not quite sufficient that we merely bestow a passing glance on objects, they must strike deep. If they do not, they had better not have been seen at all; since the habit of `seeing not,' while we appear to `see,' has been all the while strengthening.
It cannot be denied that a person who shall take the advice I have given, may, with a portion of his fellow men, gain less credit than if he adopted a different course. There is a certain surgeon, in one of the New England States, who has acquired much popularity by reading as he travels along. Seldom or never, say his admirers, is he seen in his carriage without a book in his hand, or at his side. But such popularity is usually of a mushroom character. There may be pressing occasions which render it the \textit{duty} of a surgeon to consult his books, while in his carriage; but these occasions can never be of frequent occurrence. It is far better that he should be reading lessons from the great and open volume of nature.
Nor does it add, in any degree, to the just respect due to the wisdom of either of the Plinys, that the elder 'never travelled without a book and a portable writing desk by his side,' and that the younger read upon all occasions, whether riding, walking, or sitting.' I cannot doubt that, wise as they were in books and philosophy, they would have secured a much greater fund of practical wisdom, had they left their books and writing desks at home, and `kept their eyes open' to surrounding objects.
There is another thing mentioned of Pliny the elder, which is equally objectionable. It is said that a person read to him during his meals. I have given my views on this point in Chapter I.
SECTION II. \textit{Rules for Conversation.}
The bee has the art of extracting honey from every flower which contains it, even from some which are not a little nauseous or poisonous. It has also been said that the conversation of every individual, whatever may be the condition of his mind or circumstances, may be made a means of improvement. How happy would it be, then, if man possessed the skill of the bee, and knew how to extract the good, and reject the bad or useless!
Something on this subject is, indeed, known. There are rules, by the observance of which we may derive much valuable information from the conversation of those among whom we live, even though it should relate to the most ordinary subjects and concerns. And not only so, we may often devise means to \textit{change} the conversation, either directly, by gradually introducing other topics of discourse, or indirectly, by patient attempts to enlarge and improve and elevate the minds of our associates.
Every individual has excellences; and almost every person, however ignorant, has thought upon some one subject more than many,---perhaps \textit{most}---others. Some excel in the knowledge of husbandry, some in gardening, some in mechanics, or manufactures, some in mathematics, and so on. In all your conversation, then, it will be well to ascertain as nearly as you can wherein the skill and excellence of an individual lies, and put him upon his favorite subject. Nor is this difficult. Every one \textit{will}, of his own accord, fall to talking on his favorite topic, if you will follow, and not attempt to \textit{lead} him.
Except in a few rare cases, every one wishes to be the hero of the circle where he is conversing. If, therefore, you seek to improve in the greatest possible degree, from the conversation of those among whom you may be thrown, you will suffer a companion to take his own course, and `out of the abundance of his heart,' let his `mouth speak.' By this means you may easily collect the worth and excellence of every one you meet with; and be able to put it together for your own use upon future occasions.
The common objections to the views here presented, are, that they encourage dissimulation. But this does not appear to me to be the fact. In suffering a person, for the space of a single conversation, to be the hero of the circle, we do not of necessity concede his superiority generally; we only help him to be useful to the company. It often happens that you are thrown among persons whom you cannot benefit by becoming the hero of the circle yourself, for they will not listen to you; and perhaps will not understand your terms, if they do. If, however, there appear to be others in the company whose object, like your own, is improvement, you might expose yourself to the just charge of being selfish, should you refuse to converse upon your own favorite topics in your turn; and thus to let the good deed go round.
Never interrupt another, but hear him out. You will understand him the better for it, and be able to give him the better answer. If you only give him an opportunity, he may say something which you have not yet heard, or explain what you did not fully understand, or even mention something which you did not expect.
There are individuals with whom you may occasionally come in contact, from whose conversation you will hardly derive much benefit at all. Such are those who use wanton, or obscene, or profane language. For, besides the almost utter hopelessness of deriving any benefit from such persons, and the pain you must inevitably suffer in hearing them, you put your own reputation at hazard. 'A man is known by the company he keeps;' take care therefore how you frequent the company of the swearer or the sensualist. Avoid, too, the known liar, for similar reasons.
If you speak in company, it is not only modest but wise to speak late; for by this means, you will be able to render your conversation more acceptable, and to weigh beforehand the importance of what you utter; and you will be less likely to violate the good old rule, 'think twice before you speak once.' Let your words be as few as will express the sense which you wish to convey, especially when strangers or men of much greater experience than yourself are present; and above all, be careful that what you say be strictly \textit{true}.
Do not suffer your feelings to betray you into too great earnestness, or vehemence; and never be overbearing. Avoid triumphing over an antagonist, even though you might reasonably do so. You gain nothing. On the contrary, you often confirm him in his erroneous opinions. At least, you prejudice him against yourself. Zimmerman insists that we should suffer an antagonist to get the victory over us occasionally, in order to raise his respect for himself. All \textit{finesse} of this kind, however, as Christians, I think it better to avoid.
SECTION III. \textit{On Books, and Study.}
It may excite some surprise that books, and study, do not occupy a more conspicuous place in this work. There are several reasons for this circumstance. The first is, a wish to counteract the prevailing tendency to make too much of books as a means of forming character. The second is, because the choice of these depends more upon parents and teachers than upon the individual himself; and if \textit{they} have neglected to lay the foundation of a desire for mental improvement, there is less probability that any advice I may give on this subject will be serviceable, than on most others.
And yet, no young man, at any age, ought to despair of establishing such habits of body and mind as he believes would contribute to his usefulness. He hates the sight of a book perhaps; but what then? This prejudice may, in a measure, be removed. Not at once, it is true, but gradually. Not by compelling himself to read or study against his inclination; for little will be accomplished when it goes 'against the grain.' But there are means better and more effective than these; some of which I will now proceed to point out.
Let him attach himself to some respectable lyceum or debating society. Most young men are willing to attend a lyceum, occasionally; and thanks to the spirit of the times and those who have zealously labored to produce the present state of things, these institutions every where abound. Let him now and then take part in a discussion, if it be, at first, only to say a few words. The moment he can awaken an interest in almost any subject whatever, that moment he will, of necessity, seek for information in regard to it. He will seek it, not only in conversation, but in newspapers. These, if well selected, will in their turn refer him to books of travels. Gradually he will find histories, if not written in too dry a manner, sources of delight. Thus he will proceed, step by step, till he finds himself quite attached to reading of various descriptions.
There is one caution to be observed here, which is, not to read too long or too much at once. Whenever a book, or even a newspaper, begins to be irksome, let it be laid aside for the time. In this way you will return to it, at the next leisure moment, with increased pleasure.
A course not unlike that which I have been describing, faithfully and perseveringly followed, would in nine cases in ten, be successful. Indeed, I never yet knew of a single failure. One great point is, to be thoroughly convinced of its importance. No young man can reasonably expect success, unless he enters upon his work with his whole heart, and pursues it with untiring assiduity.
Of the \textit{necessity} of improvement, very few young men seem to have doubts. But there is a difficulty which many feel, which it will require no little effort to remove, because it is one of long standing, and wrought into all the arrangements of civilized society. I allude to the prevailing impression that very little can be done to improve the mind beyond a certain age, and the limit is often fixed at eighteen or twenty years. We hear it, indeed, asserted, that nothing can be done after thirty; but the general belief is that most men cannot do much after twenty: or at least that it will cost much harder effort and study.
Now, I would be the last to encourage any young person in wasting, or even undervaluing his early years; for youth is a golden period, and every moment well spent will be to the future what good seed, well planted in its season, is to the husbandman.
The truth is, that what we commonly call a course of education, is only a course which prepares a young man to educate himself. It is giving him the keys of knowledge. But who will sit down contentedly and cease to make effort, the moment he obtains the keys to the most valuable of treasures? It is strange, indeed, that we should so long have talked of finishing an education, when we have only just prepared ourselves to begin it.
If any young man at twenty, twenty-five, or thirty, finds himself ignorant, whether the fault is his own or that of others, let him not for one single moment regard his age as presenting a serious obstacle to improvement. Should these remarks meet the eye of any such individual, let me prevail with him, when I urge him to make an effort. Not a momentary effort, either; let him \textit{take time} for his experiment. Even Rome was not built in a day; and he who thinks to build up a well regulated and highly enlightened mind in a few weeks, or even months, has yet to learn the depths of his own ignorance.
It would be easy to cite a long list of men who commenced study late in life, and yet finally became eminent; and this, too, with no instructors but themselves and their books. Some have met with signal success, who commenced after forty years of age. Indeed, no reason can be shown, why the mind may not improve as long, at least, as the body. But all experience goes to prove that with those whose habits are judicious, the physical frame does not attain perfection, in every respect, till thirty-five or forty.
It is indeed said that knowledge, if it could be acquired thus late in life, would be easily forgotten. This is true, if it be that kind of knowledge for which we have no immediate use. But if it be of a practical character, it will not fail to be remembered. Franklin was always learning, till death. And what he learned he seldom forgot, because he had an immediate use for it. I have said, it is a great point to be convinced of the importance of knowledge. I might add that it is a point of still greater consequence to feel our own ignorance. `To know ourselves diseased, (morally) is half our cure.' To know our own ignorance is the first step to knowledge; and other things being alike, our progress in knowledge will generally be in proportion to our sense of the want of it.
The strongest plea which indolence is apt to put in, is, that we have no \textit{time} for study. Many a young man has had some sense of his own ignorance, and a corresponding thirst for knowledge, but alas! the idea was entertained that he had no time to read---no time to study---no time to think. And resting on this plea as satisfactory, he has gone down to the grave the victim not only of indolence and ignorance, but perhaps of vice;---vice, too, which he might have escaped with a little more general intelligence.
No greater mistake exists than that which so often haunts the human mind, that we cannot find \textit{time} for things; things, too, which we have previously decided for ourselves that we ought to do. Alfred, king of England, though he performed more business than almost any of his subjects, found time for study. Franklin, in the midst of all his labors, found time to dive into the depths of philosophy, and explore an untrodden path of science. Frederick the Great, with an empire at his direction, in the midst of war, and on the eve of battles, found time to revel in all the charms of philosophy, and to feast himself on the rich viands of intellect. Bonaparte, with Europe at his disposal, with kings at his ante-chamber begging for vacant thrones, and at the head of thousands of men whose destinies were suspended on his arbitrary pleasure, had time to converse with books. C{\ae}sar, when he had curbed the spirits of the Roman people, and was thronged with visitors from the remotest kingdoms, found time for intellectual cultivation. The late Dr. Rush, and the still later Dr. Dwight, are eminent instances of what may be done for the cultivation of the mind, in the midst of the greatest pressure of other occupation.
On this point, it may be useful to mention the results of my own observation. At no period of my life am I conscious of having made greater progress than I have sometimes done while laboring in the summer; and almost incessantly too. It is true, I read but little; yet that little was well understood and thoroughly digested. Almost all the knowledge I possess of ancient history was obtained in this way, in one year. Of course, a particular knowledge could not be expected, under such circumstances; but the general impressions and leading facts which were imbibed, will be of very great value to me, as I trust, through life. And I am acquainted with one or two similar instances.
It is true that mechanics and manufacturers, as well as men of most other occupations, find fewer leisure hours than most farmers. The latter class of people are certainly more favorably situated than any other. But it is also true that even the former, almost without exception, can command a small portion of their time every day, for the purposes of mental improvement, if they are determined on it. Few individuals can be found in the community, who have not as much leisure as I had during the summer I have mentioned. The great point is to have the necessary disposition to improve it; and a second point, of no small importance, is to have at hand, proper means of instruction. Of the latter I shall speak presently.
The reason why laboring men make such rapid progress in knowledge, in proportion to the number of hours they devote to study, appears to me obvious. The mental appetite is keen, and they devour with a relish. What little they read and understand, is thought over, and perhaps conversed upon, during the long interval; and becomes truly the property of the reader. Whereas those who make study a business, never possess a healthy appetite for knowledge; they are always cloyed, nothing is well digested; and the result of their continued effort is either a superficial or a distorted view of a great many things, without a thorough or practical understanding of any.
I do not propose, in a work of this kind, to recommend to young men what particular books on any subject they ought to study. First, because it is a matter of less importance than many others, and I cannot find room to treat of every thing.
He who has the determination to make progress, will do so, either with or without books, though these are certainly useful. But an old piece of newspaper, or a straggling leaf from some book, or an inscription on a monument, or the monument itself---and works of nature as well as of art, will be books to him. Secondly, because there is such an extensive range for selection. But, thirdly, because it may often be left to the reader's own taste and discretion. He will probably soon discover whether he is deriving solid or permanent benefit from his studies, and govern himself accordingly. Or if he have a friend at hand, who will be likely to make a judicious selection, with a proper reference to his actual progress and wants, he would do wrong not to avail himself of that friend's opinion.
I will now mention a \textit{few} of the particular studies to which he who would educate himself for usefulness should direct his attention.
1. GEOGRAPHY.
As it is presumed that every one whom I address reads newspapers more or less, I must be permitted to recommend that you read them with good maps of every quarter of the world before you, and a geography and correct gazetteer at hand. When a place is mentioned, observe its situation on the map, read an account of it in the gazetteer, and a more particular description in the geography. Or if you choose to go through with the article, and get some general notions of the subject, and afterwards go back and read it a second time, in the manner proposed, to this I have no objection.
Let me insist, strongly, on the importance of this method of reading. It may seem slow at first; but believe me, you will be richly repaid in the end. Even in the lyceum, where the subject seems to demand it, and the nature of the case will admit, it ought to be required of lecturers and disputants, to explain every thing in passing, either by reference to books themselves on the spot, or by maps, apparatus, diagrams, \&c; with which, it is plain, that every lyceum ought to be furnished. The more intelligent would lose nothing, while the less so, would gain much, by this practice. The expense of these things, at the present time, is so trifling, that no person, or association of persons, whose object is scientific improvement, should, by any means, dispense with them.
No science expands the mind of a young man more, at the same time that it secures his cheerful attention, than geography---I mean if pursued in the foregoing manner. Its use is so obvious that the most stupid cannot fail to see it. Much is said, I know, of differences of taste on this, as well as every other subject; but I can hardly believe that any young person can be entirely without taste for geographical knowledge. It is next to actual travels; and who does not delight in seeing new places and new objects?
2. HISTORY.
Next in order as regards both interest and importance, will be a knowledge of history, with some attention at the same time to chronology. Here, too, the starting point will be the same as in the former case. Some circumstance or event mentioned at the lyceum, or in the newspaper, will excite curiosity, and lead the way to inquiry. I think it well, however, to have but one leading science in view at a time; that is, if geography be the object, let history and almost every thing else be laid aside for that time, in order to secure, and hold fast the geographical information which is needed. After a few weeks or months, should he wish to pursue history, let the student, for some time confine himself chiefly, perhaps exclusively, to that branch.
The \textit{natural} order of commencing and pursuing this branch without an instructor, and I think in schools also, is the following. For example, you take up a book, or it may be a newspaper, since these are swarming every where at the present time, and read that a person has just deceased, who was at \textit{Yorktown}, in Virginia, during the whole \textit{siege}, in the American \textit{revolution}. I am supposing here that you have already learned where Yorktown is; for geography, to some extent at least, should precede history; but if not, I would let it pass for the moment, since we cannot do every thing at once, and proceed to inquire about the siege, and revolution. If you have any books whatever, on history, within your reach, do not give up the pursuit till you have attained a measure of success. Find out, \textit{when} the \textit{siege} in question \textit{happened}, by \textit{whom}, and by \textit{how many thousand troops} it was carried on; and \textit{who} and \textit{how many} the besieged were.
He who follows out this plan, will soon find his mind reaching beyond the mere events alluded to in the newspaper, both forward and backward. As in the example already mentioned, for I cannot think of a better;---What were the consequences of this siege?---Did it help to bring about peace, and how soon?---And did the two nations ever engage in war afterward?---If so, how soon, and with what results? What became of the French troops and of the good La Fayette? This would lead to the study of French history for the last forty years. On the other hand, Where had Washington and La Fayette and Cornwallis been employed, previous to the siege of Yorktown? What battles had they fought, and with what success? What led to the quarrel between Great Britain and the United States? \&c. Thus we should naturally go backward, step by step, until we should get much of modern history clustered round this single event of the siege of Yorktown. The same course should be pursued in the case of any other event, either ancient or modern. If newspapers are not thus read, they dissipate the mind, and probably do about as much harm as good.
It is deemed disgraceful---and ought to be---for any young man at this day to be ignorant of the geography and history of the country in which he lives. And yet it is no uncommon occurrence. However it argues much against the excellence of our systems of education, that almost every child should be carried apparently through a wide range of science, and over the whole material universe, and yet know nothing, or next to nothing, practically, of his own country.
3. ARITHMETIC.
No young man is excusable who is destitute of a knowledge of Arithmetic. It is probable, however, that no individual will read this book, who has not some knowledge of the fundamental branches; numeration, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. But with these, every person has the key to a thorough acquaintance with the whole subject, so far as his situation in life requires. To avail himself of these keys to mathematical knowledge, he must pursue a course not unlike that which I have recommended in relation to geography and history. He must seize on every circumstance which occurs in his reading, where reckoning is required, and if possible, stop at once and compute it. Or if not, let the place be marked, and at the first leisure moment, let him turn to it, and make the estimates.
Suppose he reads of a shipwreck. The crew is said to consist of thirty men besides the captain and mate, with three hundred and thirteen passengers, and a company of sixty grenadiers. The captain and mate, and ten of the crew escaped in the long boat. The rest were drowned, except twelve of the grenadiers, who clung to a floating fragment of the wreck till they were taken off by another vessel. Now is there a single person in existence, who would read such an account, without being anxious to know how many persons in the whole were lost? Yet nine readers in ten would \textit{not} know; and why? Simply because they will not stop to use what little addition and subtraction they possess.
I do not say that, in reading to a company, who did not expect it, a young man would be required to stop and make the computation; but I do say that in all ordinary cases, no person is excusable who omits it, for it is a flagrant wrong to his own mind. Long practice, it is true, will render it unnecessary for an individual to \textit{pause}, in order to estimate a sum like that abovementioned. Many, indeed most persons who are familiar with figures, might compute these numbers while reading, and without the slightest pause; but it certainly requires some practice. And the most important use of arithmetical studies (except as a discipline to the mind) is to enable us to reckon without slates and pencils. He has but a miserable knowledge of arithmetic, who is no arithmetician without a pen or pencil in his hand. These are but the ladders upon which he should ascend to the science, and not the science itself.
4. CHEMISTRY AND OTHER NATURAL SCIENCES.
If I were to name one branch, as more important to a young man than any other,---next to the merest elements of reading and writing---it would be chemistry. Not a mere smattering of it, however; for this usually does about as much harm as good. But a thorough knowledge of a few of the simple elements of bodies, and some of their most interesting combinations, such as are witnessed every day of our lives, but which, for want of a little knowledge of chemistry, are never understood, would do more to interest a young man in the business in which he may be employed, than almost any thing I could name. For there is hardly a single trade or occupation whatever, that does not embrace a greater or less number of chemical processes. Chemistry is of very high importance even to the gardener and the farmer.
There are several other branches which come under the general head of NATURAL SCIENCE, which I recommend to your attention. Such are BOTANY, or a knowledge of plants; NATURAL HISTORY, or a knowledge of animals; and GEOLOGY, or a general knowledge of the rocks and stones of which the earth on which we live is composed. I do not think these are equally important with the knowledge of chemistry, but they are highly interesting, and by no means without their value.
5. GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION.
The foundation of a knowledge of Grammar is, in my view, Composition; and composition, whether learned early or late, is best acquired by \textit{letter writing}. This habit, early commenced, and judiciously but perseveringly followed, will in time, ensure the art not only of composing well, but also grammatically. I know this position is sometimes doubted, but the testimony is so strong, that the point seems to me fully established.
It is related in Ramsay's Life of Washington, that many individuals, who, before the war of the American Revolution, could scarcely write their names, became, in the progress of that war, able to compose letters which were not only intelligible and correct, but which would have done credit to a profound grammarian. The reason of this undoubtedly was, that they were thrown into situations where they were obliged to write much and often, and in such a manner as to be clearly understood. Perhaps the misinterpretation of a single doubtful word or sentence might have been the ruin of an army, or even of the \textit{cause}. Thus they had a motive to write accurately; and long practice, with a powerful motive before them, rendered them successful.
Nor is it necessary that motives so powerful should always exist, in order to produce this result;---it is sufficient that there be a motive to \textit{write well}, and to \textit{persevere} in writing well. I have known several pedlars and traders, whose business led to the same consequences.
6. LETTER WRITING.
But what I have seen most successful, is, the practice of common \textit{letter writing}, from friend to friend, on any topic which happened to occur, either ordinary, or extraordinary; with the mutual understanding and desire that each should criticise freely on the other's composition. I have known more than one individual, who became a good writer from this practice, with little aid from grammatical rules; and without any direct instruction at all.
These remarks are not made to lessen the value which any young man may have put upon the studies of grammar and composition, as pursued in our schools; but rather to show that a course at school is not absolutely indispensable; and to encourage those who are never likely to enjoy the latter means, to make use of means not yet out of their reach, and which have often been successful. But lest there should be an apparent contradiction in some of my remarks, it will be necessary to say that I think the practice of familiar letter writing from our earliest years, even at school, should, in every instance, have a much more prominent place than is usually assigned it; and the study of books on Grammar and Composition one much \textit{less} prominent.
7. VOYAGES, TRAVELS, AND BIOGRAPHY.
For mere READING, well selected \textit{Voyages} and \textit{Travels} are among the best works for young men; particularly for those who find little taste for reading, and wish to enkindle it; and whose geographical knowledge is deficient.
Well written BIOGRAPHY is next in importance, and usually so in interest; and so improving to the character is this species of composition, that it really ought to be regarded as a separate branch of education, as much as history or geography; and treated accordingly. In the selection of both these species of writing the aid of an intelligent, experienced and judicious friend would be of very great service; and happy is he who has such a treasure at hand.
8. NOVELS.
As to NOVELS it is difficult to say what advice ought to be given. At first view they seem unnecessary, wholly so; and from this single consideration. They interest and improve just in proportion as the fiction they contain is made to resemble reality; and hence it might be inferred, and naturally enough, too, that reality would in all cases be preferable to that which imitates it. But to this it may be replied, that we have few books of narrative and biography, which are written with so much spirit as some works of fiction; and that until those departments are better filled, fiction, properly selected, should be admissible. But if fiction be allowable at all, it is only under the guidance of age and experience;---and here there is even a more pressing need of a friend than in the cases already mentioned.
On the whole, it is believed to be better for young men who have little leisure for reading, and who wish to make the most they can of that little, to abandon novels wholly. If they begin to read them, it is difficult to tell to what an excess they may go; but if they never read one in their whole lives, they will sustain no great loss. Would not the careful study of a single chapter of Watts's Improvement of the Mind, be of more real practical value than the perusal of all that the best novel writers,---Walter Scott not excepted,---have ever written?
9. OF NEWSPAPERS.
Among other means both of mental and moral improvement at the present day, are periodical publications. The multiplicity and cheapness of these sources of knowledge renders them accessible to all classes of the community. And though their influence were to be as evil as the frogs of Egypt we could not escape it.
Doubtless they produce much evil, though their tendency on the whole is believed to be salutary. But wisdom is necessary, in order to derive the greatest amount of benefit from them; and here, perhaps, more than any where else, do the young need the counsels of experience. I am not about to direct what particular newspapers and magazines they ought to read; this is a point which their friends and relatives must assist them in determining. My purpose is simply to point to a few principles which should guide both the young and those who advise them, in making the selection.
1. In the first place, do not seek for your guide a paper which is just commencing its existence, unless you have reason to think the character of its conductors is such as you approve.
2. Avoid, unless your particular occupation requires it, a \textit{business} paper. Otherwise your head will become so full of `arrivals' and `departures,' and `prices current,' and `news,' that you will hardly find room for any thing else.
3. Do not take a paper which dwells on nothing but the details of human depravity. It will indeed, for a time, call forth a sensibility to the woes of mankind; but the final result will probably be a stupidity and insensibility to human suffering which you would give much to remove.
4. Avoid those papers which, awed by the cry for \textit{short} and \textit{light} articles, have rendered their pages mere columns of insulated facts or useless scraps, or what is still worse, of unnatural and sickening love stories.
Lastly, do not take a paper which sneers at religion. It is quite enough that many periodicals do, in effect, take a course which tends to irreligion, by leaving this great subject wholly out of sight. But when they openly sneer at and ridicule the most sacred things, leave them at once. `Evil communications corrupt' the best `manners;' and though the sentiment may not at once be received, I can assure my youthful readers that there are no publications which have more direct effect upon their lives, than these unpretending companions; and perhaps the very reason is because we least suspect them. Against receiving deep or permanent impressions from the Bible, the sermon, or the \textit{book} of any kind, we are on our watch, but who thinks of having his principles contaminated, or affected much in any way, merely by the newspaper? Yet I am greatly mistaken, if these very monitors do not have more influence, after all, in forming the minds, the manners, and the morals (shall I add, the \textit{religious character}, even?) of the rising generation, than all the other means which I have mentioned, put together.
How important, in this view, it becomes, that your newspaper reading should be well selected. Let me again repeat the request, that in selecting those papers which sustain an appropriate character, you will seek the advice of those whom you deem most able and judicious; and so far as you think them disinterested, and worthy of your confidence, endeavor to follow it.
\textit{Politics.} As to the study of politics, in the usual sense of the term, it certainly cannot be advisable. Nothing appears to me more disgusting than to see young men rushing into the field of political warfare, and taking sides as fiercely as if they laid claim to infallibility, where their fathers and grandfathers modestly confess ignorance.
At the same time, in a government like ours, where the highest offices are in the gift of the people, and within the reach of every young man of tolerable capacity, it would be disgraceful not to study the history and constitution of our own country, and closely to watch all legislative movements, at least in the councils of the nation. The time is not far distant, it is hoped, when these will be made every day subjects in our elementary schools; and when no youth will arrive at manhood, as thousands, and, I was going to say, millions now do, without understanding clearly a single article in the Constitution of the United States, or even in that of the State in which he resides: nor even how his native state is represented in Congress.
Again, most young men will probably, sooner or later, vote for rulers in the town, state, and nation to which they belong. Should they vote at random? Or what is little better, take their opinions upon trust? Or shall they examine for themselves; and go to the polls with their eyes open? At a day like the present, nothing appears to me more obvious than that young men ought to understand what they are doing when they concern themselves with public men or public measures.
10. KEEPING A JOURNAL.
I have already spoken of the importance of letter writing. The keeping of a journal is scarcely less so, provided it be done in a proper manner. I have seen journals, however, which, aside from the fact that they improve the \textit{handwriting}, and encourage \textit{method}, could have been of very little use. A young agriculturist kept a journal for many years, of which the following is a specimen.
1813.
July 2. Began our haying. Mowed in the forenoon, and raked in the
afternoon. Weather good.
3. Continued haying. Mowed. Got in one load. Cloudy.
4. Independence. Went, in the afternoon, to ------.
5. Stormy. Did nothing out of doors.
This method of keeping a journal was continued for many years; and only discontinued, because it was found useless. A better and more useful sort of journal for these four days, would have read something like the following.
1813.
\begin{quotation}
July 2. Our haying season commenced. How fond I am of this employment! How useful an article hay is, too, especially in this climate, during our long and cold winters! We have fine weather to begin with, and I hope it will continue.\end{quotation}
I think a very great improvement might be made in our rakes. Why
need they be so heavy for light raking? We could take up the
heavier ones when it became necessary.
\begin{quotation}
July 3. To-day I have worked rather too hard in order to get in some of our hay, for there is a prospect of rain. I am not quite sure, however, but I hurt myself more by drinking too much cold water than by over-working. Will try to do better to-morrow.\end{quotation}
\begin{quotation}
4. Have heard a few cannon fired, and a spouting oration delivered, and seen a few toasts drank; and what does it all amount to? Is this way of keeping the day of independence really useful? I doubt it. Who knows but the value of the wine which has been drank, expended among the poor, would have done more towards \textit{real} independence, than all this parade?\end{quotation}
\begin{quotation}
5. Rainy. Would it not have been better had I staid at home yesterday, while the weather was fair, and gone on with haying? Several acres of father's grass want cutting very much. I am more and more sick of going to independence. If I live till another year, I hope I shall learn to `make hay while the sun shines.'\end{quotation}
I selected a common agricultural employment to illustrate my subject, first, because I suppose a considerable proportion of my readers are farmers, and secondly, because it is an employment which is generally supposed to furnish little or nothing worth recording. The latter, however, is a great mistake. Besides writing down the real incidents that occur, many of which would be interesting, and some of them highly important facts, the \textit{thoughts}, which the circumstances and incidents of an agricultural life are calculated to elicit, are innumerable. And these should always be put down. They are to the mere detail of facts and occurrences, what leaves and fruit are to the dry trunk and naked limbs of a tree. The above specimen is very dry indeed, being intended only as a hint. Pages, instead of a few lines, might sometimes be written, when our leisure permitted, and thoughts flowed freely.
One useful method of improving the mind, and preparing ourselves for usefulness, would be, to carry a small blank book and pencil in our pockets, and when any interesting fact occurred, embrace the first spare moment to put it down, say on the right hand page; and either then, or at some future time, place on the left hand page, our own reflections about it. Some of the most useful men in the world owe much of their usefulness to a plan like this, promptly and perseveringly followed. Quotations from books or papers might also be preserved in the same manner.[10]
Perhaps it may be thought, at first, that this advice is not in keeping with the caution formerly given, not to read as we travel about; but if you reflect, you will find it otherwise. Reading as we travel, and at meals, and the recording of facts and thoughts which occur, are things as different as can well be conceived. The latter creates and encourages a demand for close observation, the former discourages and even suppresses it.
11. PRESERVATION OF BOOKS AND PAPERS.
Let books be covered as soon as bought. Never use them without clean hands. They show the dirt with extreme readiness, and it is not easily removed. I have seen books in which might be traced the careless thumbs and fingers of the last reader, for half a dozen or a dozen pages in succession.
I have known a gentleman---quite a literary man, too---who, having been careful of his books in his earlier years, and having recently found them occasionally soiled, charged the fault on those who occasionally visited his library. At last he discovered that the coal dust (for he kept a coal fire) settled on his hands, and was rubbed off upon his book leaves by the slight friction of his fingers upon the leaves in reading.
Never wet your finger or thumb in order to turn over leaves. Many respectable people are addicted to this habit, but it is a vulgar one. Besides, it is entirely useless. The same remarks might be applied to the habit of suffering the corners of the leaves to turn up, in 'dog's ears.' Keep every leaf smooth, if you can. Never hold a book very near the fire, nor leave it in the hot sun. It injures its cover materially, and not a few books are in one or both of these ways entirely ruined.
It is a bad practice to spread out a book with the back upwards. It loosens the leaves, and also exposes it in other respects. You will rarely find a place to lay it down which is \textit{entirely} clean, and the least dust on the leaves, is readily observed.
The plan of turning down a leaf to enable us to remember the place, I never liked. It indulges the memory in laziness. For myself, if I take much interest in a book, I can remember where I left off and turn at once to the place without a mark. If a mark must be used at all, however, a slip of paper, or a piece of tape or ribbon is the best.
When you have done using a book for the time, have a place for it, and put it in its place. How much time and patience might be saved if this rule were universally followed! Many find it the easiest thing in the world to have a place for every book in their library, and to keep it in its place. They can put their hands upon it in the dark, almost as well as in the light.
Never allow yourselves to use books for any other purpose but reading. I have seen people recline after dinner and at other times, with books under their heads for a pillow. Others will use them to cover a tumbler, bowl, or pitcher. Others again will raise the window, and set them under the sash to support it; and next, perhaps, the book is wet by a sudden shower of rain, or knocked out of the window, soiled or otherwise injured, or lost. I have seen people use large books, such as the family-bible, or encyclopedia, to raise a seat, especially for a child at table.
[10] Some persons always read with a pen or pencil in hand, and
when a thought occurs, note it in a little book, kept for the
purpose.
\gutchapter{CHAPTER V.}
Social and Moral Improvement.
SECTION I. \textit{Of Female Society, in general.}
No young man is fully aware how much he is indebted to female influence in forming his character. Happy for him if his mother and sisters were his principal companions in infancy. I do not mean to exclude the society of the father, of course; but the father's avocations usually call him away from home, or at least from the immediate presence of his children, for a very considerable proportion of his time.
It would be easy to show, without the possibility of mistake, that it is those young men who are shut out either by accident or design, from female society, that most despise it. And on this account, I cannot but regret the supposed necessity which prevails of having separate schools for the two sexes; unless it were \textit{professional} ones---I mean for the study of law, medicine, \&c. There is yet too much practical Mohammedanism and Paganism in our manner of educating the young.
If we examine the character and conduct of woman as it now is, and as history shows it to have been in other periods of the world, we shall see that much of the good and evil which has fallen upon mankind has been through her influence. We may see that man has often been influenced \textit{directly} by the soft warning words, or the still more powerful weapons---tears---of woman, to do that to which whole legions of soldiers never could have driven him.
Now the same influence which is exerted by mothers and wives is also exerted, in a smaller degree, by sisters; and indeed by the female sex generally. When, therefore, I find a young man professing a disregard for their society, or frequenting only the worst part of it, I always expect to find in him a soul which would not hesitate long, in the day of temptation, to stoop to vicious if not base actions. Who would despise the fountain at which he is refreshed daily? Above all, who would willingly contaminate it? But how much better than this is it to show by our language, as well as deeds, that we hold this portion of the world in disdain; and only meet with them, if we meet them at all, to comply with custom, or for purposes still more unworthy; instead of seeking their society as a means of elevating and ennobling the character?
When, therefore, a young man begins to affect the \textit{wit}, and to utter sarcasms against the female character, it may be set down as a mark, either of a weak head, or a base heart; for it cannot be good sense or gratitude, or justice, or honorable feeling of any kind. There are indeed nations, it is said, where a boy, as soon as he puts off the dress of a child, beats his mother, to show his manhood. These people live in the interior of Africa, and there let them remain. Let us be careful that we do not degrade the sex, in the same manner, by disrespectful language, or actions, or \textit{thoughts}. We should '\textit{think} no evil,' on this subject; for let it never be forgotten, that our own happiness and elevation of character must ever be in exact proportion to that of females. Degrade \textit{them}, and we degrade ourselves; neglect to raise their moral and intellectual condition as much as possible, and you neglect the readiest and most certain means of promoting, in the end, your own comfort and happiness.
If any of your elder associates defame the sex, you can hardly be mistaken when you suspect them of having vitiated their taste for what is excellent in human character by improper intimacies, or still more abominable vices. The man who says he has never found a virtuous female character, you may rely upon it, cannot himself be virtuous.
In civilized society much of our time must \textit{necessarily} be spent among females. These associations will have influence upon us. Either they are perpetually improving our character, or, on the other hand, by increasing our disregard or disgust, debasing it. Is it not wisdom, then, to make what we can of the advantages and opportunities which their society affords us?
The very presence of a respectable female will often restrain those from evil whose hearts are full of it. It is not easy to talk or to look obscenely, or even to behave with rudeness and ill manners under such restraint. Who has not seen the jarring and discordant tones of a company of rude men and boys hushed at once by the sudden arrival of a lady of dignified manners and appearance?
The frequent, the habitual society of one whom a youth respects, must have a happy tendency to make him love honorable conduct; and restrain his less honorable feelings. Frequent restraint tends to give the actual mastery; therefore every approach towards this must be of great value. There is a delicacy, too, in female society, which serves well to check the boisterous, to tame the brutal, and to embolden the timid. Whatever be the innate character of a youth, it may be polished, and exalted, by their approbation. He must be unusually hardened that can come from some shameful excess, or in a state of inebriety, into the company of the ladies.
Sometimes a diffident youth has been taken under the \textit{protection}, if it may be so called, of a considerate and respectable woman. A woman of proper dignity of manners and character, especially with a few years' advantage, can do this without the least injury to herself, and without stepping a hair's breadth beyond the bounds which should surround her sex. Happy is the young man who enjoys a fostering care so important; he may learn the value of the sex; learn to discriminate among them, to esteem many of them, and prize their approbation; and in time, deserve it. It is obvious that the favor of silly, flirting girls, (and there are some such) is not what I am here recommending.
Where the character of such society is pure, where good sense, cultivation, intellect, modesty, and superior age, distinguish the parties, it is no small honor to a young man to enjoy it. Should he be conscious that epithets of a different and of a contrary quality belong to them, it is no honor to him to be their favorite. He must be \textit{like} them, in some degree, or they would not approve him.
SECTION II. \textit{Advice and Friendship of Mothers.}
When you seek female society for the sake of improvement, it is proper you should begin where nature begun with you. You have already been encouraged to respect your mother; I go a step farther; and say, Make her your friend. Unless your own misconduct has already been very great, she will not be so far estranged from you, as not to rejoice at the opportunity of bestowing that attention to you which the warmest wishes for your welfare would dictate. If your errors \textit{have}, on the contrary, created a wide distance between you, endeavor to restore the connection as soon as possible. I do not undervalue a father's counsel and guidance; yet however excellent his judgment may be, your mother's opinion is not only a help to your own; but as a \textit{woman's}, it has its peculiar character, and may have its appropriate value. \textit{Women} sometimes see at a glance, what a \textit{man} must go round through a train of argument to discover. Their \textit{tact} is delicate, and therefore quicker in operation. Sometimes, it is true, their judgment will not only be prompt, but premature. Your \textit{own} judgment must assist you here. Do not, however, proudly despise your mother's;---but examine it. It will generally well repay the trouble; and the habit of consulting her will increase habits of consideration, and self command; and promote propriety of conduct.
If a mother be a woman of sense, why should you not profit by her long exercised intelligence? Nay, should she even be deficient in cultivation, or in native talent, yet her experience is something, and her love for you will, in part, make up for such deficiency. It cannot be worthiness to despise, or wisdom to neglect your mother's opinion.
SECTION III. \textit{Society of Sisters.}
Have you a sister?---Have you several of them? Then you are favorably situated; especially if one of them is older than yourself. She has done playing with dolls, and you with bats and balls. She is more womanly; her carriage becomes dignified. Do not oblige her, by your boyish behavior, to keep you at a distance. Try to deserve the character of her friend. She will sometimes look to you for little services, which require strength and agility; let her look up to you for judgment, steadiness, and counsel too. You may be mutually beneficial. Your affection, and your intertwining interest in each other's welfare, will hereby be much increased.
A sister usually present, is that sort of second conscience, which, like the fairy ring, in an old story, pinches the wearer whenever he is doing any thing amiss. Without occasioning so much awe as a mother, or so much reserve as a stranger, her sex, her affection, and the familiarity between you will form a compound of no small value in itself, and of no small influence, if you duly regard it, upon your growing character. Never for one moment suppose \textit{that} a good joke at which a sister blushes, or turns pale, or even looks anxious. If you should not at first perceive what there is in it which is amiss, it will be well worth your while to examine all over again. Perhaps a single glance of her eye will explain your inconsiderateness; and as you value consistency and propriety of conduct, let it put you on your guard.
There is a sort of attention due to the sex which is best attained by practising at home. Your mother may sometimes require this attention, your sisters still oftener. Do not require calling, or teasing, or even persuading to go abroad with them when their safety, their comfort, or their respectability require it. It is their due; and stupid or unkind is he who does not esteem it so. In performing this service, you are only paying a respect to yourself. Your sister could, indeed, come home alone, but it would be a sad reflection on you were she obliged to do so. Accustom yourself, then, to wait upon her; it will teach you to wait upon others by and by; and in the meantime, it will give a graceful polish to your character.
It will be well for you, if your sisters have young friends whose acquaintance with them may bring you sometimes into their society. The familiarity allowable with your sisters, though it may well prepare you to show suitable attention to other ladies, yet has its disadvantages. You need sometimes to have those present who may keep you still more upon your guard; and render your manners and attention to them still more respectful.
SECTION IV. \textit{General Remarks and Advice.}
Never seek, then, to avoid respectable female society. Total privation has its dangers, as well as too great intimacy. One of the bad results of such a privation, is, that you run the risk of becoming attached to unworthy objects because they first fall in your way. Human nature is ever in danger of perversion. Those passions which God has given you for the wisest and noblest purposes may goad you onward, and, if they do not prove the occasion of your destruction in one way, they may in another. If you should be preserved in solitude, you will not be quite safe abroad. Having but a very imperfect conception of the different shades of character among the sex, you will be ready to suppose all are excellent who appear fair and all good who appear gentle.
I have alluded to the dangers of too great intimacy. Nothing here advanced is intended to make you a mere trifler, or to sink the dignity of your own sex. Although you are to respect females because of their sex, yet there are some who bestow upon them a species of attention extremely injurious to themselves, and unpleasant and degrading to all sensible ladies.
There is still another evil sometimes resulting from too great intimacy. It is that you lead the other party to mistake your object. This mistake is easily made. It is not necessary, to this end, that you should make any professions of attachment, in word or deed. Looks, nay even something less than this, though it may be difficult to define it, may indicate that sort of preference for the society of a lady, that has sometimes awakened an attachment in her which you never suspected or intended. Or what is a far less evil, since it falls chiefly on yourself, it may lead her and others to ridicule you for what they suppose to be the result, on your part, of intention.
Let me caution you, then, if you would obey the golden rule of doing to others as you would wish others should do to you, in the same circumstances, and if you value, besides this, your own peace, to beware of injuring those whom you highly esteem, by leading them by words, looks, or actions, to that misapprehension of your meaning which may be the means of planting thorns in their bosoms, if not in your own.
There is another error to which I wish to call your attention, in this place, although it might more properly be placed under the head, \textit{Seduction}. I allude to the error of too great familiarity with others, after your heart is already pledged to a particular favorite. Here, more, if possible, than in the former case, do you need to set a guard over all your ways, words, and actions; and to resolve, in the strength, and with the aid of Divine grace, that you will never deviate from that rule of conduct toward others,---which Divine Goodness has given, as the grand text to the book of human duty.
The general idea presented in the foregoing sections, of what a woman ought to be, is sufficient to guide you, with a little care in the application. Such as are forward, soon become tedious. Their character is what no man of taste will bear. Some are even anglers, aiming to catch gudgeons by every look; placing themselves in attitudes to allure the vagrant eye. Against such it is quite unnecessary that I should warn you; they usually give you sufficient notice themselves. The trifler can scarcely amuse you for an evening. The company of a lady who has nothing to say but what is commonplace, whose inactive mind never for once stumbles upon an idea of its own, must be dull, as a matter of course. You can learn nothing from her, unless it be the folly of a vacant mind. Come away, lest you catch the same disorder.
The artful and manoeuvring, on the contrary, will, at a glance, penetrate your inmost mind, and become any thing which they perceive will be agreeable to you.
Should your lot be cast where you can enjoy the society of a few intelligent, agreeable, and respectable females, remember to prize the acquisition. If you do not derive immense advantage from it, the fault must be your own. If, in addition to the foregoing qualifications, these female friends happen to have had a judicious and useful, rather than a merely polite education, your advantages are doubly valuable.
The genial influence of such companions must unavoidably be on the side of goodness and propriety. Loveliness of mind will impart that agreeableness of person which recommends to the heart every sentiment, gives weight to every argument, justifies every opinion, and soothes to recollection and recovery those who, were they reproved by any other voice, might have risen to resistance, or sunk into despair. The only necessary caution in the case is, `Beware of \textit{idolatry}.' Keep yourself clear from fascination, and call in the aid of your severest judgment to keep your mind true to yourself, and to principle.
SECTION V. \textit{Lyceums and other Social Meetings.}
The course of my remarks has given occasion, in several instances, to speak of the importance of lyceums as a means of mental and social improvement. It will not be necessary therefore, in this place, to dwell, at \textit{length}, on their importance. My principal object will be to call your attention to the subject in general, and urge it upon your consideration. I hope no young person who reads these pages, will neglect to avail himself of the advantages which a good lyceum affords; or if there are none of that character within his reach, let him make unremitting efforts till one exists.
Although these institutions are yet in their infancy, and could hardly have been expected to accomplish more within the same period than they have, it is hoped they will not hereafter confine their inquiries so exclusively to matters of mere intellect, as has often been done. There are other subjects nearer home, if I may so say, than these. How strangely do mankind, generally, stretch their thoughts and inquiries abroad to the concerns of other individuals, states and nations, and forget themselves, and the objects and beings near by them, and their mutual relations, connections, and dependencies!
Lyceums, when they shall have obtained a firmer footing among us, may become a most valuable means of enlightening the mass of the community, in regard to the structure and laws of the human body, and its relation to surrounding objects; of discussing the philosophy of dress, and its different materials for different seasons; of food, and drink, and sleep and exercise; of dwellings and other buildings; of amusements and employments;---in short, of the ten thousand \textit{little things}, as many call them, which go to make up human life, with its enjoyments or miseries. These things have been surprisingly overlooked by most men, for the sake of attending to others, whose bearing on human happiness, if not often questionable, is at least more remote.
In some of our larger cities there are respectable courses of useful lectures established during the months of winter, and sometimes throughout the year. Added to this are reading-rooms, and various sorts of libraries, which are accessible for a small sum, and sometimes for almost nothing. There have been three valuable courses of Franklin Lectures delivered in Boston, during the three last winters, of twenty lectures each, for only fifty cents a course. In most large towns, benevolent and spirited individuals might establish something of the same kind, at least every winter.
SECTION VI. \textit{Moral Instruction.}
It was not my intention, at first, to say a single word, directly, on the subject of religion, but I should leave this chapter very incomplete indeed, as well as do violence to my own feelings, should I say nothing at all of Bible classes, and other means of religious instruction, with which the age, and especially this part of the country abounds, not only on Sundays, but during the long evenings of leisure which, for a part of the year, many young men enjoy.
Viewed merely as a means of improving the \textit{mind}, and acquiring much authentic historical information to be found nowhere else, the study of the Bible is a most valuable exercise, and ought to be encouraged. To adults who labor, a walk to church, and prompt attention to the Bible lesson, is happily adapted to the health of the body, no less than to intellectual improvement; and whatever objections might be urged against subjecting infants and young children who attend other schools during the week, to the present routine of Sabbath instruction, I am quite sure that the class of young persons for whom I am writing, would derive the most lasting benefit from studying the Bible.
I have made these remarks on the presumption that they were to derive no \textit{moral} improvement from Bible instruction. However, I see not how these schools can be long attended by ingenuous minds without inspiring a \textit{respect}, at the least, for that book which is superior to all other books, and for that religion which it inculcates; which is above all sect, and beyond all price.
SECTION VII. \textit{Of Female Society in reference to Marriage.}
It is now time to consider the subject of female society in reference to matrimony. I shall find it necessary, however, to make a division of my subject, reserving a more \textit{complete} view of female qualifications for a succeeding chapter.
Whatever advice may be given to the contrary by friends or foes, it is my opinion that you ought to keep matrimony steadily in view. For this end, were it for no other, you ought to mingle much in society. Never consider yourself complete without this other half of yourself. It is too much the fashion among young men at the present day to make up their minds to dispense with marriage;---an unnatural, and therefore an unwise plan. Much of our character, and most of our comfort and happiness depend upon it. Many have found this out too late; that is, after age and fixed habits had partly disqualified them for this important duty.
All that has been hitherto said of female influence bears upon this point. According to the character of the person you select, in a considerable degree, will be your own. Should a mere face fascinate you to a \textit{doll}, you will not need much mental energy to please her; and the necessity of exertion on this account being small, your own self will sink, or at least not rise, as it otherwise might do.
But were I personally acquainted with you, and should I perceive an \textit{honorable} attachment taking possession of your heart, I should regard it as a happy circumstance. Life then has an object. The only thing to be observed is that it be managed with prudence, honor, and good sense.
The case of John Newton is precisely in point. In very early life this man formed a strong attachment to a lady, under circumstances which did not permit him to make it known; which was probably well for both parties. It did not diminish \textit{her} happiness, so long as she remained in ignorance on the subject; and in scenes of sorrow, suffering, and temptation, the hope of one day obtaining her soothed him, and kept him from performing many dishonorable actions. `The bare possibility,' he says, 'of seeing her again, was the only obvious means of restraining me from the most horrid designs, against myself and others.'
The wish to marry, if \textit{prudently} indulged, will lead to honest and persevering exertions to obtain a reasonable income---one which will be satisfactory to the object of your hopes, as well as to her friends. He who is determined on living a single life, very naturally contracts his endeavors to his own narrow personal wants, or else squanders freely, in the belief that he can always procure enough to support himself. Indeed it cannot have escaped even the careless observer that in proportion as an individual relinquishes the idea of matrimony, just in the same proportion do his mind and feelings contract. On the contrary, that hope which aims at a beloved partner---a family---a fireside,---will lead its possessor to activity in all his conduct. It will elicit his talents, and urge them to their full energy, and probably call in the aid of economy; a quality so indispensable to every condition of life. The single consideration, 'What would she think were she now to see me?' called up by the obtrusion of a favorite image,---how often has it stimulated a noble mind and heart to deeds which otherwise had never been performed!
I repeat it, I am aware that this advice is liable to abuse. But what shall be done? Images of some sort will haunt the mind more or less---female influence in some shape or other will operate. Is it not better to give the imagination a virtuous direction than to leave it to range without control, and without \textit{end}?
I repeat it, nothing is better calculated to preserve a young man from the contamination of low pleasures and pursuits, than frequent intercourse with the more refined and virtuous of the other sex. Besides, without such society his manners can never acquire the true polish of a gentleman,---general character, dignity, and refinement;---nor his mind and heart the truest and noblest sentiments of a man. Make it an object then, I again say, to spend some portion of every week of your life in the company of intelligent and virtuous ladies. At all events, flee solitude, and especially the exclusive society of your own sex. The doctrines even of Zimmerman, the great apostle of solitude, would put to shame many young men, who seldom or never mix in female society.
If you should be so unfortunate as not to have among your acquaintance any ladies whose society would, in these points of view, be profitable to you, do not be in haste to mix with the ignorant and vulgar; but wait patiently till your own industry and good conduct shall give you admission to better circles; and in the meantime cultivate your mind by reading and thinking, so that when you actually gain admission to good society, you may know how to prize and enjoy it. Remember, too, that you are not to be so selfish as to think nothing of contributing to the happiness of others. It is blessed to \textit{give} as well as to \textit{receive}.
When you are in the company of ladies, beware of silliness. It is true that they will sooner forgive foolishness than ill manners, but you will, of course, avoid both. I know one young gentleman of great promise, who adopted the opinion that in order to qualify himself for female society, he had only to become as foolish as possible, while in their presence. That young man soon lost the favor of all whose friendship might have operated as a restraint; but unwilling to associate with the despicable, and unable to live in absolute solitude, he chose the bottle for his companion; and made himself, and the few friends he had, miserable.
Nothing, unless it be the coarsest flattery, will give more offence, in the end, than to treat ladies as mere playthings or children. On the other hand, do not become pedantic, and lecture them on difficult subjects. They readily see through all this. Neither is it good manners or policy to talk much of yourself. They can penetrate this also; and they despise the vanity which produces it. In detecting deception, they are often much quicker than we apprehend.
A young gentleman, in one of the New England States, who had assumed the chair of the pedagogue, paid his addresses to the beautiful and sensible daughter of a respectable farmer. One day, as she was present in his school, he read to her a hymn, which he said was from his own pen. Now it was obvious to this lady, and even to some of the pupils, that the hymn was none other than that usually known by the name of the `Harvest Hymn,' modified by the change of a few words only. How much effect this circumstance might have had I cannot say with certainty; but I know it disgusted \textit{one}, at least, of the pupils; and I know, too, that his addresses to the lady were soon afterwards discontinued.
A young man who would profit from the society of young ladies, or indeed from any society, must preserve a modest and respectful spirit; must seek to conciliate their good will by quiet and unostentatious attentions, and discover more willingness to avail himself of their stock of information, than to display his own knowledge or abilities.
He should observe, and learn to admire, that purity and ignorance of evil, which is the characteristic of well-educated young ladies, and which, while we are near them, raises us above those sordid and sensual considerations which hold such sway over \textit{men}, in their intercourse with each other. He should treat them as spirits of a purer sphere, and try to be as innocent, if not as ignorant of evil as they are; remembering that there is no better way of raising himself in the scale of intellectual and moral being. But to whatever degree of intimacy he may arrive, he should never forget those little acts of courtesy and kindness, as well as that respect, and self-denial, which lend a charm to every kind of polite intercourse, and especially to that of which I am now speaking.
Whenever an opportunity occurs, however, it is the duty of a young man to introduce topics of conversation which are decidedly favorable to mental and moral improvement. Should he happen to be attending to the same study, or reading the same book with a female acquaintance, an excellent opportunity will be afforded for putting this rule in practice.
\gutchapter{CHAPTER VI.}
Marriage.
SECTION I. \textit{Why Matrimony is a Duty.}
Matrimony is a subject of high importance and interest. It is \textit{important}, because it was among the earliest institutions of the great Creator; because it has always existed in some form or other, and must continue to exist, or society cannot be sustained; and because in proportion as the ends of the Creator are answered by its establishment, just in the same proportion does the happiness of society rise or fall. It points out the condition of society in this respect as accurately as a thermometer shows the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. I might even go farther, and say, that in proportion as the original and real ends of marriage are answered, do the interests of religion also rise or sink.[11]
This institution is peculiarly interesting from the fact that it involves so many items of human happiness. We often speak of the value of \textit{friendship}. What friendship like that which results from a happy union of the sexes? We talk of \textit{education}. What school so favorable to improvement as the domestic circle may be rendered? Whether we consider education in a physical, mental or moral point of view, all its plans are imperfect without this. No man or woman is, as a general rule, fully prepared for the humblest sphere of action on earth, without the advantages which are peculiar to this institution. Nor has any man done his whole duty to God, who has left this subject out of consideration.
It has sometimes been said, and with much truth, that 'no unmarried person was ever thoroughly and completely educated.' It appears to me that were we to consider the intellectual and physical departments of education, merely, this would be true; but how much more so when we take in morals? Parents,---teachers,---what are they? Their labors are indeed of infinite value, in themselves considered; but it is only in a state of matrimony, it is only when we are called to the discharge of those multiplied duties which are involved in the endearing relations of husband, wife, parent and guardian, that our characters are fully tested and established. Late in life as these relations commence, the circumstances which they involve are so peculiar that they modify the character of the parties much more than has usually been considered.
I am fond, therefore, of contemplating the married state as a school;---not merely for a short term, but for \textit{life};---not one whose teachers are liable to be changed once or twice a year to the great disadvantage of all who are concerned, but whose instructors are as permanent as the school itself. It is true, that like other schools, it may result in the formation of bad character; but in proportion to its power to accomplish either good or bad results, will be its value, if wisely improved.
It is not to be denied that this view of the subject is in favor of \textit{early} marriage. And I can truly say, indeed, that every thing considered, early marriage does appear to me highly desirable. And it would require stronger arguments than any which I have yet seen adduced, even by some of our political economists, to make me surrender this opinion.
The only serious objection, of a popular kind, to early marriage, arises from the difficulty of supporting a family. But the parties themselves must be supported at all events, whether married or single. 'But the consequences'---And what are the consequences? An \textit{earlier} family, indeed; but not of necessity a larger. I believe that facts will bear me out in stating that the sum total of the progeny of every thousand families who commence at from twenty-five to thirty, is as great as that of one thousand who begin at from twenty to twenty-five. I have even seen pretty large families where the eldest was thirty-five years younger than both the parents; and one or two instances of numerous families where marriage did not take place till the age of forty. Physiologists have long observed this singular fact, and it has sometimes been explained by saying, if indeed it be an explanation, that Nature, in these cases, unwilling to be cheated out of her rights, endeavors to make up in energy and activity what has been lost in time.
The question, however, will recur, whether families, though equally large, cannot be better maintained when marriage is deferred to a later period. And it certainly is a question of immense importance; For nothing is more painful than to see large families, whose parents, whether young or more advanced, have not the means of educating them properly. It is also not a little painful to find instances of poverty so extreme that there is absolute suffering, for want of food and clothing.
But the question must be determined by facts. And it would be greatly aiding the cause of humanity if extensive comparisons were made between the pecuniary condition of those who marry early and those who defer the subject to a later period. But from my own limited observation I am fully of opinion that the result of the comparison would be greatly in favor of early marriages. Should this prove to be true, the position which I have assumed is, I think, established; for it appears to me that no other argument for delay has any claim to our notice.
On the other hand, the following, among other evils, are the results of deferring marriage.
1. The temper and habits of the parties become stiff and unyielding when advanced in life, and they learn to adapt themselves to each other with difficulty. In the view which I have taken above they become miserable as teachers, and still more miserable as scholars.
2. Youth are thus exposed to the danger of forming habits of criminal indulgence, as fatal to the health and the character, as they are ruinous to the soul.
3. Or if they proceed not so far, they at least acquire the habit of spending time in vain or pernicious amusements. All mankind must and will seek for gratifications of some sort or other. And aside from religious principle, there is no certain security against those amusements and indulgences which are pernicious and destructive, but early and virtuous attachments, and the pleasures afforded by domestic life. He can never want for amusement or rational gratification who is surrounded by a rising family for whom he has a genuine affection.
4. Long continued celibacy \textit{contracts} the mind, if it does not enfeeble it. For one openhearted liberal old bachelor, you will find ten who are parsimonious, avaricious, cold-hearted, and too often destitute of those sympathies for their fellow beings which the married life has a tendency to elicit and perpetuate.[12]
5. Franklin says that late marriages are attended with another inconvenience, \textit{viz}.; that the chance of living to see our children educated, is greatly diminished.
6. But I go much farther than I have hitherto done, and insist that other things being equal, the young married man has the advantage in a \textit{pecuniary} point of view. This is a natural result from the fact that he is compelled to acquire habits of industry, frugality, and economy; and is under less temptation to waste his time in trifling or pernicious amusements. But I may appeal to facts, even here. Look around you in the world, and see if out of a given number of single persons, say one thousand, of the age of thirty-five, there be not a greater number in poverty, than of the same number who settled in life at twenty.
Perhaps I ought barely to notice another objection to these views. It is said that neither the mind nor the body come to full maturity so early as we are apt to suppose. But is complete maturity of body or mind indispensable? I am not advocating the practice of marrying in childhood. It takes sometime for the affections toward an individual to ripen and become settled. This is a matter involving too high responsibilities to justify haste. The consequences, speaking generally, are not confined to this life; they extend to eternity.
[11] Some of the topics of this section have been anticipated, in
part, in a previous chapter; but their importance entitles them
to a farther consideration.
\begin{quotation}
[12] I know this principle is sometimes disputed. A late English writer, in a Treatise on Happiness, at page 251 of Vol. II, maintains the contrary. He quotes from Lord Bacon, that 'Unmarried men are the best friends, best masters, and best servants,' and that 'The best \textit{works}, and of greatest merit for the public, have proceeded from unmarried or childless men.' He also introduces Jeremy Taylor, as saying that 'Celibacy, like a fly in the heart of an apple, dwells in perpetual sweetness.'\end{quotation}
\begin{quotation}
In commenting upon these remarks, this writer says, 'One half of the most eminent persons that have ever lived in the world of science and literature, have remained unmarried,' and 'in the connubial state, too frequently, the sympathies are connected within the family circle, while there is little generosity or philanthropy beyond.' And lastly, that 'Unmarried men possess many natural excellences, which if not engrossed by a family will be directed towards their fellow creatures.'\end{quotation}
\begin{quotation}
Now it is admitted that many eminent men, especially in science and literature, have been bachelors; and that among them were Newton and Locke. But this only proves that while thousands and tens of thousands of their fellow beings spent their lives in insignificance, for want of a definite object to live for, these men, having an \textit{object} before them, \textit{accomplished} something. And if you could induce \textit{one} single man in a \textit{thousand}, nay, one in ten thousand, to make a similar use of his exemption from the cares of a family, much might be expected from celibacy; or at least, the results of their labors might be a partial compensation to society for the evil tendency of their example. For marriage cannot be denied to be an institution of God, and indispensable to the existence of society. And who can say that he has purchased an indulgence to disobey a law which is in some respects paramount to every other, however great the price he may have paid?\end{quotation}
\begin{quotation}
That marriage tends to concentrate our sympathies within the family circle, I do not believe. A proper investigation of the subject will, I am certain, prove this assumption unfounded. Facts do \textit{not} show unmarried men to be 'best friends, masters, servants' \&c.; and I am sorry to find such a \textit{theory} maintained by any sensible writer. Some of the illustrious examples of celibacy which are usually brought, were by no means estimable for their social feelings or habits. What would become of mankind, if they were all to immure themselves in dungeons, or what is nearly the same thing to social life, among books and papers? Better, by far, to remain in ignorance of the material laws which govern the universe, than to become recluses in a world like this. Better even dispense with some of the lights which genius has struck out to enable us to read suns and stars, than to understand attraction in the material world, while we are insensible to all attractions of a moral and social kind. God has made us to \textit{feel}, to \textit{sympathize}, and to \textit{love},---as well as to \textit{know}.\end{quotation}
SECTION II. \textit{General Considerations.}
We are now to enter on a most important part of our subject. Hitherto it had been my object to point out the proper course for you to pursue in reference to yourself, your own improvement, and consequent usefulness. In the remarks of the preceding chapter, and in those which follow, you are regarded as seeking a \textit{companion}; as anxious to assume new relations, such as involve new duties and new responsibilities.
If you are successful, instead of educating yourself alone, you are to be concerned in improving the mental, moral, and social condition of two persons; and in the end, perhaps \textit{others}. You are to be a \textit{teacher}; you cannot avoid this station if you would. But you are also to be a \textit{learner}. Dr. Rush says we naturally imitate the manners, and gradually acquire the tempers of persons with whom we live, provided they are objects of our affection and respect. `This,' he adds, 'has been observed in husbands and wives who have lived long and happily together; and even in servants.' And nothing can be more true.
Not only your temper and that of your companion, but your whole character, considered as physical, mental, and moral beings, will be mutually improved or injured through life. You will be placed, as I have already intimated, at a school of mutual instruction, which is to continue without vacation or change of monitors,---perhaps half a century;---during every one of the earliest years of which, your character will be more really and more permanently modified than in the same amount of time at any prior period of your education, unless it were in the veriest infancy.
Surely then it is no light affair to make preparation for a school like this. There is no period in the life of a young man so important; for there is none on which his happiness and the happiness of others so essentially depend.
Before I advert to the particular qualifications which it is necessary for you to seek in so intimate a friend, I shall mention a few considerations of a general nature.
Settle it, in the first place, that absolute perfection is not to be found. There are not a few young men of a romantic turn of mind, fostered and increased by reading the fictitious writings of the day, who have pictured to themselves for companions in life unreal forms and angelic characters, instead of beings who dwell in `houses of clay,' and are `crushed before the moth.' Such `exalted imaginations' must sooner or later be brought down: happy will it be with those who are chastened in due season.
In the second place, resolve never to be misled by any adventitious circumstances. Wealth, beauty, rank, friends, \&c, are all proper considerations, but they are not of the \textit{first} importance. They are merely secondary qualifications. Marriage must never be a matter of bargain and sale; for
In the third place, no marriage engagement should ever be thought of unless there is first a genuine and rational attachment. No cold calculations of profit or loss, no hereditary estates or other adventitious circumstances, though they were equivalent to a peerage, or a realm, should ever, for one moment, even in thought, be substituted for love. It is treason to Him who ordained this most blessed institution.
But fourthly, though wealth, however valuable in itself, is by no means a recommendation in the present case, yet the means of a comfortable support are certainly to be regarded. It is painful to see a very young couple, with a large family, and destitute of the means of support.
In the fifth place, a \textit{suitable age} is desirable.
When we consider the varying tastes, habits and feelings of the same person at different periods of his life, is it not at once obvious that, other things being equal, those persons are most likely to find that happiness which is sought in matrimony, by associating with those whose age does not differ greatly from their own? It is true, some of the happiest human connexions that ever were formed were between persons of widely differing ages; but is this the general rule? Would not those who have found happiness under other circumstances, have been \textit{still happier}, had their ages been more nearly equal?
There is little doubt that a person advanced in life may lengthen his days by a connection with a person much younger than himself. Whether the life of the other party is not shortened, in an equal degree, at the same time, and by the same means, remains to be determined; but probably it is so.
Some men and women are as old, in reality, whatever their \textit{years} may indicate, at twenty, as others at twenty-five. The matrimonial connection then may be safely formed between parties whose ages differ a few years; but I think that as a general rule, the ages of the parties ought to be nearly equal.
Lastly, it was believed by a great observer of human nature, the late Dr. Spurzheim, that no person was fit for the domestic relations who had not undergone trials and sufferings. The gay reader may smile at this opinion, but I can assure him that many wise men besides Spurzheim have entertained it. Chateaubriand, among others, in his 'Genius of Christianity,' advances the same opinion. Some, as we have seen, hold that no person can be well educated without suffering. Such persons, however, use the term education as meaning something more than a little scientific instruction;---as a means of forming \textit{character}. In this point of view no sentiment can be more true. Even the Bible confirms it, when it assures us, that the 'Captain of our Salvation was made perfect through sufferings.'
SECTION III. \textit{Female Qualifications for Marriage.}
1. MORAL EXCELLENCE.
The highest as well as noblest trait in female character, is love to God. When we consider what are the tendencies of Christianity to elevate woman from the state of degradation to which she had, for ages, been subjected---when we consider not only what it has done, but what it is destined yet to do for her advancement,---it is impossible not to shrink from the presence of an impious, and above all an unprincipled atheistical female, as from an ungrateful and unnatural being.
Man is under eternal obligations to Christianity and its Divine Author, undoubtedly; but woman seems to be more so.
That charge against females which in the minds of some half atheistical men is magnified into a stigma on Christianity itself, namely that they are more apt to become religious than men; and that we find by far the greater part of professing Christians to be females, is in my own view one of the highest praises of the sex. I rejoice that their hearts are more susceptible than ours, and that they do not war so strongly against that religion which their nature demands. I have met with but one female, whom I knew to be an avowed atheist.
Indeed there are very few men to be found, who are skeptical themselves, who do not prefer pious companions of the other sex. I will not stop to adduce this as an evidence of the truth of our religion itself, and of its adaptation to the wants of the human race, for happily it does not need it. Christianity is based on the most abundant evidence, of a character wholly unquestionable. But this I do and will say, that to be consistent, young men of loose principles ought not to rail at females for their piety, and then whenever they seek for a constant friend, one whom they can love,---for they never really love the abandoned---always prefer, other things being equal, the society of the pious and the virtuous.
2. COMMON SENSE.
Next on the list of particular qualifications in a female, for matrimonial life, I place COMMON SENSE. In the view of some, it ought to precede moral excellence. A person, it is said, who is deficient in common sense, is, in proportion to the imbecility, unfit for \textit{social} life, and yet the same person might possess a kind of negative excellency, or perhaps even a species of piety. This view appears to me, however, much more specious than sound.
By \textit{common sense}, as used in this place, I mean the faculty by means of which we see things \textit{as they} really are. It implies judgment and discrimination, and a proper sense of propriety in regard to the common concerns of life. It leads us to form judicious plans of action, and to be governed by our circumstances in such a way as will be generally approved. It is the exercise of reason, uninfluenced by passion or prejudice. To man, it is nearly what instinct is to brutes. It is very different from genius or talent, as they are commonly defined; but much better than either. It never blazes forth with the splendor of noon, but shines with a constant and useful light. To the housewife---but, above all, to the mother,---it is indispensable.
3. DESIRE FOR IMPROVEMENT.
Whatever other recommendations a lady may possess, she should have an inextinguishable thirst for improvement. No sensible person can be truly happy in the world, without this; much less qualified to make others happy. But the genuine spirit of improvement, wherever it exists, atones for the absence of many qualities which would otherwise be indispensable: in this respect resembling that `charity' which covers `a multitude of sins.' Without it, almost everything would be of little consequence,---with it, every thing else is rendered doubly valuable.
One would think that every sensible person, of either sex, would aspire at improvement, were it merely to avoid the shame of being stationary like the brutes. Above all, it is most surprising that any lady should be satisfied to pass a day or even an hour without mental and moral progress. It is no discredit to the lower animals that---'their little all flows in at once,' that 'in ages they no more can know, or covet or enjoy,' for this is the legitimate result of the physical constitution which God has given them. But it is far otherwise with the masters and mistresses of creation; for
'Were man to live coeval with the sun,
The patriarch pupil \textit{should} be learning still,
And dying, leave his lessons half unlearnt.'
There are,---I am sorry to say it---not a few of both sexes who never appear to breathe out one hearty desire to rise, intellectually or morally, with a view to the government of themselves or others. They love themselves supremely---their friends subordinately---their neighbors, perhaps not at all. But neither the love they bear to themselves or others ever leads them to a single series of any sort of action which has for its ultimate object the improvement of any thing higher than the condition of the mere animal. Dress, personal appearance, equipage, style of a dwelling or its furniture, with no other view, however, than the promotion of mere physical enjoyment, is the height of their desires for improvement!
Talk to them of elevating the intellect or improving the heart, and they admit it is true; but they go their way and pursue their accustomed round of folly again. The probability is, that though they assent to your views, they do not understand you. It requires a stretch of charity to which I am wholly unequal, to believe that beings who ever conceived, for one short moment, of the height to which their natures may be elevated, should sink back without a single struggle, to a mere selfish, unsocial, animal life;---to lying in bed ten or twelve hours daily, rising three or four hours later than the sun, spending the morning in preparation at the glass, the remainder of the time till dinner in unmeaning calls, the afternoon in yawning over a novel, and the evening in the excitement of the tea table and the party, and the ball room, to retire, perhaps at midnight, with the mind and body and soul in a feverish state, to toss away the night in vapid or distressing dreams.
How beings endowed with immortal souls can be contented to while away precious hours in a manner so useless, and withal so displeasing to the God who gave them their time for the improvement of themselves and others, is to me absolutely inconceivable! Yet it is certainly done; and that not merely by a few solitary individuals scattered up and down the land; but in some of our most populous cities, by considerable numbers.
A philanthropic individual not long since undertook with the aid of others, to establish a weekly or semi-weekly gazette in one of our cities, for almost the sole purpose, as I have since learned, of rousing the drones among her sex to benevolent action in some form or other, in behalf of members of their families, their friends or their neighbors. She hoped, at first, to save them from many hours of ennui by the perusal of her columns; and that their \textit{minds} being opened to instruction, and their \textit{hearts} made to vibrate in sympathy with the cries of ignorance, poverty, or absolute distress, their \textit{hands} might be roused to action. But alas, the articles in the paper were \textit{too long}, or \textit{too dry}. They could not task their minds to go through with an argument.
Should the young man who is seeking an `help meet,' chance to fall in with such \textit{beings} as these---and some we fear there are in almost every part of our land,---let him shun them as he would the `choke damp' of the cavern.
Their society would extinguish, rather than fan the flame of every generous or benevolent feeling that might be kindling in his bosom. \textit{With} the fond, the ardent, the never failing desire to improve, physically, intellectually, and morally, there are few females who may not make tolerable companions for a man of sense;---\textit{without} it, though a young lady were beautiful and otherwise lovely beyond comparison, wealthy as the Indies, surrounded by thousands of the most worthy friends, and even talented, let him beware! Better remain in celibacy a thousand years (could life last so long) great as the evil may be, than form a union with such an object. He should pity, and seek her reformation, if not beyond the bounds of possibility; but love her he should not! The penalty will be absolutely insupportable.
One point ought to be settled,---I think unalterably settled---before matrimony. It ought indeed so be settled in early life, but it is better late, perhaps, than never. Each of the parties should consider themselves as sacredly pledged, in all cases, to yield to conviction. I have no good opinion of the man who expects his wife to yield her opinion to his, on every occasion, unless she is convinced. I say on \textit{every occasion}; for that she sometimes ought to do so, seems to be both scriptural and rational. It would be very inconvenient to call in a third person as an umpire upon every slight difference of opinion between a young couple, besides being very humiliating. But if each maintain, with pertinacity, their opinion, what can be done? It does seem to me that every sensible woman, who feels any good degree of confidence in her husband, will perceive the propriety of yielding her opinion to his in such cases, where the matter is of such a nature that it cannot be delayed.
But there are a thousand things occurring, in which there is no necessity of forming an immediate opinion, or decision, except from conviction. I should never like the idea of a woman's conforming to her husband's views to please him, merely, without considering whether they are correct or not. It seems to me a sort of treason against the God who gave her a mind of her own, with an intention that she should use it. But it would be higher treason still, in male, or female, not to yield, when actually convinced.
4. FONDNESS FOR CHILDREN.
Few traits of female character are more important than this. Yet there is much reason to believe that, even in contemplating an engagement that is expected to last for life, it is almost universally overlooked. Without it, though a woman should possess every accomplishment of person, mind, and manners, she would be poor indeed; and would probably render those around her miserable. I speak now generally. There may be exceptions to this, as to other general rules. A dislike of children, even in men, is an unfavorable omen; in woman it is insupportable; for it is grossly unnatural. To a susceptible, intelligent, virtuous mind, I can scarcely conceive of a worse situation in this world or any other, than to be chained for life to a person who hates children. You can purchase, if you have the pecuniary means, almost every thing but \textit{maternal love}. This no gold can buy. Wo to the female who is doomed to drag out a miserable existence with a husband who 'can't bear children;' but thrice miserable is the doom of him who has a wife and a family of children, but whose children have no \textit{mother}! If there be orphans any where in the wide world, they are these.[13]
The more I reflect on the four last mentioned traits of female character, the more they rise in my estimation, eclipsing all others; unless perhaps, a good temper.
It is said that after every precaution, the choice of a wife is like buying a ticket in a lottery. If we were absolutely deaf and blind in the selection, and were so from necessity, the maxim might be just. But this is not so. We shut our eyes and stop our ears voluntarily, and then complain of the imperfection of our means of forming a judgment. In truth we impeach the goodness of Him who was the author of the \textit{institution}.
No young man is worthy of a wife who has not sense enough to determine, even after a few interviews, what the bent of a lady's mind is;---whether she listens with most pleasure to conversation which is wholly unimproving, or whether she gladly turns from it, when an opportunity offers, to subjects which are above the petty chit-chat or common but fashionable scandal of the day; and above all, avoids \textit{retailing} it. He knows, or \textit{may} know, without a `seven years' acquaintance, whether she spends a part of her leisure time in reading, or whether the whole is spent in dressing, visiting, or conversing about plays, actors, theatres, \&c. And if she reads a part of the time, the fault must be his own, if he does not know whether she relishes any thing but the latest novel, or the most light---not to say empty---periodical. Let it be remembered, then, by every young man that the fault is his own, if he do not give himself time, before he forms an engagement that is to last for life, to ascertain whether his friendship is to be formed with a person who is desirous of improvement, or with one who, living only for pleasure, is 'dead while she liveth.'
You will say it is difficult to ascertain whether she is fond of children or not. But I doubt it. Has she then no young brothers, or sisters, or cousins? Are there no children in the neighborhood? For if there are,---if there is but one, and she sees that individual but once a week,---the fact may easily be ascertained. If she loves that child, the child will love her; and its eye will brighten when it sees her, or hears her name mentioned. Children seldom fail to keep debt and credit in these matters, and they know how to balance the account, with great ingenuity.
These remarks are made, not in the belief that they will benefit those who are already blinded by fancy or passion, but with the hope that some more fortunate reader may reflect on the probable chances of happiness or misery, and pause before he leaps into the vortex of matrimonial discord. No home can ever be a happy one to any of its inmates, where there is no maternal love, nor any desire for mental or moral improvement. But where these exist, in any considerable degree, and the original attachment was founded on correct principles, there is always hope of brighter days, even though clouds at present obscure the horizon. No woman who loves her husband, and desires to make continual improvement, will long consent to render those around her unhappy.
\begin{quotation}
[13] It is worthy of remark, as a well established fact, that the Chinese have an \textit{Isan-mon} or \textit{mother}, to their silkworms! Her duty is, not to attend to the eggs and the hatching, for nature has made provision for that; but to take possession of the chamber where the young are deposited; to see that it be free from `noisome smells, and all noises;' to attend to its temperature, and to `avoid making a smoke, or raising a dust.' She must not enter the room till she is perfectly clean in person and dress, and must be clothed in a very plain habit; and in order to be more sensible to the temperature of the place, her dress must contain no lining.\end{quotation}
\begin{quotation}
Now although every mother of children does not have the care of silkworms, yet she has the care of beings who are in some respects equally susceptible. And I trust no person who knows the importance of temperature, ventilation, \&c. especially to the tender infant, will be ashamed to derive an important lesson from the foregoing.\end{quotation}
5. LOVE OF DOMESTIC CONCERNS.
Without the knowledge and the love of domestic concerns, even the wife of a peer, is but a poor affair. It was the fashion, in former times, for ladies to understand a great deal about these things, and it would be very hard to make me believe that it did not tend to promote the interests and honor of their husbands.
The concerns of a great family never can be \textit{well} managed, if left \textit{wholly} to hirelings; and there are many parts of these affairs in which it would be unseemly for husbands to meddle. Surely, no lady can be too high in rank to make it proper for her to be well acquainted with the character and general demeanor of all the female servants. To receive and give character is too much to be left to a servant, however good, whose service has been ever so long, or acceptable.
Much of the ease and happiness of the great and rich must depend on the character of those by whom they are assisted. They live under the same roof with them; they are frequently the children of their tenants, or poorer neighbors; the conduct of their whole lives must be influenced by the examples and precepts which they here imbibe; and when ladies consider how much more weight there must be in one word from them, than in ten thousand words from a person who, call her what you like, is still a \textit{fellow servant}, it does appear strange that they should forego the performance of this at once important and pleasing part of their duty.
I am, however, addressing myself, in this work, to persons in the middle ranks of life; and here a knowledge of domestic affairs is so necessary in every wife, that the lover ought to have it continually in his eye. Not only a knowledge of these affairs---not only to know how things \textit{ought to be done}, but how to \textit{do them}; not only to know what ingredients ought to be put into a pie or a pudding, but to be able \textit{to make} the pie or the pudding.
Young people, when they come together, ought not, unless they have fortunes, or are to do unusual business, to think about \textit{servants}! Servants for what! To help them eat, and drink, and sleep? When they have children, there must be some \textit{help} in a farmer's or tradesman's house, but until then, what call is there for a servant in a house, the master of which has to \textit{earn} every mouthful that is consumed?
Eating and drinking come \textit{three times every day}; they must come; and, however little we may, in the days of our health and vigor, care about choice food and about cookery, we very soon get \textit{tired} of heavy or burnt bread, and of spoiled joints of meat. We bear them for once or twice perhaps; but about the third time, we begin to lament; about the fifth time, it must be an extraordinary affair that will keep us from complaining; if the like continue for a month or two, we begin to \textit{repent}; and then adieu to all our anticipated delights. We discover, when it is too late, that we have not got a helpmate, but a burden; and, the fire of love being damped, the unfortunately educated creature, whose parents are more to blame than she is, unless she resolve to learn her duty, is doomed to lead a life very nearly approaching to that of misery; for, however considerate the husband, he never can esteem her as he would have done, had she been skilled in domestic affairs.
The mere \textit{manual} performance of domestic labors is not, indeed, absolutely necessary in the female head of the family of professional men; but, even here, and also in the case of great merchants and of gentlemen living on their fortunes, surely the head of the household ought to be able to give directions as to the purchasing of meal, salting meat, making bread, making preserves of all sorts; and ought to see the things done.
The lady ought to take care that food be well cooked; that there be always a sufficient supply; that there be good living without waste; and that in her department, nothing shall be seen inconsistent with the rank, station, and character of her husband. If he have a skilful and industrious wife, he will, unless he be of a singularly foolish turn, gladly leave all these things to her absolute dominion, controlled only by the extent of the whole expenditure, of which he must be the best judge.
But, in a farmer's or a tradesman's family, the manual performance is absolutely necessary, whether there be domestics or not. No one knows how to teach another so well as one who has done, and can do, the thing himself. It was said of a famous French commander, that, in attacking an enemy, he did not say to his men `\textit{go} on,' but `\textit{come} on;' and, whoever has well observed the movements of domestics, must know what a prodigious difference there is in the effect of the words, \textit{go} and \textit{come}.
A very good rule would be, to have nothing to eat, in a farmer's or mechanic's house, that the mistress did not know how to prepare and to cook; no pudding, tart, pie or cake, that she did not know how to make. Never fear the toil to her: exercise is good for health; and without health there is no beauty. Besides, what is the labor in such a case? And how many thousands of ladies, who idle away the day, would give half their fortunes for that sound sleep which the stirring housewife seldom fails to enjoy.
Yet, if a young farmer or mechanic \textit{marry} a girl, who has been brought up only to `\textit{play music};' to \textit{draw}, to \textit{sing}, to waste paper, pen and ink in writing long and half romantic letters, and to see shows, and plays, and read novels;---if a young man do marry such an unfortunate young creature, let him bear the consequences with temper. Let him be \textit{just}. Justice will teach him to treat her with great indulgence; to endeavor to persuade her to learn her business as a wife; to be patient with her; to reflect that he has taken her, being apprized of her inability; to bear in mind, that he was, or seemed to be, pleased with her showy and useless acquirements; and that, when the gratification of his passion has been accomplished, he is unjust, and cruel, and unmanly, if he turn round upon her, and accuse her of a want of that knowledge, which he well knew, beforehand, she did not possess.
For my part, I do not know, nor can I form an idea of, a more unfortunate being than a girl with a mere boarding school education, and without a fortune to enable her to keep domestics, when married. Of what \textit{use} are \textit{her} accomplishments? Of what use her music, her drawing, and her romantic epistles? If she should chance to possess a sweet disposition, and good nature, the first faint cry of her first babe drives all the tunes and all the landscapes, and all the imaginary beings out of her head for ever.
The farmer or the tradesman's wife has to \textit{help earn} a provision for her children; or, at the least, to help to earn a store for sickness or old age. She ought, therefore, to be qualified to begin, at once, to assist her husband in his earnings. The way in which she can most efficiently assist, is by taking care of his property; by expending his money to the greatest advantage; by wasting nothing, but by making the table sufficiently abundant with the least expense.
But how is she to do these things, unless she has been \textit{brought up} to understand domestic affairs? How is she to do these things, if she has been taught to think these matters beneath her study? How is the man to expect her to do these things, if she has been so bred, as to make her habitually look upon them as worthy the attention of none but low and ignorant women?
\textit{Ignorant}, indeed! Ignorance consists in a want of knowledge of those things which your calling or state of life naturally supposes you to understand. A ploughman is not an ignorant man because he does not know how to read. If he knows how to plough, he is not to be called an ignorant man; but a wife may be justly called an ignorant woman, if she does not know how to provide a dinner for her husband. It is cold comfort for a hungry man, to tell him how delightfully his wife plays and sings. \textit{Lovers} may live on very aerial diet, but husbands stand in need of something more solid; and young women may take my word for it, that a constantly clean table, well cooked victuals, a house in order, and a cheerful fire, will do more towards preserving a husband's heart, than all the `accomplishments' taught in all the `establishments' in the world without them.
6. SOBRIETY.
Surely no reasonable young man will expect sobriety in a companion, when he does not possess this qualification himself. But by \textit{sobriety}, I do not mean a habit which is opposed to \textit{intoxication}, for if that be hateful in a man, what must it be in a woman? Besides, it does seem to me that no young man, with his eyes open, and his other senses perfect, needs any caution on that point. Drunkenness, downright drunkenness, is usually as incompatible with \textit{purity}, as it is with \textit{decency}.
Much is sometimes said in favor of a little wine or other fermented liquors, especially at dinner. No young lady, in health, needs any of these stimulants. Wine, or ale, or cider, at dinner! I would as soon take a companion from the \textit{streets}, as one who must habitually have her glass or two of wine at dinner. And this is not an opinion formed prematurely or hastily.
But by the word SOBRIETY in a young woman, I mean a great deal more than even a rigid abstinence from a love of drink, which I do not believe to exist to any considerable degree, in this country, even in the least refined parts of it. I mean a great deal \textit{more} than this; I mean sobriety of conduct. The word \textit{sober} and its derivatives mean \textit{steadiness}, \textit{seriousness}, \textit{carefulness}, \textit{scrupulous propriety of conduct}.
Now this kind of sobriety is of great importance in the person with whom we are to live constantly. Skipping, romping, rattling girls are very amusing where all consequences are out of the question, and they may, perhaps, ultimately become \textit{sober}. But while you have no certainty of this, there is a presumptive argument on the other side. To be sure, when girls are mere children, they are expected to play and romp \textit{like} children. But when they are arrived at an age which turns their thoughts towards a situation for life; when they begin to think of having the command of a house, however small or poor, it is time for them to cast away, not the cheerfulness or the simplicity, but the \textit{levity} of the child.
`If I could not have found a young woman,' says a certain writer, 'who I was not sure possessed \textit{all} the qualities expressed by that word \textit{sobriety}, I should have remained a bachelor to the end of life. Scores of gentlemen have, at different times, expressed to me their surprise that I was ``\textit{always in spirits}; that nothing \textit{pulled me down};'' and the truth is, that throughout nearly forty years of troubles, losses, and crosses, assailed all the while by numerous and powerful enemies, and performing, at the same time, greater mental labors than man ever before performed; all those labors requiring mental exertion, and some of them mental exertion of the highest order, I have never known a single hour of \textit{real anxiety}; the troubles have been no troubles to me; I have not known what \textit{lowness of spirits} meant; and have been more gay, and felt less care than any bachelor that ever lived. ``You are always in spirits!'' To be sure, for why should I not be so? Poverty, I have always set at defiance, and I could, therefore, defy the temptations to riches; and as to \textit{home} and \textit{children}, I had taken care to provide myself with an inexhaustible store of that ``sobriety'' which I so strongly recommend to others.
'This sobriety is a title to trustworthiness; and this, young man, is the treasure that you ought to prize above all others. Miserable is the husband who, when he crosses the threshold of his house, carries with him doubts, and fears, and suspicions. I do not mean suspicions of the \textit{fidelity} of his wife; but of her care, frugality, attention to his interests, and to the health and morals of his children. Miserable is the man who cannot leave all unlocked; and who is not \textit{sure}, quite \textit{certain}, that all is as safe as if grasped in his own hand.
'He is the happy husband who can go away at a moment's warning, leaving his house and family with as little anxiety as he quits an inn, no more fearing to find, on his return, any thing wrong, than he would fear a discontinuance of the rising and setting of the sun; and if, as in my case, leaving books and papers all lying about at sixes and sevens, finding them arranged in proper order, and the room, during the lucky interval, freed from the effects of his and his ploughman's or gardener's dirty shoes. Such a man has no \textit{real cares---no troubles}; and this is the sort of life I have led. I have had all the numerous and indescribable delights of home and children, and at the same time, all the bachelor's freedom from domestic cares.
'But in order to possess this precious \textit{trustworthiness}, you must, if you can, exercise your \textit{reason} in the choice of your partner. If she be vain of her person, very fond of dress, fond of \textit{flattery} at all, given to gadding about, fond of what are called \textit{parties of pleasure}, or \textit{coquetish}, though in the least degree,---she will never be trustworthy; she cannot change her nature; and if you marry her, you will be unjust, if you expect trustworthiness at her hands. But on the other hand, if you find in her that innate \textit{sobriety} of which I have been speaking, there is required on your part, and that at once, too, confidence and trust without any limit. Confidence in this case is nothing, unless it be reciprocal. To have a trustworthy wife, you must begin by showing her, even before marriage, that you have no suspicions, fears, or doubts in regard to her. Many a man has been discarded by a virtuous girl, merely on account of his querulous conduct. All women despise jealous men, and if they marry them, their motive is other than that of affection.'
There is a tendency, in our very natures, to become what we are taken to be. Beware then of suspicion or jealousy, lest you produce the very thing which you most dread. The evil results of suspicion and jealousy whether in single or married, public or private life, may be seen by the following fact.
A certain professional gentleman had the misfortune to possess a suspicious temper. He had not a better friend on the earth than Mr. C., yet by some unaccountable whim or other, he began of a sudden to suspect he was his enemy;---and what was at first at the farthest possible remove from the truth, ultimately grew to be a reality. Had it not have been for his jealousy, Mr. C. might have been to this hour one of the doctor's warmest and most confidential friends, instead of being removed---and in a great measure through \textit{his} influence---from a useful field of labor.
`Let any man observe as I frequently have,' says the writer last quoted, 'with delight, the excessive fondness of the laboring people for their children. Let him observe with what care they dress them out on Sundays with means deducted from their own scanty meals. Let him observe the husband, who has toiled, like his horse, all the week, nursing the babe, while the wife is preparing dinner. Let him observe them both abstaining from a sufficiency, lest the children should feel the pinchings of hunger. Let him observe, in short, the whole of their demeanor, the real mutual affection evinced, not in words, but in unequivocal deeds.
'Let him observe these things, and having then cast a look at the lives of the great and wealthy, he will say, with me, that when a man is choosing his partner for life, the dread of poverty ought to be cast to the winds. A laborer's cottage in a cleanly condition; the husband or wife having a babe in arms, looking at two or three older ones, playing between the flower borders, going from the wicket to the door, is, according to my taste, the most interesting object that eyes ever beheld; and it is an object to be seen in no country on earth but England.'
It happens, however, that the writer had not seen all the countries upon earth, nor even all in the interior of United America. There are as moving instances of native simplicity and substantial happiness here as in any other country; and occasionally in even the higher classes. The wife of a distinguished lawyer and senator in Congress, never left the society of her own children, to go for once to see her friends abroad, in \textit{eleven years}! I am not defending the conduct of the husband who would doom his wife to imprisonment in his own house, even amid a happy group of children, for eleven years; but the example shows, at least, that there are women fitted for domestic life in other countries besides England.
Ardent young men may fear that great sobriety in a young woman argues a want of that warmth which they naturally so much desire and approve. But observation and experience attest to the contrary. They tell us that levity is ninety-nine times out of a hundred, the companion of a \textit{want} of ardent feeling. But the \textit{licentious} never \textit{love}. Their passion is chiefly animal. Even better women, if they possess light and frivolous minds, have seldom any ardent passion.
I would not, however, recommend that you should be too severe in judging, when the conduct does not go beyond mere \textit{levity}, and is not bordering on \textit{loose} conduct; for something certainly depends here on constitution and animal spirits, and something on the manners of the country.
If any person imagine that the sobriety I have been recommending would render young women moping or gloomy, he is much mistaken, for the contrary is the fact. I have uniformly found---and I began to observe it in my very childhood---that your jovial souls, men or women, except when over the bottle, are of all human beings the most dull and insipid. They can no more exist---they may \textit{vegetate}---but they can no more \textit{live} without some excitement, than a fish could live on the top of the Alleghany. If it be not the excitement of the bottle, it must be that of the tea or the coffee cup, or food converted into some unwholesome form or other by condiments; or if it be none of these, they must have some excitement of the intellect, for intemperance is not confined to the use of condiments and poisons for the body; there are condiments and poisons to mind and heart. In fact, they usually accompany each other.
Show me a person who cannot live on plain and simple food and the only drink the Creator ever made, and as a general rule you will show me a person to whom the plain and the solid and the useful in domestic, social, intellectual, and moral life are insipid if not disgusting. `They are welcome to all that sort of labor,' said one of these creatures---not rationals---this very day, to me, in relation to plain domestic employments.---Show me a female, as many, alas! very many in fashionable life are now trained, and you show me a person who has none of the qualities that fit her to be a help meet for man in a life of simplicity. She could recite well at the high school, no doubt; but the moment she leaves school, she has nothing to do, and is taught to do nothing. I have seen girls, of this description, and they may be seen by others.
But what is such a female---one who can hardly help herself---good for, at home or abroad; married, or single? The moment she has not some feast, or party, or play, or novel, or---I know not what---something to keep up a fever, the moment I say that she has not something of this sort to anticipate or enjoy, that moment she is miserable. Wo to the young man who becomes wedded for life to a creature of this description. She may stay at home, for want of a better place, and she may add one to the national census every ten years, but a companion, or a mother, she cannot be.
I should dislike a moping melancholy creature as much as any man, though were I tied to such a thing, I could live with her; but I never could enjoy her society, nor but half of my own. He is but half a man who is thus wedded, and will exclaim, in a literal sense, 'When shall I be delivered from the body of this death?'
One hour, an \textit{animal} of this sort is moping, especially if nobody but her husband is present; the next hour, if others happen to be present, she has plenty of smiles; the next she is giggling or capering about; and the next singing to the motion of a lazy needle, or perhaps weeping over a novel. And this is called sentiment! \textit{She} is a woman of feeling and good taste!
7. INDUSTRY.
Let not the individual whose eye catches the word \textit{industry}, at the beginning of this division of my subject, condemn me as degrading females to the condition of mere wheels in a machine for money-making; for I mean no such thing. There is nothing more abhorrent to the soul of a sensible man than female \textit{avarice}. The `spirit of a man' may sustain him, while he sees avaricious and miserly individuals among his own sex, though the sight is painful enough, even here; but a female miser, `who can bear?'
Still if woman is intended to be a `help meet,' for the other sex, I know of no reason why she should not be so in physical concerns, as well as mental and moral. I know not by what rule it is that many resolve to remain for ever in celibacy, unless they believe their companion can `support' them, without labor. I have sometimes even doubted whether any person who makes these declarations can be sincere. Yet when I hear people, of both sexes, speak of poverty as a greater calamity than death, I am led to think that this dread of poverty does really exist among both sexes. And there are reasons for believing that some females, bred in fashionable life, look forward to matrimony as a state, of such entire exemption from care and labor, and of such uninterrupted ease, that they would prefer celibacy and even death to those duties which scripture, and reason, and common sense, appear to me to enjoin.
Such persons, whatever may be their other qualifications, I call upon every young man to avoid, as he would a pestilence. If they are really determined to live and act as mere drones in society, let them live alone. Do not give them an opportunity to spread the infection of so wretched a disease, if you can honestly help it.
The woman who does not actually prefer action to inaction---industry to idleness---labor to ease---and who does not steadfastly resolve to labor moderately as long as she lives, whatever may be her circumstances, is unfit for life, social or domestic. It is not for me to say, in what \textit{form} her labor shall be applied, except in rearing the young. But labor she ought---all she is able---while life and health lasts, at something or other; or she ought not to complain if she suffers the \textit{natural penalty}; and she ought to do it with cheerfulness.
I like much the quaint remark of a good old lady of ninety. She was bred to labor, had labored through the whole of her long and eventful life, and was still at her `wheel.' `Why,' said she, 'people ought to strain \textit{every nerve} to get property, as a matter of Christian duty.'
I should choose to modify this old lady's remark, and say that, people ought to do all they can \textit{without straining} their \textit{muscles} or \textit{nerves}; not to get property, but because it is at once, their duty and their happiness.
The great object of life is to do good. The great object of society is to increase the power to good. Both sexes should aim, in matrimony, at a more extended sphere of usefulness. To increase an estate, merely, is a low and unworthy aim, from which may God preserve the rising generation. Still I must say, that I greatly prefer the avaricious being---a monster though she might be---to the stupid soul who would not lift a finger if she could help it, and who determines to fold her arms whenever she has a convenient opportunity.
If a female be lazy, there will be lazy domestics, and, what is a great deal worse, children will acquire this habit. Every thing, however necessary to be done, will be put off to the last moment, and then it will be done badly, and, in many cases, not at all. The dinner will be too late; the journey or the visit will be tardy; inconveniences of all sorts will be continually arising. There will always be a heavy arrear of things unperformed; and this, even among the most wealthy, is a great evil; for if they have no business imposed upon them by necessity, they \textit{make} business for themselves. Life would be intolerable without it; and therefore an indolent woman must always be an evil, be her rank or station what it may.
But, \textit{who is to tell} whether a girl will make an industrious woman? How is the pur-blind lover especially, to be able to ascertain whether she, whose smiles and dimples and bewitching lips have half bereft him of his senses; how is he to be able to judge, from any thing that he can see, whether the beloved object will be industrious or lazy? Why, it is very difficult; it is a matter that reason has very little to do with. Still there are indications which enable a man, not wholly deprived of the use of his reason, to form a pretty accurate judgment in this matter.
It was a famous story some years ago, that a young man, who was courting one of three sisters, happened to be on a visit to her, when all the three were present, and when one said to the others, 'I \textit{wonder} where \textit{our} needle is.' Upon which he withdrew, as soon as was consistent with the rules of politeness, resolving to think no more of a girl who possessed a needle only in partnership, and who, it appeared, was not too well informed as to the place where even that share was deposited.
This was, to be sure, a very flagrant instance of a want of industry; for, if the third part of the use of a needle satisfied her, when single, it was reasonable to anticipate that marriage would banish that useful implement altogether. But such instances are seldom suffered to come in contact with the eyes and ears of the lover. There are, however, as I have already said, certain \textit{rules}, which, if attended to with care, will serve as pretty sure guides.
And, first, if you find the tongue lazy, you may be nearly certain that the hands and feet are not very industrious. By laziness of the tongue I do not mean silence; but, I mean, a \textit{slow} and \textit{soft} utterance; a sort of \textit{sighing} out of the words, instead of \textit{speaking} them; a sort of letting the sounds fall out, as if the party were sick at stomach. The pronunciation of an industrious person is generally \textit{quick}, and \textit{distinct}; the voice, if not strong, \textit{firm} at the least. Not masculine, but as feminine as possible; not a \textit{croak} nor a \textit{bawl}, but a quick, distinct, and sound voice.
One writer insists that the motion of those little members of the body, the teeth, are very much in harmony with the operations of the mind; and a very observing gentleman assures me that he can judge pretty accurately of the temper, and indeed of the general character of a \textit{child}, by his manner of eating. And I have no doubt of the fact. Nothing is more obvious than that the temper of the child who is so greedy as to swallow down his food habitually, without masticating it, must be very different from that of him who habitually eats slowly. Hunger, I know, will quicken the jaws in either case, but I am supposing them on an equal footing in this respect.
Another mark of industry is, a \textit{quick step}, and a somewhat \textit{heavy tread}, showing that the foot comes down with a \textit{hearty good will}. If the body lean a little forward, and the eyes keep steadily in the same direction, while the feet are going, so much the better, for these discover \textit{earnestness} to arrive at the intended point. I do not like, and I \textit{never} liked, your \textit{sauntering}, soft-stepping girls, who move as if they were perfectly indifferent as to the result. And, as to the \textit{love} part of the story, who ever expects ardent and lasting affection from one of these sauntering girls, will, when too late, find his mistake. The character is much the same throughout; and probably no man ever yet saw a sauntering girl, who did not, when married, make an indifferent wife, and a cold-hearted mother; cared very little for, either by husband or children; and, of course, having no store of those blessings which are the natural resources to apply to in sickness and in old age.
8. EARLY RISING.
\textit{Early rising} is another mark of industry; and though, in the higher stations of life, it may be of no importance in a mere pecuniary point of view, it is, even there, of importance in other respects; for it is rather difficult to keep love alive towards a woman who never sees the \textit{dew}, never beholds the rising \textit{sun}, and who constantly comes directly from a reeking bed to the breakfast table, and there chews, without appetite, the choicest morsels of human food. A man might, perhaps, endure this for a month or two, without being disgusted; but not much longer.
As to people in the middle rank of life, where a living and a provision for children is to be sought by labor of some sort or other, late rising in the wife is certain ruin; and rarely will you find an early-rising wife, who had been a late-rising girl. If brought up to late rising, she will like it; it will be her \textit{habit}; she will, when married, never want excuses for indulging in the habit. At first she will be indulged without bounds; and to make a \textit{change} afterwards will be difficult, for it will be deemed a \textit{wrong} done to her; she will ascribe it to diminished affection. A quarrel must ensue, or, the husband must submit to be ruined, or, at the very least, to see half the fruit of his labor snored and lounged away.
And, is this being unreasonably harsh or severe upon woman? By no means. It arises from an ardent desire to promote the happiness, and to add to the natural, legitimate, and salutary influence of the female sex. The tendency of this advice is to promote the preservation of their health; to prolong the duration of their beauty; to cause them to be loved to the last day of their lives; and to give them, during the whole of those lives, that weight and consequence, and respect, of which laziness would render them wholly unworthy.
9. FRUGALITY.
This means the contrary of extravagance. It does not mean \textit{stinginess}; it does not mean \textit{pinching}; but it means an abstaining from all unnecessary expenditure, and all unnecessary use of goods of any and of every sort. It is a quality of great importance, whether the rank in life be high or low.
Some people are, indeed, so rich, they have such an over-abundance of money and goods, that how to get rid of them would, to a spectator, seem to be their only difficulty. How many individuals of fine estates, have been ruined and degraded by the extravagance of their wives! More frequently by their \textit{own} extravagance, perhaps; but, in numerous instances, by that of those whose duty it is to assist in upholding their stations by husbanding their fortunes.
If this be the case amongst the opulent, who have estates to draw upon, what must be the consequences of a want of frugality in the middle and lower ranks of life? Here it must be fatal, and especially among that description of persons whose wives have, in many cases, the receiving as well as the expending of money. In such a case, there wants nothing but extravagance in the wife to make ruin as inevitable as the arrival of old age.
To obtain security against this is very difficult; yet, if the lover be not quite \textit{blind}, he may easily discover a propensity towards extravagance. The object of his addresses will, nine times out of ten, never be the manager of a house; but she must have her \textit{dress}, and other little matters under her control. If she be costly in these; if, in these, she step above her rank, or even to the top of it; if she purchase all she is able to purchase, and prefer the showy to the useful, the gay and the fragile to the less sightly and more durable, he may be sure that the disposition will cling to her through life. If he perceive in her a taste for costly food, costly furniture, costly amusements: if he find her love of gratification to be bounded only by her want of means; if he find her full of admiration of the trappings of the rich, and of desire to be able to imitate them, he may be pretty sure that she will not spare his purse, when once she gets her hand into it; and, therefore, if he can bid adieu to her charms, the sooner he does it, the better.
Some of the indications of extravagance in a lady are ear-rings, broaches, bracelets, buckles, necklaces, diamonds, (real or mock,) and nearly all the ornaments which women put upon their persons.
These things may be more proper in \textit{palaces}, or in scenes resembling palaces; but, when they make their appearance amongst people in the middle rank of life, where, after all, they only serve to show that poverty in the parties which they wish to disguise; when the mean, tawdry things make their appearance in this rank of life, they are the sure indications of a disposition that will always be straining at what it can never attain.
To marry a girl of this disposition is really self-destruction. You never can have either property or peace. Earn her a horse to ride, she will want a gig: earn the gig, she will want a chariot: get her that, she will long for a coach and four: and, from stage to stage, she will torment you to the end of her or your days; for, still there will be somebody with a finer equipage than you can give her; and, as long as this is the case, you will never have rest. Reason would tell her, that she could never be at the \textit{top}; that she must stop at some point short of that; and that, therefore, all expenses in the rivalship are so much thrown away. But, reason and broaches and bracelets seldom go in company. The girl who has not the sense to perceive that her person is disfigured and not beautified by parcels of brass and tin, or even gold and silver, as well to \textit{regret}, if she dare not \textit{oppose} the tyranny of absurd fashions, is not entitled to a full measure of the confidence of any individual.
10. PERSONAL NEATNESS.
There never yet was, and there never will be sincere and ardent love, of long duration, where personal neatness is wholly neglected. I do not say that there are not those who would live peaceably and even contentedly in these circumstances. But what I contend for is this: that there never can exist, for any length of time, ardent \textit{affection}, in any man towards a woman who neglects neatness, either in her person, or in her house affairs.
Men may be careless as to their own person; they may, from the nature of their business, or from their want of time to adhere to neatness in dress, be slovenly in their own dress and habits; but, they do not relish this in their wives, who must still have \textit{charms}; and charms and neglect of the person seldom go together. I do not, of course, approve of it even in men.
We may, indeed, lay it down as a rule of almost universal application, that supposing all other things to be equal, he who is most guilty of personal neglect; will be the most ignorant and the most vicious. \textit{Why} there should be, universally, a connection between slovenliness, ignorance, and vice, is a question I have no room in this work to discuss.
I am well acquainted with one whole family who neglect their persons from principle. The gentleman, who is a sort of new light in religious concerns, will tell you that the true Christian \textit{should} 'slight the hovel, as beneath his care.' But there is a want of intelligence, and even common refinement in the family, that certainly does not and \textit{cannot} add much to their own happiness, or recommend religion---aside from the fact that it greatly annoys their neighbors. And though the head of the family observes many external duties with Jewish strictness, neither he nor any of its members are apt to bridle their tongues, or remember that on \textit{ordinary} as well as \textit{special} occasions they are bound to `do all to the glory of God.' As to the connection of mind with matter---I mean the dependence of mind and soul on body, they are wholly ignorant.
It is not dress that the husband wants to be perpetual: it is not finery; but \textit{cleanliness} in every thing. Women generally dress enough, especially when they \textit{go abroad}. This \textit{occasional} cleanliness is not the thing that a husband wants: he wants it always; in-doors as well as out; by night as well as by day; on the floor as well as on the table; and, however he may complain about the trouble and the `expense' of it, he would complain more if it were neglected.
The indications of female neatness are, first, a clean \textit{skin}. The hands and face will usually be clean, to be sure, if there be soap and water within reach; but if on observing other parts of the head besides the face, you make discoveries indicating a different character, the sooner you cease your visits the better. I hope, now, that no young woman who may chance to see this book, will be offended at this, and think me too severe on her sex. I am only telling that which all men think; and, it is a decided advantage to them to be fully informed of our thoughts on the subject. If any one, who reads this, shall find, upon self-examination, that she is defective in this respect, let her take the hint, and correct the defect.
In the \textit{dress}, you can, amongst rich people, find little whereon to form a judgment as to cleanliness, because they have not only the dress prepared for them, but put upon them into the bargain. But, in the middle ranks of life, the dress is a good criterion in two respects: first, as to its \textit{color}; for if the \textit{white} be a sort of \textit{yellow}, cleanly hands would have been at work to prevent that. A \textit{white-yellow} cravat, or shirt, on a man, speaks at once the character of his wife; and, you may be assured, that she will not take with your dress pains which she has never taken with her own.
Then, the manner of \textit{putting on} the dress, is no bad foundation for judging. If this be careless, and slovenly, if it do not fit properly,---no matter for its \textit{mean quality}; mean as it may be, it may be neatly and trimly put on---if it be slovenly put on, I say, take care of yourself; for, you will soon find to your cost, that a sloven in one thing, is a sloven in all things. The plainer people, judge greatly from the state of the covering of the ankles; and, if that be not clean and tight, they conclude that the rest is not as it ought to be. Look at the shoes! If they be trodden on one side, loose on the foot, or run down at the heel, it is a very bad \textit{sign}; and as to going \textit{slipshod}, though at coming down in the morning, and even before daylight, make up your mind to a rope, rather than live with a slipshod woman.
How much do women lose by inattention to these matters! Men, in general, say nothing about it to their wives, but they \textit{think} about it; they envy their more lucky neighbors, and in numerous cases, consequences the most serious arise from this apparently trifling cause. Beauty is valuable; it is one of the \textit{ties}, and a \textit{strong} one too; but it cannot last to old age; whereas the charm of cleanliness never ends but with life itself. It has been said that the sweetest flowers, when they really become putrid, are the most offensive. So the most beautiful woman, if found with an uncleansed skin, is, in my estimation, the most disagreeable.
11. A GOOD TEMPER.
This is a very difficult thing to ascertain beforehand. Smiles are cheap; they are easily put on for the occasion; and, besides, the frowns are, according to the lover's whim, interpreted into the contrary. By `good temper,' I do not mean an easy temper, a serenity which nothing disturbs; for that is a mark of laziness. Sullenness, if you be not too blind to perceive it, is a temper to be avoided by all means. A sullen man is bad enough; what, then, must be a sullen woman, and that woman a \textit{wife}; a constant inmate, a companion day and night! Only think of the delight of setting at the same table, and occupying the same chamber, for a week, without exchanging a word all the while! Very bad to be scolding for such a length of time; but this is far better than `the \textit{sulks}.'
But if you have your eyes, and look sharp, you will discover symptoms of this, if it unhappily exist. She will, at some time or other, show it towards some one or other of the family; or, perhaps, towards yourself; and you may be quite sure that, in this respect, marriage will not mend her. Sullenness arises from capricious displeasure not founded in reason. The party takes offence unjustifiably; is unable to frame a complaint, and therefore expresses displeasure by silence. The remedy for it is, to suffer it to take its \textit{full swing}, but it is better not to have the disease in your house; and to be \textit{married to it}, is little short of madness.
\textit{Querulousness} is a great fault. No man, and, especially, no \textit{woman}, likes to hear a continual plaintiveness. That she complain, and roundly complain, of your want of punctuality, of your coolness, of your neglect, of your liking the company of others: these are all very well, more especially as they are frequently but too just. But an everlasting complaining, without rhyme or reason, is a bad sign. It shows want of patience, and, indeed, want of sense.
But the contrary of this, a cold \textit{indifference}, is still worse. 'When will you come again? You can never find time to come here. You like any company better than mine.' These, when groundless, are very teasing, and demonstrate a disposition too full of anxiousness; but, from a girl who always receives you with the same civil smile, lets you, at your own good pleasure, depart with the same; and who, when you take her by the hand, holds her cold fingers as straight as sticks, I should say, in mercy, preserve \textit{me}!
\textit{Pertinacity} is a very bad thing in anybody, and especially in a young woman; and it is sure to increase in force with the age of the party. To have the last word, is a poor triumph; but with some people it is a species of disease of the mind. In a wife it must be extremely troublesome; and, if you find an ounce of it in the maid, it will become a pound in the wife. A fierce \textit{disputer} is a most disagreeable companion; and where young women thrust their \textit{say} into conversations carried on by older persons, give their opinions in a positive manner, and court a contest of the tongue, those must be very bold men who will encounter them as wives.
Still, of all the faults as to \textit{temper}, your melancholy ladies have the worst, unless you have the same mental disease yourself. Many wives are, at times, \textit{misery-makers}; but these carry it on as a regular trade. They are always unhappy about something, either past, present, or to come. Both arms full of children is a pretty efficient remedy in most cases; but, if these ingredients be wanting, a little want, a little \textit{real} trouble, a little \textit{genuine affliction}, often will effect a cure.
12. ACCOMPLISHMENTS.
By accomplishments, I mean those things, which are usually comprehended in what is termed a useful and polite education. Now it is not unlikely that the fact of my adverting to this subject so late, may lead to the opinion that I do not set a proper estimate on this female qualification.
But it is not so. Probably few set too high an estimate upon it. Its \textit{absolute} importance has, I am confident, been seldom overrated. It is true I do not like a \textit{bookish} woman better than a bookish man; especially a great devourer of that most contemptible species of books with whose burden the press daily groans: I mean \textit{novels}. But mental cultivation, and even what is called \textit{polite} learning, along with the foregoing qualifications, are a most valuable acquisition, and make every female, as well as all her associates, doubly happy. It is only when books, and music, and a taste for the fine arts are substituted for other and more important things, that they should be allowed to change love or respect to disgust.
It sometimes happens, I know, that two persons are, in this respect, pretty equally yoked. But what of that? It only makes each party twofold more the child of misfortune than before. I have known a couple of intelligent persons who would sit with their `feet in the ashes,' as it were, all day, to read some new and bewitching book, forgetting every want of the body; perhaps even forgetting that they \textit{had} bodies. Were they therefore happy, or likely to be so?
Drawing, music, embroidery, (and I might mention half a dozen other things of the same class) where they do not exclude the more useful and solid matters, may justly be regarded as appropriate branches of female education; and in some circumstances and conditions of life, indispensable. Music,---vocal and instrumental---and drawing, to a certain extent, seem to me desirable in all. As for dancing, I do not feel quite competent to decide. As the world is, however, I am almost disposed to reject it altogether. At any rate, if a young lady is accomplished in every other respect, you need not seriously regret that she has not attended to dancing, especially as it is conducted in most of our schools.
\gutchapter{CHAPTER VII.}
Criminal Behavior.
SECTION I. \textit{Inconstancy and Seduction.}
In nineteen cases out of twenty, of illicit conduct, there is perhaps, no seduction at all; the passion, the absence of virtue, and the crime, being all mutual. But there are cases of a very different description. Where a young man goes coolly and deliberately to work, first to gain and rivet the affections of a young lady, then to take advantage of those affections to accomplish that which he knows must be her ruin, and plunge her into misery for life;---when a young man does this, I say he must be either a selfish and unfeeling brute, unworthy of the name of man, or he must have a heart little inferior, in point of obduracy, to that of the murderer. Let young women, however, be aware; let them be \textit{well} aware, that few, indeed, are the cases in which this apology can possibly avail them. Their character is not solely theirs, but belongs, in part, to their family and kindred. They may, in the case contemplated, be objects of compassion with the world; but what contrition, what repentance, what remorse, what that even the tenderest benevolence can suggest, is to heal the wounded hearts of humbled, disgraced, but still affectionate parents, brethren, and sisters?
In the progress of an intimate acquaintance, should it be discovered that there are certain traits of character in one of the parties, which both are fully convinced will be a source of unhappiness, through life, there \textit{may} be no special impropriety in separating. And yet even then I would say, avoid haste. Better consider for an hour than repent for a year, or for life. But let it be remembered, that before measures of this kind are even hinted at, there must be a full conviction of their necessity, and the mutual and hearty concurrence of both parties. Any steps of this kind, the reasons for which are not fully understood on both sides, and mutually satisfactory, as well as easily explicable to those friends who have a right to inquire on the subject, are criminal;---nay more; they are brutal.
I have alluded to \textit{indirect} promises of marriage, because I conceive that the frequent opinion among young men that nothing is binding but a direct promise, in so many words, is not only erroneous, but highly dishonorable to those who hold it. The strongest pledges are frequently given without the interchange of words. Actions speak louder than words; and there is an attachment sometimes formed, and a confidence reposed, which would be, in effect, weakened by formalities. The man who would break a silent engagement, merely because it is a silent one, especially when he has taken a course of conduct which he knew would be likely to result in such engagement, and which perhaps he even designed, is deserving of the public contempt. He is even a monster unfit to live in decent society.
But there are such monsters on the earth's surface. There are individuals to be found, who boast of their inhuman depredations on those whom it ought to be their highest happiness to protect and aid, rather than injure. They can witness, almost without emotion, the heavings of a bosom rent with pangs which themselves have inflicted. They can behold their unoffending victim, as unmoved as one who views a philosophical experiment;---not expiring, it is true, but despoiled of what is vastly dearer to her than life---her reputation. They can witness all this, I say, without emotion, and without a single compunction of conscience. And yet they go on, sometimes with apparent prosperity and inward peace. At any rate, they \textit{live}. No lightning blasts them; no volcano pours over them its floods of lava; no earthquake engulfs them. They are permitted to fill up the measure of their wickedness. Perhaps they riot in ease, and become bloated with luxury. But let this description of beings---men I am almost afraid to call them---remember that punishment, though long deferred, cannot be always evaded. A day of retribution must and will arrive. For though they may not be visited by what a portion of the community call special `judgments,' yet their punishment is not the less certain. The wretch who can commit the crime to which I have referred, against a fellow being, and sport with those promises, which, whether direct or indirect, are of all things earthly among the most sacred, will not, unless he repents, rest here. He will go on from step to step in wickedness. He will harden himself against every sensibility to the woes of others, till he becomes a fiend accursed, and whether on this side of the grave, or the other, cannot but be completely miserable. A single sin may not always break in upon habits of virtue so as to ruin an individual at once; but the vices go in gangs, or companies. One admitted and indulged, and the whole gang soon follow. And misery must follow sin, at a distance more or less near, as inevitably as a stone falls to the ground, or the needle points to the pole.
Some young men reason thus with themselves. If doubts about the future have already risen---if my affections already begin to waver at times---what is not to be expected after marriage? And is it not better to separate, even without a mutual concurrence, than to make others, perhaps many others, unhappy for life?
In reply, I would observe, in the first place, that though this is the usual reason which is assigned in such cases, it is not generally the true one. The fact is, the imagination is suffered to wander where it ought not; and the affections are not guarded and restrained, and confined to their proper object. And if there be a diminution of attachment, it is not owing to any change in others, but in ourselves. If our affection has become less ardent, let us look within, for the cause. Shall others suffer for our own fault?
But, secondly, we may do much to control the affections, even after they have begun to wander. We still seek the happiness of the object of our choice, more, perhaps, than that of any other individual. Then let us make it our constant study to promote it. It is a law of our natures, as irrevocable as that of the attraction of gravitation, that doing good to others produces love to them. And for myself I do not believe the affections of a young man \textit{can} diminish towards one whose happiness he is constantly studying to promote by every means in his power, admitting there is no obvious change in her character. So that no young person of principle ought ever to anticipate any such result.
Nor has a man any right to \textit{sport} with the affections of a young woman, in any way whatever. Vanity is generally the tempter in this case; a desire to be regarded as being admired by the women; a very despicable species of vanity, but frequently greatly mischievous, notwithstanding. You do not, indeed, actually, in so many words, promise to marry; but the general tenor of your language and deportment has that meaning; you know that your meaning is so understood; and if you have not such meaning; if you be fixed by some previous engagement with, or greater liking for another; if you know you are here sowing the seeds of disappointment; and if you persevere, in spite of the admonitions of conscience, you are guilty of deliberate deception, injustice and cruelty. You make to God an ungrateful return for those endowments which have enabled you to achieve this inglorious and unmanly triumph; and if, as is frequently the case, you \textit{glory} in such triumph, you may have person, riches, talents to excite envy; but every just and humane man will abhor your heart.
The most direct injury against the spiritual nature of a fellow being is, by leading him into vice. I have heard one young man, who was entrusted six days in the week to form the immortal minds and hearts of a score or two of his fellow beings, deliberately boast of the number of the other sex he had misled. What can be more base? And must not a terrible retribution await such Heaven daring miscreants? Whether they accomplish their purposes by solicitation, by imposing on the judgment, or by powerful compulsion, the wrong is the same, or at least of the same nature; and nothing but timely and hearty repentance can save a wretch of this description from punishment, either here or hereafter.
`Some tempers,' says Burgh, (for nothing can be more in point than his own words) 'are so impotently ductile, that they can refuse nothing to repeated solicitation. Whoever takes the advantage of such persons is guilty of the lowest baseness. Yet nothing is more common than for the debauched part of our sex to show their heroism by a poor triumph, over weak, easy, thoughtless woman!---Nothing is more frequent than to hear them boast of the ruin of that virtue, of which they ought to have been the defenders. ``Poor fool! she loved me, and therefore could refuse me nothing.''---Base coward! Dost thou boast of thy conquest over one, who, by thy own confession, was disabled for resistance,---disabled by her affection for thy worthless self! Does affection deserve such a return Is superior understanding, or rather deeper craft, to be used against thoughtless simplicity, and its shameful success to be boasted of? Dost thou pride thyself that thou hast had art enough to decoy the harmless lamb to thy hand, that thou mightest shed its blood?'
And yet there are such monsters as Burgh alludes to. There are just such beings scattered up and down even the fairest portions of the world we live in, to mar its beauty. We may hope, for the honor of human nature, they are few. He who can bring himself to believe their number to be as great as one in a thousand, may well be disposed to blush
`And hang his head, to own himself a man.'
I have sometimes wished these beings---\textit{men} they are not---would \textit{reflect}, if it were but for one short moment. They will not deny the excellency of the golden rule, of doing to others as they wish others to do by themselves. I say they will not deny it, in theory; why then should they despise it in practice?
Let them \textit{think} a moment. Let them imagine themselves in the place of the injured party. Could this point be gained; could they be induced to reflect long enough to see the enormity of their guilt as it really is, or as the Father in heaven may be supposed to see it, there might be hope in their case. Or if they find it difficult to view themselves as the injured, let them suppose, rather, a sister or a daughter. What seducer is so lost to all natural affection as not to have his whole soul revolt at the bare thought of having a beloved daughter experience the treatment which he has inflicted? Yet the being whom he has ruined had brothers or parents; and those brothers had a sister; and those parents a daughter!
SECTION II. \textit{Licentiousness.}
I wish it were in my power to finish my remarks in this place, without feeling that I had made an important omission. But such is the tendency of human nature, especially in the case of the young and ardent, to turn the most valuable blessings conferred on man into curses,---and poison, at their very sources, the purest streams of human felicity,---that it will be necessary to advert briefly but plainly to some of the most frequent forms of youthful irregularity.
Large cities and thinly settled places are the \textit{extremes} of social life. Here, of course, vice will be found in its worst forms. It is more difficult to say which extreme is worst, among \textit{an equal number of individuals}; but probably the city; for in the country, vice is oftener solitary, and less frequently social; while in the city it is not only \textit{social} but also \textit{solitary}.
A well informed gentleman from New Orleans, of whose own virtue by the way, I have not the \textit{highest} confidence, expressed, lately the strongest apprehension that the whole race of young men in our cities, of the present generation, will be ruined. Others have assured me that in the more northern cities, the prospect is little, if any, more favorable.
It is to be regretted that legislators have not found out the means of abolishing those haunts in cities which might be appropriately termed schools of licentiousness, and thus diminishing an aggregate of temptation already sufficiently large. But the vices, like their votaries, go in companies. Until, therefore, the various haunts of intemperance in eating and drinking, and of gambling and stage-playing, can be broken up, it may be considered vain to hope for the disappearance of those sties of pollution which are their almost inevitable results. We might as well think of drying up the channel of a mighty river, while the fountains which feed it continue to flow as usual.
There is now in Pennsylvania,---it seems unnecessary to name the place---a man thirty-five years old, with all the infirmities of 'three score and ten.' Yet his premature old age, his bending and tottering form, wrinkled face, and hoary head, might be traced to solitary and social \textit{licentiousness}.
This man is not alone. There are thousands in every city who are going the same road; some with slow and cautious steps, others with a fearful rapidity. Thousands of youth on whom high expectations have been placed, are already on the highway that will probably lead down to disease and premature death.
Could the multitude of once active, sprightly, and promising young men, whose souls detested open vice, and who, without dreaming of danger, only found their way occasionally to a lottery office, and still more rarely to the theatre or the gambling house, until led on step by step they ventured down those avenues which lead to the chambers of death, from which few ever return, and none uninjured;---could the multitudes of such beings, which in the United States alone, (though admitted to be the paradise of the world,) have gone down to infamy through licentiousness, be presented to our view, at once, how would it strike us with horror! Their very numbers would astonish us, but how much more their appearance! I am supposing them to appear as they went to the graves, in their bloated and disfigured faces, their emaciated and tottering frames, bending at thirty years of age under the appearance of three or four score; diseased externally and internally; and positively disgusting,---not only to the eye, but to some of the other senses.
One such monster is enough to fill the soul of those who are but moderately virtuous with horror; what then would be the effect of beholding thousands? In view of such a scene, is there a young man in the world, who would not form the strongest resolution not to enter upon a road which ends in wo so remediless?
But it should be remembered that these thousands were once the friends---the children, the brothers,---yes, sometimes the \textit{nearer} relatives of \textit{other} thousands. They had parents, sisters, brothers; sometimes (would it were not true) wives and infants. Suppose the young man whom temptation solicits, were not only to behold the wretched thousands already mentioned, but the many more thousands of dear relatives mourning their loss;---not by death, for that were tolerable---but by an everlasting destruction from the presence of all purity or excellence. Would he not shrink back from the door which he was about to enter, ashamed and aghast, and resolve in the strength of his Creator, never more to indulge a thought of a crime so disastrous in its consequences?
And let every one remember that the army of ruined immortals which have been here presented to the imagination, is by no means a mere fancy sketch. There is a day to come which will disclose a scene of which I have given but a faint picture. For though the thousands who have thus destroyed their own bodies and souls, with their agonized friends and relatives, are scattered among several millions of their fellow citizens, and, for a time, not a few of them elude the public gaze, yet their existence is much a reality, as if they were assembled in one place.
`All this,' it may be said, 'I have often heard, and it may be true. But it does not apply to me. I am in no danger. You speak of a path, I have never entered; or if I have ever done so, I have no idea of returning to it, habitually. I know my own strength; how far to go, and when and where to stop.'
But is there one of all the miserable, in the future world, who did not once think the same? Is there one among the thousands who have thus ruined themselves and those who had been as dear to them as themselves, that did not once feel a proud consciousness that he 'knew his own strength?' Yet now where is he?
Beware, then. Take not the first step. Nay, indulge not for an instant, the \textit{thought} of a first step. Here you are safe. Every where else is danger. Take one step, and the next is more easy; the temptation harder to resist.
Do you call this preaching? Be it so then. I feel, and deeply too, that your immortal minds, those gems which were created to sparkle and shine in the firmament of heaven, are in danger of having their lustre for ever tarnished, and their brightness everlastingly hid beneath a thicker darkness than that which once covered the land of Egypt.
C. S. was educated by New England parents, in one of the most flourishing of New England villages. He was all that anxious friends could hope or desire; all that a happy community could love and esteem. As he rose to manhood he evinced a full share of `Yankee' activity and enterprise. Some of the youth in the neighborhood were traders to the southern States, and C. concluded to try his fortune among the rest.
He was furnished with two excellent horses and a wagon, and every thing necessary to ensure success. His theatre of action was the low country of Virginia and North Carolina, and his head-quarters, N------, whither he used to return after an excursion of a month or six week, to spend a few days in that dissipated village.
Young C. gradually yielded to the temptations which the place afforded. First, he engaged in occasional `drinking bouts,' next in gaming; lastly, he frequented a house of ill fame. This was about the year 1819.
At the end of the year 1820, I saw him, but---now changed! The eye that once beamed with health, and vigor, and cheerfulness, was now dimmed and flattened. The countenance which once shone with love and good-will to man, was pale and suspicious, or occasionally suffused with stagnant, and sickly, and crimson streams. The teeth, which were once as white as ivory, were now blackened by the use of poisonous medicine, given to counteract a still more poisonous and loathsome disease. The frame, which had once been as erect as the stately cedar of Lebanon, was, at the early age of thirty, beginning to bend as with years. The voice, which once spoke forth the sentiments of a soul of comparative purity, now not unfrequently gave vent to the licentious song, the impure jest, and the most shocking oaths, and heaven-daring impiety and blasphemy. The hands which were once like the spirit within, were now not unfrequently joined in the dance, with the vilest of the vile!
I looked, too, at his external circumstances Once he had friends whom he loved to see, and from whom he was glad to hear. Now it was a matter of indifference both to him and them whether they ever saw each other. The hopes of parents, and especially of `her that bare him' were laid in the dust; and to the neighborhood of which he had once been the pride and the ornament, he was fast becoming as if he had never been.
He had travelled first with two horses, next with one; afterward on foot with a choice assortment of jewelry and other pedlar's wares; now his assortment was reduced to a mere handful. He could purchase to the value of a few dollars, take a short excursion, earn a small sum, and return---not to a respectable house, as once,---but to the lowest of resorts, to expend it.
Here, in 1821, I last saw him; a fair candidate for the worst contagious diseases which occasionally infest that region, and a pretty sure victim to the first severe attack. Or if he should even escape these, with the certainty before him of a very short existence, at best.
This is substantially the history of many a young man whose soul was once as spotless as that of C. S. Would that young men knew their strength, and their dignity; and would put forth but half the energy that God has given them. Then they would never approach the confines of those regions of dissipation, for when they have once entered them, the soul and the body are often ruined forever.
There are in every city hundreds of young men---I regret to say it,---who should heed this warning voice. \textit{Now} they are happily situated, beloved, respected. They are engaged in useful and respectable avocations, and looking forward to brighter and better scenes. Let them beware lest there should be causes in operation, calculated to sap the foundations of the castle which fancy's eye has builded, (and which might even be realized); and lest their morning sun, which is now going forth in splendor, be not shrouded in darkness ere it has yet attained its meridian height.
Every city affords places and means of amusement, at once rational, satisfying, and improving. Such are collections of curiosities, natural and artificial, lectures on science, debating clubs, lyceums, \&c. Then the libraries which abound, afford a source of never ending amusement and instruction. Let these suffice. At least, `touch not, handle not' that which an accumulated and often sorrowful experience has shown to be accursed.
Neither resort to \textit{solitary} vice. If this practice should not injure your system immediately, it will in the end. I am sorry to be obliged to advert to this subject; but I know there is occasion. Youth, especially those who lead a confined life, seek occasional excitement. Such sometimes resort to this lowest,---I may say most destructive of practices. Such is the constitution of things, as the Author of Nature has established it, that if every other vicious act were to escape its merited punishment in this world, the one in question could not. Whatever its votaries may think, it never fails, in a single instance, to injure them, personally; and consequently their posterity, should any succeed them.
It is not indeed true that the foregoing vices do of themselves, produce all this mischief \textit{directly}; but as Dr. Paley has well said, \textit{criminal intercourse} 'corrupts and \textit{depraves the mind} more than any single vice whatsoever.' It gradually benumbs the conscience, and leads on, step by step, to those blacker vices at which the youth would once have shuddered.
But debasing as this vice is, it is scarcely more so than solitary gratification. The former is not always at hand; is attended, it may be, with expense; and with more or less danger of exposure. But the latter is practicable whenever temptation or rather imagination solicits, and appears to the morbid eye of sense, to be attended with no hazard. Alas! what a sad mistake is made here! It is a fact well established by medical men, that every error on this point is injurious; and that the constitution is often more surely or more effectually impaired by causes which do not appear to injure it in the least, than by occasional and heavier shocks, which rouse it to a reaction. The one case may be compared to daily \textit{tippling}, the other to those \textit{periodical} drunken frolics, which, having an interval of weeks or months between them, give the system time to recover, in part, (but \textit{in part only}) from the violence it had sustained.
I wish to put the younger portion of my readers upon their guard against a set of wretches who take pains to initiate youth, while yet almost children, into the practice of the vice to which I have here adverted. Domestics---where the young are too familiar with them---\textit{have} been known to be thus ungrateful to their employers. There are, however, people of several classes, who do not hesitate to mislead, in this manner.
But the misfortune is, that this book will not be apt to fall into the hands of those to whom \textit{these} remarks apply, till the ruinous habit is already formed. And then it is that counsel sometimes comes too late. Should these pages meet the eye of any who have been misled, let them remember that they have begun a career which multitudes repent bitterly; and from which few are apt to return. But there have been instances of reform; therefore none ought to despair. 'What man has done, man may do.'
They should first set before their minds the nature of the practice, and the evils to which it exposes. But here comes the difficulty. What \textit{are} its legitimate evils? They know indeed that the written laws of God condemn it; but the punishment which those laws threaten, appears to be remote and uncertain. Or if not, they are apt to regard it as the punishment of \textit{excess}, merely. \textit{They}, prudent souls, would not, for the world, plunge into excess. Besides, '\textit{they} injure none but \textit{themselves},' they tell us.
Would it were true that they injured none but \textit{themselves}! Would there were no generations yet unborn to suffer by inheriting feeble constitutions, or actual disease, from their progenitors!
Suppose, however, they really injured nobody but themselves. Have they a right to do even this? They will not maintain, for one moment, that they have a right to take away their own life. By what right, then, do they allow themselves to shorten it, or diminish its happiness while it lasts?
Here the question recurs again: \textit{Does} solitary gratification actually shorten life, or diminish its happiness?
The very fact that the laws of God forbid it, is an affirmative answer to this question. For nothing is more obvious than that all other vices which that law condemns, stand in the way of our present happiness, as well as the happiness of futurity. Is this alone an exception to the general rule?
But I need not make my appeal to this kind of authority. You rely on human testimony. You believe a thousand things which yourselves never saw or heard. \textit{Why} do you believe them, \textit{except} upon testimony---I mean given either verbally, or, what is the same thing, in books?
Now if the accumulated testimony of medical writers from the days of Galen, and Celsus, and Hippocrates, to the present hour, could have any weight with you, it would settle the point at once. I have collected, briefly, the results of medical testimony on this subject, in the next chapter; but if you will take my statements for the present, I will assure you that I \textit{have before me} documents enough to fill half a volume like this, from those who have studied deeply these subjects, whose united language is, that the practice in question, indulged in \textit{any degree}, is destructive to body and mind; and that although, in vigorous young men, no striking evil may for some time appear, yet the punishment can no more be \textit{evaded}, except by early death, than the motion of the earth can be hindered. And all this, too, without taking into consideration the terrors of a judgment to come.
But why, then, some may ask, are animal propensities given us, if they are not to be indulged? The appropriate reply is, they \textit{are} to be indulged; but it is only in accordance with the laws of God; never otherwise. And the wisdom of these laws, did they not rest on other and better proof, is amply confirmed by that great body of medical experience already mentioned. God has delegated to man, a sort of \textit{subcreative} power to perpetuate his own race. Such a wonderful work required a wonderful apparatus. And such is furnished. The texture of the organs for this purpose is of the most tender and delicate kind, scarcely equalled by that of the eye, and quite as readily injured; and this fact ought to be known, and considered. But instead of leaving to human choice or caprice the execution of the power thus delegated, the great Creator has made it a matter of \textit{duty}; and has connected with the lawful discharge of that duty, as with all others, \textit{enjoyment}. But when this enjoyment is sought in any way, not in accordance with the laws prescribed by reason and revelation, we diminish (whatever giddy youth may suppose,) the sum total of our own happiness. Now this is not the cold speculation of age, or monkish austerity. It is sober matter of fact.
It is said that young men are sometimes in circumstances which forbid their conforming to these laws, were they disposed to do so.
Not so often however, as is commonly supposed. Marriage is not such a mountain of difficulty as many imagine. This I have already attempted to show. One circumstance to be considered, in connection with this subject, is, that in any society, the more there is of criminal indulgence, whether secret or social, the more strongly are excuses for neglecting matrimony urged. Every step which a young man takes in forbidden paths, affords him a plea in behalf of the next. The farther he goes, the less the probability of his returning to the ways of purity, or entering those of domestic felicity.
People in such places as London and Paris, marry much later in life, upon the average, than in country places. And is not the cause obvious? And is not the same cause beginning to produce similar effects in our own American cities?
But suppose celibacy in some cases, to \textit{be} unavoidable, can a life of continence, in the fullest sense of the term, be favorable to \textit{health}? This question is answered by those to whose writings I have already referred, in the affirmative. But it is also answered by facts, though from the nature of the case these facts are not always easy of access. We have good reason to believe that Sir Isaac Newton and Dr. Fothergill, never for once in their lives deviated from the strict laws of rectitude on this point. And we have no evidence that they were sufferers for their rigid course of virtue. The former certainly enjoyed a measure of health and reached an age, to which few, in any circumstances, attain; and the latter led an active and useful life to nearly three-score and ten. There are living examples of the same purity of character, but they cannot, of course, be mentioned in this work.
Several erroneous views in regard to the animal economy which have led to the very general opinion that a life of celibacy---strictly so, I mean---cannot be a life of health, might here be exposed, did either the limits or the nature of the work permit. It is not that a state of celibacy---entirely so, I always mean---is positively \textit{injurious}; but that a state of matrimony is more \textit{useful}; and, as a general rule, attended with \textit{more happiness}.
It is most ardently to be hoped, that the day is not far distant when every young man will study the laws and functions of the human frame for himself. This would do more towards promoting individual purity and public happiness, than all the reasoning in the world can accomplish without it. Men, old or young, must see for themselves how `fearfully' as well as `wonderfully' they are made, before they can have a thorough and abiding conviction of the nature of \textit{disobedience}, or of the penalties that attend, as well as follow it. And in proportion, as the subject is studied and understood, may we not hope celibacy will become less frequent, and marriage---honorable, and, if you please, \textit{early} marriage---be more highly estimated?
This work is not addressed to parents; but should it be read by any who have sons, at an age, and in circumstances, which expose them to temptation, and in a way which will be very apt to secure their fall, let them beware.[14]
Still, the matter must be finally decided by the young themselves. They, in short, must determine the question whether they will rise in the scale of being, through every period of their existence, or sink lower and lower in the depths of degradation and wo. They must be, after all, the arbiters of their own fate. No influences, human or divine, will ever \textit{force} them to happiness.
The remainder of this section will be devoted to remarks on the causes which operate to form licentious feelings and habits in the young. My limits, however, will permit me to do little more than mention them. And if some of them might be addressed with more force to parents than to young men, let it be remembered that the young \textit{may be} parents, and if they cannot recall the past, and correct the errors in their own education, they can, at least, hope to prevent the same errors in the education of others.
\begin{quotation}
[14] Parents who \textit{inform} their children on this subject, generally begin too late. Familiar conversational explanation, begun as soon as there is reason to apprehend danger, and judiciously pursued, is perhaps the most successful method of preventing evil.\end{quotation}
1. FALSE DELICACY.
Too much of real delicacy can never be inculcated; but in our early management, we seem to implant the \textit{false}, instead of the true. The language we use, in answering the curious questions of children, often leads to erroneous associations of ideas; and it is much better to be silent. By the falsehoods which we think it necessary to tell, we often excite still greater curiosity, instead of satisfying that which already exists. I will not undertake to decide what ought to be done; but \textit{silence}, I am certain, would be far better than falsehood.
There is another error, which is laid deeper still, because it begins earlier. I refer to the half Mohammedan practice of separating the two sexes at school. This practice, I am aware has strong advocates; but it seems to me they cannot have watched closely the early operations of their own minds, and observed how curiosity was awakened, and wanton imaginations fostered by distance, and apparent and needless reserve.
2. LICENTIOUS BOOKS, PICTURES, \&C.
This unnatural reserve, and the still more unnatural falsehoods already mentioned, prepare the youthful mind for the reception of any thing which has the semblance of information on the points to which curiosity is directed. And now comes the danger. The world abounds in impure publications, which almost all children, (boys especially,) at sometime or other, contrive to get hold of, in spite of parental vigilance. If these books contained truth, and nothing but truth, their clandestine circulation would do less mischief. But they generally impart very little information which is really valuable; on the contrary they contain much falsehood; especially when they profess to instruct on certain important subjects. Let me repeat it then, they cannot be relied on; and in the language of another book, on another subject; 'He that trusteth' to them, `is a fool.'
The same remarks might be extended, and with even more justice, to licentious paintings and engravings, which circulate in various ways. And I am sorry to include in this charge not a few which are publicly exhibited for sale, in the windows of our shops. You may sometimes find obscene pictures under cover of a watch-case or snuff box. In short, there would often seem to be a general combination of human and infernal efforts to render the juvenile thoughts and affections impure; and not a few parents themselves enter into the horrible league.
On this subject Dr. Dwight remarks; 'The numbers of the poet, the delightful melody of song, the fascination of the chisel, and the spell of the pencil, have been all volunteered in the service of Satan for the moral destruction of unhappy man. To finish this work of malignity the stage has lent all its splendid apparatus of mischief; the shop has been converted into a show-box of temptations; and its owner into a pander of iniquity.' And in another place; 'Genius, in every age, and in every country, has, to a great extent, prostituted its elevated powers for the deplorable purpose of seducing thoughtless minds to \textit{this sin}.' Are these remarks too sweeping? In my own opinion, not at all. Let him, who doubts, take a careful survey of the whole of this dangerous ground.
3. OBSCENE AND IMPROPER SONGS.
The prostitution of the melody of song, mentioned by Dr. Dwight, reminds me of another serious evil. Many persons, and even not a few intelligent parents, seem to think that a loose or immoral song cannot much injure their children, especially if they express their disapprobation of it afterwards. As if the language of the tongue could give the lie to the language of the heart, already written, and often deeply, in the eye and countenance. For it is notorious that a considerable proportion of parents tolerate songs containing very improper sentiments, and hear them with obvious interest, how much soever they may wish their children to have a better and purer taste. The common `love songs' are little better than those already mentioned.
It is painful to think what errors on this subject are sometimes tolerated even by decent society. I knew a schoolmaster who did not hesitate to join occasional parties, (embracing, among others, professedly Christian parents,) for the purpose of spending his long winter evenings, in hearing songs from a very immoral individual, not a few of which were adapted to the most corrupt taste, and unfit to be heard in good society. Yet the community in which he taught was deemed a religious community; and the teacher himself prayed in his school, morning and evening! Others I have known to conduct even worse, though perhaps not quite so openly.
I mention these things, not to reproach teachers,---for I think their moral character, in this country, generally, far better than their intellectual,---but as a specimen of perversion in the public sentiment; and also as a hint to all who have the care of the young. Pupils at school, cannot fail to make correct inferences from such facts as the foregoing.
4. DOUBLE ENTENDRES.[15]
By this is meant seemingly \textit{decent speeches, with double meanings}. I mention these because they prevail, in some parts of the country, to a most alarming degree; and because parents seem to regard them as perfectly harmless. Shall I say---to show the extent of the evil---that they are sometimes heard from both parents? Now no serious observer of human life and conduct can doubt that by every species of impure language, whether in the form of hints, innuendoes, double entendres, or plainer speech, impure thoughts are awakened, a licentious imagination inflamed, and licentious purposes formed, which would otherwise never have existed. Of all such things an inspired writer has long ago said---and the language is still applicable;---'Let them not be so much as named among you.'
I have been in families where these loose insinuations, and coarse innuendoes were so common, that the presence of respectable company scarcely operated as a restraint upon the unbridled tongues, even of the parents! Many of these things had been repeated so often, and under such circumstances that the children, at a very early age, perfectly understood their meaning and import. Yet had these very same children asked for direct information, at this time, on the subjects which had been rendered familiar to them thus incidentally, the parents would have startled; and would undoubtedly have repeated to them part of a string of falsehoods, with which they had been in the habit of attempting to `cover up' these matters; though with the effect, in the end, of rendering the children only so much the more curious and inquisitive.
But this is not all. The filling of the juvenile mind, long before nature brings the body to maturity, with impure imaginations, not only preoccupies the ground which is greatly needed for something else, and fills it with shoots of a noxious growth, but actually induces, if I may so say, a \textit{precocious maturity}. What I mean, is, that there arises a morbid or diseased state of action of the vessels of the sexual system, which paves the way for premature physical developement, and greatly increases the danger of youthful irregularity.
[15] Pronounced \textit{entaunders}.
5. EVENING PARTIES.
One prolific source of licentious feeling and action may be found, I think, in evening parties, especially when protracted to a late hour. It has always appeared to me that the injury to health which either directly or indirectly grows out of evening parties, was a sufficient objection to their recurrence, especially when the assembly is crowded, the room greatly heated, or when music and dancing are the accompaniments. Not a few young ladies, who after perspiring freely at the latter exercise, go out into the damp night air, in a thin dress, contract consumption; and both sexes are very much exposed, in this way, to colds, rheumatisms, and fevers.
But the great danger, after all, is to reputation and morals. Think of a group of one hundred young ladies and gentlemen assembling at evening, and under cover of the darkness, joining in conclave, and heating themselves with exercise and refreshments of an exciting nature, such as coffee, tea, wine, \&c, and in some parts of our country with diluted distilled spirit; and `keeping up the steam,' as it is sometimes called, till twelve or one o'clock, and frequently during the greater part of the night. For what kind and degree of \textit{vice}, do not such scenes prepare those who are concerned in them?
Nothing which is here said is intended to be levelled against dancing, in itself considered; but only against such a use, or rather \textit{abuse} of it as is made to inflame and feed impure imaginations and bad passions. On the subject of dancing as an amusement, I have already spoken in another part of the work.
I have often wondered why the strange opinion has come to prevail, especially among the industrious yeomanry of the interior of our country, that it is economical to turn night into day, in this manner. Because they cannot very well spare their sons or apprentices in the daytime, as they suppose, they suffer them to go abroad in the evening, and perhaps to be out all night, when it may justly be questioned whether the loss of energy which they sustain does not result in a loss of effort during one or two subsequent days, at least equal to the waste of a whole afternoon. I am fully convinced, on my own part, that he who should give up to his son or hired laborer an afternoon, would actually lose a less amount of labor, taking the week together, than he who should only give up for this purpose the hours which nature intended should be spent in sleep.
But---I repeat it---the moral evil outweighs all other considerations. It needs not an experience of thirty years, nor even of twenty, to convince even a careless observer that no small number of our youth of both sexes, have, through the influence of late evening parties, gone down to the chambers of drunkenness and debauchery; and, with the young man mentioned by Solomon, descended through them to those of death and hell.
It may be worth while for those sober minded and, otherwise, judicious Christians, who are in the habit of attending fashionable parties at late hours, and taking their `refreshments,' to consider whether they may not be a means of keeping up, by their example, those more vulgar assemblies, with all their grossness, which I have been describing. Is it not obvious that what the \textit{wine}, and the fruit, and the oysters, are to the more refined and Christian circles, wine and fermented liquors may be to the more blunt sensibilities of body and mind, in youthful circles of another description? But if so, where rests the guilt? Or shall we bless the fountains, while we curse the stream they form?
SECTION III. \textit{Diseases of Licentiousness}.
The importance of this and the foregoing section will be differently estimated by different individuals. They were not inserted, however, without consideration, nor without the approbation of persons who enjoy a large measure of public confidence. The young ought at least to know, briefly, to what a formidable host of maladies secret vice is exposed.
1. \textit{Insanity.} The records of hospitals show that insanity, from solitary indulgence, is common. Tissot, Esquirol, Eberle, and others, give ample testimony on this point. The latter, from a careful examination of the facts, assures us that in Paris the proportion of insane persons whose diseases may be traced to the source in question, is \textit{one} in from \textit{fifty-one} to \textit{fifty-eight}, in the \textit{lower classes}. In the higher classes it is \textit{one} in \textit{twenty-three}. In the insane Hospital of Massachusetts---I have it from authority which I cannot question,---the proportion is at least one in three or four. At present there are about twenty cases of the kind alluded to.
2. \textit{Chorea Sancti Viti}; or \textit{St. Vitus's dance}. This strange disease, in which the muscles of the body are not always at the command of the patient, and in which the head, the arms, the legs, and indeed every part which is made for muscular motion often jerks about in a very singular manner, is sometimes produced in the same way. Insanity and this disease are occasionally combined. I have known one young man in this terrible condition, and have read authentic accounts of others.
3. \textit{Epilepsy.} Epileptic or \textit{falling sickness fits}, as they are sometimes denominated, are another very common scourge of secret vice. How much they are to be dreaded almost every one can judge; for there are few who have not seen those who are afflicted with them. They usually weaken the mind, and sometimes entirely destroy it. I knew one epileptic individual who used to dread them more than death; and would gladly have preferred the latter.
4. \textit{Idiotism.} Epilepsy, as I have already intimated, often runs on to idiotism; but sometimes the miserable young man becomes an idiot, without the intervention of any other obvious disease.
5. \textit{Paralysis} or \textit{Palsy}, is no uncommon punishment of this transgression. There are, however, several forms of this disease. Sometimes, a slight numbness of a single toe or finger is the first symptom of its approach; but at others a whole hand, arm, or leg is affected. In the present case, the first attacks are not very violent, as if to give the offender opportunity to return to the path of rectitude. Few, however, take the hint and return, till the chains of their slavery are riveted, and their health destroyed by this or some other form of disease. I have seen dissipated young men who complained of the numbness of a finger or two and the corresponding portion of the hand and wrist, who probably did not themselves suspect the cause; but I never knew the disorder permanently removed, except by a removal of the cause which produced it.
6. \textit{Apoplexy.} This has occasionally happened; though more rarely.
7. \textit{Blindness}, in some of its forms, especially of that form usually called \textit{gutta serena}, should also be added to our dark catalogue. Indeed a weakness of sight is among the first symptoms that supervene on these occasions.
8. \textit{Hypochondria.} This is as much a disease by itself as the small pox, though many regard it otherwise. The mind is diseased, and the individual has many imaginary sufferings, it is true; but the imagination would not be thus unnaturally awake, if there were no accompanying disturbance in the bodily functions. Hypochondria, in its more aggravated forms, is a very common result of secret vice.
9. \textit{Phthisis}, or consumption, is still more frequently produced by the cause we are considering, than any other disease I have mentioned. And we know well the history of this disease; that, though slow in its progress, the event is certain. In this climate, it is one of the most destructive scourges of our race. If the ordinary diseases slay their thousands, consumption slays its tens of thousands. Its approach is gradual, and often unsuspected; and the decline to the grave sometimes unattended by any considerable suffering. Is it not madness to expose ourselves to its attacks for the shortlived gratifications of a moment?
There is indeed a peculiar form of this disease which, in the case in question, is more commonly produced than any other. It is called, in the language of physicians, \textit{tabes dorsalis}, or \textit{dorsal} consumption; because it is supposed to arise from the \textit{dorsal} portion of the spinal marrow. This disease sometimes, it is true, attacks young married people, especially where they go \textit{beyond} the bounds which the Author of nature intended; and it is occasionally produced by other causes entirely different; causes, too, which it would be difficult, if not impossible to prevent. Generally, however, it is produced by \textit{solitary vice}.
The most striking symptom of this disease is described as being a `sensation of ants, crawling from the head down along the spine;' but this sensation is not always felt, for sometimes in its stead there is, rather, a very great weakness of the small part of the back, attended with pain. This is accompanied with emaciation, and occasionally, though not always, with an irregular appetite. Indeed, persons affected with this disease generally have a good appetite. There is usually little fever, or at most only a slight heat and thirst towards evening, with occasional flushings of the face; and still more rarely, profuse perspirations in the latter part of the night. But the latter symptom belongs more properly to common consumption. The sight, as I have already mentioned, grows dim; they have pains in the head and sometimes ringing in the ears, and a loss of memory. Finally, the legs become weak, the kidneys and stomach suffer, and many other difficulties arise which I cannot mention in this work, followed often by an acute fever; and unless the abominable practice which produced all the mischief is abandoned, death follows. But when many of the symptoms which I have mentioned, are really fastened upon an individual, he has sustained an injury which can never be wholly repaired. All he can hope is to prolong his days, and lengthen out his life---often a distressing one. A few well authenticated examples of persons who debased themselves by secret vice, will, I hope, satisfy those who doubt the evils of this practice.
One young man thus expressed his sufferings to his physician. 'My very great debility renders the performance of every motion difficult. That of my legs is often so great, that I can scarcely stand erect; and I fear to leave my chamber. Digestion is so imperfect that the food passes unchanged, three or four hours after it has been taken into the stomach. I am oppressed with phlegm, the presence of which causes pain; and the expectoration, exhaustion. This is a brief history of my miseries. Each day brings with it an increase of all my woes. Nor do I believe that any human creature ever suffered more. Without a special interposition of Divine Providence, I cannot support so painful an existence.'
Another thus writes; 'Were I not restrained by \textit{sentiments} of \textit{religion},[16] I should ere this have put an end to my existence; which is the more insupportable as it is caused by myself.'
`I cannot walk two hundred paces,' says another 'without resting myself; my feebleness is extreme; I have constant pains in every part of the body, but particularly in the shoulders and chest. My appetite is good, but this is a misfortune, since what I eat causes pains in my stomach, and is vomited up. If I read a page or two, my eyes are filled with tears and become painful:---I often sigh involuntarily.'
A fourth says; 'I rest badly at night, and am much troubled with dreams. The lower part of my back is weak, my eyes are often painful, and my eyelids swelled and red. I have an almost constant cold; and an oppression at the stomach. In short, I had rather be laid in the silent tomb, and encounter that dreadful uncertainty, \textit{hereafter}, than remain in my present unhappy and degraded situation.'
The reader should remember that the persons whose miseries are here described, were generally sufferers from \textit{hypochondria}. They had not advanced to the still more horrid stages of palsy, apoplexy, epilepsy, idiotism, St. Vitus's dance, blindness, or insanity. But they had gone so far, that another step in the same path, might have rendered a return impossible.
The reader will spare me the pain of presenting, in detail, any more of these horrid cases. I write for YOUNG MEN, the strength---the bone, muscle, sinew, and nerve---of our beloved country. I write for those who,---though some of them may have erred---are glad to be advised, and if they deem the advice good, are anxious to follow it. I write, too, in vain, if it be not for young men who will resolve on reformation, when they believe that their present and future happiness is at stake. And, lastly, I have not read correctly the pages in the book of human nature if I do not write for those who can, with God's help, keep every good resolution.
There are a few publications to which those who are awake to the importance of this subject, might safely be directed. One or two will be mentioned presently. It is true that their authors have, in some instances, given us the details of such cases of disease as occur but rarely. Still, what has happened, in this respect, may happen again. And as no moderate drinker of fermented or spirituous liquors can ever know, with certainty, that if he continues his habit, he may not finally arrive at confirmed drunkenness, and the worst diseases which attend it, so no person who departs but once from rectitude in the matter before us, has any assurance that he shall not sooner or later suffer all the evils which they so faithfully describe.
When a young man, who is pursuing an unhappy course of solitary vice, threatened as we have seen by the severest penalties earth or heaven can impose,---begins to perceive a loss or irregularity of his appetite; acute pains in his stomach, especially during digestion, and constant vomitings;---when to this is added a weakness of the lungs, often attended by a dry cough, hoarse weak voice, and hurried or difficult breathing after using considerable exertion, with a general relaxation of the nervous system;---when these appearances, or symptoms, as physicians call them, take place---let him \textit{beware}! for punishment of a severer kind cannot be distant.
I hope I shall have no reader to whom these remarks apply; but should it be otherwise, happy will it be for him if he takes the alarm, and walks not another step in the downward road to certain and terrible retribution. Happiest, however, is he who has never erred from the first; and who reads these pages as he reads of those awful scenes in nature,---the devastations of the lightning, the deluge, the tornado, the earthquake, and the volcano; as things to be lamented, and their horrors if possible mitigated or averted, but with which he has little personal concern.
Sympathizing, however, with his fellow beings---for though \textit{fallen}, they still belong to the same family---should any reader who sees this work, wish to examine the subject still more intimately, I recommend to him a Lecture to Young Men, lately published in Providence. I would also refer him, to Rees' Cyclopedia, art. \textit{Physical Education}.
The article last referred to is so excellent, that I have decided on introducing, in this place, the closing paragraph. The writer had been treating the subject, much in the manner I have done, only at greater length, and had enumerated the diseases to which it leads, at the same time insisting on the importance of informing the young, in a proper manner, of their danger, wherever the urgency of the case required it. After quoting numerous passages of Scripture, which, in speaking of impurity, evidently include this practice, and denouncing it in severe terms, he closes with the following striking remarks.
'There can be no doubt that God has forbidden it by the usual course of providence. Its moral effects, in destroying the purity of the mind, in swallowing up its best affections, and perverting its sensibilities into this depraved channel, are among its most injurious consequences; and are what render it so peculiarly difficult to eradicate the evil. In proportion as the habit strengthens the difficulty of breaking it, of course, increases; and while the tendency of the feelings to this point increases, the vigor of the mind to effect the conquest of the habit gradually lessens.
'We would tell him (the misguided young man) that whatever might be said in newspapers respecting the power of medicine in such cases, nothing could be done without absolute self-control; and that no medicine whatever could retrieve the mischiefs which the want of it had caused: and that the longer the practice was continued, the greater would be the bodily and mental evils it would inevitably occasion.
'We would then advise him to avoid all situations in which he found his propensities excited; and especially, as far as possible, all in which they had been gratified; to check the thoughts and images which excited them; to shun those associates, or at least that conversation, and those books, which have the same effect; to avoid all stimulating food and liquor; to sleep cool on a hard bed; to rise early, and at once; and to go to bed when likely to fall asleep at once; to let his mind be constantly occupied, though not exerted to excess; and to let his bodily powers be actively employed, every day, to a degree which will make a hard bed the place of sound repose.
'Above all, we would urge him to impress his mind (at times when the mere thought of it would not do him harm) with a feeling of horror at the practice; to dwell upon its sinfulness and most injurious effects; and to cultivate, by every possible means, an habitual sense of the constant presence of a holy and heart-searching God, and a lively conviction of the awful effects of his displeasure.'
I should be sorry to leave an impression on any mind that other forms of licentiousness are innocent, or that they entail no evils on the constitution. I have endeavored to strike most forcibly, it is true, at solitary vice; but it was for this plain reason, that few of the young seem to regard it as any crime at all. Some even consider it indispensable to health. This belief I have endeavored to shake; with how much success, eternity only can determine.
Of the guilt of those forms of irregularity, in which \textit{more} than one individual and sex are \textit{necessarily} concerned, many of the young are already apprized. At least they are generally acquainted with the more prominent evils which result from what they call excess. Still if followed in what they deem moderation, and with certain precautions which could be named, not a few are ready to believe, at least in the moment of temptation, that there is no great harm in following their inclinations.
Now in regard to what constitutes excess, every one who is not moved by Christian principle, will of necessity, have his own standard, just as it is in regard to solitary vice, or the use of ardent spirits. And herein consists a part of the guilt. And it is not till this conviction of our constant tendency to establish an incorrect standard for ourselves, and to go, in the end, to the greatest lengths and depths and heights of guilt, can be well established in our minds, that we shall ever be induced to avoid the first steps in that road which may end in destruction; and to take as the only place of safety, the high ground of total abstinence.
But although the young are not wholly destitute of a sense of the evils of what they call excess, and of the shame of what is well known to be its frequent and formidable results,---so far as themselves are concerned,---yet they seem wholly ignorant of any considerable danger short of this. For so far are they from admitting that the force of conscience is weakened by every repeated known and wilful transgression, many think, (as I have already stated) promiscuous intercourse, where no matrimonial rights are invaded, if it be so managed as to exempt the parties immediately concerned from all immediate suffering both moral and physical, can scarcely be called a transgression, at all.
I wish it were practicable to extend these remarks far enough to show, as plain as noon-day light can make it, that every criminal act of this kind---I mean every instance of irregularity---not only produces evil to society generally, in the present generation, but also inflicts evil on those that follow. For to say nothing of those horrid cases where the infants of licentious parents not only inherit vicious dispositions, but ruined bodies---even to a degree, that in some instances excludes a possibility of the child's surviving many days;---there are other forms of disease often entailed on the young which as certainly consign the sufferer to an early grave, though the passage thither may be more tedious and lingering.
How must it wring the heart of a feeling young parent to see his first born child, which for any thing he knows, might have been possessed of a sound and vigorous body, like other children, enter the world with incipient scrofula, diseased joints or bones, and eruptive diseases, in some of their worst forms? Must not the sight sink him to the very dust? And would he not give worlds---had he worlds to give---to reverse those irreversible but inscrutable decrees of Heaven, which visit the sins of parents upon their descendants---'unto the third and fourth generation?'
But how easy is it, by timely reflection, and fixed moral principle, to prevent much of that disease which `worlds' cannot wholly cure, when it is once inflicted!
I hazard nothing in saying, then---and I might appeal to the whole medical profession to sustain me in my assertion---that no person whose system ever suffers, once, from those forms of disease which approach nearest to the character of special judgments of Heaven on sin or shame, can be sure of ever wholly recovering from their effects on his own person; and what is still worse, can ever be sure of being the parent of a child whose constitution shall be wholly untainted with disease, of one kind or another.
This matter is not often understood by the community generally; especially by the young. I might tell them of the diseased eyesight; the ulcerated---perhaps deformed---nose and ears, and neck; the discoloration, decay, and loss of teeth; the destruction of the palate, and the fearful inroads of disease on many other soft parts of the body; besides the softening and ulceration and decay and eventual destruction of the bones; and to crown all, the awfully offensive breath and perspiration; and I might entreat them to abstain, in the fear of God, from those abuses of the constitution which not unfrequently bring down upon them such severe forms of punishment.
A thorough knowledge of the human system and the laws to which all organized bodies are subjected, would, in this respect, do much in behalf of mankind; for such would be the change of public sentiment, that the sensual could not hold up their heads so boldly, as they now do, in the face of it. Happy for mankind when the vicious shall be obliged, universally, to pass in review before this enlightened tribunal!
Young men ought to study physiology. It is indeed to be regretted that there are so few books on this subject adapted to popular use. But in addition to those recommended at page 346, there are portions of several works which may be read with advantage by the young. Such are some of the more intelligible parts of Richerand's Physiology, as at page 38 of the edition with Dr. Chapman's notes; and of the 'Outlines of Physiology,' and the `Anatomical Class Book,' two works recently issued in Boston. It must, however, be confessed, that none of these works are sufficiently divested of technicalities, to be well adapted, as a whole, to the general reader. Physiology is one of those fountains at which it is somewhat dangerous to `taste,' unless we `drink deep;' on account of the tendency of superficial knowledge to empiricism. Still, I am fully of the opinion that even superficial knowledge, on this long neglected topic, is less dangerous both to the individual and to the community, than entire ignorance.
And after all, the best guides would be PARENTS. When will Heaven confer such favors upon us? When will parents become parents indeed? When will one father or mother in a hundred, exercise the true parental prerogative, and point out to those whom God has given them, as circumstances may from time to time demand, the most dangerous rocks and whirlpools to which, in the voyage of life, they are exposed? When will every thing else be done for the young rather than that which ought never to be left undone?
Say not, young reader, that I am wandering. You may be a father. God grant that if you are, you may also act the parent. Let me beg you to resolve, and if necessary re-resolve. And not only resolve, but act. If you are ready to pronounce me enthusiastic on this subject, let me beg you to suspend your judgment till the responsibilities and the duties and the anxieties of a parent thicken round you.
It is painful to see---every where---the most unquestionable evidence that this department of education is unheeded. Do you ask how the evidence is obtained? I answer by asking you how the physician can discover,---as undoubtedly he can,---the progress of the drinker of spirituous liquors, by his eye, his features, his breath, nay his very perspiration. And do you think that the sons or daughters of sensuality, in any of its forms, and at any of its stages, can escape his observation?
But of what use is his knowledge, if he may not communicate it? What person would endure disclosures of this kind respecting himself or his nearest, perhaps his dearest and most valued friends? No! the physician's lips must be sealed, and his tongue dumb; and the young must go down to their graves, rather than permit him to make any effort to save them, lest offence should be given!
The subject is, however, gaining a hold on the community, for which none of us can be too thankful. I am acquainted with more than one parent, who is a parent indeed; for there is no more reserve on these subjects, than any other. The sons do not hesitate to ask parental counsel and seek parental aid, in every known path of temptation. Heaven grant that such instances may be speedily multiplied. A greater work of reform can scarcely be desired or anticipated.
But I must draw to a close. Oh that the young `wise,' and that they would `consider!' 'There is a way which seemeth right unto a man, but the end thereof is death.'
There is, then, but one course for the young. Let them do that which they know to be right, and avoid not only that which they are sure is wrong, but that also of which they have \textit{doubts}. Let them do this, moreover, in the fear and love of God. In the language of a great statesman of the United States to his nephew, a little before his death, let me exhort you, to 'Give up property, \textit{give up every thing---give up even life itself, rather than presume to do an immoral act}.' Let me remind you too, of the declaration of that Wisdom which is Infinite;---'HE THAT SINNETH AGAINST GOD, DESTROYETH HIS OWN SOUL.'
\begin{quotation}
[16] What inadequate ideas are sometimes entertained by young professors of religion, and even by those more advanced, in regard to the purity of character which \textit{is} indispensable to the enjoyment of a world of bliss---a world whose very source, sum, end and essence, are \textit{Infinite} Purity itself!\end{quotation}
\begin{quotation}
Since the first edition of this work was published, I have received several letters of thanks for having ventured upon this long neglected, but important subject. Teachers, especially, have acknowledged their obligations, both in person and by correspondence. One teacher, in particular, a man of considerable experience, writes as follows:---\end{quotation}
\begin{quotation}
'The last chapter of the book, is by no means, in my view, the least important. I regret to say that many \textit{religious} young men, through ignorance, are attached to the last mentioned vice. I could wish that what you have written could be carefully read by every \textit{young} man, at least, in our land. Alas, dear sir, how little do mortals know, when they do not understand their physical structure!'\end{quotation}
\gutchapter{AN ADDITIONAL CHAPTER.}
SECTION I. \textit{Choice of Friends.}
The importance, to a young man, of a few worthy female friends, has been mentioned in Chapter V. But to him who aspires at the highest possible degree of improvement or usefulness, a select number of confidential friends of his own sex is scarcely less valuable.
Great caution is however necessary in making the selection. ``A man is known by the company he keeps,'' has long since passed into a proverb; so well does it accord with universal experience. And yet many a young man neglects or despises this maxim, till his reputation is absolutely and irretrievably lost.
Lucius was a remarkable instance of this kind. Extremely diffident, he was introduced to a neighborhood where every individual but one was an entire stranger to him; and this person was one whose character was despised. But what is life without associates? Few are wholly destitute of sympathy, even brute animals. Lucius began to be found in the company of the young man I have mentioned; and this too in spite of the faithful and earnest remonstrances of his friends, who foresaw the consequences. But, like too many inexperienced young men, conscious of his own purity of intention, he thought there could surely be no harm in occasional walks and conversations with even a bad man; and who knows, he sometimes used to say, but I may do him good? At any rate, as he was the only person with whom he could hold free conversation on ``things that were past,'' he determined occasionally to associate with him.
But as it is with many a young lady who has set out with the belief that a reformed rake makes the best husband, so it was with Lucius; he found that the work of reforming the vicious was no easy task. Instead of making the smallest approaches to success, he perceived at last, when it was too late, that his familiarity with young Frederick had not only greatly lowered him in the estimation of the people with whom he now resided, but even in the estimation of Frederick himself; who was encouraged to pursue his vicious course, by the consideration that it did not exclude him from the society of those who were universally beloved and respected.
This anecdote shows how cautious we ought to be in the choice of friends. Had Lucius been a minister or reformer by profession, he could have gone among the vicious to reclaim them, with less danger. The Saviour of mankind ate and drank with ``publicans and sinners;'' but HE was well \textit{known} as going among them to save them, though even he did not wholly escape obloquy.
Few are aware, how much they are the creatures of imitation; and how readily they catch the manners, habits of expression, and even modes of thinking, of those whose company they keep. Let the young remember, then, that it is not from the remarks of others, alone, that they are likely to suffer; but that they are \textit{really} lowered in the scale of excellence, every time they come in unguarded contact with the vicious.
It is of the highest importance to seek for companions those who are not only \textit{intelligent} and \textit{virtuous}, in the common acceptation of the term, but, if it were possible, those who are a little above them, especially in \textit{moral excellence}.
Nor is this so difficult a task as many suppose. There are in every community, a few who would make valuable companions. Not that they are perfect,---for perfection, in the more absolute sense of the term, belongs not to humanity; but their characters are such, that they would greatly improve yours. And remember, that it is by no means indispensable that your circle of intimate friends be very large. Nay, it is not even desirable, in a world like this. You may have many acquaintances, but I should advise you to have but few near friends. If you have one, who is what he should be, you are comparatively happy.
SECTION II. \textit{Rudeness of Manners.}
By rudeness I do not mean mere coarseness or rusticity, for that were more pardonable; but a want of civility. In this sense of the term, I am prepared to censure one practice, which in the section on \textit{Politeness}, was overlooked. I refer to the practice so common with young men in some circumstances and places, of wearing their hats or caps in the house;---a practice which, whenever and wherever it occurs, is decidedly reprehensible.
Most of us have probably seen state legislatures in session with their hats on. This does not look well for the representatives of the most civil communities in the known world; and though I do not pretend that in this respect they fairly represent their constituents, yet I do maintain that the toleration of such a practice implies a dereliction of the public sentiment.
That the practice of uncovering the head, whenever we are in the house, tends to promote health, though true, I do not at this time affirm. It is sufficient for my present purpose, if I succeed in showing that the contrary practice tends to vice and immorality.
Who has not seen the rudeness of a company of men, assembled perhaps in a bar-room---with their hats on; and also witnessed the more decent behavior of another similar group, assembled in similar circumstances, without perceiving at once a connection between the hats and the rudeness of the one company, as well as between the more orderly behavior and the uncovered heads of the other?
To come to individuals. Attend a party or concert---no matter about the name;---I mean some place where it is pardonable, or rather \textit{deemed} pardonable, to wear the hat. Who behave in the most gentle, christian manner,---the few who wear their hats or those who take them off? In a family or school, which are the children that are most civil and well behaved? Is it not those who are most scrupulous, always, to appear within the house with their heads uncovered? Nay, in going out of schools, churches, \&c., who are they that put on their hats first, as if it was a work of self-denial to hold them in their hands, or even suffer them to remain in their place till the blessing is pronounced, or till the proper time has arrived for using them?
Once more. In passing through New England or any other part of the United States, entering into the houses of the people, and seeing them just as they are, who has not been struck with the fact that where there is the most of wearing hats and caps in the house, there is generally the most of ill manners, not to say of vicious habits and conduct.
Few are sufficiently aware of the influence of what they often affect to despise as little things. But I have said enough on this point in its proper place. The great difficulty is in carrying the principles there inculcated into the various conditions of life, and properly applying them.
SECTION III. \textit{Self-praise.}
Some persons are such egotists that rather than not be conspicuous, they will even speak \textit{ill} of themselves. This may seem like a contradiction; but it is nevertheless a truth.
Such conduct is explicable in two ways. Self condemnation may be merely an attempt to extort praise from the bystanders, by leading them to deny our statements, or defend our conduct. Or, it may be an attempt to set ourselves off as abounding in self knowledge; a kind of knowledge which is universally admitted to be difficult of attainment. I have heard people condemn their past conduct in no measured terms, who would not have borne a tithe of the same severity of remark from others. Perhaps it is not too much to affirm that persons of this description are often among the vainest, if not the proudest of the community.
In general, it is the best way to say as little about ourselves, our friends, our books, and our circumstances as possible. It is soon enough to speak of ourselves when we are compelled to do it in our own defence.
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Les balises de mise en forme recommandées\footnote{Il est nécessaire d'éviter un maximum l'utilisation de $\backslash$texttt (police \textit{machine à écrire})} sont les suivantes :
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\item{$\backslash$textbf, $\backslash$bf : pour mettre en \textbf{gras},}
\item{$\backslash$textit, $\backslash$it : pour mettre en \textit{italique},}
\item{$\backslash$textsc, $\backslash$sc : pour mettre en \textsc{petite capitale},}
\end{itemize}
\section{Théorème, Propriété, Exemple,\dots}
\subsection{Environnements}
\subsubsection{Utilisation}
Un certain nombre d'environnements sont déjà définis et peuvent être utlisés de la manière suivante :
$\backslash$begin\{environnement\} texte $\backslash$end\{environnement\}
\subsubsection{Exemples}
Les environnements \textit{theoreme} et \textit{exemple} :
\begin{theoreme}
Ceci est un exemple de théorème
\label{treaz}
\end{theoreme}
\begin{exemple}
Ceci est un exemple d'exemple
\end{exemple}
\subsection{Liste des environnements}
theoreme, exemple, propriete, proposition, fait, hypothese, lemme, corollaire, preuve, definition.
\section{Bibliographie}
Les réferences à un envirronement se présenteront comme il suit dans le texte. Pour le théorème on obtient : théorème \ref{treaz}.
Pour une référence bibliographique on obtient : \cite{ref1} ou encore \cite{ref2,ref1}. Afin d'obtenir ce rendu nous vous fournissont le fichier de style \textit{maj.bst}.
Pour citer les articles cités dans le papier, on utilise la commande $\backslash$donneref\{fichier\_bibtex\}. Ce qui donne le résultat suivant.
\donneref{sigmaalldiff}
\section{Algorithmes et figures}
Pour générer les algorithmes nous vous conseillons l'utilisation de algorithm2e disponible sur le cite du CTAN\footnote{En cas de problème de taille de police utilisé la commande $\backslash$footnotesize sur l'algorithme.}.
\begin{algorithm}[h]
\footnotesize
\Pour{mot $\in$ phrase}{Afficher mot}
\caption{Affiche les mots d'une phrases}
\end{algorithm}
Pour afficher une figure, vous êtes libre d'utiliser le package de votre choix. Toutes fois évitez les packages trop "exotiques".
\begin{figure}[h]
\centering
\includegraphics[scale=0.30]{majecstic.eps}
\caption{Logo MajecSTIC 2007}
\end{figure}
\end{document}
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\title{De fega förtryckta}
\date{1906, Brand nr 3}
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-- Och jag kom från grändernas och "bus"-logiens skumma och snuskiga stadsdel och knäade långsamt fram över Norrbro med ansikte och fingrar svidande av köld och magen svidande av hunger.
Huttrande och hopkutad gick jag, med den låga kragen på min sommarrock slagen "över öronen", såsom jag med bitter ironi kallade det, händerna i byxfickorna och axlarna uppdragna så långt att de nästan snuddade vid brättena på min gamla grönaktiga slokhatt.
Ty när detta hände var det en vintermorgon som pinade nordan, och himlen var grå som den bro jag nu förudmjukade genom att beträda med min sluskiga gestalt, och hopplös som min egen framtid.
Till detta var jag utsvulten, och inte ett öre ägde jag.
Under månader hade jag förgäves sökt efter arbete. Långa öde vägar hade jag luffat, många städers gator hade jag trampat, levande på bettleri. Förtvivlan gjorde min själ sjuk, och intet annat syntes mig återstå än bliva hjälten i ett hungerdrama. Jag grubblade på självmord eller stöld, men var för feg för att utföra någondera.
Och dock hade jag mod att förudmjuka mig, ja så djupt en klassmedveten proletär någonsin kan göra det: jag tiggde de rika om allmosor! Och det logi jag nu kom, det hade jag fått genom hoptiggda slantar.
Till vänster, på helgeandsholmen, höll man på med byggandet av nya riksdagshuset. Och jag hatade det, liksom jag gjorde det redan förut och gör det än. Där skulle en gång "riksdan som lurar oss" komma att stifta nya lagparagrafer, där skulle anslag "äskas" till det förbannade försvaret, till dagdrivare och onyttiga inrättningar, medan jag och tusenden andra svulto och svälta, där skulle "representanter", som jag icke valt, schackra om mina angelägenheter, där skulle partier av olika kulörer sladdra uttröskade fraser om lagbunden frihet, medborgarplikt, vårt fosterland, nationen och så om folket förstås, folket, folket!
Störtad är Jehova, överspöket "där uppe" av fritänkarna i vår tid, men nu ha de satt upp en annan gud i stället: folket, på vars altare allt skall offras, inför vilken individen skall tvingas böja knä och avstå från sina rättigheter.
"över den enskildas bästa står det allmänas". Vilken dum, konventionell fras! Vad jag hatar den! Jag struntar i "folket" och "det allmäna". De äro samma chimärer som "fosterland".
Rasande sparkade jag till planket och fortsatte min väg.
Framför mig låg Gustaf Adolfs torg.
Jag stannade och slukade med en hätsk blick omgivningen: kungliga operan, arvfurstens palats, konung Gutaf II Adolfs staty och torg, kungliga riksdagshuset, kungliga slottet, kungliga det och kungliga det - det är satan vad man är instängd i kunglighet och stats- och folkinstitutioner! Och så därtill två eller flera guldkrogar för överklasspöbeln!
Jag kände ett livligt behov av dynamit. Inte för att göra en ända på mig själv, men på alla de här byggnaderna. Mina ögon sökte redan efter lämpliga platser, där dynamiten borde placeras för att kunna arbeta väl.
Och med byggnaderna borde följa alla tyranner\dots{}Nej det vore en för lätt död för dem! De skulle svältas och frysas långsamt ihjäl, de skulle\dots{}
Så gick jhag och fantiserade om att lägga alla inrättningar och byggnader, som uppstått för och genom våldet och tyranniet, i grus och aska. Jag visste väl att samhällstillståndet icke skulle förändras därigenom att jag sprängde några byggnader i luften, utan det enda syftemålet därmed vora att bereda mig själv njutningen och tillfredsställelsen av en hämndeakt mot mina hatade fiender.
Så vandrade jag länge, gata efter gata, och dagen led.
Och min mage värkte av svält, och jag såg genom restauranternas fönsterrutor hur de rika frossade i överflköd. Jag frös i mina trasor och jag snuddade förbi människor i varma pälsar, såg butikerna överfyllda med kläder, såg de rikas dyrbara lyx. Jag irrade husvill, och jag såg präktiga, rymliga hus. Trött släpade jag mig fram, och jag såg hur vällevnaden vräkte och pöste i sina ekipager. Jag såg - då kvällen kom - glädjestrålande människor strömma in i teatrar och förlustelselokaler, såg skuggor av dansande par mot husradernas fönsterrutor, hörde sång och musik, glam och lyckliga skratt - och jag fick stå utanför.
Förbannat!
Hatet jäste - och värmde min själ.
Och jag hatade varje välklädd människa jag mötte, jag hatade deras kläder och alla mätta och belåtna ansikten och var färdig och taga smutsen från gatan och slå dem i synen med. Jag gick i vägen för dem, sparkade deras tjocka hundrackor och hädade och förbannade "gud" som föder sparven och "liljorna på marken" och drager försorg om att hundrackorna får kläder, men låter sin egen avbild svälta och frysa till döds.
Och dock visste jag att det var dumt att banna gud; han finnes ju icke och är således oskyldig till mitt lidande som ett ännu oavlat och ofött barn. Men ändock gjorde jag det, därför att man påstår att han finnes och är en god fader. Därför beredde det mig ett slags välbehag att slå ned på honom, då jag måste ha något föremål för mina vredeshandlingar, liksom jag sparkade de oskyldiga hundkräken och liksom en man, som förgäves söker öppna en dörr i ilskan ger den en spark.
Och för mig själv sjöng jag med knutna händer en dikt som jag hade författat, inspirerad av mina egna kval och meddelandet om ett attentat mot en tyrann i Ryssland.
Jag hatar dig, tyrann, som skyddad av lagar går! Du djävul, förtryckare, mäktige man, som stolt över slavhopen rår!\dots{} På våldet du stöder din makt; omkring dig stå bödlar på vakt, och gatan du färgade röd med blodet av mina kamrater, som dräpos av köpta soldater i striden för frihet och bröd.
Jag hatar dig, tyrann! Jag är ej en ödmjuk träl. O, aldrig en låga vildare brann än hatet, som bränner min själ! Mitt jag, den stolta, du kränkt, min fihet i träldomen sänkt. Det ropar på straff! är det brott att sopa tyranner från jorden? Det sägs så vid domareborden. Men nej, det är rättvisa blott!
Jag hatar dig, tyrann! Mitt öga söker ditt spår.Och kommer en dag, då dig jag fann min hämnande arm dig slår. Ty vet, du förbannade - jag till döden dig dömde i dag! Jag själv skall din dom föra ut, ty ej såsom du har jag drängar, som göra min vilja för pengar. - Mitt liv står till pant för mitt domsbeslut.
Jag hatar dig, tyrann! Mitt blod det sjuder av harm. Förnamn du, hur högt min lidelse brann, du skulle nog frukta min arm. ibland dina ordnar och prål skall borras ett eggvasst stål djupt in av din hatares hand! Vad gör om mitt liv man föröder, ty kvar finnas hämnande bröder till skräck för tyrannernas band. Jag hatar dig, tyrann! Mitt hat skall dig döden ge\dots{}
Hungern tvinnade mina tankars tråd, och tråden vindade sig oupphörligt kring magfrågan på vars lösning jag grubblade. Dels gäller det att lösa ögonblickets, det vill säga få något att "bita i", dels problemet med en omdaning av samhället i den riktning att elände sådant som mitt kunde förebyggas.
Jag visste att roten till det ekonomiska eländet bland så många människor i vårt nuvarande samhälle just är den kapitalistiska privatäganderätten, och jag visste på vad sätt denna verkade, hur genom den det ekonomiska herraväldet uppstår. Och jag hade hört socialistiska agitatorer säga att privategendomen vore stöld och kapitalisterna tjuvar, och det hela således en orätt. Välsignade sanning som förjagar alla samvetsbetänkligheter hos de fattiga mot att stjäla!\dots{}
Jag visste vidare att staten och lagarna äro det organiserade våldet med ändamål att befästa och skydda den ekonomiska utplundringen. Allt detta, liksom ock religion, hörde samman med det bestående, på herraväldet byggda samhället, och därför hatade och föraktade jag dem och önskade deras undergång.
Jag skulle inte göra mig något samvete av att bryta mot lagarna, trotsa myndigheter och "stjäla" vad jag behövde för mitt uppehälle (varmed icke vill säga att jag skulle uppträda såsom till exempel ficktjuv, men ta av de råmaterial,produktionsmedel och varor som skulle vara ämnade för fri disposition för alla).
Vidare skulle jag gärna vilja mörda en hel hop kungar, ministrar, officerare, kapitalister, präster och dylikt herrebetitlat pack.
Och om jag nu icke gjorde uppror, så var det emedan jag icke förmådde det. Och om jag icke mördade tyranner och bedragare och "stal" vad jag behövde, så var det emedan jag var för feg, emedan jag fruktade straffet som samhället skulle komma att ådömma mig.
Att det var av feghet jag icke mördade tyranner och stal, som det heter, för mina behov, hade jag först under lång tid inte velat erkänna, utan jag sökte inbilla mig att det var av "moraliska" och "humana" skäl. Men sanningen fordrade obevekligt sin rätt, och jag måste slutligen tillstå att det blott var av feghet jag underlät dessa handlingar.
Ja, tjut ni kristna och ni fritänkande "laglydiga medborgare", tjut ni om demoralisation och förbrytareanlag! Tjut ni välgödda herreklassare, helst då ni sitta och smälta maten!
Jag föraktar så gränslöst eder allmäna opinion och eder offentliga moral, ty dessa äro tyranni över individualiteten. Jag följer blott min egen moral, och den säger mig att allt vad jag gör eller underlåter i avsikt att befrämja mitt jag, min kropp och min själ, som är det högsta för mig, är moraliskt.
När jag därför undanröjer eller undandrager mig allt det, som personer, fördomar och vanor - så är det moraliskt: alltså även om mord på personerna användes. Och när jag tager vad jag behöver för min frihet, utveckling och livslycka, så är det moraliskt, även om det är "stöld".
Men - äro kapitalisterna verkligen tjuvar och är deras utbyta av oss verkligen stöld?
Kätterska tanke!
är icke stöld sådant som man tager i smyg och utan lov? Jo. Men taga kapitalisterna vår arbetskraft och våra frambringade prodkuter på detta sätt?
Jag grubblade därpå och svaret blev: nej.
Kapitalisternas utsugning är ju fullt lovlig och de göra det öppet. icke därför att lagen tillåter det, men därför att de utsugna själva, arbetarna, proletärerna, tillåter det.
Alla de stora strider, som vi arbetare nu utkämpa mot kapitalisterna, är de väl för att avskudda oss dessa parasiter och förtryckare? å nej, det är blott för att få några smulor mer av det som kapitalisterna erhålla på utbytet, utsugningen av oss.
Jämt och ständigt sysselsätta vi oss med att på det ekonomiska och politiska området schackra och ackordera med våra utplundrare, i stället för att helt fordra vår rätt, helt och utan inskränkningar. Och så länge vi schackra och ackordera med våra utplundrare, så länge erkänna vi dem; och så länge vi erkänna dem är dessas tillgripande av vår arbetskraft och våra frambragta varor oss icke otillåtet - de äro icke tjuvar.
Det är på oss epitet tjuvar skall falla, om vi nu taga tillbaka det som kapitalisterna erhållit från oss. Men därvid häftar i verkligheten ingen skam. Det är i stället en skam för oss att vi icke våga vara tjuvar.
Ja, på skammen av vår egen feghet och dumhet och lojhet vilar förtryckarnas ok.
Om vi en gång tänka göra oss av med våra hittillsvarande herrar, varför äro vi då nu så gränslöst enfaldiga att vi springa och välja oss nya i tro att de skola bättre behandla oss? Och vilket djup av feghet och slavkänsla gömmer sig icke inom oss, då vi kunna känna oss nöjda blott vi bli bättre behandlade av våra herrar!
Om vi leva i elände och förnedring, så äro vi värda det, ty vi ha själva skapat det åt oss och uppehålla det genom liknöjt finna oss däri genom vår ödmjukhet för de mäktiga och lydnad för myndigheter och dera lagar.
Om alla hade mod att trots tyranniserande individer och inrättningar - ingen skulle tvingas och förtryckas då. Och om alla hade mod att stjäla vad de behövde - ingen skulle svälta och frysa.
Detta är just den bittra men häölsosamma sanningen: det är icke herrarnas fel att slavarna äro slavar, det är slavarna eget fel.
Detta tänkte jag, och jag hatade och föraktade mig själv och eder andra - oss alla som är för fega och dumma och liknöjda till att befria oss från tyrannerna.
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Det Anarkistiska Biblioteket
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\begin{center}
Einar Håkansson
De fega förtryckta
1906, Brand nr 3
\bigskip
Mottogs den 2012-01-19 från http:\Slash{}\Slash{}polkagris.nu\Slash{}wiki\Slash{}H\%C3\%A5kansson,\_Einar:\_De\_fega\_f\%C3\%B6rtryckta\_-\_De\_fega\_f\%C3\%B6rtyckta
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\textbf{sv.theanarchistlibrary.org}
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\documentclass{article}
\input{packages}
\input{def}
\lecture{Homomorphisms}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
\begin{definition}[(Biased) Monoid Homomorphism from $\langle M, *, \noprf, e, \noprf \rangle$ to $\langle N, +, \noprf, i, \noprf \rangle$]
A tuple $\langle f, \prf{d}, \prf{i} \rangle$ where the components have the following types:
\begin{framed}
\begin{description}
\item[Underlying Function $f$:] $M \to N$
\item[Distributivity $\prf{d}$:] $\forall m_1, m_2 : M.\; f(m_1) + f(m_2) = f(m_1 * m_2)$
\item[Identity $\prf{i}$:] $i = f(e)$
\end{description}
\end{framed}
\end{definition}
\begin{example}
\begin{description}
\setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}
\item[$\langle \lambda \vec{t}.~\vec{t}\mathrm{~as~}\Multiset T, \noprf, \noprf \rangle$] from $(\List T)_{\append}$ to $(\Multiset T)_+$
\item[$\langle \det, \noprf, \noprf \rangle$] from $\R^{n \times n}_\cdot$ to $\R_*$ where $\R^{n \times n}_\cdot$ is matrices with matrix multiplication and $\det$ is the determinant
\item[$\langle \lambda m.~\lambda \vec{x}.~M \cdot \vec{x}, \noprf, \noprf \rangle$] from $\R^{n \times n}_\cdot$ to $(\R^n \to \R^n)_\circ$
\end{description}
\end{example}
\begin{notation}
We will say a function~$f : M \to N$ is a biased monoid homomorphism from $\langle M, *, \noprf, e, \noprf \rangle$ to $\langle N, +, \noprf, i, \noprf \rangle$ if there exist proofs $\prf{d}$ and~$\prf{i}$ such that $\langle f, \prf{d}, \prf{i} \rangle$ is a biased monoid homomorphism from $\langle M, *, \noprf, e, \noprf \rangle$ to $\langle N, +, \noprf, i, \noprf \rangle$.
\end{notation}
\begin{definition}[(Unbiased) Monoid Homomorphism from $\langle M, \Pi, \noprf, \noprf \rangle$ to $\langle N, \Sigma, \noprf, \noprf \rangle$]
A tuple $\langle f, \prf{d} \rangle$ where the components have the following types:
\begin{framed}
\begin{description}
\item[Underlying Function $f$:] $M \to N$
\item[Distributivity $\prf{d}$:] $\forall n : \N,\; m_1, \dots, m_n : M.\; \Sigma \left[f(m_1), \dots, f(m_n)\right] = f\left(\Pi \left[m_1, \dots, m_n\right]\right)$
\end{description}
\end{framed}
\end{definition}
\begin{example}
\begin{description}
\setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}
\item[$\langle -, \noprf \rangle$] from $\Z_\Sigma$ to $\Z_\Sigma$
\item[$\langle -, \noprf \rangle$] from $\R_\Sigma$ to $\R_\Sigma$
\item[$\langle -, \noprf \rangle$] from $\N_\Sigma$ to $\Z_\Sigma$
\item[$\langle -, \noprf \rangle$] from $\Z^{+\infty}_{\min}$ to $\Z^{-\infty}_{\max}$
\item[$\langle -, \noprf \rangle$] from $\Z^{-\infty}_{\max}$ to $\Z^{+\infty}_{\min}$
\item[$\langle \left\vert~\right\vert, \noprf \rangle$] from $\Z_\Pi$ to $\N_\Pi$
\item[$\langle \lambda n.~n\mathrm{~as~}\Z, \noprf \rangle$] from $\N_\Sigma$ to $\Z_\Sigma$
\item[$\langle \lambda i.~i\mathrm{~as~}\R, \noprf \rangle$] from $\Z_\Pi$ to $\R_\Pi$
\end{description}
\end{example}
\begin{notation}
We will say a function $f : M \to N$ is an unbiased monoid homomorphism from $\langle M, \Pi, \noprf, \noprf \rangle$ to $\langle N, \Sigma, \noprf, \noprf \rangle$ if there exists some proof~$\prf{d}$ such that $\langle f, \prf{d} \rangle$ is an unbiased monoid homomorphism from $\langle M, \Pi, \noprf, \noprf \rangle$ to $\langle N, \Sigma, \noprf, \noprf \rangle$.
\end{notation}
\begin{exercise}
Suppose that $\alg{M}_U$ and~$\alg{M}_B$ are an unbiased monoid and a biased monoid with the same underlying set~$M$ and with $\mathit{Bias}(\alg{M}_U) = \alg{M}_B$ and $\mathit{Unbias}(\alg{M}_B) = \alg{M}_U$, and suppose that $\alg{N}_U$ and~$\alg{N}_B$ are an unbiased monoid and a biased monoid with the same underlying set~$N$ and with $\mathit{Bias}(\alg{N}_U) = \alg{N}_B$ and $\mathit{Unbias}(\alg{N}_B) = \alg{N}_U$.
Prove for any function~$f : M \to N$, that $f$~is an unbiased monoid homomorphism from~$\alg{M}_U$ to~$\alg{N}_U$ if and only if $f$~is a biased monoid homomorphism from~$\alg{M}_B$ to~$\alg{N}_B$.
\end{exercise}
\end{document}
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\documentclass{article}
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
\usepackage{amsmath}
\begin{document}
Caso 1:
\[
\begin{gathered}
\overline {OA} = \overline {OB} \quad \Rightarrow \quad \left\{ {\begin{array}{*{20}c}
{\alpha = \delta _1 = \delta _2 } \\
{\gamma _1 = \gamma _2 = 0} \\
\end{array} } \right. \hfill \\
\beta = 180 - \left( {180 - 2\alpha } \right)\quad \Rightarrow \quad \beta = 2\alpha \hfill \\
\end{gathered}
\]
\end{document}
% ----------------------------------------------------------------
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Le plan est muni d'un repère orthonormé \Oij. Chacune des courbes représente une fonction $f$ définie sur l'intervalle $\ff{-2}{3}$. Compléter les tableaux de variation, les images de $-2$ et de $3$, le nombre $n$ de solutions de l'équation $f(x)=1$ et d'éventuelles remarques.
Conjecturer trois hypothèses suffisantes pour que l'équation $f(x)=y_0$ admette une unique solution sur l'intervalle $\ff ab$ (où $f$ est une fonction définie sur $\ff ab$ et $y_0\in\R$).
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% Graphe 5
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%Graphe 6
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% Graphe 7
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% Graphe 9
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% Fin du texte
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\input zb-basic
\input zb-matheduc
\iteman{ZMATH 1986x.00452}
\itemau{Ernest, Paul}
\itemti{Games: A Rationale for their Use in the Teaching of Mathematics in Schools. Spiele: Grundgedanken fuer ihren Einsatz im Mathematikunterricht.}
\itemso{Math. Sch. (Jan 1986) v. 15(1) p. 2-5. CODEN: MKSCAS [ISSN 0465-3750]}
\itemab
\itemrv{~}
\itemcc{D32 U12}
\itemut{Educational Games; Teaching Methods; Instructional Modes; Primary Education; ; Lernspiel; Methode; Unterrichtsform; Primarbereich}
\itemli{}
\end
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\input zb-basic
\input zb-matheduc
\iteman{ZMATH 2015e.00902}
\itemau{Ring, Arne}
\itemti{A (statistical) tool box for a lecture ``Clinical trials" for non-stastisticians. (Ein (statistischer) Werkzeugkasten f\"ur eine Vorlesung ``Klinische Studien" f\"ur Nicht-Statistiker.)}
\itemso{Rauch, Geraldine (ed.) et al., Zeig mir Biostatistik! Ideen und Material f\"ur einen guten Biometrie-Unterricht. Heidelberg: Springer Spektrum (ISBN 978-3-642-54335-7/pbk; 978-3-642-54336-4/ebook). Springer-Lehrbuch, 53-65 (2014).}
\itemab
Zusammenfassung: Wir beschreiben eine Reihe von Themengebieten, die sich in einer Lehrveranstaltung zu klinischen Studien f\"ur Studierende in Molekularmedizin (und anderen Nicht-Statistikern) als praktisch herausgestellt haben, und den Studierenden die intensive Auseinandersetzung und kritische Bewertung mit Methoden der evidenzbasierten Medizin erm\"oglichen sollen.{ }Die Lehrveranstaltung ``Clinical Trials" wird im Master-Studiengang ``Molecular Medicine" f\"ur j\"ahrlich etwa 30 Studierende angeboten. Wichtigstes didaktisches Mittel ist die Diskussion von Problemstellungen in Kleingruppen, die es allen Studierenden erm\"oglicht, eigene Gedanken einzubringen, und sich mit dem Thema direkt auseinanderzusetzen.{ }Im Laufe der Jahre ist ein umfangreiches Material f\"ur die Pr\"asentation im Kurs zusammengestellt worden. Dies reicht von der Diskussion der gescheiterten Studie von TGN 1412, \"uber die unterschiedliche Nutzenbewertung der CAPRIE-Studie durch verschiedene europ\"aische Beh\"orden, bis hin zu systematischen \"Ubersichtsarbeiten zum (fehlenden) Nutzen von Brustkrebs-Screening und der originellen, aber ethisch wertvollen Diskussion, wie man den Nutzen von Fallschirmen geeignet nachweisen kann.{ }Mit diesem praxisnahen Material werden die Studierenden an die Grundlagen der Planung, Durchf\"uhrung, Auswertung und Berichtung von klinischen Studien im Rahmen der Good Clinical Practice (GCP) herangef\"uhrt.{ }Zwar liegt der Schwerpunkt der Vorlesung nicht auf statistischen Methoden, aber die Studierenden werden \"uber Beispiele an das statistische Denken und seinen Zusammenhang zu klinischen und administrativen Komponenten von Studien herangef\"uhrt.
\itemrv{~}
\itemcc{M65 K45 K75 K85}
\itemut{clinical trials; biometrics; medicine; statistical methods; teaching materials}
\itemli{doi:10.1007/978-3-642-54336-4\_5}
\end
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\input texinfo @c -*- texinfo -*-
@settitle Developer Documentation
@titlepage
@center @titlefont{Developer Documentation}
@end titlepage
@top
@contents
@chapter Developers Guide
@section API
@itemize @bullet
@item libavcodec is the library containing the codecs (both encoding and
decoding). Look at @file{doc/examples/decoding_encoding.c} to see how to use
it.
@item libavformat is the library containing the file format handling (mux and
demux code for several formats). Look at @file{ffplay.c} to use it in a
player. See @file{doc/examples/muxing.c} to use it to generate audio or video
streams.
@end itemize
@section Integrating libavcodec or libavformat in your program
You can integrate all the source code of the libraries to link them
statically to avoid any version problem. All you need is to provide a
'config.mak' and a 'config.h' in the parent directory. See the defines
generated by ./configure to understand what is needed.
You can use libavcodec or libavformat in your commercial program, but
@emph{any patch you make must be published}. The best way to proceed is
to send your patches to the FFmpeg mailing list.
@section Contributing
There are 3 ways by which code gets into ffmpeg.
@itemize @bullet
@item Submitting Patches to the main developer mailing list
see @ref{Submitting patches} for details.
@item Directly committing changes to the main tree.
@item Committing changes to a git clone, for example on github.com or
gitorious.org. And asking us to merge these changes.
@end itemize
Whichever way, changes should be reviewed by the maintainer of the code
before they are committed. And they should follow the @ref{Coding Rules}.
The developer making the commit and the author are responsible for their changes
and should try to fix issues their commit causes.
@anchor{Coding Rules}
@section Coding Rules
@subsection Code formatting conventions
There are the following guidelines regarding the indentation in files:
@itemize @bullet
@item
Indent size is 4.
@item
The TAB character is forbidden outside of Makefiles as is any
form of trailing whitespace. Commits containing either will be
rejected by the git repository.
@item
You should try to limit your code lines to 80 characters; however, do so if
and only if this improves readability.
@end itemize
The presentation is one inspired by 'indent -i4 -kr -nut'.
The main priority in FFmpeg is simplicity and small code size in order to
minimize the bug count.
@subsection Comments
Use the JavaDoc/Doxygen format (see examples below) so that code documentation
can be generated automatically. All nontrivial functions should have a comment
above them explaining what the function does, even if it is just one sentence.
All structures and their member variables should be documented, too.
Avoid Qt-style and similar Doxygen syntax with @code{!} in it, i.e. replace
@code{//!} with @code{///} and similar. Also @@ syntax should be employed
for markup commands, i.e. use @code{@@param} and not @code{\param}.
@example
/**
* @@file
* MPEG codec.
* @@author ...
*/
/**
* Summary sentence.
* more text ...
* ...
*/
typedef struct Foobar@{
int var1; /**< var1 description */
int var2; ///< var2 description
/** var3 description */
int var3;
@} Foobar;
/**
* Summary sentence.
* more text ...
* ...
* @@param my_parameter description of my_parameter
* @@return return value description
*/
int myfunc(int my_parameter)
...
@end example
@subsection C language features
FFmpeg is programmed in the ISO C90 language with a few additional
features from ISO C99, namely:
@itemize @bullet
@item
the @samp{inline} keyword;
@item
@samp{//} comments;
@item
designated struct initializers (@samp{struct s x = @{ .i = 17 @};})
@item
compound literals (@samp{x = (struct s) @{ 17, 23 @};})
@end itemize
These features are supported by all compilers we care about, so we will not
accept patches to remove their use unless they absolutely do not impair
clarity and performance.
All code must compile with recent versions of GCC and a number of other
currently supported compilers. To ensure compatibility, please do not use
additional C99 features or GCC extensions. Especially watch out for:
@itemize @bullet
@item
mixing statements and declarations;
@item
@samp{long long} (use @samp{int64_t} instead);
@item
@samp{__attribute__} not protected by @samp{#ifdef __GNUC__} or similar;
@item
GCC statement expressions (@samp{(x = (@{ int y = 4; y; @})}).
@end itemize
@subsection Naming conventions
All names should be composed with underscores (_), not CamelCase. For example,
@samp{avfilter_get_video_buffer} is an acceptable function name and
@samp{AVFilterGetVideo} is not. The exception from this are type names, like
for example structs and enums; they should always be in the CamelCase
There are the following conventions for naming variables and functions:
@itemize @bullet
@item
For local variables no prefix is required.
@item
For file-scope variables and functions declared as @code{static}, no prefix
is required.
@item
For variables and functions visible outside of file scope, but only used
internally by a library, an @code{ff_} prefix should be used,
e.g. @samp{ff_w64_demuxer}.
@item
For variables and functions visible outside of file scope, used internally
across multiple libraries, use @code{avpriv_} as prefix, for example,
@samp{avpriv_aac_parse_header}.
@item
Each library has its own prefix for public symbols, in addition to the
commonly used @code{av_} (@code{avformat_} for libavformat,
@code{avcodec_} for libavcodec, @code{swr_} for libswresample, etc).
Check the existing code and choose names accordingly.
Note that some symbols without these prefixes are also exported for
retro-compatibility reasons. These exceptions are declared in the
@code{lib<name>/lib<name>.v} files.
@end itemize
Furthermore, name space reserved for the system should not be invaded.
Identifiers ending in @code{_t} are reserved by
@url{http://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/007904975/functions/xsh_chap02_02.html#tag_02_02_02, POSIX}.
Also avoid names starting with @code{__} or @code{_} followed by an uppercase
letter as they are reserved by the C standard. Names starting with @code{_}
are reserved at the file level and may not be used for externally visible
symbols. If in doubt, just avoid names starting with @code{_} altogether.
@subsection Miscellaneous conventions
@itemize @bullet
@item
fprintf and printf are forbidden in libavformat and libavcodec,
please use av_log() instead.
@item
Casts should be used only when necessary. Unneeded parentheses
should also be avoided if they don't make the code easier to understand.
@end itemize
@subsection Editor configuration
In order to configure Vim to follow FFmpeg formatting conventions, paste
the following snippet into your @file{.vimrc}:
@example
" indentation rules for FFmpeg: 4 spaces, no tabs
set expandtab
set shiftwidth=4
set softtabstop=4
set cindent
set cinoptions=(0
" Allow tabs in Makefiles.
autocmd FileType make,automake set noexpandtab shiftwidth=8 softtabstop=8
" Trailing whitespace and tabs are forbidden, so highlight them.
highlight ForbiddenWhitespace ctermbg=red guibg=red
match ForbiddenWhitespace /\s\+$\|\t/
" Do not highlight spaces at the end of line while typing on that line.
autocmd InsertEnter * match ForbiddenWhitespace /\t\|\s\+\%#\@@<!$/
@end example
For Emacs, add these roughly equivalent lines to your @file{.emacs.d/init.el}:
@example
(c-add-style "ffmpeg"
'("k&r"
(c-basic-offset . 4)
(indent-tabs-mode . nil)
(show-trailing-whitespace . t)
(c-offsets-alist
(statement-cont . (c-lineup-assignments +)))
)
)
(setq c-default-style "ffmpeg")
@end example
@section Development Policy
@enumerate
@item
Contributions should be licensed under the
@uref{http://www.gnu.org/licenses/lgpl-2.1.html, LGPL 2.1},
including an "or any later version" clause, or, if you prefer
a gift-style license, the
@uref{http://www.isc.org/software/license/, ISC} or
@uref{http://mit-license.org/, MIT} license.
@uref{http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl-2.0.html, GPL 2} including
an "or any later version" clause is also acceptable, but LGPL is
preferred.
@item
You must not commit code which breaks FFmpeg! (Meaning unfinished but
enabled code which breaks compilation or compiles but does not work or
breaks the regression tests)
You can commit unfinished stuff (for testing etc), but it must be disabled
(#ifdef etc) by default so it does not interfere with other developers'
work.
@item
The commit message should have a short first line in the form of
a @samp{topic: short description} as a header, separated by a newline
from the body consisting of an explanation of why the change is necessary.
If the commit fixes a known bug on the bug tracker, the commit message
should include its bug ID. Referring to the issue on the bug tracker does
not exempt you from writing an excerpt of the bug in the commit message.
@item
You do not have to over-test things. If it works for you, and you think it
should work for others, then commit. If your code has problems
(portability, triggers compiler bugs, unusual environment etc) they will be
reported and eventually fixed.
@item
Do not commit unrelated changes together, split them into self-contained
pieces. Also do not forget that if part B depends on part A, but A does not
depend on B, then A can and should be committed first and separate from B.
Keeping changes well split into self-contained parts makes reviewing and
understanding them on the commit log mailing list easier. This also helps
in case of debugging later on.
Also if you have doubts about splitting or not splitting, do not hesitate to
ask/discuss it on the developer mailing list.
@item
Do not change behavior of the programs (renaming options etc) or public
API or ABI without first discussing it on the ffmpeg-devel mailing list.
Do not remove functionality from the code. Just improve!
Note: Redundant code can be removed.
@item
Do not commit changes to the build system (Makefiles, configure script)
which change behavior, defaults etc, without asking first. The same
applies to compiler warning fixes, trivial looking fixes and to code
maintained by other developers. We usually have a reason for doing things
the way we do. Send your changes as patches to the ffmpeg-devel mailing
list, and if the code maintainers say OK, you may commit. This does not
apply to files you wrote and/or maintain.
@item
We refuse source indentation and other cosmetic changes if they are mixed
with functional changes, such commits will be rejected and removed. Every
developer has his own indentation style, you should not change it. Of course
if you (re)write something, you can use your own style, even though we would
prefer if the indentation throughout FFmpeg was consistent (Many projects
force a given indentation style - we do not.). If you really need to make
indentation changes (try to avoid this), separate them strictly from real
changes.
NOTE: If you had to put if()@{ .. @} over a large (> 5 lines) chunk of code,
then either do NOT change the indentation of the inner part within (do not
move it to the right)! or do so in a separate commit
@item
Always fill out the commit log message. Describe in a few lines what you
changed and why. You can refer to mailing list postings if you fix a
particular bug. Comments such as "fixed!" or "Changed it." are unacceptable.
Recommended format:
area changed: Short 1 line description
details describing what and why and giving references.
@item
Make sure the author of the commit is set correctly. (see git commit --author)
If you apply a patch, send an
answer to ffmpeg-devel (or wherever you got the patch from) saying that
you applied the patch.
@item
When applying patches that have been discussed (at length) on the mailing
list, reference the thread in the log message.
@item
Do NOT commit to code actively maintained by others without permission.
Send a patch to ffmpeg-devel instead. If no one answers within a reasonable
timeframe (12h for build failures and security fixes, 3 days small changes,
1 week for big patches) then commit your patch if you think it is OK.
Also note, the maintainer can simply ask for more time to review!
@item
Subscribe to the ffmpeg-cvslog mailing list. The diffs of all commits
are sent there and reviewed by all the other developers. Bugs and possible
improvements or general questions regarding commits are discussed there. We
expect you to react if problems with your code are uncovered.
@item
Update the documentation if you change behavior or add features. If you are
unsure how best to do this, send a patch to ffmpeg-devel, the documentation
maintainer(s) will review and commit your stuff.
@item
Try to keep important discussions and requests (also) on the public
developer mailing list, so that all developers can benefit from them.
@item
Never write to unallocated memory, never write over the end of arrays,
always check values read from some untrusted source before using them
as array index or other risky things.
@item
Remember to check if you need to bump versions for the specific libav*
parts (libavutil, libavcodec, libavformat) you are changing. You need
to change the version integer.
Incrementing the first component means no backward compatibility to
previous versions (e.g. removal of a function from the public API).
Incrementing the second component means backward compatible change
(e.g. addition of a function to the public API or extension of an
existing data structure).
Incrementing the third component means a noteworthy binary compatible
change (e.g. encoder bug fix that matters for the decoder). The third
component always starts at 100 to distinguish FFmpeg from Libav.
@item
Compiler warnings indicate potential bugs or code with bad style. If a type of
warning always points to correct and clean code, that warning should
be disabled, not the code changed.
Thus the remaining warnings can either be bugs or correct code.
If it is a bug, the bug has to be fixed. If it is not, the code should
be changed to not generate a warning unless that causes a slowdown
or obfuscates the code.
@item
If you add a new file, give it a proper license header. Do not copy and
paste it from a random place, use an existing file as template.
@end enumerate
We think our rules are not too hard. If you have comments, contact us.
@anchor{Submitting patches}
@section Submitting patches
First, read the @ref{Coding Rules} above if you did not yet, in particular
the rules regarding patch submission.
When you submit your patch, please use @code{git format-patch} or
@code{git send-email}. We cannot read other diffs :-)
Also please do not submit a patch which contains several unrelated changes.
Split it into separate, self-contained pieces. This does not mean splitting
file by file. Instead, make the patch as small as possible while still
keeping it as a logical unit that contains an individual change, even
if it spans multiple files. This makes reviewing your patches much easier
for us and greatly increases your chances of getting your patch applied.
Use the patcheck tool of FFmpeg to check your patch.
The tool is located in the tools directory.
Run the @ref{Regression tests} before submitting a patch in order to verify
it does not cause unexpected problems.
It also helps quite a bit if you tell us what the patch does (for example
'replaces lrint by lrintf'), and why (for example '*BSD isn't C99 compliant
and has no lrint()')
Also please if you send several patches, send each patch as a separate mail,
do not attach several unrelated patches to the same mail.
Patches should be posted to the
@uref{http://lists.ffmpeg.org/mailman/listinfo/ffmpeg-devel, ffmpeg-devel}
mailing list. Use @code{git send-email} when possible since it will properly
send patches without requiring extra care. If you cannot, then send patches
as base64-encoded attachments, so your patch is not trashed during
transmission.
Your patch will be reviewed on the mailing list. You will likely be asked
to make some changes and are expected to send in an improved version that
incorporates the requests from the review. This process may go through
several iterations. Once your patch is deemed good enough, some developer
will pick it up and commit it to the official FFmpeg tree.
Give us a few days to react. But if some time passes without reaction,
send a reminder by email. Your patch should eventually be dealt with.
@section New codecs or formats checklist
@enumerate
@item
Did you use av_cold for codec initialization and close functions?
@item
Did you add a long_name under NULL_IF_CONFIG_SMALL to the AVCodec or
AVInputFormat/AVOutputFormat struct?
@item
Did you bump the minor version number (and reset the micro version
number) in @file{libavcodec/version.h} or @file{libavformat/version.h}?
@item
Did you register it in @file{allcodecs.c} or @file{allformats.c}?
@item
Did you add the AVCodecID to @file{avcodec.h}?
When adding new codec IDs, also add an entry to the codec descriptor
list in @file{libavcodec/codec_desc.c}.
@item
If it has a FourCC, did you add it to @file{libavformat/riff.c},
even if it is only a decoder?
@item
Did you add a rule to compile the appropriate files in the Makefile?
Remember to do this even if you're just adding a format to a file that is
already being compiled by some other rule, like a raw demuxer.
@item
Did you add an entry to the table of supported formats or codecs in
@file{doc/general.texi}?
@item
Did you add an entry in the Changelog?
@item
If it depends on a parser or a library, did you add that dependency in
configure?
@item
Did you @code{git add} the appropriate files before committing?
@item
Did you make sure it compiles standalone, i.e. with
@code{configure --disable-everything --enable-decoder=foo}
(or @code{--enable-demuxer} or whatever your component is)?
@end enumerate
@section patch submission checklist
@enumerate
@item
Does @code{make fate} pass with the patch applied?
@item
Was the patch generated with git format-patch or send-email?
@item
Did you sign off your patch? (git commit -s)
See @url{http://git.kernel.org/?p=linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git;a=blob_plain;f=Documentation/SubmittingPatches} for the meaning
of sign off.
@item
Did you provide a clear git commit log message?
@item
Is the patch against latest FFmpeg git master branch?
@item
Are you subscribed to ffmpeg-devel?
(the list is subscribers only due to spam)
@item
Have you checked that the changes are minimal, so that the same cannot be
achieved with a smaller patch and/or simpler final code?
@item
If the change is to speed critical code, did you benchmark it?
@item
If you did any benchmarks, did you provide them in the mail?
@item
Have you checked that the patch does not introduce buffer overflows or
other security issues?
@item
Did you test your decoder or demuxer against damaged data? If no, see
tools/trasher, the noise bitstream filter, and
@uref{http://caca.zoy.org/wiki/zzuf, zzuf}. Your decoder or demuxer
should not crash, end in a (near) infinite loop, or allocate ridiculous
amounts of memory when fed damaged data.
@item
Does the patch not mix functional and cosmetic changes?
@item
Did you add tabs or trailing whitespace to the code? Both are forbidden.
@item
Is the patch attached to the email you send?
@item
Is the mime type of the patch correct? It should be text/x-diff or
text/x-patch or at least text/plain and not application/octet-stream.
@item
If the patch fixes a bug, did you provide a verbose analysis of the bug?
@item
If the patch fixes a bug, did you provide enough information, including
a sample, so the bug can be reproduced and the fix can be verified?
Note please do not attach samples >100k to mails but rather provide a
URL, you can upload to ftp://upload.ffmpeg.org
@item
Did you provide a verbose summary about what the patch does change?
@item
Did you provide a verbose explanation why it changes things like it does?
@item
Did you provide a verbose summary of the user visible advantages and
disadvantages if the patch is applied?
@item
Did you provide an example so we can verify the new feature added by the
patch easily?
@item
If you added a new file, did you insert a license header? It should be
taken from FFmpeg, not randomly copied and pasted from somewhere else.
@item
You should maintain alphabetical order in alphabetically ordered lists as
long as doing so does not break API/ABI compatibility.
@item
Lines with similar content should be aligned vertically when doing so
improves readability.
@item
Consider to add a regression test for your code.
@item
If you added YASM code please check that things still work with --disable-yasm
@item
Make sure you check the return values of function and return appropriate
error codes. Especially memory allocation functions like @code{av_malloc()}
are notoriously left unchecked, which is a serious problem.
@item
Test your code with valgrind and or Address Sanitizer to ensure it's free
of leaks, out of array accesses, etc.
@end enumerate
@section Patch review process
All patches posted to ffmpeg-devel will be reviewed, unless they contain a
clear note that the patch is not for the git master branch.
Reviews and comments will be posted as replies to the patch on the
mailing list. The patch submitter then has to take care of every comment,
that can be by resubmitting a changed patch or by discussion. Resubmitted
patches will themselves be reviewed like any other patch. If at some point
a patch passes review with no comments then it is approved, that can for
simple and small patches happen immediately while large patches will generally
have to be changed and reviewed many times before they are approved.
After a patch is approved it will be committed to the repository.
We will review all submitted patches, but sometimes we are quite busy so
especially for large patches this can take several weeks.
If you feel that the review process is too slow and you are willing to try to
take over maintainership of the area of code you change then just clone
git master and maintain the area of code there. We will merge each area from
where its best maintained.
When resubmitting patches, please do not make any significant changes
not related to the comments received during review. Such patches will
be rejected. Instead, submit significant changes or new features as
separate patches.
@anchor{Regression tests}
@section Regression tests
Before submitting a patch (or committing to the repository), you should at least
test that you did not break anything.
Running 'make fate' accomplishes this, please see @url{fate.html} for details.
[Of course, some patches may change the results of the regression tests. In
this case, the reference results of the regression tests shall be modified
accordingly].
@subsection Adding files to the fate-suite dataset
When there is no muxer or encoder available to generate test media for a
specific test then the media has to be inlcuded in the fate-suite.
First please make sure that the sample file is as small as possible to test the
respective decoder or demuxer sufficiently. Large files increase network
bandwidth and disk space requirements.
Once you have a working fate test and fate sample, provide in the commit
message or introductionary message for the patch series that you post to
the ffmpeg-devel mailing list, a direct link to download the sample media.
@subsection Visualizing Test Coverage
The FFmpeg build system allows visualizing the test coverage in an easy
manner with the coverage tools @code{gcov}/@code{lcov}. This involves
the following steps:
@enumerate
@item
Configure to compile with instrumentation enabled:
@code{configure --toolchain=gcov}.
@item
Run your test case, either manually or via FATE. This can be either
the full FATE regression suite, or any arbitrary invocation of any
front-end tool provided by FFmpeg, in any combination.
@item
Run @code{make lcov} to generate coverage data in HTML format.
@item
View @code{lcov/index.html} in your preferred HTML viewer.
@end enumerate
You can use the command @code{make lcov-reset} to reset the coverage
measurements. You will need to rerun @code{make lcov} after running a
new test.
@anchor{Release process}
@section Release process
FFmpeg maintains a set of @strong{release branches}, which are the
recommended deliverable for system integrators and distributors (such as
Linux distributions, etc.). At regular times, a @strong{release
manager} prepares, tests and publishes tarballs on the
@url{http://ffmpeg.org} website.
There are two kinds of releases:
@enumerate
@item
@strong{Major releases} always include the latest and greatest
features and functionality.
@item
@strong{Point releases} are cut from @strong{release} branches,
which are named @code{release/X}, with @code{X} being the release
version number.
@end enumerate
Note that we promise to our users that shared libraries from any FFmpeg
release never break programs that have been @strong{compiled} against
previous versions of @strong{the same release series} in any case!
However, from time to time, we do make API changes that require adaptations
in applications. Such changes are only allowed in (new) major releases and
require further steps such as bumping library version numbers and/or
adjustments to the symbol versioning file. Please discuss such changes
on the @strong{ffmpeg-devel} mailing list in time to allow forward planning.
@anchor{Criteria for Point Releases}
@subsection Criteria for Point Releases
Changes that match the following criteria are valid candidates for
inclusion into a point release:
@enumerate
@item
Fixes a security issue, preferably identified by a @strong{CVE
number} issued by @url{http://cve.mitre.org/}.
@item
Fixes a documented bug in @url{https://ffmpeg.org/trac/ffmpeg}.
@item
Improves the included documentation.
@item
Retains both source code and binary compatibility with previous
point releases of the same release branch.
@end enumerate
The order for checking the rules is (1 OR 2 OR 3) AND 4.
@subsection Release Checklist
The release process involves the following steps:
@enumerate
@item
Ensure that the @file{RELEASE} file contains the version number for
the upcoming release.
@item
Add the release at @url{https://ffmpeg.org/trac/ffmpeg/admin/ticket/versions}.
@item
Announce the intent to do a release to the mailing list.
@item
Make sure all relevant security fixes have been backported. See
@url{https://ffmpeg.org/security.html}.
@item
Ensure that the FATE regression suite still passes in the release
branch on at least @strong{i386} and @strong{amd64}
(cf. @ref{Regression tests}).
@item
Prepare the release tarballs in @code{bz2} and @code{gz} formats, and
supplementing files that contain @code{gpg} signatures
@item
Publish the tarballs at @url{http://ffmpeg.org/releases}. Create and
push an annotated tag in the form @code{nX}, with @code{X}
containing the version number.
@item
Propose and send a patch to the @strong{ffmpeg-devel} mailing list
with a news entry for the website.
@item
Publish the news entry.
@item
Send announcement to the mailing list.
@end enumerate
@bye
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\bc
{\Huge IFT3545/MAT 6490}\\
\smallskip
20.04.2020
\smallskip
version 6.96
\ec
Ici vous trouverez une collection de probl\`emes dont la plupart ont
un nombre de points attach\'e. Les probl\`emes sans points sont plus
difficiles et des points seront accord\'es pour des solutions
partielles. {\em Pour r\'eussir le cours au premier cycle, il vous
faut au moins 100 points et il faut faire au moins un probl\`eme dans
chaque cat\'egorie de points jusque 25 points. Des solutions
partielles m\'eritent des points partiels. Certains probl\`emes peuvent
\^etre obligatoires et dans ce cas seront signal\'es comme tels, avec
une date de remise ferme.} Si vous compter vous faire
cr\'editer le cours comme MAT6490, il vous faut 150 points. Voir
\href{www.iro.umontreal.ca/~hahn/IFT3545/Evaluation.html}{Evaluation}
pour plus de d\'etails.
\medskip Il faut faire des probl\`eme au fur et a mesure et en rendre
un peu chaque semaine. Rendre tout le paquet de solutions la
derni\`ere semaine du cours serait plut\^ot mal vu - et suicidaire car
vous avez besoin du ``feedback''. Vous pouvez essayer les probl\`emes
\`a plus que $10$ points plusieurs fois.
\medskip
{\bf Une solution sans l'enonc\'e du probl\`eme vaut au maximum la
moiti\'e des points. Les solutions copi\'ees - et d\'ecouvertes -
m\`enent automatiquement \`a un F pour le cours. Pour l'\'eviter,
citez vos sources. Afin de donner le
b\'en\'efice du doute, je me r\'eserve donc
le droit de demander des explications, peut-\^etre en classe.
Tol\'erence z\'ero au plagiat.}
\medskip
{\bf Justifiez ce que vous dites.} Si, par exemple, on vous demande un
algortihme polynomial pour r\'esoudre un probl\`eme $P$, il faut
prouver que l'algorithme fait ce qu'il est cens\'e faire et qu'il est,
en fait, polynomial. Pour les graphes, ``polynomial'' veut dire en le
nombre de sommets (et d'ar\^etes, mais cela reviens au m\^eme pour un
graphe simple). Une
r\'eponse, m\^eme correcte, sans justification ou, mieux, preuve, ne
vaut rien. N'oubliez pas que quand on dit {\em il est clair que} ou
{\em \'evidemment}, souvent on se trompe\ldots mieux vaut trop de
d\'etails que pas assez.
\bigskip
{\em Conventions}. Sauf indication contraire, un graphe $G$ a comme
ensemble de sommets $V$ (ou $V(G)$ si plus de clart\'e est
n\'ecessaire), et comme ensemble d'ar\^etes $E$ (ou $E(G))$. L'ar\^ete
entre les sommets $u$ et $v$ est not\'ee $uv$ ou, parfois pour plus
de clart\'e, $[u,v]$. Une
famille de graphes $\{G_i:i\in I\}$ ($I$ est un ensemble d'indices,
souvent $I=[k]=\{0,1,2,\ldots,k-1\}$ ou $I=\nat$)
aura $G_i=(V_i,E_i)$. Comme toujours, $|V|=n$ et $|E|=m$. Sauf
indication contraire nos graphes sont simple (pas de boucles, pas
d'ar\^etes multiples), non orient\'es et finis. On distinguera les
graphes orient\'es en les notant $D=(V,A)$, avec les m\^eme conventions
pour $D_i$; $A$ est l'ensemble d'arcs. \\
Rappelons que $P_k$ et $C_k$ sont des cha\^{\i}nes (chemins) et des
cycles (circuits) simples
sur $k$ sommets et de longueur $k-1$ et $k$, respectivement.\\
Une autre convention : on \'ecrit $\lg n$ pour $\log_2 n$.
\medskip
Quelques d\'efinitions se trouvent
\href{http://www.iro.umontreal.ca/~hahn/IFT3545/Notes/definitions.pdf}{ici}.
\bigskip
{\bf Si le probl\`eme n'est qu'un simple \'enonc\'e, il est \`a
prouver ou, parfois, infirmer (i.e. il faut trouver un
contre-exemple)}. A vous de
d\'ecouvrire la bonne r\'eponse. Il se peut \'egalement que l'\'enonc\'e soit vrais
avec une supposition suppl\'ementaire (e.g. graphe connexe, ou au
moins quatre sommets) mais faux en g\'en\'erale. Dans ce cas il faut
donner un contre-exemple au cas g\'en\'eral et une preuve pour le cas
modifi\'e.
\bigskip
{\bf Les probl\`emes apparaissent dans un ordre presque al\'eatoire.
Il se peut donc que pour r\'esoudre un probl\`eme \`a 5 points il faut
en avoir r\'esolu un \`a 10 (ou 15 ou 25). Par contre, si vous croyez
que l'\'enonc\'e d'un probl\`eme $X.Y$ est vrai et qu'il vous permet de r\'esoudre un autre
probl\`eme, vous pouvez dire {\em En supposons $X.Y$, ...}}.
Mais il vaut toujours mieux prouver $X.Y$ d'abord, si on peut.
\bigskip
Bien s\^ur, si un probl\`eme est fait en classe, il ne peut pas
contribuer \`a la somme de vos points. Les probl\`emes obligatoires
ont des dates limite et apparaissent sur la page web, s'il y a lieu.
\section{\bf 2 points}
\bpb Le relation $G\ra H$ est transitive.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $G=(V,E)$ un graphe et soit $L(G)$ son graphe repr\'esentatif
des ar\^etes. Donnez un exemple (avec explications!) pour montrer
qu'un cycle eul\'erien de $L(G)$ ne donne pas forc\'ement un cycle
hamiltonien de $G$.
\epb
\bpb
Prouvez que le produit $\Box$ est commutatif (i.e. $G\Box H\simeq
H\Box G$).
\epb
\bpb
Prouvez que le produit lexicographique n'est pas commutatif i.e.
$G[H]\not\simeq H[G]$.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $G=(V,E)$ un graphe. Soit $c:V(G)\lra [k]$ une coloration des
sommets de $G$ telle que les voisins d'un sommet re\cc oivent des
couleurs distinctes (plus pr\'ecis\'ement, si $N(u)\cap N(v)\neq
\emptyset$ alors $c(u)\neq c(v)$). Alors $k\geq \Delta(G)$.
\epb
\bpb
Donnez un exemple d'un graphe orient\'e sans noyau.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $G=(V,E)$ un graphe et soit $A=\{\phi:V\lra V: \phi$ est u
automorphisme de $G\}$. Alors $Aut(G)= (A,\circ)$ est un groupe
($\circ$ est la composition des fonctions).
\epb
\bpb
Prouvez que le produit $\times$ est commutatif (i.e. $G\times H\simeq
H\times G$).
\epb
\bpb
Prouvez que le produit $\Box$ est associatif (i.e. $(G\Box H)\Box K\simeq
G\Box (H\Box K)$).
\epb
\bpb
Prouvez que le produit $\times$ est associatif (i.e. $(G\times H)\times K\simeq
G\times (H\times K)$).
\epb
\bpb
Prouvez que dans un graphe simple il y a toujours deux sommets d'un
m\^eme degr\'e. Donnez un exemple de graphe pas simple dans lequel
tous les degr\'es sont distincts.
\epb
\section{\bf 5 points}
\setcounter{prob}{0}
\bpb
Prouvez qui si $G\simeq \overline{G}$ alors $|V(G)|\equiv 0$ ou
$1\pmod 4$.
\epb
\bpb
Prouver que si $\diam(G)>3$ alors $\diam(\overline{G})<3$.
\epb
\bpb Soit $cc(G)$ le nombre de composantes connexes de $G$. Si
$m>n-cc(G)$ alors $G$ contient un cycle.
\epb
\bpb\label{stablechrom} $\chi(G)\geq \frac{n}{\alpha(G)}$
\epb
\bpb
Donnez un exemple de graphe sommet-transitif mais pas
ar\^ete-transitif.
\epb
\bpb
Donnez un exemple de graphe ar\^ete-transitif mais pas
sommet-transitif.
\epb
\bpb
Dans un graphe $G=(V,E)$ $k-$ar\^ete-connexe $|E|\geq \frac{k|V|}{2}$.
\epb
\bpb
Tout graphe orient\'e $D$ contient un chemin orient\'e simple de longueur au
moins $\max \{\delta^+(D),\delta^-(D)\}$ si ce maximum est positif.
\epb
\bpb
Si $d^+(u)=d^+(v)$ pour tout $u,v\in V$ dans un graphe orient\'e
simple, alors $d^-(u)=d^-(v)$ pour tout $u,v\in V$ \'egalement.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $G=(V,E)$ un graphe. Il existe un $n_0\in \nat$ tel que pour tout
$n\geq n_0$, quelque soit le coloriage de $V(K_n)$ avec deux couleurs,
le graphe $K_n$ colori\'e contient un (graphe isomorphe \`a) $G$
monochromatique, pas forc\'ement induit.
\epb
\bpb
Pour tout $2< k\in \nat$, $C_{2k}\ra C_{2k-2}$.
\epb
\bpb
Pour tout $2\leq k\in \nat$, $C_{2k+1}\ra C_{2k-1}$.
\epb
\bpb
Dans un graphe simple connexe $G$, $diam(G)+\Delta(G)\leq n+1$.
\epb
\bpb
Est-ce que si $G\ra H$ mais $H\not\ra K$ alors $G\not\ra K$?
\epb
\bpb
Soit $C_n$ un cycle de longueur $n$. Alors $Aut(C_n)\simeq D_n$, le
groupe dih\`edral.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $G$ soit $\overline{G}$ est connexe et le ``ou'' n'est pas
exclusif.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $G, H$ deux graphes, orient\'es ou non, simples ou pas. Soit
$\phi:V(G)\lra V(H)$ un isomorphisme. Alors pour tout $u\in V(G)$,
$d_G(u)=d_H(\phi(u))$.
\epb
\bpb
Soient $G_i=(V_i,E_i)$, $i=0,1$, deux graphes simples et soit
$G=G_0\Box G_1$ leur produit. Soient $x_i$ les param\`etres de $G_i$:
le nombre de sommets $n_i$, le nombre d
ar\^etes $m_i$, le degr\'e minimum $\delta_i$, le degr\'e maximum
$\Delta_i$. En
termes de $n_0,n_1,m_0,m_1, \delta_i, \Delta_i$ :
\bi
\item quel est le
nombre de sommets de $G$?
\item quel est le nombre d'ar\^etes de $G$?
\item quel est son degr\'e minimum?
\item quel est son degr\'e maximum?
\ei
\epb
\bpb
Soient $G_i=(V_i,E_i)$, $i=0,1$, deux graphes simples et soit
$G=G_0\times G_1$ leur produit. Soient $x_i$ les param\`etres de $G_i$:
le nombre de sommets $n_i$, le nombre d
ar\^etes $m_i$, le degr\'e minimum $\delta_i$, le degr\'e maximum
$\Delta_i$. En
termes de $n_0,n_1,m_0,m_1, \delta_i, \Delta_i$ :
\bi
\item quel est le
nombre de sommets de $G$?
\item quel est le nombre d'ar\^etes de $G$?
\item quel est son degr\'e minimum?
\item quel est son degr\'e maximum?
\ei
\epb
\bpb
Soient $G_i=(V_i,E_i)$, $i=0,1$, deux graphes simples et soit
$G=G_0[G_1]$ leur produit. Soient $x_i$ les param\`etres de $G_i$:
le nombre de sommets $n_i$, le nombre d
ar\^etes $m_i$, le degr\'e minimum $\delta_i$, le degr\'e maximum
$\Delta_i$. En
termes de $n_0,n_1,m_0,m_1, \delta_i, \Delta_i$ :
\bi
\item quel est le
nombre de sommets de $G$?
\item quel est le nombre d'ar\^etes de $G$?
\item quel est degr\'e minimum?
\item quel est son degr\'e maximum?
\ei
\epb
\bpb\label{v-clique}
Soit $G=(V,E)$ un graphe simple et soit $\vcc(G)$ le nombre minimum de
cliques dans $G$ dont la r\'eunion est $V$, i.e. $\vcc(G)=\min\{k:$ il
existe des cliques $C_1, \ldots, C_k$ telles que $\cup_{i=1}^kC_i=V\}$.
Prouver que $\vcc(G)=\chi(\overline G)$. Comparer avec le probl\`eme
\ref{e-clique}.
\epb
\bpb
Un graphe $G$ avec $\alpha(G)=2$ est de diam\`etre au plus $3$.
\epb
\bpb
Prouvez que les deux d\'efinitions de ``connexe'', D\'efinitions 6 et
7 dans les
\href{http://www.iro.umontreal.ca/~hahn/IFT3545/Notes/definitions.pdf}{d\'efinitions},
sont \'equivalentes.
\epb
\bpb Trouvez une classe infinie de graphes qui sont
ar\^ete-transitifs mais pas sommet-transitifs.
\epb
\bpb
Si $\delta(G)\geq k$ alors $G$ contient une \cha\ de longueur $k$.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $G$ un graphe et soit $A$ sa matrice d'adjacence. Que peut-on
dire de l'entr\'ee $A^k[u,v]$, $1\leq k \in \nat$? Prouvez votre r\'eponse.
\epb
\section{\bf 10 points}
\setcounter{prob}{0}
\bpb
Soit $Q_n$ l'hypercube de dimension $n$. Supposons qu'il est possible
de
colorier ses sommets avec $n$ couleurs en s'assurant que deux sommets
qui ont un voisin en commun aient des couleurs diff\'erentes. Alors $n$
est une puissance de $2$.
\epb
\bpb
\label{robber} Prouver qu'un policier ne peut pas capturer un voleur
sur un
graphe connexe infini mais localement fini.
\epb
\bpb \label{chrombox} Soit $G$ et $H$ deux graphes (finis ou infinis). Alors
$\chi(G\Box H)=\max\{\chi(G),\chi(H)\}$ si
$\max\{\chi(G),\chi(H)\}\leq |\nat|=\omega=\aleph_0$.
\epb
\bpb Trouvez deux graphes $G$ et $H$ tels que $G\not\ra H$ et
$H\not\ra G$.
\epb
\bpb Si $G\ra H$ et $H\ra G$ alors $G\simeq H$.
\epb
\bpb
Tout graphe $G$ avec $\delta(G)\geq k$ contient comme sous-graphe tout
arbre avec $k+1$ sommets ($k\in \nat$).
\epb
\bpb
Donnez un algorithme polynomial qui d\'ecide si un graphe contient un
cycle impair.
\epb
\bpb
Tout graphe orient\'e simple $D$ contient un cycle (simple) orient\'e de longueur au
moins $1+\max \{\delta^+(D),\delta^-(D)\}$ pourvu que $\max
\{\delta^+(D),\delta^-(D)\}>0$.
\epb
\bpb\hfill
\be
\item Pour tout $1\leq k\in \nat$, $C_{2k+1}\ra K_3$.
\item Pour tout $2\leq k\in \nat$, $C_{2k}\leftrightarrow K_2$.
\item Pour tout $2\leq k,\ell\in \nat$, $C_{2k}\leftrightarrow
C_{2\ell}$.
\item Pour tout $1\leq k<\ell\in \nat$, $C_{2k+1}\not\ra C_{2\ell+1}$
\ee
\epb
\bpb
Soit $m_i(G)$ la longueur d'un plus court cycle impair dans un graphe
non-biparti
$G$. Alors $G\ra H$ alors $m_i(G)\geq m_i(H)$ pour $G,H$ non-biparti.
\epb
\bpb
Pour tout graphe $G=(V,E)$ simple, non-vide, r\'egulier et avec $|V|$ impair on
a $\chi'(G)=\Delta(G)+1$.
\epb
\bpb
Prouver que $\chi'(G\Box K_2)=1+\Delta(G)$ pour tout graphe $G$
simple.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $G, H$ deux graphes. Soit
$\phi:V(G)\lra V(H)$ un isomorphisme. Alors pour $u\in V(G)$, $G\langle
N_G(u)\rangle\simeq H\langle(N_H(\phi(u))\rangle$. Comment
g\'en\'eraliser aux graphes pas simples? Orient\'es?
\epb
\bpb
Si $h:V(G)\lra V(H)$ et $g:V(H)\lra V(G)$ sont des homomorphismes
surjectifs alors $G\simeq H$.
\epb
\bpb
Donnez un exemple d'un tournois dont les ar\^etes sont colori\'ees en
$3$ couleurs et dont l'ensemble absorbant minimum a au moins $3$
sommets.
\epb
\bpb
Dans un jeu de policier-voleur standard, le voleur gagne sur un graphe
fini r\'egulier sauf si le graphe est complet.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $G, H$ deux graphes. Soit
$\phi:V(G)\lra V(H)$ un isomorphisme. Pour $u\in V(G)$, le nombre de
cycles \'el\'ementaires de longeur $k$ passant par $u$ est \'egal au nombre de cycles
\'el\'ementaires de longueur $k$ passant par $\phi(u)$.
\epb
\bpb Prouvez que les deux d\'efinitions (13, 14) de l'hypercube sont
\'equivalentes, i.e. $H_n\simeq Q_n$ pour tout $n\in
\nat\setminus\{0\}$.
\epb
\bpb
Un graphe de Cayley $\Cay(G,S)$ est connexe \ssi $S$ est un ensemble
g\'en\'erateur de $G$.
\epb
\bpb
Prouvez que l'hypercube $Q_n$ est biparti en utilisant la d\'efiniton
14.
\epb
\bpb
L'hypercube $Q_n$ est un graphe hamiltonien pour $n\geq 2$.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $G=(V,E)$ un graphe r\'egulier
de degr\'e $d$. Soit $c:V(G)\lra [d]$ un coloriage des sommets de
$G$ tel que les voisins d'un sommet re\cc oivent des couleurs
distinctes (plus pr\'ecis\'ement, si $N(u)\cap N(v)\neq \emptyset$
alors $c(u)\neq c(v)$). Alors $n$ est pair.
\epb
\bpb
Expliquer pourquoi la notion de cardinalit\'e est interdite dans les
probl\`emes \ref{CBfin} et \ref{CBinf}.
\epb
\bpb
Prouvez qu'un graphe $G$ est $2$-ar\^ete-connexe \ssi entre chaque
paire de sommets il existe $2$ cha\^\i nes ar\^etes-disjointes.
\epb
\bpb
Prouvez que la bipartition d'un graphe biparti connexe est unique.
\epb
\bpb
Tout graphe $G$ bipartit avec $\delta(G)>0$ poss\`ede une
$\delta(G)$-ar\^ete-coloration telle que toute
couleur appara\^it \`a tout sommet.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $A$ une matrice avec entr\'ees dans $\{0,1\}$ (i.e. une matrice
sur $GF(2)$). Appelons {\em ligne} de $A$ une rang\'ee ou une colonne.
Prouvez que ;e nombre minimum de lignes contenant tous les $1$ est
\'egal au nombre maximum de $1$ telles qu'aucune paire n'est sur la m\^eme
ligne.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $G$ un graphe et soit $A$ sa matrice d'adjacence. Soit $R=A+I$,
avec $I$ la matrice identit\'e de la taille approri\'ee, $n\times n$.
Supposons que les puissances $R^k$ sont calcul\'ees avec l'addition
red\'efinie: $a_1+a_2\ldots +a_n = \max\{a_i: i= 1, \ldots, n\}$.
Que peut-on dire de l'entr\'ee $R^k[u,v]$? Prouvez votre r\'eponse.
\epb
\section{\bf 15 points}
\setcounter{prob}{0}
\bpb
Prouvez que sur un graphe connexe infini mais localement fini il faut un
nombre infini de policiers pour apr\'ehender un voleur.
\epb
\bpb \label{pete}
Soit $G=(V,E)$ le graphe d\'efini par $V=\{u_i:i=
0,1,2,3,4\}\cup\{v_i:i=0,1,2,3,4\}$ et $E=\{u_iv_i:
i=0,1,2,3,4\}\cup\{u_iu_{i+1}: i=0,1,2,3,4$ addition modulo $5\}\cup
\{v_iv_{i+2}: i=0,1,2,3,4$ addition modulo $5\}\}$. Prouvez que $G$
n'est pas hamiltonien.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $G=(V,E)$ un graphe r\'egulier
de degr\'e $d$. Soit $c:V(G)\lra [d]$ un coloriage des sommets de
$G$ tel que les voisins d'un sommet re\cc oivent des couleurs
distinctes (plus pr\'ecis\'ement, si $N(u)\cap N(v)\neq \emptyset$
alors $c(u)\neq c(v)$). Alors $d|n$.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $1\leq k,\ell,n\in \nat$ et soit $c_k:E(G)\lra \nat$ un coloriage des
ar\^etes de $K_n$ tel que $|c\inv(i)|\leq k$ pour tout $i\in \nat$. Un
coloriage $c_k$ est {\em $(k,\ell)-$arc-en-ciel} si $K_n$ colori\'e par $c_k$
contient un $K_\ell$ dont toutes les ar\^etes ont des couleurs
distincts. Prouvez que pour tout $1\leq k,\ell\in \nat$ il existe un plus
petit $n_0$ tel que pour tout $n\geq n_0$ tout coloriage $c_k$ de
$K_n$ est $(k,\ell)-$arc-en-ciel.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $G$ et $H$ deux graphes simples. Prouvez que $\chi'(G\Box
H)=\Delta(G\Box H)$ si $\chi'(H)=\Delta(H)$ et $E(H)\neq \emptyset$.
Donnez des exemples pour montrer que les conditions
$\chi'(H)=\Delta(H)$ et $E(H)\neq \emptyset$ sont n\'ecessaires.
\epb
\bpb\label{CBfin}
Utilisez les graphes pour prouver le th\'eor\`eme de Cantor-Bernstein
pour les ensembles finis :
\bq
Soit $X, Y$ deux ensembles et soit $f: X\lra Y$ et $g:Y\lra X$ des
fonctions injectives. Alors il existe une bijection entre $X$ et $Y$.
N'oubliez pas le cas o\`u $X$ et $Y$ ne sont pas disjoints!
\eq
Vous n'avez pas le droit d'utiliser la cardinalit\'e dans votre
preuve, en, particulier le th\'eor\`eme de Hall.
\epb
\bpb
Un tournois avec $n>0$ sommets dont les ar\^etes sont colori\'ees avec
$k>0$ couleurs contient un ensemble absorbant d'au plus
$\lceil \lg n\rceil$ sommets.
\epb
\bpb
Tout graphe connexe ar\^ete-transitif mais pas sommet-transitif est
biparti. Est-ce que ``connexe'' est important dans l'\'enonc\'e?
\epb
\bpb
Soit $G$ un groupe commutatif et $S\subset G$, $S^{-1}=S$, $e\not\in S$.
Soit $K= \Cay(G,S)$. Alors $K\ra \Ind(K)$.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $K=\Cay(D_4,S)$ un graphe de Cayley sur le groupe dih\`edral $D_4$
et $S$ un ensemble g\'en\'erateur de $D_4$, $e\not\in S$. Est-ce que
$K\ra \Ind(K)$?
\epb
\bpb
Soit $G$ un graphe et soit $T_G$ avec $V(T_G)=\{T: T$ est un arbre
couvrant de $G\}$ et $E(T_G)=\{[T,T']:|E(T)\Delta
E(T')|=2\}$. Prouvez que $T_G$ est connexe.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $G$ un graphe $3-$r\'egulier. Alors $\kappa(G)=\kappa'(G)$.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $G, H$ deux graphes. Pour $u\in
V(G)$ notons $\nu_G(u,H)$ le nombre de sous-graphes induits de $G$
isomorphes \`a $H$ contenant $u$. De mani\`ere analogue, on d\'efinit
$\mu_G(e,H)$ pour une ar\^ete (un arc) $e$ de $G$.\\
Soit $G, H$ deux graphes. Soit
$\phi:V(G)\lra V(H)$ un isomorphisme et soit $K$ un troisi\`eme graphe
de la m\^eme sorte. Alors $\nu_G(u,K)=\nu_H(\phi(u),K)$ et
$\mu_G(e,K)=\mu_H(\hat\phi(u),K)$.\\
Indiquez comment \'etendre ce r\'esultat aux graphex orient\'es ainsi
qu'aux graphes non simple (orint\'es ou pas).
\epb
\bpb
Soit $G$ un groupe fini et $H$ un sous-groupe de $G$. Prouvez pour
tout $a\in G$ et tout symbole $S\subseteq G$, le sous-graphe
engendr\'e par $aH$ (le traslat\'e \`a gauche de $H$) dans $Cay(G,S)$
est isomorphe \`a celui engendr\'e par $H$.
\epb
\bpb
Prouvez le th\'eor\`eme de Hall \`a partir le th\'eor\`eme de K\"onig
(les th\'eor\`eme 5.2 et 5.3 dans Bondy et Murty).
\epb
\bpb
Soit $T$ un arbre infini, localement fini et soit $u\in V(T)$. Il
existe, dans $T$, un rayon dont le sommet initial est $u$.
\epb
\bpb
Le graphe $K_3\Box K_3$ est autocompl\'ementaire.
\epb
\bpb
Le noyau d'un graphe sommet-transitif est \'egalement
sommet-transitif. ({\em noyau} dans le sens {\em homomorphisme}).
\epb
\bpb
Si $G$ a au moins trois sommets et si $\alpha(G)\leq \kappa(G)$ alors
$G$ est hamiltonien.
\epb
\bpb
Pour tout $1\leq k\in \nat$ il existe un graphe sans $K_3$ tel que
$\chi(G)=k$.
\epb
\section{\bf 20 points}
\setcounter{prob}{0}
\bpb
Le plus petit (nombre de sommets) sous-graphe $H$ de $G$ tel que $G\ra H$ est
unique \`a l'isomorphie pr\`es.
\epb
\bpb Soit $H$ le plus petit sous-graphe de $G$ tel que $G\ra H$.
Alors il existe un homomorphisme $h:VG)\lra V(H)$ tel que $h(u)=u$
pour tout $u\in V(H)$.
\epb
\bpb\label{pete-trans} Prouvez que $G$ du probl\`eme \ref{pete} est
sommet-transitif. Vous n'avez pas le droit d'utiliser le
probl\`eme~\ref{knes-pete} \epb
\bpb Prouvez qu'un graphe connexe
infini et d\'enombrable poss\`ede un arbre couvrant sans utiliser le
probl\`eme \ref{zorn}. \epb
\bpb Soit
$G$ un graphe avec $\aleph_0$ sommets. Alors $\chi(G)\leq k$ \ssi pour
tout sous-graphe $H$ fini, $\chi(H)\leq k$ (et donc $\chi(G)=k$ \ssi
$\chi(H)\leq k$ pour tout sous-graphe fini $H$ et il existe un sous
graphe $H$ fini tel que $\chi(G)=k$). \epb
\bpb\label{touinf}
Soit $T$ un tournois orient\'e infini, avec les arcs colori\'es avec
$k$ couleurs sans cr\'eer un rayon (orient\'e) monochromatique. Alors $T$
contient un ensemble absorbant fini.
\epb
\bpb\label{CBinf}
Utilisez les graphes pour prouvez le th\'eor\`eme de Cantor-Bernstein
pour les ensembles infinis :
\bq
Soit $X, Y$ deux ensembles et soit $f: X\lra Y$ et $g:Y\lra X$ des
fonctions injectives. Alors il existe une bijection entre $X$ et $Y$.
\eq
Vous ne pouvez pas utiliser la notion de cardinalit\'e dans votre
preuve. N'oubliez pas le cas o\`u $X$ et $Y$ ne sont pas disjoints!
\epb
\bpb
Soit $G$ un graphe avec $10^{10}$ sommets et une seule ar\^ete. Soit
$G^k=G^{k-1}\Box G$ pour $k>1$ et $G^1=G$. Trouver une expression qui
donne le nombre de stabilit\'e $\alpha(G^k)$ de $G^k$. Concluez que $\lim_{k\lra
\infty}\frac{\alpha(G^k)}{n^k}= \frac{1}{2}$.
\epb
\bpb\label{knes-pete}
Soit $G$ le graphes dont l'ensemble de sommets est ${[5]}\choose {2}$
et dans le quel deux sommets $X$ et $Y$ sont adjacents si $X\cap
Y=\emptyset$. Prouvez que le graphe est isomorphe au graphe du
probl\`eme~\ref{pete}. Utiliser ce fait pour refaire le
probl\`eme~\ref{pete-trans}.
\epb
\bpb
Un graphe connexe non complet est $k$-connexe \ssi entre chaque paire de sommets \`a
distance $2$ il existe $k$ cha\^{i}nes ind\'ependantes.
\epb
\bpb\label{e-clique}
Soit $G=(V,E)$ un graphe simple et soit $\ecc(G)=\min\{k:$ il
existe des cliques $C_1, \ldots, C_k$ telles que
$\cup_{i=1}^kE(G[C_i])=E\}$.
Prouver que si $\alpha(G)=2$ et $\diam(G)=3$ alors $\ecc(G)\leq
\lceil\frac{n+1}{2}\rceil$. Comparer avec le probl\`eme \ref{v-clique}.
\epb
\bpb\label{e-clique-2n}
Soit $G=(V,E)$ un graphe simple et soit $\ecc(G)=\min\{k:$ il
existe des cliques $C_1, \ldots, C_k$ telles que
$\cup_{i=1}^kE(G[C_i])=E\}$.
Prouver que si $\alpha(G)=2$ alors $\ecc(G)\leq
2n$. Comparer avec les probl\`emes \ref{e-clique} et
\ref{e-clique-n}.
\epb
\section{\bf 25 points}
\setcounter{prob}{0}
\bpb
\label{friend} Soit $G$ tel que chaque pair de sommets a exactement $1$ voisin
en commun ($|N(u)\cap N(v)|= 1$ pour tout $u\neq v\in V$). Alors $G$
n'a aucun cycle de longueur $5$ sans cordes \ssi $V=\{u,u_0,\ldots,
u_{2k-1}\}$ et $E=\{u_{2i}u_{2i+1}:i=0,\ldots,k-1\}\cup \{uu_i:i\in
[2k]\}$.
\epb
\bpb\label{two}
Soit $T=(V,A)$ un tournois dont
les arcs sont colori\'es avec $2$ couleurs. Alors $T$
contient un sommet absorbant, i.e. un sommet $u$ tel que pour tout
sommet $v\in V$ il existe un chemin orient\'e monochromatique de $v$
vers $u$.
\epb
\bpb
G\'en\'eralisez le th\'eor\`eme de Ramsey vu en classe: Si les
ar\`etes du graphe $K_\omega$ complet infini d\'enombrable (sans perte de
g\'en\'eralit\'e, supposons que $V(K_\omega)=\nat$) sont colori\'ees
en $k$ couleurs alors le graphe colori\'e contient un $K_\omega$ (i.e.
une clique infinie) monochromatique.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $G=G^1$ un graphe avec $n$ sommets et soit $G^k=G^{k-1}\Box G$ pour $k>1$.
Prouvez que $\lim_{k\lra \infty}\frac{\alpha(G^k)}{n^k}$ existe (les
probl\`eme \ref{stablechrom} et \ref{chrombox} peuvent \^etre
utiles).
\epb
\bpb\label{zorn}
Prouvez que tout graphe connexe infini poss\`ede un
arbre couvrant.
\epb
\bpb
Si $G$ est un graphe connexe sommet-transitif de degr\'e $d$ alors
$\kappa'(G)=d$.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $X$ un ensemble infini, $k,m\in \nat\setminus\{0\}$, et soit
$X_1\sqcup X_2\sqcup\ldots \sqcup X_k$ une partition de $X\choose m$ en
$k$ classes. Prouvez qu'il existe $Y\subseteq X$, $|Y|=\aleph_0$, et
$i\in \{1,\ldots, k\}$ tels que ${Y\choose m}\subseteq X_i$.
\epb
\section{\bf 50 points}
\setcounter{prob}{0}
\bpb\label{ming}
Soit $T=(V,A)$ un tournois et soit $1\leq k\in \nat$. Supposons que
les arcs de $T$ sont colori\'es avec $k$ couleurs sans qu'un sous
graphe (induit) \`a trois sommets re\cc oive trois couleurs. Alors $T$
contient un sommet absorbant, i.e. un sommet $u$ tel que pour tout
sommet $v\in V$ il existe un chemin orient\'e monochromatique de $v$
vers $u$.
\epb
\bpb
Prouvez que si $n=2^k$ pour un $k\in\nat$, alors il existe
$c:V(Q_n)\lra [2^k]$ telle que pour tout $u\neq v\in V(Q_n)$, si
$N(u)\cap N(v)\neq \emptyset$, alors $c(u)\neq c(v)$.
\epb
\bpb
Prouvez la version finie du th\`eor\`eme de Ramsey \`a partir de sa
version infinie (une preuve pourtant correcte disant {\em C'est
trivial par compacit\'e} n'est pas acceptable, il ne faut pas utiliser
cette notion de logique math\'ematique.)
\epb
\bpb
On pourrait croire que si les ar\^etes d'un graphe complet avec $\alpha$ sommets
($\alpha$ infini) sont colori\'ees en $2$ couleurs alors il y existe
un sous-graphe monochromatique de taille $\alpha$. Apr\`es tout,
c'est vrai pour $\alpha = \aleph_0$. Prouvez que cela peut ne pas
\^etre le cas pour $\alpha = c = |\re|$.
\epb
\bpb \hspace*{0cm} Soit $Q_n$ le hypercube de dimension $n$.
\be
\item Quel est le nombre de policiers n\'ecessaire est suffisant pour qu'ils
puissent y capturer un voleur?
\item Combien de tours faut-il aux policiers de la premi\`ere partie
de ce probl\`eme pour capturer le voleur?
\ee
\epb
\section{\bf Sans points}
\setcounter{prob}{0}
\bpb Soit le graphe $G$ d\'efini dans le probl\`eme~\ref{friend}.
Alors il ne contient aucun cycle de longueur $5$ sans cordes. {\rm La
preuve ne peut pas utiliser la structure d\'ecrite dans le
probl\`eme~\ref{friend}}.
\epb
\bpb Soit $n\in \nat$ et soient $K^i_n$, $i=1,\ldots,n$ une
collections de graphes complets \`a $n$ sommets tels que
$|V(K^i_n)\cap V(K^j_n)|=1$ pour $i\neq j$ (i.e. deux graphes
diff\'erents partagent exactement un sommet). Soit $K=\cup_{i=1}^n
K^i_n$. Alors $\chi(K)=n$.
\epb
\bpb
Soit $k\in \nat$ et $n=4m+1$. Soit $V_i=\{i\}\times [n]$ pour $i=0,1$
et soit $D_0=\{d_1,\ldots, d_k:1\leq d_i\leq 2m\}$, $D_1=[2m]\setminus
(D_0\cup \{0\})$. Soit $G_i=(V_i,E_i), i=0,1,$ d\'efini par
$E_i=\{uv:|u-v|\in D_i\}$. On constate que $G_0$ et $G_1$ sont des
graphes compl\'ementaires si on identifie $(0,u)$ et $(1,u)$ pour tout
$u\in [n]$, et que
les deux sont r\'eguliers de degr\'e $2k$. Soit $G
= (V_0\cup V_1, E_0\cup E_1\cup \{[(0,u),(1,u)]:u\in [n]\})$; ce graphe
est r\'egulier de degr\'e $n$. Prouvez que
$E$ peut \^etre colori\'e avec $n$ couleurs sans que deux ar\^etes
incidentes re\cc oivent la m\^eme couleur (i.e. $G$ est classe $1$
dans le sens de Vizing).
\epb
\bpb
Il existe une constante $c_3$ telle que si les arcs d'un tournois
$T=(V,A)$
sont colori\'es avec $3$ couleurs, alors il existe une partie
$S\subseteq V$, $|S|\leq c_3$ telle que pour tout $u\in V\setminus S$
il existe $v\in S$ et un chemin orient\'e monochromatique de $u$
vers $v$ (voir aussi les probl\`emes \ref{ming} et \ref{two}).
\epb
\bpb
Etant donn\'e $n\in \nat$, quel est le $k\in \nat$ minimum pour qu'il
existe une coloration $c:V(Q_n)\lra [k]$ telle que pour tout $u\neq v\in V(Q_n)$, si
$N(u)\cap N(v)\neq \emptyset$, alors $c(u)\neq c(v)$.
\epb
\bpb
On a vu qu'un graphe complet d\'enombrable (infini) avec les ar\^etes colori\'ees en
deux couleurs contient toujours un graphe complet infini d\'enombrable
monochormatique. C'est-\`a-dire, un graphe complet d'ordre $\aleph_0$ (ar\^ete)
colori\'e en deux couleurs contient un sous graphe complet
momoncromatique du m\^eme ordre. Trouver un exemple pour montrer que
ceci n'est pas vrai pour toutes les infinit\'es. En particulier,
trouvez un coloriage en deux couleurs du graphe complet sur $\re$ qui
ne contient pas un sous graphe complet monochromatique d'ordre
$|\re|=c$ (bien sur il y en a un d'ordre $\aleph_0$).
\epb
\bpb Prouvez que dans un graphe orient\'e simple avec $n$ sommets il
existe toujours un demi-noyau $S$ tel que $|N^-[S]|\geq \frac{n}{2}$.
\epb
\bpb Soit $W_5=([6],\{[i,6]:i\in [5]\}\cup\{[i,i+1]:\in [5]\}$,
addition modulo $5$ (i.e. $W_5$ est un {\em roue} constitu\'ee d'un
cycle de longueur $5$ et un sommet central adjacents aux $5$ autres).
Quel sont $\alpha(W_5^k$ et $I(W_5)$? \epb
\bpb Soit $T=(V,E)$ un
arbre avec la racine $r$ et pour $u\in V$, soit $T_u$ le sous-arbre de
$T$ dont la racine et $u$, i.e. le sous-arbre de $T$ contenant $u$ et tous
les sommets $v$ de $T$ tels que l'unique \cha \ de $r$ vers $v$ passe
par $u$. \\
Soit $T_0=(V_0,E_0)$ un arbre fini avec racine $r$. Supposons que
l'on ait d\'efini $T_i$. Soit $L_i$ l'ensemble des feuilles (sommets
de degr\'e $1$) de $T_i$. Soit $x_i\in L_i$ et soit $r_i$ l'unique
sommet sur la \cha \ de $r$ vers $x_i$ tel que $d_{T_i}(x_i,r_i)=2$.
Soit $s_i$ le sommet a distance $1$ de $x_i$ et de $r_i$. Soit
$T_{r_i}^{s_i}$ le sous arbre de $T_i$ obtenu en ajoutant le sommet
$r_i$ et l'ar\^ete $r_is_i$ \`a $T_{s_i}-x_i$. Soit $T_{i+1}$ l'arbre
obtenu en ajoutant $i$ copies de $T_{r_i}^{s_i}$ \`a $T_i-x_i$, toutes
disjointes sauf pour leur racines, qui sont identifi\'ee \`a $r_i$.
Prouvez qu'il existe un $k\in \nat$ tel que $T_k\simeq K_1 =
(\{r\},\emptyset)$.
\epb
\bpb\label{e-clique-n}
Soit $G=(V,E)$ un graphe simple et soit $\ecc(G)=\min\{k:$ il
existe des cliques $C_1, \ldots, C_k$ telles que
$\cup_{i=1}^kE(G[C_i])=E\}$.
Prouver que si $\alpha(G)=2$ alors $\ecc(G)\leq n=|V|$. Comparer
avec le probl\`eme \ref{e-clique}.
\epb
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\label{src_plugins_README_md_md_src_plugins_README}%
\Hypertarget{src_plugins_README_md_md_src_plugins_README}%
Multiple plugins can be mounted into the \mbox{\hyperlink{doc_help_elektra-glossary_md}{key database}} (KDB). On every access to the key data base they are executed and thus can change the functionality and behavior.
Unlike Elektra\textquotesingle{}s core the plugins have all kinds of dependencies. It is the responsibility of the plugin to find and check its dependencies using CMake. If a dependency cannot be found, the plugin will automatically disable itself.\hypertarget{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md451}{}\doxysection{Description}\label{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md451}
Elektra has a wide range of different plugins. The plugin folders should contain a README.\+md with further information. (Or follow links below.) The plugins are\+:
\begin{DoxyInlineImage}
\includegraphics[height=\baselineskip,keepaspectratio=true]{plugins.png}%Overview Plugins
\end{DoxyInlineImage}
\hypertarget{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md452}{}\doxysubsection{C-\/\+Interface}\label{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md452}
All plugins implement the same interface\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item {\ttfamily \mbox{\hyperlink{group__kdb_ga844e1299a84c3fbf1d3a905c5c893ba5}{kdb\+Open()}}} calls {\ttfamily \mbox{\hyperlink{elektra_2plugin_8c_a32a70a7876542c51d153164ac5108a57}{elektra\+Plugin\+Open()}}} of every plugin to let them do their initialisation.
\item {\ttfamily \mbox{\hyperlink{group__kdb_ga28e385fd9cb7ccfe0b2f1ed2f62453a1}{kdb\+Get()}}} requests {\ttfamily elektra\+Plugin\+Get()} of every plugin in the queried backends to return a key set.
\item {\ttfamily \mbox{\hyperlink{group__kdb_ga11436b058408f83d303ca5e996832bcf}{kdb\+Set()}}} usually calls {\ttfamily elektra\+Plugin\+Set()} of every plugin in the queried backends to store the configuration.
\item {\ttfamily \mbox{\hyperlink{group__kdb_ga11436b058408f83d303ca5e996832bcf}{kdb\+Set()}}} also calls {\ttfamily elektra\+Plugin\+Error()} for every plugin when an error happens. Because of {\ttfamily elektra\+Plugin\+Error()}, plugins are guaranteed to have their chance for necessary cleanups.
\item {\ttfamily \mbox{\hyperlink{group__kdb_gadb54dc9fda17ee07deb9444df745c96f}{kdb\+Close()}}} makes sure that plugins can finally free their own resources in {\ttfamily elektra\+Plugin\+Close()}.
\end{DoxyItemize}
Furthermore, plugins might export symbols\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item {\ttfamily checkconf} can be called during mounting to ensure a plugin has valid configuration.
\item {\ttfamily genconf} can be called to produce all valid configurations of a plugin.
\end{DoxyItemize}\hypertarget{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md453}{}\doxysubsection{KDB-\/\+Interface}\label{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md453}
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item To list all plugins use \mbox{\hyperlink{doc_help_kdb-plugin-list_md}{kdb-\/plugin-\/list(1)}}.
\item To check a plugin use \mbox{\hyperlink{doc_help_kdb-plugin-check_md}{kdb-\/plugin-\/check(1)}}.
\item For information on a plugin use \mbox{\hyperlink{doc_help_kdb-plugin-info_md}{kdb-\/plugin-\/info(1)}}.
\item For mount plugin(s) use \mbox{\hyperlink{doc_help_kdb-mount_md}{kdb-\/mount(1)}}.
\end{DoxyItemize}\hypertarget{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md454}{}\doxysection{Installation}\label{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md454}
See \mbox{\hyperlink{doc_INSTALL_md}{INSTALL}}. Many plugins are already part of the core package {\ttfamily libelektra5}. The package that includes a plugin which does not belong to the {\ttfamily libelektra5} package can be found in it\textquotesingle{}s README.\+md.\hypertarget{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md455}{}\doxysection{See Also}\label{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md455}
For an easy introduction, see \mbox{\hyperlink{doc_tutorials_plugins_md}{this tutorial how to write a storage plugin}}. For more background information of the \mbox{\hyperlink{doc_dev_plugins-framework_md}{plugins framework, continue here}}. Otherwise, you can visit the \href{https://doc.libelektra.org/api/latest/html/group__plugin.html}{\texttt{ the API documentation}}.\hypertarget{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md456}{}\doxysection{Plugins}\label{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md456}
\hypertarget{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md457}{}\doxysubsection{Resolver}\label{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md457}
Before configuration is actually written, the file name needs to be determined (resolvers will be automatically added by kdb mount)\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item resolver uses advanced POSIX APIs to handle conflicts gracefully
\item noresolver does not resolve as no file name is needed (for non-\/file storage plugins)
\item wresolver minimalistic resolver for non-\/\+POSIX systems
\end{DoxyItemize}
Furthermore, there are following experimental resolvers\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item blockresolver resolves tagged blocks inside config files
\item curlget fetches configuration file from a remote host
\item gitresolver checks out and commits files to a local git repository
\item multifile
\end{DoxyItemize}\hypertarget{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md458}{}\doxysubsection{Storage}\label{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md458}
Are responsible for reading writing the configuration to configuration files.
Read and write everything a Key\+Set might contain\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item dump makes a dump of a Key\+Set in an Elektra-\/specific format
\item quickdump uses binary portable format based on dump, but more efficient
\item mmapstorage uses binary, not portable memory mapped file for a high performance storage
\end{DoxyItemize}
Read (and write) standard config files\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item toml reads and writes data using a parser generated by \href{https://github.com/westes/flex}{\texttt{ Flex}} and \href{https://www.gnu.org/software/bison}{\texttt{ Bison}}
\item hosts reads/writes hosts files
\item kconfig reads/writes KConfig ini files
\item line reads/writes any file line by line
\item yajl reads/writes JSON.
\item augeas reads/writes many different configuration files using the Augeas library
\end{DoxyItemize}
Using semi-\/structured data for config files, mainly suitable for spec-\/namespace (put a focus on having nice syntax for metadata)\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item ni parses INI files based on (including metadata)
\end{DoxyItemize}
Only suited for import/export\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item mini dependency free, line based key-\/value storage plugin.
\item simpleini line-\/based key-\/value pairs with configurable format (without sections). Only works on glibc systems.
\item xerces uses XML (without a specific schema).
\item xmltool uses XML in the deprecated Elektra XML schema for importing configuration from Elektra 0.\+7.
\item c writes Elektra C-\/structures ({\ttfamily ks\+New(.. key\+New(...})
\end{DoxyItemize}
Plugins that just show some functionality, (currently) not intended for productive use\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item csvstorage for csv files
\item dpkg reads /var/lib/dpkg/\{available,status\}
\item file reads and writes a file from/to a single key
\item fstab for fstab files.
\item mozprefs for Mozilla preference files
\item passwd for passwd files
\item specload calls an external application to request its specification, depends on quickdump
\item yamlcpp reads and writes data in the \href{http://www.yaml.org}{\texttt{ YAML}} format using \href{https://github.com/jbeder/yaml-cpp}{\texttt{ yaml-\/cpp}}
\end{DoxyItemize}\hypertarget{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md459}{}\doxysubsection{System Information}\label{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md459}
Information compiled in Elektra\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item version is a built-\/in plugin directly within the core so that it cannot give wrong version information
\item constants various constants fixed when Elektra was compiled
\item desktop contains information which desktop is currently running
\end{DoxyItemize}
Providing information found on the system not available in persistent files\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item uname information from the uname syscall.
\end{DoxyItemize}\hypertarget{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md460}{}\doxysubsection{Filter}\label{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md460}
{\itshape Filter plugins} process keys and their values in both directions. In one direction they undo what they do in the other direction. Most filter plugins available now encode and decode values. Storage plugins that use characters to separate key names, values or metadata will not work without them.
Rewrite unwanted characters within strings ({\bfseries{code}}-\/plugins)\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item ccode using the technique from arrays in the programming language C
\item hexcode using hex codes
\end{DoxyItemize}
Rewrite unwanted characters within binary data ({\bfseries{binary}}-\/plugins)\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item base64 using the Base64 encoding scheme (RFC4648)
\end{DoxyItemize}
Other filters\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item crypto encrypts / decrypts confidential values
\item fcrypt encrypts / decrypts entire files
\item gpgme encrypts / decrypts confidential values (with GPGME)
\item iconv makes sure the configuration will have correct character encoding
\end{DoxyItemize}
Experimental transformations (are {\bfseries{not}} recommended to be used in production)\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item directoryvalue converts directory values to leaf values
\item hexnumber converts between hexadecimal and decimal
\item keytometa transforms keys to metadata
\item rename renames keys according to different rules
\item profile renames keys according to current profile
\end{DoxyItemize}\hypertarget{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md461}{}\doxysubsection{Notification and Logging}\label{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md461}
Log/\+Send out all changes to configuration to\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item dbus sends notifications for every change via dbus {\ttfamily notification}
\item journald logs key database changes to journald
\item syslog logs key database changes to syslog
\item zeromqsend sends notifications for every change via Zero\+MQ sockets {\ttfamily notification}
\end{DoxyItemize}
Notification of key changes\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item internalnotification get updates automatically when registered keys were changed
\item dbusrecv receives notifications via dbus {\ttfamily notification}
\item zeromqrecv receives notifications via Zero\+MQ sockets {\ttfamily notification}
\end{DoxyItemize}\hypertarget{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md462}{}\doxysubsection{Debug}\label{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md462}
Trace everything that happens within KDB\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item counter count and print how often a plugin is used
\item timeofday prints timestamps
\item tracer traces all calls
\item iterate iterate over all keys and run exported functions on tagged keys
\item logchange prints the change of every key on the console
\end{DoxyItemize}\hypertarget{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md463}{}\doxysubsection{Checker}\label{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md463}
Copies metadata to keys\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item glob using globbing techniques (needed by some plugins)
\item spec copies metadata from spec namespace (the standard way)
\end{DoxyItemize}
Plugins that check if values are valid based on metadata (typically copied by the {\ttfamily spec} plugin just before) to validate values\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item type type checking (CORBA types) with enum functionality
\item ipaddr checks IP addresses using regular expressions
\item email checks email addresses using regular expressions
\item network by using network APIs
\item path by checking files on file system
\item unit validates and normalizes units of memory (e.\+g. 20KB to 20000 Bytes)
\item blacklist blacklist and reject values
\item length validates that string length is less or equal to given value
\end{DoxyItemize}
The same but experimental\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item conditionals by using if-\/then-\/else like statements
\item date validates date and time data
\item mathcheck by mathematical expressions using key values as operands
\item macaddr checks if MAC addresses are valid and normalizes them
\item range checks if a value is within a given range
\item reference checks if a value is a valid reference to another key
\item rgbcolor validates and normalizes hexcolors
\item validation by using regex
\end{DoxyItemize}
Other validation mechanisms not based on metadata\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item filecheck does sanity checks on a file
\item lineendings tests file for consistent line endings
\end{DoxyItemize}\hypertarget{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md464}{}\doxysubsection{Interpreter}\label{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md464}
These plugins start an interpreter and allow you to execute a script in an interpreted language whenever Elektra’s key database gets accessed. Note that they depend on the presence of the respective binding during run-\/time\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item jni java plugins started by jni, works with jna plugins
\item lua Lua plugins
\item python Python 3 plugins
\item ruby Ruby plugins
\item shell executes shell commandos
\end{DoxyItemize}\hypertarget{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md465}{}\doxysubsection{Other Important Plugins}\label{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md465}
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item cache caches keysets from previous {\ttfamily \mbox{\hyperlink{group__kdb_ga28e385fd9cb7ccfe0b2f1ed2f62453a1}{kdb\+Get()}}} calls
\item sync uses POSIX APIs to sync configuration files with the hard disk
\item gopts global plugin to automatically call {\ttfamily elektra\+Get\+Opts}
\item process proxy plugin that uses separate executables as plugin implementations
\end{DoxyItemize}\hypertarget{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md466}{}\doxysubsection{Plugins for Development}\label{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md466}
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item template to be copied for new plugins
\item cpptemplate a template for C++ based plugins
\item doc contains the documentation of the plugin interface
\item error yields errors as described in metadata (handy for test purposes)
\end{DoxyItemize}\hypertarget{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md467}{}\doxysubsection{Deprecated Plugins}\label{src_plugins_README_md_autotoc_md467}
Please avoid, if possible, to use following plugin\+:
\begin{DoxyItemize}
\item list loads other plugins
\end{DoxyItemize}
|
http://porocila.imfm.si/2009/mat/clani/mramor.tex
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imfm.si
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\clan {Neža Mramor-Kosta}
%--------------------------------------------------------
% A. objavljene znanstvene monografije
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{A}
%\disertacija
% {NASLOV}
% {UNIVERZA}
% {FAKULTETA}
% {ODDELEK}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {LETO}
%\magisterij
% {NASLOV}
% {UNIVERZA}
% {FAKULTETA}
% {ODDELEK}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {LETO}
%\monografija
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {ZALOZBA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% B. raziskovalni clanki sprejeti v objavo v znanstvenih
% revijah in v zbornikih konferenc
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{B}
%\sprejetoRevija
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {REVIJA}
%\sprejetoZbornik
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% C. raziskovalni clanki objavljeni v znanstvenih revijah
% in v zbornikih konferenc
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{C}
%\objavljenoRevija
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {REVIJA} {LETNIK} {LETO} {STEVILKA} {STRANI}
%\objavljenoZbornik
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
% {ZBORNIK} {STRANI}
%\end{skupina}
\begin{skupina}{C}
\objavljenoRevija
% 1.01: {\bf 1}. JER\v{S}E, Gregor, MRAMOR KOSTA, Ne\v{z}a. Ascending and descending
%regions of a discrete Morse function. {\it Comput. geom.}. $[$Print ed.$]$, 2009,
%vol. 42, iss. 6-7, str. 639-651. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comgeo.2008.11.001,
%$[$COBISS.SI-ID 14994265$]$\\
{G.~Jer\v{s}e, \crta}
{Ascending and descending regions of a discrete Morse function}
{Comput.\ Geom.} {42} {2009} {6-7} {639--651}
\end{skupina}
%--------------------------------------------------------
% D. urednistvo v znanstvenih revijah in zbornikih
% znanstvenih konferenc
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{D}
%\urednikRevija
% {OPIS}
% {REVIJA}
%\urednikZbornik
% {OPIS}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% E. organizacija mednarodnih in domacih znanstvenih
% srecanj
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{E}
%\organizacija
% {OPIS}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% F. vabljena predavanja na tujih ustanovah in
% mednarodnih konferencah
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{F}
%\predavanjeUstanova
% {NASLOV}
% {OPIS}
% {USTANOVA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\predavanjeKonferenca
% {NASLOV}
% {OPIS}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
\begin{skupina}{F}
\predavanjeUstanova
% 3.14: {\bf 2}. MRAMOR KOSTA, Ne\v{z}a{\it . The cohomology of locally free groups}.
%Provo (Utah): Brigham Young University, 2. 6. 2009. $[$COBISS.SI-ID 15179865$]$\\
%POZOR: Bibliografija2009.tex > 2009\mat\clani\mramor.tex 10548/145: Ne najdem podatka {KONFERENCA}
%POZOR: Bibliografija2009.tex > 2009\mat\clani\mramor.tex 10548/146: Ne najdem podatka {OPIS}
%POZOR: Bibliografija2009.tex > 2009\mat\clani\mramor.tex 10548/147: Ne najdem podatka {DRZAVA}
%POZOR: Bibliografija2009.tex > 2009\mat\clani\mramor.tex 10548/148: Ne najdem podatka {MESEC}
{The cohomology of locally free groups}
{predavanje na topološkem seminarju}
{Brigham Young University}
{Provo (Utah)} {USA} {junij} {2009}
\end{skupina}
%--------------------------------------------------------
% G. aktivne udelezbe na mednarodnih in domacih
% konferencah
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{G}
%\konferenca
% {NASLOV}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% H. strokovni clanki
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{H}
%\clanekRevija
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {REVIJA} {LETNIK} {LETO} {STEVILKA} {STRANI}
%\clanekZbornik
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
% {ZBORNIK} {STRANI}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% I. razno
%--------------------------------------------------------
\begin{skupina}{I}
\razno
{Mentorica pri doktorski disertaciji Gregorja Jer\v seta}
\end{skupina}
%\begin{skupina}{I}
%POZOR: Bibliografija2009.tex > 2009\mat\clani\mramor.tex 10569/206: Stevilo neopredeljenih zadetkov: 2
%\razno
% Ment: {\bf 3}. JER\v{S}E, Gregor{\it . Ascending and descending regions of critical points in discrete morse theory : doctoral thesis}. Ljubljana: $[$G. Jer\v{s}e$]$, 2009. IX, 78 str., ilustr. $[$COBISS.SI-ID 15185241$]$\\
%\razno
% Prev: {\bf 4}. BRON\v{S}TEJN, Il{'}ja Nikolaevi\v{c}, SEMENDJAEV, Konstantin Adol{'}fovi\v{c}, MUSIOL, Gerhard, M\"{U}HLIG, Heiner{\it . Matemati\v{c}ni priro\v{c}nik}. Popravljena izd. Ljubljana: Tehni\v{s}ka zalo\v{z}ba Slovenije, 2009. XXVII, 967 str., ilustr. ISBN 978-961-251-189-0. $[$COBISS.SI-ID 248688896$]$\\
%\end{skupina}
%--------------------------------------------------------
% tuji gosti
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{seznam}
%\gost {IME} {TRAJANJE} {USTANOVA} {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO} {POVABILO}
%\end{seznam}
%--------------------------------------------------------
% gostovanja
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{seznam}
%\gostovanje {IME} {TRAJANJE} {USTANOVA} {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{seznam}
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http://j3-fortran.org/doc/year/04/04-397.tex
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\documentclass[nocolor,memo]{j3}
\renewcommand{\hdate}{23 September 2004}
\renewcommand{\vers}{J3/04-397}
\usepackage{lineno}
\usepackage{longtable}
\usepackage{xr}
\externaldocument{007}
\input pdftest
\begin{document}
\vspace{-10pt}
\begin{tabbing}
Subject: \hspace*{0.25in}\=ATAN with two arguments works like ATAN2\\
From: \>Van Snyder\\
Reference: \>03-258r1, section 2.4.4.2, 04-183\\
\end{tabbing}
\pagewiselinenumbers
\leftlinenumbers
\linenumbers*
\section{Number}
TBD
\section{Title}
ATAN with two arguments works like ATAN2.
\section{Submitted By}
J3
\section{Status}
For consideration.
\section{Basic Functionality}
Define an alternative ATAN that works like ATAN2.
\section{Rationale}
ATAN is generic. It is surprising to students that they need to use
ATAN2 just because they have the two-argument formulation.
\section{Estimated Impact}
Minor: One more description for an existing intrinsic function --- and we
already have the description. Estimated at meeting 169 to be at 3 on the
JKR scale.
\section{Detailed Specification}
Provide a specification for how ATAN works with two arguments, based on
how ATAN2 works.
\subsection{Suggested edits}
The following suggested edits illustrate the magnitude of the project.
\sep\mgpar{298:16+15}[Editor: Insert ``(one argument)'' after first
``ATAN''.]
\sep\mgpar{305:36}[Editor: Insert ``{\bfseries\sffamily\large or ATAN (Y,
X)}'' at the end of the subclause title.]
\section{History}
\label{lastpage}
\end{document}
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| 364,045,407 | 2,379 |
\documentclass{jsarticle}
\usepackage[dvips]{graphicx}
\usepackage{multicol}
\makeatletter
\def\fgcaption{\def\@captype{figure}\caption}
\makeatother
\newcommand{\mfig}[3][width=15cm]{
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[#1]{#2}
\fgcaption{#3 \label{fig:#2}}
\end{center}
}
\begin{document}
\begin{center}
{\LARGE \bf \LaTeX において二段組の中で画像とキャプションを挿入する}\\
\vspace{1em}
虎猫千晶 (http://b...content-available-to-author-only...i.com )\\
指導教員 田中太郎\\
うんちゃら学校 Hoge学科 もふもふ研究室
\end{center}
\begin{multicols}{2}
楽隊はゴーシュのかっこう小太鼓弾が形がつける弓たる。するとそう同じだないにとって風たまし。気の毒だです方たはましするとかっこうの粗末たちのときをもぴたっと生意気たますが、それまで子に鳴らしれのうまし。教え過ぎいつは金を恨めしうが前の顔の子手を見第一自分人の活動に弾きてやろまします。向うはいま答えてしまいまし。
馬車は二もっガラスのようにして出しだ。子もおかげ畑とみんなをおろしていまし。糸も眼がなるべくにして鳥でシュッのようにして萱になってまるで仲間がするけれども来まし。よろよろどうぞろを狸を弾きたまし。それどうに口をとってあかしがやろだです。風で帰っましたろ。
\mfig[width=7.5cm]{flower}{これが花なのです}
{\bf 本文中で図\ref{fig:flower}を参照してみます。}
「曲にした。手、誰へ穴。呆れ。」それはこんどのためのいきなり前のうちでちがわでした。馬車はゴーシュが大血をはいってセロからうちがしてもう前くっつけれたままが合わせたいう。じつにかっこうかって、はせてつかまえていだと代りをまたあとがばたばた日しだた。
「ひも行っ。風がいただけまし。云いよ。これはそこが赤になおしてじゃくわえゴーシュはいいことたながらよ。」みんなは変そうをなっとべ窓へんがついたりましゴーシュの町から云っながら遅れるだりはいっでいるた。ゴーシュもつれて児へぶっつかっますた。きみはどうも子どもは円くんますて楽器もそうひどくんたた。
\mfig[width=7.5cm]{sky}{これが夕焼けなのです}
{\bf 本文中で図\ref{fig:sky}を参照してみます。}
「さっきのはじめのひもに。し。」おまえはどう出うまし。片手も風をして毎晩まし。するとさっきもぴたっと尖ったた。よし返事たとならてしまいてゴーシュにひけようなくセロをわからてそしてすっかり顔に日引きあげたた。こんこんかとおいはていっぱいなっましますてまるくものをも夜は風の手たらだろ。
風はそれを一生まし血のうちわたしが出たようにぞ窓鳥がセロにはせてみんなか弾きんがあわてばしまいだです。「するとどう夜のこども。組ん。」ああとあいでききなかとなってそうろからだいをもう弾くて火事弾いだでし。「変た。どんと見ばきまし。
\end{multicols}
\end{document}
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https://www.analysis-lenz.uni-jena.de/ls_analysis_multimedia/Lehrveranstaltungen/Analysis+I+WS+2013_2014/AnaIBlatt11-p-678.tex
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%\documentclass[12pt,a4paper, german]{article}
%\usepackage{a4kopka}
\documentclass[12pt,a4paper]{article}
\usepackage{ngerman}
%\usepackage{fleqn}
\usepackage{array}
\usepackage[latin1]{inputenc}
\usepackage{amssymb}
\usepackage{amsmath}
\usepackage{amsfonts}
%\usepackage{mathbbol}
\usepackage{amstext}
%\usepackage{fancyhdr}
\usepackage{relsize}
%\usepackage{epic}
\usepackage{graphics}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
\usepackage{a4wide}
\usepackage{makeidx}\usepackage{german}
\usepackage{textcomp}
\usepackage{ulem}
\newcommand{\D}{\displaystyle}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\newcommand{\IR}{{\mathbb{R}}}
\newcommand{\IN}{{\mathbb{N}}}
\newcommand{\IZ}{{\mathbb{Z}}}
\newcommand{\IF}{{\mathbb{F}}}
\newcommand{\IK}{{\mathbb{K}}}
\newcommand{\IQ}{{\mathbb{Q}}}
\newcommand{\IC}{{\mathbb{C}}}
\newcommand{\IP}{{\mathbb{P}}}
\newcommand{\IE}{{\mathbb{E}}}
\newcommand{\R}{{\mathbb{R}}}
\newcommand{\N}{{\mathbb{N}}}
\newcommand{\Z}{{\mathbb{Z}}}
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\newcommand{\rh}{{\varrho}}
\newcommand{\de}{{\delta}}
\newcommand{\la}{{(}}
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\newcommand{\Om}{{\Omega}}
\newcommand{\al}{{\alpha}}
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\newcommand{\gwh}{{\widehat{\gamma}}}
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\newcommand{\La}{{\Lambda}}
\newcommand{\Ga}{{\Gamma}}
\newcommand{\De}{{\Delta}}
\newcommand{\wh}{{\widehat}}
\newcommand{\foh}{{\mathfrak{h}}}
\newcommand{\nach}{{\rightarrow}}
\newcommand{\Nach}{{\,\rightarrow\,}}
\newcommand{\Fou}{{\mathcal{F}}}
\newcommand{\sk}{{\,|\,}}
\def\be{\begin{eqnarray*}}
\def\ee{\end{eqnarray*}}
\def\bel{\begin{eqnarray}}
\def\eel{\end{eqnarray}}
\def\ex{\exists}
\def\all{\forall}
\def\a{\alpha}
\def\eh{\frac{1}{2}}
\def\A{\mathcal{A}}
\def\R{\mathbb{R}}
\def\N{\mathbb{N}}\def\NN{\mathbb{N}}
\def\E{\mathbb{E}}
\def\P{\mathbb{P}}
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\def\B{\mathcal{B}}
\def\F{\mathcal{F}}
\def\S{\mathcal{S}}
\def\Z{\mathbb{Z}}
\def\O{\mathcal{O}}
\def\e{\epsilon}
\def\ep{\tilde{\delta}}
\def\d{\delta}
\def\lm{\lambda}
\def\id{\mathbb{I}}
\def\Sp{\textrm{Sp}}
\def\lili{\lim\limits}
\def\nn{\nonumber}
\def\fa{\bigwedge\limits}
\def\one{1}
\def\chiop{\chi_{\{\delta>L\}}}
\def\eqiv{\Longleftrightarrow}
\def\lra{\longrightarrow}
\newcommand{\ab}[1]{\left( #1\right)}
%\newcommand{\cosh}{\mbox{cosh}}
\newtheorem{theorem}{Theorem}[section]
\newtheorem{lemma}[theorem]{Lemma}
\newtheorem{proposition}[theorem]{Proposition}
\newtheorem{corollary}[theorem]{Corollary}
\newtheorem{remarks}[theorem]{Remarks}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\addtolength{\voffset}{-15pt} \addtolength{\textheight}{-10pt}
%\addtolength{\textheight}{-11pt} \addtolength{\headsep}{6pt}
\setlength{\parskip}{10pt plus 2pt minus 1pt}
\setlength{\parindent}{0pt}
\newcommand{\wk}{\mbox{$\,<$\hspace{-5pt}\footnotesize )$\,$}}
\thispagestyle{empty} \addtolength{\voffset}{15pt}
\setlength{\textheight}{10in}
\begin{document}
\rule{\textwidth}{0.3pt}
\begin{center}
\textbf{\large Analysis I}
\end{center}
\textbf{Wintersemester 2013/2014\hfill Prof. Dr. D. Lenz}
\rule{\textwidth}{0.3pt}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%
% Hier geht's los
%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\textbf{Blatt 11 }\hfill % Nr des Blatts
\textbf{Abgabe 23.01.2014}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\textbf{Reihen}
\begin{itemize}
\item[(1)] Untersuchen Sie die folgenden Reihen auf Konvergenz/absolute Konvergenz:
\begin{align*}
&\mathrm{(a)}\quad \sum_{n=2}^\infty \left(\frac{n-1}{n+1}\right)^{n(n-1)},
&&\mathrm{(b)} \quad \sum_{n=1}^\infty\frac{1}{\sqrt{(2n-1)(2n+1)}},\qquad \qquad\; \\
&\mathrm{(c)} \quad \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{n^{n+\frac 1n}}{(n+\frac 1n)^n},\
&&\mathrm{(d)}\quad \sum_{n=1}^\infty x_n \quad \text{mit}\quad
x_n=\begin{cases}\frac 1n, & n=k^2, {{\textrm{f\"ur }k\in \N}\atop
{\textrm{geeignet,}}}\\ \frac{1}{n^2},& \text{sonst.}\end{cases}
\end{align*}
Hinweis zu (a): Es gilt $0 < e^{-2} < 1$.\\
Hinweis zu (d): Die Reihe $\sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac{1}{k^2}$ ist konvergent.
\item[(2)] Sei
\begin{align*}
N:(0,\infty)\to\Q,\quad N(x)
=\left\{\begin{array}{cl} 0 &:\,\mbox{für } x\in \R\setminus\Q,\\ \frac{1}{p} &:\,\mbox{für } x=q/p\mbox{ wobei $p\in\N$ und $q\in \Z$ teilerfremd.}\\ \end{array} \right.
\end{align*}
Beweisen Sie, dass $N$ in allen irrationalen Punkten stetig und in allen rationalen Punkten unstetig ist.
\item[(3)] Berechnen Sie die folgenden Grenzwerte:
\begin{align*}
&\mathrm{(a)}\, \lim_{x\rightarrow 1}\frac{x^3+x^2-x-1}{x+1}&\mathrm{(b)}\, \lim_{x\rightarrow 1, x\neq 1}\frac{x^3+x^2-x-1}{x-1}\\
&\mathrm{(c)}\, \lim_{x\rightarrow 0, x\neq 0}\frac{1-\sqrt{1-x^2}}{x^2}&\mathrm{(d)}\, \lim_{x\rightarrow 0, x\neq 0}\frac{x^2}{|x|}\qquad \qquad\quad \;\;
\end{align*}
{Hinweise:} (b) Was ist $(x^3 - 1) / (x-1)$?\quad (c) $x^2 = 1 - (1- x^2)$.
\item[(4)] Untersuchen Sie die folgenden Funktionen auf
gleichm"a"sige Stetigkeit:
\begin{itemize}
\item [(a)] $f: \IR\Nach \IR, \quad f(x)=x,$
\item [(b)] $f: \IR\Nach \IR, \quad f(x)=x^2,$
\item [(c)] $f: (0,1)\Nach \IR, \quad f(x)=x^2,$
\item [(d)] $f: (0,1)\Nach \IR, \quad f(x)=\frac{1}{x}.$
\end{itemize}
\end{itemize}
\textbf{Zusatzaufgabe:}
\begin{itemize}
\item[(Z1)]Zeigen Sie, dass die Wurzelfunktion $[0,\infty)\to[0,\infty)$, $ x\mapsto\sqrt[n]{x}$ f\"ur alle $n\geq 2$ nicht lipschitzstetig ist.
\item[(Z2)]Sei $f: (a,b)\Nach\IR$ monoton. Zeigen Sie, dass die Menge $\{\xi\in (a,b): \, f(\xi+0) \neq
f(\xi-0)\}$ abz"ahlbar ist.
\end{itemize}
\end{document}
|
http://porocila.imfm.si/2004/mat/clani/buckley.tex
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\clan {Anita Buckley}
%--------------------------------------------------------
% A. objavljene znanstvene monografije
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{A}
%\disertacija
% {NASLOV}
% {UNIVERZA}
% {FAKULTETA}
% {ODDELEK}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {LETO}
%\magisterij
% {NASLOV}
% {UNIVERZA}
% {FAKULTETA}
% {ODDELEK}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {LETO}
%\monografija
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {ZALOZBA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% B. raziskovalni clanki sprejeti v objavo v znanstvenih
% revijah in v zbornikih konferenc
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{B}
%\sprejetoRevija
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {REVIJA}
%\sprejetoZbornik
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% C. raziskovalni clanki objavljeni v znanstvenih revijah
% in v zbornikih konferenc
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{C}
%\objavljenoRevija
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {REVIJA} {LETNIK} {LETO} {STEVILKA} {STRANI}
%\objavljenoZbornik
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
% {ZBORNIK} {STRANI}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% D. urednistvo v znanstvenih revijah in zbornikih
% znanstvenih konferenc
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{D}
%\urednikRevija
% {OPIS}
% {REVIJA}
%\urednikZbornik
% {OPIS}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% E. organizacija mednarodnih in domacih znanstvenih
% srecanj
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{E}
%\organizacija
% {OPIS}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% F. vabljena predavanja na tujih ustanovah in
% mednarodnih konferencah
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{F}
%\predavanjeUstanova
% {NASLOV}
% {OPIS}
% {USTANOVA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\predavanjeKonferenca
% {NASLOV}
% {OPIS}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% G. aktivne udelezbe na mednarodnih in domacih
% konferencah
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{G}
%\konferenca
% {NASLOV}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% H. strokovni clanki
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{H}
%\clanekRevija
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {REVIJA} {LETNIK} {LETO} {STEVILKA} {STRANI}
%\clanekZbornik
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
% {ZBORNIK} {STRANI}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% I. razno
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{I}
%\razno
% {OPIS}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% tuji gosti
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{seznam}
%\gost {IME} {TRAJANJE} {USTANOVA} {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO} {POVABILO}
%\end{seznam}
%--------------------------------------------------------
% gostovanja
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{seznam}
%\gostovanje {IME} {TRAJANJE} {USTANOVA} {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{seznam}
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https://ctan.math.washington.edu/tex-archive/info/examples/PSTricks_en/23-06-17.ltx
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washington.edu
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%%
%% A DANTE-Edition example
%%
%% Example 23-06-17 on page 397.
%%
%% Copyright (C) 2011 Herbert Voss
%%
%% It may be distributed and/or modified under the conditions
%% of the LaTeX Project Public License, either version 1.3
%% of this license or (at your option) any later version.
%%
%% See http://www.latex-project.org/lppl.txt for details.
%%
%%
%% ====
% Show page(s) 1
%%
\documentclass[]{article}
\pagestyle{empty}
\setlength\textwidth{105.70511pt}
\setlength\parindent{0pt}
\usepackage{pst-solides3d}
\psset{lightsrc=10 5 20,viewpoint=50 20 30 rtp2xyz,Decran=20}
\begin{document}
\begin{pspicture}(-2,-2)(2,2)
\psSolid[object=cone]%
\axesIIID[showOrigin=false](2,2,5)(4,4,7)
\end{pspicture}
\end{document}
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http://dlmf.nist.gov/27.3.E7.tex
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nist.gov
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\[\mathop{\sigma_{{\alpha}}\/}\nolimits\!\left(m\right)\mathop{\sigma_{{\alpha}}%
\/}\nolimits\!\left(n\right)=\sum_{{d\divides\left(m,n\right)}}d^{\alpha}%
\mathop{\sigma_{{\alpha}}\/}\nolimits\left(\frac{mn}{d^{2}}\right),\]
|
http://ftp.nara.wide.ad.jp/pub/CTAN/info/formation-latex-ul/source/tableaux-diapos.tex
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wide.ad.jp
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CC-MAIN-2019-39
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%%% Copyright (C) 2018 Vincent Goulet
%%%
%%% Ce fichier fait partie du projet
%%% «Rédaction avec LaTeX»
%%% https://gitlab.com/vigou3/formation-latex-ul
%%%
%%% Cette création est mise à disposition sous licence
%%% Attribution-Partage dans les mêmes conditions 4.0
%%% International de Creative Commons.
%%% https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/
\section{Tableaux}
\begin{frame}
\frametitle{De la conception de beaux tableaux}
Lequel de ces deux tableaux est le plus facile à consulter?
\begin{center}
\hfill
\begin{tabular}{|>{$}c<{$}|>{$}r<{$}|>{$}r<{$}|}
\hline\hline
i &
\multicolumn{1}{c|}{$v$} &
\multicolumn{1}{c|}{$b_i$} \\
\hline
0 & \nombre{91492} & 60 \\
\hline
1 & \nombre{1524} & 60 \\
\hline
2 & 25 & 24 \\
\hline
3 & 1 & 365 \\
\hline\hline
\end{tabular}
\hfill
\begin{tabular}{>{$}c<{$}>{$}r<{$}>{$}r<{$}}
\toprule
i &
\multicolumn{1}{c}{$v$} &
\multicolumn{1}{c}{$b_i$} \\
\midrule
0 & \nombre{91492} & 60 \\
1 & \nombre{1524} & 60 \\
2 & 25 & 24 \\
3 & 1 & 365 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\hspace*{\fill}
\end{center}
\pause
Deux règles d'or:
\begin{enumerate}
\item \alert{jamais} de filets verticaux
\item pas de filets doubles
\end{enumerate}
\end{frame}
\begin{frame}[fragile=singleslide]
\frametitle{Paquetage essentiel}
\begin{itemize}
\item Vous voulez utiliser le paquetage \pkg{booktabs}
\begin{lstlisting}
\usepackage{booktabs}
\end{lstlisting}
\item Fonctionnalités intégrées dans la classe \class{memoir}
\end{itemize}
\end{frame}
\begin{frame}[fragile=singleslide]
\frametitle{Exemple de tableau}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{lcrr}
\toprule
Produit & Quantité & Prix unitaire (\$) & Prix (\$) \\
\midrule
Vis à bois & 2 & 9,90 & 19,80 \\
Clous vrillés & 5 & 4,35 & 21,75 \\
\midrule
TOTAL & 7 & & 41,55 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\begin{lstlisting}
\begin{tabular}{lcrr}
\toprule
Produit & Quantité & Prix unitaire (\$) & Prix (\$) \\
\midrule
Vis à bois & 2 & 9,90 & 19,80 \\
Clous vrillés & 5 & 4,35 & 21,75 \\
\midrule
TOTAL & 7 & & 41,55 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{lstlisting}
\end{frame}
%%% Local Variables:
%%% TeX-master: "formation-latex-ul-diapos"
%%% TeX-engine: xetex
%%% coding: utf-8
%%% End:
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https://faculty.math.illinois.edu/~murphyrf/teaching/M220-F2011/q5.tex
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illinois.edu
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\documentclass[12 pt]{article}
\pagestyle{empty}
\addtolength{\topmargin}{-0.9in}
\addtolength{\textheight}{1.9in}
\addtolength{\oddsidemargin}{-0.7in}
\addtolength{\textwidth}{1.4in}
\newcommand{\D}{\displaystyle}
\begin{document}
\begin{center}
\textbf{Math 220 (section ???) \hfill Quiz 5 \hfill Fall 2011} \\
\end{center}
\vspace{0.3in}
\textbf{Name}\ \rule{4in}{0.4pt} \hfill
\vspace{0.4in}
\begin{itemize}
\item No calculators allowed.
\item Show sufficient work to justify each answer.
\item You have 15 minutes for this quiz.
\end{itemize}
\noindent
\begin{enumerate}
\item (2 points each) Differentiate the following functions.
\begin{enumerate}
\item $\D{g(t) = \frac{t^{3}}{\sec{t}}}$
\vfill
\item $\D{y = \sec{x} \cot{x} \sin{x} \cos{x} \csc{x} }$
\vfill
\end{enumerate}
\newpage
\item (3 points) Given $\D{h(t) = \tan{(5t)}}$, find its second derivative $\D{h''(t)}$.
\vfill
\item (3 points) Differentiate the following function.
$$g(x) = \sqrt[3]{\sin{\left(x^{5} + 4x\right)}}$$
\vfill
\end{enumerate}
\end{document}
|
http://edshare.soton.ac.uk/2348/4/Ma202exam1986qu4.tex
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soton.ac.uk
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\documentclass[12pt]{article}
\newcommand{\ds}{\displaystyle}
\parindent=0pt
\begin{document}
{\bf Question}
\begin{itemize}
\item[a)]
Let $f(z)$ have a pole of order 2 at $z=z_0$, and write
$g(z)=(z-z_0)^2f(z)$. Show that the residue of $f$ at $z_0$ is
$g'(z_0)$.
Evaluate, by contour integration
$$\int_{-\infty}^\infty\frac{x^2}{(x^2+a^2)^2}dx$$
where $a$ is a positive real number.
\item[b)]
Evaluate, by contour integration
$$\int_0^{2\pi}\frac{d\theta}{8\cos^2\theta+1}.$$
\end{itemize}
\vspace{0.25in}
{\bf Answer}
\begin{itemize}
\item[a)]
$f(z)$ has a pole of order 2 at $z=z_0$, so the Laurent expansion
in a neighbourhood of $z_o$ gives
$\ds f(z)=\frac{\alpha}{(z-z_0)^2}+\frac{\beta}{(z-z_0)}+\phi(z)$
where $g(z)$ is analytic in the neighbourhood.
So $(z-z_0)^2f(z)=\alpha+\beta(z-z_0)+(z-z_0)^2\phi(z)$
$\ds\frac{d}{dz}((z-z_0)^2f(z))=\beta+2(z-z_0)g(z)+(z-z_0)^2\phi(z)$
Putting $z=z_0$ gives the result.
${}$
Let $\ds f(z)=\frac{z^2}{(z^2+a^2)^2}$, this has a pole of order 2
at $z=ia$ in the upper half plane.
Its residue is given by
$\ds\left.\frac{d}{dz}(z-ia)^2f(z)\right|_{z=ia}=
\frac{d}{dz}\left(\frac{z^2}{(z+ia)^2}\right)_{z=ia}$
$\ds\left.\frac{(z+ia)^22z-z^22(z+ia)}{(z+ia)^4}\right|_{z=ia}=
\frac{4(ia)^3}{16(ia)^4}=\frac{1}{4ia}$
We integrate $f(z)$ round the contour $\Gamma$ comprising the line
segment $(-R,R)$ on the real axis, and the semicircle
$C=\{z=Re^{it} \,\,\, 0\leq t\leq\pi\}$ where $R>a$.
Then on $\ds C \hspace{0.5in}
|f(z)|=\frac{|z|^2}{|z^2+a^2|^2}\leq\frac{r^2}{(R^2-a^2)^2}$
and so $\ds\left|\int_C
f(z)dz\right|\leq\frac{R^2}{(R^2-a^2)^2}\pi R\to0$ as
$R\to\infty$.
Now $\ds\int_\Gamma f(z)dz=2\pi i\frac{1}{4ia}=\frac{\pi}{2a}$
and $\ds\int_\Gamma f(z)dz=\int_C f(z)dz+\int_{-R}^R f{x}dx$
Letting $R\to\infty$ gives $\ds\int_{-\infty}^\infty
f(x)dx=\frac{\pi}{2a}$
\item[b)]
Let $z=e^{i\theta}$ and $C$ be the unit circle, then
$dz=ie^{i\theta}d\theta$ so $d\theta=\frac{dz}{iz}$
$\ds\cos\theta=\frac{1}{2}\left(z+\frac{1}{z}\right)$. Hence we
have
$\ds I=\int_0^{2\pi}\frac{d\theta}{8\cos^2\theta+1}= \int_C
\frac{dz}{iz\left(8\frac{1}{4}\left(z+\frac{1}{z}\right)^2+1\right)}$
$\ds=\frac{1}{i}\int_C\frac{dz}{z\left(2z^2+4+\frac{2}{z^2}+1\right)}
=\frac{1}{i}\int_C\frac{zdz}{2z^4+5z^2+2}$
$\ds=\frac{1}{2i}\int_C\frac{zdz}
{\left(z^2+\frac{1}{z}\right)\left(z^2+2\right)}$
Let $\ds f(z)=\frac{z}
{\left(z^2+\frac{1}{z}\right)\left(z^2+2\right)}$
Then $f(z)$ has simple poles at $z=\pm\frac{i}{\sqrt2}$ inside
$C$.
Res$\ds\left(f,\frac{i}{\sqrt2}\right)=
\lim_{z\to\frac{i}{\sqrt2}}\left(z-\frac{i}{\sqrt2}\right)f(z)=
\lim_{z\to\frac{i}{\sqrt2}}\frac{z}{\left(z+\frac{i}{\sqrt2}\right)(z^2+2)}$
$\ds=\frac{\frac{i}{\sqrt2}}{\frac{2i}{\sqrt2}\frac{3}{2}}=\frac{1}{3}$
Res$\ds\left(f,\frac{-i}{\sqrt2}\right)=
\lim_{z\to-\frac{i}{\sqrt2}}\left(z+\frac{i}{\sqrt2}\right)f(z)=
\lim_{z\to-\frac{i}{\sqrt2}}\frac{z}{\left(z-\frac{i}{\sqrt2}\right)(z^2+2)}$
$\ds=\frac{-\frac{i}{\sqrt2}}{-\frac{2i}{\sqrt2}\frac{3}{2}}=\frac{1}{3}$
So $\ds I=\frac{1}{2i}\int_C f(z)dz=\frac{1}{2i}2\pi
i\left(\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{3}\right)=\frac{2\pi}{3}$
\end{itemize}
\end{document}
|
http://stevenheilman.org/~heilman/teach/60850hw4.tex
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stevenheilman.org
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| 45,108,758 | 3,588 |
%------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%\documentclass[reqno]{amsart}
\documentclass[12pt]{amsart}
%\setcounter{page}{6}
\usepackage[top=1in, bottom=1in, left=1in, right=1in]{geometry}
\usepackage[colorlinks=true, urlcolor=blue]{hyperref}
\usepackage{amssymb}
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%\newtheorem{conj}{Conjecture}
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\usepackage{color}
\usepackage{subfigure}
\usepackage{amssymb}
\usepackage{amsmath}
\usepackage{colonequals}
\usepackage{hyperref}
%\usepackage{showlabels}
%\usepackage[all]{xypic}
%\entrymodifiers={+!!<0pt,\fontdimen22\textfont2>}
\theoremstyle{definition}
\newtheorem{exercise}{Exercise}
\newtheorem{remark}{Remark}
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\newcommand{\vnorm}[1]{\left|\left|#1\right|\right|} % norm notation
\newcommand{\vnormf}[1]{||#1||} % norm notation, forced to be small
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\thispagestyle{empty}
\begin{document}
\bigskip
Graduate Probability \hfill Steven Heilman\\
\noindent\rule{6.5in}{0.4pt}
%\vspace{.2cm}
Please provide complete and well-written solutions to the following exercises.
Due February 15, at the beginning of class.
\vspace{.5cm}
\begin{center}
{\Large Homework 4}
\end{center}
\vspace{.5cm}
\begin{exercise}
Let $\epsilon_1, \epsilon_2, \dots \in \{0,1\}$ be random variables that are independent and identically distributed copies of the Bernoulli random variable with expectation $1/2$, so that $\P(\epsilon_{n}=1)=\P(\epsilon_{n}=0)=1/2$ for all $n\geq1$.
\begin{itemize}
\item Show that the random variable $\sum_{n=1}^\infty 2^{-n} \epsilon_n$ is uniformly distributed on the unit interval $[0,1]$.
\item Show that the random variable $\sum_{n=1}^\infty 2 \cdot 3^{-n} \epsilon_n$ is uniformly distributed on the standard middle third Cantor set (where the Cantor set's center is $1/2$.)
\item Let $\mu$ be a probability measure on $\R$. The Fourier Transform of $\mu$ at $\xi\in\R$ is defined by $\widehat{\mu}(\xi)\colonequals\int_{\R}e^{i x\xi}d\mu(x).$ where $i=\sqrt{-1}$. For example, if $\mu$ is uniform on $[-1/2,1/2]$, then
$$\widehat{\mu}(\xi)=\int_{-1/2}^{1/2}e^{ i x\xi}dx=\frac{e^{i\xi/2}-e^{-i\xi/2}}{i\xi}=\frac{2\sin(\xi/2)}{\xi},\qquad\forall\,\xi\neq0.$$ % e^ix = cos x + isin x
Using the first item, find an expression for $\sin(\xi)/\xi$ in terms of an infinite product of cosines. (Hint: if a random variable $X$ has distribution $\mu_{X}$, then $\widehat{\mu_{X}}(\xi)=\E e^{i X\xi}$ for any $\xi\in\R$. So the Fourier transform of the sum of independent random variables is the product of the Fourier transforms.) Similarly, find an expression for the Fourier transform of the uniform measure on the middle third Cantor set (when the Cantor set's center is $0\in\R$) in terms of an infinite product of cosines.
\end{itemize}
\end{exercise}
\begin{exercise}
Let $X$ be a random variable taking nonnegative integer values. Show that
$$\E X=\sum_{n=1}^{\infty}\P(X\geq n).$$
\end{exercise}
\begin{exercise}[\embolden{MAX-CUT}]
The probabilistic method is a very useful way to prove the existence of something satisfying some properties. This method is based upon the following elementary statement: If $\alpha\in\R$ and if a random variable $X\colon\Omega\to\R$ satisfies $\E X\geq\alpha$, then there exists some $\omega\in\Omega$ such that $X(\omega)\geq\alpha$. We will demonstrate this principle in this exercise.
Let $G=(V,E)$ be an undirected graph on the vertices $V=\{1,\ldots,n\}$ so that the edge set $E$ is a subset of unordered pairs $\{i,j\}$ such that $i,j\in V$ and $i\neq j$. Let $S\subset V$ and denote $S^{c}\colonequals V\setminus S$. We refer to $(S,S^{c})$ as a cut of the graph $G$. The goal of the MAX-CUT problem is to maximize the number of edges going between $S$ and $S^{c}$ over all cuts of the graph $G$.
Prove that there exists a cut $(S,S^{c})$ of the graph such that the number of edges going between $S$ and $S^{c}$ is at least $\abs{E}/2$. (Hint: define a random $S\subset V$ such that, for every $i\in V$, $\P(i\in S)=1/2$, and the events $1\in S,2\in S,\ldots,n\in S$ are all independent. If $\{i,j\}\in E$, show that $\P(i\in S,j\notin S)=1/4$. So, what is the expected number of edges $\{i,j\}\in E$ such that $i\in S$ and $j\notin S$?)
\end{exercise}
\begin{exercise}\label{exercise9}
Let $X_{1},X_{2},\ldots\colon\Omega\to S$ be random variables. Show that
$$\sigma(X_{1},X_{2},\ldots)=\sigma(\cup_{i=1}^{\infty}\sigma(X_{1},\ldots,X_{i})).$$
\end{exercise}
\begin{exercise}\label{exercise10}
Let $(X_{i})_{i\in I}$ be a collection of independent random variables. Show that $(X_{i})_{i\in I}$ are independent if and only if $(\sigma(X_{i}))_{i\in I}$ are independent $\sigma$-algebras. (Hint: Let $i\in I$ and let $J\subset I\setminus\{i\}$ be finite. Are the sets in $\sigma(X_{i})$ that are independent of $(\sigma(X_{j}))_{j\in J}$ a monotone class?)
\end{exercise}
\begin{exercise}\label{exercise11}
Let $X_{1},X_{2},\ldots$ be random variables. Show that $X_{1},X_{2},\ldots$ are independent if and only if: for every $i\geq1$, $\sigma(X_{i+1})$ is independent of $\sigma(X_{1},\ldots,X_{i})$. And the previous cases occur if and only if: for every $i\geq1$, $\sigma(X_{i+1},X_{i+2},\ldots)$ is independent of $\sigma(X_{1},\ldots,X_{i})$
\end{exercise}
\begin{exercise}\label{exercise12}
Let $X_{1},X_{2},\ldots\colon\Omega\to\R$ be a sequence of independent random variables. For any $n\geq1$, let $S_{n}\colonequals X_{1}+\cdots+X_{n}$. Show the following:
\begin{itemize}
\item $\{\lim_{n\to\infty}S_{n}\,\,\mbox{exists}\}\in\mathcal{T}$.
\item If $t\in[-\infty,\infty]$, then it can occur that $\{\limsup_{n\to\infty}S_{n}>t\}\notin\mathcal{T}$.
\item If $t\in[-\infty,\infty]$ and if $c_{1}\leq c_{2}\leq\cdots$ is a sequence of real numbers such that $\lim_{n\to\infty}c_{n}=\infty$, then
$$\{\limsup_{n\to\infty}\frac{S_{n}}{c_{n}}>t\}\in\mathcal{T}.$$
\end{itemize}
\end{exercise}
\end{document}
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%%
%% The LaTeX Graphics Companion, 2ed (first printing May 2007)
%%
%% Example 6-4-7 on page 386.
%%
%% Copyright (C) 2007 Michel Goossens, Frank Mittelbach, Denis Roegel, Sebastian Rahtz, Herbert Vo\ss
%%
%% It may be distributed and/or modified under the conditions
%% of the LaTeX Project Public License, either version 1.3
%% of this license or (at your option) any later version.
%%
%% See http://www.latex-project.org/lppl.txt for details.
%%
\documentclass{ttctexa}
\pagestyle{empty}
\setcounter{page}{6}
\setlength\textwidth{135.83385pt}
\setlength\parindent{0pt}
\newcommand\FRectangle{%
\begin{pspicture}(0.5,0.75)
\psframe[dimen=middle](0.5,0.75)
\end{pspicture}}
\StartShownPreambleCommands
\usepackage{pstricks} \usepackage[tiling]{pst-fill}
\StopShownPreambleCommands
\begin{document}
\psboxfill{\FRectangle}
\begin{pspicture}(2.1,3.1)
\psframe[fillstyle=boxfill,
fillsize={(-0.25,-0.25)(4,4)}](2,3)
\end{pspicture}
\begin{pspicture}(2.1,3.1)
\psframe[fillstyle=boxfill](2,3)
\end{pspicture}
\end{document}
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\input zb-basic
\input zb-matheduc
\iteman{ZMATH 1988h.00522}
\itemau{Ahlswede, R.}
\itemti{Economic informatics. Book of solutions. Wirtschaftsinformatik. Loesungsheft.}
\itemso{Rinteln: Merkur-Verlag. 1987. 47 p. [ISBN 3-8120-3214-7]}
\itemab
\itemrv{~}
\itemcc{R37 R17 P17}
\itemut{Economic Informatics; Economics; Computer Science; Solutions Manuals; Teacher Manuals; Vocational Schools; Applied Computer Science; Data Structures; Problem Solving; Programming Languages; Computer Programming; Input/Output Equipment; Data Processing; Central Processing Unit; Data Storage; ; Wirtschaftsinformatik; Wirtschaftswissenschaft; Informatik; Loesungsheft; Lehrerband; Berufsbildende Schule; Angewandte Informatik; Datenstruktur; Problemloesen; Programmiersprache; Programmieren; Ein- Ausgabegeraet; Datenverarbeitung; Zentraleinheit; Datenspeicherung}
\itemli{}
\end
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\input zb-basic
\input zb-matheduc
\iteman{ZMATH 2006e.03036}
\itemau{Rosebrock, Stephan}
\itemti{Symmetries produce patterns and dissections. (Symmetrien erzeugen Muster und Zerlegungen.)}
\itemso{Mathematikunterricht 52, No. 3, 26-33 (2006).}
\itemab
Wir wollen hier durch vorgegebene Abbildungen und Grundkacheln oder Figurenteile Zerlegungen der Ebene, Bandornamente oder Figuren erzeugen. Im Prozess des Erzeugens entsteht ein 'Bauplan', eine algebraische Beschreibung der Symmetrien der entstehenden Figur. Diese Beschreibung stellt ein wichtiges Bindeglied zwischen Algebra und Geometrie dar, so wie es von verschiedenen Bildungspl\"anen gefordert wird. Au\ss{}erdem kann man beim Erzeugen von Figuren hervorragend das geometrische Vorstellungsverm\"ogen schulen und gelangt zu einem tieferen Verst\"andnis der Symmetrie der entstehenden Figur. In diesem Aufsatz stellen wir die geometrischen Inhalte elementar f\"ur die Sekundarstufe I aufbereitet dar. In Anmerkungen erl\"autern wir die Zusammenh\"ange zur Gruppentheorie. (Aus der Einleitung)
\itemrv{~}
\itemcc{G40 G50}
\itemut{}
\itemli{}
\end
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\chapter{Examples (Informative)}
\label{app:examplesinformative}
The following sections provide examples that illustrate
various aspects of the DWARF debugging information format.
\section{ Compilation Units and Abbreviations Table Example}
\label{app:compilationunitsandabbreviationstableexample}
Figure \refersec{fig:compilationunitsandabbreviationstable}
depicts the relationship of the abbreviations tables contained
\addtoindexx{abbreviations table!example}
\addtoindexx{\texttt{.debug\_abbrev}!example}
\addtoindexx{\texttt{.debug\_info}!example}
in the \dotdebugabbrev{}
section to the information contained in
the \dotdebuginfo{}
section. Values are given in symbolic form,
where possible.
The figure corresponds to the following two trivial source files:
File myfile.c
\begin{lstlisting}[numbers=none]
typedef char* POINTER;
\end{lstlisting}
File myfile2.c
\begin{lstlisting}[numbers=none]
typedef char* strp;
\end{lstlisting}
% Ensures we get the following float out before we go on.
\clearpage
\begin{figure}[here]
%\centering
%\setlength{\linewidth}{1.1\linewidth}
\begin{minipage}[t]{0.03\linewidth}
\flushright
\scriptsize
% Note: alltt is used to step down the needed number of lines to the labels
\begin{alltt}
\textit{e1:}
\textit{e2:}
\end{alltt}
\end{minipage}
%
\begin{minipage}[t]{0.38\linewidth}
\centering
Compilation Unit \#1: \dotdebuginfo{}
\begin{framed}
\scriptsize
\begin{alltt}
\textit{length}
4
\textit{a1 (abbreviations table offset)}
4
\vspace{0.01cm}
\hrule
1
"myfile.c"
"Best Compiler Corp, V1.3"
"/home/mydir/src"
\livelink{chap:DWLANGC89}{DW\_LANG\_C89}
0x0
0x55
\livelink{chap:DWFORMsecoffset}{DW\_FORM\_sec\_offset}
0x0
\vspace{0.01cm}
\hrule
2
"char"
\livelink{chap:DWATEunsignedchar}{DW\_ATE\_unsigned\_char}
1
\vspace{0.01cm}
\hrule
3
\textit{e1 (debug info offset)}
\vspace{0.01cm}
\hrule
4
"POINTER"
\textit{e2 (debug info offset)}
\vspace{0.01cm}
\hrule
0
\end{alltt}
%
%
\end{framed}
Compilation Unit \#2: \dotdebuginfo{}
\begin{framed}
\scriptsize
\begin{alltt}
\textit{length}
4
\textit{a1 (abbreviations table offset)}
4
\vspace{0.01cm}
\hrule
...
\vspace{0.01cm}
\hrule
4
"strp"
\textit{e2 (debug info offset)}
\vspace{0.01cm}
\hrule
...
\end{alltt}
%
%
\end{framed}
\end{minipage}
\hfill
% Place the label for the abbreviation table
\begin{minipage}[t]{0.03\linewidth}
\flushright
\scriptsize
% Note: alltt is used to step down the needed number of lines to the label
\begin{alltt}
\textit{a1:}
\end{alltt}
\end{minipage}
%
\begin{minipage}[t]{0.41\linewidth}
\centering
Abbreviation Table: \dotdebugabbrev{}
\begin{framed}
\scriptsize
\begin{alltt}\vspace{0.06cm}
1
\livelink{chap:DWTAGcompileunit}{DW\_TAG\_compile\_unit}
\livelink{chap:DWCHILDRENyes}{DW\_CHILDREN\_yes}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name} \livelink{chap:DWFORMstring}{DW\_FORM\_string}
\livelink{chap:DWATproducer}{DW\_AT\_producer} \livelink{chap:DWFORMstring}{DW\_FORM\_string}
\livelink{chap:DWATcompdir}{DW\_AT\_comp\_dir} \livelink{chap:DWFORMstring}{DW\_FORM\_string}
\livelink{chap:DWATlanguage}{DW\_AT\_language} \livelink{chap:DWFORMdata1}{DW\_FORM\_data1}
\livelink{chap:DWATlowpc}{DW\_AT\_low\_pc} \livelink{chap:DWFORMaddr}{DW\_FORM\_addr}
\livelink{chap:DWAThighpc}{DW\_AT\_high\_pc} \livelink{chap:DWFORMdata1}{DW\_FORM\_data1}
\livelink{chap:DWATstmtlist}{DW\_AT\_stmt\_list} \livelink{chap:DWFORMindirect}{DW\_FORM\_indirect}
0
\vspace{0.01cm}
\hrule
2
\livelink{chap:DWTAGbasetype}{DW\_TAG\_base\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWCHILDRENno}{DW\_CHILDREN\_no}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name} \livelink{chap:DWFORMstring}{DW\_FORM\_string}
\livelink{chap:DWATencoding}{DW\_AT\_encoding} \livelink{chap:DWFORMdata1}{DW\_FORM\_data1}
\livelink{chap:DWATbytesize}{DW\_AT\_byte\_size} \livelink{chap:DWFORMdata1}{DW\_FORM\_data1}
0
\vspace{0.01cm}
\hrule
3
\livelink{chap:DWTAGpointertype}{DW\_TAG\_pointer\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWCHILDRENno}{DW\_CHILDREN\_no}
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type} \livelink{chap:DWFORMref4}{DW\_FORM\_ref4}
0
\vspace{0.01cm}
\hrule
4
\livelink{chap:DWTAGtypedef}{DW\_TAG\_typedef}
\livelink{chap:DWCHILDRENno}{DW\_CHILDREN\_no}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name} \livelink{chap:DWFORMstring}{DW\_FORM\_string}
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type} \livelink{chap:DWFORMrefaddr}{DW\_FORM\_ref\_addr}
0
\vspace{0.01cm}
\hrule
0
\end{alltt}
\end{framed}
\end{minipage}
\vspace{0.2cm}
\caption{Compilation units and abbreviations table} \label{fig:compilationunitsandabbreviationstable}
\end{figure}
% Ensures we get the above float out before we go on.
\clearpage
\section{Aggregate Examples}
\label{app:aggregateexamples}
The following examples illustrate how to represent some of
the more complicated forms of array and record aggregates
using DWARF.
\subsection{Fortran 90 Example}
\label{app:fortran90example}
Consider the \addtoindex{Fortran 90} source fragment in
\addtoindexx{array type entry!examples}
Figure \referfol{fig:fortran90examplesourcefragment}.
\begin{figure}[here]
\begin{lstlisting}
type array_ptr
real :: myvar
real, dimension (:), pointer :: ap
end type array_ptr
type(array_ptr), allocatable, dimension(:) :: arrayvar
allocate(arrayvar(20))
do i = 1, 20
allocate(arrayvar(i)%ap(i+10))
end do
\end{lstlisting}
\caption{Fortran 90 example: source fragment} \label{fig:fortran90examplesourcefragment}
\end{figure}
For allocatable and pointer arrays, it is essentially required
by the \addtoindex{Fortran 90} semantics that each array consist of
\addtoindexx{descriptor!array}
two
\addtoindexx{array!descriptor for}
parts, which we here call 1) the descriptor and 2) the raw
data. (A descriptor has often been called a dope vector in
other contexts, although it is often a structure of some kind
rather than a simple vector.) Because there are two parts,
and because the lifetime of the descriptor is necessarily
longer than and includes that of the raw data, there must be
an address somewhere in the descriptor that points to the
raw data when, in fact, there is some (that is, when
the \doublequote{variable} is allocated or associated).
For concreteness, suppose that a descriptor looks something
like the C structure in
Figure \refersec{fig:fortran90exampledescriptorrepresentation}.
Note, however, that it is
a property of the design that 1) a debugger needs no builtin
knowledge of this structure and 2) there does not need to
be an explicit representation of this structure in the DWARF
input to the
\addtoindexx{Fortran 90}
debugger.
\begin{figure}[here]
\begin{lstlisting}
struct desc {
long el_len; // Element length
void * base; // Address of raw data
int ptr_assoc : 1; // Pointer is associated flag
int ptr_alloc : 1; // Pointer is allocated flag
int num_dims : 6; // Number of dimensions
struct dims_str { // For each dimension...
long low_bound;
long upper_bound;
long stride;
} dims[63];
};
\end{lstlisting}
\caption{Fortran 90 example: descriptor representation}
\label{fig:fortran90exampledescriptorrepresentation}
\end{figure}
In practice, of course, a \doublequote{real} descriptor will have
dimension substructures only for as many dimensions as are
specified in the \texttt{num\_dims} component. Let us use the notation
\texttt{desc\textless n\textgreater}
to indicate a specialization of the \texttt{desc} struct in
which \texttt{n} is the bound for the \texttt{dims} component as well as the
contents of the \texttt{num\_dims} component.
Because the arrays considered here come in two parts, it is
necessary to distinguish the parts carefully. In particular,
the \doublequote{address of the variable} or equivalently, the \doublequote{base
address of the object} \emph{always} refers to the descriptor. For
arrays that do not come in two parts, an implementation can
provide a descriptor anyway, thereby giving it two parts. (This
may be convenient for general runtime support unrelated to
debugging.) In this case the above vocabulary applies as
stated. Alternatively, an implementation can do without a
descriptor, in which case the \doublequote{address of the variable,}
or equivalently the \doublequote{base address of the object}, refers
to the \doublequote{raw data} (the real data, the only thing around
that can be the object).
If an object has a descriptor, then the DWARF type for that
object will have a
\livelink{chap:DWATdatalocation}{DW\_AT\_data\_location}
attribute. If an object
does not have a descriptor, then usually the DWARF type for the
object will not have a
\livelink{chap:DWATdatalocation}{DW\_AT\_data\_location}.
(See the following
\addtoindex{Ada} example for a case where the type for an object without
a descriptor does have a
\livelink{chap:DWATdatalocation}{DW\_AT\_data\_location} attribute. In
that case the object doubles as its own descriptor.)
The \addtoindex{Fortran 90} derived type \texttt{array\_ptr} can now be redescribed
in C\dash like terms that expose some of the representation as in
\begin{lstlisting}[numbers=none]
struct array_ptr {
float myvar;
desc<1> ap;
};
\end{lstlisting}
Similarly for variable \texttt{arrayvar}:
\begin{lstlisting}[numbers=none]
desc<1> arrayvar;
\end{lstlisting}
(Recall that \texttt{desc\textless 1\textgreater}
indicates the 1\dash dimensional version of \texttt{desc}.)
\newpage
Finally, the following notation is useful:
\begin{enumerate}[1. ]
\item sizeof(type): size in bytes of entities of the given type
\item offset(type, comp): offset in bytes of the comp component
within an entity of the given type
\end{enumerate}
The DWARF description is shown
\addtoindexx{Fortran 90}
in Figure \refersec{fig:fortran90exampledwarfdescription}.
\begin{figure}[h]
\figurepart{1}{2}
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
! Description for type of 'ap'
!
1\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGarraytype}{DW\_TAG\_array\_type}
! No name, default (Fortran) ordering, default stride
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to REAL)
\livelink{chap:DWATassociated}{DW\_AT\_associated}(expression= ! Test 'ptr\_assoc' \nolink{flag}
\livelink{chap:DWOPpushobjectaddress}{DW\_OP\_push\_object\_address}
\livelink{chap:DWOPlit}{DW\_OP\_lit}<n> ! where n == offset(ptr\_assoc)
\livelink{chap:DWOPplus}{DW\_OP\_plus}
\livelink{chap:DWOPderef}{DW\_OP\_deref}
\livelink{chap:DWOPlit1}{DW\_OP\_lit1} ! mask for 'ptr\_assoc' \nolink{flag}
\livelink{chap:DWOPand}{DW\_OP\_and})
\livelink{chap:DWATdatalocation}{DW\_AT\_data\_location}(expression= ! Get raw data address
\livelink{chap:DWOPpushobjectaddress}{DW\_OP\_push\_object\_address}
\livelink{chap:DWOPlit}{DW\_OP\_lit}<n> ! where n == offset(base)
\livelink{chap:DWOPplus}{DW\_OP\_plus}
\livelink{chap:DWOPderef}{DW\_OP\_deref}) ! Type of index of array 'ap'
2\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGsubrangetype}{DW\_TAG\_subrange\_type}
! No name, default stride
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to INTEGER)
\livelink{chap:DWATlowerbound}{DW\_AT\_lower\_bound}(expression=
\livelink{chap:DWOPpushobjectaddress}{DW\_OP\_push\_object\_address}
\livelink{chap:DWOPlit}{DW\_OP\_lit}<n> ! where n ==
! offset(desc, dims) +
! offset(dims\_str, lower\_bound)
\livelink{chap:DWOPplus}{DW\_OP\_plus}
\livelink{chap:DWOPderef}{DW\_OP\_deref})
\livelink{chap:DWATupperbound}{DW\_AT\_upper\_bound}(expression=
\livelink{chap:DWOPpushobjectaddress}{DW\_OP\_push\_object\_address}
\livelink{chap:DWOPlit}{DW\_OP\_lit}<n> ! where n ==
! offset(desc, dims) +
! offset(dims\_str, upper\_bound)
\livelink{chap:DWOPplus}{DW\_OP\_plus}
\livelink{chap:DWOPderef}{DW\_OP\_deref})
! Note: for the m'th dimension, the second operator becomes
! \livelink{chap:DWOPlit}{DW\_OP\_lit}<x> where
! x == offset(desc, dims) +
! (m-1)*sizeof(dims\_str) +
! offset(dims\_str, [lower|upper]\_bound)
! That is, the expression does not get longer for each successive
! dimension (other than to express the larger offsets involved).
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\caption{Fortran 90 example: DWARF description}
\label{fig:fortran90exampledwarfdescription}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\figurepart{2}{2}
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
3\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGstructuretype}{DW\_TAG\_structure\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("array\_ptr")
\livelink{chap:DWATbytesize}{DW\_AT\_byte\_size}(constant sizeof(REAL) + sizeof(desc<1>))
4\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGmember}{DW\_TAG\_member}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("myvar")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to REAL)
\livelink{chap:DWATdatamemberlocation}{DW\_AT\_data\_member\_location}(constant 0)
5\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGmember}{DW\_TAG\_member}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("ap");
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 1\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATdatamemberlocation}{DW\_AT\_data\_member\_location}(constant sizeof(REAL))
6\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGarraytype}{DW\_TAG\_array\_type}
! No name, default (Fortran) ordering, default stride
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 3\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATallocated}{DW\_AT\_allocated}(expression= ! Test 'ptr\_alloc' \nolink{flag}
\livelink{chap:DWOPpushobjectaddress}{DW\_OP\_push\_object\_address}
\livelink{chap:DWOPlit}{DW\_OP\_lit}<n> ! where n == offset(ptr\_alloc)
\livelink{chap:DWOPplus}{DW\_OP\_plus}
\livelink{chap:DWOPderef}{DW\_OP\_deref}
\livelink{chap:DWOPlit}{DW\_OP\_lit2} ! Mask for 'ptr\_alloc' \nolink{flag}
\livelink{chap:DWOPand}{DW\_OP\_and})
\livelink{chap:DWATdatalocation}{DW\_AT\_data\_location}(expression= ! Get raw data address
\livelink{chap:DWOPpushobjectaddress}{DW\_OP\_push\_object\_address}
\livelink{chap:DWOPlit}{DW\_OP\_lit}<n> ! where n = offset(base)
\livelink{chap:DWOPplus}{DW\_OP\_plus}
\livelink{chap:DWOPderef}{DW\_OP\_deref})
7\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGsubrangetype}{DW\_TAG\_subrange\_type}
! No name, default stride
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to INTEGER)
\livelink{chap:DWATlowerbound}{DW\_AT\_lower\_bound}(expression=
\livelink{chap:DWOPpushobjectaddress}{DW\_OP\_push\_object\_address}
\livelink{chap:DWOPlit}{DW\_OP\_lit}<n> ! where n == ...
\livelink{chap:DWOPplus}{DW\_OP\_plus}
\livelink{chap:DWOPderef}{DW\_OP\_deref})
\livelink{chap:DWATupperbound}{DW\_AT\_upper\_bound}(expression=
\livelink{chap:DWOPpushobjectaddress}{DW\_OP\_push\_object\_address}
\livelink{chap:DWOPlit}{DW\_OP\_lit}<n> ! where n == ...
\livelink{chap:DWOPplus}{DW\_OP\_plus}
\livelink{chap:DWOPderef}{DW\_OP\_deref})
8\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("arrayvar")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 6\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location}(expression=
...as appropriate...) ! Assume static allocation
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\begin{center}
Figure~\ref{fig:fortran90exampledwarfdescription} Fortran 90 example: DWARF description \textit{(concluded)}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
Suppose
\addtoindexx{Fortran 90 example}
the program is stopped immediately following completion
of the do loop. Suppose further that the user enters the
following debug command:
\begin{lstlisting}[numbers=none]
debug> print arrayvar(5)%ap(2)
\end{lstlisting}
Interpretation of this expression proceeds as follows:
\begin{enumerate}[1. ]
\item Lookup name \texttt{arrayvar}. We find that it is a variable,
whose type is given by the unnamed type at 6\$. Notice that
the type is an array type.
\item Find the 5$^{th}$ element of that array object. To do array
indexing requires several pieces of information:
\begin{enumerate}[a) ]
\item the address of the array data
\item the lower bounds of the array \\
% Using plain [] here gives trouble.
\lbrack To check that 5 is within bounds would require the upper
bound too, but we will skip that for this example. \rbrack
\item the stride
\end{enumerate}
For a), check for a
\livelink{chap:DWATdatalocation}{DW\_AT\_data\_location} attribute.
Since there is one, go execute the expression, whose result is
the address needed. The object address used in this case
is the object we are working on, namely the variable named
\texttt{arrayvar}, whose address was found in step 1. (Had there been
no \livelink{chap:DWATdatalocation}{DW\_AT\_data\_location} attribute, the desired address would
be the same as the address from step 1.)
For b), for each dimension of the array (only one
in this case), go interpret the usual lower bound
attribute. Again this is an expression, which again begins
with \livelink{chap:DWOPpushobjectaddress}{DW\_OP\_push\_object\_address}. This object is
\textbf{still} \texttt{arrayvar},
from step 1, because we have not begun to actually perform
any indexing yet.
For c), the default stride applies. Since there is no
\livelink{chap:DWATbytestride}{DW\_AT\_byte\_stride} attribute, use the size of the array element
type, which is the size of type \texttt{array\_ptr} (at 3\$).
\clearpage
Having acquired all the necessary data, perform the indexing
operation in the usual manner--which has nothing to do with
any of the attributes involved up to now. Those just provide
the actual values used in the indexing step.
The result is an object within the memory that was dynamically
allocated for \texttt{arrayvar}.
\item Find the \texttt{ap} component of the object just identified,
whose type is \texttt{array\_ptr}.
This is a conventional record component lookup and
interpretation. It happens that the \texttt{ap} component in this case
begins at offset 4 from the beginning of the containing object.
Component \texttt{ap} has the unnamed array type defined at 1\$ in the
symbol table.
\item Find the second element of the array object found in step 3. To do array indexing requires
several pieces of information:
\begin{enumerate}[a) ]
\item the address of the array storage
\item the lower bounds of the array \\
% Using plain [] here gives trouble.
\lbrack To check that 2 is within bounds we would require the upper
bound too, but we will skip that for this example \rbrack
\item the stride
\end{enumerate}
\end{enumerate}
This is just like step 2), so the details are omitted. Recall
that because the DWARF type 1\$ has a \livelink{chap:DWATdatalocation}{DW\_AT\_data\_location},
the address that results from step 4) is that of a
descriptor, and that address is the address pushed by the
\livelink{chap:DWOPpushobjectaddress}{DW\_OP\_push\_object\_address} operations in 1\$ and 2\$.
Note: we happen to be accessing a pointer array here instead
of an allocatable array; but because there is a common
underlying representation, the mechanics are the same. There
could be completely different descriptor arrangements and the
mechanics would still be the same---only the stack machines
would be different.
\subsection{Ada Example}
\label{app:adaexample}
Figure \refersec{fig:adaexamplesourcefragment}
illustrates two kinds of \addtoindex{Ada}
parameterized array, one embedded in a record.
\begin{figure}[here]
\begin{lstlisting}
M : INTEGER := <exp>;
VEC1 : array (1..M) of INTEGER;
subtype TEENY is INTEGER range 1..100;
type ARR is array (INTEGER range <>) of INTEGER;
type REC2(N : TEENY := 100) is record
VEC2 : ARR(1..N);
end record;
OBJ2B : REC2;
\end{lstlisting}
\caption{Ada 90 example: source fragment}
\label{fig:adaexamplesourcefragment}
\end{figure}
\texttt{VEC1} illustrates an (unnamed) array type where the upper bound
of the first and only dimension is determined at runtime.
\addtoindex{Ada}
semantics require that the value of an array bound is fixed at
the time the array type is elaborated (where \textit{elaboration} refers
to the runtime executable aspects of type processing). For
the purposes of this example, we assume that there are no
other assignments to \texttt{M} so that it safe for the \texttt{REC1} type
description to refer directly to that variable (rather than
a compiler-generated copy).
\texttt{REC2} illustrates another array type (the unnamed type of
component \texttt{VEC2}) where the upper bound of the first and only
bound is also determined at runtime. In this case, the upper
bound is contained in a discriminant of the containing record
type. (A \textit{discriminant} is a component of a record whose value
cannot be changed independently of the rest of the record
because that value is potentially used in the specification
of other components of the record.)
The DWARF description is shown in
Figure \refersec{fig:adaexampledwarfdescription}.
Interesting aspects about this example are:
\begin{enumerate}[1. ]
\item The array \texttt{VEC2} is \doublequote{immediately} contained within structure
\texttt{REC2} (there is no intermediate descriptor or indirection),
which is reflected in the absence of a \livelink{chap:DWATdatalocation}{DW\_AT\_data\_location}
attribute on the array type at 28\$.
\item One of the bounds of \texttt{VEC2} is nonetheless dynamic and part of
the same containing record. It is described as a reference to
a member, and the location of the upper bound is determined
as for any member. That is, the location is determined using
an address calculation relative to the base of the containing
object.
A consumer must notice that the referenced bound is a
member of the same containing object and implicitly push the
base address of the containing object just as for accessing
a data member generally.
\item The lack of a subtype concept in DWARF means that DWARF types
serve the role of subtypes and must replicate information from
what should be the parent type. For this reason, DWARF for
the unconstrained array type \texttt{ARR} is not needed for the purposes
of this example and therefore is not shown.
\end{enumerate}
\begin{figure}[p]
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
11\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("M")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to INTEGER)
12\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGarraytype}{DW\_TAG\_array\_type}
! No name, default (\addtoindex{Ada}) order, default stride
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to INTEGER)
13\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGsubrangetype}{DW\_TAG\_subrange\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to INTEGER)
\livelink{chap:DWATlowerbound}{DW\_AT\_lower\_bound}(constant 1)
\livelink{chap:DWATupperbound}{DW\_AT\_upper\_bound}(reference to variable M at 11\$)
14\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("VEC1")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to array type at 12\$)
. . .
21\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGsubrangetype}{DW\_TAG\_subrange\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("TEENY")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to INTEGER)
\livelink{chap:DWATlowerbound}{DW\_AT\_lower\_bound}(constant 1)
\livelink{chap:DWATupperbound}{DW\_AT\_upper\_bound}(constant 100)
. . .
26\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGstructuretype}{DW\_TAG\_structure\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("REC2")
27\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGmember}{DW\_TAG\_member}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("N")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to subtype TEENY at 21\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATdatamemberlocation}{DW\_AT\_data\_member\_location}(constant 0)
28\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGarraytype}{DW\_TAG\_array\_type}
! No name, default (\addtoindex{Ada}) order, default stride
! Default data location
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to INTEGER)
29\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGsubrangetype}{DW\_TAG\_subrange\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to subrange TEENY at 21\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATlowerbound}{DW\_AT\_lower\_bound}(constant 1)
\livelink{chap:DWATupperbound}{DW\_AT\_upper\_bound}(reference to member N at 27\$)
30\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGmember}{DW\_TAG\_member}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("VEC2")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to array "subtype" at 28\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATdatamemberlocation}{DW\_AT\_data\_member\_location}(machine=
\livelink{chap:DWOPlit}{DW\_OP\_lit}<n> ! where n == offset(REC2, VEC2)
\livelink{chap:DWOPplus}{DW\_OP\_plus})
. . .
41\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("OBJ2B")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to REC2 at 26\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location}(...as appropriate...)
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\caption{Ada 90 example: DWARF description}
\label{fig:adaexampledwarfdescription}
\end{figure}
\clearpage
\subsection{Pascal Example}
\label{app:pascalexample}
The Pascal \addtoindexx{Pascal example} source in
Figure \referfol{fig:packedrecordexamplesourcefragment}
is used to illustrate the representation of packed unaligned
\addtoindex{bit fields}.
\begin{figure}[here]
\begin{lstlisting}
TYPE T : PACKED RECORD ! bit size is 2
F5 : BOOLEAN; ! bit offset is 0
F6 : BOOLEAN; ! bit offset is 1
END;
VAR V : PACKED RECORD
F1 : BOOLEAN; ! bit offset is 0
F2 : PACKED RECORD ! bit offset is 1
F3 : INTEGER; ! bit offset is 0 in F2, 1 in V
END;
F4 : PACKED ARRAY [0..1] OF T; ! bit offset is 33
F7 : T; ! bit offset is 37
END;
\end{lstlisting}
\caption{Packed record example: source fragment}
\label{fig:packedrecordexamplesourcefragment}
\end{figure}
The DWARF representation in
Figure \refersec{fig:packedrecordexampledwarfdescription}
is appropriate.
\livelink{chap:DWTAGpackedtype}{DW\_TAG\_packed\_type} entries could be added to
better represent the source, but these do not otherwise affect
the example and are omitted for clarity. Note that this same
representation applies to both typical big\dash \ and
little\dash endian
architectures using the conventions described in
Section \refersec{chap:datamemberentries}.
\begin{figure}[p]
\figurepart{1}{2}
\begin{dwflisting}
% DWARF4 had some entries here as \livelink{chap:DWATmember}{DW\_AT\_member} .
% Those are fixed here to \livelink{chap:DWTAGmember}{DW\_TAG\_member}
\begin{alltt}
10\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGbasetype}{DW\_TAG\_base\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("BOOLEAN")
...
11\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGbasetype}{DW\_TAG\_base\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("INTEGER")
...
20\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGstructuretype}{DW\_TAG\_structure\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("T")
\livelink{chap:DWATbitsize}{DW\_AT\_bit\_size}(2)
\livelink{chap:DWTAGmember}{DW\_TAG\_member}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("F5")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 10$)
\livelink{chap:DWATdatabitoffset}{DW\_AT\_data\_bit\_offset}(0) ! may be omitted
\livelink{chap:DWATbitsize}{DW\_AT\_bit\_size}(1)
\livelink{chap:DWTAGmember}{DW\_TAG\_member}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("F6")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 10$)
\livelink{chap:DWATdatabitoffset}{DW\_AT\_data\_bit\_offset}(1)
\livelink{chap:DWATbitsize}{DW\_AT\_bit\_size}(1)
21\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGstructuretype}{DW\_TAG\_structure\_type} ! anonymous type for F2
\livelink{chap:DWTAGmember}{DW\_TAG\_member}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("F3")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 11\$)
22\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGarraytype}{DW\_TAG\_array\_type} ! anonymous type for F4
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 20\$)
\livelink{chap:DWTAGsubrangetype}{DW\_TAG\_subrange\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 11\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATlowerbound}{DW\_AT\_lower\_bound}(0)
\livelink{chap:DWATupperbound}{DW\_AT\_upper\_bound}(1)
\livelink{chap:DWATbitstride}{DW\_AT\_bit\_stride}(2)
\livelink{chap:DWATbitsize}{DW\_AT\_bit\_size}(4) \addtoindexx{bit size attribute}
23\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGstructuretype}{DW\_TAG\_structure\_type} ! anonymous type for V
\livelink{chap:DWATbitsize}{DW\_AT\_bit\_size}(39) \addtoindexx{bit size attribute}
\livelink{chap:DWTAGmember}{DW\_TAG\_member}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("F1")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 10\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATdatabitoffset}{DW\_AT\_data\_bit\_offset}(0) ! may be omitted
\livelink{chap:DWATbitsize}{DW\_AT\_bit\_size}(1) ! may be omitted
\livelink{chap:DWTAGmember}{DW\_TAG\_member}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("F2")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 21\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATdatabitoffset}{DW\_AT\_data\_bit\_offset}(1)
\livelink{chap:DWATbitsize}{DW\_AT\_bit\_size}(32) ! may be omitted
\livelink{chap:DWTAGmember}{DW\_TAG\_member}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("F4")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 22\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATdatabitoffset}{DW\_AT\_data\_bit\_offset}(33)
\livelink{chap:DWATbitsize}{DW\_AT\_bit\_size}(4) ! may be omitted
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\caption{Packed record example: DWARF description}
\label{fig:packedrecordexampledwarfdescription}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[p]
\figurepart{2}{2}
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
\livelink{chap:DWTAGmember}{DW\_TAG\_member}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("F7")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 20\$) ! type T
\livelink{chap:DWATdatabitoffset}{DW\_AT\_data\_bit\_offset}(37)
\livelink{chap:DWATbitsize}{DW\_AT\_bit\_size}(2) \addtoindexx{bit size attribute} ! may be omitted
\livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("V")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 23\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location}(...)
...
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\begin{center}
Figure~\ref{fig:packedrecordexampledwarfdescription}: Packed record example: DWARF description \textit{(concluded)}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\section{Namespace Example}
\label{app:namespaceexample}
The \addtoindex{C++} example in
Figure \refersec{fig:namespaceexamplesourcefragment}
is used
\addtoindexx{namespace (C++)!example}
to illustrate the representation of namespaces.
The DWARF representation in
Figure \refersec{fig:namespaceexampledwarfdescription}
is appropriate.
\begin{figure}[p]
\begin{lstlisting}
namespace {
int i;
}
namespace A {
namespace B {
int j;
int myfunc (int a);
float myfunc (float f) { return f - 2.0; }
int myfunc2(int a) { return a + 2; }
}
}
namespace Y {
using A::B::j; // (1) using declaration
int foo;
}
using A::B::j; // (2) using declaration
namespace Foo = A::B; // (3) namespace alias
using Foo::myfunc; // (4) using declaration
using namespace Foo; // (5) using directive
namespace A {
namespace B {
using namespace Y; // (6) using directive
int k;
}
}
int Foo::myfunc(int a)
{
i = 3;
j = 4;
return myfunc2(3) + j + i + a + 2;
}
\end{lstlisting}
\caption{Namespace example: source fragment}
\label{fig:namespaceexamplesourcefragment}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[p]
\figurepart{1}{2}
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
1\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGbasetype}{DW\_TAG\_base\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("int")
...
2\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGbasetype}{DW\_TAG\_base\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("float")
...
6\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGnamespace}{DW\_TAG\_namespace}
! no \livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name} attribute
7\$:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("i")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 1\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location} ...
...
10\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGnamespace}{DW\_TAG\_namespace}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("A")
20\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGnamespace}{DW\_TAG\_namespace}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("B")
30\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("j")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 1\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location} ...
...
34\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGsubprogram}{DW\_TAG\_subprogram}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("myfunc")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 1\$)
...
36\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGsubprogram}{DW\_TAG\_subprogram}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("myfunc")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 2\$)
...
38\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGsubprogram}{DW\_TAG\_subprogram}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("myfunc2")
\livelink{chap:DWATlowpc}{DW\_AT\_low\_pc} ...
\livelink{chap:DWAThighpc}{DW\_AT\_high\_pc} ...
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 1\$)
...
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\caption{Namespace example: DWARF description}
\label{fig:namespaceexampledwarfdescription}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\figurepart{2}{2}
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
40\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGnamespace}{DW\_TAG\_namespace}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("Y")
\livelink{chap:DWTAGimporteddeclaration}{DW\_TAG\_imported\_declaration} ! (1) using-declaration
\livelink{chap:DWATimport}{DW\_AT\_import}(reference to 30\$)
\livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("foo")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 1\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location} ...
...
\livelink{chap:DWTAGimporteddeclaration}{DW\_TAG\_imported\_declaration} ! (2) using declaration
\livelink{chap:DWATimport}{DW\_AT\_import}(reference to 30\$)
\livelink{chap:DWTAGimporteddeclaration}{DW\_TAG\_imported\_declaration} ! (3) namespace alias
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("Foo")
\livelink{chap:DWATimport}{DW\_AT\_import}(reference to 20\$)
\livelink{chap:DWTAGimporteddeclaration}{DW\_TAG\_imported\_declaration} ! (4) using declaration
\livelink{chap:DWATimport}{DW\_AT\_import}(reference to 34\$) ! - part 1
\livelink{chap:DWTAGimporteddeclaration}{DW\_TAG\_imported\_declaration} ! (4) using declaration
\livelink{chap:DWATimport}{DW\_AT\_import}(reference to 36\$) ! - part 2
\livelink{chap:DWTAGimportedmodule}{DW\_TAG\_imported\_module} ! (5) using directive
\livelink{chap:DWATimport}{DW\_AT\_import}(reference to 20\$)
\livelink{chap:DWTAGnamespace}{DW\_TAG\_namespace}
\livelink{chap:DWATextension}{DW\_AT\_extension}(reference to 10\$)
\livelink{chap:DWTAGnamespace}{DW\_TAG\_namespace}
\livelink{chap:DWATextension}{DW\_AT\_extension}(reference to 20\$)
\livelink{chap:DWTAGimportedmodule}{DW\_TAG\_imported\_module} ! (6) using directive
\livelink{chap:DWATimport}{DW\_AT\_import}(reference to 40\$)
\livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("k")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 1\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location} ...
...
60\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGsubprogram}{DW\_TAG\_subprogram}
\livelink{chap:DWATspecification}{DW\_AT\_specification}(reference to 34\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATlowpc}{DW\_AT\_low\_pc} ...
\livelink{chap:DWAThighpc}{DW\_AT\_high\_pc} ...
...
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\begin{center}
Figure~\ref{fig:namespaceexampledwarfdescription}: Namespace example: DWARF description \textit{(concluded)}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\section{Member Function Example}
\label{app:memberfunctionexample}
Consider the member function example fragment in
Figure \refersec{fig:memberfunctionexamplesourcefragment}.
The DWARF representation in
Figure \refersec{fig:memberfunctionexampledwarfdescription}
is appropriate.
\begin{figure}[Here]
\begin{lstlisting}
class A
{
void func1(int x1);
void func2() const;
static void func3(int x3);
};
void A::func1(int x) {}
\end{lstlisting}
\caption{Member function example: source fragment}
\label{fig:memberfunctionexamplesourcefragment}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[h]
\figurepart{1}{2}
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
1\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGunspecifiedtype}{DW\_TAG\_unspecified\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("void")
...
2\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGbasetype}{DW\_TAG\_base\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("int")
...
3\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGclasstype}{DW\_TAG\_class\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("A")
...
4\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGpointertype}{DW\_TAG\_pointer\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 3\$)
...
5\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGconsttype}{DW\_TAG\_const\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 3\$)
...
6\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGpointertype}{DW\_TAG\_pointer\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 5\$)
...
7\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGsubprogram}{DW\_TAG\_subprogram}
\livelink{chap:DWATdeclaration}{DW\_AT\_declaration}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("func1")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 1\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATobjectpointer}{DW\_AT\_object\_pointer}(reference to 8\$) \addtoindexx{object pointer attribute}
! References a formal parameter in this
! member function
...
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\caption{Member function example: DWARF description}
\label{fig:memberfunctionexampledwarfdescription}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[p]
\figurepart{2}{2}
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
8\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGformalparameter}{DW\_TAG\_formal\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATartificial}{DW\_AT\_artificial}(true)
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("this")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 4\$)
! Makes type of 'this' as 'A*' =>
! func1 has not been marked const
! or volatile
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location} ...
...
9\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGformalparameter}{DW\_TAG\_formal\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}(x1)
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 2\$)
...
10\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGsubprogram}{DW\_TAG\_subprogram}
\livelink{chap:DWATdeclaration}{DW\_AT\_declaration}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("func2")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 1\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATobjectpointer}{DW\_AT\_object\_pointer}(reference to 11\$) \addtoindexx{object pointer attribute}
! References a formal parameter in this
! member function
...
11\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGformalparameter}{DW\_TAG\_formal\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATartificial}{DW\_AT\_artificial}(true)
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("this")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 6\$)
! Makes type of 'this' as 'A const*' =>
! func2 marked as const
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location} ...
...
12\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGsubprogram}{DW\_TAG\_subprogram}
\livelink{chap:DWATdeclaration}{DW\_AT\_declaration}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("func3")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 1\$)
...
! No object pointer reference formal parameter
! implies func3 is static
13\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGformalparameter}{DW\_TAG\_formal\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}(x3)
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 2\$)
...
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\begin{center}
Figure~\ref{fig:memberfunctionexampledwarfdescription}: Member function example: DWARF description \textit{(concluded)}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\clearpage
\section{Line Number Program Example}
\label{app:linenumberprogramexample}
Consider the simple source file and the resulting machine
code for the Intel 8086 processor in
Figure \refersec{fig:linenumberprogramexamplemachinecode}.
\begin{figure}[here]
\begin{lstlisting}
1: int
2: main()
0x239: push pb
0x23a: mov bp,sp
3: {
4: printf("Omit needless words\n");
0x23c: mov ax,0xaa
0x23f: push ax
0x240: call _printf
0x243: pop cx
5: exit(0);
0x244: xor ax,ax
0x246: push ax
0x247: call _exit
0x24a: pop cx
6: }
0x24b: pop bp
0x24c: ret
7: 0x24d:
\end{lstlisting}
\caption{Line number program example: machine code}
\label{fig:linenumberprogramexamplemachinecode}
\end{figure}
Suppose the line number program header includes the following
(header fields not needed
\addtoindexx{line\_base}
below
\addtoindexx{line\_range}
are
\addtoindexx{opcode\_base}
not
\addtoindexx{minumum\_instruction\_length}
shown):
\begin{alltt}
version 4
minimum_instruction_length 1
opcode_base 10 ! Opcodes 10-12 not needed
line_base 1
line_range 15
\end{alltt}
Table \refersec{tab:linenumberprogramexampleoneencoding}
shows one encoding of the line number program, which occupies
12 bytes (the opcode SPECIAL(\textit{m},\textit{n}) indicates the special opcode
generated for a line increment of \textit{m} and an address increment
of \textit{n}).
\newpage
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|l|l}
\caption{Line number program example: one \mbox{encoding}}
\label{tab:linenumberprogramexampleoneencoding} \\
\hline \bfseries Opcode &\bfseries Operand &\bfseries Byte Stream \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Opcode &\bfseries Operand &\bfseries Byte Stream\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
\livelink{chap:DWLNSadvancepc}{DW\_LNS\_advance\_pc}&LEB128(0x239)&0x2, 0xb9, 0x04 \\
SPECIAL(2, 0)& &0xb \\
SPECIAL(2, 3)& &0x38 \\
SPECIAL(1, 8)& &0x82 \\
SPECIAL(1, 7)& &0x73 \\
\livelink{chap:DWLNSadvancepc}{DW\_LNS\_advance\_pc}&LEB128(2)&0x2, 0x2 \\
\livelink{chap:DWLNEendsequence}{DW\_LNE\_end\_sequence} &&0x0, 0x1, 0x1 \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
Table \refersec{tab:linenumberprogramexamplealternateencoding}
shows an alternate
encoding of the same program using
standard opcodes to advance
the program counter;
this encoding occupies 22 bytes.
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|l|l}
\caption{Line number program example: alternate encoding}
\label{tab:linenumberprogramexamplealternateencoding} \\
\hline \bfseries Opcode &\bfseries Operand &\bfseries Byte Stream \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Opcode &\bfseries Operand &\bfseries Byte Stream\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
\livelink{chap:DWLNSfixedadvancepc}{DW\_LNS\_fixed\_advance\_pc}&0x239&0x9, 0x39, 0x2 \\
SPECIAL(2, 0)&& 0xb \\
\livelink{chap:DWLNSfixedadvancepc}{DW\_LNS\_fixed\_advance\_pc}&0x3&0x9, 0x3, 0x0 \\
SPECIAL(2, 0)&&0xb \\
\livelink{chap:DWLNSfixedadvancepc}{DW\_LNS\_fixed\_advance\_pc}&0x8&0x9, 0x8, 0x0 \\
SPECIAL(1, 0)&& 0xa \\
\livelink{chap:DWLNSfixedadvancepc}{DW\_LNS\_fixed\_advance\_pc}&0x7&0x9, 0x7, 0x0 \\
SPECIAL(1, 0) && 0xa \\
\livelink{chap:DWLNSfixedadvancepc}{DW\_LNS\_fixed\_advance\_pc}&0x2&0x9, 0x2, 0x0 \\
\livelink{chap:DWLNEendsequence}{DW\_LNE\_end\_sequence}&&0x0, 0x1, 0x1 \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\section{Call Frame Information Example}
\label{app:callframeinformationexample}
The following example uses a hypothetical RISC machine in
the style of the Motorola 88000.
\begin{itemize}
\item Memory is byte addressed.
\item Instructions are all 4 bytes each and word aligned.
\item Instruction operands are typically of the form:
\begin{alltt}
<destination.reg>, <source.reg>, <constant>
\end{alltt}
\item The address for the load and store instructions is computed
by adding the contents of the
source register with the constant.
\item There are eight 4\dash byte registers:
\newline
\begin{tabular}{p{5mm}l}
& R0 always 0 \\
& R1 holds return address on call \\
& R2-R3 temp registers (not preserved on call) \\
& R4-R6 preserved on call \\
& R7 stack pointer \\
\end{tabular}
\item The stack grows in the negative direction.
\item The architectural ABI committee specifies that the
stack pointer (R7) is the same as the CFA
\end{itemize}
Figure \referfol{fig:callframeinformationexamplemachinecodefragments}
shows two code fragments from a subroutine called
foo that uses a frame pointer (in addition to the stack
pointer). The first column values are byte addresses.
% The \space is so we get a space after >
\textless fs\textgreater\ denotes the stack frame size in bytes, namely 12.
\begin{figure}[here]
\begin{lstlisting}
;; start prologue
foo sub R7, R7, <fs> ; Allocate frame
foo+4 store R1, R7, (<fs>-4) ; Save the return address
foo+8 store R6, R7, (<fs>-8) ; Save R6
foo+12 add R6, R7, 0 ; R6 is now the Frame ptr
foo+16 store R4, R6, (<fs>-12) ; Save a preserved reg
;; This subroutine does not change R5
...
;; Start epilogue (R7 is returned to entry value)
foo+64 load R4, R6, (<fs>-12) ; Restore R4
foo+68 load R6, R7, (<fs>-8) ; Restore R6
foo+72 load R1, R7, (<fs>-4) ; Restore return address
foo+76 add R7, R7, <fs> ; Deallocate frame
foo+80 jump R1 ; Return
foo+84
\end{lstlisting}
\caption{Call frame information example: machine code fragments}
\label{fig:callframeinformationexamplemachinecodefragments}
\end{figure}
An abstract table
(see Section \refersec{chap:structureofcallframeinformation})
for the foo subroutine is shown in
Table \referfol{tab:callframeinformationexampleconceptualmatrix}.
Corresponding fragments from the
\dotdebugframe{} section are shown in
Table \refersec{tab:callframeinformationexamplecommoninformationentryencoding}.
The following notations apply in
Table \refersec{tab:callframeinformationexampleconceptualmatrix}:
\newline
\begin{tabular}{p{5mm}l}
&1. R8 is the return address \\
&2. s = same\_value rule \\
&3. u = undefined rule \\
&4. rN = register(N) rule \\
&5. cN = offset(N) rule \\
&6. a = architectural rule \\
\end{tabular}
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|llllllllll}
\caption{Call frame information example: conceptual matrix}
\label{tab:callframeinformationexampleconceptualmatrix} \\
\hline \bfseries Location & \bfseries CFA & \bfseries R0 & \bfseries R1 & \bfseries R2 & \bfseries R3 & \bfseries R4 & \bfseries R5 & \bfseries R6 & \bfseries R7 & \bfseries R8 \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Location &\bfseries CFA &\bfseries R0 & \bfseries R1 & \bfseries R2 &\bfseries R3 &\bfseries R4 &\bfseries R5 &\bfseries R6 &\bfseries R7 &\bfseries R8\\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
foo&[R7]+0&s&u&u&u&s&s&s&a&r1 \\
foo+4&[R7]+fs&s&u&u&u&s&s&s&a&r1 \\
foo+8&[R7]+fs&s&u&u&u&s&s&s&a&c-4 \\
foo+12&[R7]+fs&s&u&u&u&s&s&c-8&a&c-4 \\
foo+16&[R6]+fs&s&u&u&u&s&s&c-8&a&c-4 \\
foo+20&[R6]+fs&s&u&u&u&c-12&s&c-8&a&c-4 \\
...&&&&&&&&&& \\
foo+64&[R6]+fs&s&u&u&u&c-12&s&c-8&a&c-4 \\
foo+68&[R6]+fs&s&u&u&u&s&s&c-8&a&c-4 \\
foo+72&[R7]+fs&s&u&u&u&s&s&s&a&c-4 \\
foo+76&[R7]+fs&s&u&u&u&s&s&s&a&r1 \\
foo+80&[R7]+0&s&u&u&u&s&s&s&a&r1 \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\clearpage % ?????
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|ll}
\caption{Call frame information example: common information entry encoding}
\label{tab:callframeinformationexamplecommoninformationentryencoding}
\\
\hline \bfseries Address &\bfseries Value &\bfseries Comment \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Address &\bfseries Value &\bfseries Comment \\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
cie&36&length \\
cie+4&\xffffffff&CIE\_id \\
cie+8&4&version \\
cie+9&0&augmentation \\
cie+10&4&address size \\
cie+11&0&segment size \\
cie+12&4&code\_alignment\_factor, \textless caf \textgreater \\
cie+13&-4&data\_alignment\_factor, \textless daf \textgreater \\
cie+14&8&R8 is the return addr. \\
cie+15&\livelink{chap:DWCFAdefcfa}{DW\_CFA\_def\_cfa} (7, 0)&CFA = [R7]+0 \\
cie+18&\livelink{chap:DWCFAsamevalue}{DW\_CFA\_same\_value} (0)&R0 not modified (=0) \\
cie+20&\livelink{chap:DWCFAundefined}{DW\_CFA\_undefined} (1)&R1 scratch \\
cie+22&\livelink{chap:DWCFAundefined}{DW\_CFA\_undefined} (2)&R2 scratch \\
cie+24&\livelink{chap:DWCFAundefined}{DW\_CFA\_undefined} (3)&R3 scratch \\
cie+26&\livelink{chap:DWCFAsamevalue}{DW\_CFA\_same\_value} (4)&R4 preserve \\
cie+28&\livelink{chap:DWCFAsamevalue}{DW\_CFA\_same\_value} (5)&R5 preserve \\
cie+30&\livelink{chap:DWCFAsamevalue}{DW\_CFA\_same\_value} (6)&R6 preserve \\
cie+32&\livelink{chap:DWCFAsamevalue}{DW\_CFA\_same\_value} (7)&R7 preserve \\
cie+34&\livelink{chap:DWCFAregister}{DW\_CFA\_register} (8, 1)&R8 is in R1 \\
cie+37&\livelink{chap:DWCFAnop}{DW\_CFA\_nop} &padding \\
cie+38&\livelink{chap:DWCFAnop}{DW\_CFA\_nop} &padding \\
cie+39& \livelink{chap:DWCFAnop}{DW\_CFA\_nop}&padding \\
cie+40 && \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
The following notations apply in
Table \refersec{tab:callframeinformationexampleframedescriptionentryencoding}:
\newline
\begin{tabular}{p{5mm}l}
&\texttt{<fs> =} frame size \\
&\texttt{<caf> =} code alignment factor \\
&\texttt{<daf> =} data alignment factor \\
\end{tabular}
\begin{centering}
\setlength{\extrarowheight}{0.1cm}
\begin{longtable}{l|ll}
\caption{Call frame information example: frame description entry encoding}
\label{tab:callframeinformationexampleframedescriptionentryencoding} \\
\hline \bfseries Address &\bfseries Value &\bfseries Comment \\ \hline
\endfirsthead
\bfseries Address &\bfseries Value &\bfseries Comment \\ \hline
\endhead
\hline \emph{Continued on next page}
\endfoot
\hline
\endlastfoot
fde&40&length \\
fde+4&cie&CIE\_ptr \\
fde+8&foo&initial\_location \\
fde+12&84&address\_range \\
fde+16&\livelink{chap:DWCFAadvanceloc}{DW\_CFA\_advance\_loc}(1)&instructions \\
fde+17&\livelink{chap:DWCFAdefcfaoffset}{DW\_CFA\_def\_cfa\_offset}(12)& \textless fs\textgreater \\
fde+19&\livelink{chap:DWCFAadvanceloc}{DW\_CFA\_advance\_loc}(1)&4/\textless caf\textgreater \\
fde+20&\livelink{chap:DWCFAoffset}{DW\_CFA\_offset}(8,1)&-4/\textless daf\textgreater (2nd parameter) \\
fde+22&\livelink{chap:DWCFAadvanceloc}{DW\_CFA\_advance\_loc}(1)& \\
fde+23&\livelink{chap:DWCFAoffset}{DW\_CFA\_offset}(6,2)&-8/\textless daf\textgreater (2nd parameter) \\
fde+25&\livelink{chap:DWCFAadvanceloc}{DW\_CFA\_advance\_loc}(1) & \\
fde+26&\livelink{chap:DWCFAdefcfaregister}{DW\_CFA\_def\_cfa\_register}(6) & \\
fde+28&\livelink{chap:DWCFAadvanceloc}{DW\_CFA\_advance\_loc}(1) & \\
fde+29&\livelink{chap:DWCFAoffset}{DW\_CFA\_offset}(4,3)&-12/\textless daf\textgreater (2nd parameter) \\
fde+31&\livelink{chap:DWCFAadvanceloc}{DW\_CFA\_advance\_loc}(12)&44/\textless caf\textgreater \\
fde+32&\livelink{chap:DWCFArestore}{DW\_CFA\_restore}(4)& \\
fde+33&\livelink{chap:DWCFAadvanceloc}{DW\_CFA\_advance\_loc}(1) & \\
fde+34&\livelink{chap:DWCFArestore}{DW\_CFA\_restore}(6) & \\
fde+35&\livelink{chap:DWCFAdefcfaregister}{DW\_CFA\_def\_cfa\_register}(7) & \\
fde+37&\livelink{chap:DWCFAadvanceloc}{DW\_CFA\_advance\_loc}(1) & \\
fde+38&\livelink{chap:DWCFArestore}{DW\_CFA\_restore}(8) &\\
fde+39&\livelink{chap:DWCFAadvanceloc}{DW\_CFA\_advance\_loc}(1) &\\
fde+40&\livelink{chap:DWCFAdefcfaoffset}{DW\_CFA\_def\_cfa\_offset}(0) &\\
fde+42&\livelink{chap:DWCFAnop}{DW\_CFA\_nop}&padding \\
fde+43&\livelink{chap:DWCFAnop}{DW\_CFA\_nop}&padding \\
fde+44 && \\
\end{longtable}
\end{centering}
\section{Inlining Examples}
\label{app:inliningexamples}
The pseudo\dash source in
Figure \referfol{fig:inliningexamplespseudosourcefragment}
is used to illustrate the
\addtoindexx{inlined subprogram call!examples}
use of DWARF to describe inlined subroutine calls. This
example involves a nested subprogram \texttt{INNER} that makes uplevel
references to the formal parameter and local variable of the
containing subprogram \texttt{OUTER}.
\begin{figure}[here]
\begin{lstlisting}
inline procedure OUTER (OUTER_FORMAL : integer) =
begin
OUTER_LOCAL : integer;
procedure INNER (INNER_FORMAL : integer) =
begin
INNER_LOCAL : integer;
print(INNER_FORMAL + OUTER_LOCAL);
end;
INNER(OUTER_LOCAL);
...
INNER(31);
end;
! Call OUTER
!
OUTER(7);
\end{lstlisting}
\caption{Inlining examples: pseudo-source fragmment}
\label{fig:inliningexamplespseudosourcefragment}
\end{figure}
There are several approaches that a compiler might take to
inlining for this sort of example. This presentation considers
three such approaches, all of which involve inline expansion
of subprogram \texttt{OUTER}. (If \texttt{OUTER} is not inlined, the inlining
reduces to a simpler single level subset of the two level
approaches considered here.)
The approaches are:
\begin{enumerate}[1. ]
\item Inline both \texttt{OUTER} and \texttt{INNER} in all cases
\item Inline \texttt{OUTER}, multiple \texttt{INNER}s \\
Treat \texttt{INNER} as a non\dash inlinable part of \texttt{OUTER}, compile and
call a distinct normal version of \texttt{INNER} defined within each
inlining of \texttt{OUTER}.
\item Inline \texttt{OUTER}, one \texttt{INNER} \\
Compile \texttt{INNER} as a single normal subprogram which is called
from every inlining of \texttt{OUTER}.
\end{enumerate}
This discussion does not consider why a compiler might choose
one of these approaches; it considers only how to describe
the result.
In the examples that follow in this section, the debugging
information entries are given mnemonic labels of the following
form
\begin{verbatim}
<io>.<ac>.<n>.<s>
\end{verbatim}
where
\begin{description}
\item[\textless io\textgreater]
is either \texttt{INNER} or \texttt{OUTER} to indicate to which
subprogram the debugging information entry applies,
\item[\textless ac\textgreater]
is either AI or CI to indicate \doublequote{abstract instance} or
\doublequote{concrete instance} respectively,
\item[\textless n\textgreater]
is the number of the
alternative being considered, and
\item[\textless s\textgreater]
is a sequence number that
distinguishes the individual entries.
\end{description}
There is no implication
that symbolic labels, nor any particular naming convention,
are required in actual use.
For conciseness, declaration coordinates and call coordinates are omitted.
\subsection{Alternative \#1: inline both OUTER and INNER}
\label{app:inlinebothouterandinner}
A suitable abstract instance for an alternative where both
\texttt{OUTER} and \texttt{INNER} are always inlined is shown in
Figure \refersec{fig:inliningexample1abstractinstance}.
Notice in
Figure \ref{fig:inliningexample1abstractinstance}
that the debugging information entry for
\texttt{INNER} (labelled \texttt{INNER.AI.1.1}) is nested in (is a child of)
that for \texttt{OUTER} (labelled \texttt{OUTER.AI.1.1}). Nonetheless, the
abstract instance tree for \texttt{INNER} is considered to be separate
and distinct from that for \texttt{OUTER}.
The call of \texttt{OUTER} shown in
Figure \refersec{fig:inliningexamplespseudosourcefragment}
might be described as
shown in
Figure \refersec{fig:inliningexample1concreteinstance}.
\begin{figure}[p]
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
! Abstract instance for OUTER
! \addtoindexx{abstract instance!example}
OUTER.AI.1.1:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGsubprogram}{DW\_TAG\_subprogram}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("OUTER")
\livelink{chap:DWATinline}{DW\_AT\_inline}(\livelink{chap:DWINLdeclaredinlined}{DW\_INL\_declared\_inlined})
! No low/high PCs
OUTER.AI.1.2:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGformalparameter}{DW\_TAG\_formal\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("OUTER\_FORMAL")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to integer)
! No location
OUTER.AI.1.3:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("OUTER\_LOCAL")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to integer)
! No location
!
! Abstract instance for INNER
!
INNER.AI.1.1:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGsubprogram}{DW\_TAG\_subprogram}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("INNER")
\livelink{chap:DWATinline}{DW\_AT\_inline}(\livelink{chap:DWINLdeclaredinlined}{DW\_INL\_declared\_inlined})
! No low/high PCs
INNER.AI.1.2:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGformalparameter}{DW\_TAG\_formal\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("INNER\_FORMAL")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to integer)
! No location
INNER.AI.1.3:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("INNER\_LOCAL")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to integer)
! No location
...
0
! No \livelink{chap:DWTAGinlinedsubroutine}{DW\_TAG\_inlined\_subroutine} (concrete instance)
! for INNER corresponding to calls of INNER
...
0
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\caption{Inlining example \#1: abstract instance}
\label{fig:inliningexample1abstractinstance}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[p]
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
! Concrete instance for call "OUTER(7)"
! \addtoindexx{concrete instance!example}
OUTER.CI.1.1:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGinlinedsubroutine}{DW\_TAG\_inlined\_subroutine}
! No name
\livelink{chap:DWATabstractorigin}{DW\_AT\_abstract\_origin}(reference to OUTER.AI.1.1)
\livelink{chap:DWATlowpc}{DW\_AT\_low\_pc}(...)
\livelink{chap:DWAThighpc}{DW\_AT\_high\_pc}(...)
OUTER.CI.1.2:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGformalparameter}{DW\_TAG\_formal\_parameter}
! No name
\livelink{chap:DWATabstractorigin}{DW\_AT\_abstract\_origin}(reference to OUTER.AI.1.2)
\livelink{chap:DWATconstvalue}{DW\_AT\_const\_value}(7)
OUTER.CI.1.3:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
! No name
\livelink{chap:DWATabstractorigin}{DW\_AT\_abstract\_origin}(reference to OUTER.AI.1.3)
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location}(...)
!
! No \livelink{chap:DWTAGsubprogram}{DW\_TAG\_subprogram} (abstract instance) for INNER
!
! Concrete instance for call INNER(OUTER\_LOCAL)
!
INNER.CI.1.1:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGinlinedsubroutine}{DW\_TAG\_inlined\_subroutine}
! No name
\livelink{chap:DWATabstractorigin}{DW\_AT\_abstract\_origin}(reference to INNER.AI.1.1)
\livelink{chap:DWATlowpc}{DW\_AT\_low\_pc}(...)
\livelink{chap:DWAThighpc}{DW\_AT\_high\_pc}(...)
\livelink{chap:DWATstaticlink}{DW\_AT\_static\_link}(...)
INNER.CI.1.2:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGformalparameter}{DW\_TAG\_formal\_parameter}
! No name
\livelink{chap:DWATabstractorigin}{DW\_AT\_abstract\_origin}(reference to INNER.AI.1.2)
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location}(...)
INNER.CI.1.3:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
! No name
\livelink{chap:DWATabstractorigin}{DW\_AT\_abstract\_origin}(reference to INNER.AI.1.3)
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location}(...)
...
0
! Another concrete instance of INNER within OUTER
! for the call "INNER(31)"
...
0
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\caption{Inlining example \#1: concrete instance}
\label{fig:inliningexample1concreteinstance}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Alternative \#2: Inline OUTER, multiple INNERs}
\label{app:inlineoutermultiipleinners}
In the second alternative we assume that subprogram \texttt{INNER}
is not inlinable for some reason, but subprogram \texttt{OUTER} is
inlinable.
\addtoindexx{concrete instance!example}
Each concrete inlined instance of \texttt{OUTER} has its
own normal instance of \texttt{INNER}.
The abstract instance for \texttt{OUTER},
\addtoindexx{abstract instance!example}
which includes \texttt{INNER}, is shown in
Figure \refersec{fig:inliningexample2abstractinstance}.
Note that the debugging information in
Figure \ref{fig:inliningexample2abstractinstance}
differs from that in
Figure \refersec{fig:inliningexample1abstractinstance}
in that \texttt{INNER} lacks a
\livelink{chap:DWATinline}{DW\_AT\_inline} attribute
and therefore is not a distinct abstract instance. \texttt{INNER}
is merely an out\dash of\dash line routine that is part of \texttt{OUTER}\textquoteright s
abstract instance. This is reflected in the Figure by
\addtoindexx{abstract instance!example}
the fact that the labels for \texttt{INNER} use the substring \texttt{OUTER}
instead of \texttt{INNER}.
A resulting
\addtoindexx{concrete instance!example}
concrete inlined instance of \texttt{OUTER} is shown in
Figure \refersec{fig:inliningexample2concreteinstance}.
Notice in
Figure \ref{fig:inliningexample2concreteinstance}
that \texttt{OUTER} is expanded as a concrete
\addtoindexx{concrete instance!example}
inlined instance, and that \texttt{INNER} is nested within it as a
concrete out\dash of\dash line subprogram. Because \texttt{INNER} is cloned
for each inline expansion of \texttt{OUTER}, only the invariant
attributes of \texttt{INNER}
(for example, \livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}) are specified
in the abstract instance of \texttt{OUTER}, and the low\dash level,
\addtoindexx{abstract instance!example}
instance\dash specific attributes of \texttt{INNER} (for example,
\livelink{chap:DWATlowpc}{DW\_AT\_low\_pc}) are specified in
each concrete instance of \texttt{OUTER}.
\addtoindexx{concrete instance!example}
The several calls of \texttt{INNER} within \texttt{OUTER} are compiled as normal
calls to the instance of \texttt{INNER} that is specific to the same
instance of \texttt{OUTER} that contains the calls.
\begin{figure}[t]
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
! Abstract instance for OUTER
! \addtoindex{abstract instance}
OUTER.AI.2.1:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGsubprogram}{DW\_TAG\_subprogram}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("OUTER")
\livelink{chap:DWATinline}{DW\_AT\_inline}(\livelink{chap:DWINLdeclaredinlined}{DW\_INL\_declared\_inlined})
! No low/high PCs
OUTER.AI.2.2:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGformalparameter}{DW\_TAG\_formal\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("OUTER\_FORMAL")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to integer)
! No location
OUTER.AI.2.3:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("OUTER\_LOCAL")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to integer)
! No location
!
! Nested out-of-line INNER subprogram
!
OUTER.AI.2.4:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGsubprogram}{DW\_TAG\_subprogram}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("INNER")
! No \livelink{chap:DWATinline}{DW\_AT\_inline}
! No low/high PCs, frame\_base, etc.
OUTER.AI.2.5:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGformalparameter}{DW\_TAG\_formal\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("INNER\_FORMAL")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to integer)
! No location
OUTER.AI.2.6:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("INNER\_LOCAL")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to integer)
! No location
...
0
...
0
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\caption{Inlining example \#2: abstract instance}
\label{fig:inliningexample2abstractinstance}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[t]
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
! Concrete instance for call "OUTER(7)"
!
OUTER.CI.2.1:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGinlinedsubroutine}{DW\_TAG\_inlined\_subroutine}
! No name
\livelink{chap:DWATabstractorigin}{DW\_AT\_abstract\_origin}(reference to OUTER.AI.2.1)
\livelink{chap:DWATlowpc}{DW\_AT\_low\_pc}(...)
\livelink{chap:DWAThighpc}{DW\_AT\_high\_pc}(...)
OUTER.CI.2.2:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGformalparameter}{DW\_TAG\_formal\_parameter}
! No name
\livelink{chap:DWATabstractorigin}{DW\_AT\_abstract\_origin}(reference to OUTER.AI.2.2)
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location}(...)
OUTER.CI.2.3:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
! No name
\livelink{chap:DWATabstractorigin}{DW\_AT\_abstract\_origin}(reference to OUTER.AI.2.3)
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location}(...)
!
! Nested out-of-line INNER subprogram
!
OUTER.CI.2.4:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGsubprogram}{DW\_TAG\_subprogram}
! No name
\livelink{chap:DWATabstractorigin}{DW\_AT\_abstract\_origin}(reference to OUTER.AI.2.4)
\livelink{chap:DWATlowpc}{DW\_AT\_low\_pc}(...)
\livelink{chap:DWAThighpc}{DW\_AT\_high\_pc}(...)
\livelink{chap:DWATframebase}{DW\_AT\_frame\_base}(...)
\livelink{chap:DWATstaticlink}{DW\_AT\_static\_link}(...)
OUTER.CI.2.5:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGformalparameter}{DW\_TAG\_formal\_parameter}
! No name
\livelink{chap:DWATabstractorigin}{DW\_AT\_abstract\_origin}(reference to OUTER.AI.2.5)
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location}(...)
OUTER.CI.2.6:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
! No name
\livelink{chap:DWATabstractorigin}{DW\_AT\_abstract\_origin}(reference to OUTER.AT.2.6)
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location}(...)
...
0
...
0
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\caption{Inlining example \#2: concrete instance}
\label{fig:inliningexample2concreteinstance}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Alternative \#3: inline OUTER, one normal INNER}
\label{app:inlineouteronenormalinner}
In the third approach, one normal subprogram for \texttt{INNER} is
compiled which is called from all concrete inlined instances of
\addtoindexx{concrete instance!example}
\addtoindexx{abstract instance!example}
\texttt{OUTER}. The abstract instance for \texttt{OUTER} is shown in
Figure \refersec{fig:inliningexample3abstractinstance}.
The most distinctive aspect of that Figure is that subprogram
\texttt{INNER} exists only within the abstract instance of \texttt{OUTER},
and not in \texttt{OUTER}\textquoteright s concrete instance. In the abstract
\addtoindexx{concrete instance!example}
\addtoindexx{abstract instance!example}
instance of \texttt{OUTER}, the description of \texttt{INNER} has the full
complement of attributes that would be expected for a
normal subprogram.
While attributes such as
\livelink{chap:DWATlowpc}{DW\_AT\_low\_pc},
\livelink{chap:DWAThighpc}{DW\_AT\_high\_pc},
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location},
and so on, typically are omitted
\addtoindexx{high PC attribute}
from
\addtoindexx{low PC attribute}
an
\addtoindexx{location attribute}
abstract instance because they are not invariant across
instances of the containing abstract instance, in this case
those same attributes are included precisely because they are
invariant -- there is only one subprogram \texttt{INNER} to be described
and every description is the same.
A concrete inlined instance of \texttt{OUTER} is illustrated in
Figure \refersec{fig:inliningexample3concreteinstance}.
Notice in
Figure \ref{fig:inliningexample3concreteinstance}
that there is no DWARF representation for
\texttt{INNER} at all; the representation of \texttt{INNER} does not vary across
instances of \texttt{OUTER} and the abstract instance of \texttt{OUTER} includes
the complete description of \texttt{INNER}, so that the description of
\texttt{INNER} may be (and for reasons of space efficiency, should be)
omitted from each
\addtoindexx{concrete instance!example}
concrete instance of \texttt{OUTER}.
There is one aspect of this approach that is problematical from
the DWARF perspective. The single compiled instance of \texttt{INNER}
is assumed to access up\dash level variables of \texttt{OUTER}; however,
those variables may well occur at varying positions within
the frames that contain the
\addtoindexx{concrete instance!example}
concrete inlined instances. A
compiler might implement this in several ways, including the
use of additional compiler-generated parameters that provide
reference parameters for the up\dash level variables, or a
compiler-generated static link like parameter that points to the group
of up\dash level entities, among other possibilities. In either of
these cases, the DWARF description for the location attribute
of each uplevel variable needs to be different if accessed
from within \texttt{INNER} compared to when accessed from within the
instances of \texttt{OUTER}. An implementation is likely to require
vendor\dash specific DWARF attributes and/or debugging information
entries to describe such cases.
Note that in C++, a member function of a class defined within
a function definition does not require any vendor\dash specific
extensions because the C++ language disallows access to
entities that would give rise to this problem. (Neither \texttt{extern}
variables nor \texttt{static} members require any form of static link
for accessing purposes.)
\begin{figure}[t]
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
! Abstract instance for OUTER
! \addtoindexx{abstract instance!example}
OUTER.AI.3.1:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGsubprogram}{DW\_TAG\_subprogram}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("OUTER")
\livelink{chap:DWATinline}{DW\_AT\_inline}(\livelink{chap:DWINLdeclaredinlined}{DW\_INL\_declared\_inlined})
! No low/high PCs
OUTER.AI.3.2:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGformalparameter}{DW\_TAG\_formal\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("OUTER\_FORMAL")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to integer)
! No location
OUTER.AI.3.3:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("OUTER\_LOCAL")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to integer)
! No location
!
! Normal INNER
!
OUTER.AI.3.4:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGsubprogram}{DW\_TAG\_subprogram}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("INNER")
\livelink{chap:DWATlowpc}{DW\_AT\_low\_pc}(...)
\livelink{chap:DWAThighpc}{DW\_AT\_high\_pc}(...)
\livelink{chap:DWATframebase}{DW\_AT\_frame\_base}(...)
\livelink{chap:DWATstaticlink}{DW\_AT\_static\_link}(...)
OUTER.AI.3.5:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGformalparameter}{DW\_TAG\_formal\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("INNER\_FORMAL")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to integer)
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location}(...)
OUTER.AI.3.6:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("INNER\_LOCAL")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to integer)
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location}(...)
...
0
...
0
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\caption{Inlining example \#3: abstract instance}
\label{fig:inliningexample3abstractinstance}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[t]
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
! Concrete instance for call "OUTER(7)"
! \addtoindexx{concrete instance!example}
OUTER.CI.3.1:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGinlinedsubroutine}{DW\_TAG\_inlined\_subroutine}
! No name
\livelink{chap:DWATabstractorigin}{DW\_AT\_abstract\_origin}(reference to OUTER.AI.3.1)
\livelink{chap:DWATlowpc}{DW\_AT\_low\_pc}(...)
\livelink{chap:DWAThighpc}{DW\_AT\_high\_pc}(...)
\livelink{chap:DWATframebase}{DW\_AT\_frame\_base}(...)
OUTER.CI.3.2:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGformalparameter}{DW\_TAG\_formal\_parameter}
! No name
\livelink{chap:DWATabstractorigin}{DW\_AT\_abstract\_origin}(reference to OUTER.AI.3.2)
! No type
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location}(...)
OUTER.CI.3.3:
\livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
! No name
\livelink{chap:DWATabstractorigin}{DW\_AT\_abstract\_origin}(reference to OUTER.AI.3.3)
! No type
\livelink{chap:DWATlocation}{DW\_AT\_location}(...)
! No \livelink{chap:DWTAGsubprogram}{DW\_TAG\_subprogram} for "INNER"
...
0
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\caption{Inlining example \#3: concrete instance}
\label{fig:inliningexample3concreteinstance}
\end{figure}
\clearpage
\section{Constant Expression Example}
\label{app:constantexpressionexample}
C++ generalizes the notion of constant expressions to include
constant expression user-defined literals and functions.
The constant declarations in Figure \refersec{fig:constantexpressionscsource}
can be represented as illustrated in
Figure \refersec{fig:constantexpressionsdwarfdescription}.
\begin{figure}[here]
\begin{lstlisting}[numbers=none]
constexpr double mass = 9.8;
constexpr int square (int x) { return x * x; }
float arr[square(9)]; // square() called and inlined
\end{lstlisting}
\caption{Constant expressions: C++ source} \label{fig:constantexpressionscsource}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[!h]
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
! For variable mass
!
1\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGconsttype}{DW\_TAG\_const\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to "double")
2\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("mass")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 1\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATconstexpr}{DW\_AT\_const\_expr}(true)
\livelink{chap:DWATconstvalue}{DW\_AT\_const\_value}(9.8)
! Abstract instance for square
!
10\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGsubprogram}{DW\_TAG\_subprogram}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("square")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to "int")
\livelink{chap:DWATinline}{DW\_AT\_inline}(\livelink{chap:DWINLinlined}{DW\_INL\_inlined})
11\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGformalparameter}{DW\_TAG\_formal\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("x")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to "int")
! Concrete instance for square(9)
! \addtoindexx{concrete instance!example}
20\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGinlinedsubroutine}{DW\_TAG\_inlined\_subroutine}
\livelink{chap:DWATabstractorigin}{DW\_AT\_abstract\_origin}(reference to 10\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATconstexpr}{DW\_AT\_const\_expr}(present)
\livelink{chap:DWATconstvalue}{DW\_AT\_const\_value}(81)
\livelink{chap:DWTAGformalparameter}{DW\_TAG\_formal\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATabstractorigin}{DW\_AT\_abstract\_origin}(reference to 11\$)
\livelink{chap:DWATconstvalue}{DW\_AT\_const\_value}(9)
! Anonymous array type for arr
!
30\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGarraytype}{DW\_TAG\_array\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to "float")
\livelink{chap:DWATbytesize}{DW\_AT\_byte\_size}(324) ! 81*4
\livelink{chap:DWTAGsubrangetype}{DW\_TAG\_subrange\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to "int")
\livelink{chap:DWATupperbound}{DW\_AT\_upper\_bound}(reference to 20\$)
! Variable arr
!
40\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("arr")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 30\$)
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\caption{Constant expressions: DWARF description}
\label{fig:constantexpressionsdwarfdescription}
\end{figure}
\section{Unicode Character Example}
\label{app:unicodecharacterexample}
\addtoindexx{Unicode|see {\textit{also} UTF-8}}
The \addtoindex{Unicode} character encodings in
Figure \refersec{fig:unicodecharacterexamplesource}
can be described in DWARF as illustrated in
Figure \refersec{fig:unicodecharacterexampledwarfdescription}.
\begin{figure}[!h]
\begin{lstlisting}[numbers=none]
// C++ source
//
char16_t chr_a = u'h';
char32_t chr_b = U'h';
\end{lstlisting}
\caption{Unicode character example: source}
\label{fig:unicodecharacterexamplesource}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[h]
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
! DWARF description
!
1\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGbasetype}{DW\_TAG\_base\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("char16\_t")
\livelink{chap:DWATencoding}{DW\_AT\_encoding}(\livelink{chap:DWATEUTF}{DW\_ATE\_UTF})
\livelink{chap:DWATbytesize}{DW\_AT\_byte\_size}(2)
2\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGbasetype}{DW\_TAG\_base\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("char32\_t")
\livelink{chap:DWATencoding}{DW\_AT\_encoding}(\livelink{chap:DWATEUTF}{DW\_ATE\_UTF})
\livelink{chap:DWATbytesize}{DW\_AT\_byte\_size}(4)
3\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("chr\_a")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 1\$)
4\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("chr\_b")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 2\$)
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\caption{Unicode character example: DWARF description}
\label{fig:unicodecharacterexampledwarfdescription}
\end{figure}
\section{Type-Safe Enumeration Example}
\label{app:typesafeenumerationexample}
The \addtoindex{C++} type\dash safe enumerations in
\addtoindexx{type-safe enumeration}
Figure \refersec{fig:ctypesafeenumerationexamplesource}
can be described in DWARF as illustrated in
Figure \refersec{fig:ctypesafeenumerationexampledwarf}.
\clearpage % Get following source and DWARF on same page
\begin{figure}[H]
\begin{lstlisting}[numbers=none]
// C++ source
//
enum class E { E1, E2=100 };
E e1;
\end{lstlisting}
\caption{Type-safe enumeration example: source}
\label{fig:ctypesafeenumerationexamplesource}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[H]
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
! DWARF description
!
11\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGenumerationtype}{DW\_TAG\_enumeration\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("E")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to "int")
\livelink{chap:DWATenumclass}{DW\_AT\_enum\_class}(present)
12\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGenumerator}{DW\_TAG\_enumerator}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("E1")
\livelink{chap:DWATconstvalue}{DW\_AT\_const\_value}(0)
13\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGenumerator}{DW\_TAG\_enumerator}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("E2")
\livelink{chap:DWATconstvalue}{DW\_AT\_const\_value}(100)
14\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("e1")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 11\$)
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\caption{Type-safe enumeration example: DWARF description}
\label{fig:ctypesafeenumerationexampledwarf}
\end{figure}
\clearpage
\section{Template Examples}
\label{app:templateexample}
The C++ template example in
Figure \refersec{fig:ctemplateexample1source}
can be described in DWARF as illustrated in
Figure \refersec{fig:ctemplateexample1dwarf}.
\begin{figure}[h]
\begin{lstlisting}
// C++ source
//
template<class T>
struct wrapper {
T comp;
};
wrapper<int> obj;
\end{lstlisting}
\caption{C++ template example \#1: source}
\label{fig:ctemplateexample1source}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[h]
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
! DWARF description
!
11\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGstructuretype}{DW\_TAG\_structure\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("wrapper")
12\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGtemplatetypeparameter}{DW\_TAG\_template\_type\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("T")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to "int")
13\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGmember}{DW\_TAG\_member}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("comp")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 12\$)
14\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("obj")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 11\$)
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\caption{C++ template example \#1: DWARF description}
\label{fig:ctemplateexample1dwarf}
\end{figure}
The actual type of the component \texttt{comp} is \texttt{int}, but in the DWARF
the type references the
\livelink{chap:DWTAGtemplatetypeparameter}{DW\_TAG\_template\_type\_parameter}
for \texttt{T}, which in turn references \texttt{int}. This implies that in the
original template comp was of type \texttt{T} and that was replaced
with \texttt{int} in the instance.
\needlines{10}
There exist situations where it is
not possible for the DWARF to imply anything about the nature
of the original template.
Consider the C++ template source in
Figure \refersec{fig:ctemplateexample2source}
and the DWARF that can describe it in
Figure \refersec{fig:ctemplateexample2dwarf}.
\begin{figure}[!h]
\begin{lstlisting}
// C++ source
//
template<class T>
struct wrapper {
T comp;
};
template<class U>
void consume(wrapper<U> formal)
{
...
}
wrapper<int> obj;
consume(obj);
\end{lstlisting}
\caption{C++ template example \#2: source}
\label{fig:ctemplateexample2source}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[h]
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
! DWARF description
!
11\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGstructuretype}{DW\_TAG\_structure\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("wrapper")
12\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGtemplatetypeparameter}{DW\_TAG\_template\_type\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("T")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to "int")
13\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGmember}{DW\_TAG\_member}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("comp")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 12\$)
14\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("obj")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 11\$)
21\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGsubprogram}{DW\_TAG\_subprogram}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("consume")
22\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGtemplatetypeparameter}{DW\_TAG\_template\_type\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("U")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to "int")
23\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGformalparameter}{DW\_TAG\_formal\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("formal")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 11\$)
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\caption{C++ template example \#2: DWARF description}
\label{fig:ctemplateexample2dwarf}
\end{figure}
In the \livelink{chap:DWTAGsubprogram}{DW\_TAG\_subprogram}
entry for the instance of consume, \texttt{U} is described as \texttt{int}.
The type of formal is \texttt{wrapper\textless U\textgreater} in
the source. DWARF only represents instantiations of templates;
there is no entry which represents \texttt{wrapper\textless U\textgreater}
which is neither
a template parameter nor a template instantiation. The type
of formal is described as \texttt{wrapper\textless int\textgreater},
the instantiation of \texttt{wrapper\textless U\textgreater},
in the \livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type} attribute at
23\$.
There is no
description of the relationship between template type parameter
\texttt{T} at 12\$ and \texttt{U} at 22\$ which was used to instantiate
\texttt{wrapper\textless U\textgreater}.
A consequence of this is that the DWARF information would
not distinguish between the existing example and one where
the formal parameter of \texttt{consume} were declared in the source to be
\texttt{wrapper\textless int\textgreater}.
\section{Template Alias Examples}
\label{app:templatealiasexample}
The \addtoindex{C++} template alias shown in
Figure \refersec{fig:ctemplatealiasexample1source}
can be described in DWARF as illustrated
\addtoindexx{template alias example} in
Figure \refersec{fig:ctemplatealiasexample1dwarf}.
\begin{figure}[h]
\begin{lstlisting}
// C++ source, template alias example 1
//
template<typename T, typename U>
struct Alpha {
T tango;
U uniform;
};
template<typename V> using Beta = Alpha<V,V>;
Beta<long> b;
\end{lstlisting}
\caption{C++ template alias example \#1: source}
\label{fig:ctemplatealiasexample1source}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[h]
\addtoindexx{template alias example 1}
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
! DWARF representation for variable 'b'
!
20\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGstructuretype}{DW\_TAG\_structure\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("Alpha")
21\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGtemplatetypeparameter}{DW\_TAG\_template\_type\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("T")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to "long")
22\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGtemplatetypeparameter}{DW\_TAG\_template\_type\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("U")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to "long")
23\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGmember}{DW\_TAG\_member}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("tango")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 21\$)
24\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGmember}{DW\_TAG\_member}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("uniform")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 22\$)
25\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGtemplatealias}{DW\_TAG\_template\_alias}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("Beta")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 20\$)
26\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGtemplatetypeparameter}{DW\_TAG\_template\_type\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("V")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to "long")
27\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("b")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 25\$)
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\caption{C++ template alias example \#1: DWARF description}
\label{fig:ctemplatealiasexample1dwarf}
\end{figure}
Similarly, the \addtoindex{C++} template alias shown in
Figure \refersec{fig:ctemplatealiasexample2source}
can be described in DWARF as illustrated
\addtoindexx{template alias example} in
Figure \refersec{fig:ctemplatealiasexample2dwarf}.
\begin{figure}[h]
\begin{lstlisting}
// C++ source, template alias example 2
//
template<class TX> struct X { };
template<class TY> struct Y { };
template<class T> using Z = Y<T>;
X<Y<int>> y;
X<Z<int>> z;
\end{lstlisting}
\caption{C++ template alias example \#2: source}
\label{fig:ctemplatealiasexample2source}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[h]
\addtoindexx{template alias example 2}
\begin{dwflisting}
\begin{alltt}
! DWARF representation for X<Y<int>>
!
30\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGstructuretype}{DW\_TAG\_structure\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("Y")
31\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGtemplatetypeparameter}{DW\_TAG\_template\_type\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("TY")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to "int")
32\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGstructuretype}{DW\_TAG\_structure\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("X")
33\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGtemplatetypeparameter}{DW\_TAG\_template\_type\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("TX")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 30\$)
!
! DWARF representation for X<Z<int>>
!
40\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGtemplatealias}{DW\_TAG\_template\_alias}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("Z")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 30\$)
41\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGtemplatetypeparameter}{DW\_TAG\_template\_type\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("T")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to "int")
42\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGstructuretype}{DW\_TAG\_structure\_type}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("X")
43\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGtemplatetypeparameter}{DW\_TAG\_template\_type\_parameter}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("TX")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to 40\$)
!
! Note that 32\$ and 42\$ are actually the same type
!
50\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("y")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to \$32)
51\$: \livelink{chap:DWTAGvariable}{DW\_TAG\_variable}
\livelink{chap:DWATname}{DW\_AT\_name}("z")
\livelink{chap:DWATtype}{DW\_AT\_type}(reference to \$42)
\end{alltt}
\end{dwflisting}
\caption{C++ template alias example \#2: DWARF description}
\label{fig:ctemplatealiasexample2dwarf}
\end{figure}
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| 12,777,789 | 6,317 |
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%% This file is a copy of some part of PGF/Tikz.
%%% It has been copied here to provide :
%%% - compatibility with older PGF versions
%%% - availability of PGF contributions by Christian Feuersaenger
%%% which are necessary or helpful for pgfplots.
%%%
%%% For reasons of simplicity, I have copied the whole file, including own contributions AND
%%% PGF parts. The copyrights are as they appear in PGF.
%%%
%%% Note that pgfplots has compatible licenses.
%%%
%%% This copy has been modified in the following ways:
%%% - nested \input commands have been updated
%%%
%
% Support for the contents of this file will NOT be done by the PGF/TikZ team.
% Please contact the author and/or maintainer of pgfplots (Christian Feuersaenger) if you need assistance in conjunction
% with the deployment of this patch or partial content of PGF. Note that the author and/or maintainer of pgfplots has no obligation to fix anything:
% This file comes without any warranty as the rest of pgfplots; there is no obligation for help.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%% Date of this copy: Di 25. Dez 18:14:20 CET 2012 %%%
% Copyright 2006 by Till Tantau
%
% This file may be distributed and/or modified
%
% 1. under the LaTeX Project Public License and/or
% 2. under the GNU Public License.
%
% See the file doc/generic/pgf/licenses/LICENSE for more details.
\ProvidesFileRCS[v\pgfversion] $Header: /cvsroot/pgf/pgf/generic/pgf/libraries/pgflibraryplothandlers.code.tex,v 1.17 2012/09/11 20:03:46 ludewich Exp $
\newif\ifpgf@plot@started
% This handler converts each plot stream command into a curveto
% command, except for the first, which is converted to the previously
% specified action.
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfpathmoveto{\pgfpointorigin}
% \pgfsetlinetofirstplotpoint
% \pgfplothandlercurveto
% \pgfplotxyfile{mytable}
\def\pgfplothandlercurveto{%
\def\pgf@plotstreamstart{%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@curveto@handler@initial%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamspecial=\pgfutil@gobble%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamend=\pgf@plot@curveto@handler@finish%
\global\pgf@plot@startedfalse%
}%
}
\def\pgf@plot@curveto@handler@initial#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\pgf@xa=\pgf@x%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@y%
\pgf@plot@first@action{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xa}{\pgf@ya}}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@curveto@first{\noexpand\pgfqpoint{\the\pgf@xa}{\the\pgf@ya}}%
\global\let\pgf@plot@curveto@first@support=\pgf@plot@curveto@first%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@curveto@handler@second%
}
\def\pgf@plot@curveto@handler@second#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@curveto@second{\noexpand\pgfqpoint{\the\pgf@x}{\the\pgf@y}}%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@curveto@handler@third%
\global\pgf@plot@startedtrue%
}
\def\pgf@plot@curveto@handler@third#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@curveto@current{\noexpand\pgfqpoint{\the\pgf@x}{\the\pgf@y}}%
% compute difference vector:
\pgf@xa=\pgf@x%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@y%
\pgf@process{\pgf@plot@curveto@first}
\advance\pgf@xa by-\pgf@x%
\advance\pgf@ya by-\pgf@y%
% compute support directions:
\pgf@xa=\pgf@plottension\pgf@xa%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@plottension\pgf@ya%
% first marshal:
\pgf@process{\pgf@plot@curveto@second}%
\pgf@xb=\pgf@x%
\pgf@yb=\pgf@y%
\pgf@xc=\pgf@x%
\pgf@yc=\pgf@y%
\advance\pgf@xb by-\pgf@xa%
\advance\pgf@yb by-\pgf@ya%
\advance\pgf@xc by\pgf@xa%
\advance\pgf@yc by\pgf@ya%
\edef\pgf@marshal{\noexpand\pgfpathcurveto{\noexpand\pgf@plot@curveto@first@support}%
{\noexpand\pgfqpoint{\the\pgf@xb}{\the\pgf@yb}}{\noexpand\pgf@plot@curveto@second}}%
{\pgf@marshal}%
% Prepare next:
\global\let\pgf@plot@curveto@first=\pgf@plot@curveto@second%
\global\let\pgf@plot@curveto@second=\pgf@plot@curveto@current%
\xdef\pgf@plot@curveto@first@support{\noexpand\pgfqpoint{\the\pgf@xc}{\the\pgf@yc}}%
}
\def\pgf@plot@curveto@handler@finish{%
\ifpgf@plot@started%
\pgfpathcurveto{\pgf@plot@curveto@first@support}{\pgf@plot@curveto@second}{\pgf@plot@curveto@second}%
\fi%
}
% This commands sets the tension for smoothing of plots.
%
% #1 = tension of curves. A value of 1 will yield a circle when the
% control points are at quarters of a circle. A smaller value
% will result in a tighter curve. Default is 0.5.
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfsetplottension{0.2}
\def\pgfsetplottension#1{%
\pgf@x=#1pt\relax%
\pgf@x=0.2775\pgf@x\relax%
\edef\pgf@plottension{\pgf@sys@tonumber\pgf@x}}
\pgfsetplottension{0.5}
% This handler converts the plot stream command into a curveto
% command that is closed using a closepath.
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfpathmoveto{\pgfpointorigin}
% \pgfplothandlerclosedcurve
% \pgfplotxyfile{mytable}
\def\pgfplothandlerclosedcurve{%
\def\pgf@plotstreamstart{%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@closedcurve@handler@initial%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamspecial=\pgfutil@gobble%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamend=\pgf@plot@closedcurve@handler@finish%
}%
}
\def\pgf@plot@closedcurve@handler@initial#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\pgf@xa=\pgf@x%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@y%
\xdef\pgf@plot@closedcurve@initial{\noexpand\pgfqpoint{\the\pgf@xa}{\the\pgf@ya}}%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@closedcurve@handler@second%
\global\pgf@plot@startedfalse%
}
\def\pgf@plot@closedcurve@handler@second#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@closedcurve@after@initial{\noexpand\pgfqpoint{\the\pgf@x}{\the\pgf@y}}%
{\pgfpathmoveto{}}%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@closedcurve@handler@third%
}
\def\pgf@plot@closedcurve@handler@third#1{%
\global\pgf@plot@startedtrue%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@closedcurve@current{\noexpand\pgfqpoint{\the\pgf@x}{\the\pgf@y}}%
% compute difference vector:
\pgf@xa=\pgf@x%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@y%
\pgf@process{\pgf@plot@closedcurve@initial}
\advance\pgf@xa by-\pgf@x%
\advance\pgf@ya by-\pgf@y%
% compute support directions:
\pgf@xa=\pgf@plottension\pgf@xa%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@plottension\pgf@ya%
% first marshal:
\pgf@process{\pgf@plot@closedcurve@after@initial}%
\pgf@xb=\pgf@x%
\pgf@yb=\pgf@y%
\pgf@xc=\pgf@x%
\pgf@yc=\pgf@y%
\advance\pgf@xb by-\pgf@xa%
\advance\pgf@yb by-\pgf@ya%
\advance\pgf@xc by\pgf@xa%
\advance\pgf@yc by\pgf@ya%
\global\let\pgf@plot@closedcurve@first=\pgf@plot@closedcurve@after@initial%
\global\let\pgf@plot@closedcurve@second=\pgf@plot@closedcurve@current%
\xdef\pgf@plot@closedcurve@after@initial@presupport{\noexpand\pgfqpoint{\the\pgf@xb}{\the\pgf@yb}}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@closedcurve@first@support{\noexpand\pgfqpoint{\the\pgf@xc}{\the\pgf@yc}}%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@closedcurve@handler@fourth%
}
\def\pgf@plot@closedcurve@handler@fourth#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@closedcurve@current{\noexpand\pgfqpoint{\the\pgf@x}{\the\pgf@y}}%
% compute difference vector:
\pgf@xa=\pgf@x%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@y%
\pgf@process{\pgf@plot@closedcurve@first}
\advance\pgf@xa by-\pgf@x%
\advance\pgf@ya by-\pgf@y%
% compute support directions:
\pgf@xa=\pgf@plottension\pgf@xa%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@plottension\pgf@ya%
% first marshal:
\pgf@process{\pgf@plot@closedcurve@second}%
\pgf@xb=\pgf@x%
\pgf@yb=\pgf@y%
\pgf@xc=\pgf@x%
\pgf@yc=\pgf@y%
\advance\pgf@xb by-\pgf@xa%
\advance\pgf@yb by-\pgf@ya%
\advance\pgf@xc by\pgf@xa%
\advance\pgf@yc by\pgf@ya%
\edef\pgf@marshal{\noexpand\pgfpathcurveto{\noexpand\pgf@plot@closedcurve@first@support}%
{\noexpand\pgfqpoint{\the\pgf@xb}{\the\pgf@yb}}{\noexpand\pgf@plot@closedcurve@second}}%
{\pgf@marshal}%
% Prepare next:
\global\let\pgf@plot@closedcurve@first=\pgf@plot@closedcurve@second%
\global\let\pgf@plot@closedcurve@second=\pgf@plot@closedcurve@current%
\xdef\pgf@plot@closedcurve@first@support{\noexpand\pgfqpoint{\the\pgf@xc}{\the\pgf@yc}}%
}
\def\pgf@plot@closedcurve@handler@finish{%
\ifpgf@plot@started
%
% first, draw line from 2nd last to last:
%
\pgf@process{\pgf@plot@closedcurve@initial}%
% compute difference vector:
\pgf@xa=\pgf@x%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@y%
\pgf@process{\pgf@plot@closedcurve@first}%
\advance\pgf@xa by-\pgf@x%
\advance\pgf@ya by-\pgf@y%
% compute support directions:
\pgf@xa=\pgf@plottension\pgf@xa%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@plottension\pgf@ya%
% first marshal:
\pgf@process{\pgf@plot@closedcurve@second}%
\pgf@xb=\pgf@x%
\pgf@yb=\pgf@y%
\pgf@xc=\pgf@x%
\pgf@yc=\pgf@y%
\advance\pgf@xb by-\pgf@xa%
\advance\pgf@yb by-\pgf@ya%
\advance\pgf@xc by\pgf@xa%
\advance\pgf@yc by\pgf@ya%
\edef\pgf@marshal{\noexpand\pgfpathcurveto{\noexpand\pgf@plot@closedcurve@first@support}%
{\noexpand\pgfqpoint{\the\pgf@xb}{\the\pgf@yb}}{\noexpand\pgf@plot@closedcurve@second}}%
{\pgf@marshal}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@closedcurve@first@support{\noexpand\pgfqpoint{\the\pgf@xc}{\the\pgf@yc}}%
%
% second, draw line from last point to start:
%
\pgf@process{\pgf@plot@closedcurve@after@initial}%
% compute difference vector:
\pgf@xa=\pgf@x%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@y%
\pgf@process{\pgf@plot@closedcurve@second}%
\advance\pgf@xa by-\pgf@x%
\advance\pgf@ya by-\pgf@y%
% compute support directions:
\pgf@xa=\pgf@plottension\pgf@xa%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@plottension\pgf@ya%
% first marshal:
\pgf@process{\pgf@plot@closedcurve@initial}%
\pgf@xb=\pgf@x%
\pgf@yb=\pgf@y%
\pgf@xc=\pgf@x%
\pgf@yc=\pgf@y%
\advance\pgf@xb by-\pgf@xa%
\advance\pgf@yb by-\pgf@ya%
\advance\pgf@xc by\pgf@xa%
\advance\pgf@yc by\pgf@ya%
\edef\pgf@marshal{\noexpand\pgfpathcurveto{\noexpand\pgf@plot@closedcurve@first@support}%
{\noexpand\pgfqpoint{\the\pgf@xb}{\the\pgf@yb}}{\noexpand\pgf@plot@closedcurve@initial}}%
{\pgf@marshal}%
%
% third, draw line from first to second point:
%
\edef\pgf@marshal{\noexpand\pgfpathcurveto{\noexpand\pgfqpoint{\the\pgf@xc}{\the\pgf@yc}}%
{\noexpand\pgf@plot@closedcurve@after@initial@presupport}{\noexpand\pgf@plot@closedcurve@after@initial}}%
{\pgf@marshal}%
\pgfpathclose%
\fi%
}
% This handler converts each point in a stream into a line from the
% $y$-axis to the given points coordinate, resulting in a
% ``comb.''
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfplothandlerxcomb
% \pgfplotxyfile{mytable}
\def\pgfplothandlerxcomb{%
\def\pgf@plotstreamstart{%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@xcomb@handler%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamspecial=\pgfutil@gobble%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamend=\pgfplotxzerolevelstreamend%
\pgfplotxzerolevelstreamstart
}%
}
\def\pgf@plot@xcomb@handler#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\pgf@xa=\pgf@x%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@y%
\begingroup
\pgfplotxzerolevelstreamnext
\endgroup
\pgf@yb=\pgf@x
\pgfpathmoveto{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@yb}{\pgf@ya}}%
\pgfpathlineto{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xa}{\pgf@ya}}%
}
% This handler converts each point in a stream into a line from the
% $x$-axis straight up to the given points coordinate, resulting in a
% ``comb.''
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfplothandlerycomb
% \pgfplotxyfile{mytable}
\def\pgfplothandlerycomb{%
\def\pgf@plotstreamstart{%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@ycomb@handler%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamspecial=\pgfutil@gobble%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamend=\pgfplotyzerolevelstreamend%
\pgfplotyzerolevelstreamstart
}%
}
\def\pgf@plot@ycomb@handler#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\pgf@xa=\pgf@x%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@y%
\begingroup
\pgfplotyzerolevelstreamnext
\endgroup
\pgf@yb=\pgf@x
\pgfpathmoveto{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xa}{\pgf@yb}}%
\pgfpathlineto{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xa}{\pgf@ya}}%
}
% PGF Bar or comb plots usually draw something from zero to the current plot's coordinate.
%
% The 'zero' offset can be changed using an input stream.
%
% There are two such streams which can be configured independently.
% The first one returns "zeros" for coordinate x, the second one
% returns "zeros" for coordinate y.
%
% \pgfplotxzerolevelstreamstart
% \pgfplotxzerolevelstreamnext % assigns \pgf@x globally
% \pgfplotxzerolevelstreamnext
% \pgfplotxzerolevelstreamnext
% \pgfplotxzerolevelstreamend
%
% and
% \pgfplotyzerolevelstreamstart
% \pgfplotyzerolevelstreamnext % assigns \pgf@x globally
% \pgfplotyzerolevelstreamend
%
\def\pgfplotxzerolevelstreamstart{\pgf@plotxzerolevelstreamstart}%
\def\pgfplotxzerolevelstreamend{\pgf@plotxzerolevelstreamend}%
\def\pgfplotxzerolevelstreamnext{\pgf@plotxzerolevelstreamnext}
\def\pgfplotyzerolevelstreamstart{\pgf@plotyzerolevelstreamstart}%
\def\pgfplotyzerolevelstreamend{\pgf@plotyzerolevelstreamend}%
\def\pgfplotyzerolevelstreamnext{\pgf@plotyzerolevelstreamnext}
% This zero level stream always returns '#1' (a dimension).
\def\pgfplotxzerolevelstreamconstant#1{%
\edef\pgfplotxzerolevelstreamconstant@val{#1}%
\def\pgf@plotxzerolevelstreamstart{%
\global\let\pgf@plotxzerolevelstreamend=\relax
\gdef\pgf@plotxzerolevelstreamnext{\global\pgf@x=\pgfplotxzerolevelstreamconstant@val\relax}%
}%
}%
\pgfplotxzerolevelstreamconstant{0pt}%
% This zero level stream always returns '#1'.
\def\pgfplotyzerolevelstreamconstant#1{%
\edef\pgfplotyzerolevelstreamconstant@val{#1}%
\def\pgf@plotyzerolevelstreamstart{%
\global\let\pgf@plotyzerolevelstreamend=\relax
\gdef\pgf@plotyzerolevelstreamnext{\global\pgf@x=\pgfplotyzerolevelstreamconstant@val\relax}%
}%
}%
\pgfplotyzerolevelstreamconstant{0pt}%
\def\pgfplotbarwidth{\pgfkeysvalueof{/pgf/bar width}}
\def\pgfplotbarshift{\pgfkeysvalueof{/pgf/bar shift}}
\pgfqkeys{/pgf}{%
bar width/.initial=10pt,
bar shift/.initial=0pt,
bar interval width/.initial=1,
bar interval shift/.initial=0.5,
%
% hook which is executed right before a new bar is begun.
at begin bar/.initial=,
% hook which is executed right after a bar path has been finished.
% In this context, the bar's path has not been used.
at end bar/.initial=,
}
% This handler places a rectangle at each point in the plot stream, a
% rectangle which touches the x-axis at one end and the current point
% at the other end:
% --(X)--
% | |
% | |
% | |
% --(0)--
% Example:
%
% \pgfplothandlerybar
% \pgfplotxyfile{mytable}
\def\pgfplothandlerybar{%
\def\pgf@plotstreamstart{%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@ybar@handler%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamspecial=\pgfutil@gobble%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamend=\pgfplotyzerolevelstreamend%
\pgfmathparse{\pgfplotbarwidth}%
\xdef\pgfplotbarwidth@{\pgfmathresult pt}%
\pgfmathparse{\pgfplotbarshift}%
\xdef\pgfplotbarshift@{\pgfmathresult pt}%
\pgfplotyzerolevelstreamstart
}%
}
\def\pgf@plot@ybar@handler#1{%
\pgfkeysvalueof{/pgf/at begin bar}%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@y
\expandafter\pgf@xb\pgfplotbarwidth@\relax
\pgf@xc=\pgf@x
\advance\pgf@xc by-.5\pgf@xb
\advance\pgf@xc by\pgfplotbarshift@\relax
\begingroup
\pgfplotyzerolevelstreamnext
\endgroup
\pgf@yb=\pgf@x
\advance\pgf@ya by-\pgf@yb
\pgfpathrectangle
{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xc}{\pgf@yb}}%
{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xb}{\pgf@ya}}%
\pgfkeysvalueof{/pgf/at end bar}%
}
% This handler places a rectangle at each point in the plot stream, a
% rectangle which touches the y-axis at one end and the current point
% at the other end:
% ---------
% | |
% (0) (X)
% | |
% ---------
% Example:
%
% \pgfplothandlerxbar
% \pgfplotxyfile{mytable}
\def\pgfplothandlerxbar{%
\def\pgf@plotstreamstart{%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@xbar@handler%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamspecial=\pgfutil@gobble%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamend=\pgfplotxzerolevelstreamend%
\pgfmathparse{\pgfplotbarwidth}%
\xdef\pgfplotbarwidth@{\pgfmathresult pt}%
\pgfmathparse{\pgfplotbarshift}%
\xdef\pgfplotbarshift@{\pgfmathresult pt}%
\pgfplotxzerolevelstreamstart
}%
}
\def\pgf@plot@xbar@handler#1{%
\pgfkeysvalueof{/pgf/at begin bar}%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@x
\expandafter\pgf@xb\pgfplotbarwidth@\relax
\pgf@xc=\pgf@y
\advance\pgf@xc by-.5\pgf@xb
\advance\pgf@xc by\pgfplotbarshift@\relax
\begingroup
\pgfplotxzerolevelstreamnext
\endgroup
\pgf@yb=\pgf@x
\advance\pgf@ya by-\pgf@yb
\pgfpathrectangle
{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@yb}{\pgf@xc}}%
{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@ya}{\pgf@xb}}%
\pgfkeysvalueof{/pgf/at end bar}%
}
% This handler is a variant of \pgfplothandlerybar which works with
% intervals instead of points.
%
% Bars are drawn between successive input coordinates and the width is
% determined relatively to the interval length.
%
% It looks like this:
%
% |---| |-----|
% | | | |
% | | | |
% | | | |
% (X)------(X)-----------(X)
%
% where (X) denotes the x-axis offsets of input coordinates.
%
% In more detail, if (x_i,y_i) and (x_{i+1},y_{i+1}) denote successive
% input coordinates, the bar will be placed above the
% interval [x_i,x_{i+1}], centered at
%
% x_i + \pgfkeysvalueof{/pgf/bar interval shift} * (x_{i+1} - x_i)
%
% with width
%
% \pgfkeysvalueof{/pgf/bar interval width} * (x_{i+1} - x_i).
%
% If you have N+1 input points, you will get N bars (one for each
% interval). The y_i value of the last bar will be ignored.
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfplothandlerybarinterval
% \pgfplotxyfile{mytable}
\def\pgfplothandlerybarinterval{%
\def\pgf@plotstreamstart{%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@ybarinterval@handler@first%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamspecial=\pgfutil@gobble%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamend=\pgfplotyzerolevelstreamend%
\pgfmathparse{\pgfkeysvalueof{/pgf/bar interval width}}%
\xdef\pgfplotbarintervalwidth@{\pgfmathresult}%
\pgfmathparse{\pgfkeysvalueof{/pgf/bar interval shift}}%
\xdef\pgfplotbarintervalshift@{\pgfmathresult}%
\pgfplotyzerolevelstreamstart
}%
}
\def\pgf@plot@ybarinterval@handler@first#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@barinterval@intervalstart{\the\pgf@x}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@barinterval@bar{\the\pgf@y}%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@ybarinterval@handler%
}
\def\pgf@plot@ybarinterval@handler#1{%
\pgfkeysvalueof{/pgf/at begin bar}%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@plot@barinterval@bar
\xdef\pgf@plot@barinterval@bar{\the\pgf@y}%
\pgf@xc=\pgf@plot@barinterval@intervalstart\relax
\xdef\pgf@plot@barinterval@intervalstart{\the\pgf@x}%
\pgf@xb=\pgf@x
\advance\pgf@xb by-\pgf@xc
\advance\pgf@xc by\pgfplotbarintervalshift@\pgf@xb
\pgf@xb=\pgfplotbarintervalwidth@\pgf@xb
\advance\pgf@xc by-.5\pgf@xb% center
\begingroup
\pgfplotyzerolevelstreamnext
\endgroup
\pgf@yb=\pgf@x
\advance\pgf@ya by-\pgf@yb
\pgfpathrectangle
{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xc}{\pgf@yb}}%
{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xb}{\pgf@ya}}%
\pgfkeysvalueof{/pgf/at end bar}%
}
% Like \pgfplothandlerybarinterval but for xbar.
\def\pgfplothandlerxbarinterval{%
\def\pgf@plotstreamstart{%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@xbarinterval@handler@first%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamspecial=\pgfutil@gobble%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamend=\pgfplotxzerolevelstreamend%
\pgfmathparse{\pgfkeysvalueof{/pgf/bar interval width}}%
\xdef\pgfplotbarintervalwidth@{\pgfmathresult}%
\pgfmathparse{\pgfkeysvalueof{/pgf/bar interval shift}}%
\xdef\pgfplotbarintervalshift@{\pgfmathresult}%
\pgfplotxzerolevelstreamstart
}%
}
\def\pgf@plot@xbarinterval@handler@first#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@barinterval@intervalstart{\the\pgf@y}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@barinterval@bar{\the\pgf@x}%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@xbarinterval@handler%
}
\def\pgf@plot@xbarinterval@handler#1{%
\pgfkeysvalueof{/pgf/at begin bar}%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@plot@barinterval@bar
\xdef\pgf@plot@barinterval@bar{\the\pgf@x}%
\pgf@xc=\pgf@plot@barinterval@intervalstart\relax
\xdef\pgf@plot@barinterval@intervalstart{\the\pgf@y}%
\pgf@xb=\pgf@y
\advance\pgf@xb by-\pgf@xc
\advance\pgf@xc by\pgfplotbarintervalshift@\pgf@xb
\pgf@xb=\pgfplotbarintervalwidth@\pgf@xb
\advance\pgf@xc by-.5\pgf@xb% center
\begingroup
\pgfplotxzerolevelstreamnext
\endgroup
\pgf@yb=\pgf@x
\advance\pgf@ya by-\pgf@yb
\pgfpathrectangle
{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@yb}{\pgf@xc}}%
{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@ya}{\pgf@xb}}%
\pgfkeysvalueof{/pgf/at end bar}%
}
% This handler is very similar to \pgfplothandlerlineto, but it
% produces CONSTANT connected pieces of the form
%
% x
% |
% x--- |
% | x----
% x-|
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfplothandlerconstantlineto
% \pgfplotxyfile{mytable}
\def\pgfplothandlerconstantlineto{%
\def\pgf@plotstreamstart{%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@const@line@handler%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamspecial=\pgfutil@gobble%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamend=\relax%
}%
}
\def\pgf@plot@const@line@handler#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@const@line@handler@last{\the\pgf@y}%
\pgf@plot@first@action{}%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@const@line@handler@@%
}
\def\pgf@plot@const@line@handler@@#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\pgf@xa=\pgf@x
\pgf@ya=\pgf@y
\pgf@yb\pgf@plot@const@line@handler@last\relax
\pgfpathlineto{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xa}{\pgf@yb}}%
\pgfpathlineto{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xa}{\pgf@ya}}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@const@line@handler@last{\the\pgf@ya}%
}
% A variant of \pgfplothandlerconstantlineto which places its mark on
% the right line ends.
%
% |---x
% ---x |
% |--x
% x
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfplothandlerconstantlinetomarkright
% \pgfplotxyfile{mytable}
\def\pgfplothandlerconstantlinetomarkright{%
\def\pgf@plotstreamstart{%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@const@line@mark@right@handler%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamspecial=\pgfutil@gobble%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamend=\relax%
}%
}
\def\pgf@plot@const@line@mark@right@handler#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@const@line@handler@last{\the\pgf@x}%
\pgf@plot@first@action{}%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@const@line@mark@right@handler@@%
}
\def\pgf@plot@const@line@mark@right@handler@@#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\pgf@xa=\pgf@x
\pgf@ya=\pgf@y
\pgf@yb\pgf@plot@const@line@handler@last\relax
\pgfpathlineto{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@yb}{\pgf@ya}}%
\pgfpathlineto{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xa}{\pgf@ya}}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@const@line@handler@last{\the\pgf@xa}%
}
% A variant of \pgfplothandlerconstantlineto which places its mark on
% the middle of the line segment.
%
% ----x
% |
% --x--- |
% | |--x----
% x--
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfplothandlerconstantlinetomarkmid
% \pgfplotxyfile{mytable}
\def\pgfplothandlerconstantlinetomarkmid{%
\def\pgf@plotstreamstart{%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@const@line@mark@mid@handler%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamspecial=\pgfutil@gobble%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamend=\relax%
}%
}
\def\pgf@plot@const@line@mark@mid@handler#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@const@line@handler@last{\global\pgf@x=\the\pgf@x\space\global\pgf@y=\the\pgf@y\space}%
\pgf@plot@first@action{}%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@const@line@mark@mid@handler@@%
}
\def\pgf@plot@const@line@mark@mid@handler@@#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\pgf@xa=\pgf@x
\pgf@ya=\pgf@y
\pgf@plot@const@line@handler@last
\pgf@xc=.5\pgf@xa
\advance\pgf@xc by.5\pgf@x
\pgfpathlineto{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xc}{\pgf@y}}%
\pgfpathlineto{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xc}{\pgf@ya}}%
\pgfpathlineto{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xa}{\pgf@ya}}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@const@line@handler@last{\global\pgf@x=\the\pgf@x\space\global\pgf@y=\the\pgf@y\space}%
}
% This handler is in fact a variant of \pgfplothandlerconstantlineto,
% but it does not draw vertical lines. It produces a sequence of
% line-to and move-to operations such that plot marks are placed at
% each right end:
%
% ---x
% ---x
% ---x
% --x
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfplothandlerjumpmarkright
% \pgfplotxyfile{mytable}
\def\pgfplothandlerjumpmarkright{%
\def\pgf@plotstreamstart{%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@jumpmarkright@handler%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamspecial=\pgfutil@gobble%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamend=\relax%
}%
}
\def\pgf@plot@jumpmarkright@handler#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@const@line@handler@last{\the\pgf@x}%
\pgf@plot@first@action{}%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@jumpmarkright@handler@@%
}
\def\pgf@plot@jumpmarkright@handler@@#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\pgf@xa=\pgf@x
\pgf@ya=\pgf@y
\pgf@yb\pgf@plot@const@line@handler@last\relax
\pgfpathmoveto{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@yb}{\pgf@ya}}%
\pgfpathlineto{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xa}{\pgf@ya}}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@const@line@handler@last{\the\pgf@xa}%
}
% This handler is in fact a variant of \pgfplothandlerconstantlineto,
% but it does not draw vertical lines. It produces a sequence of
% line-to and move-to operations such that plot marks are placed at
% each left end:
%
% x---
% x---
% x---
% x--
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfplothandlerjumpmarkleft
% \pgfplotxyfile{mytable}
\def\pgfplothandlerjumpmarkleft{%
\def\pgf@plotstreamstart{%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@jumpmarkleft@handler%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamspecial=\pgfutil@gobble%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamend=\relax%
}%
}
\def\pgf@plot@jumpmarkleft@handler#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@const@line@handler@last{\the\pgf@y}%
\pgf@plot@first@action{}%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@jumpmarkleft@handler@@%
}
\def\pgf@plot@jumpmarkleft@handler@@#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\pgf@xa=\pgf@x
\pgf@ya=\pgf@y
\pgf@yb\pgf@plot@const@line@handler@last\relax
\pgfpathlineto{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xa}{\pgf@yb}}%
\pgfpathmoveto{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xa}{\pgf@ya}}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@const@line@handler@last{\the\pgf@ya}%
}
% This handler is in fact a variant of
% \pgfplothandlerconstantlinetomarkmid,
% but it does not draw vertical lines. It produces a sequence of
% line-to and move-to operations such that plot marks are placed like
%
% ----x
%
% --x--
% --x----
% x--
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfplothandlerjumpmarkmid
% \pgfplotxyfile{mytable}
\def\pgfplothandlerjumpmarkmid{%
\def\pgf@plotstreamstart{%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@jump@mark@mid@handler%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamspecial=\pgfutil@gobble%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamend=\relax%
}%
}
\def\pgf@plot@jump@mark@mid@handler#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@const@line@handler@last{\global\pgf@x=\the\pgf@x\space\global\pgf@y=\the\pgf@y\space}%
\pgf@plot@first@action{}%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@jump@mark@mid@handler@@%
}
\def\pgf@plot@jump@mark@mid@handler@@#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\pgf@xa=\pgf@x
\pgf@ya=\pgf@y
\pgf@plot@const@line@handler@last
\pgf@xc=.5\pgf@xa
\advance\pgf@xc by.5\pgf@x
\pgfpathlineto{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xc}{\pgf@y}}%
\pgfpathmoveto{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xc}{\pgf@ya}}%
\pgfpathlineto{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xa}{\pgf@ya}}%
\xdef\pgf@plot@const@line@handler@last{\global\pgf@x=\the\pgf@x\space\global\pgf@y=\the\pgf@y\space}%
}
% This handler converts each point in a stream into a line from the
% origin to the point's coordinate, resulting in a ``star''.
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfplothandlerpolarcomb
% \pgfplotxyfile{mytable}
\def\pgfplothandlerpolarcomb{%
\def\pgf@plotstreamstart{%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@polarcomb@handler%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamspecial=\pgfutil@gobble%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamend=\relax%
}%
}
\def\pgf@plot@polarcomb@handler#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\pgf@xa=\pgf@x%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@y%
\pgfpathmoveto{\pgfpointorigin}%
\pgfpathlineto{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xa}{\pgf@ya}}%
}
% This handler draws a given mark at each point.
%
% #1 = some code to be executed at each point (with the coordinate
% system translated to that point).
% Typically, this code will be \pgfuseplotmark{whatever}.
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfplothandlermark{\pgfuseplotmark{*}}
% \pgfplotxyfile{mytable}
\def\pgfplothandlermark#1{%
\pgf@plothandlermark{%
\ifnum\pgf@plot@mark@count<\pgf@plot@mark@repeat\relax%
\else%
\global\pgf@plot@mark@count=0\relax%
#1%
\fi%
}%
}
\newcount\pgf@plot@mark@count
\def\pgf@plot@mark@phase{0}
\def\pgf@plothandlermark#1{%
\def\pgf@plot@mark{#1}%
\def\pgf@plotstreamstart{%
\global\pgf@plot@mark@count=\pgf@plot@mark@repeat\relax%
\global\advance\pgf@plot@mark@count by-\pgf@plot@mark@phase\relax%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@mark@handler%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamspecial=\pgfutil@gobble%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamend=\relax%
}%
}
\def\pgf@plot@mark@handler#1{%
\global\advance\pgf@plot@mark@count by1\relax%
{\pgftransformshift{#1}\pgf@plot@mark}%
}
% Set the repeat count for marks. For example, if 3 is given as a
% value, only every third point will get a mark.
%
% #1 = repeat count
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfsetplotmarkrepeat{2}
\def\pgfsetplotmarkrepeat#1{\def\pgf@plot@mark@repeat{#1}}
\pgfsetplotmarkrepeat{1}
% Set the phase for marks. For example, if 3 is the repeat and 3 is
% the phase, already the first point will be marked.
%
% #1 = the index of the first point that should be marked.
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfsetplotmarkphase{3}
\def\pgfsetplotmarkphase#1{\def\pgf@plot@mark@phase{#1}}
\pgfsetplotmarkphase{1}
% This handler draws a given mark at those points whose number is
% given in the (pgffor-like) list.
%
% #1 = some code to be executed at each point (with the coordinate
% system translated to that point).
% Typically, this code will be \pgfuseplotmark{whatever}.
% #2 = list of positions like "1,2,4,...,9,10"
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfplothandlermarklisted{\pgfuseplotmark{*}}{1,2,4,...,9}
% \pgfplotxyfile{mytable}
\def\pgfplothandlermarklisted#1#2{%
\let\pgf@plot@mark@list=\pgfutil@empty%
\edef\pgf@marshal{\noexpand\foreach\noexpand\pgf@temp in{#2}}
\pgf@marshal{\xdef\pgf@plot@mark@list{\pgf@plot@mark@list(\pgf@temp)}}%
\pgf@plothandlermark{%
\edef\pgf@marshal{\noexpand\pgfutil@in@{(\the\pgf@plot@mark@count)}{\pgf@plot@mark@list}}%
\pgf@marshal%
\ifpgfutil@in@#1\fi}%
}
% Define a new plot mark for use with \pgfplotmark.
%
% #1 = a plot mark mnemonic
% #2 = code for drawing the mark
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfdeclareplotmark{*}{\pgfpathcircle{\pgfpointorigin}{2pt}\pgfusepathqfill}
\def\pgfdeclareplotmark#1#2{\expandafter\def\csname pgf@plot@mark@#1\endcsname{#2}}
% Set the size of plot marks. For circles, this will be the radius,
% for other shapes it should be about half the width/height.
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfsetplotmarksize{1pt}
\def\pgfsetplotmarksize#1{\pgfmathsetlength\pgfplotmarksize{#1}}
\newdimen\pgfplotmarksize
\pgfplotmarksize=2pt
% Insert a plot mark's code at the origin.
%
% #1 = plot mark mnemonic
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfuseplotmark{*}
\def\pgfuseplotmark#1{\csname pgf@plot@mark@#1\endcsname}
% A stroke-filled circle mark
\pgfdeclareplotmark{*}
{%
\pgfpathcircle{\pgfpointorigin}{\pgfplotmarksize}
\pgfusepathqfillstroke
}
% A plus-sign like mark
\pgfdeclareplotmark{+}
{%
\pgfpathmoveto{\pgfqpoint{-\pgfplotmarksize}{0pt}}
\pgfpathlineto{\pgfqpoint{\pgfplotmarksize}{0pt}}
\pgfpathmoveto{\pgfqpoint{0pt}{\pgfplotmarksize}}
\pgfpathlineto{\pgfqpoint{0pt}{-\pgfplotmarksize}}
\pgfusepathqstroke
}
% An x-shaped mark
\pgfdeclareplotmark{x}
{%
\pgfpathmoveto{\pgfqpoint{-.70710678\pgfplotmarksize}{-.70710678\pgfplotmarksize}}
\pgfpathlineto{\pgfqpoint{.70710678\pgfplotmarksize}{.70710678\pgfplotmarksize}}
\pgfpathmoveto{\pgfqpoint{-.70710678\pgfplotmarksize}{.70710678\pgfplotmarksize}}
\pgfpathlineto{\pgfqpoint{.70710678\pgfplotmarksize}{-.70710678\pgfplotmarksize}}
\pgfusepathqstroke
}
% See pgflibraryplotmarks for more plot marks
% This handler turns creates a series of straight line segements
% between consecutive points, but leaving /pgf/gap around stream point
% space.
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfplothandlergaplineto
% \pgfplotxyfile{mytable}
\pgfkeys{/pgf/gap around stream point/.initial=1.5pt}
\def\pgfplothandlergaplineto{%
\def\pgf@plotstreamstart{%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@gap@lineto@handler@initial%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamspecial=\pgfutil@gobble%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamend=\relax%
}%
}
\def\pgf@plot@gap@lineto@handler@initial#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\pgf@xa=\pgf@x%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@y%
\xdef\pgf@plot@gap@lineto@last{\noexpand\pgfqpoint{\the\pgf@xa}{\the\pgf@ya}}%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@gap@lineto@handler%
}
\def\pgf@plot@gap@lineto@handler#1{%
% Ok, compute normalized line vector
\pgf@process{#1}%
\pgf@xa=\pgf@x%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@y%
\xdef\pgf@plot@gap@lineto@next{\noexpand\pgfqpoint{\the\pgf@xa}{\the\pgf@ya}}%
\pgf@process{\pgfpointnormalised{\pgfpointdiff{\pgf@plot@gap@lineto@last}{\pgf@plot@gap@lineto@next}}}%
\pgf@xc=\pgf@x%
\pgf@yc=\pgf@y%
\pgfpathmoveto{\pgfpointadd{\pgfpointscale{\pgfkeysvalueof{/pgf/gap
around stream point}}{\pgfqpoint{\pgf@xc}{\pgf@yc}}}{\pgf@plot@gap@lineto@last}}%
\pgfpathlineto{\pgfpointadd{\pgfpointscale{\pgfkeysvalueof{/pgf/gap
around stream point}}{\pgfqpoint{-\pgf@xc}{-\pgf@yc}}}{\pgf@plot@gap@lineto@next}}%
\global\let\pgf@plot@gap@lineto@last=\pgf@plot@gap@lineto@next%
}
% This handler works like \pgfplothandlergaplineto, only the last
% point is connected to the first point, creating a closed curve
% space.
%
% Example:
%
% \pgfplothandlergapcycle
% \pgfplotxyfile{mytable}
\def\pgfplothandlergapcycle{%
\def\pgf@plotstreamstart{%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreampoint=\pgf@plot@gap@cycle@handler@initial%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamspecial=\pgfutil@gobble%
\global\let\pgf@plotstreamend=\pgf@plot@gap@cycle@handler@finish%
\global\let\pgf@plot@gap@cycle@first=\relax%
}%
}
\def\pgf@plot@gap@cycle@handler@initial#1{%
\pgf@process{#1}%
\pgf@xa=\pgf@x%
\pgf@ya=\pgf@y%
\xdef\pgf@plot@gap@cycle@last{\noexpand\pgfqpoint{\the\pgf@xa}{\the\pgf@ya}}%
\global\let\pgf@plot@gap@cycle@first=\pgf@plot@gap@cycle@last%
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\[R_{F}\left(0,{\theta_{3}^{4}}\left(0,q\right),{\theta_{4}^{4}}\left(0,q\right)%
\right)=\tfrac{1}{2}\pi,\]
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\newtheorem*{remark}{Remark}
\newtheorem*{ack}{Acknowledgements}
\title{Common Transversals}
\author{T. C. Brown}
\date{}
\maketitle
\begin{center}{\small {\bf Citation data:} T.C. {Brown}, \emph{On van der Waerden's theorem and a theorem of Paris and
{Harrington}}, J. Combin. Theory Ser. A \textbf{30} (1981), 108--111.}\bigskip\end{center}
\begin{abstract}
A $2$-coloring of the non-negative integers and a function $h$ are given such that if $P$ is any monochromatic arithmetic progression with first term $a$ and common difference $d$ then $|P| \leq h(a)$ and $|P| \leq h(d)$. In contrast to this the following result is noted. For any $k$, $f$ there is $n = n(k,f)$ such that whenever $n$ is $k$-colored there is a monochromatic subset $A$ of $n$ with $|A| > f(d)$, where $d$ is the maximum of the differences between consecutive elements of $A$.
\end{abstract}
\section{Introduction} \label{sec: 1}
Paris and Harrington~\cite{paris+harrington1978} have shown that the following simple modification of the finite version of Ramsey's theorem, which can be deduced from the infinite version by a diagonalization argument, is not provable in Peano's first order axioms, even in the case where $f$ is the identity function: Let $r,k \in \omega$, $f \in \omega^\omega$ be given. Then there is $n = n(k,r,f)$ such that whenver $[n]^r$ is $k$-colored there is a subset $A$ of $n$ with $[A]^r$ monochromatic and $|A| > f(a_0)$, where $a_0$ is the smallest element of $A$.
It seems natural to ask whether van der Waerden's theorem on arithmetic progressions can be modified in the sam way. That is, given $k \in \omega$, $f \in \omega^\omega$, must there exist $n = n(k,f)$ such that whenever $n$ is $k$-colored there is a monochromatic arithmetic progression $P = \{a,a + d, a + 2d, \dots\}$ contained in $n$ such that $|P| > f(a)$ or $|P| > f(d)$?
Fact~\ref{fact 1} below shows that this question has a negative answer. In contrast to this we quote a result (Fact~\ref{fact 3}) which shows that if ``arithmetic progression with common difference $d$" is replaced by ``set with maximum difference between consecutive elements equal to $d$" then the corresponding question has an affirmative answer (Furthermore, this result has a simple inductive proof.)
\section{The nagative result concerning arithmetic progressions} \label{sec: 2}
\begin{fact} \label{fact 1}
There is a $2$-coloring of $\omega$ and a function $h$ such that if $P = \{a, a+d,\dots\}$ is any monochromatic arithmetic progression then $|P| \leq h(a)$ and $|P| \leq h(d)$.
\end{fact}
In what follows, the notation $\bar{z}$ will be used for the fractional part of $z$, i.e., $\bar{z} = z - \lfloor z \rfloor$ for real numbers $z$. Intervals in $\omega$ of the form $[2^k,2^{k + 1})$ (as well as the set $\{0\}$) will be referred to as ``blocks." Three obvious lemmas will be used.
\begin{lemma} \label{lemma: 1}
If $n$ multiples of $d'$ are contained in $[2^k,2^{k + 1})$ then at least $2n - 1$ multiples of $d'$ are contained in $[2^{k + 1}, 2^{k + 2})$.
\end{lemma}
\begin{lemma} \label{lemma: 2}
Given integers $a \geq 0$ and $d \geq 2$, let $d' = 2^{p + 1} d$ if $a \in [2^p, 2^{p + 1})$, $d' = d$ if $a = 0$. Then for each $m \in \omega$, both $md'$ and $a + md'$ belong to the same block.
\end{lemma}
\begin{lemma} \label{lemma: 3}
Let $x,y$ be real with $y$ irrational. Let $n,s,t \in \omega$ with $n \geq 2$, $s \geq 2n-1$, $t \geq 2s - 1$. Let $S_1 = \{\overline{x + my}: m \in [0,n)\}$, $S_2 = \{\overline{x + my}: m \in [n, n + s)\}$, $S_3 = \{\overline{x + my}: m \in [n + s, n + s + t)\}$. Then it is impossible to have simultaneously $S_1 \subset [0,1/2)$, $S_2 \subset [1/2,1)$, $S_3 \subset [0,1/2)$. (The same conclusion hods if $[0,1/2)$ and $[1/2,1)$ are interchanged.)
\end{lemma}
Now we define a ``preliminary $2$-coloring of $\omega$. Let $\alpha > 0$ be fixed and irrational, and define $c_1: \omega \mapsto \{0,1\}$ by $c_1(n) = 0$ if $\overline{n\alpha} \in [0,1/2)$, $c_1(n) = 1$ if $\overline{n\alpha} \in [1/2,1)$. Suppose that $P = \{a,a+d,\dots\}$ is a monochromatic (with respect to $c_1$) arithmetic progression with common difference $d$ (and first term $a$). It follows immediately from the density in $[0,1]$ of the set $\{\overline{md\alpha}: m \in \omega\}$ (and from the density in $[0,1]$ of any translate of this set by $\overline{a\alpha}$ (modulo 1)) that there is $f(d)$ such that $|P| \leq f(d)$, independent of $a$.
We are now ready to define the 2-coloring $c: \omega \mapsto \{0,1\}$ whose existence is asserted in Fact~\ref{fact 1}. The colroing $c$ is obtained by starting out with the coloring $c_1$ and then ``reversing" this coloring on alternate blocks. That is, let $c_2(n) = 1 - c_1(n)$ and define, for $n \in [2^k,2^{k + 1})$, $c(n) = c_1(n)$ if $k$ is odd, $c(n) = c_2(n)$ is $k$ is even. (Set $c(0) = c_1(0) = 0$.)
Let $P = \{a, a + d,\dots\}$ be any arithmetic progression which is monochromatic with respect to the coloring $c$. We show first that $|P|$ is bounded by a function of $d$, and then that $|P|$ is bounded by a function of $a$.
To show that $|P|$ is bounded by a function of $d$, let $f(d)$ be as above and choose $k$ so that $2^k \leq df(d) < 2^{k + 1}$. If $P$ intersects both $[0,2^{k + 1})$ and $[2^{k + 2}, \infty)$, the block $[2^{k + 1}, 2^{k + 2})$ will contain more than $f(d)$ consecutive terms of $P$. (This follows from Lemma~\ref{lemma: 1} and $f(d) \geq 2$.) Since $c$ agrees on $[2^{k + 1}, 2^{k + 2})$ with either $c_1$ or $c_2$, this contradicts the definition of $f(d)$. Hence either $P \subset [2^{k + 1}, \infty)$ or $P \subset [0,2^{k + 2})$. In the first case one gets $|P| \leq 2f(d)$, and in the second case $|P| \leq 2^{k + 2}/d + 1\leq 4f(d) + 1$.
Next, to show that $|P|$ is bounded by a function of $a$, we shall derive a contradiction by assuming that $|P| \geq 32 \cdot 2^{p + 1} + 1$ if $a \in [2^p, 2^{p + 1})$ and $|P| \geq 33$ if $a = 0$.
Let $d'$ be as in Lemma~\ref{lemma: 2}, and consider the progressions $P' = \{a + d', a + 2d', \dots,a + 32d'\}$, $P'' = \{d', 2d', \dots,32d'\}$. Choose $k$ so that $2^k \leq 4d' < 2^{k + 1}$, and let $A = [2^, 2^{k + 1})$, $B = [2^{k + 1}, 2^{k + 2})$, $C = [2^{k + 2}, 2^{k + 3})$. We say that $4d'$ belongs to ``block $A$." Now $2d' \in [2^{k -1}, 2^k)$, hence (applying Lemma~\ref{lemma: 1} if necessary) it is clear that block $A$ contains $n$ consecutive elements of $P''$, where $n \geq 2$. Since by Lemma~\ref{lemma: 2} the elements of $P'$ are distributed among the various blocks in exactly the same way as are the corresponding elements of $P''$, we obtain that the blocks $A,B,C$ contain respectively $n,s,t$ elements of $P'$, where $n \geq 2$, $s \geq 2n - 1$, $t \geq 2s - 1$. (Note that the progression $P'$ extends beyond block $C$ since $2^{k + 3} \leq 32d'$.)
Now let $a + ud'$ be the first element of $P' \cap (A \cup B \cup C)$, and let $x = (a + ud')\alpha$, $y = d'\alpha$. Since $P'$ is monochromatic with respect to $c$, the first $n$ terms, next $s$ terms, next $t$ terms, of the sequence $(\overline{x}, \overline{x + y}, \overline{x + 2y}, \dots)$ must be contained respectively in the intervals $[0,\frac{1}{2})$, $[\frac{1}{2}, 1), [0,\frac{1}{2})$ (or in $[\frac{1}{2},1)$, $[0,\frac{1}{2})$, $[\frac{1}{2}, 1)$), finally contradicting Lemma~\ref{lemma: 3}.
This completes the proof of Fact~\ref{fact 1}; for the function $h$ we can take $h(x) = \max\{4f(x) + 1, 64x\}$.
\section{The positive result concerning sets with given gap size} \label{sec: 3}
Although the results noted here are not new, Fact~\ref{fact 3} provides an interesting contrast to the negative result above. The proofs are omitted. Fact~\ref{fact 3}, the finite version of Fact~\ref{fact 2}, can be proved by a simple induction on the number of colors.
Let $A = \{a_1,\dots,a_m\}$ be a finite subset of $\omega$, with $a_1< \cdots < a_m$. Define $gs(A)$, the ``gap size" of $A$, by $gs(A) = \max\{a_{j + 1} - a_j: 1 \leq j < m\}$ if $|A| > 1$ and $gs(A) = 1$ if $|A| = 1$.
\begin{fact} \label{fact 2}
Let $k \in \omega$ and a $k$-coloring of $\omega$ be given. Then there exist $d \in \omega$ and arbitrarily large (finite) monochromatic sets $A$ with $gs(A) = d$.
\end{fact}
\begin{fact} \label{fact 3}
Let $k \in \omega$, $f\in \omega^\omega$ be given. Then there is $n$ such that if $n$ is $k$-colored there is a monochromatic subset $A$ of $n$ with $|A| > f(gs(a))$.
\end{fact}
We remark that if $n(k,f)$ is the smallest such $n$, then $n(1,f) \leq 1 + f(1)$ and $n(k,f) \leq 1 + kf(n(k-1,f))$. (Letting $e$ denote the identity function, this gives $n(k,e) \leq k!(1 + 1/1! + \cdots + 1/k!)$, while in fact $n(k,e) = k^2 + 1$; hence the above bound is far from best possible.)
\begin{ack} The author is grateful to Paul Erd\H{o}s and Bruce Rothschild for suggesting the present 2-coloring or $\omega$, which greatly improved his original 4-coloring, which in turn was based on an idea of I. Connell and N. Mendelsohn~\cite{mendelsohn1974}. Fact~\ref{fact 3} was first noted by J. Justin~\cite{justin1971} as the finite version of Fact~\ref{fact 2}~\cite{brown1969}.
\end{ack}
\emph{Note added in proof.} The author completely overlooked Justin's very different construction (\cite{justin1971}--long before the Paris and Harrington result) of a 2-coloring of $\omega$ such that any arithmetic progression $P$ with common difference $d$ has $|P|$ bounded by a function of $d$, namely, for each $n \geq 1$, let $n! = 2^tq$, $q$ odd, and define $c(n) = 0$ if $t$ is even, $c(n) = 1$ if $t$ is odd.
\nocite{graham+rothschild1974,vanderwaerden1927}
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\section{Reviewers}
We would like to express our thanks to the following reviewers (in alphabetical order):
\vline{}
\begin{minipage}[b]{0.5\linewidth}
\center
Brown, Scott; \\
Durveaux, David; \\
G\"uhring Philipp; \\
Grigg, Ian; \\
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\begin{minipage}[b]{0.5\linewidth}
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Horenbeck, Maarten; \\
Lenzhofer, Stefan; \\
Mock, Christian; \\
Schreck, Thomas; \\
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%-------------------------------------------------------------------
\section*{Alcohol}
\hypertarget{idea}{}\subsection*{{Idea}}\label{idea}
Various alcohols can be used as fuels, and some have been proposed as substitutes, in a sense, for gasoline and other petroleum products.
\hypertarget{ethanol}{}\subsection*{{Ethanol}}\label{ethanol}
Ethanol is a widely used [[biofuel]], especially in Brazil. According to this article:
\begin{itemize}%
\item \href{http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fuel_in_Brazil}{Ethanol fuel in Brazil}, Wikipedia.
\end{itemize}
there are no longer any light vehicles in Brazil running on pure gasoline.
For more, see [[Biofuel]], which has a discussion of ethanol, especially corn-based ethanol in the United States.
\hypertarget{methanol}{}\subsection*{{Methanol}}\label{methanol}
See [[Methanol economy]].
\hypertarget{butanol}{}\subsection*{{Butanol}}\label{butanol}
According to
\begin{itemize}%
\item US Department of Energy, \href{http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/emerging_biobutanol_what_is.html}{What is biobutanol?}
\end{itemize}
butanol can be produced as a biofuel, and is a possible competitor with ethanol:
Like ethanol, biobutanol is a liquid alcohol fuel that can be used in today's gasoline-powered internal combustion engines. The properties of biobutanol make it highly amenable to blending with gasoline. It is also compatible with ethanol blending and can improve the blending of ethanol with gasoline. The energy content of biobutanol is 10 to 20 percent lower than that of gasoline.
Under U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations, biobutanol can be blended as an oxygenate with gasoline in concentrations up to 11.5 percent by volume (i.e., the EPA considers blends of 11.5\% or less biobutanol with gasoline to be ``substantially similar'' to pure gasoline). Blends of 85 percent or more biobutanol with gasoline are required to qualify as an EPAct alternative fuel. Biobutanol proponents claim that today's vehicles can be fueled with high concentrations of biobutanol—up to 100\%—with minor or no vehicle modifications, although testing of this claim has been limited.
category: energy
[[!redirects alcohol]]
\end{document}
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\[\frac{\mathop{\mathrm{se}_{n}\/}\nolimits\!\left(z,q\right)}{{\mathop{\mathrm{%
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{b_{n}\/}\nolimits\!\left(q\right),q),\]
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% Vorlage fuer Handouts
% zum Seminar "Graphentheorie"
% im SS 2010
%
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\handouttitle{N.~Imeta}
{[email protected]}
{30.~Februar~2010}
{Das Haus vom Nikolaus}
\section{Grundlagen}
\begin{definition}[Das Haus vom Nikolaus]
\label{def:hausvomnikolaus}
Das \emph{Haus vom Nikolaus} ist der Graph~$(V,E)$, der wie folgt
gegeben ist:
\begin{align*}
V & := \{1, \dots, 5\}
\\
E & := \bigl\{ \{1,2\}
, \{1,5\}
, \{2,3\}
, \{2,4\}
, \{2,5\}
, \{3,4\}
, \{3,5\}
, \{4,5\}
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Man kann das Haus vom Nikolaus wie in
Abbildung~\ref{fig:hausvomnikolaus} veranschaulichen (weitere
Informationen zu Ti\textit{k}Z und~{\smaller PGF} finden sich in der
Dokumentation~\cite{tantau}).
\begin{figure}[h]
\begin{center}
\begin{tikzpicture}
\begin{scope}[color=black!20]
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\begin{scope}[color=blue]
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\caption{Das Haus vom Nikolaus}
\label{fig:hausvomnikolaus}
\end{figure}
\section{Eigenschaften des Hauses vom Nikolaus}
\begin{satz}[Das Haus vom Nikolaus]
Das Haus vom Nikolaus ist unvollst\"andig.
\end{satz}
\begin{beweis}
Wir verwenden die Notation aus
Definition~\ref{def:hausvomnikolaus}. Da zum Beispiel die
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Haus vom Nikolaus kein vollst\"andiger Graph.
\end{beweis}
\section{Beispiele}
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\hfil
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% Literaturverzeichnis
% - Der Einfachheit halber sind hier bereits alle Quellen eingetragen,
% die im Seminarprogramm auftreten
% - Bitte entfernen Sie alle Quellen, die Sie nicht in Ihrem Handout
% zitieren
% - Umgekehrt muessen Sie natuerlich, wenn Sie weitere Literatur
% zitieren wollen, die entsprechenden Quellen hier einfuegen;
% hierbei kann www.ams.org/mathscinet helfen, die noetigen
% Informationen zu den Quellen zu sammeln
\begin{thebibliography}{99}
\bibitem{aldousetc} J.M.~Aldous, R.J.~Wilson, S.~Best.
\emph{Graphs and Applications: An Introductory Approach},
dritte Auflage, Springer, 2000.
\bibitem{armstrong} M.A.~Armstrong. \emph{Groups and Symmetry},
Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics,
Springer, 1988.
\bibitem{beutelspacher} A.~Beutelspacher. \emph{Das ist o.B.d.A.\
trivial!}, neunte Auflage, Vie\-weg$+$Teub\-ner, 2009.
\bibitem{bridsonhaefliger}
M.R.~Bridson, A.~Haefliger.
\emph{Metric Spaces of Non-positive Curvature},
Band~319 der \emph{Grundlehren der Mathematischen
Wissenschaften}, Springer, 1999.
\bibitem{diestel} R.~Diestel. \emph{Graph theory}, dritte Auflage,
Graduate Texts in Mathematics, Band~173, Springer, 2005.
\bibitem{delaharpe} P.~de~la~Harpe.
\emph{Topics in Geometric Group Theory},
Chicago University Press, 2000.
\bibitem{harris} J.M.~Harris, J.L.~Hirst,
M.J.~Mossinghoff. \emph{Combinatorics and Graph Theory}, zweite
Auflage, Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics, Springer, 2008.
\bibitem{jacobs} K.~Jacobs, \emph{Einf\"uhrung in die Kombinatorik},
de~Gruyter, 1983.
\bibitem{companion} F.~Mittelbach, M.~Goossens, J.~Braams,
D.~Carlisle, C.~Rowley. \emph{The \LaTeX\ Companion}, zweite
Auflage, Addison-Wesley, 2004.
\bibitem{paterson}
Alan~L.T.~Paterson. \emph{Amenatbility},
volume~29 of~\emph{Mathematical Surveys and Monographs}, American
Mathematical Society, 1988.
\bibitem{tantau}
T.~Tantau. \emph{The {\normalfont Ti\textit{k}Z} and
{\normalfont PGF} Packages},
\\
\textsf{http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/graphics/pgf/base/doc/generic/pgf/pgfmanual.pdf}
\bibitem{whyte} K.~Whyte. Amenability, bi-Lipschitz equivalence,
and the von Neumann conjecture, \emph{Duke Math.~J.}~99, No.~1,
S.~93--112, 1999.
\bibitem{wittemorris} D.~Witte Morris.
\emph{Introduction to Arithmetic Groups},
vorl\"aufiges Buch, online verf\"ugbar unter~\textsf{arXiv:math/0106063v3}, 2001--2008.
\bibitem{ziegler} G.~Ziegler. \emph{Lectures on Polytopes},
Graduate Texts in Mathematics, Band~152, Springer, 1995.
\end{thebibliography}
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% von LaTeX ignoriert!
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\chapter{Resolution Heuristics}
\label{resolution-chap}
Talk about the resolution heuristics. This is the bulk of the thesis.
% Discuss changes to cost model, as promised in Ch. 2
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Mijaíl Bakunin\forcelinebreak
Lugano\forcelinebreak
A Élisée Reclus\forcelinebreak
15 de febrero de 1875
Queridísimo amigo. Te agradezco mucho tus buenas palabras. Nunca he dudado de tu amistad, este sentimiento es siempre mutuo, y juzgo la tuya por la mía.
Sí, tienes razón, la revolución se ha metido, de momento, en cama, volvemos a caer en el período de las evoluciones, es decir, en el de las revoluciones subterráneas, invisibles e incluso a menudo insensibles. La evolución que se está produciendo hoy día es muy peligrosa, si no para la humanidad entera, sí al menos para algunas naciones. Es la última encarnación de una clase agotada, que juega su última baza, bajo la protección de la dictadura militar-Mac-Mahon-bonapartista en Francia, y bismarckiana en el resto de Europa.
Estoy de acuerdo contigo en que la hora de la revolución ha pasado, no a causa de los espantosos desastres de los que hemos sido testigos y de las terribles derrotas de las que hemos sido víctimas más o menos culpables,\footnote{Se refiere a la victoria de los ejércitos prusianos en la guerra franco-prusiana, y la derrota del levantamiento de Lyon de septiembre de 1870, de la Comuna de París (marzo-mayo, 1871) y de los levantamientos de España e Italia, seguidos de la victoria de las fuerzas reaccionarias que dominaron la Europa continental. Bakunin opinaba que las fuerzas revolucionarias eran en parte responsables de estos fracasos porque no estaban preparadas ni ideológica ni tácticamente para aprovechar las situaciones revolucionarias favorables. [Dolgoff, Sam, \emph{La anarquía según Bakunin}, Tusquets, Barcelona, 1983. Trad. Marcelo Covián]} sino porque, para mi gran desesperación, he constatado y constato cada día otra vez, que el pensamiento, la esperanza y la pasión revolucionarios no se encuentran en las masas, y cuando esto ocurre, por mucho que se combata por los flancos, no se hará nada de nada. Admiro la paciencia y la perseverancia heroicas de los hombres del Jura y de los belgas —últimos mohicanos del fuego de la Internacional—, que pese a todas las dificultades, adversidades y a pesar de todos los obstáculos, en medio de la indiferencia general, oponen su frente obstinada al curso totalmente contrario de las cosas, siguiendo tranquilamente con lo que hacían antes de las catástrofes, cuando el movimiento general era ascendente y cuando el menor esfuerzo podía crear una fuerza. Se trata de un trabajo especialmente meritorio porque ellos no podrán recoger los frutos, aunque pueden estar seguros de que su trabajo no se perderá —nada se pierde en este mundo—: las gotas de agua, aun siendo invisibles, logran formar el océano.
Por lo que a mí respecta, querido amigo, me he sentido demasiado viejo, demasiado enfermo, demasiado cansado, y, hay que decirlo, demasiado decepcionado desde muchos puntos de vista, como para sentir deseos y fuerzas para seguir en esta obra. Me he retirado decididamente de la lucha y pasaré el resto de mis días en una contemplación, no ociosa sino, por el contrario, muy activa intelectualmente, y que espero que no deje de producir algo útil.
Una de las pasiones que me dominan en este momento es una inmensa curiosidad. Ahora que he tenido que reconocer que el mal ha triunfado y no puedo impedirlo, me he puesto a estudiar sus evoluciones y cambios con una pasión casi científica, totalmente \emph{objetiva}.
Qué actores, que escenario. Al fondo y dominando toda la situación europea, el emperador Guillermo y Bismarck, a la cabeza de un gran pueblo lacayo. Frente a ellos, el papa con sus jesuitas, toda la Iglesia católica y romana, rica en millones, dominando una gran parte del mundo por medio de las mujeres, de la ignorancia de las masas, y de la incomparable habilidad de sus innumerables afiliados, que tienen los ojos y las manos por todas partes.
Tercer actor: la civilización francesa encarnada en Mac-Mahon, Dupanloup y Broglie, que están dedicándose a remachar las cadenas de un gran pueblo caído. Después, alrededor de todo este panorama, España, Italia, Austria y Rusia, cada país con sus muecas de turno, y desde lejos Inglaterra, incapaz de decidirse a volver a ser otra cosa, y todavía más lejos la República modelo de los Estados Unidos de América, que ya empieza a coquetear con la dictadura militar.
¡Pobre humanidad!
Es evidente que no podrá salir de esta cloaca sin una inmensa revolución social. Pero, ¿cómo hará esta revolución? Nunca estuvo la reacción europea tan bien armada contra todo movimiento popular. Ha hecho de la represión una nueva ciencia que es sistemáticamente enseñada en las escuelas militares a los tenientes de todos los países. Y, ¿con qué contamos para atacar a esa fortaleza inexpugnable? Las masas desorganizadas. Pero, cómo organizarlas si no tienen siquiera suficiente apasionamiento por su propia salvación, si no saben ni lo que deben querer y si no quieren lo único que puede salvarlas.
Queda la propaganda, tal como hacen los del Jura y los belgas. Es algo, sin duda, pero muy poca cosa, unas gotas de agua en el océano; y si no hubiera otro medio de salvación, la humanidad tendría tiempo para pudrirse diez veces antes de que llegara el momento de poder ser salvada.
Queda otra esperanza: la guerra universal. Estos inmensos Estados militares tienen que destruirse unos a otros, y \emph{devorarse unos a otros tarde o temprano}. Pero, ¡Qué perspectiva!
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Transcrito de Lehning, Arthur, \emph{Conversaciones con Bakunin}, Anagrama, Barcelona, 1999. Traducción de Enrique Hegewicz.
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\title{Modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors for obstetric anal sphincter
injury in a Norwegian Region: A case-control study.}
\author[1]{Ragnhild Klokk}%
\author[1]{Kjersti Bakken}%
\author[2]{Trond Markestad}%
\author[1]{Mads Holten-Andersen}%
\affil[1]{Innlandet Hospital Trust}%
\affil[2]{University of Bergen}%
\vspace{-1em}
\date{\today}
\begingroup
\let\center\flushleft
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\maketitle
\endgroup
\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{abstract}
Objective To identify modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors for
severe obstetric anal sphincter injury (OASI) following vaginal
delivery. Design Retrospective case-control study. Setting Single center
maternity clinic in South-Eastern Norway Population Women diagnosed with
OASI following singleton vaginal birth after 30 weeks' gestation (n =
421) and matched controls (n = 421) during 1990-2002. Methods Data were
extracted retrospectively from an institutional birth registry. For each
woman with OASI the first subsequent vaginal singleton delivery matched
for parity was elected as control. Potential determinants for OASI were
assessed by conditional logistic regression analyses. Main outcome
measure OASI, defined as 3rd or 4th degree obstetric anal sphincter
lesions. Results Among modifiable factors amniotomy was the strongest
independent determinant for OASI in both primi- (adjusted odds ratio
{[}aOR{]} 4.84; 95\% CI 2.60--9.02) and multiparous (aOR 3.76; 95\% CI
1.45--9.76) women, followed by augmentation with oxytocin (primiparous:
aOR 1.63; 95\% CI 1.08--2.46, multiparous: aOR 3.70; 95\% CI
1.79--7.67). Vacuum extraction and forceps delivery were independently
associated with OASI in primiparous women (vacuum: aOR 1.91; 95\% CI
1.03--3.57, forceps: aOR 2.37; 95\% CI 1.14--4.92), and episiotomy for
OASI in multiparous women (aOR 2.64; 95\% CI 1.36--5.14). Conclusions
Amniotomy may be a hitherto unrecognized independent modifiable risk
factor for OASI and should be further investigated for its potential
role in preventive strategies for OASI. Funding Innlandet Hospital Trust
research fund, grant number 150434. Keywords Obstetric anal sphincter
injury; OASI; Birth; Birth injury; Modifiable risk factor; Amniotomy.%
\end{abstract}%
\sloppy
Modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors for obstetric anal sphincter
injury in a Norwegian Region: A case-control study.
Ragnhild Klokk\textsuperscript{1}, Kjersti S
Bakken\textsuperscript{2,3}, Trond Markestad\textsuperscript{4}, Mads N
Holten-Andersen\textsuperscript{1,5}
\textsuperscript{1} Department of Pediatrics, Innlandet Hospital Trust,
Lillehammer, Norway
\textsuperscript{2} Women's Clinic, Innlandet Hospital Trust,
Lillehammer, Norway
\textsuperscript{3} Centre for International Health, University of
Bergen, Bergen, Norway
\textsuperscript{4} Department of Research, Innlandet Hospital Trust,
Brumunddal, Norway
\textsuperscript{5} Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine,
University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
\section*{Corresponding author:}
{\label{corresponding-author}}
Mads N Holten-Andersen, Department of Pediatrics, Innlandet Hospital
Trust, Anders Sandviksgate, 2619 Lillehammer, Norway.
Email: [email protected]
Telephone: +47 41487829
Running title:
Risk factors for anal sphincter injury
Abstract
\textbf{Objective} To identify modifiable and non-modifiable risk
factors for severe obstetric anal sphincter injury (OASI) following
vaginal delivery.
\textbf{Design} Retrospective case-control study.
\textbf{Setting} Single center maternity clinic in South-Eastern Norway
\textbf{Population} Women diagnosed with OASI following singleton
vaginal birth after 30 weeks' gestation (n = 421) and matched controls
(n = 421) during 1990-2002.
\textbf{Methods} Data were extracted retrospectively from an
institutional birth registry. For each woman with OASI the first
subsequent vaginal singleton delivery matched for parity was elected as
control. Potential determinants for OASI were assessed by conditional
logistic regression analyses.
\textbf{Main outcome measure} OASI, defined as 3\textsuperscript{rd} or
4\textsuperscript{th} degree obstetric anal sphincter lesions.
\textbf{Results} Among modifiable factors amniotomy was the strongest
independent determinant for OASI in both primi- (adjusted odds ratio
{[}aOR{]} 4.84; 95\% CI 2.60--9.02) and multiparous (aOR 3.76; 95\% CI
1.45--9.76) women, followed by augmentation with oxytocin (primiparous:
aOR 1.63; 95\% CI 1.08--2.46, multiparous: aOR 3.70; 95\% CI
1.79--7.67). Vacuum extraction and forceps delivery were independently
associated with OASI in primiparous women (vacuum: aOR 1.91; 95\% CI
1.03--3.57, forceps: aOR 2.37; 95\% CI 1.14--4.92), and episiotomy for
OASI in multiparous women (aOR 2.64; 95\% CI 1.36--5.14).
\textbf{Conclusions} Amniotomy may be a hitherto unrecognized
independent modifiable risk factor for OASI and should be further
investigated for its potential role in preventive strategies for OASI.
\textbf{Funding} Innlandet Hospital Trust research fund, grant number
150434.
\textbf{Keywords} Obstetric anal sphincter injury; OASI; Birth; Birth
injury; Modifiable risk factor; Amniotomy.
\textbf{Introduction}
Most women experience perineal trauma when giving birth (1). Severe
perineal lesions, referred to as obstetric anal sphincter injury (OASI),
are diagnosed in as many as 11\% of vaginal deliveries, but with
significant variation between studies and national birth statistics
(1-5). The true incidence rate for severe lesions may be in the range of
10--26\% because the injuries can be overlooked at the delivery wards or
be occult (4, 6, 7). Apart from the immediate perineal pain, OASI often
has short- and long-term consequences including negative impact on
sexual life and quality of life in general (8-12) as well as anal
incontinence (11-15).
Adequate clinical examination following delivery is pivotal in the
diagnosis of OASI (6, 16-19), and increased awareness and training of
health care personnel have resulted in a doubling of detection rates (2,
18, 19). Alongside the focus on detection, prevention has gained
increasing attention. Obstetric training programs for midwives with
emphasis on potential preventive measures, such as attention to maternal
birth position and perineal massage during the second stage of labour,
have been suggested as ways of decreasing the risk of OASI (20-22).
Implementation of a preventive program in five maternity clinics in
Norway resulted in decreased prevalence of OASI (23), as has similar
programs in other European countries (14, 24-27). However, the evidence
of persistent efficacy of preventive programs is low, partly because the
existing studies were assessed shortly after their introduction (28). In
a study involving the four large Nordic countries over seven years, a
lasting reduction was only observed in Norway (29).
Established risk factors for OASI include primiparity, vaginal birth
after caesarean delivery, advanced maternal age, high birthweight, fetal
occiput posterior presentation, induction and augmentation of labour,
instrumental delivery, increased duration of second stage of labour,
episiotomy, and Asian ethnicity (1, 2, 22, 30-32). A recent
meta-analysis showed that the incidence of OASI remains high and it
highlighted a need to search for hitherto unrecognized and potentially
modifiable risk factors (1). We aimed at exploring both modifiable and
non-modifiable risk factors in a large retrospective case-control study
based on a regional cohort where detailed information related to
maternal, pregnancy, delivery, and fetal characteristics had been
collected prospectively.
\textbf{Methods}
\emph{Participants}
At Innlandet Hospital Trust, Lillehammer, Norway, detailed information
on maternal health, pregnancy, delivery and the postpartum period until
discharge is prospectively registered in a perinatal database. This
hospital covers virtually all births in a region with a population of
around 90,000 people at the time of the study; around 23,000 lived in
the city Lillehammer and the others in rural areas with small towns. The
women were generally first registered in the perinatal database at 18-20
weeks' gestation when they met for the routine ultrasound assessment.
This study included all deliveries that occurred during January
1\textsuperscript{st} 1990 to December 31\textsuperscript{st} 2002. We
identified singleton vaginal deliveries with gestational age
\textgreater{}210 days where women for the first time were diagnosed
with perineal rupture from the database, and the data were quality
assured and expanded by scrutinizing delivery protocols, charts, and
patient records. Women with 3\textsuperscript{rd} and
4\textsuperscript{th} degree OASI were defined as cases, and we selected
the next vaginal singleton delivery with the same parity and gestational
age \textgreater{}210 days without OASI as a matched control.
\emph{Definitions and interventions}
OASI was diagnosed according to the International Classification of
Diseases (ICD) 9 definition~664.2 and 664.3 (similar to ICD 10 codes
O70.2 and O70.3). The diagnosis was set at the time of the tear by the
midwife or physician in charge of the delivery and subsequently
confirmed by a specialist in obstetrics and gynecology.
In addition to degree of perineal rupture, modifiable and non-modifiable
variables regarding the infant, mother and birth process were
registered. Non-modifiable variables included birth weight (in grams),
length (in cm), head circumference (in cm), gestational age (in days),
and Apgar score at 1 and 5 minutes postpartum of the newborn, and
maternal age (in years), parity, duration of the first and second stage
of labour (in minutes), and fetal presentation (occiput posterior,
occiput anterior, deep transverse, breech). Modifiable variables
included the mother's birth position (supine/sitting, side bearing,
standing, kneeling, and on stool), induction of labour (yes/no),
amniotomy (yes/no), episiotomy (mediolateral, yes/no), augmentation with
oxytocin (yes/no), application of fundal pressure (yes/no), and
instrumental delivery by vacuum extraction (yes/no) or forceps (yes/no).
Methods used for induction of labour were based on the Bishop scores and
included membrane sweeping, transcervical Foley catheter, prostaglandin
vaginal tablets, amniotomy or/and augmentation with oxytocin. Amniotomy
was performed in births with a spontaneous onset to shorten duration of
the first and second stage of labour or when continuous surveillance of
the fetus with a scalp-electrode or an examination of the amniotic fluid
was considered necessary. Augmentation with oxytocin was used after
amniotomy in cases of labour dystocia in births with spontaneous onset.
Indications for performing an episiotomy included imminent fetal
asphyxia, preterm birth, and instrumental vaginal delivery which
included vacuum extraction and the use of forceps at the physician's
discretion.
Birth weight was measured and registered in grams and subsequently
categorized into quartiles: \textless{}3300, 3300--3650, 3660--4040, and
[?]4040 grams. Crown-heel length and head circumference were measured in
centimeters according to protocol. Gestational age was estimated
according to routine ultrasonography at 18--20 weeks of gestation at
Lillehammer Hospital. Apgar scores were assessed at one and five minutes
following birth by midwives or physicians. The respective scores were
subsequently dichotomized into \textless{}7 or [?]7. Maternal age was
registered in years and subsequently categorized into the following
three groups: \textless{}25, 25--29, and [?]30 years. The cases and
controls were stratified to primiparous (first birth) or multiparous
([?]second birth).
\emph{Statistics}
Missing data were treated by listwise deletion. Continuous variables
were tested for distributions of normality and described by means and
standard deviations. Categorical variables were described by frequencies
and proportions. We performed separate analyses for the primi- and
multiparous pregnancies. For the variables within each group, we
analyzed differences between cases and controls with t-tests,
Kruskal-Wallis or Chi\textsuperscript{2}-tests. Significance level was
set at 5\%. Correlation matrices demonstrated covariation between
weight, length and head circumference of the infant, and only
birthweight was used in logistic regression analyses. We used univariate
conditional logistic regression analyses when assessing associations
between exposure variables and OASI. Subsequently, we built risk-factor
models for OASI by using multivariate conditional logistic regression
analyses progressing with a stepwise procedure. In this analysis we
included variables that were significantly different between the cases
and controls in the univariate analyses. We assessed multicollinearity
by using variance inflation factor (VIF). We assessed interactions
between amniotomy and the following variables: augmentation with
oxytocin, episiotomy, and instrumental delivery by vacuum or forceps.
STATA 15.1 software (STATA, College Station, TX, United States:
StataCorp, 2017) was used for all the analyses.
\emph{Ethics}
The research project was approved by the Norwegian Social Science Data
Services (project number: 2614) and The Norwegian Data Protection
Authority (reference code: 95/2691-2 GS\selectlanguage{ngerman}Ø).
\emph{Funding}
The study was funded by Innlandet Hospital Trust research fund under
grant number 150434.
\textbf{Results}
During this 13-year period, 12,883 women gave birth at the study
hospital, and 11,374 of them had a vaginal delivery. The mean incidence
of OASI was 2.9\% but increased gradually from 2.4\% in 1990 to a
maximum of 5.9\% in 2002. Following vaginal delivery, 421 women (3.7\%)
were diagnosed with first time 3\textsuperscript{rd} (n=324) or
4\textsuperscript{th} degree (n=97) OASI and included in the study along
with 421 matched controls without OASI. Of the 842 women, 550 (65.3\%)
were primiparous and 292 (34.7\%) multiparous. The median parity of the
multiparous women was the second child, and the highest parity was six.
Of the non-modifiable variables, we found that maternal age, infant
weight, length, head circumference and gestational age, and duration of
both the first and second stage of labour were significantly higher for
both the primi- and multiparous women with OASI compared to their
respective controls (Table 1). Of the potentially modifiable variables
related to the delivery, we found that frequencies of episiotomy,
amniotomy, augmentation with oxytocin, supine or sitting birth position,
instrumental delivery with vacuum extraction and forceps were
significantly higher for both the primi- and multiparous women with
OASIS compared to their controls (Table 2). Induction of labour occurred
more often in the primiparous women with OASI (Table 2).
In the final multivariate conditional logistic regression model, higher
maternal age and birthweight for primiparous women and birthweight for
the multiparous women were the only non-modifiable variables associated
with rates of OASI (Tables 3 and 4). Of the modifiable variables,
amniotomy was strongly associated with OASI, both in the primiparous (OR
4.84, 95\% CI 2.60--9,02) and multiparous (OR 3.76, 95\% CI 1.45--9.76)
women, as was augmentation with oxytocin (OR 1.63, 95\% CI 1.08--2.46
and 3.70, 95\% CI 1.79--7.67, respectively, Tables 3 and 4).
Instrumental delivery was associated with OASI in the primiparous women
(Table 3) and episiotomy with OASI in the multiparous women (Table 4).
We found no significant interactions or multicollinearities.
\textbf{Discussion}
In this unselected population, OASI was associated with known
non-modifiable factors like high maternal age, first pregnancy, and
large babies. Of potentially modifiable factors, OASI was associated
with induction of labour and instrumental vaginal delivery in
primiparous women, and with amniotomy and augmentation with oxytocin in
both primi- and multiparous women, procedures that are primarily
initiated to accelerate delivery.
The major strengths of this study were the unselected population, the
large number of participants, and completeness of data. We also consider
the inclusion of only one obstetric hospital a strength since no major
official changes in routines were introduced, although we cannot exclude
gradual unrecognized changes during this 13-year period. The
retrospective nature of the study may be a weakness since reasons for
performing amniotomy and augmentation with oxytocin were not necessarily
specified and since vigilance in classifying perineal rupture may have
been less accurate than in a planned prospective study. Furthermore, the
women were not routinely followed after discharge from the hospital. The
time lap between the collection and publication of data may make the
results less valid of today's practice since increased focus on reducing
the incidence of OASI has been implemented since the data were collected
(20, 23). However, the use of induction of labour and augmentation with
oxytocin have increased nationally since these data were collected, and
the risks related to these interventions may correspond to what we found
(33).
To our knowledge, our study is the first to include amniotomy as a
potential independent risk factor for OASI. Amniotomy was the strongest
independent modifiable risk factor regardless of parity and suggests
that attention to indications and timing of amniotomy may be a hitherto
unrecognized means of preventing OASI. The use of amniotomy varies
between institutions both in Norway and other countries and ranges from
20\% to 60\% (34, 35). However, in our experience the documentation of
amniotomy in patient charts during labour is highly variable. Even
though we have a national high-quality birth register in Norway, the use
of amniotomy in spontaneous labour is not reported (33).
With the goal of reducing cesarean births through active management of
labour, amniotomy has been widely and readily accepted to avoid labour
for more than 12 hours (36). However, reducing length of labour might
not be a benefit for all women, and a Cochrane review from 2013
concluded that there is no evidence to support routine amniotomy to
shorten spontaneous labour or to avoid prolonged labour (37). The
mechanism behind the association between amniotomy and OASI is unclear,
but we speculate that amniotomy may disrupt the normal physiologic
process of gradual adaptation of the birth canal and thereby a higher
risk of trauma.
In the present study, we also found that augmentation with oxytocin was
an independent risk factor for OASI for both primi- and multiparous
women. This is in accordance with previous studies (1, 38). Augmentation
with oxytocin is widely used when labour is delayed, and probably more
than half of women in labour worldwide receive oxytocin augmentation
(33, 35, 39). However, this varies widely between countries and within
the same country. In our study, 60\% of the primiparous and 46.7\% of
the multiparous women were augmented with oxytocin, which is in line
with current rates in maternity wards in Norway (35). Increased and
reduced control of contractions are known potential adverse effect of
augmentation of labour with oxytocin (40). We suggest that the effects
of augmentation with oxytocin are similar to that of amniotomy in that
the birth progress may be more rapid than the natural adaptation of the
birth canal.
Instrumental vaginal delivery is a well-established risk factor for OASI
(1, 2, 6, 31). However, this was only an independent risk factor for
primiparous women in our study. Instrumental delivery was also
associated with OASI in multiparous women in the unadjusted analysis,
and the reason for no significant association in the adjusted analysis
may partly be that the study lacked power to detect a risk since
instruments were rarely used in this group.
In conclusion, the study suggests that indications for and timing of
amniotomy and augmentation of the birth process with oxytocin need to be
readdressed in order to reduce the risk of severe perineal ruptures.
\textbf{Disclosure of interests:}
No conflict of interest for any of the authors.
\textbf{Contribution to Authorship:}
As the principal investigator, RK contributed in the conceptualization,
planning and carrying out of the study. RK also participated in the
analyses of the data and writing of the manuscript.
KSB contributed in the analyses of the data and the writing of the
manuscript.
TM contributed in the conceptualization, planning and carrying out of
the study and in the writing of the manuscript. TM also supervised the
analyses of the data
MNH-A carried out the washing and analyses of the data and contributed
in the writing of the manuscript.
The authors accept responsibility for the paper as published.
\textbf{Details of Ethics Approval:}
The research project was approved by the Norwegian Social Science Data
Services (project number: 2614) and The Norwegian Data Protection
Authority (reference code: 95/2691-2 GSØ).
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rupture: a retrospective study. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand.
2003;82(3):246-50.
13. Gommesen D, Nohr EA, Qvist N, Rasch V. Obstetric perineal
ruptures-risk of anal incontinence among primiparous women 12 months
postpartum: a prospective cohort study. Am J Obstet Gynecol.
2020;222(2):165 e1- e11.
14. Laine K, Skjeldestad FE, Sandvik L, Staff AC. Prevalence and Risk
Indicators for Anal Incontinence among Pregnant Women. ISRN Obstet
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15. Leeman L, Rogers R, Borders N, Teaf D, Qualls C. The Effect of
Perineal Lacerations on Pelvic Floor Function and Anatomy at 6 Months
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degree tears? Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2002;101(1):19-21.
17. Andrews V, Sultan AH, Thakar R, Jones PW. Risk factors for obstetric
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18. Andrews V, Thakar R, Sultan AH. Structured hands-on training in
repair of obstetric anal sphincter injuries (OASIS): an audit of
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2009;20(2):193-9.
19. Harvey MA, Pierce M, Alter JE, Chou Q, Diamond P, Epp A, et al.
Obstetrical Anal Sphincter Injuries (OASIS): Prevention, Recognition,
and Repair. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2015;37(12):1131-48.
20. Laine K, Skjeldestad FE, Sandvik L, Staff AC. Incidence of obstetric
anal sphincter injuries after training to protect the perineum: cohort
study. BMJ Open. 2012;2(5).
21. Naidu M, Sultan AH, Thakar R. Reducing obstetric anal sphincter
injuries using perineal support: our preliminary experience. Int
Urogynecol J. 2017;28(3):381-9.
22. Tunestveit JW, Baghestan E, Natvig GK, Eide GE, Nilsen ABV. Factors
associated with obstetric anal sphincter injuries in midwife-led birth:
A cross sectional study. Midwifery. 2018;62:264-72.
23. Hals E, Oian P, Pirhonen T, Gissler M, Hjelle S, Nilsen EB, et al. A
multicenter interventional program to reduce the incidence of anal
sphincter tears. Obstet Gynecol. 2010;116(4):901-8.
24. De Meutter L, A DvH, van der Woerdt-Eltink I, de Leeuw JW.
Implementation of a perineal support programme for reduction of the
incidence of obstetric anal sphincter injuries and the effect of
non-compliance. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2018;230:119-23.
25. Skriver-Moller AC, Madsen ML, Poulsen MO, Overgaard C. Do we know
enough? A quality assessment of the Finnish intervention to prevent
obstetric anal sphincter injuries. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med.
2016;29(21):3461-6.
26. Jango H, Westergaard HB, Kjaerbye-Thygesen A, Langhoff-Roos J,
Lauenborg J. Changing incidence of obstetric anal sphincter injuries-A
result of formal prevention programs? Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand.
2019;98(11):1455-63.
27. Gurol-Urganci I, Bidwell P, Sevdalis N, Silverton L, Novis V,
Freeman R, et al. Impact of a quality improvement project to reduce the
rate of obstetric anal sphincter injury: a multicentre study with a
stepped-wedge design. BJOG. 2021;128(3):584-92.
28. Poulsen MO, Madsen ML, Skriver-Moller AC, Overgaard C. Does the
Finnish intervention prevent obstetric anal sphincter injuries? A
systematic review of the literature. BMJ Open. 2015;5(9):e008346.
29. Laine K, Rotvold W, Staff AC. Are obstetric anal sphincter ruptures
preventable?-- large and consistent rupture rate variations between the
Nordic countries and between delivery units in Norway. Acta Obstet
Gynecol Scand. 2013;92(1):94-100.
30. Hehir MP, Fitzpatrick M, Cassidy M, Murphy M, O'Herlihy C. Are women
having a vaginal birth after a previous caesarean delivery at increased
risk of anal sphincter injury? BJOG. 2014;121(12):1515-20.
31. Ramm O, Woo VG, Hung YY, Chen HC, Ritterman Weintraub ML. Risk
Factors for the Development of Obstetric Anal Sphincter Injuries in
Modern Obstetric Practice. Obstet Gynecol. 2018;131(2):290-6.
32. Selmer-Olsen T, Nohr EA, Tappert C, Eggebo TM. Incidence and risk
factors for obstetric anal sphincter ruptures, OASIS, following the
introduction of preventive interventions. A retrospective cohort study
from a Norwegian hospital 2012-2017. Sex Reprod Healthc. 2019;22:100460.
33. The Norwegian Institute of Public Health. 2021 {[}cited 2021
24.03.2021{]}. Available from:
https://www.fhi.no/en/hn/health-registries/medical-birth-registry-of-norway/.
34. Seijmonsbergen-Schermers AE, Zondag DC, Nieuwenhuijze M, van den
Akker T, Verhoeven CJ, Geerts CC, et al. Regional variations in
childbirth interventions and their correlations with adverse outcomes,
birthplace and care provider: A nationwide explorative study. PLoS One.
2020;15(3):e0229488.
35. Gaudernack LC, Froslie KF, Michelsen TM, Voldner N, Lukasse M.
De-medicalization of birth by reducing the use of oxytocin for
augmentation among first-time mothers - a prospective intervention
study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2018;18(1):76.
36. O'Driscoll K MD, Boylan P. Active management of labour. 3rd ed.
London: Mosby; 1993.
37. Smyth RM, Alldred SK, Markham C. Amniotomy for shortening
spontaneous labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013(1):CD006167.
39. Rygh AB, Skjeldestad FE, Korner H, Eggebo TM. Assessing the
association of oxytocin augmentation with obstetric anal sphincter
injury in nulliparous women: a population-based, case-control study. BMJ
Open. 2014;4(7):e004592.
39. Zhang J, Branch DW, Ramirez MM, Laughon SK, Reddy U, Hoffman M, et
al. Oxytocin regimen for labor augmentation, labor progression, and
perinatal outcomes. Obstet Gynecol. 2011;118(2 Pt 1):249-56.
40. Oscarsson ME, Amer-Wahlin I, Rydhstroem H, Kallen K. Outcome in
obstetric care related to oxytocin use. A population-based study. Acta
Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2006;85(9):1094-8.
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\declaredocument{Curriculum Vit\ae{} of Vincent HILAIRE}{}{CV-HILAIRE-EN-2019-I8}
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\gdef\MYBIO{Vincent Hilaire received his doctorate in computer
science and his position as senior lecturer in the {"}Universit{\'e} de
Technologie de Belfort-Montb{\'e}liard{"} in 2000. He received his Research
Direction Habilitation, at the {"}Universit{\'e} de Franche-Comt{\'e}{"} in 2008.
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Laboratory. His research interests include: formal specification and methods for engineering multi-agent systems, knowledge management based on
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\begin{document}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=.25\linewidth]{photoId.png}
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\section{Identification}
\begin{tabularx}{\linewidth}{lX}
{\bf Name, Firstname:} & HILAIRE Vincent \\
{\bf Professional Position:} & Full Professor \\
{\bf French National Section:} & 27 - Informatique \\
{\bf Teaching Institution:}& Universit\'e de Technologie de Belfort-Montb\'eliard, Rue Thierry Mieg 90010 \textsc{Belfort} cedex, France\\
{\bf Research Laboratory:} & IRTES-SET (Laboratoire Syst\`emes et Transports, Institut de Recherche Transport \'Energie Soci\'et\'e, Belfort, France) \\
{\bf Email:} & [email protected] \\
{\bf Web site:} & http://multiagent.fr/People:Hilaire\_vincent \\
\end{tabularx}
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\textcolor{red}{\large This curriculum vit{\ae} is generated by a bot automatically, from data published on the website above. To obtain an official curriculum vit{\ae}, please contact Vincent HILAIRE directly.}
\section{Biography}
\MYBIO
\newpage
\section{Scientifical Publications}
\noindent\begin{tabularx}{\linewidth}{|X|X|X|X|X|X|X|X|X|}\hline
\small International journal with reading committee & \small National journal with reading committee & \small International conference with proceedings & \small National conference with proceedings & \small International conference without proceedings & \small National conference without proceedings & \small Book & \small Book chapter & \small Popularization Paper \\
\hline
30 & 1 & 77 & 4 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 9 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabularx}
\subsection{International journal with reading committee}
\subsubsection{2016}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Pedro ARAUJO}, {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``A metamodeling approach for the identification of organizational smells in multi-agent systems: application to ASPECS.'' In Artificial Intelligence Review ISSN: 1573-7462. DOI: 10.1007/s10462-016-9521-7. 2016.
\item {Gillian BASSO}, {Massimo COSSENTINO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Fabrice LAURI}, {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}, {Valeria SEIDITA}. ``Engineering multi-agent systems using feedback loops and holarchies.'' In Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, vol. 55, pp. 14-25, Elsevier 2016.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2015}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Youness CHAABI}, {Rochdi MESSOUSSI}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Yassine RUICHEK}, {Khadija LEKDIOUI}. ``Design of an intelligent system to support tutors in learning communities using Multi-Agent Systems and fuzzy logic.'' In International Review on Computers and Software (IRECOS), vol. 10(8), pp. 26, Praise Worthy Prize 2015.
\item {Yishuai LIN}, {Philippe DESCAMPS}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Multi-Agent System for intelligent Scrum project management.'' In Integrated Computer-Aided Engineering, vol. 22(3), pp. 281-296, IOS Press DOI: 10.3233/ICA-150491. 2015.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2014}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Davy MONTICOLO}, {Simona MIHAITA}, {Hind DARWICH}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``An agent-based system to build project memories during engineering projects.'' In Knowledge-Based Systems, vol. 68, pp. 88-102, Elsevier ISSN: 0950-7051. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.knosys.2013.12.022. 2014.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2013}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Ye YAO}, {Cai WANDONG}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Statistical analysis technique on Ad Hoc network topology dynamic characteristics: Markov stochastic process.'' In Telecommunication Systems, pp. 1-13, Springer ISSN: 1018-4864. DOI: 10.1007/s11235-013-9674-5. 2013.
\item {Gillian BASSO}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {Franck GECHTER}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Fabrice LAURI}. ``A Framework for Qualifying and Evaluating Smart Grids Approaches: Focus on Multi-Agent Technologies.'' In Smart Grid and Renewable Energy, vol. 4(4) DOI: 10.4236/sgre.2013.44040. 2013.
\item {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Massimo COSSENTINO}, {Franck GECHTER}, {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``An approach for the integration of swarm intelligence in {MAS}: an engineering perspective.'' In Expert Systems with Applications, vol. 40(4), pp. 1323-1332 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2012.08.058. 2013.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2012}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Inaya LAHOUD}, {Davy MONTICOLO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``Mapping the semantic web to SQL query to extract knowledge.'' In Journal of E-Technology, vol. 3(2), pp. 69-86, DLINE ISSN: 0976-3503. 2012.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2011}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Yishuai LIN}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``A conceptualization of organizations involved in Product Design: a first step towards reasoning and knowledge management.'' In International Journal of Digital Information and Wireless Communications, vol. 1(1), pp. 141-153, The Society of Digital Information and Wireless Communications (SDIWC) ISSN: 2225-658X. 2011.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2010}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Massimo COSSENTINO}, {St{\'e}phane GALLAND}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``An organisational approach to engineer emergence within holarchies.'' In International Journal of Agent Oriented Software Engineering, vol. 4(3), pp. 304-329 2010.
\item {Massimo COSSENTINO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Holons for Analysis, Modelling and Simulation of Complex Systems.'' In European Research Consortium for Informatics and Mathematics news, (81), pp. 40-41 2010.
\item {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Fabrice LAURI}, {Pablo GRUER}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}. ``Formal Specification of an Immune Based Agent Architecture.'' In Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, vol. 23(4), pp. 505-513 DOI: 10.1016/j.engappai.2009.12.003. 2010.
\item {Valeria SEIDITA}, {Massimo COSSENTINO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {St{\'e}phane GALLAND}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Salvatore GAGLIO}. ``The Metamodel: a Starting Point for Design Processes Construction.'' In International Journal of Software Engineering and Knowledge Engineering (IJSEKE), vol. 20(4), pp. 575-608, World Scientific Publishing Company DOI: 10.1142/S0218194010004785. 2010.
\item {Massimo COSSENTINO}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {St{\'e}phane GALLAND}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``{ASPECS}: an agent-oriented software process for engineering complex systems - How to design agent societies under a holonic perspective.'' In Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems, vol. 2(2), pp. 260-304, Springer DOI: 10.1007/s10458-009-9099-4. 2010.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2009}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Samuel GOMES}, {Davy MONTICOLO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``Content Management based on Multi Agent Systems for Collaborative Design.'' In International Journal of Product Development, vol. 8(2), pp. 178-192, Inderscience 2009.
\item {Jaroslaw KOZLAK}, {Jean-Charles CREPUT}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Multi-Agent Environment for Modelling and Solving Dynamic Transport Problems.'' In Computing and Informatics, vol. 28(3), pp. 277-298, Slovak Academy of Sciences 2009.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2008}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Nicolas GAUD}, {St{\'e}phane GALLAND}, {Franck GECHTER}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Holonic multilevel simulation of complex systems: Application to real-time pedestrians simulation in virtual urban environment.'' In Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory, vol. 16(10), pp. 1659-1676 DOI: 10.1016/j.simpat.2008.08.015. 2008.
\item {Davy MONTICOLO}, {Samuel GOMES}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``An approach to Support the Knowledge Management Process inside Professional Activities.'' In International Journal of Product Lifecycle Management, vol. 3(2/3), pp. 211-228 2008.
\item {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}. ``An Adaptative Agent Architecture for Holonic Multi-Agent Systems.'' In ACM Transactions on Autonomous and Adaptive Systems, vol. 3(1), pp. 1-24, ACM 2008.
\item {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Pablo GRUER}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Olivier SIMONIN}. ``Formal Driven Prototyping Approach for Multi-Agent Systems.'' In International Journal of Agent Oriented Software Engineering, vol. 2(2), pp. 246-266 2008.
\item {Davy MONTICOLO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Samuel GOMES}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``A Multi-agent System for Building Project Memories to Facilitate Design Process.'' In Integrated Computer-Aided Engineering, vol. 15(1) 2008.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2007}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Towards a holonic multiple aspect analysis and modeling approach for complex systems: Application to the simulation of industrial plants.'' In Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory, vol. 15(5), pp. 521-543, Elsevier 2007.
\item {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Pablo GRUER}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``A FORMAL HOLONIC FRAMEWORK WITH PROVED SELF-ORGANIZING CAPABILITIES.'' In International Journal of Cooperative Information Systems, vol. 16(1), pp. 7-25, World Scientific Publishing 2007.
\item {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Pablo GRUER}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Olivier SIMONIN}. ``Formal specification approach of Role Dynamics in agent organisations: Application to the Satisfaction-Altruism Model.'' In International Journal of Software Engineering and Knowledge Engineering, vol. 17(5), pp. 615-641, World Scientific Publishing 2007.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2006}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Jaroslaw KOZLAK}, {Jean-Charles CREPUT}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Multi-agent Approach to Dynamic Pick-up and Delivery Problem with Uncertain Knowledge about Future Transport Demands.'' In Fundamenta Informaticae, vol. 71(1), pp. 27-36, IOS Publisher 2006.
\item {Carole BERNON}, {Vincent CHEVRIER}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Paul MARROW}. ``Applications of Self-Organising Multi-Agent Systems: An Initial Framework for Comparison.'' In Informatica, vol. 30(1), pp. 73-84 2006.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2004}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Pablo GRUER}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Heterogeneous formal specification based on Object-Z and state charts: semantics and verification.'' In Journal of Systems and Software, vol. 70(1-2), pp. 95-105, Elsevier 2004.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2003}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Belhass{\`e}ne MAZIGH}, {Pablo GRUER}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``A Multiview Approach to modelling and Analysis of Discrete Event Systems.'' In Journal Systems Analysis Modelling Simulation, vol. 43(6) 2003.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2002}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Pablo GRUER}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {K CETNAROWICZ}. ``A formal framework for multi-agent systems analysis and design.'' In Expert Systems with Applications, vol. 23(4), pp. 349-355, Elsevier 2002.
\end{itemize}
\subsection{National journal with reading committee}
\subsubsection{2014}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Amine AHMED BENYAHIA}, {Amir HAJJAM EL HASSANI}, {Samy TALHA}, {Mohamed HAJJAM}, {Emmanuel ANDRES}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``{\'e}volution ontologique et am{\'e}lioration des connaissances pour le suivi des insuffisants cardiaques.'' In M{\'e}decine Th{\'e}rapeutique, vol. 20(2), pp. 79-86 DOI: 10,1684/met,2014,0451. 2014.
\end{itemize}
\subsection{International conference with proceedings}
\subsubsection{2018}
\begin{itemize}
\item {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Smail SELLAH}. ``AUTOMATIC GENERATION OF ONTOLOGIES: COMPARISON OF WORDS CLUSTERING APPROACHES.'' In Proc. of Applied Computing 18 2018.
\item {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Smail SELLAH}. ``A Document Clustering Approach for Automatic Building of Ontologies.'' In Proc. of he Second IEEE International Workshop on Data Science Engineering and its Applications 2018.
\item {Ezzine MISSAOUI}, {Belhass{\`e}ne MAZIGH}, {Sami BHIRI}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``A Decomposition-based Approach of Global Norms for Hierarchical Normative Systems.'' In Proc. of 22nd International Conference on Knowledge-Based and Intelligent Information \& Engineering Systems, pp. 778-787, Elsevier DOI: 10.1016/j.procs.2018.08.012. 2018.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2017}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Ezzine MISSAOUI}, {Belhass{\`e}ne MAZIGH}, {Sami BHIRI}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``A Normative Model for Holonic Multi-Agent System.'' In Proc. of ICTAI-17, pp. 8, IEEE 2017.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2016}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Philippe DESCAMPS}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Olivier LAMOTTE}, {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}. ``An experience of Engineering of MAS for Smart Environments: extension of ASPECS.'' In Proc. of Smart Digital Future 2016, Springer 2016.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2015}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Samuel DENIAUD}, {Philippe DESCAMPS}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Olivier LAMOTTE}, {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}. ``An Analysis and prototyping approach for Cyber-Physical Systems.'' In Proc. of Procedia Computer Science, pp. 520-525, elsevier DOI: 10.1016/j.procs.2015.07.245. 2015.
\item {Pedro ARAUJO}, {Diego LIZONDO}, {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``An approach for Organizational Design Smells identification within Multi-Agent Systems.'' In Proc. of International Workshop on Coordination, Organisation, Institutions and Norms in Multi-Agent Systems (COIN2015@IJCAI), pp. 10 2015.
\item {Inaya LAHOUD}, {Davy MONTICOLO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``A MAS to Assist mechanical engineers in the product’s design process.'' In Proc. of IDEAS Workshop 2015.
\item {Jiawei ZHU}, {Fabrice LAURI}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``A Hybrid Intelligent Control System based on PMV Optimization for Thermal Comfort in Smart Buildings.'' In Proc. of ICCSAMA 2015.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2014}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Jiawei ZHU}, {Fabrice LAURI}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``Managing Ventilation Systems for Improving User Comfort in Smart Buildings using Reinforcement Learning Agents.'' In Proc. of European Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery in Databases, PhD Session 2014.
\item {Jiawei ZHU}, {Fabrice LAURI}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``Fuzzy Logic Control Optimized by Artificial Immune System for Building Thermal Condition.'' In Proc. of International Conference on Swarm Intelligence Based Optimization 2014.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2013}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Jiawei ZHU}, {Fabrice LAURI}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Marcelo G. SIM{\~O}ES}. ``Improving Thermal Comfort in Residential Buildings using Artificial Immune Systems.'' In Proc. of Conference on Ubiquitous Intelligence and Computing 2013.
\item {Youness CHAABI}, {Rochdi MESSOUSSI}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Yassine RUICHEK}, {Raja TOUAHNI}. ``Conception et r{\'e}alisation d’un syst{\`e}me intelligent pour l’analyse automatique de conversations textuelles asynchrones d’apprenants pour la d{\'e}termination de comportements sociaux.'' In Proc. of Journ{\'e}es Doctorales en Technologies de l’Information et de la Communication 2013.
\item {Amine AHMED BENYAHIA}, {Amir HAJJAM EL HASSANI}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Mohamed HAJJAM}, {Emmanuel ANDRES}. ``E-Care Telemonitoring System: Extend the platform.'' In Proc. of The Fourth International Conference on Information, Intelligence, Systems and Applications (IISA), Piraeus, Greece 2013.
\item {Fabrice LAURI}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {St{\'e}phane GALLAND}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``Ipseity - A Laboratory for Synthesizing and Validating Artificial Cognitive Systems in Multi-Agent Systems.'' In Proc. of European Conference on Machine Learning 2013.
\item {Amine AHMED BENYAHIA}, {Amir HAJJAM EL HASSANI}, {Emmanuel ANDRES}, {Mohamed HAJJAM}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``Including other system in E-Care telemonitoring platform.'' In Proc. of International Conference on Informatics, Management and Technology in Healthcare ICIMTH 2013.
\item {Gillian BASSO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Fabrice LAURI}, {Damien PAIRE}, {Arnaud GAILLARD}. ``A Principled approach for smart microgrids simulation using MAS.'' In Proc. of MATES/JAWS Workshop - MAS\&S 2013.
\item {Fabrice LAURI}, {Gillian BASSO}, {Jiawei ZHU}, {Robin ROCHE}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Managing Power Flows in Microgrids Using Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning.'' In Proc. of Agent Technologies for Energy Systems (ATES) 2013.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2012}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Amine AHMED BENYAHIA}, {Amir HAJJAM EL HASSANI}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Mohamed HAJJAM}. ``e-Care : Ontological architecture for telemonitoring and alerts detection.'' In Proc. of proceedings of the 24th IEEE International Conference on Tools with Artificial Intelligence -ICTAI 2012 2012.
\item {Yishuai LIN}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Scrum conceptualization using K-CRIO ontology.'' In Proc. of Data-Driven Process Discovery and Analysis, First International Symposium, SIMPDA, Karl ABERER, Ernesto DAMIANI, Tharam DILLON (eds.), pp. 1-19, Campione d’Italia, Italy, Springer, Lecture Notes in Business Information Processing series, vol. 116 ISBN: 978-3-642-34043-7. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-34044-4\_11. 2012.
\item {Patrizia RIBINO}, {Carmelo LODATO}, {Salvatore LOPES}, {Valeria SEIDITA}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Massimo COSSENTINO}. ``A Norm-Governed Holonic Multi-Agent System Metamodel.'' In Proc. of proceedings of the AOSE workshop, Springer 2012.
\item {Belhass{\`e}ne MAZIGH}, {Ahmed HAMMED}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``To a Formal Modeling Approach of Error Recovery in Production Systems Based on Holonic Multi-Agent Systems Specification.'' In Proc. of 6th International KES Conference on Agents and Multi-agent Systems – Technologies and Applications 2012.
\item {Inaya LAHOUD}, {Davy MONTICOLO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Samuel GOMES}. ``A metamodeling and transformation approach for knowledge extraction.'' In Proc. of Fourth International Conference on Networked Digital Technologies (NDT'2012) 2012.
\item {Inaya LAHOUD}, {Davy MONTICOLO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``A multi-sources knowledge management system via semantic web services.'' In Proc. of 14th IFAC Symposium on Information Control Problems in Manufacturing (INCOM 2012) 2012.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2011}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Gillian BASSO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Fabrice LAURI}, {Robin ROCHE}, {Massimo COSSENTINO}. ``A {MAS}-based simulator for the prototyping of Smart Grids.'' In Proc. of 9th European Workshop on Multiagent Systems (EUMAS11) 2011.
\item {Yishuai LIN}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``{K-CRIO}: an ontology for organizations involved in product design.'' In Proc. of Digital Information and Communication Technology and Its Applications, pp. 362-376, Dijon, France, Springer ISBN: 9783642220265. 2011.
\item {Yishuai LIN}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Towards an ontological approach for the description of design processes: the Scrum example.'' In Proc. of First International Symposium on Data-Driven Process Discovery and Analysis (SIMPDA) 2011.
\item {Belhass{\`e}ne MAZIGH}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Formal Specification of Holonic Multi-agent Systems: Application to Distributed Maintenance Company.'' In Proc. of Advances on Practical Applications of Agents and Multiagent Systems, pp. 135-140. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2011.9th International Conference on Practical Applications of Agents and Multi-Agent Systems (PAAMS), Salamanca, Spain 2011.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2010}
\begin{itemize}
\item {St{\'e}phane GALLAND}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``Janus: Another Yet General-Purpose Multiagent Platform.'' In Proc. of the 7th Agent-Oriented Software Engineering Technical Forum (TFGAOSE-10), Agent Technical Fora, Paris, France, Agent Technical Fora 2010.
\item {Robin ROCHE}, {Benjamin BLUNIER}, {Abdellatif MIRAOUI}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Multi-agent systems for grid energy management: A short review.'' In Proc. of IECON 2010 - 36th Annual Conference on IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, pp. 3341 - 3346 ISBN: 978-1-4244-5225-5. ISSN: 1553-572X. DOI: 10.1109/IECON.2010.5675295. 2010.
\item {Massimo COSSENTINO}, {St{\'e}phane GALLAND}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``A Glimpse of the {ASPECS} Process documented with the {FIPA} {DPDF} Template.'' In Proc. of The Multi-Agent Logics, Languages, and Organisations Federated Workshops (MALLOW 2010), Lyon, France 2010.
\item {Davy MONTICOLO}, {Samuel GOMES}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Collaborative Knowledge Evaluation with a Semantic Wiki: WikiDesign.'' In Proc. of 12th International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems ICEIS 2010, Madeira, Portugal ISBN: 978-989-8425-04-1. 2010.
\item {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {St{\'e}phane GALLAND}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``An Approach based upon {OWL-S} for Method Fragments Documentation and Selection.'' In Proc. of the special track on Agent-Oriented Software Engineering Methodologies Infrastructures and Processes (AOIMP). 25th ACM Symposium on Applied Computing, Sierre, Switzerland, ACM 2010.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2009}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Achraf BEN MILED}, {Davy MONTICOLO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``A Comparison of Knowledge Management Approaches based on Multi Agent Systems.'' In Proc. of Fifth International Conference on Signal Image Technology and Internet Based Systems, SITIS 2009, Marrakesh, Morocco, IEEE ISBN: 978-0-7695-3959-1. 2009.
\item {Achraf BEN MILED}, {Davy MONTICOLO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``An Approach for Building Holonic Organizational Models of Design Processes for Knowledge Management.'' In Proc. of International Workshop on Organizational Modeling 2009.
\item {Maurizio CIRRINCIONE}, {Massimo COSSENTINO}, {Salvatore GAGLIO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Marcello PUCCI}, {Luca SABATUCCI}, {Gianpaolo VITALE}. ``Intelligent Energy Management System.'' In Proc. of Proceedings of the IEEE indin conference 2009.
\item {Achraf BEN MILED}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Davy MONTICOLO}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``A Multi-Agent Based Approach for Knowledge Transfer In Product Design Contexts.'' In Proc. of International Conference on Computers \& Industrial Engineering 2009.
\item {Nicolas GAUD}, {St{\'e}phane GALLAND}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``An Organizational Platform for Holonic and Multiagent Systems.'' In Proc. of 6th International Workshop ProMAS 2008, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 5442, Koen V. HINDRIKS, Alexander POKAHR, Sebastian SARDINA (eds.), pp. 104-119, Estoril, Portugal, Springer Berlin Heidelberg ISBN: 978-3-642-03277-6. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-03278-3\_7. 2009.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2008}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Achraf BEN MILED}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Davy MONTICOLO}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Reusing knowledge by Multi Agent System and Ontology.'' In Proc. of 4th IEEE International Conference on Signal Image Technology and Internet Based Systems, SITIS 2008, Bali, Indonesia, IEEE ISBN: 978-0-7695-3493-0. 2008.
\item {Massimo COSSENTINO}, {St{\'e}phane GALLAND}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``How to control emergence of behaviours in a holarchy.'' In Proc. of the Int. Workshop on Self-Adaptation for Robustness and Cooperation in Holonic Multi-Agent Systems (SARC-2008) at the Second International Conference on Self-Adaptive and Self-Organizaing Systems (SASO 2008), Venice, Italy, IEEE Computer Society 2008.
\item {Ye YAO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Cai WANDONG}. ``A cluster based hybrid architecture for wireless sensor networks.'' In Proc. of 2008 International Symposium on Information Science and Engineering, ISISE 2008, pp. 297-302, IEEE 2008.
\item {Ye YAO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Cai WANDONG}. ``A RIO Approach for Modeling Wireless Sensor Network.'' In Proc. of The 9th International Conference for Young Computer Scientists (ICYCS), pp. 481-486, IEEE DOI: 10.1109/ICYCS.2008.83. 2008.
\item {Massimo COSSENTINO}, {Salvatore GAGLIO}, {St{\'e}phane GALLAND}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Valeria SEIDITA}. ``A {MAS} metamodel-driven approach to process composition.'' In Proc. of the Ninth International Workshop on Agent-Oriented Software Engineering (AOSE-2008) at The Seventh International Joint Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems (AAMAS 2008), pp. 86-100, Estoril, Portugal, Springer-Verlag ISBN: 978-3-642-01337-9. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-01338-6. 2008.
\item {Nicolas GAUD}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {St{\'e}phane GALLAND}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Massimo COSSENTINO}. ``A Verification by Abstraction Framework for Organizational Multiagent Systems.'' In Proc. of the Sixth International Workshop AT2AI-6: {"}From Agent Theory to Agent Implementation{"}, of the Seventh International Conference on Autonomous agents and Multiagent Systems (AAMAS), Bernhard JUNG, Fabien MICHEL, Alessandro RICCI, Paolo PETTA (eds.), pp. 67-73, Estoril, Portugal 2008.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2007}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Nicolas GAUD}, {St{\'e}phane GALLAND}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Massimo COSSENTINO}. ``A Metamodel and Implementation Platform for Holonic Multi-Agent Systems.'' In Proc. of the Fifth European Workshop on Multi-Agent Systems(EUMAS’07), Hammameth (Tunisia) 2007.
\item {Davy MONTICOLO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Samuel GOMES}. ``A multi agent model to support the knowledge management process inside professional activities.'' In Proc. of 2nd International Conference on Digital Information Management (ICDIM), Lyon, France 2007.
\item {Davy MONTICOLO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Samuel GOMES}. ``ONTODESIGN; A DOMAIN ONTOLOGY FOR BUILDING AND EXPLOITING PROJECT MEMORIES IN MECHANICAL DESIGN PROJECTS.'' In Proc. of 2nd International Conference in Knowledge Management in Organizations, Lecce, Italy 2007.
\item {Davy MONTICOLO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Patrick SERRAFERO}, {Samuel GOMES}. ``Knowledge capitalization process linked to the design process.'' In Proc. of Knowledge Management and Organizational Memory workshop 2007.
\item {Massimo COSSENTINO}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {St{\'e}phane GALLAND}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``A Holonic Metamodel for Agent-Oriented Analysis and Design.'' In Proc. of LNAI 4659 {"}Holonic and Multi-Agent Systems for Manufacturing{"} (HoloMAS'07 International Conference), V. MARIK, V. VYATKIN, A.W. COLOMBO (eds.), pp. 237-246 2007.
\item {Davy MONTICOLO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Samuel GOMES}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``An approach to manage Knowledge based on multi-agents System using a Ontology.'' In Proc. of 19th International Conference on System Research, Informatics \& Cybernetics (InterSymp 2007), Symposium on Representation of Context in Software, Baden-Baden 2007.
\item {Davy MONTICOLO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Samuel GOMES}. ``An e-Groupware based on Multi Agents Systems for Knowledge Management.'' In Proc. of 6th IEEE International Conference on Digital Ecosystems and Technologies conference (DEST), Cairns, Australia 2007.
\item {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {St{\'e}phane GALLAND}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``An analysis and design concept for self-organization in Holonic Multi-Agent Systems.'' In Proc. of International Conference on Engineering Self-Organising Systems, Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 4435, Et Al BRUECKNER S. (eds.), pp. 15-27, Springer-Verlag ISBN: 978-3-540-69867-8. 2007.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2006}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Davy MONTICOLO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {S{\'e}bastien MEUNIER}. ``An Approach for Building Project Memories to Facilitate Design Process in a Concurrent Engineering Context.'' In Proc. of 13th ISPE International Conference on Concurrent Engineering (ISPE CE 2006),, pp. 279-287, Antibes, France ISBN: 978-1-58603-651-5. 2006.
\item {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {St{\'e}phane GALLAND}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``An analysis and design concept for self-organization in Holonic Multi-Agent Systems.'' In Proc. of the International Workshop on Engineering Self-Organizing Applications (ESOA’06), pp. 62-75, Springer-Verlag 2006.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2005}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Multi-Agent Coordination is Arbitration from a Super-Holon Point of View.'' In Proc. of proceedings of Multi-Agents for Complex Systems- European Conference on Complex Systems 2005.
\item {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Holonic Modelling of Environments for Situated Multi-Agent Systems.'' In Proc. of Second International Workshop Environments for Multi-Agent Systems, E4MAS 2005, Utrecht, The Netherlands. Lecture Notes in Computer Science 3830 Springer 2006 ISBN: 3-540-32614-6. 2005.
\item {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Formal Specification of Holonic Multi-agent Systems Framework.'' In Proc. of 5th International Conference on Computational Science- ICCS 2005, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 3516, Springer-Verlag ISBN: 978-3-540-26044-8. 2005.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2004}
\begin{itemize}
\item {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Olivier SIMONIN}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Jacques FERBER}. ``A Formal Approach to Design and Reuse Agent and Multiagent Models.'' In Proc. of Agent-Oriented Software Engineering V, 5th International Workshop, AOSE 2004, New York, NY, USA . Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 3382, 2005., James ODELL, Paolo GIORGINI (eds.), pp. -, Springer-Verlag ISBN: 978-3-540-24286-4. 2004.
\item {Jaroslaw KOZLAK}, {Jean-Charles CREPUT}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Multi-agent environment for dynamic transport planning and scheduling.'' In Proc. of 4th International Conference on Computational Science - ICCS 2004. Lecture Notes in Computer Science vol. 3038, pp. 638-645, Krakow, Poland, Springer-Verlag ISBN: 3-540-22116-6. 2004.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2003}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Towards a methodological Framework for Holonic Multi-Agent Systems.'' In Proc. of Fourth International Workshop of Engineering Societies in the Agents World (ESAW), Springer Verlag 2003.
\item {Mohamed BAKHOUYA}, {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Jaafar GABER}. ``Intelligent Immune-based System for Autonomous Soccer Robots.'' In Proc. of FIRA Robot World Congress, Vienna, Austria 2003.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2002}
\begin{itemize}
\item {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Pablo GRUER}. ``A Mechanism for Dynamic Role Playing.'' In Proc. of Agent Technologies, Infrastructures, Tools and Applications for E-Services, Springer Verlag 2002.
\item {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``An Architecture for Multi-Agent Systems in the Robot-Soccer Field.'' In Proc. of proceedings of the AgentDay conference 2002.
\item {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Pablo GRUER}. ``a Multi-Agent System featuring Virtual Character in Play for Theatre.'' In Proc. of proceedings of the AgentDay conference 2002.
\item {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Pablo GRUER}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Abdellah EL MOUDNI}. ``Engineering Soccer Robots Behaviours.'' In Proc. of FIRA Robot Congress 2002.
\item {Abdelhamid BERDAI}, {Pablo GRUER}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``A multi-agent model for the estimation of passenger waiting time in public transportation networks.'' In Proc. of 2nd WSEAS Int. Conf. on Simulation, Modeling and Optimization (ICOSMO 2002), Skiathos, GREECE ISBN: 960-8052-68-8. 2002.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2001}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Pablo GRUER}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Multi-Agent Approach to Modeling and Simulation of Urban Transportation Systems.'' In Proc. of IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Conference, Tucson, USA, IEEE Computer Society Press ISBN: 0-7803-7087-2. 2001.
\item {Pablo GRUER}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Sa{\"{\i}}d HAYAT}. ``a Methodology based on multiples views for Multi-Agent Systems in Simulation, application to the Transportation domain.'' In Proc. of 13th European Simulation Symposium 2001.
\item {K CETNAROWICZ}, {Pablo GRUER}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``A Formal Specification of M-Agent Architecture.'' In Proc. of Second International Workshop of Central and Eastern Europe on Multi-Agent Systems, CEEMAS 2001 Cracow, Poland. Lecture Notes in Computer Science Vol 2296, ISBN: 3-540-43370-8. 2001.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2000}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Rodolfo CAMPERO}, {Pablo GRUER}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Pablo ROVARINI}. ``Modeling and simulation of Agent-oriented systems: an approach based on Object-Z and the Statecharts.'' In Proc. of Agent Based Simulation 2000.
\item {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Pablo GRUER}, {Jean-Pierre MULLER}. ``Formal Specification and Prototyping of Multi-Agent Systems.'' In Proc. of Engineering Societies in the Agents' World (ESAW) 2000.
\item {Pablo GRUER}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Towards Verification of Multi-Agent Systems.'' In Proc. of Fourth International Conference on MultiAgent Systems, Boston, USA, IEEE Computer Society Press 2000.
\item {Pablo GRUER}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Verification of Object-Z Specifications by using Transition Systems: Application to the Radiomobile Network Design Problem.'' In Proc. of Fundamental Aspects of Software Engineering, Third Internationsl Conference, FASE 2000. Lecture Notes in Computer Science 1783, Berlin, Germany, Springer Verlag 2000.
\item {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Thomas LISSAJOUX}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Jean-Charles CREPUT}. ``A Multi-Agent Approach to Adaptive Mesh Generation.'' In Proc. of Agent-Based Simulation, SCS-Europe, Passau, Germany, May 2-3 2000.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{1999}
\begin{itemize}
\item {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Thomas LISSAJOUX}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Towards an executable specification of Multi-Agent Systems.'' In Proc. of International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems 1999.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{1998}
\begin{itemize}
\item {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Thomas LISSAJOUX}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``AgentCharts : an operational model for situated multi-agent systems.'' In Proc. of nternational Conference on Advanced Computer Systems ACS'98 1998.
\item {Thomas LISSAJOUX}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Genetic algorithms as prototyping tools for multi-agent systems: An application to the antenna setting problem.'' In Proc. of Intelligent Agents for Telecommunication Applications, IATA 98. Lecture Notes in Computer Science 1437, Springer-Verlag 1998.
\end{itemize}
\subsection{National conference with proceedings}
\subsubsection{2014}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Youness CHAABI}, {Messoussi ROCHDI}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Khadija LEKDIOUI}, {Yassine RUICHEK}, {Raja TOUAHNI}. ``Conception et r{\'e}alisation d’un syst{\`e}me intelligent pour l’analyse automatique de conversations textuelles asynchrones d’apprenants pour la d{\'e}termination de comportements sociaux.'' In Proc. of SITA'14 - 9th International Conference on Intelligent Systems: Theories and Applications 2014.
\item {Jiawei ZHU}, {Fabrice LAURI}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``Improving Thermal Comfort in Smart Buildings by an Artificial Immune System.'' In Proc. of 3{\`e}mes Journ{\'e}es des Jeunes Chercheurs de l'UTBM (Ing{\'e}Doc 2014), UTBM Press 2014.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2009}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Davy MONTICOLO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Samuel GOMES}. ``KATRAS ; un syst{\`e}me multi-agents pour la gestion des connaissances lors des projets de conception m{\'e}canique.'' In Proc. of Dix Septi{\`e}mes Journ{\'e}es Francophones sur les Syst{\`e}mes Multi-Agents, JFSMA 09 ISBN: 978-2-85428-911-4. 2009.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2000}
\begin{itemize}
\item {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Pablo GRUER}, {Jean-Pierre MULLER}. ``Vers une m{\'e}thodologie formelle de sp{\'e}cification de Syst{\`e}mes Multi-Agents.'' In Proc. of Journ{\'e}es Francophones sur l'Intelligence Artificielle Distribu{\'e}e et les Syst{\`e}mes Multi Agents 2000.
\end{itemize}
\subsection{International conference without proceedings}
\subsubsection{2007}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Massimo COSSENTINO}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {St{\'e}phane GALLAND}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``{ASPECS:} an Agent-oriented Software Process for Engineering Complex Systems.'' In Proc. of the Fifth Agent Oriented Software Engineering Technical Forum (AOSE-TF5), Hammameth (Tunisia) 2007.
\end{itemize}
\subsection{National conference without proceedings}
\subsubsection{2014}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Cedric BOITTIN}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {David MEIGNAN}. ``Variable selection in Land-Use and Transport Integrated models.'' In Proc. of SYMPOSIUM “TOWARD INTEGRATED MODELLING OF URBAN SYSTEMS” 2014.
\end{itemize}
\subsection{Book}
\subsubsection{2014}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Massimo COSSENTINO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Ambra MOLESINI}, {Valeria SEIDITA}. ``Handbook on Agent-Oriented Design Processes.'' Springer ISBN: 978-3-642-39974-9. 2014.
\end{itemize}
\subsection{Book chapter}
\subsubsection{2014}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Massimo COSSENTINO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {St{\'e}phane GALLAND}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``The ASPECS Process.'' Chapter in Handbook on Agent-Oriented Design Processes, chapter 4, pp. 65-114, Springer ISBN: 978-3-642-39975-6. 2014.
\item {Massimo COSSENTINO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Valeria SEIDITA}. ``The OpenUP Process.'' Chapter in Handbook on Agent-Oriented Design Processes, chapter 15, pp. 491-566, Springer ISBN: 978-3-642-39974-9. 2014.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2013}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Amine AHMED BENYAHIA}, {Amir HAJJAM EL HASSANI}, {Emmanuel ENDRES}, {Mohamed HAJJAM}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}. ``Including other system in E-Care telemonitoring platform.'' Chapter in Studies in Health Technology and Informatics, vol. 190, pp. 115-117, IOS Press 2013.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2012}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Amine AHMED BENYAHIA}, {Amir HAJJAM EL HASSANI}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Mohamed HAJJAM}. ``Ontological Architecture for Management of Telemonitoring System and Alerts Detection.'' Chapter in eHealth and Remote Monitoring, chapter 5, pp. 85-96, intech ISBN: 978-953-51-0734-7. 2012.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2011}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {St{\'e}phane GALLAND}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``Holonic Multi-Agent Systems.'' Chapter in Self-organizing Software: From Natural to Artificial Adaptation, (first edition), Self-Organising Software From Natural to Artificial Adaptation - Natural Computing series, chapter 11, pp. 238-263, Springer ISBN: 978-3642173479. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-17348-6\_11. 2011.
\item {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}. ``Immune Systems.'' Chapter in Self-organizing Software: From Natural to Artificial Adaptation, (1 edition), Natural Computing Series series, chapter 10, pp. 216-236, Springer ISBN: 978-3642173479. 2011.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2009}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Davy MONTICOLO}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Samuel GOMES}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``An ontological approach to managing project memories in organizations.'' Chapter in Semantic Knowledge Management: An Ontology-Based Framework, vol. 2, chapter 9, pp. 244-268, IGI Global 2009.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2007}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Sebastian RODRIGUEZ}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``A Holonic Approach to Model and Deploy Large Scale Simulations.'' Chapter in Multi-Agent Based SImulations VII, Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence, vol. 4442, pp. 112-127, Springer-Verlag ISBN: 978-3-540-76536-3. 2007.
\end{itemize}
\subsubsection{2002}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Pablo GRUER}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}. ``approche multi-formalismes pour la sp{\'e}cification des syst{\`e}mes multi-agents.'' Chapter in Organisation et applications des SMA, chapter 1, pp. 1-15, HERMES Science Publications/ LAVOISIER 2002.
\end{itemize}
\subsection{Popularization Paper}
\subsubsection{2016}
\begin{itemize}
\item {Abdeljalil ABBAS-TURKI}, {Jean-Charles CREPUT}, {Philippe DESCAMPS}, {St{\'e}phane GALLAND}, {Nicolas GAUD}, {Franck GECHTER}, {\uline{Vincent HILAIRE}}, {Abderrafiaa KOUKAM}, {Olivier LAMOTTE}, {Fabrice LAURI}. ``Dossier Intelligence Artificielle et Transport - L'{\'e}quipe syst{\`e}mes multiagents et optimisation de l'UTBM.'' In Bulletin AFIA, (91), pp. 37-40 2016.
\end{itemize}
\end{document}
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\bibitem{Skarpengland_etal2015} Skarpengland, T., Laugsand, L. E., Janszky, I., Luna, L., Halvorsen, B., Platou, C. G., et al. (2015). Genetic variants in the DNA repair gene NEIL3 and the risk of myocardial infarction in a nested case-control study. The HUNT Study. \textit{DNA repair}, \textit{28}, 21--27.
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\section*{2016}
Awasthi, B., Williams, M. A., \& Friedman, J. (2016). Examining the role of red background in magnocellular contribution to face perception. \textit{PeerJ}, \textit{4}, e1617.
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\bibitem{Kuhnert_etal2016} Kuhnert, M., Yeluripati, J., Smith, P., Hoffmann, H., van Oijen, M., Constantin, J., et al. (2016). Impact analysis of climate data aggregation at different spatial scales on simulated net primary productivity for croplands. \textit{European Journal of Agronomy}, \textit{88}, 41--52.
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%@P:exocorcp
%@Dif:2
On a indiqué en ligne les multiplications et leurs produits. Pose et effectue chacune des multiplications afin de vérifier les multiplications.
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{ccc}
\opmul[style=text]{25.3}{12}&\opmul[style=text]{19.45}{2.5}&\opmul[style=text]{2.51}{0,42}\\
\desmul{4}{25.3}{12}&\desmul{5}{19.45}{2.5}&\desmul{4}{2.51}{0,42}\\
\\
\\
\\
\\
\opmul[style=text]{5.3}{1.2}&\opmul[style=text]{9.78}{5.2}&\opmul[style=text]{21.1}{0,258}\\
\desmul{3}{5.3}{1.2}&\desmul{4}{9.78}{5.2}&\desmul{5}{21.1}{0,258}\\
\\
\\
\\
\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
%@Correction:
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{ccc}
\opmul{25.3}{12}&\opmul{19.45}{2.5}&\opmul{2.51}{0,42}\\
\opmul{5.3}{1.2}&\opmul{9.78}{5.2}&\opmul{21.1}{0,258}\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
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\newcommand{\sh}[1]{\code{\$ #1}}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\begin{document}
\title{Advanced 4\\Bash and Regex}
\author{EECS 201 Fall 2020}
\date{}
\maketitle
\section*{Submission Instructions}
This assignment will be submitted as a repository on the \href{https://gitlab.umich.edu}{UMich GitLab server}.
Create a Project on it with the name/path \code{eecs201-adv4} and add \code{brng} as a Reporter.
The repository should have the following directory structure, starting from the repository's root:
\begin{lstlisting}
/
|-- report.txt
|-- pig-latinfy.sh
\end{lstlisting}
\section*{Preface}
I highly suggest that you do this homework in a Linux environment,
be it WSL on Windows (on the Linux filesystem, not the Windows filesystem)
or your Ubuntu virtual machine.
The reasoning for this is that some tools that deal with regular expressions
(namely for this assignment: \code{sed}) may differ in behavior depending on *nix system.
Linux systems use GNU \code{sed} and \code{grep} while macOS (and FreeBSD)
use BSD \code{sed} and \code{grep} which have some subtle differences in behavior.
In particular, GNU \code{sed} on Linux has some helpful extensions that can deal with a particular case.
\\\\
In this assignment you'll be provided yet another zipped archive containing some starter empty files and scripts.
\begin{lstlisting}[language=bash]
$ wget https://www.eecs.umich.edu/courses/eecs201/files/assignments/adv4.tar.gz
\end{lstlisting}
Initialize a Git repository in the extracted \code{adv4} directory,
adding all of the script files and committing them.
Create a \textbf{private} project with the name/URL \code{eecs201-adv4} on the UMich GitLab (\url{gitlab.umich.edu})
and add the instructor \code{brng} as a \textbf{Reporter}.
Set this UMich GitLab project as your remote: you'll be pushing to it in order to submit.
\section{More \texttt{sed} fun (10)}
Pig Latin is language game in which English words are made to sound like a faux-Latin
by moving around groupings of letters.
Here are the basic rules for this exercise's variant:
\begin{enumerate}
\item For words that begin with a single consonant before running into a vowel, the consonant is moved to the end and ``ay'' is added after.
\begin{itemize}
\item ``\underline{h}ello'' = ``ello\underline{h}ay''
\item ``\underline{c}at'' = ``at\underline{c}ay''
\item ``\underline{l}iquid'' = ``iquid\underline{l}ay''
\end{itemize}
\item For words that begin with a multiple consonants before running into a vowel, the consonant group is moved to the end and ``ay'' is added after.
\begin{itemize}
\item ``\underline{str}ing'' = ``ing\underline{str}ay''
\item ``\underline{fr}iend'' = ``iend\underline{fr}ay''
\item ``\underline{wr}ong'' = ``ong\underline{wr}ay''
\end{itemize}
\item For words that begin with a vowel, ``yay'' is simply added at the end.
\begin{itemize}
\item ``I'' = ``I\underline{yay}''
\item ``apply'' = ``apply\underline{yay}''
\item ``income'' = ``income\underline{yay}''
\end{itemize}
\item For this Pig Latin variant, the letter 'y' is always a consonant.
\end{enumerate}
For this exercise, write an \textbf{executable Bash} script called \code{pig-latinfy.sh} that takes its input on standard input and turns it into Pig Latin and outputs the translation. \textbf{Be sure to set the shebang appropriately!}
If you are on WSL and doing this on the Windows filesystem, be sure to have Git set the execute bits (look up how to do this)!
The big caveats are:
\begin{itemize}
\item Each word on a line will be translated.
\item Words with a punctuation mark adjacent will be translated and retain the punctuation mark.
For example: ``goodbye!'' = ``oodbyegay!''
\item Capitalization of the word is preserved. For example: ``My name is John" = ``My amenay isyay Ohnjay".
\item Hyphenated words consider each component to be a separate word. For example: ``part-time'' = ``artpay-imetay''.
\item Spacing will be preserved. For example: ``hello~~~~world'' = ``ellohay~~~~orldway''
\end{itemize}
The \texttt{adv4} directory has example text and their translated versions for reference.
\subsubsection*{Helpful hints}
\begin{itemize}
\item There are other anchors beside `\texttt{\^{}}' and `\texttt{\${}}': the
\href{https://www.gnu.org/software/grep/manual/grep.html#The-Backslash-Character-and-Special-Expressions}
{GNU \texttt{grep} manual} documents some.
\item GNU \texttt{sed} has extensions that deal with upper/lower case conversion.
\href{https://www.gnu.org/software/sed/manual/sed.html#The-_0022s_0022-Command}
{Its manual's section on the \texttt{s} command is enlightening}.
\end{itemize}
\section{Conclusion}
\begin{enumerate}
\item Add and commit any changes you intend to submit.
\item Create a file called \code{report.txt}.
\item On the first line provide an integer time in minutes of how long it took
for you to complete this assignment.
\item On the second line and beyond, write down what you learned while doing this assignment.
If you already knew how to do all of this, put down ``N/A''.
\item Add and commit this \code{report.txt} file.
\end{enumerate}
\end{document}
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\title{Telecom Customer Churn Classification}
\author[1]{Achint}%
\affil[1]{Affiliation not available}%
\vspace{-1em}
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\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{abstract}
Telecom companies need to have a better customer retention. Due to the
decrease in abundance of customers, it is becoming less and less to
retain their customers, let alone acquire new ones.%
\end{abstract}%
\sloppy
\section*{Introduction}
{\label{147681}}
Today, telecommunication market all over the world is facing a severe
loss of revenue due to fierce competition and loss of potential
customers. To keep the competitive advantages and acquire as many
customers as possible, most operators invest a huge amount of revenue to
expand their business in the very beginning . Therefore, it has become
vital for the operators to acquire the amount invested and to gain at
least a minimum profit within a very short period of time. Because it is
very much challenging and tedious issue to keep the customers intact for
a long duration due to the competition involved in this business field.
To survive in the market, telecom operators usually offer a variety of
retention policies to attract new customers. This is the major cause of
the subscribers leaving one network and moving to another one which
suits their needs. This also proves to be a bane as the already acquired
customers get lured into switching to other companies.~
\par\null
~~~~ Thus, Customer churn reduction is the central concern of most
telecom companies as switching costs to the customer are low and
acquisition cost to the company is high. Churn reduces profitability as
it means potential loss of future revenue and also losing the invested
costs of acquisition. So a good deal of marketing budget is allocated to
prevent churn by designing new plans and discounts etc. But they want to
understand the hidden patterns in the customer behaviour by use of
customer behavioural data which lead to construction of purchase
decision and also the underlying loyalty hooks. Fortunately, telecom
industries generate and maintain a large volume of data. This voluminous
amount data ensures the scope for the application of data mining
techniques in telecommunication database. As plenty of information is
hidden in the data generated by the telecom industries, there is a lot
of scope for the researchers to analyze the data in different
perspectives and to help the operators to improve their business in
various ways.
\par\null
\section*{Problem Statement}
{\label{294134}}
\section*{}
{\label{294134}}
In a business environment, the term~ customer attrition simply refers to
the customers leaving one business service to another. Customer churn or
subscriber churn is also similar to attrition, which is the process of
customers switching from one service provider to another anonymously.
From a machine learning perspective, churn prediction is a supervised
(i.e. labeled) problem defined as follows:~\textbf{Given a predefined
forecast horizon, the goal is to predict the future churners over that
horizon, given the data associated with each subscriber in the network.}
\par\null
\section*{Current Market}
{\label{459742}}\par\null
In today's market, churning of a customer is generally denoted
by~\textbf{churn rate}. Churn rates are often used to indicate the
strength of a company's customer service division and its overall growth
prospects. Lower churn rates suggest a company is, or will be, in a
better or stronger competitive state. Customer loss impacts carriers
significantly as they often make a significant investment to acquire
customers.
The ability to predict that a particular customer is at a high risk of
churning, while there is still time to do something about it, represents
a huge additional potential revenue source for every online business.
Besides the direct loss of revenue that results from a customer
abandoning the business, the costs of initially acquiring that customer
may not have already been covered by the customer's spending to date.
(In other words, acquiring that customer may have actually been a losing
investment.) Furthermore, it is always more difficult and expensive to
acquire a new customer than it is to retain a current paying customer.
~~~~ Clearly, churn rate is a critical metric for any subscription
business. So, there are also a variety of opinions about how to
calculate it.
\par\null
\begin{itemize}
\tightlist
\item
\textbf{CLTV:~}Understanding customer lifetime value (LTV) is one of
the most complex and important analyses a business can take on. Every
part of your organization affects the outcome of the calculation:
acquisition costs, revenue, customer service, and returns. It's an
accurate approach to customer churn prediction- at the core it has the
ability to predict which customers will churn. The approach takes into
consideration both micro- segmentation and their behavior pattern. By
merging the most exacting micro-segmentation available anywhere with a
deep understanding of how customers move from one micro-segment to
another over time -- including the ability to predict those moves
before they occur -- an unprecedented degree of accuracy in customer
churn prediction is attainable. Figuring out which one will stay for
long and will reap how much revenue, helps the service provider to
judge whether spending on a customer is worth the effort or not.
\end{itemize}
~
\begin{itemize}
\tightlist
\item
\textbf{CVM:~}Customer value management (CVM) is a holistic way of
evaluating individual subscribers in terms of their overall
profitability- now and in the future. CVM has the potential to boost
earnings. This measure covers subscribers at every stage of their
relationship with the operator. Relying on a combination of tactics,
including customer payback period, budget re balancing, tailored
customer rewards, and cross- and up-selling campaigns. CVM technique
help companies analyze which customers are the most valuable, and why.
Indeed, this approach is a key capability in a world where the
potential customer base simply isn't getting any bigger.
\end{itemize}
\par\null
\begin{itemize}
\tightlist
\item
\textbf{Predictive Churn Modeling}: Predictive technology is a body of
tools capable of discovering and analyzing patterns in data so that
past behavior can be used to forecast likely future behavior.
Predictive technology is increasingly used for forecasting in most of
the Telecom companies' balance sheet. The raw data can be processed to
get predictions about consumer behavior for future campaigns.
\end{itemize}
\par\null
\begin{itemize}
\tightlist
\item
\textbf{Postpaid and blended churn rates:~}This churn rate is based
upon the losses of both prepaid and contract customer. Post-paid
subscribers are a telecom company's one of the biggest revenue
segments since they have a significant lifetime value for telecom
companies. Their discontinuation of services accounts for a major loss
in company's revenue.
\end{itemize}
\par\null
\begin{itemize}
\tightlist
\item
\textbf{ARPU:~}Average Revenue per User or ARPU or average revenue per
unit is an expression of the income generated by a typical subscriber
or device per unit time in a telecommunications~network. ARPU provides
an indication of the effectiveness with which revenue-generating
potential is exploited. The ARPU can be broken down according to
income-producing categories or~according~to diverse factors such as
geographic location, user age, user occupation, user income and the
total time per month each user spends on the system.
\end{itemize}
\par\null
\begin{itemize}
\tightlist
\item
\textbf{AMPU:~}The Average Margin per User is calculated on the basis
of net profit rather than total income. In recent years, some
telecommunications carriers have increased their reliance on AMPU
rather than ARPU to maximize their returns as niche markets become
saturated. By breaking down customer sales by margin rather than by
revenue, companies that have lower sales volumes but create larger
margins can be considered more efficient and arguably more profitable
than their high-volume competitors.
\end{itemize}
\par\null
\begin{itemize}
\tightlist
\item
\textbf{Real- Time Data:~}Real-time data in customer churn makes the
best possible solution today, as it is based on up-to-the-moment
information about a subscriber. Achieving real-time data enables the
company to immediately adjust it's offers and solutions in response to
the reason of dissatisfaction/ discontinuation of services. Deploying
analytics and systems that trigger the moment your subscriber is
shifting to your competitor, helps process the retention effective and
faster.
\end{itemize}
\par\null
\begin{itemize}
\tightlist
\item
\textbf{Binary classification method:}~This method uses a gain/loss
matrix, which incorporates the gain of targeting and retaining the
most valuable churners and the cost of incentives to the targeted
customers. This approach leads to far more profitable retention
campaigns than the traditional churn modeling approaches.
\end{itemize}
\par\null
\begin{itemize}
\tightlist
\item
\textbf{General Signs:~}Customers today are highly conscious of what
they need and what is available in the market. The telecom players
should always lookout for signs that the customer may be planning to
shift. These can easily be picked up from sales support interaction
with them- when he bluntly says he is shifting to a competitor, when
he is quoting what other players offer, when he is enquiring about MNP
or when he is simply calling competitor's phone line looking for
alternatives to his problem.
\end{itemize}
\section*{Method}
{\label{620089}}\par\null
The churn prediction problem represented here involves 2 phases, namely,
i) training phase, ii) test phase. The input for this problem includes
the data on past calls for each mobile subscriber, together with all
personal and business information that is maintained by the service
provider. In addition, for the training phase, labels are provided in
the form of a list of churners. After the model is trained with highest
accuracy, the model must be able to predict the list of churners from
the real data set which does not include any churn label. In the
perspective of knowledge discovery process, this problem is categorized
as predictive mining or predictive modeling. Churn Prediction is a
phenomenon which is used to identify the possible churners in advance
before they leave the network.
\par\null
~ ~ First, the data needs to be aggregated. The data provided is given
in 4 separate datasets - one containing the demographic details of each
customer, second containing the account information of each customer.
The third set contains the details of the services that each customer
has opted for, while the fourth dataset has the details of whether the
customer has churned or not. Moreover, separate data has been provided
for customers for whom it needs to be predicted whether they will churn
in the immediate future or not.
\par\null
~ ~ Then the combined data needs to be cleaned and processed by checking
out the missing values and outliers. Many alternative methods are
present to deal with both missing values and outliers. The records with
missing values can be omitted, imputed or can be left as it is. Outliers
can also be dealt with by omission, capping or minimizing the effects of
those records. New variables can also be derived for better
classification of the churn.
\par\null
~ ~ Different types of models will be implemented on the readied dataset
including naive bayes, logistic regression, decision trees, random
forest, gradient boosted trees and extreme gradient boosting. The
results will be compared and the final conclusions will be made.
\par\null
\section*{Dataset Description}
{\label{132802}}
\section*{}
{\label{132802}}
The data has been provided into 4 different data sets. These data sets
contain the demographic information of 5298 customers, along with their
account information, the services they opted for, and in the case of
training set - whether they will churn or not. The test data set also
contains the same information of 1769 other customers. The attribute
description is as follows :~
~
\textbf{Demographics Data :}
~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~~~~~~ HouseholdID : Each Household id
~~~~~~~~~~~ * ~~~~~~~~~ Country : Country of each customer
~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~~~~~~ State : State of each customer
~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~~~~~~ Retired : Whether the customer is retired or not
~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~~~~~~ HasPartner : Whether the customer has partner or
not
~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~~~~~~ HasDependents : Whether the customer has
dependents or not
~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~~~~~~ Education : Education qualification of each
customer
~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~~~~~~ Gender : Gender of each customer
\textbf{Account Information :}
~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~~~~~~ CustomerID : Customer ID of each customer
~~~~~~~~~~~ * ~~~~~~~~~ BaseCharges : Charges for Base plan
~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~~~~~~ DOC : Date of data collection
~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~~~~~~ TotalCharges : Total charges of each customer
~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~~~~~~ DOE : Date of entry as customer
~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~~~~~~ ElectronicBilling : Whether customer has opted
for electronic billing or not
~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~~~~~~ ContractType : Type of contract opted by the
customer
~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~~~~~~ PaymentMethod : Method of payment opted by the
customer
\textbf{Data of ServicedOptedFor :}
~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~~~~~~ CustomerID : Customer ID
~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~~~~~~ TypeOfService : Service signed for by the
customer~ ~~
~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~~~~~~ SeviceDetails~: Details of each type of service~
\textbf{Churn Data :}
~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~~~~~~ CustomerID : Customer ID
~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~~~~~~ Churn : Whether the customer churns~ (Only on
training set)
\par\null
\section*{Analysis}
{\label{162368}}\par\null
There were some apparent factors involved in churning of the customers
which were found in univariate and bi-variate analysis. This analysis
was done just to analyze which factors were unusually contributing in
churning of a customer.
\par\null
\textbf{Base Charges :~}There are no outliers in the base charges of the
customers. However, most of the customers who did not churn had a lower
base charge as compared to the people who churned. So, regulation in
base charges or cheaper base plans may help in retaining the customers.
\par\null
\textbf{Contract Type :~}Most of the customers chose month-to-month
plans as opposed to yearly and two-year plans. But, further observations
reveal that the number of people churning were quite less for yearly and
two-year plans than for month-to-month users. So, having more attractive
yearly and two-year plans might help in making people choose yearly
plans.
\par\null
\textbf{Device Protection :~}There were as many customers who did not
opt for device protection than who did. But the customers who did opt
for device protection were less likely to churn than the ones who do
not. Further, many customers did not opt for internet services. They
were found to be not likely to churn.
\par\null
\textbf{Education :~}Customers ranged from every level of education
facilities. But customers who were educated till high-school or below
were more likely to churn than the others.
\par\null
\textbf{Internet :~}There were more number of customers who opted for
fiber optic cables rather than DSL connections. But they were the ones
who were more likely to churn.
\par\null
\textbf{Online Backup :~}Customers who had not opted for online backup
were more likely to churn than the ones who did.
\par\null
\textbf{Online Security :~}Customers who did not opt for online security
were also more likely to churn than the ones who did.
\par\null
\textbf{Payment Method :~}Customers who opted for electronic cheques
were more likely to churn than the customers who opted for other modes
of payment.
\par\null
\textbf{Technical Support :~}Customers who did not or were not able to
get technical support were more likely to churn than the others who
received it.
\par\null
\section*{Classification}
{\label{840612}}
\section*{}
{\label{840612}}
The data set was first aggregated to form a combined data set. The
attributes were converted to their respective data types. Two new
attributes were made. First is~\textbf{diff~}- number of days between
the date of collection and the date of customer entry. The other
attribute is~\textbf{charge~}- the difference between base charge and
total charge of each customer.
\par\null
~ ~ Random Forest gave the best results for classification of
customers.~ Random forests are an ensemble learning method for
classification other tasks, that operate by constructing a multitude of
decision trees at training time and outputting the class that is the
mode of the classes (classification) or mean prediction (regression) of
the individual trees. Random decision forests correct for decision
trees' habit of over fitting to their training set.
\par\null
~ ~ Here, random forest was implemented on different versions of the
data set. Most notable ones dealt with the problem of imputation of
missing values and the problem of class imbalance. For imputation of
missing values, missForest package was used while ROSE package was used
for dealing with class imbalance.
\par\null
~~~~ missForest package uses a random forest trained on the observed
values of a data matrix to predict the missing values. It can be used to
impute continuous and/or categorical data including complex interactions
and non-linear relations. It yields an out-of-bag (OOB) imputation error
estimate without the need of a test set or elaborate cross-validation.
It can be run in parallel to save computation time.
\par\null
~~~~ ROSE (Random Over Sampling Examples) package helps us
to~generate~artificial data based on sampling methods and smoothed
bootstrap approach.
\par\null
The results derived from the random forest model had the best accuracy
of 75.635\% while the recall of class \emph{yes} was 77.378\%.
\par\null
The other prominent model that gave good results was naive bayes model.~
Naive Bayes methods are a set of supervised learning algorithms based on
applying Bayes' theorem with the ``naive'' assumption of independence
between every pair of features. Assuming the independence of features,
the results got were on par with random forest model. The best accuracy
gotten was 76.823\% while the recall was 75.044\%.
\par\null
\section*{Results}
{\label{410650}}
\section*{}
{\label{410650}}
Many other models were also implemented but random forest and naive
bayes classifier gave the best all-around results. Although both the
models can be considered as a final model and naive bayes seems to give
a minutely better result than random forest, random forest can be
considered as the best model for this objective.
\par\null
~ ~ Although random forest is considered to be a black box and a
considerably complex model, and occam's razor implies that a simpler
model should be preferred, there is a very strong assumption in the case
of naive bayes - all the features are independent. This is more often
than not false in real world. More amount of data can help in clarifying
the choice of the model.
\par\null
~ ~ Patterns were also generated by implementing C5.0 model and using
associative rules on the training set.
\par\null
~ ~ Observations from univariate and bivariate analysis can also be very
beneficial for retention of customers.
\par\null
\section*{Appendices}
{\label{964747}}\par\null
\#Reading file path
setwd('F:/PHD/Hack/Data')
getwd()
\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\# AGGREGATION
\#Reading the files
data1\textless{}-read.csv('Train.csv')
data2\textless{}-read.csv('Train\_AccountInfo.csv')
data3\textless{}-read.csv('Train\_Demographics.csv',na.strings =
c('?','`,' `,'MISSINGVAL'))
data4\textless{}-read.csv('Train\_ServicesOptedFor.csv')
\#Reshaping data4
library(reshape2)
data4\_reshaped\textless{}-dcast(data4,CustomerID\textasciitilde{}data4\$TypeOfService)
\#Merging all the files
data3\$HouseholdID\textless{}-NULL
data4\_reshaped\$CustomerID\textless{}-NULL
data1\$CustomerID\textless{}-NULL
train\_new\textless{}-cbind(data2,data3,data4\_reshaped,data1)
\#Reading test files
test1\textless{}-read.csv('Test.csv')
test2\textless{}-read.csv('Test\_AccountInfo.csv')
test3\textless{}-read.csv('Test\_Demographics.csv',na.strings =
c('?','`,' `,'MISSINGVAL'))
test4\textless{}-read.csv('Test\_ServicesOptedFor.csv')
\#Reshaping test4
test4\_reshaped\textless{}-dcast(test4,CustomerID\textasciitilde{}test4\$TypeOfService)
\#Merging all test files
test3\$HouseholdID\textless{}-NULL
test4\_reshaped\$CustomerID\textless{}-NULL
test1\$CustomerID\textless{}-NULL
test\_new\textless{}-cbind(test2,test3,test4\_reshaped,test1)
rm(data1,data2,data3,data4,data4\_reshaped,test1,test2,test3,test4,test4\_reshaped)
\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\# ANALYSIS
\#changing date column from factors to dates
train\_new\$DOC\textless{}-as.Date(train\_new\$DOC,
format=``\%d/\%m/\%Y'')
train\_new\$DOE\textless{}-as.Date(as.character(train\_new\$DOE),
format='\%d-\%b-\%y')
test\_new\$DOC\textless{}-as.Date(test\_new\$DOC,
format=``\%d/\%m/\%Y'')
test\_new\$DOE\textless{}-as.Date(as.character(test\_new\$DOE),
format='\%d-\%b-\%y')
str(train\_new)
str(test\_new)
\#making new variable explaining the number of days the customer had the
network
train\_new\$diff\textless{}-train\_new\$DOC-train\_new\$DOE
train\_new\$diff\textless{}-as.numeric(train\_new\$diff)
test\_new\$diff\textless{}-test\_new\$DOC-test\_new\$DOE
test\_new\$diff\textless{}-as.numeric(test\_new\$diff)
\#deleting country and state (no variance)
train\_new\$Country\textless{}-NULL
train\_new\$State\textless{}-NULL
test\_new\$Country\textless{}-NULL
test\_new\$State\textless{}-NULL
\#Changing various columns to factor
colnames(train\_new)
colnames(test\_new)
x\textless{}-colnames(train\_new{[}14:22{]})
x\textless{}-append(x,colnames(train\_new{[}9:11{]}))
train\_new{[}x{]}\textless{}-lapply(train\_new{[}x{]}, factor)
test\_new{[}x{]}\textless{}-lapply(test\_new{[}x{]}, factor)
\#Changing total charges to numeric
train\_new\$TotalCharges\textless{}-as.numeric(as.character(train\_new\$TotalCharges))
test\_new\$TotalCharges\textless{}-as.numeric(as.character(test\_new\$TotalCharges))
\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\# MODEL 1
\#Using h2o for faster computation
library(h2o)
\#Initializing h2o and allowing all cores to run parallely
h2o.init(nthreads = -1)
\#Selecting the independent and target variable(s)
colnames(train\_new)
colnames(test\_new)
y.dep\textless{}-23
x.indep\textless{}-c(2,4,6:22,24)
\#Reading datasets as h2o frames
train.h2o\textless{}-as.h2o(train\_new)
test.h2o\textless{}-as.h2o(test\_new)
\#Training the model
rforest.model \textless{}- h2o.randomForest(y=y.dep, x=x.indep,
training\_frame = train.h2o, ntrees = 1000, mtries = 3, max\_depth = 4,
seed = 1122)
\#Checking the performance of the model
h2o.performance(rforest.model)
\#Predicting the values
predict.rforest \textless{}- as.data.frame(h2o.predict(rforest.model,
test.h2o))
\#Creating a submission
improved\_1 \textless{}- data.frame(CustomerID =
test\_new\$CustomerID,Churn =~ predict.rforest\$predict)
write.csv(improved\_1,file='improved\_1.csv',row.names = F)
\#Shutting down h2o
h2o.shutdown()
y
\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\# MODEL 2
library(h2o)
h2o.init(nthreads = -1)
colnames(train\_new)
colnames(test\_new)
y.dep\textless{}-23
x.indep\textless{}-c(2,4,6:22,24)
train.h2o\textless{}-as.h2o(train\_new)
test.h2o\textless{}-as.h2o(test\_new)
rforest.model2 \textless{}- h2o.randomForest(y=y.dep, x=x.indep,
training\_frame = train.h2o, ntrees = 2500, mtries = 5, max\_depth = 4,
seed = 1124)
\#h2o.performance(rforest.model2)
predict.rforest2 \textless{}- as.data.frame(h2o.predict(rforest.model2,
test.h2o))
improved\_2 \textless{}- data.frame(CustomerID =
test\_new\$CustomerID,Churn =~ predict.rforest2\$predict)
write.csv(improved\_2,file='improved\_2.csv',row.names = F)
h2o.shutdown()
y
\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\# MODEL 3
library(h2o)
h2o.init(nthreads = -1)
colnames(train\_new)
colnames(test\_new)
y.dep\textless{}-23
x.indep\textless{}-c(6:22,24)
train.h2o\textless{}-as.h2o(train\_new)
test.h2o\textless{}-as.h2o(test\_new)
naive\_model \textless{}- h2o.naiveBayes(x=x.indep, y=y.dep, train.h2o)
predict.naive \textless{}- as.data.frame(h2o.predict(naive\_model,
test.h2o))
improved\_3 \textless{}- data.frame(CustomerID =
test\_new\$CustomerID,Churn =~ predict.naive\$predict)
write.csv(improved\_3,file='improved\_3.csv',row.names = F)
h2o.shutdown()
y
\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\# MODEL 4
\#Making a new dataframe
train\_naive\textless{}-train\_new
str(train\_naive)
\#Removing numeric columns
train\_naive\$BaseCharges\textless{}-NULL
train\_naive\$TotalCharges\textless{}-NULL
train\_naive\$DOC\textless{}-NULL
train\_naive\$DOE\textless{}-NULL
\#Checking histogram of new variable created earlier
hist(train\_naive\$diff)
\#Binning into equal frequencies
library(infotheo)
diff\textless{}-discretize(train\_naive\$diff,'equalfreq',nbins = 4)
train\_naive\$diff\textless{}-diff\$X
train\_naive\$diff\textless{}-as.factor(train\_naive\$diff)
\#Doing same to test
test\_naive\textless{}-test\_new
str(test\_naive)
test\_naive\$BaseCharges\textless{}-NULL
test\_naive\$TotalCharges\textless{}-NULL
test\_naive\$DOC\textless{}-NULL
test\_naive\$DOE\textless{}-NULL
hist(test\_naive\$diff)
library(infotheo)
diff\textless{}-discretize(test\_naive\$diff,'equalfreq',nbins = 4)
test\_naive\$diff\textless{}-diff\$X
test\_naive\$diff\textless{}-as.factor(test\_naive\$diff)
\#implementing naive bayes
h2o.init(nthreads = -1)
colnames(train\_naive)
colnames(test\_naive)
y.dep\textless{}-19
x.indep\textless{}-c(2:18,20)
train.h2o\textless{}-as.h2o(train\_naive)
test.h2o\textless{}-as.h2o(test\_naive)
naive\_model2 \textless{}- h2o.naiveBayes(x=x.indep, y=y.dep, train.h2o)
predict.naive2 \textless{}- as.data.frame(h2o.predict(naive\_model2,
test.h2o))
improved\_4 \textless{}- data.frame(CustomerID =
test\_new\$CustomerID,Churn =~ predict.naive2\$predict)
write.csv(improved\_4,file='improved\_4.csv',row.names = F)
h2o.shutdown()
y
\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\# MODEL 5
\#Reinitializing dataframe
train\_naive\textless{}-train\_new
str(train\_naive)
\#Removing date columnms
train\_naive\$DOC\textless{}-NULL
train\_naive\$DOE\textless{}-NULL
\#Binning base and total charges also
\#Binning diff column
library(infotheo)
diff\textless{}-discretize(train\_naive\$diff,'equalfreq',nbins = 4)
train\_naive\$diff\textless{}-diff\$X
train\_naive\$diff\textless{}-as.factor(train\_naive\$diff)
\#Binning base charges
base\textless{}-discretize(train\_naive\$BaseCharges,'equalfreq',nbins =
4)
train\_naive\$BaseCharges\textless{}-base\$X
train\_naive\$BaseCharges\textless{}-as.factor(train\_naive\$BaseCharges)
\#Binning total charges
tot\textless{}-discretize(train\_naive\$TotalCharges,'equalfreq',nbins =
4)
train\_naive\$TotalCharges\textless{}-tot\$X
train\_naive\$TotalCharges\textless{}-as.factor(train\_naive\$TotalCharges)
\#Doing same with test
test\_naive\textless{}-test\_new
str(test\_naive)
test\_naive\$DOC\textless{}-NULL
test\_naive\$DOE\textless{}-NULL
diff\textless{}-discretize(test\_naive\$diff,'equalfreq',nbins = 4)
test\_naive\$diff\textless{}-diff\$X
test\_naive\$diff\textless{}-as.factor(test\_naive\$diff)
base\textless{}-discretize(test\_naive\$BaseCharges,'equalfreq',nbins =
4)
test\_naive\$BaseCharges\textless{}-base\$X
test\_naive\$BaseCharges\textless{}-as.factor(test\_naive\$BaseCharges)
tot\textless{}-discretize(test\_naive\$TotalCharges,'equalfreq',nbins =
4)
test\_naive\$TotalCharges\textless{}-tot\$X
test\_naive\$TotalCharges\textless{}-as.factor(test\_naive\$TotalCharges)
\#implementing naive bayes model
h2o.init(nthreads = -1)
colnames(train\_naive)
colnames(test\_naive)
y.dep\textless{}-21
x.indep\textless{}-c(2:20,22)
train.h2o\textless{}-as.h2o(train\_naive)
test.h2o\textless{}-as.h2o(test\_naive)
naive\_model3 \textless{}- h2o.naiveBayes(x=x.indep, y=y.dep, train.h2o)
predict.naive3 \textless{}- as.data.frame(h2o.predict(naive\_model3,
test.h2o))
improved\_5 \textless{}- data.frame(CustomerID =
test\_new\$CustomerID,Churn =~ predict.naive3\$predict)
write.csv(improved\_5,file='improved\_5.csv',row.names = F)
h2o.shutdown()
y
\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\# MODEL 6
h2o.init(nthreads = -1)
colnames(train\_naive)
colnames(test\_naive)
y.dep\textless{}-21
x.indep\textless{}-c(2:20,22)
train.h2o\textless{}-as.h2o(train\_naive)
test.h2o\textless{}-as.h2o(test\_naive)
\#implementing random forest model
rforest.model3 \textless{}- h2o.randomForest(y=y.dep, x=x.indep,
training\_frame = train.h2o, ntrees = 1000, mtries = 5, max\_depth = 4,
seed = 1127)
h2o.performance(rforest.model3)
h2o.varimp\_plot(rforest.model3)
predict.rforest3 \textless{}- as.data.frame(h2o.predict(rforest.model3,
test.h2o))
improved\_6 \textless{}- data.frame(CustomerID =
test\_new\$CustomerID,Churn =~ predict.rforest3\$predict)
write.csv(improved\_6,file='improved\_6.csv',row.names = F)
h2o.shutdown()
y
\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\# MODEL 7
\#Reinitializing dataframe
train\_naive\textless{}-train\_new
str(train\_naive)
\#Removing date columnms
train\_naive\$DOC\textless{}-NULL
train\_naive\$DOE\textless{}-NULL
\#Making a new variable charge as difference of base and total charges
train\_naive\$Charge\textless{}-train\_naive\$TotalCharges-train\_naive\$BaseCharges
\#Removing base and total charges
train\_naive\$BaseCharges\textless{}-NULL
train\_naive\$TotalCharges\textless{}-NULL
diff\textless{}-discretize(train\_naive\$diff,'equalfreq',nbins = 4)
train\_naive\$diff\textless{}-diff\$X
train\_naive\$diff\textless{}-as.factor(train\_naive\$diff)
\#Binning base charges
charge\textless{}-discretize(train\_naive\$Charge,'equalfreq',nbins = 4)
train\_naive\$Charge\textless{}-charge\$X
train\_naive\$Charge\textless{}-as.factor(train\_naive\$Charge)
\#Doing same for test
test\_naive\textless{}-test\_new
str(test\_naive)
\#Removing date columnms
test\_naive\$DOC\textless{}-NULL
test\_naive\$DOE\textless{}-NULL
\#Making a new variable charge as difference of base and total charges
test\_naive\$Charge\textless{}-test\_naive\$TotalCharges-test\_naive\$BaseCharges
\#Removing base and total charges
test\_naive\$BaseCharges\textless{}-NULL
test\_naive\$TotalCharges\textless{}-NULL
diff\textless{}-discretize(test\_naive\$diff,'equalfreq',nbins = 4)
test\_naive\$diff\textless{}-diff\$X
test\_naive\$diff\textless{}-as.factor(test\_naive\$diff)
\#Binning base charges
charge\textless{}-discretize(test\_naive\$Charge,'equalfreq',nbins = 4)
test\_naive\$Charge\textless{}-charge\$X
test\_naive\$Charge\textless{}-as.factor(test\_naive\$Charge)
\#implementing naive bayes model
h2o.init(nthreads = -1)
colnames(train\_naive)
colnames(test\_naive)
y.dep\textless{}-19
x.indep\textless{}-c(2:18,20,21)
train.h2o\textless{}-as.h2o(train\_naive)
test.h2o\textless{}-as.h2o(test\_naive)
naive\_model4 \textless{}- h2o.naiveBayes(x=x.indep, y=y.dep, train.h2o)
predict.naive4 \textless{}- as.data.frame(h2o.predict(naive\_model4,
test.h2o))
improved\_7 \textless{}- data.frame(CustomerID =
test\_new\$CustomerID,Churn =~ predict.naive4\$predict)
write.csv(improved\_7,file='improved\_7.csv',row.names = F)
h2o.shutdown()
y
\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\# MODEL 8
\#random forest model
colnames(train\_naive)
colnames(test\_naive)
y.dep\textless{}-19
x.indep\textless{}-c(2:18,20,21)
train.h2o\textless{}-as.h2o(train\_naive)
test.h2o\textless{}-as.h2o(test\_naive)
rforest.model4 \textless{}- h2o.randomForest(y=y.dep, x=x.indep,
training\_frame = train.h2o, ntrees = 1000, mtries = 5, max\_depth = 4,
seed = 1127)
h2o.performance(rforest.model4)
h2o.varimp\_plot(rforest.model4)
predict.rforest4 \textless{}- as.data.frame(h2o.predict(rforest.model4,
test.h2o))
improved\_8 \textless{}- data.frame(CustomerID =
test\_new\$CustomerID,Churn =~ predict.rforest4\$predict)
write.csv(improved\_8,file='improved\_8.csv',row.names = F)
h2o.shutdown()
y
\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\#\# MODEL 9
\#naive nayes model
h2o.init(nthreads = -1)
colnames(train\_naive)
colnames(test\_naive)
y.dep\textless{}-19
x.indep\textless{}-c(3,4,8,10,12,14,15,18,20,21)
train.h2o\textless{}-as.h2o(train\_naive)
test.h2o\textless{}-as.h2o(test\_naive)
naive\_model5 \textless{}- h2o.naiveBayes(x=x.indep, y=y.dep, train.h2o)
predict.naive5 \textless{}- as.data.frame(h2o.predict(naive\_model5,
test.h2o))
improved\_9 \textless{}- data.frame(CustomerID =
test\_new\$CustomerID,Churn =~ predict.naive5\$predict)
write.csv(improved\_9,file='improved\_9.csv',row.names = F)
h2o.shutdown()
y
~
\selectlanguage{english}
\FloatBarrier
\end{document}
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http://porocila.imfm.si/2018/mat/clani/pavesic.tex
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\clan {Petar Pavešić}
%--------------------------------------------------------
% A. objavljene znanstvene monografije
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{A}
%\disertacija
% {NASLOV}
% {UNIVERZA}
% {FAKULTETA}
% {ODDELEK}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {LETO}
%\magisterij
% {NASLOV}
% {UNIVERZA}
% {FAKULTETA}
% {ODDELEK}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {LETO}
%\monografija
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {ZALOZBA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% B. raziskovalni clanki sprejeti v objavo v znanstvenih
% revijah in v zbornikih konferenc
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{B}
%\sprejetoRevija
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {REVIJA}
%\sprejetoZbornik
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
\begin{skupina}{B}
\sprejetoRevija
{}
{Triangulations with few vertices of manifolds with non-free fundamental group}
{Proc.\ Roy.\ Soc.\ Edinburgh Sect.\ A}
\sprejetoRevija
{}
{Topological complexity of a map}
{Homology Homotopy Appl.}
\sprejetoRevija
{D. Govc, W. Marzantowicz, \crta}
{Estimates of covering type and the number of vertices of minimal triangulations}
{Discrete Comput.\ Geom.}
\end{skupina}
%--------------------------------------------------------
% C. raziskovalni clanki objavljeni v znanstvenih revijah
% in v zbornikih konferenc
%--------------------------------------------------------
\begin{skupina}{C}
%\objavljenoRevija
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {REVIJA} {LETNIK} {LETO} {STEVILKA} {STRANI}
%\objavljenoZbornik
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
% {ZBORNIK} {STRANI}
\objavljenoRevija
%1. G.~R.~Conner, W.~Herfort, C.~Kent, P.~Pavešić. Recognizing the second derived subgroup of free groups. J. Algebra. Dec. 2018, vol. 516, str. 396-400. ISSN 0021-8693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalgebra.2018.09.024, DOI: 10.1016/j.jalgebra.2018.09.024. [COBISS.SI-ID 18479961]
{G.~R.~Conner, W.~Herfort, C.~Kent, \crta}
{ Recognizing the second derived subgroup of free groups}
{J. Algebra} {516} {2018} {} {396--4{0}0}
\objavljenoRevija
%2. G.~R.~Conner, W.~Herfort, P.~Pavešić. Some anomalous examples of lifting spaces. Topology Appl.. [Print ed.]. April 2018, vol. 239, str. 234-243. ISSN 0166-8641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.topol.2018.02.027. [COBISS.SI-ID 18328153]
{G.~R.~Conner, W.~Herfort, \crta}
{Some anomalous examples of lifting spaces}
{Topology Appl.} {239} {2018} {} {234--243}
\objavljenoZbornik
%3. P.~Pavešić. A topologist's view of kinematic maps and manipulation complexity. V: GRANT, Mark (ur.). Topological complexity and related topics : Mini-Workshop Topological Complexity and Related Topics, February 28 - March 5, 2016, Mathematisches Forschungsinstitut Oberwolfach, Oberwolfach, Germany. Providence: American Mathematical Society, cop. 2018. Str. 61-83. Contemporary mathematics, 702. ISBN 978-1-4704-3436-6, ISBN 978-1-4704-4405-1. ISSN 0271-4132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1090/conm/702/14107. [COBISS.SI-ID 18258521]
{}
{ A topologist's view of kinematic maps and manipulation complexity}
{Mini-Workshop Topological Complexity and Related Topics}
{Oberwolfach} {Nemčija} {februar/marec} {2016}
{Topological complexity and related topics (Contemporary mathematics, 702)} {61--83}
\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% D. urednistvo v znanstvenih revijah in zbornikih
% znanstvenih konferenc
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{D}
%\urednikRevija
% {OPIS}
% {REVIJA}
%\urednikZbornik
% {OPIS}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
\begin{skupina}{D}
\urednikRevija
% 8. Obzornik Mat.\ Fiz.. P.~Pavešić (član uredniškega odbora 2006-). Ljubljana: Društvo matematikov, fizikov in astronomov Slovenije, 1951-. ISSN 0473-7466. http://www.obzornik.si/. [COBISS.SI-ID 753412]
{Član uredniškega odbora}
{Obzornik za matematiko in fiziko}
\end{skupina}
%--------------------------------------------------------
% E. organizacija mednarodnih in domacih znanstvenih
% srecanj
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{E}
%\organizacija
% {OPIS}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% F. vabljena predavanja na tujih ustanovah in
% mednarodnih konferencah
%--------------------------------------------------------
\begin{skupina}{F}
%\predavanjeUstanova
% {NASLOV}
% {OPIS}
% {USTANOVA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\predavanjeKonferenca
% {NASLOV}
% {OPIS}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
\predavanjeUstanova
%4. P.~Pavešić, Brigham Young University, Department of Mathematics, Cannon Seminar: Fall 2017/Winter 2018. Triangulations with small links are combinatorial : Provo, USA, Feb. 14, 2018. [COBISS.SI-ID 18258777]
{Triangulations with small links are combinatorial}
{seminarsko predavanje}
{Brigham Young University}
{Provo} {ZDA} {februar} {2018}
\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% G. aktivne udelezbe na mednarodnih in domacih
% konferencah
%--------------------------------------------------------
\begin{skupina}{G}
%\konferenca
% {NASLOV}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
\konferenca
% 5. P.~Pavešić, 2018 Arches Topology Conference, In honor of Katsuya Eda's career and contributions, Moab Arts and Recreation Center, May 7 - 10, 2018. How do we count components of a lifting space? : Moab (Utah, USA), 8. 5. 2018. [COBISS.SI-ID 18381401]
{How do we count components of a lifting space?}
{2018 Arches Topology Conference, In honor of Katsuya Eda's career and contributions}
{Moab (Utah)} {ZDA} {maj} {2018}
\konferenca
% 6. P.~Pavešić, 25 Years of Topology Seminar in Split - Scientific Meeting, June 8-9, 2018 Split, Croatia. Path components of lifting spaces : Split, 8. 6. 2018. [COBISS.SI-ID 18381913]
{Path components of lifting spaces}
{25 Years of Topology Seminar in Split - Scientific Meeting}
{Split} {Hrvaška} {junij} {2018}
\konferenca
% 7. P.~Pavešić, Session "Geometric Aspects of Applied Topology", Joint meeting of the Italian Mathematical Union, the Italian Society of Industrial and Applied Mathematics and the Polish Mathematical Society, Wrocław, 17-20 September 2018. A recognition principle for combinatorial manifolds : Wrocław, 17. 9. 2018. [COBISS.SI-ID 18444633]
{A recognition principle for combinatorial manifolds}
{Session ``Geometric Aspects of Applied Topology'', Joint meeting of the Italian Mathematical Union, the Italian Society of Industrial and Applied Mathematics and the Polish Mathematical Society}
{Wrocław} {Poljska} {september} {2018}
\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% H. strokovni clanki
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{skupina}{H}
%\clanekRevija
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {REVIJA} {LETNIK} {LETO} {STEVILKA} {STRANI}
%\clanekZbornik
% {AVTORJI}
% {NASLOV}
% {KONFERENCA}
% {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
% {ZBORNIK} {STRANI}
%\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% I. razno
%--------------------------------------------------------
\begin{skupina}{I}
%\razno
% {OPIS}
\razno
%9. CVRTILA, Viktor. Gelfandov izrek : delo diplomskega seminarja. Ljubljana: [V. Cvrtila], 2018. 25 str. https://repozitorij.uni-lj.si/IzpisGradiva.php?id=103718. [COBISS.SI-ID 18455897]
{Mentorstvo pri enem delu diplomskega seminarja}
\razno
%10. P.~Moravec. Rešene naloge iz matematike : [zbirka nalog]. 1. izd. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za kemijo in kemijsko tehnologijo, 2018. 143 str., ilustr. ISBN 978-961-6756-08-2. [COBISS.SI-ID 295668480]
{Recenzija enega univerzitetnega učnega gradiva}
\end{skupina}
% Ni podatkov za to sekcijo
%--------------------------------------------------------
% tuji gosti
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{seznam}
%\gost {IME} {TRAJANJE} {USTANOVA} {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO} {POVABILO}
%\end{seznam}
%--------------------------------------------------------
% gostovanja
%--------------------------------------------------------
%\begin{seznam}
%\gostovanje {IME} {TRAJANJE} {USTANOVA} {KRAJ} {DRZAVA} {MESEC} {LETO}
%\end{seznam}
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http://www.su18.eecs70.org/static/homeworks/hw00.tex
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\Question{Administrivia}
\begin{Parts}
\Part Make sure you are on the course Piazza (for Q\&A) and Gradescope (for submitting homeworks, including this one). Find and familiarize yourself with the course website. What is its homepage's URL?
\Part Read the syllabus page on the course website. What is the percentage breakdown of how your grade is calculated?
\end{Parts}
\Question{Course Policies}
Go to the course website and read the course syllabus carefully. Post questions on Piazza if you have any questions. Are the following situations violations of course policy? Write "Yes" or "No", and a short explanation for each.
\begin{Parts}
\Part Alice and Bob work on a problem in a study group. They write up a solution together and submit it, noting on their submissions that they wrote up their homework answers together.
\nosolspace{3cm}
\Part Carol goes to a homework party and listens to Dan describe his approach to a problem on the board, taking notes in the process. She writes up her homework submission from her notes, crediting Dan.
\nosolspace{3cm}
\Part Erin finds a solution to a homework problem on a website. She reads it and then, after she has understood it, writes her own solution using the same approach. She submits the homework with a citation to the website.
\nosolspace{3cm}
\Part Frank is having trouble with his homework and asks Grace for help. Grace lets Frank look at her written solution. Frank copies it onto his notebook and uses the copy to write and submit his homework, crediting Grace.
\nosolspace{3cm}
\Part Heidi has completed her homework using \LaTeX. Her friend Irene has been working on a homework problem for hours, and asks Heidi for help. Heidi sends Irene her PDF solution, and Irene uses it to write her own solution with a citation to Heidi.
\end{Parts}
\Question{Use of Piazza}
Piazza is incredibly useful for Q\&A in such a large-scale class. We will use Piazza for all important announcements. You should check it periodically. We also highly encourage you to use Piazza to ask questions and answer questions from your fellow students.
\begin{Parts}
\Part Navigate to the "Index" Piazza post, where you can find links to most resources in the course. Write down the Piazza post number for the Note 0 Thread. (When you see @$x$ on Piazza, where $x$ is a positive integer, then $x$ is the post number of the linked post.)
\Part Read the Piazza Etiquette section of the syllabus and comment on the following student question on Piazza: "Can someone explain the proof of Theorem XYZ to me?" (Assume Theorem XYZ is a complicated concept.)
\end{Parts}
\Question{\LaTeX}
We highly recommend that you use TeX to submit your homework. \LaTeX ~ is a document preparation system that puts mathematical formulae into nicely formatted documents. Using \LaTeX ~ can help you organize your thought process and make lives easier for readers. We have provided some resources on the course website to help you get started with using \LaTeX. Feel free to ask questions on Piazza if you have any questions.
For this question, try to typeset the following formulas. This will give you some practice writing mathematical formulas properly. Of course, if you choose to hand-write your solutions and scan them, then this is trivial.
\begin{Parts}
\Part $\forall x \exists y \left(\left(P(x) \wedge Q(x, y)\right) \implies x \leq \sqrt{y} \right)$
\Part $\displaystyle \sum_{i = 0}^k i = \frac{k(k + 1)}{2}$
\end{Parts}
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https://www.zentralblatt-math.org/matheduc/en/?id=5903&type=tex
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\input zb-basic
\input zb-matheduc
\iteman{ZMATH 2015d.00103}
\itemau{}
\itemti{Statement of retraction: ``Young students' drawings reveal perceptions of mathematics class in Finland and the USA''.}
\itemso{Res. Math. Educ. 17, No. 1, 70 (2015).}
\itemab
From the text: Following publication of [{\it L. Hart}, Res. Math. Educ. 16, No. 1, 18--37 (2014; ME 2014d.00198)], doubts have arisen concerning the reliability of some findings and this version of the article has been retracted pending correction to the quantitative data analysis.
\itemrv{~}
\itemcc{C22 C72}
\itemut{}
\itemli{doi:10.1080/14794802.2014.923137}
\end
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% -*-latex-*-
% Document name: /usr/local/lib/tex/bibtex/test.ltx
% Creator: Nelson H. F. Beebe [[email protected]]
% Creation Date: Mon Jun 29 08:59:10 1992
\documentstyle[]{article}
\author{A. U. Thor}
\date{}
\title{Bibliography Style: {\tt {namunsrt}}}
\pagestyle{myheadings}
\markboth{Bibliography Style: {\tt {namunsrt}}}{Bibliography Style: {\tt {namunsrt}}}
\begin{document}
\bibliographystyle{namunsrt}
\maketitle
\nocite{*}
\bibliography{test}
\end{document}
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http://alandb.darksky.org/search.php?sqlQuery=SELECT%20author%2C%20title%2C%20type%2C%20year%2C%20publication%2C%20abbrev_journal%2C%20volume%2C%20issue%2C%20pages%2C%20keywords%2C%20abstract%2C%20thesis%2C%20editor%2C%20publisher%2C%20place%2C%20abbrev_series_title%2C%20series_title%2C%20series_editor%2C%20series_volume%2C%20series_issue%2C%20edition%2C%20language%2C%20author_count%2C%20online_publication%2C%20online_citation%2C%20doi%2C%20serial%2C%20area%20FROM%20refs%20WHERE%20serial%20%3D%201867%20ORDER%20BY%20first_author%2C%20author_count%2C%20author%2C%20year%2C%20title&client=&formType=sqlSearch&submit=Cite&viewType=&showQuery=0&showLinks=1&showRows=5&rowOffset=&wrapResults=1&citeOrder=&citeStyle=APA&exportFormat=RIS&exportType=html&exportStylesheet=&citeType=LaTeX&headerMsg=
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%&LaTeX
\documentclass{article}
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
\usepackage{textcomp}
\begin{document}
\begin{thebibliography}{1}
\bibitem{Challeat_etal2018} Chall{\'e}at, S., Lapostolle, D., \& Milian, J. (2018). The Night-time Environment in French Mountain Areas. A Resource and a Transition Operator Towards Sustainability. \textit{rga}, \textit{106}(1).
\end{thebibliography}
\end{document}
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https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/bruno-lima-rocha-china-brazil-and-the-fairground-mirror.tex
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\usepackage{verbatim}
\usepackage[shortlabels]{enumitem}
\usepackage{tabularx}
\usepackage[normalem]{ulem}
\def\hsout{\bgroup \ULdepth=-.55ex \ULset}
% https://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/22410/strikethrough-in-section-title
% Unclear if \protect \hsout is needed. Doesn't looks so
\DeclareRobustCommand{\sout}[1]{\texorpdfstring{\hsout{#1}}{#1}}
\usepackage{wrapfig}
% avoid breakage on multiple <br><br> and avoid the next [] to be eaten
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% reverse indentation for biblio and play
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% http://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/3033/forcing-linebreaks-in-url
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% this will generate overfull boxes, so we need to set a tolerance
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% (try to) forbid widows/orphans
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\title{China, Brazil and the fairground mirror}
\date{January 18, 2013}
\author{Bruno Lima Rocha}
\subtitle{}
% https://groups.google.com/d/topic/comp.text.tex/6fYmcVMbSbQ/discussion
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\vskip 1.5em
{\usekomafont{date}{January 18, 2013\par}}%
\end{center}
\vskip 3em
\par
Pollution in Beijing, at absurd levels and humanly unbearable, is a reflection of a choice of capitalist growth at whatever cost.
On Saturday 12\textsuperscript{th} January, Beijing — the capital of China, the imperial city — hit absolute records of atmospheric pollution. In scenes reminiscent of the worst days of Cubatão (the “Valley of Death” in the 1980s), the air became unbreathable, surpassing human tolerance levels by forty times.
As I’ve written here on other occasions, this is nothing new — it’s part of the contemporary paradox. Since the motto of Deng Xiaoping (To get rich is glorious!) was adopted as the State’s raison d’etre, the country of Mao Zedong has spared no effort to achieve economic growth and development — at any cost — of the productive forces. The problem lies elsewhere.
Through the Export Processing Zones (in the 1980) initially, then with the gradual liberalization of the economy (though without opening the capital market), Chinese capitalism approached two complementary extremes. On the one hand, it has applied in an exemplary way the neoliberal premise that economic freedoms stand above political freedoms. On the other, the forms of containment of liberal democracies are of little or no value. Included among these are environmental laws which, although they improve the quality of life of citizens, ultimately reduce productivity and the scale of earnings. Between income and life, the mandarins — newly converted into wild entrepreneurs — have made their choice.
Brazilian democracy has already found a “solution” to the same problem. We have another kind of paradox, a less sincere one. Here we combine the most advanced environmental legislation in the world with wild growth of agri-business and the extraction of raw materials. Led by the commodities of soya beans and iron ore, Brazil’s trade balance anchors its national growth. We depend on the sale of commodities without added value. The bill is a high one, both in terms of dependence on these commodities and for Brazilian biomes. National developmentism does not take into account the cultural factor or life forms. Projects like Jirau\footnote{Jirau Dam, a huge dam being built on the Madeira River in western Brazil.} and Belo Monte\footnote{Another huge dam in northern Brazil, built without any regard for indigenous communities.} embody the concept. To complete the tragedy, conservative commentators classify those who defend the rational use of non-durable goods as “eco-bores”.
Chinese growth is praised for its worst aspects while here an irresponsible primary export platform is taking shape. Biodiversity is considered the most important asset in official speeches, but never a priority in development policies. This is the conviction of the Executive. The international scenario of the emerging countries is like a fairground mirror.
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\begin{center}
The Anarchist Library
\smallskip
Anti-Copyright
\bigskip
\includegraphics[width=0.25\textwidth]{logo-en}
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\end{center}
\strut
\vfill
\begin{center}
Bruno Lima Rocha
China, Brazil and the fairground mirror
January 18, 2013
\bigskip
Retrieved on 10\textsuperscript{th} December 2021 from \href{http://anarkismo.net/article/24720}{anarkismo.net}
Translation by FdCA International Relations Office.
\bigskip
\textbf{theanarchistlibrary.org}
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\documentclass[a5paper]{article}
\usepackage[top=1.5cm,bottom=1.5cm,left=1.5cm,right=1.5cm]{geometry}
\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{1.25}
\usepackage{hyperref}
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\begin{document}
\title{\Large\Tengwar{2\textasciitilde m 1Rx\#6 aiy7]ls}\\A Proposal for a Welsh ‘full mode’ of Tengwar}
\author{Jehudá Ronén\footnote{Please report any mistake to \url{rumpelstilzchen AT gmail DOT com}.}}
\date{\Tengwar{ôûññ=ó}}
\maketitle
\section{Tengwar}
\begin{center}
%\large
{
\begin{tabular}{ll|ll|ll|ll}
\Tengwar{1} & \C{t} & \Tengwar{q} & \C{p} & \Tengwar{a} & \C{c} & \Tengwar{z} & \C{cw}\\
\Tengwar{2} & \C{d} & \Tengwar{w} & \C{b} & \Tengwar{s} & \C{g} & \Tengwar{x} & \C{gw}\\
\Tengwar{3} & \C{th} & \Tengwar{e} & \C{ff, ph} & \Tengwar{d} & \C{ch} & \Tengwar{c} & \C{}\\
\Tengwar{4} & \C{dd} & \Tengwar{r} & \C{f} & \Tengwar{f} & \C{} & \Tengwar{v} & \C{}\\
\Tengwar{5} & \C{nn} & \Tengwar{t} & \C{mm} & \Tengwar{g} & \C{ng} & \Tengwar{b} & \C{}\\
\Tengwar{6} & \C{n} & \Tengwar{y} & \C{m} & \Tengwar{h} & \C{o} & \Tengwar{n} & \C{w}\\
\hline
\Tengwar{7} & \C{r} & \Tengwar{u} & \C{rh} & \Tengwar{j} & \C{l} & \Tengwar{m} & \C{ll}\\
\Tengwar{8} & \C{s} & \Tengwar{i} & \C{y} & \Tengwar{k} & \C{} & \Tengwar{,} & \C{z}\\
\Tengwar{9} & \C{h} & \Tengwar{o} & \C{chw} & \Tengwar{l} & \C{e} & \Tengwar{.} & \C{w}\\
\Tengwar{]} & \C{a} & \Tengwar{`} & \C{i} & \Tengwar{\textasciitilde} & \C{u} & \Tengwar{½} & (gasdil)
\end{tabular}}
\end{center}
\begin{description}
\item [\Tengwar{n}, \Tengwar{.}:]
\Tengwar{n} represents the consonantic value of ‘\C{w}’ (as in \TC{nl2`}{wedi}), while \Tengwar{.} represents its vocalic value (as in \TC{a]2.}{cadw})
\item [\Tengwar{6}, \Tengwar{y}, \Tengwar{g}:]
\C{nh}, \C{mh} and \C{ngh} (as in \C{'nhad}, \C{ymhobman} and \C{yng nghwsg}) have no obvious equivalent in Tengwar. Thus, I chose to use an overdot in order to indicate them, e.g.\ \TC{6T]2}{'nhad}, \TC{iyThwy]6}{ymhobman} and \TC{ig g\%.8s}{yng nghwsg}.
\item [\Tengwar{½}:]
as in Sindarin, it is used to indicate a lenited \C{g}, e.g.\ \TC{i7 ½]74}{yr ardd}, compared to \TC{s]74}{gardd}.
\item [\Tengwar{8}, \Tengwar{,}:]
in order to denote ‘\C{si}’ as in \C{siop} (or ‘\C{sh}’ as in \C{shwd}), {\fontspec{Junicode}ʃ}, \Tengwar{8Î} is used (\TC{8Îhq}{siop}). The same holds to ‘\C{j}’ and \Tengwar{,Í} (\TC{,Íhw}{job}). The palatal tehta (=diacritical mark) is taken from the classical Quenya mode of Tengwar; using it, even though it mixes two different modes, seems better to me than writing \Tengwar{8`hq} for \C{siop}.
\end{description}
\section{Tehtar}
\begin{description}
\item [Nasalised consonants:]
%When a nasal of the same \emph{téma} (series; row on the table above) precedes a consonant, the complex ‘\textsc{nas}+\textsc{consonant}’ is not written with two tengwar, but with a bar or a tilde-like sign above.
Appendix~E of the Lord of the Rings states ‘a bar (or a sign like a Spanish \emph{tilde}) placed above a consonant was often used to indicate that it was preceded by the nasal of the same series (as in \emph{nt}, \emph{mp}, or \emph{nk})’ (the nasals are \C{n}, \C{m} and \C{ng} [{\fontspec{Junicode}ŋ}]). Thus, for example, \C{mynd} is not written \Tengwar{yi62} but \Tengwar{yi2P}, \C{cwmpas} is not written \Tengwar{a.yq]8} but \Tengwar{a.qp]8}, and \C{cainc} (phonetically ‘{\fontspec{Junicode}kaiŋk}’) is not written \Tengwar{a]Ö6a} or \Tengwar{a]Öga} but \Tengwar{a]Öap}.\\
One important exception is when the nasal and the consonant after it belong to different morphemes; in this situation, they are written using their respective tengwar. Thus, \C{Llandeilo} (\C{llan}+\C{Teilo}) is written \Tengwar{m]62lÖjh}.
\item [Labialised consonants:]
Except for \C{cw}, \C{gw} and \C{chw} — which are written with their own tengwar (\Tengwar{z}, \Tengwar{x} and \Tengwar{o}) — a consonantic \C{w} following a consonant or forming a diphthong (e.g.\ \C{aw} as in \C{brawd}) is written as a mirrored tilde above the preceding tengwa, e.g.\ \TC{w7]ê2}{brawd}, \TC{w]74è]é2}{barddwawd} and \TC{y]7éhj}{marwol}; but \TC{2.F]2}{dŵad} (\C{ŵ} is a vowel), \TC{z]718}{cwarts} and \TC{xl6}{gwen} (there are designated tengwar for \C{cw} and \C{gw}).\\
Lenited \C{gw} is \Tengwar{½n}.
\item [Long vowels:]
Long vowels, which are indicated in the Latin script by a circumflex (ˆ), are indicated here by an ‘\emph{andaith}’, a diagonal stroke above the tengwa, e.g.\ \TC{]F}{â}, \TC{.F}{ŵ}, \TC{lR}{ê}, etc.
\item [Diphthongs:]
As mentioned above, diphthongs which end with \C{-w} are indicated by the mirrored tilde tehta. Diphthongs which end with \C{-i}, \C{-u}, \C{-y} or \C{-e} are written using double dots (\TC{]Ö}{ai, au, ae}, etc.) However, Appendix~E of the Lord of the Rings states ‘[…] But the diphthongs were often written out in full, as in the transcription’ (i.e.\ with two tengwar); this is particularly advisable when the glide is of a separated morpheme, as in \TC{]` d]3}{a'i chath}.
\end{description}
\section{Mutations}
One can see how well Tengwar fits for Welsh (or Sindarin…) by looking at the way mutations systematically transforms the graphical shape of the tengwar:
\begin{tabular}{l|lll}
radical & soft & nasal & spirant\\
\hline
\TC{1}{t} & \TC{2}{d} & \TC{6T}{nh} & \TC{3}{th}\\
\TC{q}{p} & \TC{w}{b} & \TC{yT}{mh} & \TC{e}{ph}\\
\TC{a}{c} & \TC{s}{g} & \TC{g\%}{ngh}& \TC{d}{ch}\\
\TC{2}{d} & \TC{4}{dd}& \TC{6}{n} & ~\\
\TC{w}{b} & \TC{r}{f} & \TC{y}{m} & ~\\
\TC{s}{g} & \TC{½}{-} & \TC{g}{ng} & ~\\
\TC{m}{ll}& \TC{j}{l} & ~ & ~\\
\TC{u}{rh}& \TC{7}{r} & ~ & ~\\
\TC{y}{m} & \TC{r}{f} & ~ & ~
\end{tabular}
%\section{Numerals}
%\newcommand{\twogen}[2]{\begin{tabular}{c}#1\\#2\end{tabular}}
%\begin{tabular}{ccc}
% \Tengwar{ñ} 1 & \Tengwar{ò} 2 & \Tengwar{ó} 3\\
% \TC{\textasciitilde 6}{un} &
% \twogen{\TC{2P`}{dwy} (\fem)}{\TC{2]Ö}{dau} (\masc)} &
% \twogen{\TC{1]Ö7}{tair} (\fem)}{\TC{17`}{tri} (\masc)}\\
% ~\\
% \Tengwar{ô} 4 & \Tengwar{õ} 5 & \Tengwar{ö} 6\\
% \twogen{\TC{ql2]Ö7}{pedair} (\fem)}{\TC{ql2P]7}{pedwar} (\masc)} &
% \TC{q\textasciitilde q}{pump} &
% \TC{old}{chwech}\\
% ~\\
% \Tengwar{÷} 7 & \Tengwar{ø} 8 & \Tengwar{ù} 9\\
% \TC{8]Ö3}{saith} &
% \TC{n`3}{wyth} &
% \TC{6]ê}{naw}\\
% ~\\
% (\Tengwar{ú} A) & (\Tengwar{û} B) & \Tengwar{ð} 0\\
% \TC{2ls}{deg} &
% \TC{\textasciitilde 6 ]7 4ls}{un ar ddeg} &
% \TC{2`y}{dim}
%\end{tabular}
\section{Example}
%\begin{parcolumns}[sloppyspaces=true]{2}
% \example
% {=- qh r.Ö]r i a.8s = 9.Ö]r i7 lÖ6`hl8 -=}
% {Po fwyaf y cwsg, hwyaf yr einioed}
%\end{parcolumns}
\begin{parcolumns}[sloppyspaces=true]{2}
\example
{\upshape \textbf{2]1s]6`]2 aie7l2`6hj h 9]êj`]Ö 2i6hj}}
{\upshape \textbf{Datganiad Cyffredinol o Hawliau Dynol}}
\example
{\textbf{=-l73isj ñ-=} sl6`7 q]êw i6 ui4 ]a i6 si27]4 ]F` s`ji4 ylé6 \textasciitilde 74]8 ] 9]êj`]Ö~- rl\textasciitilde\ ai6i8s]l4`7 ]F ul8.y ] di2èiwh2~= ] 2ij]Ö q]êw iy4èi6 i 6]Öm ]1 i m]m ylé6 i8w7i2 aiyh2jh6}
{\textbf{Erthygl 1.} Genir pawb yn rhydd ac yn gydradd â'i gilydd mewn urddas a hawliau. Fe'u cynysgaeddir â rheswm a chydwybod, a dylai pawb ymddwyn y naill at y llall mewn ysbryd cymodlon.\\
\href{http://www.omniglot.com/soundfiles/udhr/udhr_cy.mp3}{\normalfont [$\rightarrow$Listen]}}
\example
{\textbf{=-l73isj ò-=} i y]Ö s]6 w]éw 9]éj `7 9hm 9]éj`]Ö ]7 ui4r7lÖ1p`]Ö ] 6h2`7 i6 i 2]1s]6`]2 9.6~= 9lw \textasciitilde 6uié ½n]9]6`]Ö3 h s.wj~= i6 ]7wl5`s \textasciitilde 6uié ½n]9]6`]Ö3 9`j~= m`ë~= uié~= `]Ö3~= a7lri4~= w]76 whj`1`a]Ö4 6lÖ \textasciitilde 6uié r]76 ]7]m~= 1]74`]2 al6l2j]Ö3hj 6lÖ siy2lÖ3]8hj~= lÖ4h~= sl6` 6lÖ 8]rjl ]7]m~-}
{\textbf{Erthygl 2.} Y mae gan bawb hawl i'r holl hawliau a'r rhyddfreintiau a nodir yn y Datganiad hwn, heb unrhyw wahaniaeth o gwbl, yn arbennig unrhyw wahaniaeth hil, lliw, rhyw, iaith, crefydd, barn boliticaidd neu unrhyw farn arall, tarddiad cenedlaethol neu gymdeithasol, eiddo, geni neu safle arall.}
\example
{iyTlm]d~= 6` 4ij`2 x]9]6`]Ö3\textasciitilde\ ]7 8]Öj 8]rjl qhj`1`a]Ör~= sir7lÖ3`hj 6] di2.j]2hj \textasciitilde 6uié ½.j]2 6lÖ 2`7`hs]Ö3 i y]Ö q]éw i6 ql73i6 `4`~= q\textasciitilde 6 ]Ö ié 9h5h6 ]5`wi5hj~= 2]6 6]é4~= 9lw 9\textasciitilde 6]6jinh27]Ö3~= 6lÖ 2]6 \textasciitilde 6uié sirisP`]2 ]7]m ]7 lÖ 8hr7]6`]Ö3~-}
{Ymhellach, ni ddylid gwahaniaethu ar sail safle politicaidd, gyfreithiol na chydwladol unrhyw wlad neu diriogaeth y mae pawb yn perthyn iddi, p’un ai yw honno’n annibynnol, dan nawdd, heb hunanlywodraeth, neu dan unrhyw gyfyngiad arall ar ei sofraniaeth.}
\example
{\textbf{=-l73isj ò-=} i y]Ö s]6 w]éw 9]éj ` rini4~= ui4`2 ] 2`hslj.d~-}
{\textbf{Erthygl 3.} Y mae gan bawb hawl i fywyd, rhyddid a diogelwch.}
% \example
% {lÖ6 1]2 = i7 9.6 ni1 i6 i 6lr.l4~=~$/$
% 8]ga1lÖ4`l7 2i l6.~=~$/$
% 2ljl2 2i 2lÖ76]8~=~$/$
% s.6ljl7 2i lnimi8 = yls`8 i6 i7 6lr~=~$/$
% rlmi ]7 i 4]l]7 9lri2~=~$/$
% 2i7h ` 6` 9l4`n lÖ6 w]7] wlÖ6i4`hj 4i6l4l2~$/$
% ] y]4]Ö ` 6` lÖ6 2ijl2`h6~=~$/$
% rlj i y]4lÖ.6 6`5]Ö ` 6 2ijl2ni7~-~$/$
% ]a 6]a ]7n]Ö6 6` ` w7hrl2`s]l3 - lÖ37 x]7l2 6` u]s 27.s~-~$/$
% a]7i8 lÖ4h1 1` in 7 2lÖ76]8 = ] 7 6l73 = ] 7 shsh6`]1p = i6 hl8 hl8hl4~-~$/$
% ]yl6 -}
% {Ein Tad, yr hwn wyt yn y nefoedd,~/
% Sancteiddier dy enw,~/
% Deled dy deyrnas,~/
% Gwneler dy ewyllys, megis yn yr nef,~/
% felly ar y ddaear hefyd.~/
% Dyro i ni heddiw ein bara beunyddiol dynedded~/
% A maddau i ni ein dyledion,~/
% fel y maddeuwn ninnau i'n dyledwyr.~/
% Ac nac arwain ni i brofedigaeth; eithr gwared ni rhag drwg.~/
% Canys eiddot ti yw'r deyrnas, a'r nerth, a'r gogoniant, yn oes oesoedd.~/
% Amen.}
\end{parcolumns}
%*** I'm not a native Welsh speaker. I can read Welsh well, but I have very limited experience with spoken Welsh. Thus, if you have located a mistake ***
\end{document}
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https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/william-godwin-imogen.tex
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theanarchistlibrary.org
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\title{Imogen}
\date{2005}
\author{William Godwin}
\subtitle{A Pastoral Romance}
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\part{Preface}
\textbf{[\emph{By} WILLIAM GODWIN]}
The following performance, as the title imports, was originally composed in the Welch language. Its style is elegant and pure. And if the translator has not, as many of his brethren have done, suffered the spirit of the original totally to evaporate, he apprehends it will be found to contain much novelty of conception, much classical taste, and great spirit and beauty in the execution. It appears under the name of Cadwallo, an ancient bard, who probably lived at least one hundred years before the commencement of our common era. The manners of the primitive times seem to be perfectly understood by the author, and are described with the air of a man who was in the utmost degree familiar with them. It is impossible to discover in any part of it the slightest trace of Christianity. And we believe it will not be disputed, that in a country so pious as that of Wales, it would have been next to impossible for the poet, though ever so much upon his guard, to avoid all allusion to the system of revelation. On the contrary, every thing is Pagan, and in perfect conformity with the theology we are taught to believe prevailed at that time.
These reasons had induced us to admit, for a long time, that it was perfectly genuine, and justly ascribed to the amiable Druid. With respect to the difficulty in regard to the preservation of so long a work for many centuries by the mere force of memory, the translator, together with the rest of the world, had already got over that objection in the case of the celebrated Poems of Ossian. And if he be not blinded by that partiality, which the midwife is apt to conceive for the productions, that she is the instrument of bringing into the world, the Pastoral Romance contains as much originality, as much poetical beauty, and is as happily calculated to make a deep impression upon the memory, as either Fingal, or Temora.
The first thing that led us to doubt its authenticity, was the striking resemblance that appears between the plan of the work, and Milton's celebrated Masque at Ludlow Castle. We do not mean however to hold forth this circumstance as decisive in its condemnation. The pretensions of Cadwallo, or whoever was the author of the performance, are very high to originality. If the date of the Romance be previous to that of Comus, it may be truly said of the author, that he soared above all imitation, and derived his merits from the inexhaustible source of his own invention. But Milton, it is well known, proposed some classical model to himself in all his productions. The Paradise Lost is almost in every page an imitation of Virgil, or Homer. The Lycidas treads closely in the steps of the Daphnis and Gallus of Virgil. The Sampson Agonistes is formed upon the model of Sophocles. Even the little pieces, L'Allegro and Il Penseroso have their source in a song of Fletcher, and two beautiful little ballads that are ascribed to Shakespeare. But the classical model upon which Comus was formed has not yet been discovered. It is infinitely unlike the Pastoral Comedies both of Italy and England. And if we could allow ourselves in that licence of conjecture, which is become almost inseparable from the character of an editor, we should say: That Milton having written it upon the borders of Wales, might have had easy recourse to the manuscript whose contents are now first given to the public: And that the singularity of preserving the name of the place where it was first performed in the title of his poem, was intended for an ingenuous and well-bred acknowledgement of the source from whence he drew his choicest materials.
But notwithstanding the plausibility of these conjectures, we are now inclined to give up our original opinion, and to ascribe the performance to a gentleman of Wales, who lived so late as the reign of king William the third. The name of this amiable person was Rice ap Thomas. The romance was certainly at one time in his custody, and was handed down as a valuable legacy to his descendants, among whom the present translator has the honour to rank himself. Rice ap Thomas, Esquire, was a man of a most sweet and inoffensive disposition, beloved and respected by all his neighbours and tenants, and "passing rich with 'sixty' pounds a year." In his domestic he was elegant, hospitable, and even sumptuous, for the time and country in which he lived. He was however naturally of an abstemious and recluse disposition. He abounded in singularities, which were pardoned to his harmlessness and his virtues; and his temper was full of sensibility, seriousness, and melancholy. He devoted the greater part of his time to study; and he boasted that he had almost a complete collection of the manuscript remains of our Welch bards. He was often heard to prefer even to Taliessin, Merlin, and Aneurim, the effusions of the immortal Cadwallo, and indeed this was the only subject upon which he was ever known to dispute with eagerness and fervour. In the midst of the controversy, he would frequently produce passages from the Pastoral Romance, as decisive of the question. And to confess the truth, I know not how to excuse this piece of jockeyship and ill faith, even in Rice ap Thomas, whom I regard as the father of my family, and the chief ornament of my beloved country.
Some readers will probably however be inclined to apologise for the conduct of Mr. Thomas, and to lay an equivalent blame to my charge. They will tell me, that nothing but the weakest partiality could blind me to the genuine air of antiquity with which the composition is every where impressed, and to ascribe it to a modern writer. But I am conscious to my honesty and defy their malice. So far from being sensible of any improper bias in favour of my ancestor, I am content to strengthen their hands, by acknowledging that the manuscript, which I am not at all desirous of refusing to their inspection, is richly emblazoned with all the discoloration and rust they can possibly desire. I confess that the wording has the purity of Taliessin, and the expressiveness of Aneurim, and is such as I know of no modern Welchman who could write. And yet, in spite as they will probably tell me of evidence and common sense, I still aver my persuasion, that it is the production of Rice ap Thomas.
But enough, and perhaps too much, for the question of its antiquity. It would be unfair to send it into the world without saying something of the nature of its composition. It is unlike the Arcadia of sir Philip Sidney, and unlike, what I have just taken the trouble of running over, the Daphnis of Gessner. It neither on the one hand leaves behind it the laws of criticism, and mixes together the different stages of civilization; nor on the other will it perhaps be found frigid, uninteresting, and insipid. The prevailing opinion of Pastoral seems to have been, that it is a species of composition admirably fitted for the size of an eclogue, but that either its nature will not be preserved, or its simplicity will become surfeiting in a longer performance. And accordingly, the Pastoral Dramas of Tasso, Guarini, and Fletcher, however they may have been commended by the critics, and admired by that credulous train who clap and stare whenever they are bid, have when the recommendation of novelty has subsided been little attended to and little read. But the great Milton has proved that this objection is not insuperable. His Comus is a master-piece of poetical composition. It is at least equal in its kind even to the Paradise Lost. It is interesting, descriptive and pathetic. Its fame is continually increasing, and it will be admired wherever the name of Britain is repeated, and the language of Britain is understood.
If our hypothesis respecting the date of the present performance is admitted, it must be acknowleged that the ingenious Mr. Thomas has taken the Masque of Milton for a model; and the reader with whom Comus is a favourite, will certainly trace some literal imitations. With respect to any objections that may be made on this score to the Pastoral Romance, we will beg the reader to bear in mind, that the volumes before him are not an original, but a translation. Recollecting this, we may, beside the authority of Milton himself, and others as great poets as ever existed who have imitated Homer and one another at least as much as our author has done Comus, suggest two very weighty apologies. In the first place, imitation in a certain degree, has ever been considered as lawful when made from a different language: And in the second, these imitations come to the reader exaggerated, by being presented to him in English, and by a person who confesses, that he has long been conversant with our greatest poets. The translator has always admired Comus as much as the Pastoral Romance; he has read them together, and been used to consider them as illustrating each other. Any verbal coincidences into which he may have fallen, are therefore to be ascribed where they are due, to him, and not to the author. And upon the whole, let the imperfections of the Pastoral Romance be what they will, he trusts he shall be regarded as making a valuable present to the connoisseurs and the men of taste, and an agreeable addition to the innocent amusements of the less laborious classes of the polite world.
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\part{BOOK THE FIRST}
CHARACTER OF THE SHEPHERDESS AND HER LOVER.—FEAST OF RUTHYN.—SONGS OF THE BARDS.
Listen, O man! to the voice of wisdom. The world thou inhabitest was not intended for a theatre of fruition, nor destined for a scene of repose. False and treacherous is that happiness, which has been preceded by no trial, and is connected with no desert. It is like the gilded poison that undermines the human frame. It is like the hoarse murmur of the winds that announces the brewing tempest. Virtue, for such is the decree of the Most High, is evermore obliged to pass through the ordeal of temptation, and the thorny paths of adversity. If, in this day of her trial, no foul blot obscure her lustre, no irresolution and instability tarnish the clearness of her spirit, then may she rejoice in the view of her approaching reward, and receive with an open heart the crown that shall be bestowed upon her.
The extensive valley of Clwyd once boasted a considerable number of inhabitants, distinguished for primeval innocence and pastoral simplicity. Nature seemed to have prepared it for their reception with all that luxuriant bounty, which characterises her most favoured spots. The inclosure by which it was bounded, of ragged rocks and snow-topt mountains, served but for a foil to the richness and fertility of this happy plain. It was seated in the bosom of North Wales, the whole face of which, with this one exception, was rugged and hilly. As far as the eye could reach, you might see promontory rise above promontory. The crags of Penmaenmawr were visible to the northwest, and the unequalled steep of Snowden terminated the prospect to the south. In its farthest extent the valley reached almost to the sea, and it was intersected, from one end to the other, by the beautiful and translucent waters of the river from which it receives its name.
In this valley all was rectitude and guileless truth. The hoarse din of war had never reached its happy bosom; its river had never been impurpled with the stain of human blood. Its willows had not wept over the crimes of its inhabitants, nor had the iron hand of tyranny taught care and apprehension to seat themselves upon the brow of its shepherds. They were strangers to riches, and to ambition, for they all lived in a happy equality. He was the richest man among them, that could boast of the greatest store of yellow apples and mellow pears. And their only objects of rivalship were the skill of the pipe and the favour of beauty. From morn to eve they tended their fleecy possessions. Their reward was the blazing hearth, the nut-brown beer, and the merry tale. But as they sought only the enjoyment of a humble station, and the pleasures of society, their labours were often relaxed. Often did the setting sun see the young men and the maidens of contiguous villages, assembled round the venerable oak, or the wide-spreading beech. The bells rung in the upland hamlets; the rebecs sounded with rude harmony; they danced with twinkling feet upon the level green or listened to the voice of the song, which was now gay and exhilarating, and now soothed them into pleasing melancholy.
Of all the sons of the plain, the bravest, and the most comely, was Edwin. His forehead was open and ingenuous, his hair was auburn, and flowed about his shoulders in wavy ringlets. His person was not less athletic than it was beautiful. With a firm hand he grasped the boar-spear, and in pursuit he outstripped the flying fawn. His voice was strong and melodious, and whether upon the pipe or in the song, there was no shepherd daring enough to enter the lists with Edwin. But though he excelled all his competitors, in strength of body, and the accomplishments of skill, yet was not his mind rough and boisterous. Success had not taught him a despotic and untractable temper, applause had not made him insolent and vain. He was gentle as the dove. He listened with eager docility to the voice of hoary wisdom. He had always a tear ready to drop over the simple narrative of pastoral distress. Victor as he continually was in wrestling, in the race, and in the song, the shout of triumph never escaped his lips, the exultation of insult he was never heard to utter. On the contrary, with mild and unfictitious friendship, he soothed the breast of disappointment, and cheered the spirits of his adversary with honest praise.
But Edwin was not more distinguished among his brother shepherds, than was Imogen among the fair. Her skin was clear and pellucid. The fall of her shoulders was graceful beyond expression. Her eye-brows were arched, and from her eyes shot forth the grateful rays of the rising sun. Her waist was slender; and as she ran, she outstripped the winds, and her footsteps were printless on the tender herb. Her mind, though soft, was firm; and though yielding as wax to the precepts of wisdom, and the persuasion of innocence, it was resolute and inflexible to the blandishments of folly, and the sternness of despotism. Her ruling passion was the love of virtue. Chastity was the first feature in her character. It gave substance to her accents, and dignity to her gestures. Conscious innocence ennobled all her reflexions, and gave to her sentiments and manner of thinking, I know not what of celestial and divine.
Edwin and Imogen had been united in the sports of earliest infancy. They had been mutual witnesses to the opening blossoms of understanding and benevolence in each others breasts. While yet a boy, Edwin had often rescued his mistress from the rude vivacity of his playmates, and had bestowed upon her many of those little distinctions which were calculated to excite the flame of envy among the infant daughters of the plain. For her he gathered the vermeil-tinctured pearmain, and the walnut with an unsavoury rind; for her he hoarded the brown filberd, and the much prized earth-nut. When she was near, the quoit flew from his arm with a stronger whirl, and his steps approached more swiftly to the destined goal. With her he delighted to retire from the heat of the sun to the centre of the glade, and to sooth her ear with the gaiety of innocence, long before he taught her to hearken to the language of love. For her sake he listened with greater eagerness to the mirthful relation, to the moral fiction, and to the song of the bards. His store of little narratives was in a manner inexhaustible. With them he beguiled the hour of retirement, and with them he hastened the sun to sink behind the western hill.
But as he grew to manly stature, and the down of years had begun to clothe his blushing cheek, he felt a new sensation in his breast hitherto unexperienced. He could not now behold his favourite companion without emotion; his eye sparkled when he approached her; he watched her gestures; he hung upon her accents; he was interested in all her motions. Sometimes he would catch the eye of prudent age or of sharp-sighted rivalry observing him, and he instantly became embarrassed and confused, and blushed he knew not why. He repaired to the neighbouring wake, in order to exchange his young lambs and his hoard of cheeses. Imogen was not there, and in the midst of traffic, and in the midst of frolic merriment he was conscious to a vacancy and a listlessness for which he could not account. When he tended his flocks, and played upon his slender pipe, he would sink in reverie, and form to himself a thousand schemes of imaginary happiness. Erewhile they had been vague and general. His spirit was too gentle for him not to represent to himself a fancied associate; his heart was not narrow enough to know so much as the meaning of a solitary happiness. But Imogen now formed the principal figure in these waking dreams. It was Imogen with whom he wandered beside the brawling rill. It was Imogen with whom he sat beneath the straw-built shed, and listened to the pealing rain, and the hollow roaring of the northern blast. If a moment of forlornness and despair fell to his lot, he wandered upon the heath without his Imogen, and he climbed the upright precipice without her harmonious voice to cheer and to animate him. In a word, passion had taken up her abode in his guileless heart before he was aware of her approach. Imogen was fair; and the eye of Edwin was enchanted. Imogen was gentle; and Edwin loved.
Simple as was the character of the inhabitants of this happy valley, it is not to be supposed that Edwin found many obstacles to the enjoyment of the society of his mistress. Though strait as the pine, and beautiful as the gold-skirted clouds of a summer morning, the parents of Imogen had not learned to make a traffic of the future happiness of their care. They sought not to decide who should be the fortunate shepherd that should carry her from the sons of the plain. They left the choice to her penetrating wit, and her tried discretion. They erected no rampart to defend her chastity; they planted no spies to watch over her reputation. They entrusted her honour to her own keeping. They were convinced, that the spotless dictates of conscious innocence, and that divinity that dwells in virtue and awes the shaggy satyr into mute admiration, were her sufficient defence. They left to her the direction of her conduct. The shepherdess, unsuspicious by nature, and untaught to view mankind with a wary and a jealous eye, was a stranger to severity and caprice. She was all gentleness and humanity. The sweetness of her temper led her to regard with an eye of candour, and her benevolence to gratify all the innocent wishes, of those about her. The character of a woman undistinguishing in her favours, and whose darling employment is to increase the number of her admirers, is in the highest degree unnatural. Such was not the character of Imogen. She was artless and sincere. Her tongue evermore expressed the sentiments of her heart. She drew the attention of no swain from a rival; she employed no stratagems to inveigle the affections; she mocked not the respect of the simple shepherd with delusive encouragement. No man charged her with broken vows; no man could justly accuse her of being cruel and unkind.
It may therefore readily be supposed, that the subject of love rather glided into the conversation of Edwin and Imogen, than was regularly and designedly introduced. They were unknowing in the art of disguising their feelings. When the tale spoke of peril and bravery, the eyes of Edwin sparkled with congenial sentiments, and he was evermore ready to start from the grassy hilloc upon which they sat. When the little narrative told of the lovers pangs, and the tragic catastrophe of two gentle hearts whom nature seemed to have formed for mildness and tranquility, Imogen was melted into the softest distress. The breast of her Edwin would heave with a sympathetic sigh, and he would even sometimes venture, from mingled pity and approbation, to kiss away the tear that impearled her cheek. Intrepid and adventurous with the hero, he began also to take a new interest in the misfortunes of love. He could not describe the passionate complaints, the ingenuous tenderness of another, without insensibly making the case his own. "Had the lover known my Imogen, he would no longer have sighed for one, who could not have been so fair, so gentle, and so lovely." Such were the thoughts of Edwin; and till now Edwin had always expressed his thoughts. But now the words fell half-formed from his trembling lips, and the sounds died away before they were uttered. "Were I to speak, Imogen, who has always beheld me with an aspect of benignity, might be offended. I should say no more than the truth; but Imogen is modest. She does not suspect that she possesses half the superiority over such as are called fair, which I see in her. And who could bear to incur the resentment of Imogen? Who would irritate a temper so amiable and mild? I should say no more than the truth; but Imogen would think it flattery. Let Edwin be charged with all other follies, but let that vice never find a harbour in his bosom; let the imputation of that detested crime never blot his untarnished name."
Edwin had received from nature the gift of an honest and artless eloquence. His words were like the snow that falls beneath the beams of the sun; \emph{they melted as they fell}. Had it been his business to have pleaded the cause of injured innocence or unmerited distress, his generous sympathy and his manly persuasion must have won all hearts. Had he solicited the pursuit of rectitude and happiness, his ingenuous importunity could not have failed of success. But where the mind is too deeply interested, there it is that the faculties are most treacherous. Ardent were the sighs of Edwin, but his voice refused its assistance, and his tongue faultered under the attempts that he made. Fluent and voluble upon all other subjects, upon this he hesitated. For the first time he was dissatisfied with the expressions that nature dictated. For the first time he dreaded to utter the honest wishes of his heart, apprehensive that he might do violence to the native delicacy of Imogen.
But he needed not have feared. Imogen was not blind to those perfections which every mouth conspired to praise. Her heart was not cold and unimpassioned; she could not see these perfections, united with youth and personal beauty, without being attracted. The accents of Edwin were music to her ear. The tale that Edwin told, interested her twice as much as what she heard from vulgar lips. To wander with Edwin along the flowery mead, to sit with Edwin in the cool alcove, had charms for her for which she knew not how to account, and which she was at first unwilling to acknowledge to her own heart. When she heard of the feats of the generous lover, his gallantry in the rural sports, and his reverence for the fair, it was under the amiable figure of Edwin that he came painted to her treacherous imagination. She was a stranger to artifice and disguise, and the renown of Edwin was to her the feast of the soul, and with visible satisfaction she dwelt upon his praise. Even in sleep her dreams were of the deserving shepherd. The delusive pleasures that follow in the train of dark-browed night, all told of Edwin. The unreal mockery of that capricious being, who cheats us with scenes of fictitious wretchedness, was full of the unmerited calamities, the heartbreaking woe, or the untimely death of Edwin. From Edwin therefore the language of love would have created no disgust. Imogen was not heedless and indiscreet; she would not have sacrificed the dignity of innocence. Imogen was not coy; she would not have treated her admirer with affected disdain. She had no guard but virgin modesty and that conscious worth, \emph{that would be wooed, and not unsought be won}.
Such was the yet immature attachment of our two lovers, when an anniversary of religious mirth summoned them, together with their neighbour shepherds of the adjacent hamlet, to the spot which had long been consecrated to rural sports and guiltless festivity, near the village of Ruthyn. The sun shone with unusual splendour; the Druidical temples, composed of immense and shapeless stones, heaped upon each other by a power stupendous and incomprehensible, reflected back his radiant beams. The glade, the place of destination to the frolic shepherds, was shrouded beneath two venerable groves that encircled it on either side. The eye could not pierce beyond them, and the imagination was in a manner embosomed in the vale. There were the quivering alder, the upright fir, and the venerable oak crowned with sacred mistletoe. They grew upon a natural declivity that descended every way towards the plain. The deep green of the larger trees was fringed towards the bottom with the pleasing paleness of the willow. From one of the groves a little rivulet glided across the plain, and was intersected on one side by a stream that flowed into it from a point equally distant from either extremity of its course. Both these streams were bordered with willows. In a word, upon the face of this beautiful spot all appeared tranquility and peace. It was without a path, and you would imagine that no human footsteps had ever invaded the calmness of its solitude. It was the eternal retreat of the venerable anchorite; it was the uninhabited paradise in the midst of the trackless ocean.
Such was the spot where the shepherds and shepherdesses of a hundred cots were now assembled. In the larger compartiments of the vale, the more muscular and vigorous swains pursued the flying ball, or contended in the swift-footed race. The bards, venerable for their age and the snowy whiteness of their hair, sat upon a little eminence as umpires of the sports. In the smaller compartiments, the swains, mingled with the fair, danced along the level green, or flew, with a velocity that beguiled the eager sight, beneath the extended arms of their fellows. Here a few shepherds, apart from the rest, flung the ponderous quoit that sung along the air. There two youths, stronger and more athletic than the throng, grasped each others arms with an eager hand, and struggled for the victory. Now with manly vigour the one shook the sinewy frame of the other; now they bended together almost to the earth, and now with double force they reared again their gigantic stature. At one time they held each other at the greatest possible distance; and again, their arms, their legs and their whole bodies entwined, they seemed as if they had grown together. When the weaker or less skilful was overthrown, he tumbled like a vast and mountain oak, that for ages had resisted the tumult of the winds; and the whole plain resounded at his fall. Such as were unengaged formed a circle round the wrestlers, and by their shouts and applause animated by turns the flagging courage of either.
And now the sun had gained his meridian height, and, fatigued with labour and heat, they seated themselves upon the grass to partake of their plain and rural feast. The parched wheat was set out in baskets, and the new cheeses were heaped together. The blushing apple, the golden pear, the shining plum, and the rough-coated chesnut were scattered in attractive confusion. Here were the polished cherry and the downy peach; and here the eager gooseberry, and the rich and plenteous clusters of the purple grape. The neighbouring fountain afforded them a cool and sparkling beverage, and the lowing herds supplied the copious bowl with white and foaming draughts of milk. The meaner bards accompanied the artless luxury of the feast with the symphony of their harps.
The repast being finished, the company now engaged in those less active sports, that exercise the subtility of the wit, more than the agility or strength of the body. Their untutored minds delighted themselves in the sly enigma, and the quaint conundrum. Much was their laughter at the wild guesses of the thoughtless and the giddy; and great the triumph of the swain who penetrated the mystery, and successfully removed the abstruseness of the problem. Many were the feats of skill exhibited by the dextrous shepherd, and infinite were the wonder and admiration of the gazing spectators. The whole scene indeed was calculated to display the triumph of stratagem and invention. A thousand deceits were practised upon the simple and unsuspecting, and while he looked round to discover the object of the general mirth, it was increased into bursts of merriment, and convulsive gaiety. At length they rose from the verdant green, and chased each other in mock pursuit. Many flew towards the adjoining grove; the pursued concealed himself behind the dark and impervious thicket, or the broad trunk of the oak, while the pursuers ran this way and that, and cast their wary eyes on every side. Carefully they explored the bushes, and surveyed each clump of tufted trees. And now the neighbouring echoes repeated the universal shout, and proclaimed to the plain below, that the object of their search was found. Fatigue however, in spite of the gaiety of spirit with which their sports were pursued, began to assert his empire, and they longed for that tranquility and repose which were destined to succeed.
At this instant the united sound of the lofty harp, the melodious rebec, and the chearful pipe, summoned them once again to the plain. From every side they hastened to the lawn, and surrounded, with ardent eyes, and panting expectation, the honoured troop of the bards, crowned with laurel and sacred mistletoe. And now they seated themselves upon the tender herb; and now all was stilness and solemn silence. Not one whisper floated on the breeze; not a murmur was heard. The tumultuous winds were hushed, and all was placid composure, save where the gentle zephyr fanned the leaves. The tinkling rill babbled at their feet; the feathered choristers warbled in the grove; and the deep lowings of the distant herds died away upon the ear. The solemn prelude began from a full concert of the various instruments. It awakened attention in the thoughtless, and composed the frolic and the gay into unbroken heedfulness. The air was oppressed with symphonious sounds, and the ear filled with a tumult of harmony.
On a sudden the chorus ceased: Those instruments which had united their force to fill the echoes of every grove, and of every hill, were silent. And now a bard, of youthful appearance, but who was treated with every mark of honour and distinction, and seated on the left hand of the hoary Llewelyn, the prince of song, struck the lyre with a lofty and daring hand. His eye sparkled with poetic rapture, and his countenance beamed with the sublime smile of luxuriant fancy and heaven-born inspiration. He sung of the wanton shepherd, that followed, with ungenerous perseverance, the chaste and virgin daughter of Cadwallo. The Gods took pity upon her distress, the Gods sent down their swift and winged messenger to shield her virtue, and deliver her from the persecution of Modred. With strong and eager steps the ravisher pursued: timid apprehension, and unviolated honour, urged her rapid flight. But Modred was in the pride of youth; muscular and sinewy was the frame of Modred. Beauteous and snowy was the person of the fair: her form was delicate, and her limbs were tender. If heaven had not interposed, if the Gods had not been on her side, she must have fallen a victim to savage fury and brutal lust. But, in the crisis of her fate, she gradually sunk away before the astonished eyes of Modred. That beauteous frame was now no more, and she started from before him, swifter than the winds, a timid and listening hare. Still, still the hunter pursued; he suspended not the velocity of his course. The speed of Modred was like the roe upon the mountains; every moment he gained upon the daughter of Cadwallo. But now the object of his pursuit vanished from his sight, and eluded his eager search. In vain he explored every thicket, and surveyed all the paths of the forest. While he was thus employed, on a sudden there burst from a cave a hungry and savage wolf; it was the daughter of Cadwallo. Modred started with horror, and in his turn fled away swifter than the winds. The fierce and ravenous animal pursued; fire flashed from the eye, and rage and fury sat upon the crest. Mild and gentle was the daughter of Cadwallo; her heart relented; her soft and tender spirit belied the savage form. They approached the far famed stream of Conway. Modred cast behind him a timid and uncertain eye; the virgin passed along, no longer terrible, a fair and milk white hind. Modred inflamed with disappointment, reared his ponderous boar spear, and hurled it from his hand. Too well, ah, cruel and untutored swain! thou levelest thy aim. Her tender side is gored; her spotless and snowy coat is deformed with blood. Agitated with pain, superior to fear, she plunges in the flood. When lo! a wonder; on the opposite shore she rises, radiant and unhurt, in her native form. Modred contemplates the prodigy with astonishment; his lust and his brutality inflame him more than ever. Eagerly he gazes on her charms; in thought he devours her inexpressive beauties. And now he can no longer restrain himself; with sudden start he leaps into the river. The waves are wrought into a sudden tempest; they hurry him to and fro. He buffets them with lusty arms; he rides upon the billows. But vain is human strength; the unseen messenger of the Gods laughs at the impotent efforts of Modred. At length the waters gape with a frightful void; the bottom, strewed with shells, and overgrown with sea-weed, is disclosed to the sight. Modred, unhappy Modred, sinks to rise no more. His beauty is tarnished like the flower of the field; his blooming cheek, his crimson lip, is pale and colourless. Learn hence, ye swains, to fear the Gods, and to reverence the divinity of virtue. Modred never melted for another's woe; the tear of sympathy had not moistened his cheek. The heart of Modred was haughty, insolent and untractable; he turned a deaf ear to the supplication of the helpless, he listened not to the thunder of the Gods. Let the fate of Modred be remembered for a caution to the precipitate; let the children of the valley learn wisdom. Heaven never deserts the cause of virtue; chastity wherever she wanders (\emph{be it not done in pride or in presumption}) is sacred and invulnerable.
Such was the song of the youthful bard. Every eye was fixed upon his visage while he struck the lyre; the multitude of the shepherds appeared to have no faculty but the ear. And now the murmur of applause began; and the wondering swains seemed to ask each other, whether the God of song were not descended among them. "Oh glorious youth," cried they, "how early is thy excellence! Ere manhood has given nerve and vigour to thy limbs, ere yet the flowing beard adorns thy gallant breast, nature has unlocked to thee her hidden treasures, the Gods have enriched thee with all the charms of poetry. Great art thou among the bards; illustrious in wisdom, where they all are wise. Should gracious heaven spare thy life, we will cease to weep the death of Hoel; we will lament no longer the growing infirmities of Llewelyn."
While they yet spoke, a bard, who sat upon the right hand of the prince, prepared to sweep the string. He was in the prime of manhood. His shining locks flowed in rich abundance upon his strong and graceful shoulders. His eye expressed more of flame than gaiety, more of enthusiasm than imagination. His brow, though manly, and, as it should seem, by nature erect, bore an appearance of solemn and contemplative. He had ever been distinguished by an attachment to solitude, and a love for those grand and tremendous objects of uncultivated nature with which his country abounded. His were the hanging precipice, and the foaming cataract. His ear drank in the voice of the tempest; he was rapt in attention to the roaring thunder. When the contention of the elements seemed to threaten the destruction of the universe, when Snowdon bowed to its deepest base, it was then that his mind was most filled with sublime meditation. His lofty soul soared above the little war of terrestrial objects, and rode expanded upon the wings of the winds. Yet was the bard full of gentleness and sensibility; no breast was more susceptible to the emotions of pity, no tongue was better skilled in the soft and passionate touches of the melting and pathetic. He possessed a key to unlock all the avenues of the heart.
Such was the bard, and this was the subject of his song. He told of a dreadful famine, that laid waste the shores of the Menai. Heaven, not to punish the shepherds, for, alas, what had these innocent shepherds done? but in the mysterious wisdom of its ways, had denied the refreshing shower, and the soft-descending dew. From the top of Penmaenmawr, as far as the eye could reach, all was uniform and waste. The trees were leafless, not one flower adorned the ground, not one tuft of verdure appeared to relieve the weary eye. The brooks were dried up; their beds only remained to tell the melancholy tale, Here once was water; the tender lambs hastened to the accustomed brink, and lifted up their innocent eyes with anguish and disappointment. The meadows no longer afforded pasture of the cattle; the trees denied their fruits to man. In this hour of calamity the Druids came forth from their secret cells, and assembled upon the heights of Mona. This convention of the servants of the Gods, though intended to relieve the general distress, for a moment increased it. The shepherds anticipated the fatal decree; they knew that at times like this the blood of a human victim was accustomed to be shed upon the altars of heaven. Every swain trembled for himself or his friend; every parent feared to be bereaved of the staff of his age. And now the holy priest had cast the lots in the mysterious urn; and the lot fell upon the generous Arthur. Arthur was beloved by all the shepherds that dwelt upon the margin of the main; the praise of Arthur sat upon the lips of all that knew him. But what served principally to enhance the distress, was the attachment there existed between him and the beauteous Evelina. Mild was the breast of Evelina, unused to encounter the harshness of opposition, or the chilly hand and forbidding countenance of adversity. From twenty shepherds she had chosen the gallant Arthur, to reward his pure and constant love. Long had they been decreed to make each other happy. No parent opposed himself to their virtuous desires; the blessing of heaven awaited them from the hand of the sacred Druid. But in the general calamity of their country they had no heart to rejoice; they could not insult over the misery of all around them. "Soon, oh soon," cried the impatient shepherd, "may the wrath of heaven be overpast! Extend, all-merciful divinity, thy benign influence to the shores of Arvon! Once more may the rustling of the shower refresh our longing ears! Once more may our eyes be gladdened with the pearly, orient dew! May the fields be clothed afresh in cheerful green! May the flowers enamel the verdant mead! May the brooks again brawl along their pebbly bed! And may man and beast rejoice together!" Ah, short-sighted, unapprehensive shepherd! thou dost not know the misfortune that is reserved for thyself; thou dost not know, that thou shalt not live to behold those smiling scenes which thy imagination forestallest; thou dost not see the dart of immature and relentless death that is suspended over thee. Think, O ye swains, what was the universal astonishment and pity, when the awful voice of the Druid proclaimed the decree of heaven! Terror sat upon every other countenance, tears started into every other eye; but the mien of Arthur was placid and serene. He came forward from the throng; his eyes glistened with the fire of patriotism. "Hear me, my countrymen," cried he, "for you I am willing to die. What is my insignificant life, when weighed against the happiness of Arvon? Be grateful to the Gods, that, for so poor a boon, they are willing to spread wide the hand of bounty, and to exhaust upon your favoured heads the horn of plenty." While he spoke he turned his head to the spot from which he had advanced, and beheld, a melting object, Evelina, pale and breathless, supported in the arms of the maidens. For a moment he forgot his elevated sentiments and his heroism, and flew to raise her. "Evelina, mistress of my heart, awake. Lift up thine eyes and bless thy Arthur. Be not too much subdued by my catastrophe. Live to comfort the grey hairs, and to succour the infirmities of your aged parent." While the breast of Arthur was animated with such sentiments, and dictated a conduct like this, the priests were employed in the mournful preparations. The altar was made ready; the lambent fire ascended from its surface; the air was perfumed with the smoke of the incense; the fillets were brought forth; and the sacred knife glittered in the hand of the chief of the Druids. The bards had strung their harps, and began the song of death. The sounds were lofty and animating, they were fitted to inspire gallantry and enterprise into the trembling coward; they were fitted to breathe a soul into the clay-cold corse. The spirit of Arthur was roused; his eye gleamed with immortal fire. The aged oak, that strikes its root beneath the soil, so defies the blast, and so rears its head in the midst of the whirlwind. But oh, who can paint the distress of Evelina? Now she dropped her head, like the tender lily whose stalk, by some vulgar and careless hand has been broken; and now she was wild and ungovernable, like the wild beast that has been robbed of its young. For an instant the venerable name of religion awed her into mute submission. But when the fatal moment approached, not the Gods, if the Gods had descended in all their radiant brightness, could have restrained her any longer. The air was rent with her piercing cries. She spoke not. Her eyes, in silence turned towards heaven, distilled a plenteous shower. At length, swifter than the winged hawk, she flew towards the spot, and seized the sacred and inviolable arm of the holy Druid, which was lifted up to strike the final blow. "Barbarous and inhuman priest," she cried, "cease your vile and impious mummery! No longer insult us with the name of Gods. If there be Gods, they are merciful; but thou art a savage and unrelenting monster. Or if some victim must expire, strike here, and I will thank thee. Strike, and my bosom shall heave to meet the welcome blow. Do any thing. But oh, spare me the killing, killing spectacle!" During this action the maidens approached and hurried her from the plain. "Go," cried Arthur, "and let not the heart of Evelina be sad. My Death has nothing in it that deserves to be deplored. It is glorious and enviable. It shall be remembered when this frame is crumbled into dust. The song of the bards shall preserve it to never dying fame." The inconsolable fair one had now been forced away. The intrepid shepherd bared his breast to the sacred knife. His nerves trembled not. His bosom panted not. And now behold the lovely youth, worthy to have lived through revolving years, sunk on the ground, and weltering in his blood. Yes, gallant Arthur, thou shalt possess that immortality which was the first wish of thy heart! My song shall embalm thy precious memory, thy generous, spotless fame! But, ah, it is not in the song of the bards to sooth the rooted sorrow of Evelina. Every morning serves only to renew it. Every night she bathes her couch in tears. Those objects, which carry pleasure to the sense of every other fair, serve only to renew thy unexhausted grief. The rustling shower, the pearly dew, the brawling brook, the cheerful green, the flower-enameled mead, all join to tell of the barbarous and untimely fate of Arthur. Smile no more, O ye meads; mock not the grief of Evelina. Let the trees again be leafless; let the rivers flow no longer in their empty beds. A scene like this suits best the settled temper of Evelina.
He ceased. And his pathetic strain had awakened the sympathy of the universal throng. Every shepherd hung his mournful head, when the untimely fate of Arthur was related; every maiden dropped a generous tear over the sorrows of Evelina. They listened to the song, and forgot the poet. Their souls were rapt with alternate passions, and they perceived not the matchless skill by which they were excited. The lofty bard hurried them along with the rapidity of his conceptions, and left them no time for hesitation, and left them no time for reflection. He ceased, and the melodious sounds still hung upon their ear, and they still sat in the posture of eager attention. At length they recollected themselves; and it was no longer the low and increasing murmur of applause: it was the exclamation of rapture; it was the unpremeditated shout of astonishment.
In the mean time, the reverend Llewelyn, upon whose sacred head ninety winters had scattered their snow, grasped the lyre, which had so often confessed the master's hand. Though far advanced in the vale of years, there was a strength and vigour in his age, of which the degeneracy of modern times can have little conception. The fire was not extinguished in his flaming eye; it had only attained that degree of chasteness and solemnity, which had in it by so much the more, all that is majestic, and all that is celestial. His looks held commerce with his native skies. No vulgar passion ever visited his heaven-born mind. No vulgar emotion ever deformed the godlike tranquility of his soul. He had but one passion; it was the love of harmony. He was conscious only to one emotion; it was reverence for the immortal Gods. He sat like the anchorite upon the summit of Snowdon. The tempests raise the foaming ocean into one scene of horror, but he beholds it unmoved. The rains descend, the thunder roars, and the lightnings play beneath his feet.
Llewelyn struck the lyre, and the innumerable croud was noiseless and silent as the chambers of death. They did not now wait for the pleasing tale of a luxuriant imagination, or the pathetic and melting strain of the mourner. They composed their spirits into the serenity of devotion. They called together their innocent thoughts for the worship of heaven. By anticipation their bosoms swelled with gratitude, and their hearts dilated into praise.
The pious Llewelyn began his song from the rude and shapeless chaos. He magnified the almighty word that spoke it into form. He sung of the loose and fenny soil which gradually acquired firmness and density. The immeasurable, eternal caverns of the ocean were scooped. The waters rushed along, and fell with resounding, foamy violence to the depth below. The sun shone forth from his chamber in the east, and the earth wondered at the object, and smiled beneath his beams. Suddenly the whole face of it was adorned with a verdant, undulating robe. The purple violet and the yellow crocus bestrewed the ground. The stately oak reared its branchy head, and the trees and shrubs burst from the surface of the earth. Impregnated by power divine, the soil was prolific in other fruits than these. The clods appeared to be informed with a conscious spirit, and gradually assumed a thousand various forms. The animated earth seemed to paw the verdant mead, and to despise the mould from which it came. A disdainful horse, it shook its flowing mane, and snuffed the enlivening breeze, and stretched along the plain. The red-eyed wolf and the unwieldy ox burst like the mole the concealing continent, and threw the earth in hillocs. The stag upreared his branching head. The thinly scattered animals wandered among the unfrequented hills, and cropped the untasted herb. Meantime the birds, with many coloured plumage, skimmed along the unploughed air, and taught the silent woods and hills to echo with their song.
Creatures, hymn the praises of your creator! Thou sun, prolific parent of a thousand various productions, by whose genial heat they are nurtured, and whose radiant beams give chearfulness and beauty to the face of nature, first of all the existences of this material universe acknowledge him thy superior, and while thou dispensest a thousand benefits to the inferior creation, ascribe thine excellencies solely to the great source of beauty and perfection! And when the sun has ceased his wondrous course, do thou, O moon, in milder lustre show to people of a thousand names the honours of thy maker! Thou loud and wintery north wind, in majestic and tremendous tone declare his lofty praise! Ye gentle zephyrs, whisper them to the modest, and softly breathe them in the ears of the lowly! Ye towering pines, and humble shrubs, ye fragrant flowers, and, more than all, ye broad and stately oaks, bind your heads, and wave your branches, and adore! Ye warbling fountains, warbling tune his praise! Praise him, ye beasts, in different strains! And let the birds, that soar on lofty wings, and scale the path of heaven, bear, in their various melody, the notes of adoration to the skies! Mortals, ye favoured sons of the eternal father, be it yours in articulate expressions of gratitude to interpret for the mute creation, and to speak a sublimer and more rational homage.
Heard ye not the music of the spheres? Know ye not the melody of celestial voices? On yonder silver-skirted cloud I see them come. It turns its brilliant lining on the setting day. And these are the accents of their worship. "Ye sons of women, such as ye are now, such once were we. Through many scenes of trial, through heroic constancy, and ever-during patience, have we attained to this bright eminence. Large and mysterious are the paths of heaven, just and immaculate his ways. If ye listen to the siren voice of pleasure, if upon the neck of heedless youth you throw the reins, that base and earth-born clay which now you wear, shall assume despotic empire. And when you quit the present narrow scene, ye shall wear a form congenial to your vices. The fierce and lawless shall assume the figure of the unrelenting wolf. The unreflecting tyrant, that raised a mistaken fame from scenes of devastation and war, shall spurn the ground, a haughty and indignant horse; and in that form, shall learn, by dear experience, what were the sufferings and what the scourge that he inflicted on mankind. The sensual shall wear the shaggy vesture of the goat, or foam and whet his horrid tusks, a wild and untame'd boar. But virtue prepares its possessor for the skies. Upon the upright and the good, attendant angels wait. With heavenly spirits they converse. On them the dark machinations of witchcraft, and the sullen spirits of darkness have no power. Even the outward form is impressed with a beam of celestial lustre. By slow, but never ceasing steps, they tread the path of immortality and honour. Then, mortals, love, support, and cherish each other. Fear the Gods, and reverence their holy, white-robed servants. Let the sacred oak be your care. Worship the holy and everlasting mistletoe. And when all the objects that you now behold shall be involved in universal conflagration, and time shall be no more; ye shall mix with Gods, ye shall partake their thrones, and be crowned like them with never-fading laurel."
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\part{BOOK THE SECOND}
THUNDER STORM.—THE RAPE OF IMOGEN.—EDWIN ARRIVES AT THE GROTTO OF ELWY.—CHARACTER OF THE MAGICIAN.—THE END OF THE FIRST DAY.
The song of Llewelyn was heard by the shepherds with reverence and mute attention. Their blameless hearts were lifted to the skies with the sentiment of gratitude; their honest bosoms overflowed with the fervour of devotion. They proved their sympathy with the feelings of the bard, not by licentious shouts and wild huzzas, but by the composure of their spirits, the serenity of their countenances, and the deep and unutterable silence which universally prevailed. And now the hoary minstrel rose from the little eminence, beneath the aged oak, from whose branches depended the ivy and the honeysuckle, on which the veneration of the multitude had placed him. He came into the midst of the plain, and the sons and the daughters of the fertile Clwyd pressed around him. Fervently they kissed the hem of his garment; eagerly with their eyes they sought to encounter the benign rays of his countenance. With the dignity of a magistrate, and the tenderness of a father, he lifted his aged arms, and poured upon them his mild benediction. "Children, I have met your fathers, and your fathers fathers, beneath the hills of Ruthyn. Such as they were, such are ye, and such ever may ye remain. The lily is not more spotless, the rose and the violet do not boast a more fragrant odour, than the incense of your prayers when it ascends to the footstool of the Gods. Guileless and undesigning are you as the yearling lamb; gentle and affectionate as the cooing dove. Qualities like these the Gods behold with approbation; to qualities like these the Gods assign their choicest blessings. My sons, there is a splendour that dazzles, rather than enlightens; there is a heat that burns rather than fructifies. Let not characters like these excite your ambition. Be yours the unfrequented sylvan scene. Be yours the shadowy and unnoticed vale of obscurity. Here are the mild and unruffled affections. Here are virtue, peace and happiness. \emph{Here also are} GODS."
Having thus said, he dismissed the assembly, and the shepherds prepared to return to their respective homes. Edwin and Imogen, as they had come, so they returned together. The parents of the maiden had confided her to the care of the gallant shepherds. "She is our only child," said they, "our only treasure, and our life is wrapt up in her safety. Watch over her like her guardian genius. Bring her again to our arms adorned with the cheerfulness of tranquility and innocence." The breast of Edwin was dilated with the charge; he felt a gentle undulation of pride and conscious importance about his heart, at the honour conferred upon him.
The setting sun now gilded the western hills. His beams played upon their summits, and were reflected in an irregular semi-circle of splendour, spotless and radiant as the robes of the fairies. The heat of the day was over, the atmosphere was mild, and all the objects round them quiet and serene. A gentle zephyr fanned the leaves; and the shadows of the trees, projecting to their utmost length, gave an additional coolness and a soberer tint to the fields through which they passed.
The conversation of these innocent and guileless lovers was, as it were, in unison with the placidness of the evening. The sports, in which they had been engaged, had inspired them with gaiety, and the songs they had heard, had raised their thoughts to a sublimer pitch than was usual to them. They praised the miracles of the tale of Modred; they sympathised with the affliction of Evelina; and they spoke with the most unfeigned reverence of the pious and venerable Llewelyn.
But the harmless chearfulness of their conversation did not last long. The serenity that was around them was soon interrupted, and their attention was diverted to external objects. Suddenly you might have perceived a cloud, small and dark, that rose from the bosom of the sea. By swift advances it became thicker and broader, till the whole heavens were enveloped in its dismal shade. The gentle zephyr, that anon played among the trees, was changed into a wind hollow and tumultuous. Its course was irregular. Now all was still and silent as the caverns of death; and again it burst forth in momentary blasts, or whirled the straws and fallen leaves in circling eddies. The light of day was shrouded and invisible. The slow and sober progress of evening was forestalled. The woods and the hills were embosomed in darkness. Their summits were no longer gilded. One by one the beams of the sun were withdrawn from each; and at length Snowdon itself could not be perceived.
Our shepherd and his charge had at this moment reached the most extensive and unprotected part of the plain. No friendly cot was near to shield them from the coming storm. And now a solemn peal of thunder seemed to roll along over their heads. They had begun to fly, but the tender Imogen was terrified at the unexpected crash, and sunk, almost breathless, into the arms of Edwin. In the mean time, the lightnings seemed to fill the heavens with their shining flame. The claps of thunder grew louder and more frequent. They reverberated from rock to rock, and from hill to hill. If at any time, for a transitory interval, the tremendous echoes died away upon the ear, it was filled with the hollow roaring of the winds, and the boisterous dashing of the distant waves. At length the pealing rain descended. It seemed as if all the waters of heaven were exhausted upon their naked heads. The anxious and afflicted Edwin took his beauteous and insensible companion in his arms, and flew across the plain.
But at this instant, a more extraordinary and terrifying object engrossed his attention. An oak, the monarch of the plain, towards which he bent his rapid course, was suddenly struck with the bolt of heaven, and blasted in his sight. Its large and spreading branches were withered; its leaves shrunk up and faded. In the very trunk a gaping and tremendous rift appeared. At the same moment two huge and craggy cliffs burst from the surrounding rocks, to which they had grown for ages, and tumbling with a hideous noise, trundled along the plain.
At length a third spectacle, more horrible than the rest, presented itself to the affrighted eyes of Edwin. He saw a figure, larger than the human, that walked among the clouds, and piloted the storm. Its appearance was dreadful, and its shape, loose and undistinguishable, seemed to be blended with the encircling darkness. From its coutenance gleamed a barbarous smile, ten times more terrific than the frown of any other being. Triumph, inhuman triumph, glistened in its eye, and, with relentless delight, it brewed the tempest, and hurled the destructive lightning. Edwin gazed upon this astonishing apparition, and knew it for a goblin of darkness. The heart of Edwin, which no human terror could appal, sunk within him; his nerves trembled, and the objects that surrounded him, swam in confusion before his eyes. But it is not for virtue to tremble; it is not for conscious innocence to fear the power of elves and goblins. Edwin presently recollected himself, and a gloomy kind of tranquility assumed the empire of his heart. He was more watchful than ever for his beloved Imogen; he gazed with threefold earnestness upon the fearful spectre.
A sound now invaded his ear, from the shapeless rocks behind him. They repeated it with all their echoes. It was hollow as the raging wind; and yet it was not the raging wind. It was loud as the roaring thunder; and yet it was not the voice of thunder. But he did not remain long in suspense, from whence the voice proceeded. A wolf, whom hunger had made superior to fear, leaped from the rock, upon the plain below. Edwin turned his eyes upon the horrid monster; he grasped his boarspear in his hand. The unconscious Imogen glided from his arms, and he advanced before her. He met the savage in his fury, and plunged his weapon in his side. He overturned the monster; he drew forth his lance reeking with his blood; his enemy lay convulsed in the agonies of death. But ere he could return, he heard the sound of a car rattling along the plain. The reins were of silk, and the chariot shone with burnished gold. Upon the top of it sat a man, tall, lusty, and youthful. His hair flowed about his shoulders, his eyes sparkled with untamed fierceness, and his brow was marked with the haughty insolence of pride. It was Roderic, lord of a hundred hills; but Edwin knew him not. The goblin descended from its eminence, and directed the course of Roderic. In a moment, he seized the breathless and insensible Imogen, and lifted her to his car. Edwin beheld the scene with grief and astonishment; his senses were in a manner overwhelmed with so many successive prodigies. But he did not long remain inactive; grief and astonishment soon gave way to revenge. He took his javelin, still red with the blood of the mountain wolf, and whirled it from his hand. Edwin was skilled to toss the dart; from his hand it flew unerring to its aim. Forceful it sung along the air; but the goblin advanced with hasty steps among the clouds. It touched it with its hand, and it fell harmless and pointless to the ground. During this action the car of Roderic disappeared. The goblin immediately vanished; and Edwin was left in solitude.
The storm however had not yet ceased. The rain descended with all its former fury. The thunder roared with a strong and deafening sound. The lightnings flamed from pole to pole. But the lightnings flamed, and the thunder roared unregarded. The storm beat in vain upon the unsheltered head of Edwin. "Where," cried he, with the voice of anguish and despair, "is my Imogen, my mistress, my wife, the charmer of my soul, the solace of my heart?" Saying this, he sprung away like the roe upon the mountains. His pace was swifter than that of the zephyr when it sweeps along over the unbending corn. He soon reached the avenue by which the chariot had disappeared from his sight. He leaped from rock to rock; he ascended to the summit of the cliff. His eye glanced the swift-flying car of Roderic; he knew him by his gilded carriage, and his spangled vest. But he saw him only for a moment. His aching eye pursued the triumphant flight in vain. "Stay, stay, base ravisher, inglorious coward!" he exclaimed. "If thou art a man, return and meet me. I will encounter thee hand to hand. I will not fear the strength of thy shoulders, and the haughtiness of thy crest. If in such a cause, with the pride of virtue on my side, with all the Gods to combat for me, I am yet vanquished, then be Imogen thine: then let her be submitted to thy despotic power, to thy brutal outrage, and I will not murmur."
But his words were given to the winds of heaven. Roderic fled far, far away. The heart of Edwin was wrung with anguish. "Ye kind and merciful Gods!" exclaimed he, "grant but this one prayer, and the voice of Edwin shall no more importune you with presumptuous vows. Blot from the book of fate the tedious interval. Give me to find the potent villain. Though he be hemmed in with guards behind guards; though his impious mansion strike its foundations deep to the centre, and rear its head above the clouds; though all the powers of hell combine on his side, I will search him out, I will penetrate into his most hidden recess. I can but die. Oh, if I am to be deprived of Imogen, how sweet, how solacing is the thought of death! Let me die in her cause. That were some comfort yet. Let me die in her presence, let her eyes witness the fervour of my attachment, and I will die without a groan."
Having thus poured forth the anguish of his bosom, he resumed the pursuit. But how could Edwin, alone, on foot, and wearied with the journey of the day, hope to overtake the winged steeds of Roderic? And indeed had his speed been tenfold greater than it was, it had been exerted to no purpose. As the ravisher arrived at the edge of the mountain, he struck into a narrow and devious path that led directly to his mansion. But Edwin, who had for some time lost sight of the chariot, took no notice of a way, covered with moss and overgrown with bushes; and pursued the more beaten road. Swift was his course; but the swifter he flew, the farther still he wandered from the object of his search. A rapid brook flowed across his path, which the descending rains had swelled into a river. Without a moment's hesitation, accoutered as he was, he plunged in. Instantly he gained the opposite bank, and divided the air before him, like an arrow in its flight.
In the mean time, the storm had ceased, the darkness was dispersed, and only a few thin and fleecy clouds were scattered over the blue expanse. The sun had for some time sunk beneath the western hills. The heavens, clear and serene, had assumed a deeper tint, and were spangled over with stars. The moon, in calm and silver lustre, lent her friendly light to the weary traveller. Edwin was fatigued and faint. He tried to give vent to his complaints; but his tongue cleaved to the roof of his mouth: his spirits sunk within him. No sound now reached his ears but the baying of the shepherds dogs, and the \emph{drowsy tinklings} of the \emph{distant folds}. The owl, the solemn bird of night, sat buried among the branches of the aged oak, and with her melancholy hootings gave an additional serenity to the scene. At a small distance, on his right hand, he perceived a contiguous object that reflected the rays of the moon, through the willows and the hazels, and chequered the view with a clear and settled lustre. He approached it. It was the lake of Elwy; and near it he discovered that huge pile of stones, so well known to him, which had been reared ages since, by the holy Druids. It was upon this spot that they worshipped the Gods. But they had no habitation near it. They repaired thither at stated intervals from the woods of Mona, and the shores of Arvon. One only Druid lived by the banks of the silver flood, and watched the temple day and night, that no rude hand might do violence to the sanctity of the place, and no profaner mortal, with sacrilegious foot might enter the mysterious edifice. It was surrounded with a wall of oaks. The humbler shrubs filled up their interstices, and there was no avenue to the sacred shade, except by two narrow paths on either side the lake.
The solemn stilness of the scene for a moment hushed the sorrows of Edwin into oblivion. Ah, short oblivion! scarcely had he gazed around him, and drank of the quietness and peace of the scene, ere those recent sorrows impressed his bosom with more anguish than before. Recollecting himself however, he trod the mead with nimble feet, and approached, trembling and with hesitation, to the eastern avenue. "Hear me, sage and generous Madoc," cried the shepherd, with a voice that glided along the peaceful lake, "hear the sorrows of the most forlorn of all the sons of Clwyd!" The hermit, who sat at the door of his grotto, perceived the sound, and approached to the place from which it proceeded. The accent was gentle; and he feared no boisterous intrusion. The accent was tender and pathetic; and never was the breast of Madoc steeled against the voice of anguish. "Approach, my son," he cried. "What disastrous event has brought thee hither, so far from thy peaceful home, and at this still and silent hour of night? Has any lamb wandered from thy fold, and art thou come hither in pursuit of it?" Edwin was silent. His heart seemed full almost to bursting, and he could not utter a word. "Hast thou wandered from thy companions and missed the path that led to the well-known hamlet?" "Alas," said Edwin, "I had a companion once!" and he lifted up his eyes to heaven in speechless despair. "Has thy mistress deserted thee, or have her parents bestowed her on some happier swain?" "Yes," said Edwin, "I have lost her, who was dear to me as the \emph{ruddy drops that visit my sad heart.} But she was constant. Her parents approved of my passion, and consigned her to my arms." "Has sickness then overtaken her, or has untimely death put a period to thy prospects, just as they began to bloom?" "Oh, no," said the disconsolate shepherd, "I have encountered a disaster more comfortless and wasteful than sickness. I had a thousand times rather have received her last sigh, and closed her eyes in darkness!"
During this conversation, they advanced along the banks of Elwy, and drew towards the grotto of the hermit. The hospitable Madoc brought some dried fruits and a few roots from his cell, and spread them before his guest. He took a bowl of seasoned wood, and hastening to the fountain, that fell with a murmuring noise down the neighing [sic] rock, he presented the limpid beverage. "Such," said he, "is my humble fare; partake it with a contented heart, and it shall be more grateful to thy taste, than the high flavoured viands of a monarch." In the mean time, Madoc, pleased with the benevolent pursuit, gathered some bits of dry wood, and setting them on fire, besought the swain to refresh himself from the weariness of his travel, and the inclemency of the storm. But the heart of Edwin was too full to partake of the provisions that his attentive host had prepared. The chearfulness however of the blazing hearth and the generous officiousness of the hermit, seemed by degrees to recover him from the insensibility and lethargy, that for a time had swallowed up all his faculties.
Madoc had hitherto contemplated his guest in silence. He permitted him to refresh his wearied frame and to resume his dissipated spirits uninterrupted; he suppressed the curiosity by which he was actuated, to learn the story of the woes of Edwin. In the midst of his dejection, he perceived the symptoms of a nobility of spirit that interested him; and the anguish of the shepherd's mind had not totally destroyed the traces of that mild affability, and that manly frankness for which he was esteemed.
Edwin had no sooner appeared to shake off a small part of his melancholy, his eye no sooner sparkled with returning fire, than Madoc embraced the favourable omen. "My son," said he, "you seem to be full of dejection and grief. Grief is not an inmate of the plain; the hours of the shepherd are sped in gaiety and mirth. Suspicion and design are stranger to his bosom. With him the voice of discord is not heard. The scourge of war never blasted his smiling fields; the terror of invasion never banished him from the peaceful cot. You too are young and uninured even to the misfortunes of the shepherd. No contagion has destroyed your flock; no wolf has broken its slender barriers: you have felt the anguish of no wound, and been witness to the death of no friend. Say then, my son, why art thou thus dejected and forlorn?"
"Alas," replied Edwin, "our equal lot undoubtedly removes us from the stroke of many misfortunes; but even to us adversity extends its rod. I have been exposed to the ravages of an invader, more fearful than the wolf, more detested than the conqueror. From an affliction like mine, no occupation, no rank, no age can exempt. Sawest thou not the descending storm? Did not the rain beat upon thy cavern, and the thunder roar among the hills?" "It did," cried Madoc, "and I was struck with reverence, and worshipped the God who grasps the thunder in his mighty hand. Wast thou, my son, exposed to its fury?" "I was upon the bleak and wide extended heath. With Imogen, the fairest and most constant of the daughters of Clwyd, I returned from the feast of Ruthyn. But alas," added the shepherd, "the storm had no terrors, when compared with the scenes that accompanied it. I beheld, Madoc, nor are the words I utter the words of shameless imposition, or coward credulity; I beheld a phantom, that glided along the air, and rode among the clouds. At his command, a wolf from the forest, with horrid tusks, and eyes of fire, burst upon me. I advanced towards it, that I might defend the fairest of her sex from its fury, and plunged my javelin in its heart. But, oh! while I was thus engaged, a chariot advanced on the opposite side! Its course was directed by the spectre. The rider descended on the plain, and seized the spotless, helpless Imogen; and never, never shall these eyes behold her more! Such, O thou servant of the Gods, has been my adversity. The powers of darkness have arrayed themselves against me. For me the storm has been brewed; all the arrows of heaven have been directed against my weak, defenceless head. For me the elements have mixed in tremendous confusion; portents and prodigies have been accumulated for my destruction. Oh, then, generous and hospitable Druid, what path is there, that is left for my deliverance? What chance remains for me, now that a host of invisible beings combats against me? Teach me, my friend, my father, what it is that I must do. Tell me, is there any happiness in store for Edwin, or must I sink, unresisting, into the arms of comfortless despair?"
"My son," cried the venerable hermit, "hope is at all times our duty, and despair our crime. It is not in the power of events to undermine the felicity of the virtuous. Goblins, and spirits of darkness, are permitted a certain scope in this terrestrial scene; but their power is bounded; beyond a certain line they cannot wander. In vain do they threaten innocence and truth. Innocence is a wall of brass upon which they can make no impression. Virtue is an adamant that is sacred and secure from all their efforts. He whose thoughts are full of rectitude and heaven, who knows no guile, may wander in safety through uncultivated forests, or sandy plains, that have never known the trace of human feet. Before him the robber is just, and the satyr tame; for him the monsters of the desert are disarmed of their terrors, and he shall lead the wild boar and the wolf in his hand. Such is the sanctity that heaven has bestowed on unblemished truth."
"Alas, my father," cried Edwin, "this is the lesson that was first communicated to my childhood; and my infant heart bounded with the sacred confidence it inspired. But excuse the presumption of a distracted heart. This lesson, to which at another time I could have listened with rapture and enthusiasm, seems now too loose and general for a medicine to my woes. Innocence the Gods have made superior and invulnerable. And, oh, in what have I transgressed? Yet, my father, I am wounded in the tenderest part. Shall I ever recover my Imogen? Is she not torn from me irreversibly? How shall I engage with powers invisible, and supernatural? How shall I discover my unknown, human enemy? No, Madoc, I am lost in impenetrable darkness. For me there is no hope, no shadow of approaching ease."
"Be calm, my son," rejoined the anchorite. "Arrogance and impatience become not the weak and uninformed children of the earth. Be calm, and I will administer a remedy more appropriate to your wrongs. But remember this is your hour of trial. If now you forget the principles of your youth, and the instructions of the sacred Druids, you shall fall from happiness, never to regain it more. But if you come forth pure and unblemished from the fierce assay, your Imogen shall be yours, the Gods shall take you into their resistless protection, and in all future ages, when men would cite an example of distinguished felicity, they shall say, as fortunate as Edwin of the vale." Edwin bended his knee in mute submission.
"Listen, my son," continued the Druid. "I know your enemy, and can point out to you his obscure retreat." The shepherd lifted up his eyes, lately so languid, that now flashed with fire. He eagerly grasped the hand of Madoc. "Alas," continued the hermit, "to know him would little answer the purpose of thy bold and enterprising spirit. They adversary, as thou mayest have conjectured, is in league with the powers of darkness. Against them what can courage, what can adventure avail? They can unthread thy joints, and crumble all thy sinews. They can chain up thy limbs in marble. For how many perils, how many unforseen disasters ought he to be prepared, who dares to encounter them?"
"The name of him who has ravished from thee the dearest treasure of thy heart, is Roderic. His mother—attend, oh Edwin, for whatever the incredulous may pretend, the tales related by the bards in their immortal songs, of ghosts, and fairies, and dire enchantment, are not vain and fabulous.—You have heard of the inauspicious fame and the bad eminence of Rodogune. She withdrew from the fields of Clwyd within the memory of the elder of shepherds. Various were the conjectures occasioned by her disappearance. Some imagined, that for the haughtiness of her humour, and the malignity of her disposition, characters that were wholly unexampled in the pastoral life, she had been carried away before the period limited by nature to the place of torment by the goblins of the abyss. Others believed that she concealed herself in the top of the highest mountain that was near them, and by a commerce with invisible, malignant beings, still exercised the same gloomy temper in more potent, and therefore more inauspicious harm. The blight that overspread the meadows, the destructive contagion that diffused itself among the flocks, the raging tempest that rooted up the oak, when the thunder roared among the hills, and the lightning flashed from pole to pole, they ascribed to the machinations and the sorcery of Rodogune. Their conjectures indeed were blind, but their notions were not wholly mistaken.
"Rodogune was the mother of Roderic. She was deeply skilled in those dark and flagitious arts, which have cast a gloom upon this mortal scene. The intellectual powers bestowed upon her by the Gods were great and eminent, and were given for a far different purpose than to be employed in these sinister pursuits. But all conspicuous talents are liable, my son, to base perversion; and such was the fate of those of Rodogune. She delighted in the actions which her dark and criminal alliance with invisible powers enabled her to perform. It was her's to mislead the benighted shepherd. It was Sher's to part the happy lovers. For this purpose she would swell the waves, and toss the feeble bark. She dispensed, according to the dictates of her caprice, the mildew among the tender herb, and the pestilence among the folds of the shepherds. By the stupendous powers of enchantment, she raised from the bosom of a hill a wondrous edifice. The apartments were magnificent and stately; unlike the shepherd's cot, and not to be conceived by the imagination of the rustic. Here she accumulated a thousand various gratifications; here she wantoned in all the secret and licentious desires of her heart. But her castle was not merely a scene of thoughtless pleasure. Within its circle she held crouds of degenerate shepherds, groveling through the omnipotence of her incantations in every brutal form. Even the spectres and the elves that disobeyed her authority, she held in the severest durance. She compressed their tender forms in the narrowest prison, or gave them to the stormy winds, to be whirled, \emph{with restless violence, round about} the ample globe. In a word, her mansion was one uninterrupted scene of ingenious cruelty and miserable despair. To be surrounded with the face of disappointment and agony was the happiness of Rodogune.
"When first by her art she raised that edifice which is now inhabited by her son, she had been desirous to conceal it from the prying eyes of the wanderer. In order to this, though it stood upon an eminence, she chose an eminence that was surrounded by higher hills, and hills which, according to the neighbouring shepherds, were impassable. No adventurous step had ever since the day they were created pierced beyond them. It was imagined that the space they surrounded was the haunt of elves, and the resort of those who held commerce with evil spirits. The curling smoke, which of late has frequently been seen to ascend from their bosom, has confirmed this tradition. And in order to render her habitation still more impervious, Rodogune surrounded it with a deep grove of oaks, whose thick branches entwined together, permitted no passage so much as to the light of day.
"Roderic was her only child, the darling of her age, and the central object of all her cares. At his birth the elves and the fairies were summoned together. They bestowed upon him every beauty of person and every subtlety of wit. To every weapon they made him invulnerable. And, without demanding from him that care and persevering study, that had planted wrinkles on his mother's brow, they gave him to enjoy his wishes instantly and uncontroled. One only goblin was daring enough to pronounce a curse upon him. 'WHEN RODERIC,' cried he, 'SHALL BE OVERREACHED IN ALL HIS SPELLS BY A SIMPLE SWAIN, UNVERSED IN THE VARIOUS ARTS OF SORCERY AND MAGIC: WHEN RODERIC SHALL SUE TO A SIMPLE MAID, WHO BY HIS CHARMS SHALL BE MADE TO HATE THE SWAIN THAT ONCE SHE LOVED, AND WHO YET SHALL RESIST ALL HIS PERSONAL ATTRACTIONS AND ALL HIS POWER; THEN SHALL HIS POWER BE AT AN END. HIS PALACES SHALL BE DISSOLVED, HIS RICHES SCATTERED, AND HE HIMSELF SHALL BECOME AN UNFITTED, NECESSITOUS, MISERABLE VAGABOND.' Such was the mysterious threat; and dearly did the threatner abide it. In the mean time, an elf more generous, more attached to Rodogune, and more potent than the rest, bestowed upon the infant a mysterious ring. By means of this he is empowered to assume what form he pleases. By means of this it was hoped he would be able to subdue the most prepossessed, and melt the most obdurate female heart. By means of this it was hoped, he might evade not only the simple swain, but all the wiles of the most experienced and subtle adversary.
"Roderic now increased in age, and began to exhibit the promises of that manly and graceful beauty that was destined for him. He inherited his mother's haughtiness, and his wishes and his passions were never subjected to contradiction. A few years since that mother died, and the youth has been too much engaged in voluptuousness and luxury to embark in the malicious pursuits of Rodogune, Sensuality has been his aim, and pleasure has been his God. To gratify his passions has been the sole object of his attentions; and he has remitted no exertion that could enhance to him the joys of the feast and the fruition of beauty. One low-minded gratification has succeeded to another; pleasures of an elevated and intellectual kind have been strangers to his heart; and were it not that the subtlety of wit was a gift bestowed upon him by supernatural existencies, he must long ere this have sunk his mind to the lowest savageness and the most contemptible imbecility."
Edwin heard the tale of the Druid with the deepest attention. He was interested in the information it contained; he was astonished at the unfathomable witcheries of Rodogune; and he could not avoid the being apprehensive of the unexpanded powers of Roderic. But the daring and adventurous spirit of youth, and the anxiety that he felt for the critical situation of Imogen, soon overpowered and obliterated these impressions. The Druid finished; and he started from his seat. "Point me, kind and generous Madoc, to the harbour of the usurper. I will invade his palace. I will enter fearlessly the lime-twigs of his spells. I will trust in the omnipotency of innocence. Though the magician should be encircled with all the horrid forms that ingenious fear ever created, though all the grizly legions of the infernal realm should hem in, I will find him out, and force him to relinquish his prize, or drag him by his shining hair to a death, ignominious and accursed, as has been the conduct of his life."
The Druid assumed a sterner and a severer aspect. "How long, son of the valley," cried he, "wilt thou be deaf to the voice of instruction? When wilt thou temper thy heedless and inconsiderate courage with the coolness of wisdom and the moderation of docility? But go," added he, "I am to blame to endeavour to govern thy headlong spirit, or stem the torrent of youthful folly. Go, and endure the punishment of thy rashness. Encounter the magician in the midst of his spells. Expose thy naked and unprotected head to glut his vengeance. Over thy life indeed, he has no power. Deliberate guilt, not unreflecting folly, can deprive thee of thy right to that. But, oh, shepherd, what avails it to live in hopeless misery? With ease he shall shut thee up for revolving years in darkness tangible; he shall plunge thee deep beneath the surface of the mantled pool, the viscous spume shall draw over thy miserable head its dank and dismal shroud; or perhaps, more ingenious in mischief, he shall chain thee up in inactivity, a conscious statue, the silent and passive witness of the usurped joys that once thou fondly fanciedst thy own."
"Oh, pardon me, sage and venerable Madoc," replied the shepherd. "Edwin did not come from the hands of nature obstinate and untractable. But grief agitates my spirits; anxiety and apprehension conjure up a thousand horrid phantoms before my distracted imagination, and I am no longer myself. I will however subdue my impatient resentments. I will listen with coolness to the voice of native sagacity and hoary experience. Tell me then, my father, and I will hearken with mute attention, nor think the lesson long,—instruct me how I shall escape those tremendous dangers thou hast described. Say, is there any remedy, canst thou communicate any potent and unconquerable amulet, that shall shield me from the arts of sorcery? Teach me, and my honest heart shall thank thee. Communicate it, and the benefit shall be consecrated in my memory to everlasting gratitude."
"My son," replied Madoc, "I am indeed interested for thee. Thy heart is ingenuous and sincere; thy misfortune is poignant and affecting. Listen then to my directions. Receive and treasure up this small and sordid root. In its external appearance, it is worthless and despicable; but, Edwin, we must not judge by appearances; that which is most valuable often delights to shroud itself under a coarse and unattractive outside. In a richer climate, and under a more genial sun, it bears a beauteous flower, whose broad leaves expand themselves to the day, and are clothed with a deep and splendid purple, glossy as velvet, and bedropped with gold. This root is a sovereign antidote against all blasts, enchantments, witchcrafts, and magic. With this about thee, thou mayest safely enter the haunts of Roderic; thou mayest hear his incantations unappalled; thou mayest boldly dash from his hand his magic glass, and shed the envenomed beverage on the ground. Then, when he stands astonished at the unexpected phenomenon, wrest from him his potent wand. Invoke not the unhallowed spirits of the abyss; invoke the spotless synod of the Gods. Strike with his rod the walls of his palace, and they shall turn to viewless air; the monster shall be deprived of all his riches, and all his accumulated pleasures; and thou and thy Imogen, delivered from the powers of enchantment, shall be, for one long, uninterrupted day, happy in the enjoyment of each other.
"Attend, my son, yet attend, to one more advice, upon which all thy advantage and all thy success in this moment of crisis hang. Engage not in so arduous and important an enterprise immaturely. Thou hast yet no reason for despair. Thou art yet beheld with favour by propitious heaven. But thou mayest have reason for despair. One false step may ruin thee. One moment of heedless inconsideration may plunge thee in years of calamity. One moment of complying guilt may shut upon thee the door of enjoyment and happiness for ever."
Such was the sorrow, and such were the consolations of Edwin. But far different was the situation, and far other scenes were prepared for his faithful shepherdess. For some time after she had been seized by Roderic, she had remained unconscious and supine. The terrors that had preceded the fatal capture, had overpowered her delicate frame, and sunk her into an alarming and obstinate fit of insensibility. They had now almost reached the palace of the magician, when she discovered the first symptoms of returning life. The colour gradually remounted into her bloodless cheeks; her hands were raised with a feeble and involuntary motion, and at length she lifted up her head, and opened her languid, unobserving eyes. "Edwin," she cried, "my friend, my companion, where art thou? Where have we been? Oh, it is a long and tedious evening!" Saying this, she looked upon the objects around her. The sky was now become clear and smiling; the lowring clouds were dissipated, and the blue expanse was stretched without limits over their head. The sources of her former terror were indeed removed, but the objects that presented themselves were equally alarming. All was unexpected and all was unaccountable. Imogen had remained without consciousness from the very beginning of the storm, and it was during her insensibility that the goblin had been visible, and the magician descended to the plains. She found herself mounted upon a car, and hurried along by rapid steeds. She saw beside her a man whose face, whose garb, and whose whole appearance were perfectly unknown to her.
"Ah," exclaimed the maiden, in a voice of amazement apprehension, "where am I? What is become of my Edwin? And what art thou? What means all this? These are not the well-known fields; this is not the brook of Towey, nor these hills of Clwyd. Oh, whither, whither do we fly? This track leads not to the cottage of my parents, and the groves of Rhyddlan." "Be not uneasy, my fair one," answered Roderic. "We go, though not by the usual path, to where your friends reside. I am not your enemy, but a swain who esteems it his happiness to have come between you and your distress, and to have rescued you from the pelting of the storm. Suspend, my love, for a few moments your suspicions and your anxiety, and we shall arrive where all your doubts will be removed, and all I hope will be pleasure and felicitation." While he thus spoke the chariot hastened to the conclusion of their journey, and entered the area in the front of the mansion of Roderic.
The suspicions of Imogen were indeed removed, but in a manner too cruel for her tender frame. The terror and fatigue she had previously undergone had wasted her spirits, and the surprise she now experienced, was more than she could sustain. As the chariot entered the court, she cried out with a voice of horror and anguish, and sunk breathless into the arms of her ravisher. Though the passion he had already conceived for her, made this a circumstance of affliction, he yet in another view rejoiced, that he was able, by its intervention, to conduct his prize in a manner by stealth into his palace, and thus to prevent that struggle and those painful sensations, which she must otherwise have known. For could she have borne, without emotion, to see herself conveyed into a wretched imprisonment? Could she have submitted, without opposition, to be shut up, as it were, from the hope of revisiting those scenes, where once her careless childhood played, and those friends whom she valued more than life?
The leading pursuit of Roderic, as it had been stated by the Druid of Elwy, was the love of pleasure, an attachment to sensuality, luxury and lust. He often spent whole days in the bosom of voluptuousness, reposing upon couches of down, under ceilings of gold. His senses were at intervals awakened, by the most exquisite music, to a variety of delight. He often recreated his view with beholding, from a posture of supineness and indolence, the frolic games, and the mazy dance. Sometimes, in order to diversify the scene, he would mix in the sports, and, by the graceful activity of his limbs, and the subtle keenness of his wit, would communicate relish and novelty to that which before had palled upon the performers. When he moved, every eye was fixed in admiration. When he spoke all was tranquility of attention, and every mouth was open to applaud. Then were set forth the luxuries of the feast. Every artifice was employed to provoke the appetite. The viands were savoury, and the fruits were blushing; the decorations were sumptuous, and the halls shone with a profusion of tapers, whose rays were reflected in a thousand directions by an innumerable multitude of mirrors and lustres. And now the intoxicating beverage went swiftly round the board. The conversation became more open and unrestrained. Quick were the repartees and loud the mirth. Loose, meaning glances were interchanged between the master of the feast and the mingled beauties that adorned his board. With artful inadvertence the gauze seemed to withdraw from their panting bosoms, and new and still newer charms discovered themselves to enchant the eyes and inflame the heart. The bed of enjoyment succeeded to the board of intemperance. Such was the history of the life of Roderic.
But man was not born for the indolence of pleasure and the uniformity of fruition. No gratifications, but especially not those that address themselves only to the senses, and pamper this brittle, worthless mansion of the immortal mind, are calculated to entertain us for any long duration. We need something to awaken our attention, to whet our appetite, and to contrast our joys. Happiness in this sublunary state can scarcely be felt, but by a comparison with misery. It is he only that has escaped from sickness, that is conscious of health; it is he only that has shaken off the chains of misfortune, that truly rejoices. The wisdom of these maxims was felt by Roderic. Full of pleasures, surrounded with objects of delight, he was not happy. Their uniformity cloyed him. He had received, by supernatural endowment, an activity and a venturousness of spirit, that were little formed for such scenes as these. He was devoured with spleen. He sighed he knew not why; he was peevish and ill-humoured in the midst of the most assiduous attention and the most wakeful service. And the command he possessed over the elements of nature was no remedy for sensations like these.
Oppressed with these feelings, Roderic was accustomed to withdraw himself from the pomps and luxuries that surrounded him, to fly from the gilded palace and the fretted roofs, and to mix in the simple and undebauched scenes of artless innocence that descended on every side from the hills he inhabited. The name of Roderic was unknown to all the shepherds of the vallies, and he was received by them with that officiousness and hospitality which they were accustomed to exercise to the stranger. It was his delight to give scope to his imagination by inventing a thousand artful tales of misfortune, by which he awakened the compassion, and engaged the attachment of the simple hinds. In order the more effectually to evade that curiosity which would have been fatal to his ease, he assumed every different time that he came among them a different form. By this contrivance, he passed unobserved, he partook freely of their pastimes, he made his observations unmolested, and was perfectly at leisure for the reflections, not always of the most pleasant description, that these scenes, of simple virtue and honest poverty, were calculated to excite. "Oh, impotence of power," exclaimed he, wrapt up and secure in the disguise he assumed, "to what purpose art thou desired? Ambition is surely the most foolish and misjudging of all terrestrial passions. My condition appears attractive. I am surrounded with riches and splendour; no man approaches me but with homage and flattery; every object of gratification solicits my acceptance. I am not only endowed with a capacity of obtaining all that I can wish, and that by supernatural means, but I am almost constantly forestalled in my wishes. Who would not say, that I am blessed? Who that heard but a description of my state, would not envy me? O ye shepherds, happy, thrice happy, in the confinedness of your prospects, ye would then envy me! Instructed as I am, instructed by too fatal experience, with reason I envy you. Hark to that swain who is now leading his flock from the durance in which they were held till the morning peeped over the eastern hills! The little lambs frisk about him, thankful for the liberty they have regained, and he stretches out his hand for them to lick. Now he drives them along the extended green, and in a wild and thoughtless note carols a lively lay. He sings perhaps of the kind, but bashful shepherdess. His hat is bound about with ribbon; the memorial of her coy compliance and much-prized favour. How light is his heart, how chearful his gait, and how gay his countenance! He leads in a string a little frolic goat with curving horns: I suppose the prize that he bore off in singing, which is not yet tamed to his hand, and familiarised to his flock. What though his coat be frieze? What though his labour constantly return with the returning day? I wear the attire of kings; far from labouring myself, thousands labour for my convenience. And yet he is happier than I. Envied simplicity; venerable ignorance; plenteous poverty! How gladly would I quit my sumptuous palace, and my magic arts, for the careless, airy, and unreflecting joys of rural simplicity!"
It was in a late excursion of this kind that he had beheld the beauteous Imogen. His eye was struck with the charms of her person, and the amiableness of her manners. Never had he seen a complexion so transparent, or an eye so expressive. Her vermeil-tinctured lips were new-blown roses that engrossed the sight, and seemed to solicit to be plucked. His heart was caught in the tangles of her hair. Such an unaffected bashfulness, and so modest a blush; such an harmonious and meaning tone of voice, that expressed in the softest accents, the most delicate sense and the most winning simplicity, could not but engage the attention of a swain so versed in the science of the fair as Roderic. From that distinguished moment, though he still felt uneasiness, it was no longer vacuity, it was no longer an uneasiness irrational and unaccountable. He had now an object to pursue. He was not now subjected to the fatigue of forming wishes for the sake of having them instantly gratified. When he reflected upon the present object of his desires, new obstacles continually started in his mind. Unused to encounter difficulty, he for a time imagined them insurmountable. Had his desires been less pressing, had his passion been less ardent, he would have given up the pursuit in despair. But urged along by an unintermitted impulse, he could think of nothing else, he could not abstract his attention to a foreign subject. He determined at least once again to behold the peerless maiden. He descended to the feast of Ruthyn; and though the interval had been but short, from the time in which he had first observed her, in the eye of love she seemed improved. The charms that erst had budded, were now full blown. Her beauties were ripened, and her attractions spread themselves in the face of day. Nor was this all. He beheld with a watchful glance her slight and silent intercourse with the gallant Edwin; an intercourse which no eye but that of a lover could have penetrated. Hence his mind became pregnant with all the hateful brood of dark suspicions; he was agitated with the fury of jealousy. Jealousy evermore blows the flame it seems formed to extinguish. The passion of Roderic was more violent than ever. His impatient spirit could not now brook the absence of a moment. Luxury charmed no longer; the couch of down was to him a bed of torture, and the solicitations of beauty, the taunts and sarcasms of infernal furies. He invoked the spirit of his mother; he brought together an assembly of elves and goblins. By their direction he formed his plan; by their instrumentality the tempest was immediately raised; and under the guidance of the chief of all the throng he descended upon his prey, like the eagle from his eminence in the sky.
The success of his exploit has already been related. The scheme had indeed been too deeply laid, and too artfully digested, to admit almost the possibility of a miscarriage. Who but would have stood appalled, when the storm descended upon our lovers in the midst of the plain, and the thunders seemed to rock the whole circle of the neighbouring hills? Who could have conducted himself at once with greater prudence and gallantry than the youthful shepherd? Did he not display the highest degree of heroism and address, when he laid the gaunt and haughty wolf prostrate at his feet? But it was not for human skill to cope with the opposition of infernal spirits. Accordingly Roderic had been victorious. He had borne the tender maiden unresisted from the field; he had outstripped the ardent pursuit of Edwin with a speed swifter than the winds. In fine, he had conducted his lovely prize in safety to his enchanted castle, and had introduced her within those walls, where every thing human and supernatural obeyed his nod, in a state of unresisting passivity.
Roderic, immediately upon his entrance into the castle, had committed the fair Imogen to the care of the attendant damsels. He charged them by every means to endeavour to restore her to sense and tranquility, and not to utter any thing in her hearing, which should have the smallest tendency to discompose her spirits. In obedience to orders, which they had never known what it was to dispute, they were so unwearied in their assiduities to their amiable charge, that it was not long before she began once again to exhibit the tokens of renewed perception. She raised by degrees a leaden and inexpressive eye, to the objects that were about her, without having as yet spirit and recollectedness enough to distinguish them. "My mother," cried she, "my venerable Edith, I am not well. My head is quite confused and giddy. Do press it with your friendly hand." A female attendant, as she uttered these words, drew near to obey them. "Go, go," exclaimed Imogen, with a feeble tone, and at the same time putting by the officious hand, "you naughty girl. You are not my mother. Do not think to make me believe you are."
While she spoke this she began gradually to gain a more entire sedateness and self-command. She seemed to examine, with an eager and inquisitive eye, first one object, and then another by turns. The novelty of the whole scene appeared for an instant to engross her attention. Every part of the furniture was unlike that of a shepherd's cot; and completely singular and unprecedented by any thing that her memory could suggest. But this self-deception, this abstraction from her feelings and her situation was of a continuance the shortest that can be conceived. All seemed changed with her in a moment. Her eye, which, from a state of languor and unexpressiveness, had assumed an air of intent and restless curiosity, was now full of comfortless sorrow and unprotected distress. "Powers that defend the innocent, support, guard me! Where am I? What have I been doing? What is become of me? Oh, Edwin, Edwin!" and she reclined her head upon the shoulder of the female who was nearest her.
Recovering however, in a moment, the dignity that was congenial to her, she raised herself from this remiss and inactive posture, and seemed to be immersed in reflection and thought. "Yes, yes," exclaimed she, "I know well enough how it is. You cannot imagine what a furious storm it was: and so I sunk upon the ground terrified to death: and so Edwin left me, and ran some where, I cannot tell where, for shelter. But sure it could not be so neither. He could not be so barbarous. Well but however somebody came and took me up, and so I am here. But what am I here for, and what place is this? Tell me, ye kind shepherdesses, (if shepherdesses you are) for indeed I am sick at heart."
The broken interrogatories of Imogen were heard with a profound silence. "What," said the lovely and apprehensive maiden, "will you not answer me? No, not one word. Ah, then it must be bad indeed. But I have done nothing that should make me be afraid. I am as harmless and as chearly as the little red-breast that pecks out of my hand? So you will not hurt me, will you? No, I dare swear. You do not frown upon me. Your looks are quite sweet and good-natured. But then it was not kind not to answer me, and tell me what I asked you." "Fair stranger," replied one of the throng, "we would willingly do any thing to oblige you. But you are weak and ill; and it is necessary that you should not exert yourself, but try to sleep."
"Sleep," replied the shepherdess, "what here in this strange place? No, that I shall not, I can tell you. I never slept from under the thatch of my father's cottage in my life, but once, and that was at the wedding of my dear, obliging Rovena. But perhaps," added she, "my father and mother will come to me here. So I will even try and be compilable, for I never was obstinate. But indeed my head is strangely confused; you must excuse me."
Such was the language, and such the affecting simplicity of the innocent and uncultivated Imogen. She, who had been used to one narrow round of chearful, rustic scenes, was too much perplexed to be able to judge of her situation. Her repeated faintings had weakened her spirits, and for a time disordered her understanding. She had always lived among the simple; she had scarcely ever been witness to any thing but sincerity and innocence. Suspicion therefore was the farthest in the world from being an inmate of her breast. Suspicion is the latest and most difficult lesson of the honest and uncrooked mind. Imogen therefore willingly retired to rest, in compliance with the soliciation of her attendants. She beheld no longer her ravisher, whose eye beamed with ungovernable desires, and whose crest swelled with pride. Every countenance was marked with apparent carefulness and sympathy. She was even pleased with their officious and friendly-seeming demeanour.
Tell me, ye vain cavillers, ye haughty adversaries of the omnipotence of virtue, where could artful vice, where could invisible and hell-born seduction, have found a fitter object for their triumph? Imogen was not armed with the lessons of experience: Imogen was not accoutered with the cautiousness of cultivation and refinement. She was all open to every one that approached her. She carried her heart in her hand. Ye, I doubt not, have already reckoned upon the triumph, and counted the advantages. But, if I do not much mistake the divine lessons I am commissioned to deliver, the muse shall tell a very different story.
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\part{BOOK THE THIRD}
PURPOSES OF RODERIC.—THE CARRIAGE OF IMOGEN.—HER CONTEMPT OF RICHES.
The fatigue which Imogen had undergone in the preceding day, prepared her to rest during the night with more tranquility than could otherwise have been expected. The scenes to which she had successively been witness, and the objects that now surrounded her, were too novel and extraordinary in their character, to allow much room for the severity of reflection, and the coolness of meditation. Her frame was tired with the various exercises in which she had engaged; her mind was hurried and perplexed without knowing upon what to fix, or in what manner to account for the events that had befallen her: she therefore sunk presently into a sweet and profound sleep; and while every thing seemed preparing for her destruction, while a thousand enchantments were essayed, and a thousand schemes revolved in the busy mind of Roderic, she remained composed and unapprehensive. Innocence was the sevenfold shield that protected her from harm; her eyes were closed in darkness, and a smile of placid benignity played upon the lovely features of her countenance.
Roderic in the mean time had retired to his chamber. His mind was turbid and unquiet. So restless are the waves of the ocean before the coming tempest. They assume a darker hue, and reflect a more cloudy heaven. They roll this way and that in a continual motion, and yet without any direction, till the loud and hoarse-echoing wind determines their course and carries them in mountains to the sounding shore. The mind of the victim was all quiet and unruffled; such is the kindly influence of conscious truth. The mind of the ravisher exhibited nothing but uneasiness and confusion; such are the boons which vice bestows upon her misjudging votaries.
The conqueror, doubly misled by fierce and unruly passions and by his inauspicious commerce with the goblins of the abyss, retired not immediately to his couch, but walked up and down his apartments, with a hasty and irregular step. "Thanks to my favourable stars," exclaimed he, "I am triumphant! What power can resist me? Where is the being that shall dare to say, that one wish of my heart shall go unfulfilled? Well then, I have got the fair the charming she into my power. She is shut up in a palace, unseen by every human eye, to which no human foot ever found its way but at my bidding. She is closed round with spells and enchantment. I can by a word deprive her every limb of motion. If I but wave this wand, the leaden God of sleep shall sink her in a moment in the arms of forgetfulness, whatever were before her anxieties and her wakeful terrors. In what manner then shall I, thus absolute and uncontroled in all I bid exist, proceed? Shall I press the unwilling beauty to my bosom, and riot in her hoard of charms, without waiting like meaner mortals to sue for the consent of her will? There is something noble, royal, and independent, in the thought. Beauty never appears so attractive as from behind a veil of tears. Oh, how I enjoy infancy [sic] the anger that shall flush her lovely cheek! Perhaps she will even kneel to me to deprecate that which an education of prejudices has taught her to consider as the worst of evils. Yes, my lovely maid, I will raise thee. Do not turn from me those scornful indignant eyes. I will be thy best friend. I will not hurt a hair of thy head. Oh, when her spotless bosom pants with disdain, how sweet to beat the little chiders, and by a friendly violence, which true and comprehensive wisdom cannot stigmatize, to teach her what is the true value of beauty, and for what purpose such enchanting forms as her's were sent to dwell below!"
Thus spoke the ravisher, and as he spoke he assumed, although alone, a firmer stride and a more haughty crest. Upon the instant however his ears were saluted with a low and continual sound, that became, by just degrees, stronger and more strong. The walls of his palace shook; a sudden and supernatural light gleamed along his apartment, and a spectre stood before him. Roderic lifted up his eyes, and immediately recognised the features of that goblin, who from the hour of his birth, had declared himself his adversary. He had been repeatedly used to the visits of this malicious spirit, who delighted to subvert all his schemes, and to baffle his deepest projects. This was the only misfortune, the sovereign of the hills had ever known; this was the only instance in which he had at any time been taught what it was to have his power controled and his nod unobeyed. He had often sought, by means of the confederacy he held with other spirits of the infernal regions, to restrain his enemy, or by punishment and suffering to make him rue his opposition. But the goblin he had to encounter, though not the most potent, was of all the rest the most crafty in his wiles, and the most abundant in expedients. As many times as his fellows had by the instigation of Roderic undertaken to encounter him, so often had they in the end been eluded and defeated. The contest was now given up, and the goblin was at liberty to haunt and threaten his impotant adversary as much as he pleased.
"Roderic," cried he, with a harsh and unpleasant accent, "I am come to humble the haughtiness of thy triumph, and to pull down thy aspiring thoughts. Impotent and rancorous mortal! Know, that innocence is defended with too strong a shield for thee to pierce! Boast not thyself of the immensity of thy walls, and put no confidence in the subtlety of thy enchantments. Before the mightiness that waits on innocence, they are not less impotent than the liquid wax, or the crumbling ruin. Learn, oh presumptuous mortal, that sacred and unyielding chastity is invulnerable to all the violence of men, and all the stratagems of goblins. I would not name to thee so salutary an advice as to dismiss thy innocent and unsuspicious prize, did not I know thee too obstinate and headstrong to listen to the voice of wisdom. Essay then thy base and low-minded temptations, thy corrupt and sophistical reasonings, to tarnish the unsullied purity of her mind, and it is well. If by such a wretch as thee she can be seduced from the obedience of virtue and the Gods, then let her fall. She were then a victim worthy of thee. But if thou essayest the means of tyranny and force, the attempt will be fatal to thee. I will in that case enjoy my vengeance; I will triumph in thy desolation. In the hour then of action and enterprise, remember me!"
With these words the spectre vanished from his sight. Roderic was inflamed with anger and disgust; but he had none, upon whom to wreak his revenge. His heart boiled with the impotence of malice. "What," cried he, "am I to be bounded and hedged in, in all my exploits? Am I to be curbed and thwarted in every wish of my heart? This, this was nearest to me. This was the first pursuit of my life in which my whole heart was engaged; the first time I ever felt a passion that deserved the name of love. But be it so: I was born with wild and impetuous passions only to have them frustrated; I was endowed with supernatural powers, and inherited all my mother's skill, only to be the more signally disappointed. Still however I will not shrink, I will not yield an inch to my adversary. I am bid, it seems, to tempt her, and endeavour to stain the purity of her mind. Yes, I will tempt her. It is not for an artless and uninstructed shepherdess to defeat my wiles and baffle all my incitements. I will dazzle her senses with all the attractions that the globe of earth has to boast. I will wind me into her secret heart. Thou damned, unpropitious goblin, who seekest to oppose thyself to my happiness, I will but, by thy warning, gain a completer triumph! I will subdue her will. She shall crown my wishes with ripe, consenting beauty. Long shall she remain the empress of my heart, and partner of my bed. In her I will hope to find those simple, artless, and engaging charms, which in vain I have often sought in the band of females, that reside beneath my roof, and wait upon my nod."
Imogen, though considerably indisposed by the fatigue and terrors of the preceding day, shook off however that placid and refreshing sleep which had weighed down her eyelids, long before Roderic deserted the couch of luxury. Two of the female attendants belonging to the castle had slept in the same apartment with her, and soon, perceiving her in motion, followed her example, and officiously pressed around her. One of them took up a part of the garb of the fair shepherdess, and offered to assist her in adjusting it. "I thank you," cried Imogen, with the utmost simplicity, "for your good-nature; but I am pretty well now; and every body dresses herself that is not sick." The inartificial decorations of her person were quickly adjusted. The delicate proportion of her limbs was hid beneath a russet mantle; her fair and flowing tresses were disposed in a braid round her head, and she took her straw hat in her hand. "Well," said she, "I am obliged to you for your favours. I dare say it was best for me, though at the time I thought otherwise. For my head ached very much, and I was so weak—It was wrong for me to think of going any farther.—Ah, but then, what have my poor father and mother done all the while? Have not they missed their Imogen, and wondered what was become of her, and been quite sad and forlorn for fear she should have come to any harm? Well, I do not know whether I was not right too. For their ease was of more consequence than mine. I cannot tell. However I will not now keep them in pain. So good morning to you, my dear kind friends!" And saying this she was tripping away.
But as she drew towards the door, one of the attendants, with a gentle force, took hold of her hand. "Do not go yet, sweet Imogen," cried she. "We want a little more of your company. We have done you all the service in our power, and you have not paid us for it. We will not ask any thing hard and unreasonable of you. Only comply with us in this one thing, to stay with us a few hours, and let us know a little better the worth of that amiable female we have endeavoured to oblige." "Indeed, indeed," replied Imogen, "I cannot. I am not used to be obstinate; and you are so kind and fair spoken, that it goes to my heart to refuse you. But I would not for the world keep my dear, good Edith in a moment's suspense. But since you are so desirous of being acquainted with me, repair as soon and as often as you please to my father's cot, that lies on the right hand side of the valley, about a mile from the sea, and just beside the pretty brawling brook of Towey. There I will treat you with the nicest apples and the richest cream. And I would treat you with better, if I knew of any thing better, that I might thank you for your goodness. Farewel!" added she, and affectionately pressed the hand that was still untwined with her's.
"No, Imogen, no, you must not leave us thus. Though we would have done a thousand times more than we have for your own sake, who are so simple and so good, it is yet fit that you should know, that we are not mistresses here, and that all we have done has been by the orders of the lord of this rich mansion. He will not therefore forgive us, if we suffer you to depart before he has seen you, and expressed for you that kindness which induced him to take you under his protection." "Heavens!" replied the shepherdess "this is all ceremony and folly, and therefore cannot be of so much consequence as the peace of my father, and the consolation of my mother. Tell him, that I thank him, and that my father shall thank him too, if he will come to our hut. Tell him that I am sorry for my foolish weakness, that gave him so much trouble, and made me be so needlessly frightened, when we came to a place where I have met with nothing but kindness; but I could not help it. And so that is enough; for if my Edwin had been in his place, and had seen a stranger shepherdess in the distress that I was, he would surely have done as much.
"Say so to your lord, as you call him, for I would not seem ungrateful. But yet I will thank you a great deal more than I do him. For what did he do for me? He took me, and hurried me away, and paid no attention to my tears and expostulations. Well, but I need not have been alarmed. So it seems. But I did not like his looks; they were not kind and good-natured, but fierce and frightful. And so as soon as he had brought me here, much against my will, he went away and left me. So much the better. And then you came and took care of me, and he desired you to do so. That was well enough. But I am more obliged to you for your kindness and assiduity, than I am to him only for thinking of it. And then to tell you the truth, but I ought not to say so to you who are his friends, there is something about him, I cannot tell what, that does not please me at all. He looks discontented, and fierce, as if there was no such thing as soothing and managing him. But why do I say all this? Pray now let me go, let me go to my dear, dear mother."
"Sweet Imogen," replied the attendant, who seemed to take the lead in the circle, "how lovely and amiable are you even in your resentments! They are not with you a morose and gloomy sullenness brooding over imaginary wrongs, and collecting venom and malice from every corner to the heart. In your breast anger itself takes a milder form, and is gentle, generous and gay. Yet why, my Imogen, should you harbour any anger against your protector?"
Such was the honest and artless dialogue of Imogen. The attendants rather endeavoured to beguile the time, by dexterously starting new topics of conversation, upon which Imogen delivered her plain and natural sentiments with the utmost sincerity, than to detain her by open force. At length one of them slipped out, and hastened to acquaint Roderic with the impatience of his prize, and to communicate to him the substance of those artless hints, which, in the hands of so skilful and potent an impostor, might be of the greatest service. Roderic immediately rose. But as he was desirous to decorate his person with the nicest skill, in order to make the most favourable impression upon his mistress, he ordered the attendant, with some of her companions, to wait upon Imogen. He commissioned them, if it were necessary, to inform her of the absolute impossibility of her quitting the castle, and to persuade her to walk in the meadows adjoining, that she might observe the riches of their possessor; how fertile were the soil, and how fair and numerous the flocks.
The patience of Imogen, in the mean time, was nearly exhausted. Her simplicity could no longer be duped. Though unused to art, it was impossible for her not at length to perceive the art by which the conversation was lengthened, and her ardent desire to set out for the cottage of her father, eluded. She was just beginning to expostulate upon this ungenerous stratagem, when three or four of those females, whom Roderic had dispatched entered the apartment. "Well," cried Imogen, "you have borne my message to my deliverer, now then let me go." "Our lord," replied the attendant, "is just risen. He will but adjust his apparel, and will immediately pay you those respects in person which he can by no means think of omitting." "Alas, alas," cried the shepherdess, half distressed, "what is the meaning of all this? What is intended by a language so foreign to the homeliness of the shepherd's cot, and the admirable simplicity of pastoral life? I know not what title I have, a poor, unpretending virgin, to the respects of this lord; but surely if they meaned me well, they would be less hollow and absurd. Would there not be much more respect, much more civility, in permitting me to follow my own inclinations, without this arbitrary and ungrateful restraint?" "Shepherdess," replied the attendant, "we are not used to dispute the orders of our master. We would oblige you if it were in our power. Impute not therefore to us any thing unfriendly; and as for Roderic, he is too good, and too amiable, not to be able to satisfy you about his conduct the moment he appears." "Your master! and your lord!" replied Imogen, with a tone of displeasure, "I understand not these words. The Gods have made all their rational creatures equal. If they have made one strong and another weak, it is for the purpose of mutual benevolence and assistance, and not for that of despotism and oppression. Of all the shepherds of the valley, there is not one that claims dominion and command over another. There is indeed an obedience due from children to their parents, and from a wife to her husband. But ye cannot be his children; for he is young and blooming. And but one of you can be his wife; so that that cannot be the source of his authority. What a numerous family has this Roderic? Does that I wonder, make him happier than his fellows?"
"Imogen," said one of the train, "will you walk with us along the meadow, by the side of that hazel copse? The morning is delightful, the sun shines with a mild and cheering heat, the lambs frisk along the level green, and the birds, with their little throats, warble each a different strain." The mind of Imogen was highly susceptible to the impression of rural beauties. She had that placid innocence, that sweet serenity of heart, which best prepares us to relish them. Seeing therefore, that she was a prisoner, and that it was in vain to struggle and beat her wings against the wiry inclosure, she submitted. "Ah! unjust, unkind associates!" exclaimed Imogen, "ye can obey the dictates of a man, who has no right to your obedience, and ye can turn a deaf ear to the voice of benevolence and justice! Set me at liberty. This man has no right to see me, and I will not see him. I, that have been used to wander as free as the inmates of the wood, or the winged inhabitants of air, shall I be cooped up in a petty cage, have all my motions dictated, and all my walks circumscribed? Indeed, indeed, I will not. Imogen can never submit to so ignominious a restraint. She will sooner die."
"Why, my lovely maiden," replied the other, "will you think so harshly of our lord? He does not deserve these uncandid constructions; he is all gentleness and goodness. Suspend therefore your impatience for a moment. By and by you may represent to him your uneasiness, and he will grant you all the wishes of your heart. Till then, amiable girl, compose your spirits, and give us cause to believe, that you place that confidence in us, which for the world we would not deserve to forfeit."
During this conversation, they passed along a gallery, and, descending by a flight of stairs, proceeded through one corner of a spacious garden into the meadow. The mansion, as we have already said, stood upon a rising ground, which was inclosed on every side by a circle of hills, whose summits seemed to touch the clouds, and were covered with eternal snow. Within this wider circumference was a second formed by an impervious grove of oaks, which, though of no long standing, yet, having been produced by magical art, had appeared from the first in full maturity. Their vast trunks, which three men hand in hand could scarcely span, were marked with many a scar, and their broad branches, waving to the winds, inspired into the pious and the virtuous that religious awe, which is one of the principal lessons of the Druidical religion.
At no great distance, and close on one side to the majestic grove, was a terrace, raised by the hand of art, so elevated, as to overlook the tops of the trees as well as the turrets of the castle, and to afford a complete prospect of all the grounds on this side the precipices. To this terrace the attendants of Imogen led their charge, and from it she surveyed the farms and granges of their lord. The view was diversified by a number of little rills, that flowed down from the mountains, and gave fertility and cheerfulness to the fields through which they passed. The inclosures were some of them covered with a fine and rich herbage, whose appearance was bright and verdant, and its surface besprinkled with cowslips, king-cups, and daisies. Others of them were interspersed with sheep that exhibited the face of sleekness and ease, their fleeces large and ponderous, and their wool of the finest and most admirable texture. Elsewhere you might see the cattle grazing. The ox dappled with a thousand spots, which nature seemed to have applied with a wanton and playful hand; the cow, whose udders were distended with milk, that appeared to call for the interposition of the maidens to lighten them of their store; and the lordly and majestic bull. With them was intermingled the horse, whose limbs seemed to be formed for speed and beauty. At a small distance were the stag with branching horns, the timid deer, and the sportive, frisking fawn. Even from the rugged precipices, that seemed intended by nature to lie waste and useless, depended the shaggy goat and the tender kid. Beside all this, Roderic had had communicated to him, by a supernatural afflatus, that wondrous art, as yet unknown in the plains of Albion, of turning up the soil with a share of iron, and scattering it with a small quantity of those grains which are most useful to man, to expect to gather, after a short interval, a forty-fold increase.
Every thing conspired to communicate to the prospect lustre and attraction. The birds, with their various song, gave an air of populousness and animation to the grove. By the side of the rivulets were scattered here and there the huts of the shepherd and husbandman. And though these swains were not, like the happy dwellers in the valley, enlivened with freedom, and made careless and gay by conscious innocence; yet were they skilful to give clearness and melody to the slender reed; and the ploughman whistled as he drove afield. But that in the landscape which most engrossed the attention and awakened the curiosity of the tender Imogen, was the appearance of the fields of corn. It was in her eye novel, agreeable, and interesting. The harvest was near, and the effect of the object was at its greatest height. The tall and unbending stalk overtopped by far the native herbage of the meadow, and seemed to emulate the hawthorn and the hazel, which, planted in even rows, secured the precious crop from the invasion of the cattle. The ears were embrowned with the continual beams of the sun, and, oppressed with the weight of their grain, bended from the stalk. In a word, the whole presented to the astonished view a rich scene of vegetable gold. Upon this delightful object the shepherdess gazed with an unwearied regard. Respecting it she asked innumerable questions, and made a thousand enquiries; and it almost seemed as if her curiosity would never be satisfied. Such is the power of novelty over the young and inexperienced, and such the influence of the beautiful and transcendent beauties of nature upon the ingenuous and uncorrupted mind. But it was not possible for the shepherdess, interested as she was in the uneasiness, to which she knew that her parents must be a prey, long to banish from her mind the affecting consideration, or to divert her attention to another object, however agreeable, or however fascinating.
She had just begun to renew her representations upon this head, when Roderic approached. While he was yet at a distance, he appeared graceful and gay, as the messenger of the God that grasps the lightning in his hand. His stature was above the common size. His limbs were formed with perfect symmetry; the fall of his shoulders was graceful, and the whole contour of his body was regular and pleasing. Such was the general effect of his shape, that though his advance was hesitating and respectful, it was impossible to contemplate his person without the ideas being suggested of velocity and swiftness. His presence and air had the appearance of frankness, ingenuousness, and manly confidence. The natural fire and haughtiness of his eye were carefully subdued, and he seemed, at least to a superficial view, the very model of good-nature and disinterested complaisance. His bright and flowing hair parted on his brow, and formed into a thousand ringlets, waved to the zephyrs as he passed along. There was something so delicate and enchanting in his whole figure, as to tempt you to compare it to the unspotted beauty of the hyacinth; at the same time that you rejoiced, that it was not a beauty, frail and transient, as the tender flower, but which promised a manly ripeness and a protracted duration.
Observing that the attention of those around her was suddenly diverted from the intreaties she employed, Imogen turned her eye, in order to discover the object that now engaged them. It was immediately met by the graceful and amiable figure we have described. But to Imogen that figure presented no such comeliness and beauty. For a moment indeed, nature prevailed, and she could not avoid gazing, with a degree of complacence, upon an object, to which the Goddess seemed to have lavished all her treasures. But this sensation vanished, almost before it was formed. The mind of the shepherdess was too deeply read in the lessons of virtue, to acknowledge any beauty in that form, which was not animated with truth, and in those features, which were not illuminated with integrity and innocence. Notwithstanding her native simplicity, and the unsuspecting confidence she was inclined to repose in every individual of the human race, yet had the conduct of Roderic, as she had already confessed, displeased her too deeply for her immediately to assume towards him an unembarrassed and soothing carriage. He had seized upon her by violence in a moment of insensibility. He had carried her away without her consent. When she recovered strength enough to expostulate upon this, he endeavoured, by ambiguous expressions, to deceive her into an opinion, that he was conducting her to the cottage of her father. Supposing that, for reasons good and wise, he had introduced her into a strange place, she could not be persuaded that those reasons subsisted for detaining her contrary to her inclination. And independently of any individual circumstances, there is a native and inexplicable antipathy between virtue and vice. It is not in the nature of things, it is not within the range of possibility, that they should coalesce and unite where both of them exist in a decided manner, or an eminent degree. It was not the babble of ignorance, it was by an unalterable law of her nature, that Imogen had been displeased with the looks of him, who meaned her destruction. The animation that dwells in the features of virtue, is mild and friendly and lambent; but the sparkles that flash from the eye of enterprising guilt, are momentary, and unrelenting, and impetuous. The gentle and the inoffensive instantly feel how uncongenial they are to their dispositions, and start back from them with aversion and horror. Such were in some measure the sensations of Imogen, upon the re-appearance of her betrayer. She turned from him with unfeigned dislike, and was reluctantly kept in the same situation till he ascended the terrace. As he drew nearer, Roderic seized the hand of the lovely captive. In a tone of blandishment he expostulated with her upon her unkind behaviour and unreasonable aversion. With all that sophistry, that ingenious vice knows so well how to employ, he endeavoured to evince that his conduct had been regulated by kindness, rectitude and humanity. In the mean time the retinue withdrew to a small distance. Imogen insisted upon not being left wholly alone with her ravisher.
Able to perplex but not to subvert the understanding of his prize, Roderic addressed her with the language of love. Naturally eloquent, all that he now said was accompanied with that ineffable sweetness, and that soft insinuation, that must have shaken the integrity of Imogen, had her heart been less constant, and her bosom less glowed with the enthusiasm of virtue. Her betrayer was conscious to a real, though a degenerate flame, and was not reduced to feign an ardour he did not feel. Recollecting however the pure manners, and the delicate and ingenuous language to which Imogen had been inured among the inhabitants of Clwyd, the subtle sorcerer did not permit an expression to escape him, that could offend the chastest ear, or alarm the most suspicious virtue. His love, ardent as it appeared, seemed to be entirely under the government of the strictest propriety, and the most unfeigned rectitude. He knew that the inspirations of integrity and the lessons of education were not to be eradicated at once; and he attempted not to gain the acquiescence of his captive by gross and unsuitable allurements, unconcealed with the gilding of dexterity and speciousness.
But his eloquence and his address were equally vain. In spite of the beauty of his person and the urbanity of his manners, the shepherdess received his declarations with coldness and aversion. She assured him of the impossibility of his success, that she felt for him emotions very different from those of partiality, and that her heart was prepossessed for a more amiable swain. With that sweet simplicity, that accompanied all she did, she endeavoured to dissuade him from the pursuit of a hopeless and unreasonable passion; she enumerated to him all the sources of enjoyment with which he was surrounded; she intreated him not in the wantonness of opulence to disturb her humble and narrow felicity; and she besought him in the most pathetic and earnest language to dismiss her to freedom, contentment and her parents.
The more she exerted herself to bend his resolution, and the more scope she gave to the unstudied expression of her artless sentiments, the more inextricably was the magician caught, and the more firm and inexorable was his purpose. Perceiving however that he had little to hope from the most skilful detail of the pleas of passion, he turned the attention of the shepherdess to a different topic. "Behold Imogen," cried he, "the richness of the landscape on our right hand! The spot in my eye is farthest from the castle, and divided from the rest of the prospect with a tall hedge of poplars and alders. It is full of the finest grass, and its soil is rich and luxuriant. It is scattered with fleckered cows and dappled fawns. In the hither part of it is a field of the choicest wheat, whose stalks are so rank and pregnant, that the timid hare and the untamed fox can scarcely force themselves a path among them. Beside it is an inclosure of barley with strong and pointed spikes; and another of oats, whose grain, uneared, spreads broader to the eye. How beautiful the scene! I will not ask you, fairest of your sex, to give your confidence to unauthorised words. I will afford the most unquestionable demonstration of the veracity of my declarations. All these, lovely Imogen, shall be yours: yours exclusively, to be disposed of at your pleasure, without the interference or control of any. All my other possessions shall not belong to myself more than to you. You shall be the mistress of my heart, and the associate of my counsels. All my business shall be your gratification, all my pleasure your happiness. Forget then, dearest maiden, the poverty of your former condition, and the connections you formed in an hour of ignorance and obscurity. From this moment let a new era and better prospects commence. Enjoy that wealth, which can no where so well be bestowed; and those gratifications, which so obviously belong to that delicate and enchanting form."
The proposal of Roderic called forth more than ever the spirit and the resentment of Imogen. She did not feel herself in the slightest degree attracted by the magnificence of his offers. She knew of no use for superfluous riches. She felt no wants unsupplied, and no wishes ungratified. What motive is there in the whole region of human perceptions, that can excite the contented mind to the pursuit of affluence? "And dost thou think," said the fair one, with a gesture of disdain that made her look ten times more amiable, "to seduce me with baits like these? Know, mistaken man, that I am happy. I spin the finest wool of our flocks, and drain the distended udders of our cows. I superintend the dairies; the butter and the cheese are the produce of my industry. In these employments my time is spent in chearfulness and pleasure. Surrounded with our little possessions, I am conscious to no deficiency; in the midst of my parents and friends, I desire not to look beyond the narrow circle of the neighbouring hills. If you feel those wants, which I do not so much as understand, enjoy your fond mistake. Possess those riches which I will not envy you. Wander from luxury to luxury unquestioned; I shall be sufficiently happy in the narrow gratifications that nature has placed within my reach. The gifts you offer me have no splendour in my eye, and I could not thank you for them though offered with ever so much disinterestedness. The only gift it is in your power to make is liberty. Allow me to partake of that bounty, which nature has bestowed upon the choristers of the grove, to wander where I will. Under a thousand of those privations that would render the child of luxury inconsolable, I would support myself; freedom and independence are the only boons which the whole course of my life has taught me to cherish."
"Your ignorance," rejoined Roderic, "is amiable, though unfortunate. But your merit is too great not to deserve to be informed. Knowledge, my lovely maiden, is always regarded as a desirable acquisition by the prudent and the judicious. To what purpose was a mind so capacious, competent to the greatest improvements, and formed to comprehend subjects of the most extensive compass, or the sublimest reach, bestowed upon us, if it be not employed in the pursuits of science and experience? Your abilities, my Imogen, appear to be of the very first description. How much then will you be to be blamed, if you do not embrace this opportunity of improvement and instruction? Beauty, though unseen, is not less excellent; and prudence, though unpossessed, is of value inestimable. The poor man may be contented, because he knows not the use of riches; but, in spite of this contentment, it were wise to enlarge our sphere of sensation, and to extend the sources of happiness.
"If however you still maintain that lovely perverseness, decide if you please upon your own fate, but let filial piety hinder you from determining too hastily respecting that of your parents and your friends. Consider what a new and unbounded scope will be afforded you, by the participation of my riches, for the exercise of benevolent and generous propensities. Your parents are now declining fast under the weight of years and infirmity. It is in your power to make their bed of down, and to enliven the ground they have yet to traverse with flowers. It is yours to wrest the sheers from the hand of the weary and over-laboured ancient, and to remove the distaff from the knees of your venerable mother. Think, gentle shepherdess, before it be too late, of the heart-felt pleasures that await the power to do good, when attended with a virtuous inclination. When you wipe away the tear from the cheek of distress, when you light up a smile in the eye of misery, think you, that none of the comfort you administer will flow back in generous and refreshing streams to your own heart? Are these exertions that Imogen ought to contemplate with indifference? Is this a power that Imogen can reject without deliberation?"
Imogen stood for a moment in a sweet and ingenuous state of suspense. She had a native and indefeasible reverence for every thing that had the remotest analogy to virtue, and she could not answer a proposal that came recommended to her by that name with unhesitating promptitude. She was too good and modest to assume an air of decision where she did not feel it; she was too simple and unaffected, to disguise that hesitation to which she was really conscious. "How false and treacherous," exclaimed she, "are your reasonings! Among the virtuous inhabitants of the plain, every one seeks to influence another by motives which are of weight with himself, and utters the sentiments of his own heart. Where have you learned the disingenuous and faithless arts you employ? To what purpose have you cultivated them, and whose good opinion do you flatter yourself they will obtain for you? False, perfidious Roderic! the more I see of you, the more I fear and despise you.
"You would recommend to me your temptations under the colour of knowlege. Has knowlege any charms for the debauched and luxurious? You tell me we ought to enlarge our sphere of sensation, and to extend the sources of happiness. Wisdom indeed, and mental improvements are desirable. But the sage Druids have always taught me, that the mind is the nobler part, that the body is to be kept in subjection, and that it is not our business to seek its gratification beyond the bounds of necessity and temperance. If I allowed myself to think that I wanted more than I have, might not the possession of that more extend my desires, till, from humble and bounded, they became insatiable? Were I to dismiss those industrious pursuits by means of which my time now glides so pleasantly, how am I sure that indolence and vacancy would make me happier?
"To succour indeed the necessitous, and particularly my parents and relations, is a consideration of more value. But ah, Roderic! though you talk it so well, I am afraid it is a consideration foreign to your character. For my parents, they are as yet healthful and active; and while they continue so, they wish, no more than myself for repose and indolence. If ever they become incapable of industry, their little flock will still contribute to their support. They are too much respected, for the neighbouring shepherds not to watch over it in turn out of pure love. And, I hope, as I will then exert myself with double vigour, that the Gods will bless us, and we shall do very well. As to general distress, heaven is too propitious to us, to permit the inhabitants of the valley to be overwhelmed by it. And I shall always have milk from my flocks, and a cheese from my store, to set before the hungry and necessitous.
"But were these advantages more valuable than they are, it would not be my duty to purchase them so dear. What, shall I desert all the connections it has been the business of my life to form, and that happy state of simplicity I love so much? Shall I shake off the mutual vows I have exchanged with the most amiable and generous of the swains, and join myself to one, whose person I cannot love, and whose character I cannot approve? No, Roderic, enjoy that happiness, if it deserve the name of happiness, that is congenial to your inclination. Forget the worthless and unreasonable passion, you pretend to have conceived, in the multitude of gratifications that are within your reach. Envy not me my straw-defended roof, my little flock, and my faithful shepherd. I will never exchange them for all the temptations that the world can furnish."
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\part{BOOK THE FOURTH}
SONG IN HONOUR OF THE FAIR SEX.—HYPOCRISY OF THE MAGICIAN.—THE TRIUMPH OF IMOGEN.—DESPAIR AND CONSOLATION OF RODERIC.
So much was Roderic discouraged by the apparent spirit and firmness of these declarations, that at the conclusion of them he abruptly quitted his captive, and released her for a moment from his unjust persecutions. His pride however was too strongly piqued, and his passions too much alarmed to permit her a real respite. "Where ever," cried he, as he trod with hasty and irregular steps the level green,—"where ever were found such simplicity, and so much strength of judgment, and gaiety of wit in union? Is it possible for the extreme of simplicity and the perfection of intellect to meet together? These surely are paradoxes, that not all the goblins of the abyss can solve, and which, had they been related instead of seen, must have appeared to constitute an absurd and impossible fiction.
"Well then it is in vain to attack the inexorable fair one with allurements that address themselves only to the understanding. She is too well fortified with the prejudices of education, and the principles of an imaginary virtue, to be reduced by an assault like this. The pride of her virtue is alarmed, the little train of her sophistries are awakened, and with that artless rhetoric, of the value of which she is doubtless sensible, she set[s] all her enemies at defiance. My future enticements shall therefore address themselves to her senses. Thus approaching her, it is impossible that success should not follow my undertaking. Even the most wary, circumspect, and suspicious, might thus be overcome. But she is innocence itself. She apprehends no danger, she suspects no ambuscade. Young and unexperienced, and the little experience she has attained, derived only from scenes of pastoral simplicity, she knows not the meaning of insincerity and treachery; she dreads not the serpent that lurks beneath the flower."
Having determined the plan of his machinations, and given the necessary orders, he privately signified to the attendants, that they should propose to their lovely charge to direct her course once again to the mansion; and as she perceived that Roderic still continued upon a distant part of the lawn; and as she saw no means of present escape from her confinement, she consented to do as they desired.
They now entered the mansion, and passing through several splendid apartments, at length reached a large and magnificent saloon. It was hung with tapestry, upon which were represented the figures of Sappho sweeping the lyre; of the Spartan mother bending over the body, and counting the wounds of her son; of Penelope in the midst of her maidens, carefully unravelling the funeral web of her husband; of Lucretia inflicting upon herself a glorious and voluntary death; and of Arria teaching her husband in what manner a Roman should expire. These stories had been miraculously communicated to Roderic, and were now explained by the attendants to the wondering Imogen. At the same time a band of music, that was placed at the lower end of the hall, struck at once their various instruments, and, without any previous preparation, began the lofty chorus. At the upper end of the saloon stood a throne of ivory, hung round with trappings of gold, and placed upon a floor of marble, of which a numerous flight of steps, also of marble, composed the ascent. The hangings were of crimson velvet, and the canopy of the richest purple. With the musicians were intermingled a number of supernatural beings under the command of Roderic. Their voices were melodious beyond all example of human power; they were by turns lofty and majestic, and by turns tender and melting; and the strain was divine.
"Such are the honours of the tender sex; and who can speak their praise? The lily is not so fair, the rose is not so attractive, the violet and the jessamine have not so elegant a simplicity. By their charms, by their eloquence, and by their merit, they have assumed an empire over the bolder sex. How auspicious is the empire! They hold them in silken chains. They govern, not by harsh decrees, and rigorous penalties; but by smiles and soft compliances, and winning, irresistible persuasion. The rewards they bestow are sweet, and ravishing, and indescribable.
"What were man without the fair? A wild beast of the forest; a rough and untamed savage; a hungry lion bursting from his den. Without them, they are gloomy, morose, unfeeling, and unsociable. To them they owe every civilization, and every improvement. Did Amphion, from the rude and shapeless stones, raise by his power a regular edifice, houses, palaces, and cities? Did Orpheus by his lay humanize the rugged beasts and teach the forests to listen? No, these are wild, unmeaning fables. It was woman, charming woman, that led unpolished man forth from the forests and the dens, and taught him to bend before thy shrine, humanity! See how the face of nature changes! Where late the slough mantled, or the serpent hissed among the briars and the reeds, all is pasture and fertility. The cottages arise. The shepherds assume the guise of gentleness and simplicity. They attire themselves with care, they braid the garland, and they tune the pipe. Wherefore do they braid the garland? Why are their manners soft and blandishing? And why do the hills re-echo the notes of the slender reed? It is to win thy graces, woman, charming woman!
"When nature formed a man, she formed a creature rational, and erect; ten times more noble than the birds of the air, and the beasts of the field. But when she formed a woman—it was then first, that she outdid herself, and improved her own design. What are the broad and nervous shoulders, what the compacted figure, and the vigorous step, when contrasted with the well-turned limbs, the slender waist, the graceful shoulders, and the soft and panting bosom? What are the manly front, the stern, commanding eye, and the down-clad cheek, if we compare them with the smooth, transparent complexion, the soft, faint blushes, and the pretty, dimpled mouth? What are the strong, slow reason, the deep, unfathomed science, and the grave and solemn wisdom, if they are brought into competition with the sprightly sense, the penetrating wit, and the inexhaustible invention? Does the stronger sex boast of its learning, its deep researches, its sagacious discoveries? and have they a coolness, a self-command, a never baffled prudence like that which woman has exhibited? Do they pique themselves upon their courage, their gallantry, and their adventure? Where shall we find among them a patience, a mildness, a fortitude, a heroism, equal to that of the fair?
"Virtue has dwelt beneath the sun. Themis has left her throne on the right hand of Jove, and descended to the globe of earth. We have seen examples of disinterested rectitude, of inviolable truth, of sublime and heaven-born benevolence. They are written in the roll of fame; they are handed down from age to age. They are the song of the poet, and the favourite theme of the servants of the Gods. By whom were they exhibited, or with whom did they originate? With woman, charming woman? Well have justice and rectitude been represented under a female form, for without the softer sex, all had been anarchy and confusion; every man had preyed upon his neighbour; men, like beasts, had devoured each other, and virtue fled affrighted to her native skies. This is the source of all that is good and all that is excellent; of all that is beautiful and all that is sublime: woman, charming woman!"
At this place the chorus ceased for a moment, and the attendants observing, that Imogen was standing, intreated her to seat herself. She was rendered weak and languid by the unexperienced anxieties and terrors she had undergone, and she did not refuse their request. There was no seat in the centre of the hall, or nearer than the sumptuous throne that was placed at the upper end. Thither therefore they led her. Imogen had been unused to the distinctions of rank and precedence. Among the shepherds of the valley, every one, except the bards and the priests, seated himself promiscuously; none sought to take the upper hand of his neighbour; age was not distinguished by priority of place; and youth thought not of ceding the \emph{pas}. The shepherdess, as she advanced towards the chair, paused for an instant, impressed with that blaze of magnificence which is equally formed to strike every human eye. She looked round her with an air of timidity and suspense, and then going forward, ascended the steps and placed herself in the throne. At this action, as at a signal, the song recommenced.
"Simplicity, child of nature, daughter of the plains, with thee alone the queen of beauty dwells! What is it that adorns and enhances all the wild and uncultivated scenes of nature? It is plainness and artless simplicity. What is it that renders lovely and amiable her most favourite productions in the animal creation: the tender lamb, the cooing dove, and the vocal nightingale? It is simplicity; it is, that all their gestures wear the guise, and their voice speaks the artless, and unaffected language of nature. What is is that renders venerable the characters of mankind; that ennobles the song of the bards; that gives lustre and attraction to immortal, never-fading virtue? It is simplicity, unaffected simplicity. Of the last and crowning work of nature, woman, the form is grace; the visage is beauty; the eye sparkles with intelligence, and smiles with soft and winning graces; the tongue is clothed with persuasion and eloquence. But what are these? A body without a soul, a combination of soft and harmonious names without a meaning; a multitude of rich inestimable gifts, heaped together in rude and inartificial confusion without the powers of enchantment and attraction. What is it that can animate the mass, that can give force and value to the whole, and reduce the shapeless chaos into form? It is simplicity, unaffected simplicity. Without thee, child of nature, daughter of the plains, beauty were no more. With thee she dwells, and in thy mansion can she only dwell. Then be the palm reserved for thee, and given to thee alone, simplicity, unaffected simplicity!"
At these words, two supernatural figures appeared below the canopy of the throne. They had the form of children; their figures appeared so soft and waxen, that you would imagine they might be indented by the smallest touch; upon their countenances sat the lively and unexpressive smile, the sports, and the graces; and their shoulders were furnished with wings of the softest plumage, variegated with all the colours of the bow of heaven. In their hands they bore a coronet, at once rich with jewels, and light and inconsiderable in its weight. The circle was of gold, and studded with diamonds. With the diamonds were intermingled every precious gem, the topaz, the jasper, the emerald, the chrysolite, and the sapphire. The head was of Persian silk, and dyed with Tyrian purple. This coronet they placed upon the head of Imogen, and then descending to the footstool of the throne, bowed upon her feet. The song immediately recommenced.
"Imogen is under the guardianship of simplicity, her favourite pupil. Pollute not the ear of Imogen with the praises of beauty. What though her eye be full of amiableness and eloquence; what though her cheeks rival the peach, and her lips the coral; what though her bosom be soft as wax and fairer than the face of honour; what though her tresses are brighter than the shooting star? These are the bounties of nature; these are the gifts of heaven, in which she claims no merit; these are not the praises of Imogen. But this is her praise, that the graces dwell upon her lips; that her words are attired with the garb of sense and fancy; and that all her conduct is governed by the largest prudence and the nicest discretion. Heard you the sound of merriment and applause? They were the gay and unlaboured sallies of the wit of Imogen that called them forth. Saw you the look of wonder and astonishment, and the gaze of involuntary approbation and reverence? They were excited by the modesty, the circumspection, and the virtue of Imogen. And yet Imogen is artless, unaffected and innocent; her wit is unconscious of itself, and her virtue the unstudied dictate of nature. Imogen is under the guardianship of simplicity, her favourite pupil. Be hers then the crown that simplicity alone can deserve. Simplicity descends not in person to the surface of the earth; her abode is among the Gods. But Imogen is her representative, her perfect resemblance. Should simplicity descend upon the earth, she would not know herself; she would be astonished to behold another divinity, equally beautiful, equally excellent. The divinity is Imogen. Be hers then the crown, that simplicity alone can deserve."
This was a trying moment to the lovely and generous Imogen. Praise is congenial to every human sense; the voice of praise is ever grateful to the ear of virtue. The glory of the shepherd indeed lies within a narrow compass. But let immortality be named, and the heart of man is naturally attracted: it is impossible that the good and generous bosom should not long for such a prize. Nor was this all. Imogen, though loved and honoured by the borderers of Towey, had been little used to studied commendation and laboured applause. Pastoral simplicity does not deal in these; and though it seek to oblige, its endeavours are unostentatious and silent. Beside, her reverence for song was radical and deep. It had been instilled into her from her earliest infancy; from earliest infancy she had considered poetry as the vehicle of divine and eternal truth. How strange and tremendous an advantage must he gain over the ear of simplicity, who can present his fascinations under the garb of all that is sacred and all that is honourable?
The song had begun with celebrating a theme, that must for ever be congenial to every female breast. The heart of the shepherdess had instinctively vibrated to the praises of simplicity. Even the commendations bestowed upon herself were not improper, or indiscriminate; they had distinguished between the inanity of personal charms, and the value of prudence, the beauty of innocence and the merit of virtue. Even the honours she had received were attributed to these, and not to the other. Were they not therefore such as virtue would aspire to, and discretion accept?
Alas, Imogen, be not deceived with airy shadows! The reasoning may be plausible, but it is no better than sophistry. Thou must be taught, fair and unsuspecting virgin, under a beautiful outside to apprehend deceit; and to guard against the thorn which closely environs the flower. Thou must learn, loveliest of thy sex, to dread the poison of flattery. It is more venemous than the adder, it is more destructive than hebenon or madragora. It annihilates every respectable quality in the very act of extolling it; it undermines all that adorns and elevates the human character. Even now that thou listenest to it, and drinkest in, without apprehension, its opiate sounds, thou art too near to the sacrifice of those very excellencies it pretends to admire. For the head of Imogen was made giddy by the applauses she heard; drunk with admiration, she was no longer conscious of the things around her, or of herself; she sunk vanquished and supine, and was supported by one of the attendants.
At this moment Roderic came forth from an adjoining apartment, and caught in his arms the vanquished beauty. In the mean time the attendants, the musicians, and the supernatural beings disappeared, and she was left alone with her betrayer.
Roderic surveyed his victim with an eye of avidity and triumph. His eager curiosity wandered over her hoard of charms; and his brutal passion was soothed with the contemplation of her disorder. Already in imagination, he had possessed himself of a decisive advantage over so apparent a weakness; and his breast was steeled against the emotions of pity.
Imogen cast around her a languid and passive regard, and was in a moment roused from her supineness by the sight of Roderic. Her subtle adversary did not however allow her time for complete recollection, before he discovered an apparent revolution in his sentiments and language. He had heard, he said, the supernatural and celestial chorus, and been caught in the extremest degree by the praises of innocence and the triumph of virtue. He now felt the vanity and folly of those pursuits in which he had been so deeply immersed, and was determined to abjure the littleness of pride, and the emptiness of sensual gratification. He did not now address his destined prize with the commendations of beauty. He bestowed upon her with profusion the epithets of discretion, integrity, and heroism; and poured into her ear the insidious flattery, that was most soothing to her temper. Full, as he pretended, of the infant purposes of virtue, he besought his captive in the most importunate manner, to remain with him for a time, to confirm his wavering rectitude, to instruct him in duty, and thus to gain one human being to the standard of integrity, and to render so extensive possessions subservient to the happiness of mankind. All this he expressed with that ardour, which is congenial to the simplicity of truth; and with that enthusiasm, which in all instances accompanies recent conviction.
Imogen was totally uninured to the contemplation of hypocrisy, and immediately yielded the most unreserved credit to these professions. Her joy was extreme at the change in the dispositions of Roderic, and her admiration of the irresistible charms of rectitude pious and profound. The praises bestowed upon her seemed distinguishing and sincere, and she drank them in with the most visible complacency. She expressed however an ingenuous diffidence of her capacity for the task of an instructor, and she intreated at any rate to be permitted to withdraw for a short time to dry up the tears of her disconsolate parents.
These difficulties were too obvious to create any embarrassment to so consummate a deceiver. He described the danger of that vicious mistrust of our powers, that is the enemy of all generous and heroic action. He reminded his captive how recent were his purposes, and how many unforeseen incidents might be crowded into so eventful a moment. There were goblins, he said, ever ready to seduce the wanderer from his wished return; and he had been too much their prey not to have every thing to dread from the subtlety of their machinations. On the other hand, no character was suspended on the longer or shorter duration of the uneasiness of the parents of Imogen; and the joyful surprise they would ere long experience, might abundantly compensate for any temporary anxiety and solicitude. He told her of the worship and reverence that were due to the immortal Gods. Could she imagine that the scene that had just passed was produced for the mere honour and gratification of a virtuous character, than for the instruction of the ignorant, and the restoration of the wandering? Shall she be thus honoured, and shall this be her gratitude?
Though the web of the sophistry woven by her betrayer might seem inextricable, though Imogen had no sentiments more predominant than the love of virtue, and the fear of the Gods, yet her heart involuntarily resisted his persuasions, and she felt the yearnings of affection still active in her bosom towards those, to whom she owed her existence.
"And cannot you," cried the lovely maiden, "attend me in the short absense I demand? That would prevent every danger, and supersede every objection." "Ah, shepherdess," replied the magician, "this reluctance, these studied expedients imply diffidence and disobedience. But diffidence is much unworthy of the heart of Imogen. Your life has been marked with one tenour of piety. Do not then begin to disobey. Do not sully the unspotted whiteness of your character."
"This," rejoined Imogen, "is too much. This is mere savageness of virtue. Why in the act of persuading me do you bestow upon me those laboured commendations, which the very persuasions you employ are intended to prove that I little deserve? Is it necessary, Roderic, that your manners should be so strange and unaccountable, as to supply food for eternal jealousy and suspicion? And what must be that conduct, that inspires jealousy into a heart unguarded as mine? I talk of suspicion, but I scarcely know the meaning of the term. And yet there is in your carriage something precise, plausible and composed, that I have seldom observed in any other man. Oh, shepherd! you know not what you do, when you awake all these ideas in a maiden's breast, when you thus confound things that heaven and earth put asunder."
"Ungenerous Imogen," replied the magician, "wherefore this? Do I claim any thing more of you than rectitude demands, and your own bosom will another day approve? Am I not your better genius to guard you against the errors that might be prompted by too tender a heart? Beside, does the conduct of beings of a higher order depend upon my nod? Can I control the spheres, and call down celestial essences from their bright abodes? And will they be rendered subservient to the purposes of treachery and guilt?"
"Roderic here break we off our conference. Sure I am that your conduct is not dictated by a regard for my ease or my welfare. How unworthy then, as well as how unjust is the pretence? With respect to the supernatural scenes I have beheld, the question is more difficult. Of such I have heard from the mouth of the consecrated priests, but never till this day did I see them. At present however my mind is too much distracted, to be able to decide. I have already gone far enough; as far as my heart will permit me. I must now retire.'
"One thing however I will add. From the resolutions you at first professed, and the impressions you appeared to feel, I had conceived the most sanguine hopes, and the sincerest pleasure. These are all now vanished. I cannot account for this. But your conduct is now as mysterious to my comprehension, as it was before disgusting to my judgment. I am bewildered in a maze of uncertainty. I am lost in unwelcome obscurity. May your resolutions and designs be better than my hopes! But ah, Roderic, for how much have you to answer, how deep must be your guilt, if all this be mummery, dissimulation, and hypocrisy!"
The magician perceived that it was in vain to urge the stratagem any further, and he retired from the presence of the shepherdess in silence. If he had been able to distract her ingenuous mind between contending duties, he had not however succeeded in his principal object, that of undermining her virtue, and lessening her attachment to her parents and her lover. If Imogen were perplexed and confounded, Roderic was scarcely more happy. He looked back upon the scene with mortification and astonishment. It was difficult for him to determine where it had digressed from the auspicious appearances it had at first exhibited, and yet he found himself in the conclusion of it wide, very wide indeed, of the success of which he had aimed.
"To what purpose," exclaimed he, with a voice of anguish and rage, "have I inherited the most inexhaustible riches? To what purpose is the command which I boast over the goblins of the abyss, if one weak, simple, and uninstructed woman shall thus defy my arts? I call the hills my own. I mount upon the turrets of my castle, and as far as my eye can survey, the bending corn and the grazing herds belong to me. My palace is adorned with all that can sooth the wearied frame, or gratify the luxurious desire. Couches of purple, and services of gold, the most exquisite viands, and the blandishments of enticing beauty, charms of which the ruggedness of pastoral life has not so much as the idea, all these are circled within my walls. Beyond all this, I command myriads of spirits, invisible, and reputedly omnipotent. If I but stamp my foot, if I but wave this wand, they fly swifter than the wings of thought to my presence. One look of favour inspires them with tranquility and exultation; one frown of displeasure terrifies them into despair. I dispatch them far as the corners of the moon. At my bidding they engage in the most toilsome enterprises, and undertake the labour of revolving years. Oh impotence of power! oh mockery of state! what end can ye now serve but to teach me to be miserable? Power, the hands of which are chained and fettered in links of iron; state, which is bestowed only like a paper crown to adorn the brows of a baby, are the most cruel aggravations of disappointment, the most fearful insults upon the weak. But shall I always obey the imperious mandate?"
"Yes, Roderic, thou shalt obey," exclaimed the inimical goblin, who at this moment burst through a condensed cloud, that had arisen unperceived in one corner of the apartment, and appeared before him. "In vain dost thou struggle with the links of destiny. In vain dost thou exert thyself to escape from the fillets that on every side surround thee. The greater and the more obstinate are thy efforts, the more closely art thou bound, and the more inextricably engaged. This is the situation in which I wished to see thee. Every pang it wrings from thy heart, every exclamation it forces from thy tongue, is solace to my thoughts, and music to my ears. And wert thou vain and weak enough to imagine, that riches would purchase thee every pleasure, that riches would furnish an inexhaustible source of enjoyment? Of all mortal possessions they are the most useless, mischievous, and baleful. The Gods, when the Gods are willing to perfect a character of depravity, in order to make vice consummately detestable, or to administer an exemplary punishment to distinguished wickedness, bestow upon that man, as the last of curses, and the most refined of tortures, extensive possessions and unbounded riches. Indulge to the mistaken pride which these inspire, and wrap thyself up in the littleness of thy heart.—But no, rise above them. Suffer thy desires to wander into a larger and more dangerous field. Run with open eyes into the mouth of that destruction that gapes to devour thee! Why shouldst thou attend to the voice of destiny, to the immutable laws of the Gods, and the curse that is suspended over thee? Be a man. Bravely defy all that is most venerable, and all that is most unchangeable. Oh how I long for thy ruin! How my heart pants for the illustrious hour in which thy \emph{palaces shall be crumbled down to the dust of the balance, thy riches scattered, and thyself become an unpitied, necessitous, miserable vagabond}! In the mean time, remember, that riches like thine are not bestowed with u[n]reserving hand, that commerce is not permitted with the shadows of darkness, without some trifling fall to ill amid this immensity of uniform happiness. For this end I am commissioned from time to time to appear before thee in the midst of thy triumph, and to mingle with thy exultations the boding voice of prophetic woe."
Roderic did not listen to these bitter sarcasms without exhibiting every mark of fury and impatience. At length he commanded the spectre to depart, with a voice so fierce and stern as to terrify him into submission. For though the authority of the magician was not formidable enough to make him desist from persecuting him, yet the penalties he had frequently been able to inflict, inspired the goblin in spite of himself, with the fear of so potent an adversary. Still choaked however with agony and resentment, Roderic waved his wand, and summoned his favourite instrument and the prime minister of his pleasures, the goblin Medoro, to his presence. The moment he appeared the magician was relieved from that violent gust of passion, which had held him motionless, a statue of horror, and throwing himself upon his couch, he burst into a flood of tears.
Medoro was the goblin that had appeared to Edwin in his return from the feast of the bards, and had brewed the fatal storm that had preceded the rape of Imogen. The figure of the spectre was uncouth, and his countenance was full of savage and shapeless deformity. Nor did his appearance bely his character. To all other beings, whether of the terrestrial or the invisible world, his temper was hard, impracticable and remorseless. To Rodogune alone, a similitude of minds, and a congenial ferocity of heart had attached him; and the attachment had descended to her son; though not equally destitute of every agreeable and every plausible quality. He therefore beheld the affliction of Roderic with sympathy and compassion.
"Wherefore," cried Medoro, modulating a voice, that nature had made up of dissonance and horror, into the most gentle and soothing accent of which it was capable, and hanging over his couch, "wherefore this sorrow? What is it that has seemed to mar a happiness so enviable? Art thou not possessed"—"Talk not to me of possessions," exclaimed Roderic, with a tone of frenzy, and starting from his posture, "I give them to the winds. I banish them from my thoughts for ever. Oh that the earth would open and swallow them up! Oh that unburdened from them all, I were free as the children of the vallies, and careless as the shepherd that carols to the rising day. I had not then been thus entangled in misfortune, thus every way closed in to remediless despair. I had not then been a monument of impotence and misery for the world to gaze at. Ye are all combined against me! Under a specious, smiling countenance you all conceal a heart of gall. But your hypocrisy and your mummery shall serve you to little purpose. Point me, this instant point me, to a path for the gratification of my wishes, or dearly shall you rue the shallowness of your invention and the treachery of your professions."
Medoro was astonished at the vehemence of the passion of Roderic, unusual even in a youth who had never been refused demands the most unreasonable, and who had been inured to see all the powers of nature bend to his will. "Is this," cried he, "a return for services so unwearied and sincere as mine? Foolish and ungrateful youth! Rut I will point you to a remedy. Had you not been blinded with fury and impatience, you would have seen that your situation was not yet irremediable, by means the most obviously in your power. Did I not at your birth bestow upon you a ring, that communicates to the wearer the power of assuming what form he please? I gave it, in order to elude the curse of the malignant goblin, to subdue the most obdurate female, and to evade the most subtle adversary. The uses in which thou hast hitherto employed it have been idle and capricious, governed by whim, and dictated by the sallies of a sportive fancy. It is now first that an opportunity is offered to turn it to those purposes for which it was more immediately destined. Dost thou not now address an obdurate maid? Is she not full of constancy and attachment for another? What avails it then to a heart, simple and unvitiated as hers, to offer the bribe of riches, and to lavish the incense of flattery and adulation. Attack her in her love. Appear to her in the form of him to whom she is most ardently attached. If Imogen is vulnerable, this is the quarter from which she must be approached. Thus far Roderic thou mayest try thy power; but if by this avenue thou canst not surprise her heart and overpower her virtue, be then wise. Recollect thy courage, strengthen thy resolution, and shake off for ever a capricious inclination, which interrupts the tenour of a life that might otherwise wear the uniform colour of happiness."
The information of a new measure for the furthering his darling pursuit, was a communication of the most reviving kind to the heart of Roderic. The gloom and petulance that had collected upon his countenance were dissipated in a moment. His cheek caught anew the flush of expectation; his eye sparkled anew with the insolence of victory. His gratitude to the propitious Medoro was now as immoderate as his displeasure had lately been unreasonable. He walked along the apartments with the stride of exultation and triumph. He forgot the pathetic exclamations he had lately uttered upon the impotence of power, and he was full of congratulation in the possession of that which he had treated with contempt. The moral lessons which it was his destiny to have from time to time poured into an unwilling ear were erased for ever. He exclaimed upon his own stupidity and want of invention, and he remembered not that vehemence of passion, which had distracted his understanding, and drawn a cloud over all his ideas. It was not instantly that he could assume a sufficient degree of collectedness and composure to put into execution the scheme with which he was so highly delighted. Presently however the ebriety of unexpected hope dissipated, and he prepared for that scene which was to be regarded as the summit of his power, and the irrevocable crisis of his fate.
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\part{BOOK THE FIFTH}
THE GARDEN OF RODOGUNE DESCRIBED.—THE HOPES AND DANGER OF IMOGEN.—HER INCONSOLABLE DISTRESS.
Imogen, immediately after the interview that had so deeply perplexed her, returning to her apartment, had shut herself up in solitude. Her reflections were gloomy and unpleasing; the new obscurity that hung about them had not contributed to lighten their pressure. But though she was melancholy, her melancholy was of a different hue from that of her ravisher. If virtue can ever be deprived of those glorious distinctions that exclusively belong to her, it must be when she is precluded from the illuminations of duty, and is no longer able to discern the path in which she ought to tread. But even here, where distinction seems most annihilated, it yet remains. The cruel sensations of Imogen were not aggravated by despair, but heightened by hope. Through them all she was sustained by the consciousness of her rectitude. The chearfulness of innocence supported her under every calamity.
She had not long remained alone before she was summoned to partake of that plainer repast, which in the economy of Roderic usually occupied the middle of the day, and preceded the sumptuous and splendid entertainment of the evening, by which the soul was instigated to prolong the indulgence of the table, and to throw the reins upon the neck of enjoyment. But Imogen, whose thoughts were dark, and whose mind brooded over a thousand sad ideas, was desirous of that solitude, which in the simplicity of pastoral life is ever at hand. She could not away with the freedom of society, and the levity of mirth. It was painful to her to have any witnesses of her new sensations, and she wished to remove herself for ever from the inspection of the officious and the inquisitive. In compliance with her humour a few viands were served to her in her own apartment. She was induced by the entreaties of her attendant, to call up a momentary smile upon her countenance, and to endeavour to partake of the refreshment that was offered her. But the effort was vain. It was the sunshine of an April day; her repast in spite of her was bedewed with tears, and she ate the bread of sorrow.
As soon as it was concluded, she was invited to a short excursion in the garden of the mansion. Unused to refusal, the natural mildness of her temper inclined to comply. She saw the necessity of not yielding herself up to passive and unresisting melancholy. The natural serenity of innocence did not yet permit her to be insensible to the attractions of enjoyment; and the transient view she had had of the garden, as she passed to the terrace, led her to expect from it, something that might sooth her pensive thoughts, and something that might divert her affliction.
The garden of Rodogune was an inclosure in a bottom glade, at the entrance of which, though nigh to the castle, and upon a lower ground, you wholly lost sight of the mansion, and every external object. But though these were excluded, the sorceress by her art had also excluded the appearance of limits and boundaries. The scene was not terminated by walls and espaliers, but by the entrance on either side of a wild, meandring wood. The side by which you were introduced was protected by trees of the thickest foliage; and the gate was masqued with a clump of hazels and alders, which permitted only two narrow passages on either side. The eye was shut in, but the imagination was permitted to range in perfect freedom. Nor was this seeming confinement calculated to disgust; on the contrary you willingly believed that every charm and every grace was shut up in the circle, and you trembled lest the smallest outlet should take off from the richness of the scene. In entering you were struck with a sensation of coolness, that impervious shades, a bright and animated verdure, flowers scattered here and there in agreeable disorder, the prattling of the stream, and the song of a thousand birds, impressed as strongly upon the imagination, as the senses. But this did not appear the result of art. Every thing had the face of uncultivated luxuriance, and impenetrable solitude. You could not believe that you were not the first mortal that had ever found his way into the enchanting desert.
The scene however had been solely produced by the skill of Rodogune. Erewhile the grass had appeared dry and parched; a few solitary and leafless trees had been scattered up and down; there was no gaiety of colours to relieve the eye; and not one drop of water to give freshness to the prospect. But with the operations of magic Rodogune had delighted to supersede the parsimony of nature. She caused the tree and the shrub to spring forth in the richest abundance; the sturdiness of whose trunks, or the deepness of their verdure, cheated the eye with the semblance of the ripening hand of time. She sprinkled the turf, short, fine, and vivid, with flowers both native and exotic. She called forth a thousand fountains to enrich the scene. Sometimes they crept beneath the turf in almost imperceptible threads; sometimes they ran beside the alleys, or crossed them in sportive wantonness; and sometimes you might see them in broader and more limpid currents rolling over a smooth and spotted bed. Now they rose from the soil in foamy violence, and fell upon the chalk and pebbly ground beneath; and anon they formed themselves into the deeper bason [sic], whose calm and even surface reflected back the reeds and shrubs that were planted round. There was nothing strait and nothing level; the rule and the line had never entered the delicious spot; the irregularities of the soil, and the fantastic, gradual windings of the alleys, were calculated to give length to the passage, and immensity to the scene.
From time to time you encountered tufts of trees closely planted, and that cast as brown a shade as the thickest forest. These were partly composed of wood of the most pliant texture, the extremities of whose branches, bending to the earth, took root a second time in her bosom. Elsewhere the rasberry [sic], the rose, the lilac, and a thousand flowering shrubs, appeared in thickets without either regularity or symmetry, and contributed at once to adorn, and to give an air of rudeness and wildness to the prospect. Round the body of the trees, planted some at their root, and some upon the different parts of the trunk, crept the withy, the snakeweed, the ivy, and the hop, and intermingled with them the jessamine and the honeysuckle, in the most unbounded profusion. Their tendrils hung from the branches, and waved to the wind; and suggested to you the appearance of garlands scattered from tree to tree by the nymphs of the grove. All was inexpressible luxuriance, and a thousand different shades of verdure were placed, one upon another, in regular confusion, and attractive disorder. An exuberance of this sort was calculated in a vulgar scene to have checked the fertility of the plants, and to have given a sickly and withered appearance to their productions; but it was not so in the garden of Rodogune. There the cherry and the grape, the downy peach and the purple plum were half discovered amid the foliage of the hop, and the clusters of the woodbine. Beneath the delicious shade you wandered over beds of moss, undeformed with barren sands and intrusive weeds, and smooth as the level face of ocean when all the winds of heaven sleep.
Nor was this all. Inanimate and vegetable nature (and the observation had not escaped the penetration of Rodogune) adorn and arrange it as you will, infallibly suggests an idea of solitude, that communicates sadness to the mind. Accordingly your path was here beguiled with the warbling of a thousand birds, the full-toned blackbird, the mellow thrush, and the pensive nightingale. The sorceress had invited them to her retreat, by innumerable assiduities and innumerable conveniences of food and residence, and had suffered no rude intrusion to disturb the sacredness of their haunts. Unused to molestation in all their pursuits, they now showed no terror of human approach, but flew, and hopped, and sung, and played among the branches and along the ground, in thoughtless security and wanton defiance.
For a few moments Imogen was immersed in the contemplation of the beauties of the place, and its delightful coolness and mingled fragrance were balm and softness to her wounded soul. The domestic who accompanied her, perceived her propensity to reflection and fell back to a small distance. The shepherdess, as soon as she found herself disengaged and alone, revolved with the utmost displeasure her present situation. "How happy," cried she, "are the virgins of the vale! To them every hour is winged with tranquility and pleasure. They laugh at sorrow; they trill the wild, unfettered lay, or wander, chearful and happy, with the faithful swain beneath the woodland shade. They fear no coming mischief; they know not the very meaning of an enemy. Innocent themselves, they apprehend not guilt and treachery in those around them. Nor have they reason. Simplicity and frankness are the unvaried character of the natives of the plain. Liberty, immortal, unvalued liberty, is the daughter of the mountains. We suspected not that deceit, insidiousness, and slavery were to be found beneath the sun. Ah, why was I selected from the rest to learn the fatal lesson! Unwished, unfortunate distinction! Was I, who am simple and undisguised as the light of day, who know not how to conceal one sentiment of my heart, or arm myself with the shield of vigilance and incredulity, was I fitted by nature for a scene like this? In the mean time have not the Gods encouraged me by the most splendid appearance, and the most animating praises? I would not impeach their venerable counsels. But was this a time for applauses so seducing? How greatly have they perplexed, and how deeply distressed me! In what manner, alas! are they to be obeyed, and what am I to think of the professions of my ravisher? But, no; I dare not permit my purpose to be thus suspended. My danger here is too imminent. The deliverance of my own honour and the felicity of my parents are motives too sacred, not to annihilate every ambiguity and every doubt. Oh, that I could escape at once! Oh, that like the tender bird, that hops before me in my path, I could flit away along the trackless air! Why should the little birds that carol among the trees be the only beings in the domains of Roderic, that know the sweets of liberty? But it will not be. Still, still I am under the eye and guardianship of heaven. Wise are the ways of heaven, and I submit myself with reverence. Only do ye, propitious Gods, support, sustain, deliver me! Never was frail and trembling mortal less prepared to encounter with machination, and to brave unheard of dangers. How fearful are those I have already encountered; and how much have I to apprehend from what may yet remain! But if I am weak, the omnipotent support to which I look is strong. I will not give way to impious despondence. It has delivered, and it may yet deliver me."
By such virtuous and ingenuous reflections the shepherdess endeavoured to solace her distress, and to fortify her courage. Now by revolving her dangers she sought to prepare for their encounter; and now she dismissed the recollection as too depressing and too melancholy. The confinedness of the prospect, though rich infinitely beyond any thing she had yet seen, and though not naturally calculated to fatigue and disgust, was destructive of all its beauty in the eyes of Imogen. It presented to her too just an image of the thraldom, which was the subject of all her complaints. She desired to fling her eye through a wider prospect; and though unable even from the loftiest ground to discover the happy valley, she coveted the slender gratification of beholding the utmost boundaries of the magic circle, and extending her view as near as possible to her beloved home. She therefore advanced farther in the garden, and presently arrived at a clear and open brow, where a beautiful alcove was erected to catch the point of view, from which the surrounding objects appeared in the greatest variety, and with the happiest effect. She entered; and the domestic that attended her remained in a distant part of the garden.
Scarcely had Imogen seated herself, before she discovered, by a casual glance over the prospect, and at some distance, a youth, who seemed to advance with hasty steps towards the castle. At first she was tempted to turn away her eye with carelessness and inattention. There was however something in his figure, that led her, by a kind of fascination for which she could not account, to cast upon him a second glance and a third. He drew nearer. He leaped with an active bound over the fence that separated him from the garden. It was the form of Edwin. His hair hung carelessly about his shoulders. His shepherd's pipe was slung in his belt. His clear and manly cheeks glowed with the warmth of the day, and the anxiety of love. He entered the alcove.
Had a ghost risen before Imogen, surrounded with all the horrors of the abyss, she could not have been struck with greater astonishment. As he advanced, she gazed in silence. She could not utter a word. Her very breath seemed suppressed. At length he entered, and for a moment she had voice enough to utter her surprise. "Gracious powers!" exclaimed she—"is it possible?—what is it that I see?—Edwin, beloved Edwin!"—and she sunk breathless upon her seat. The fictitious shepherd approached her, folded her in his arms, and with repeated, burning kisses, which he had never before ventured to ravish from his disdainful captive, restored her to life and perception. The confusion of Imogen did not allow her to animadvert upon his freedoms. She had the utmost confidence in the person whose form he wore, and the guileless simplicity of pastoral life is accustomed to permit many undesigning liberties, and is slow to take the alarm, or to suspect a sinister purpose.
Roderic, anxious and timid respecting the success of his adventure, was backward to enter into conversation. Imogen, on the other hand, charmed with so unexpected an appearance, and presaging from it the most auspicious consequences, full of her situation and sufferings, and having a thousand things that pressed at once to be told, was eager and impatient to communicate them to her faithful shepherd. She was also desirous of learning by what undiscoverable means, by what happy fortune, he had been conducted to this impervious retreat, and at so critical a juncture. "Edwin,—my gallant Edwin,—how came you hither?—Sure it was some propitious power,—some unseen angel,—that conducted you.—Oh, my friend,—I have been miserable,—perplexed—tortured—but it is now no more—I will not think of it—Thanks to the immortal Gods, I have no occasion—no room—but for gratitude.—Edwin—what have you done—and how did you escape the tempest?—Was it not a fearful storm?—But I ask you a thousand questions—and you do not answer me.—You seem abashed—uncertain—what is the meaning of this?—Did you not come to succour my distress?—Was it not pity for your poor—forlorn—desolate Imogen—that directed your steps?"
"Yes, loveliest of thy sex," replied her betrayer. "I flew upon the wings of love. I was brought along by a celestial, impulsive guidance, which I followed I knew not why. Oh how gracious the condescension, how happy the obedience, how grateful the interview! Yes, Imogen, I was in despair. I was terrified at the concurring prodigies by which we were separated, and I feared never, never to behold that beauteous form again. Come then and let me clasp thee to my bosom. Oh, thou art sweeter than the incense-breathing rose, and brighter than the lily of the vale!"
For a moment, the affectionate and unsuspicious shepherdess received his caresses with complacence and pleasure. Suddenly however she recollected herself; instinctively and without reflection she repulsed the undue warmth of his attentions. "This," cried she, "is no time for fond indulgence, and careless dalliance—Fate is on the wing.—Our situation is arduous—and we are in the midst of enemies.—Every thing that surrounds us is full of danger—all is deceit and treachery—appearances are insidious—all is frightful suspense and headlong precipice.—The plotter of my ruin is as potent as he is—Ah! every hour is big with calamity and destruction—every moment that we stay here is in the last degree hazardous and decisive.—My keepers may be alarmed—Those eyes that never close may be summoned to attention—we may be hemmed in—prevented—Oh, Edwin, how fearful is this place—and how unhoped—how joyful to me—must be an escape.—I thought this hated seat had been impervious and impassable—Hark!—Did you not hear the sound of feet?—No—every thing is still—Let us go this way—Say, by what path did you come—Let us hasten our flight—let us make no delay—not look behind."
"Yes, Imogen," replied Roderic, detaining her, "we will escape—But this, my lovely maiden, is not the time—I am not yet prepared—We may remain here in security—already the shades of evening begin to draw. Every thing is now busy and active. We cannot pass from hence without observation. In the silence of the night the attempt will be more practicable. And you, Imogen, are a heroine. The Gods will watch over us. Silence and darkness have nothing in them at which innocence should be terrified. Till then let us reconcile ourselves to our situation. Let us endeavour, by secrecy and stilness, not to attract to us the attention of the enemies with which we are surrounded. Let us banish from them curiosity and suspicion. And let us trust in the Gods, propitious to rectitude, that they will look down with favour upon a design prompted by virtue and urged by oppression."
"Alas, Edwin," replied the shepherdess "it is with regret that I consent to remain one moment longer in this fatal spot. But I will submit to your direction, I will confide in your prudence; I will trust in your fidelity, and your zeal, for the deliverance I so ardently desire. Here however we cannot long remain undiscovered.—My absence will be suspicious.—I will return once again to the hated mansion.—You, my swain, must conceal yourself in the mazes of this friendly wilderness. It shall not be long ere I come to you again.—With motives like mine to inspire ingenuity, I shall easily find a way to elude the strictest guard, and escape from the closest thraldom.—Say, my Edwin!—this stratagem shall suffice,—and you shall lead me in safety under the friendly cover of the night to liberty and innocence!"
"Yes," exclaimed Roderic, suddenly recollecting himself, "you may be assured that by me nothing shall be omitted, that can further your escape from this detested prison. The perils I have already incurred may well convince you of this. It has been through the most fearful dangers, ready every moment to be overwhelmed with omnipotent mischief, that I have reached you. I have approached by the most devious and undiscovered paths. Though the greatest hazards are to be encountered in the cause of innocence and honour, the conduct we should pursue is therefore ambiguous, and our success involved in uncertainty and darkness. Oh Imogen, I may now behold thee for the last time. The moment we sally from this retreat, I may be discovered by that enemy from whom we have so much to fear. I may be confined to all the wantonness of inventive torture, and that beauteous form, and the smiles of that bewitching countenance may be torn from these longing eyes for ever. But here, my shepherdess, we are safe. We may here secure ourselves from sudden intrusion, and a thousand means of concealment are here in our power. This Imogen is the moment of our ascendancy, this little period is all our own. In a short time the precious hours will be elapsed, the invaluable instants will be run out. Oh, my love, fairest, most angelic of thy sex, while they are yet ours, let us improve them."—He ceased; and his countenance glistened with the anticipations of enjoyment, and his eyes emitted the sparkles of lust.
But the imagination of Imogen was not sullied with the impressions of indecency, and the baseness of looser desires. She understood not the innuendos of Roderic, and she remarked not with an eager and inquisitive eye the distraction of his visage. She replied therefore only to the more obvious tendency of what he said. "And is this, Edwin, all the consolation you bring me? Ah how poor, how heartless, and how cold! If we accomplish not that flight upon which my hopes and wishes are suspended, what utility and what pleasure can we derive from this interview? It will then only be a bitter aggravation of all my trials, and all my miseries. If a prospect so unexpected and desirable terminate in no advantage, for what purpose was it opened before me? It will but render my sensations more poignant, and give a new refinement to the exquisiteness of despair.
"But no, my Edwin, let us not give way to despondence. The Gods, my generous swain, the same Gods that give luxuriance and felicity to the plain, and that have guided you through every hazard to this impervious spot, will assuredly deliver us. Remember the lessons of the heaven-taught Druids. There is an innate dignity and omnipotence in virtue. She may be surrounded with variety of woes, but none of them shall approach her. The darts of calamity may assail her on every side, but she is invulnerable to them all. Before her majesty, the fierceness of all the tenants of the wood is disarmed, and the more untamed brutality of savage man is awed into mute obedience. She may not indeed put on the insolence of pride, and the fool-hardiness of presumption. But wherever her duty calls, she may proceed fearless and unhurt. She may be attacked, but she cannot be wounded: she may be surprised, but she cannot be enslaved: she may be obscured for a moment, but it shall only be to burst forth again more illustrious than ever.
"But you, Edwin, are much better acquainted with these things, and more able to instruct than I. They were ever the favourite subject of your attention. I have seen you with rooted eye fixed for hours in listening admiration of the sublime dictates of the hoary Llewelyn.—It is little to learn, to understand, and to admire. A barren and ineffectual enthusiasm for the speculations of truth, was never respectable and was never venerable. Now, my swain, is the moment in which these sacred lessons are to be called into action, and in which, beyond all others, reputation is to be asserted and character fixed. Leave not then to me the business of inciting and animating you. Be you my leader and protector."
"Alas, my charming mistress," replied her admirer, "I would to God it were in my power to inspire you with hope and fill you with courage. I confess that while peril was at a distance, and I sat secure in the tranquil vale, I received without distinction the doctrines of the Druids, and bowed assent to their sacred lessons. But practice, my Imogen, and the scenes of danger differ beyond conception from the ideas we form of them in the calmness of repose. Something must be allowed to the unruffled solitude of these sacred men, and something to the sublime of poetry. Surely it is no part of comprehensive prudence to banish the idea of those hazards that must be encountered, and to refuse to survey the snares and the difficulties with which our path is surrounded. Remember, my fair one, the malignant suspiciousness of your jailer, and the comfortless darkness of the night."—
"Oh Edwin, and is this the strain in which you were wont to talk? Why are you thus altered, and what means this inauspicious quick-sightedness and alarm? We should indeed survey and prepare for danger, but we should never suffer it to overwhelm us. The cause of integrity should never be despaired of. What avails the suspicions of my keeper? The ever wakeful eye of heaven can make them slumber. Why should we reck the gloom and loneliness of the night? Virtue is the ever-burning lamp of the sacred groves. No darkness can cast a shadow on her beams. Though the sun and moon were hurled below the bosom of the circling ocean, virtue could see to perform her purposes, and execute her great designs. Alas, my swain, my voice is weak, and broken, and powerless. But willingly would I breathe a soul to animate your timidity. Oh Edwin," and she folded him in her alabaster arms to her heaving, anxious bosom, "let me not exhort you in vain! It is but for a little while, it is but for one short effort, and if the powers above smile propitious on our purpose, we are happy for ever! Think how great and beautiful is our adventure. Comfortless and desponding as I am now, ready to sink without life and animation at your feet, I may be in a few hours happier than ever.—Oh Edwin, lead on!—Can you hesitate?—Would it were in my power to reward the virtue I would excite as it deserves to be rewarded. But the Gods will reward you, Edwin."—
As she uttered these words, her action was unspeakably graceful, her countenance was full of persuasion, and her voice was soft, and eloquent, and fascinating. Roderic gazed upon her with insatiate curiosity, and drank her accents with a greedy ear. For a moment, charmed with the loftiness of her discourse and the heroism of her soul, he was half persuaded to relent, and abjure his diabolical purpose. It was only by summoning up all the fierceness of his temper, all the impatience of his passions, and all the mistaken haughtiness and inflexibility of his purpose, that he could resist the artless enchantment. During the internal struggle, his countenance by no means answered to the simplicity of pastoral sentiments. It was now fierce, and now unprotected and despairing. Anon it was pale with envy, and anon it was flushed with the triumph of brutal passion. Transitions like these could not pass unobserved. Imogen beheld them with anxiety and astonishment, but suspicion was too foreign in her breast, to be thus excited.
"Imogen," cried the traitor, "it is in your power to reward the noblest acts of heroism that human courage can perform. Who in the midst of all the exultation and applause that triumphant rectitude can inspire, could look to a nobler prize than the condescension of your smiles and the heaven of your embraces? No, too amiable shepherdess, it is not for myself I fear; witness every action of my life; witness all those dangers that I have this moment unhesitatingly encountered, that I might fly to your arms. But, oh, when your safety is brought to hazard, I feel that I am indeed a coward. Think, my fair one, of the dangers that surround us. Let us calmly revolve, before we immediately meet them. No sooner shall we set our foot beyond this threshold, than they will commence. Tyranny is ever full of apprehensions and environed with guards. Along the gallery, and through the protracted hall, centinels are placed with every setting sun. Could you escape their observations, an hundred bolts, and an hundred massive chains secure the hinges of the impious mansion. Beyond it all will be dark, and the solitude inviolate. But suppose we meet again,—by what path to cross the wide extended glade, and to reach the only avenue that can lead us safely through this horrid cincture, will then be undiscoverable. Amid the untamed forest and untrod precipices that lie beyond, all the beasts most inimical to man reside. There the hills re-echo the tremendous roarings of the boar; the serpents hiss among the thickets; and the gaunt and hungry wolf roams for prey. Oh, Imogen, how fearful is the picture! And can your tender frame, and your timid spirits support the reality?"
Imogen had now preserved the character of heroism and fortitude for a considerable time. All the energies of her soul had been exerted to encounter the trials and surmount the difficulties which she felt to be unavoidable. When the beloved form of Edwin had appeared before her, she relaxed in some degree from the caution and vigilance she had hitherto preserved. It is the very nature of joyful surprize to unbend as it were the strings of the mind, and to throw wide the doors of unguarded confidence. Before, she had felt herself alone; she saw no resource but in her own virtue, and could lean upon no pillar but her own resolution. Now she had trusted to meet with an external support; she had poured out her heart into the bosom of him in whom she confided, and she looked to him for prudence, for suggestion and courage. But, instead of support, she had found debility, and instead of assistance the resources of her own mind were dried up, and her native fortitude was overwhelmed and depressed. She turned pale at the recital of Roderic, her knees trembled, her eyes forgot their wonted lustre, and she was immersed in the supineness and imbecility of despair.
"Edwin!"—she cried, with a tone of perturbation; but her utterance failed her. Her voice was low, hoarse, and inaudible. The fictitious shepherd supported her in his arms. Her distress was a new gratification and stimulus to her betrayer. "Edwin, ah, wherefore this fearful recital? Did you come here for no other purpose than to sink me ten times deeper in despair? Alas, I had conceived far other expectations, and far other hopes fluttered in my anxious bosom, when I first beheld your well known form. I said I have been hitherto constant and determined, though unsupported and melancholy. I shall now be triumphant. I shall experience that heaven-descended favour, which ever attends the upright. Edwin, my firm, heroic Edwin, will perform what I wished, and finish what I began. And, oh, generous and amiable shepherd, is it thus that my presages are fulfilled? No, I cannot, will not bear it. If the courage of Edwin fail, I will show him what he ought to be. If you dare not lead, think whether you dare follow whither I guide. You shall see what an injured and oppressed woman can do. Feeble and tender as we are formed by nature, you shall see that we are capable of some fortitude and some exertion." As she said this she had risen, and was advancing towards the door. But recollecting herself with a sudden pang, "Alas," cried she, "whither do I go?—What am I doing?—What shall I do?—Oh, Edwin!" and, falling at his feet, she embraced his knees, "do not, do no [sic] not desert me in this sad, tremendous moment!"
"I will not, my Imogen, I will never desert you. One fate shall attend us both. And if you are called to calamity, to torture, and to death, Edwin will not be supine and inactive." "Oh, now," cried she, her eyes moistened with rapture, "I recognize my noble and gallant swain. Come then, and let us fly. If we must encounter peril and disaster, what avails it to suspend the trial for a few niggard hours? This, my friend, my guardian,—this is the time—Now the master dragon sleeps—Roderic is now unconscious and distant—and I fear him too much to apprehend any thing from a meaner adversary—Let us fly—let us escape—let our speed outstrip the rapid winds!"
During their conversation, the heavens had been covered with clouds, and the rain descended with violence. But the change had not been noticed by Imogen. "Well then, my fair one, we will depart. What though the wind whistles along the heath, and the rain patters among the elms? We will defy their fury. Let us go! But, ah, my Imogen, look there! The hinds are flying across the plain for shelter; and see! two of them approach to the clump of trees directly before us on the outside of the garden. No, shepherdess, it is in vain that we resolve, and in vain that we struggle: we cannot escape."
The mind of Imogen was now wrought up to the extremest distress. Her heart was wrung with anguish. She was ready to charge the immortals with conspiring against her, had not her piety forbad it. She saw the reality of what Roderic stated, and yet she was ready to charge him with raising eternal obstacles. She cast upon him a look of despair and agony. But she did not read in the countenance of the imaginary shepherd congenial sentiments. "Methinks," said she, with a voice full of reproachful blandishment, and inimitable sweetness, "methinks it is not with the tenderness of sympathy, that you tell me we must desist. Sure it is only the mist of tears through which I behold you, that makes me see the suppressed emotion of pleasure in your countenance. No, it is not in the heart of Edwin to harbour for a moment the sentiments of barbarity and insult—But if we cannot now escape—if the dangers to which we must submit may be diminished by delay—indeed, Edwin, something must be attempted—at least let us now fix upon a plan, and determine what to do. Let not delay relax the spirit of enterprise, or shake the firmness of our purpose."
"And what plan," cried the pretended shepherd, "can we form? I have already trod the intricate and dangerous road, and there is nothing better for us than to tread my footsteps back again. The day is particularly unfavourable, as it is accompanied with activity and business. We must therefore wait for the night. Then we must watch our opportunities, and embrace the favourable interval. Imogen, I feel not for myself. I do not throw away a thought upon my own safety, and I am ready to submit to every evil for your service and your defence. But yet, my gentle, noble-minded shepherdess, I cannot promise any very flattering probability of success. Indeed my hopes are not sanguine. The difficulties that are before us appear to me insurmountable. One mountain peeps through the breaches of another, and they are like a wall built by the hand of nature, and reaching to the skies. Penmaenmawr is heaped upon Snowdon, and Plinlimmon nods upon the summit of Penmaenmawr. It is only by the intervention of a miracle that we can ever revisit the dear, lamented fields of Clwyd. Let us then, my Imogen, compose ourselves to the sedateness of despair. Let us surrender the success of our future efforts to fate. And let us endeavor to solace the short and only certain interval that we yet can call our own, by the recollection of our virtuous loves."
"Alas," cried Imogen, "I understand not in what the sedateness of despair consists. In the prospect of every horrid mischief, mischief that threatens not merely my personal happiness or mortal existence, but which bears a malignant aspect upon the dignity of honour and the peace of integrity, I cannot calmly recollect our virtuous loves, or derive from that recollection sedateness and composure. Edwin, your language is dissonant, and the thoughts you seek to inspire, jarring and incompatible. If you must tell me to despair, at least point me to some nobler source of consolation, than the coldness of memory; at least let us prepare for the fate that awaits us in a manner decent, manly, and heroic."
"Yes, too amiable shepherdess, if I were worthy to advise, I would recommend a more generous source of consolation, and teach you to prepare for futurity in a manner worthy of the simplicity of your heart; and worthy of that disinterested affection we have ever borne to each other. Think of those sacred ties that have united us. Think of the soft and gentle commerce of mutual glances; the chaste and innocent communication with which we have so often beguiled the noontide hour; the intercourse of pleasures, of sentiments, of feelings that we have held; the mingling of the soul. Did not heaven design us for each other? Is not, by a long probation of simplicity and innocence, the possession of each other become a mutual purchase? An impious and arbitrary tyrant has torn us asunder. But do the Gods smile upon his hated purpose? Does he not rather act in opposition to their decrees, and in defiance of their authority?"
The magician paused. "Alas," replied the shepherdess, "what is it you mean? Whither would you lead me? I understand you not. These indeed were motives for fortitude and exertion, but what consolation can they impart to the desponding heart?" "I will tell you," replied her seducer, folding her slender waist with one of his arms as he spoke. "Since the Gods are on our side, since heaven and earth approve our honest attachment, let us sit here and laugh at the tyrant. While he doubles his guards, and employs all his vigilance, let us mock his impotent efforts."
"Ah," replied the shepherdess, her eye moistened with despair, and beaming with unapprehensiveness, "how strange and impracticable an advice do you suggest! Full of terror, full of despair, you bid me laugh at fear. Threatened by a tyrant whose power is irresistible, and whose arts you yourself assure me are not to be evaded, you would have me mock at those arts, and this dreaded power. Is not his power triumphant? Is not all his vigilance crowned with a fatal success? Are we not his miserable, trembling, death-expecting victims? Can we leave this apartment, can we almost move our hand, or utter our voice, for solicitude and terror? Oh Edwin, in what mould must that heart have been cast, what must be its hard and unsusceptible texture, that can laugh at sorrow, and be full of the sensations of joy, though surrounded with all the engines of wretchedness?"
"Imogen, your fears are too great, your anxieties exaggerate the indigence of our condition. Though we are prisoners, yet even the misfortunes of a prison have their compensations. The activity of the immaterial mind, will not indeed submit long without reluctance to confinement and restraint. But we have not yet experienced lassitude and disgust." "Alas, Edwin, how strange and foreign are thoughts like these! Whither do they tend? What would you infer from them?"
"This my love I would infer. That within one little cincture we are yet absolute. No prying eye can penetrate here. Of our words, of our actions, during a few remaining hours, we can dispose without controul."
"Ah," exclaimed the shepherdess, struck with a sudden suspicion of the treacherous purpose, and starting from her betrayer, "ah, Edwin, yet, yet explain yourself! A thousand horrid thoughts—a thousand dire and shapeless phantoms—But Edwin,—sure—is plain, and artless, and innocent.—What boots it that we can dispose of our words and actions within this cincture?—Will that enable us to escape?—No, no, no, no.—Escape you say is hopeless—What is it you mean?—Say—explain yourself—Oh, Edwin!"—
"Be not alarmed," cried the remorseless villain. "Listen, yet listen with calmness to the suggestions of my deliberate mind. Imogen, you are too beautiful—I have beheld you too long—I have admired you with too fierce an ardour. The Gods—the Gods have joined us. It is guilt and malignity alone that oppose their purpose.—Let us beat them down—trample them under our feet—employ worthily the moment that yet remains."—
As the magician pronounced these words, he advanced towards his captive, and endeavoured to seize her in his arms. But she thrust him from her with the warmest indignation; and contemplating him with an eye of infinite disdain, "Base unworthy swain!"—she cried—"Insidious traitor!—abhorred destroyer!—And is it thus that you would approach me?—Is it thus that you would creep into the weakness of my heart?—But fly—I know you not—One mark of compassion I will yet exhibit, which you little deserve—Fly—I will not deliver you into the hands of your rival, whom yet my soul does not so much loath and abhor—Fly—Live to be pointed at as an example of degeneracy—Live to blush for and repent of that crime, which, Edwin!—cannot be expiated."
Roderic had advanced too far to be thus deterred. He did not wish to manage the character under which he appeared. His passions by this interview, more private, and in which his captive had beheld him with an eye of greater complacency than ever, were inflamed to the extremest degree. The charms of Imogen had been in turn heightened with joy, and mellowed with distress. Even the conscious dignity, and haughty air she now assumed, gave new attractions to her form, and new grace to her manner. Her muscles trembled with horror and disdain. Her eloquent blood wrought distinctly in her veins, and spoke in a tone, not more dignified than enchanting. Her whole figure had a life, an expression, a loveliness, that it is impossible to conceive.
Roderic rushed forward unappalled, and unsubdued. He had already seized his unwilling victim. In vain she resisted his violence; in vain she strove to escape from her betrayer. "For pity's sake—for mercy's sake—for the sake of all our past endearments—spare me!—relent—and spare me—spare me!—" For a time she struggled; but her tender frame was soon overcome by the strength of her destroyer. She became cold and insensible in his arms.
At this moment a flood of splendid lightning filled the apartment. The air was rent with the hoarse and deafening roar of the thunder, the door flew open, and the form of that spectre that he most abhorred stood before Roderic. "Go on," cried the phantom, "complete thy heroic purpose. Scorn the tremendous sounds that now appal thee. They are but the prelude of that scene that shall shortly feast my eyes. Perceivest thou not the earth to tremble beneath thy feet? Hearest thou not the walls of thy hated mansion cracking to their ruin? Confusion is at hand. \emph{Chaos is come again.} Go on then, Roderic. Complete thy heroic purpose." The spectre vanished, and all was uninterrupted silence.
The whole mind of Roderic was transformed from what it was. For the impotence of lust, and the cruelty of inexorable triumph, he felt the terrors of annihilation, and all the cold, damp tremblings of despair. But the victory of innocence was not yet complete.
Imogen had sunk for a moment under the horrors that threatened her, but she had not been so far impercipient as not to hear the murmuring of the thunder, and to see the gleam of the lightning. The form however that terrified Roderic, and the voice that addressed him, were perceived by him alone.
The shepherdess opened her eyes, and beheld the degenerate ravisher pale, aghast, and trembling. "It is well, Edwin. The Gods have declared themselves. The Gods have suspended their thunder over the head of the apostate. Rut, oh Edwin, could I have imagined it! Desolate and oppressed as I have been, could I have supposed, that that form was destined to fill up the measure of my woes! I once beheld it as the harbinger of happiness, as the temple of integrity and innocence. Oh, how wretched you have made me! How you have shaken all my most rooted opinions of the residence of virtue among mankind! Am I alone, and unsupported in her cause? How forlorn and solitary do I seem to myself! I suffered—once I suffered the thought of Edwin to mix with the love of rectitude, and the obedience of heaven. They all together confirmed me in the path I had chalked out for myself. Mistake not these reproaches for the weakness of returning passion. And yet, Edwin, though I loath, I pity you! Go, and repent! Go, and blot from the records of your memory the cold insinuation, the aggravated guilt that you have this day practised! Go, and let me never, never see you more!"
As she uttered these words, congratulation, reproach, wretchedness, abhorrence and pity succeeded each other in her countenance. Rut they were all accompanied with an ineffable dignity, and an angelic purity. The savage and the satyr might have beheld, and been awed into reverence. Roderic slunk away, guilty, mortified, and confounded. And such was the success of this other attempt upon the virtue of Imogen.
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\part{BOOK THE SIXTH}
IMOGEN ENDEAVOURS TO SUBDUE THE ATTENDANTS OF RODERIC.—THE SUPPER OF THE HALL.—JOURNEY AND ARRIVAL OF EDWIN.—SUBTLETY OF THE MAGICIAN.—HE IS DEFEATED.—END OF THE SECOND DAY.
The magician, overwhelmed and confounded with uninterrupted disappointment, was now ready to give himself up to despair. "I have approached the inflexible fair one," cried he, "by every avenue that leads to the female heart. And what is the amount of the advantages I have gained? I tempted her with riches. But riches she considered with disdain; they had nothing analogous to the temper of her mind, and her uncultivated simplicity regarded them as superfluous and cumbersome. I taught her to listen to the voice of flattery; I clothed it in all that is plausible and insinuating; but to no purpose. She was still upon her guard; all her suspicions were awake; and her integrity and her innocence were as vigilant as ever. Incapable of effecting any thing under that form she had learned to detest, I laid it aside. I assumed a form most prepossessing and most amiable in her eyes. Surely if her breast had not been as cold as the snow that clothes the summit of Snowdon; if her virtue had not been impregnable as the groves of Mona, a stratagem, omnipotent and impenetrable as this, must have succeeded. She beheld the figure of him she loved, and this was calculated in a moment of distress to draw forth all her softness. She beheld the person of him in whom she had been wont to find all integrity, and place all confidence, and this might have induced her to apprehend no danger. And yet with how much tender passion, with how distressful an indignation, with what tumultuous sorrow did she witness his supposed crime? What then must I do? What yet remains? I love her with a more frantic and irresistible passion than ever. I cannot abstain from her.—I cannot dismiss her.—I cannot forget her. Oh Imogen, too lovely, all-attractive Imogen, for you I stand upon the very brink of fate! Nor is this all. Soon should I leap the gulph, soon should forget every prudent and colder prospect in the tumult of my soul, did not that cursed spectre ever shoot across my path to dash my transports, and to mar my enjoyments. Which way shall I turn? To leave her, that is impossible. To possess her by open force and manly violence, that my fate forbids. My understanding is bewildered, and my invention is lost.—Medoro!"—
Medoro received the well known signal, and stood before Roderic. He waited not to be addressed, he read the purposes of the heart of the magician. "Roderic," cried he, "this moment is the crisis of you[r] destiny. The occasion, to which the curse pronounced upon you by the inimical spectre refers, has already in part taken place. YOU HAVE SUED TO A SIMPLE MAID, WHO BY YOUR CHARMS HAS BEEN TAUGHT TO HATE THE SWAIN THAT ONCE SHE LOVED. It only remains that she should persevere in the resistance she has hitherto made, and that A SIMPLE SWAIN, perhaps her favoured Edwin, should defy your enchantments. Think then of the precipice on which you stand. Yet, yet return, while it is in your power. One step in advance beyond those you have already taken may be irretrievable. Alas, Roderic, it is thus that I advise! but I foresee that my advice will be neglected. The Gods permit to the invisible inhabitants of air, when strongly invoked by a mortal voice, to assist their vices and teach adroitness to their passions; but they do not permit an invocation like this to receive for its reward the lesson of moderation, and the attainment of happiness.
"Go on then, Roderic, in the path upon which you are inflexibly determined. You succeeded not in the stratagem of flattery; but it served to take off the keenness of the aversion of Imogen. She contemplates you now with somewhat less of horror, and with a virtuous and ingenuous fear of uncandidness and injustice upon your account. Neither have you succeeded in that deeper stratagem and less penetrable deceit, the assumption of the form of him she loved. It has however served to weaken her prepossessions, and relax the chains of her attachment. She is now the better prepared to receive openly and impartially the addresses of a stranger swain. Thus even your miscarriages have furthered your design. Thus may a wise general convert his defeats into the means of victory. Think not however again to approach her in the coolness of reason, and the sobriety of the judgment. Hope not by temptation, by flattery, by prejudice, to shake the immutable character of her mind. There is yet one way unessayed. You must advance, if you would form the slightest expectations of victory, by secret and invisible steps. Her virtue must be surrounded, entangled and enmeshed, or ever her suspicions be awakened, or her integrity alarmed. This can be effected only by the instrumentality of pleasure. Pleasure has risen triumphant over many a heart that riches could not conquer, and that ambition could not subdue. What though she has resisted temptation under the most alluring form, when her thoughts were collected and all around was silence?—Let the board of luxury be spread. Let the choicest dainties be heaped together in unbounded profusion. Let the most skilful musicians awake the softest instruments. Let neatness, and elegance, and beauty exhibit their proudest charms. Let every path that leads to delight, let every gratification that inebriates the soul be discovered. If at that moment temptation approach, even a meaner and less potent temptation may then succeed. The night advances with hasty feet. Night is the season of dissipation and luxury. Be this the hour of experiment, and let the apprehensive mind of Imogen be first assiduously lulled to repose. Here, Roderic, you must rest your remaining hopes. There is not another instrument can be discovered, to disarm and vanquish the human mind. If here you fail, the Gods have decreed it—they will be obeyed—Imogen must be dismissed from the enchanted halls of Rodogune."
With these words the goblin disappeared. The warning he had uttered passed unheeded, but the magician immediately prepared to employ this last of stratagems. Summoning the train of attendants of either sex that resided in the castle, he directed them some to make ready the intended feast, and some to repair to the apartment of Imogen. The preparations of the enchanted castle were not like those of a vulgar entertainment. Every thing was accelerated by invisible agents. The intervention of the retinue of Roderic was scarcely admitted. The most savoury viands, the most high flavoured ragouts, and the most delicious wines presented themselves spontaneously to the expecting attendant. The hall was illuminated with a thousand lustres that depended like stars from the concave roof, and were multiplied by the reflection of innumerable mirrors. The whole was arranged with inconceivable expedition.
In the mean time a few of the more distinguished attendants of her own sex repaired to the presence of Imogen. They found her feeble, spiritless and disconsolate. "Come," exclaimed their leader, in an accent of persuasion; "comply, my lovely girl, let not us alone have reason to complain of your unfriendliness and inflexibility."
Imogen was fatigued and she wished not for repose. Grief and persecution had in a former instance inspired her with the love of solitude. But her feelings were now of another kind. The disgrace and ingratitude of Edwin had wounded her in the tenderest point, and she could not think of it but with inexpressible anguish. She was for the first time afraid of her own reflections, and desirous to fly from herself. "Yes," exclaimed she, "and I would go, if you will promise me that it shall not be to the presence of Roderic. The castle and the fields, the freshness of the morning air and the gloom of a dungeon, are equal to me, provided I must be kept back from the arms of my beloved parents, and their anxious and tender spirits must still be held in suspence. But indeed I must not, I will not, be continually dragged to the presence of the man I hate. It is ungenerous, unreasonable, and indecent. What is the meaning of all this compulsion? Why am I kept here so much against my will? Why am I dragged from place to place, and from object to object? Surely all this cannot be mere caprice and tyranny. There must be in it some dark and guilty meaning that I cannot comprehend. Oh shepherdesses! if ye had any friendship, if any pity dwelt within your bosoms, ye would surely assist me to escape this hated confinement. Point but the way, show me but the smallest hole, by which I might get away to ease and liberty, and I would thank you a thousand times. You, who appear the leader of the throng, your brow is smooth, your eyes are gentle and serene, and the bloom of youth still dwells upon your face. Oh," added the apprehensive Imogen, and she threw herself upon her knees—"do not bely the stamp of benevolence and clemency that nature has planted there. Think if you had parents as I have, whose happiness, whose existence, are suspended upon mine, if you abbhorred, and detested, and feared your jailor as I do, what would be your feelings then, and how you would wish to be treated by a person in your situation. Grant me only the poor and scanty boon, that you would then conceive your right. Dismiss me, I intreat you. I cannot bear my situation. My former days have all been sunshine, my former companions have all been kindness. I have not been educated to encounter persecution, and misfortunes, and horrors. I cannot encounter them. I cannot survive it."
As she pronounced these words, she sunk, feeble, languid, and breathless, upon the knees of the attendant. They hastened to raise her. They soothed her ingenuous affliction, and assured her that she should not be intruded upon by him of whom she had formed so groundless apprehensions. Since then she was invited to partake of a slight refreshment accompanied only by persons of her own sex, she did not long hesitate, and was easily persuaded to acquiesce. The unostentatious kindness of the invitation, and the modesty of the entertainment she expected, dissipated her fears. It was from solitude that she now wished to escape; and it was to that simple and temperate relaxation that she had experienced among the inhabitants of Clwyd, to which she was desirous to repair.
She was conducted towards a saloon, which had less indeed of a sumptuous and royal appearance, but was more beautiful, more gay, more voluptuous, and more extatic than that which had been the scene of the temptation of the morning. The profuseness of the illuminations outdid the brightness of the meridian sun. The table was spread in a manner to engage the eye and allure the appetite. Every vessel that was placed upon it was of massive silver. And in different corners of the apartment heaps of the most fragrant incense were burning in urns of gold. The viands were of a nature the most stimulating and delicious; and the wines were bright and sparkling and gay. As Imogen approached, a stream of music burst upon her ear of a kind which hitherto she had never witnessed. It was not the sonorous and swelling notes of praise; it was not the enthusiastic rapture of the younger bards; it was not the elevated and celestial sounds that she had been used to hear from the lyre of Llewelyn. But if it was not so swelling and sublime, it was soft, and melodious, and insinuating, and overpowering beyond all conception. You could not listen to it without feeling all the strings of your frame relaxed, and the nobler powers of your soul lulled into a pleasing slumber. It was madness all. The ear that heard it could not cease to attend. The mind that listened to it was no longer master of itself.
Imogen entered the hall, and was received by a train of nymphs, some of them more beautiful than any she had yet seen, and all attired with every refinement of elegance and grace. Their hair was in part braided round their bright and polished foreheads, and in part it hung in wavy and careless ringlets about their slender necks, and heaving bosoms. Their forms were veiled in loose and flowing folds of silk of the finest texture, and whiter than the driven snow. The robes were not embroidered with gold and silver; they were not studded with emeralds and diamonds; but were adorned on every side with chaplets of the fairest and freshest flowers. Their heads were crowned with garlands of amaranth and roses. Though their conduct were tainted with lasciviousness, and their minds were full of looser thoughts, yet, awed by the virtuous dignity of Imogen, they suppressed the air of dissolute frolic, and taught by the guileful lessons of their lord, endeavoured to assume the manners of chaste and harmless joy.
The shepherdess, struck with the objects which so unexpectedly presented themselves to her eyes and her ears, started back with involuntary astonishment. "Is this," cried she, "the artless feast, and this the simple fare of which you invited me to partake?" "Imogen," replied the principal nymph, "we were willing to do you honour, and the preparation we have made is slight compared with that which the roof can afford. We considered your fatigue and your extraordinary abstinence, and we were willing to compensate them by pleasant food, and a grateful refreshment."
"And is such the grateful refreshment, and such the simple and unaffected relaxation that your minds suggested? Alas, were I to approach this board, it would be to me a business and not an amusement, an exertion and not a relief. A feast like this is an object foreign and unpleasing to my eyes. The feasts of the valley are chesnuts, and cheeses, and apples. Our drink is the water of the limpid brook, or the fair and foaming beverage that our flocks afford. Such are the enjoyments of sobriety; such are the gratifications of innocence. Virgins, I am not weary of the simplicity of the pastoral life. I hug it to my bosom closer, more fondly than ever."
"Amiable, spotless maiden! we admire your opinions, and we love your person. But virtue is not allied to rigour and austerity. Its boundaries are unconstrained, and graceful, and sweeping. It is a robe which sits easily on those who are formed to wear it. It gives no awkwardness to their manner, and puts no force upon their actions. Partake then, my Imogen, in those refreshments we have prepared for your gratification. If this be not duty, it is not crime. It is a venial and a harmless indulgence. Do not then mortify friends that have sought to please you, and refuse your attention to the assiduities we have demonstrated."
"No, my gentle shepherdess, it is in vain you plead. I would willingly qualify my refusal; but I must withdraw. The more you press me, the farther it is necessary for me to recede. In the morning of this very day, I was simple, and incautious, and complying. But now I have experienced so many wiles and escaped so many snares, that this heart, formerly so gentle and susceptible, is cased in triple steel. I can shut my eyes upon the most splendid attractions. I can turn a deaf ear to enticements the most alluring, and sounds the most insinuating. This is the lesson—I thank him for it—that your lord has taught me. You must not then detain me. I must be permitted to retire." And saying this she withdrew with trembling speed. In vain they insisted, in vain they pursued. Imogen escaped like a bird from the fowler, nor looked behind. Imogen was deaf to their expostulations, and indurate and callous as adamant to their persuasions.
The disappointment of Roderic, when he learned of this miscarriage of his great and final attempt was extreme. He coursed up and down the saloon with all the impatience of a wild boar pierced by the spear of the hunter, or a wolf from whom they have torn away her young. He vented his fury upon things inanimate. He tore his hair, and beat his breast, with tumultuous agony. He imprecated with a hoarse and furious voice a thousand curses upon those attendants who had permitted his captive to escape. Through the spacious hall, where every thing a moment before had worn the face of laboured gaiety and studied smiles, all was now desolation, and disquiet, and uproar. And urged as the magician had been by successive provocations, he was ready to overstep every limit he might once have respected, and to proceed to the most fatal extremities.
In this situation, and as Roderic was hastening with a determined resolution to follow to the apartment of Imogen, information was suddenly brought to him, that a young stranger, tall and graceful in his form, and of a frank and noble countenance, had by some unknown means penetrated beyond the precipices with which the enchanted castle was surrounded, and in spite of the resistance of the retinue of the magician had entered the mansion. The dark and guilty heart of Roderic immediately whispered him—"It is Edwin.—It is well.—I thank the Gods that they do not hold this aspiring soul in a long and dreary suspence! Let the destinies overtake me. I am prepared to receive them. Death, or any of the thousand ills that fortune stores for them she hates, could not come in a more welcome hour.—Oh Imogen, lovely, adorable Imogen, how vain has been my authority, how vain the space of my command! Let then my palaces tumble into ruin—Let that wand which once I boasted, shivered in a thousand fragments, be cast to all the winds of heaven! I will glory in desolation and forlornness. I will wrap myself in my poverty. I will retire to some horrid cave in the midst of the untamed desart, and shagged with horrid shades, that outgloom the blackness of the infernal regions. There I will ruminate upon my past felicity. There I will tell over enjoyments never to return. I will make myself a little universe, and a new and unheard of satisfaction in the darkness of my reflections, and the depth of my despair.
"And yet surely, surely the Gods have treated me severely, and measured out to me a hard and merciless fate. What are all the felicities I talk of, and have prized so much? Oh, they were seasoned, each of them, with a bitter infusion! Little, little indeed have I tasted of a pure and unmixed happiness. In my choicest delights, I have felt a vacancy. They have become irksome and tedious. I have fled from myself; I have fled from the magnificence of my retinue, to find variety. And yet how dearly am I to pay for a few gratifications which were in fact no better than specious allurements to destruction, and flowers that slightly covered the pit of ruin! In the bloom of manhood, in the full career of youth to be cast forth an UNPITIED, NECESSITOUS, MISERABLE VAGABOND! All but this I could have borne without a sigh. Were I threatened with death, in this opening scene of life, I could submit with cheerfulness. But to drag along a protracted misery, to be shut out from hope, and yet ever awake to every cruel reflection and every bitter remorse—This is too much!"
From this dream of unmanly lamentations Roderic was with difficulty recovered by the assiduities of the attendants. At length incited by their expostulations to the collectedness of reflection and the fortitude of exertion, he determined, with that quickness of invention with which he had been endowed at his birth, upon a plan to elude, if possible, the perseverance of Edwin, and the menaces of his fate. Recollecting that his person was not unknown to the swain, he communicated his instructions to those who were about him, and withdrew himself into a private apartment.
It was Edwin. The instructions of the Druid of Elwy had relieved him from the insupportable burden that had begun to oppress his mind. Persuaded by him he had submitted to seek the refreshment of sleep. But sleep shed not her poppies upon his busy, anxious head. His mind was crouded with a thousand fearful phantoms. A child of the valley, he was a stranger to misfortune and misery. Upon the favoured sons of nature calamity makes her deepest impression, and an impression least capable of being erased. And yet Edwin was full of courage and adventure; he asked no larger boon than to be permitted to face his rival. But his inquietude was the offspring of love; and his wariness and caution originated in the docility of his mind, and his anxious attachment to innocence and spotless rectitude.
Having passed the watches of the night in uneasy and inexhaustible reflections, he sprung from his couch as soon as the first dawn of day proclaimed the approaching sun, and took a hasty leave of the hospitable hermit. Issuing from the grotto, he bent his steps, in obedience to the direction of Madoc, to that secret path, which had never before been discovered by any mortal unassisted by the goblins of the abyss. Before he reached it the golden sun had begun to decline from his meridian height. He passed along the winding way beneath the impending precipices, which formed a dark and sullen vault over his head. Ever and anon large pieces of stone, broken from their native mass, and tumbling among the craggy caverns, saluted his ear. Now and then he heard a bubbling fountain bursting from the rock, which presently fell with a loud and dashing noise along the declivity, and was lost in the pebbles below. The only light by which his steps were guided, was that which fell in partial and scanty streams through the fissures of the mountain, and served to discover little more than the shapelessness of the rocks, and the uncultivated horrors of the scene.
Through these Edwin passed unappalled. His heart was naturally firm and intrepid, and he now cased himself round with the armour of untainted innocence and unsullied truth. It was not long before he came forth from this scene of desolation to that beautiful and cultivated prospect which had already enchanted the heart of Imogen. To him it had advantages which in the former case it could not boast. He could contrast its gaiety and brightness with the obscure and dismal scene from which he had escaped. Nor was he struck only by the verdure of the prospect, and the vividness of its colours, he also beheld the inclosure, not, as his amiable mistress had done, from a terrace adjoining to the mansion; but from the last point of the rock from which he was ready to descend. The mansion therefore was his principal point of view from this situation. It stood upon a bold and upright brow that beetled over the plain below. The ascent was by a large and spacious flight of marble steps. Its architecture was grand, and simple, and commanding. It was supported by pillars of the Ionic order. They were constructed of ivory and jet, and their capitals were overlaid with the purest gold. An object like this to one who had never before seen any nobler edifice than a shepherd's cot, or the throne of turf upon which the bards were elevated at the feast of the Gods, was surprising, and admirable, and sublime in the highest degree.
"And this," exclaimed the gallant shepherd, "is the residence prepared for infamy and lust. The sun pours upon it his light with as large a hand, the herbage, the flowers and the fruits as fully partake of the bounteous care of nature, as the vales of simplicity and the fields of innocence. How venerable and alluring is the edifice I behold! Does not peace dwell within, and are not the hours of its possessor winged with happiness? Had my youth been spent among the beasts of the forests, had not my ears drank in the sacred instructions of the godlike Druids, I might have thought so. But, no. In vain in the extensive empire that the arts of sorcery and magic afford, shall felicity be sought. What avails all this splendour? and to what purpose this mighty profusion? All the possessions that I can boast, are my little flock, my wattled cottage, and my slender pipe. And yet I carol as jocound a lay, my heart is as light and frolic, and the tranquility of self-acquittal spreads her wings as wide over my bosom, as they could were I lord of a hundred hills, and called all the streamlets of the valley my own. The magician possesses a large hoard of beauty, and he can wander from fair to fair with unlimited and fearless licence. All merciful and benign beings, who dwell above this azure concave, give me my Imogen! Restore her safe and unhurt to these longing, faithful arms! Let not this arbitrary and imperious tyrant, who grasps wide the fairest productions of thy creation with a hundred hands,—let him not wrest from me my solitary lamb,—let him not seize for ever upon that companion, in whom the most expansive and romantic wishes of my heart had learned to be satisfied."
Such were the beautiful and virtuous sentiments of Edwin, as he beheld the empire of his rival from the head of the rock, and as he crossed the glade that still divided him from the object of all his exertions. From the eminence upon which he had paused for a few contemplative moments, the distance had appeared narrow and trifling. But the equal height of the ground upon which he stood, and of that which afforded a situation for the palaces of Roderic, had deceived him. When he looked towards the scene that was to form the termination of his journey, the glade below escaped from his sight. But when he descended to the plain, it was otherwise. One swell of the surface he had to traverse succeeded another; and the irregularity of the ground caused him sometimes to be lost, in a manner, in the length of the way, and took from him the consolation of being able so much as to perceive the object of his destination. As he passed the hills, and climbed each successive ascent, a murmur rose in his bosom; his impatience grew more and more ungovernable, and the eagerness of his pursuit taught him to imagine, that his little labour would never be done.
Every performance however of human exertion has its period; and Edwin had at length surmounted the greater part of the distance, and now gained a larger and more distinct view of the castle. But by this time the sun was ready to hide himself in the ocean, and his last rays now gleamed along the valley, and played in the party-coloured clouds. Meanwhile a dark spot, which had for some time blotted the brightness of the surrounding azure, expanded itself. The shades gathered, the light of the sun was hid, and the blackness of the night forestaled. The wind roared among the mountains, and its terrors were increased by the hollow bellowings of the beasts they harboured. The shower began; it descended with fury, and Edwin had scarcely time to gain the protection of an impervious thicket that crowned the lawn. Here he stood and ruminated. The solemnity of the scene accorded with the importance of his undertaking. The pause was friendly. He composed his understanding, and recollected the lessons of the hospitable hermit. He fortified himself in the habits of virtue; and, with a manly and conscious humility, recommended this crisis of his innocence to the protection of heaven.
The shower ceased, but the darkness continued. He had too well marked however the bent of his journey during the continuance of the day, to permit this to be any considerable obstacle. In the mean time it doubled and rendered more affecting the stilness of the night. Nothing was to be heard but the low whispers of the falling breeze, and the murmurs of the prowling wolf that now languished and died away upon the ear. This was the moment in which magic lords it supreme, in which the goblin breaks forth from his confinement, and ranges unlimited in the nether globe; and in which all that is regular and all that is beautiful give place to the hunger of the savage brute, and the witcheries of the sorcerer. But Roderic was otherwise engaged. His heart was employed in inventing guile, and was lulled into unapprehensive security. But Edwin was heroic. His bosom swelled with the most generous purposes; and he trusted unwaveringly in that guardianship that is every where present, and that eye that never slumbers.
He entered the walls of the enchanted castle. The novelty of the appearance of a stranger within the circle of those mountains, which no vulgar mortal had yet penetrated, the dignity of his appearance, and the boldness of his manner, at first distracted the attendants from the performance of that, which might have seemed most natural in their situation, and awed them into passiveness. He still wore that flowing and graceful garb, which was appropriated by the inhabitants of Clwyd to the celebration of public solemnities. He had passed through the midst of the shower, and yet one thread of his garment was not moistened with the impetuousness of its descent. His face wore a more beautiful and roseat glow than was native to its complexion. His eye was full of animation and expressiveness. Expectation, and hope, and dignity, and resolution had their entire effect in his appearance. "It is a celestial spirit!" cried they. "It is a messenger from the unseen regions!" and they sought in his person for the insignia that might confirm and establish their conjecture.
But such was not the imagination of Roderic. The master-guilt to which he was conscious, was ever ready to take the alarm upon any unexpected event; and he had immediately conjectured, by a kind of instinctive impression, who was this new and unwelcome guest. However unguarded and unprepared had been his retinue, they had recollected themselves sufficiently to detain Edwin in the avenue of the mansion, till they had received the orders of their lord. These were immediately communicated; and the magician withdrew himself till the proper period should arrive for his appearance to the swain.
Edwin, when he had entered the palace of Roderic, had been desirous, if it were possible, to push forward to the presence of his rival, without making any previous enquiries, or admitting of a moment's pause. The frequency however of the domestics had disappointed his purpose, and he was detained by them in spite of his efforts. "What means," cried he, "this violence? I must enter here. I will not be delayed. My purpose admits not of trifling and parley. To me every moment is big with fate." He said. For Edwin disdained the employment of falsehood and disguise. He lifted the javelin in his hand, but his heart was too full of gentleness and humanity rashly to employ the instrument of death. His tone however was resolute, and his gesture commanding, and the astonished attendants were uncertain in what manner to conduct themselves.
At this instant a domestic, who had received the instructions of his lord, entered the court. He had the appearance of superior dignity; and removing the attendants who pressed with rudeness upon the shepherd, he enquired of him the cause of his intrusion. "Lead me," cried Edwin, "to the lord of your mansion. My business is important and pressing, and will not admit of being communicated to any other ear. Whence this difficulty? Innocence does not withdraw from the observation of those who are desirous to approach it; and a manly courage is not apprehensive of an enemy."
"Young stranger," replied the domestic, "you are misinformed. This mansion knows not a lord. It belongs solely to proprietors of the softer sex, whom fortune has indulged as you perceive with every thing that is calculated to give new relish to the pursuits of life, and beguile the lazy foot of time. It is our boast and our honour to serve these damsels. And could my report add one ray to their lustre, I would tell you, that they are fair as the peep of the morning, and more fragrant than beds of violets and roses. It is their command, that humanity should be extended by all around them, not only to man, but to the humblest and weakest animals. Though you have entered their residence by mistake, we shall but fulfil the service they expect in furnishing you with every assistance and every accommodation in our power. If you are hungry, come in and partake of the liberal plenty the castle affords. If you thirst, we will cheerfully offer you the capacious goblet and the richest wines. If you are fatigued with the travel of the day, or have wandered from your path and are benighted in your journey, enter their mansion. The accommodations are large, and they are all free for the use of the poor, the necessitous, the unfortunate and the miserable."
Edwin listened with astonishment to the narration. He was not used to the address of falshood; and strongly warned as he had previously been of the iniquity of the train, the ingenuousness of his mind induced him at first without reflection to yield an easy credit to the story that was told him. It was related with fluency, plausibility, and gravity; and it was accompanied with a manner seemingly artless and humane, which it was scarcely possible for one unhackneyed in the stratagems of deceit to distrust and contradict.
"Surely," replied Edwin, "I cannot be wholly mistaken. At least has there not a young shepherdess just arrived here, tall, tender and beautiful, and whose flaxen tresses are more bright than gold, and more abundant than the blossoms in the spring?"
Before the officious domestic could reply to his enquiries, two of the nymphs, who had been attired for the feast of Imogen, came into the outer apartment in which the shepherd was, and advanced toward him. "These are my mistresses," cried the attendant. Edwin approached them with respect, and repeated his former enquiries. They were the most beautiful of the train of Roderic. They were clad in garments of the whitest silk, and profusely adorned with chaplets of flowers. Their appearance therefore was calculated to give them, in a shepherd's eye, an air of sweetness and simplicity that could not easily be resisted.
One of them was tall and majestic, and the other low, and of a shape and figure the most alluring. This appeared to be like a blossom in May, whose colours discovered to the attentive observer all their attractions, without being expanded to the careless eye: And that might be supposed to be a few summers farther advanced to a delicious maturity. The majesty of the one had nothing in it of the gross, the indelicate, and the forbidding; and the softness of the other was attempered with inexpressible propriety and grace. Both of them were gentle and affable. But the affability of the former took the name of benignity and condescension, and the affability of the latter was full of harmless gaiety, and a cheerful and unpretending spirit of society.
"We cannot," replied the elder, "attend to your enquiries here. The apartment is comfortless and inhospitable. You appear fatigued. And we pretend not, young stranger, merely to contribute what is in our power to relieve the uneasiness of your mind, we would also refresh your wearied frame. Come in then, and we will afford you every satisfaction we are able. Enter the mansion, and partake of the plenty the Gods have bestowed upon us, and which we desire not to engross to ourselves." During these words Edwin surveyed his fair entertainers with wonder and admiration. But enchanting as they were, they found not the avenue to his heart. There Imogen reigned alone, and could not admit of a rival. Even though upon a slighter occasion, and at less important moment, the purity of his mind, that virtue so much esteemed among the swains, could have been tainted, yet now that his undertaking whispered him, "Imogen alone is fair!" now that he feared for her safety, and hoped every moment to arrive at the dreaded, pleasing period of his anxiety, he could but be constant and be faithful. He recollected the sage instructions of the Druid of Elwy: and his resolutions were unshaken as the roots of Snowdon.
He accepted their invitation. Immediately, as upon a signal, an hundred flambeaux lighted the area and lined the passage to the saloon of pleasure. The nymphs placed themselves on each side of the shepherd, and in this manner they passed along. If Imogen had been struck with the profuseness of the illumination, the richness of the plate, the sumptuousness of the viands and the wines, and the fragrant clouds of incense that filled the apartment, how much more were they calculated to astonish the soul of Edwin! He had comparatively passed through no previous scenes; he had not been led on step by step; and the voluptuousness of the objects that now presented themselves before him had been unknown and unexpected. The train of the subordinate attendants of the magician filled the apartment with beauty and with grace, and seemed to pay the most unreserved obedience to the nymphs that at first addressed him.
But before the shepherd had time to examine the objects that surrounded him, the musicians awaked their instruments, and all his faculties were engrossed with soft melody and enchanting sounds. The instrumental performance was illustrated and completed with a multitude of harmonious voices, and those who sang were each of them of the softer sex.
"What are the possessions most eagerly courted among mankind? Which are the divinities by mortals most assiduously adored? This goodly universe was intended for the seat of pleasure, unmixed pleasure. But a sportive, malicious divinity sent among men a gaudy phantom, an empty bubble, and called the shadow Honour. In pursuit of a fancied distinction and a sounding name, the children of the earth have deserted all that is bland and all that is delicious. Labour, naked, deformed, and offensive, they willingly embrace. They brave hardship and severity. They laugh at danger. From hence they derive the virtue of resolution, the merit of self-denial, and the excellence of mortification.
"But heaven did not open wide its hand, and scatter delight through every corner of the universe, without intending that they should be enjoyed. Enjoyment, indulgence, and felicity are not crimes. Abstinence, self-denial and mortification have only a specious mien and a fictitious merit. Did all mankind obey their fallacious dictates, the unlimited bounties of nature would become a burden to the earth, and fill it with pestilence and contagion. The soil would be oppressed with her own fertility; the herds would overmultitude their lords; and the crouded air would be darkened with the plumes of its numerous inhabitants. The very gems that now lie buried in the bosom of the ocean, would then bespangle its surface, and the dumb tenants of the watery tracts, inured to their blaze, would learn to leave the caverns of the sea and gaze upon the sun.
"Mortals, open your hearts to the divinity of pleasure! Why should he be in love with labour, who has a capacious hoard of choice delights within his reach? Why should we fly from a present good that we possess, to a future that we do not comprehend? Is this the praise we owe the bounteous Gods? Can neglect and indifference to their gifts be gratitude? This were to serve them like a timorous and trembling slave beneath the eye of an austere and capricious tyrant; and not with that generosity, that enthusiasm, that liberal self-confidence, which are worthy of a father, a patron and a friend.
"Ye that are wise, ye that are favoured of propitious heaven, drink deep of the cup of pleasure. The sun has now withdrawn his splendid lustre, and his flaring beams. The period of exercise is past, and the lids of prying curiosity is [are] closed. Night is the season of feast and the season of gaiety. In the graver hours of activity and industry, sobriety may be proper. It may then be fit to listen to the dictates of prudence, and pay some attention to the prejudices of mankind. The sternness of age and the austerity of censoriousness are now silent. Now pleasure wears a freer garb; and the manners of enjoyment are more frank and unrestrained. The thinness of indiscretion and the airy forms of inadvertence are lost and annihilated amid the shadows of the night.
"Now the numerous inhabitants of the waters come forth from their oozy beds and play and flounce in the beams of the moon. Round the luminary of the night the stars lead up the mystic dance, and compose the music of the spheres. The deities of the woods and the deities of the rivers come out from their secret haunts, and keep their pastimes unapprehensive of human intrusion. The elves and the fairies repair to their sports, and trip along the velvet green with many-twinkling feet. Let us imitate their amiable alacrity and their cheerful amusements.
"What has sleep to do with the secrecy and silence of the night? It is the hour of pleasure unrestrained and free. It is the hour in which the empire of beauty is complete, and those mysteries are disclosed which the profaner eye of day must never behold. Ye that are wise, ye that are favoured of propitious heaven, drink deep of the cup of pleasure! The festive board is spread before you; the flowing bowl is proffered for your acceptance. Beauty, the crown of enjoyment, the last perfection of society, is within your reach. Be wise and taste. Partake of the munificence the Gods vouchsafe."
As the song proceeded the two nymphs, who had first appeared to Edwin, and since attended him with the extremest officiousness, endeavoured by every artful blandishment to engage his attention, and rivet his partiality. They exerted themselves to suppress the grossness, inelegance and sensuality to which they had commonly been habituated, and to cover the looseness of the passions with the veil of simplicity, delicacy, and softness. As the music ceased, the master of the spectacle came forth from his retreat. But his figure was no longer that which bespoke the magician, and which Edwin had already seen. He appeared in the form of a youth of that age in which the frolic insignificance of childhood gives place to the eagerness, the enthusiasm and the engaging manners of blooming manhood. His habit was that of a cupbearer. His robes were of azure silk, and floated in graceful folds as he passed along. The beauty of his person was worthy of the synod of the Gods. His features had all the softness of woman without effeminacy; and in his eye there sat a lambent fire which bespoke the man, without roughness, and without ferocity. In one hand he bore a crystal goblet full of every potent enchantment, and which rendered him who drank for ever a slave to the most menial offices and the most wanton caprices of his seducer. In the other hand he held loosely, and as if it had been intended merely to give a completeness to his figure and a gracefulness to his step, that irresistible wand by which the majesty of man had often been degraded, and the reluctant spirit had been conjured up from the caverns of the abyss. The goblet he delivered to the elder nymph, who presented it, with inimitable grace and a bewitching condescension, to the gallant shepherd.
Edwin had the fortitude of a hero, but he had also the feelings of a man. He could not but be struck with the beauty of the nymphs, he could not but be surprised with the profuseness of the entertainment, and the richness of the preparations. The soul of Edwin was full of harmony. It had been one of his earliest and most ruling passions. No shepherd excelled him in the skill of the pipe, no shepherd with a sweeter or more sonorous voice could carol the rustic lay. Even the figure assumed by Roderic, his garb, his step, his gesture had something in them of angelic and celestial without the blaze of divinity, and without the awfulness that surrounds the godlike existencies, that sometimes condescend to visit this sublunary scene. The shepherd took into his hand the fatal bowl.
In the midst however of all that was attractive, and all that was unknown, Edwin had not forgotten the business that had brought him hither and the lessons of Madoc. The visage of Imogen, ever present to his soul, suggested these salutary reflections. By her assistance he strengthened all his resolutions, and gave vigour to the heroism of his mind. Through the memory of Imogen he derived a body, and communicated a visible form to the precepts of rectitude; and virtue wore all those charms that had the most uncontroled empire in his bosom. Half way to his lips he raised the cup of vice, and inexorable fate sat smiling on the brim. He paused; he hesitated. By an irresistible impulse of goodness he withdrew the fatal draught. He shed the noxious composition upon the ground, and hurled from him with indignation the vessel in which it had been contained.
Roderic beheld the scene with deep emotion, and was agitated by turns with a thousand passions. He saw the issue with confusion, despondence and fury. The roseat smiles of the cupbearer vanished; and, without the notice and consent of his mind, his limbs resumed their wonted form, and his features confirmed the suspicions of the shepherd, that he was now confronted with his mortal enemy. Thrice the magician invoked the spirit of his mother, and thrice he conjured the goblins, the most potent that ever mix in the mortal scene. He lifted the wand in his hand. It was the fiery ordeal that summons human character to the severest trial. It was the \emph{judgment of God} in which the lots are devoutly committed to the disposal of heaven, and the enthroned Divinity, guided by his omniscience of the innocence of the brave, or the guilt of the presumptuous, points the barbed spear, and gives a triple edge to the shining steel. If the shepherd had one base and earth-born particle in his frame, if his soul confessed one sordid and sensual desire, now was the time in which for his prospects to be annihilated and his reputation blotted for ever, and the state and empire of his rival to be fixed beyond the power of human machinations to shake or subvert it. "Presumptuous swain!" cried the sorcerer, "what folly, what unmeaning rashness has brought you within the circle of my incantations? Know that from them no mortal has escaped; that by them every swain, whom adventurousness, ignorance, or stratagem has introduced within these limits, has been impelled to assume the savage form, and to herd with the most detestable of brutes. Let then thy foolhardiness pay the penalty which my voice has ever annexed to it. Hence to thy fellows! Go, and let their hated form bely the reason thou shalt still retain, and thy own voice affright thee, when thou shalt groan under irremediable misery!"
The incantation that had never yet failed of its hated purpose was pronounced in vain. Edwin had heard it unappalled. He wore the amulet of Madoc. He opposed to it the unconquered shield of spotless innocence. Even in the midst of the lordly despotism and the imperious haughtiness of his rival, he had been conscious to the triumph which nothing but the calmness of fortitude and the serenity of virtue can inspire. He was mindful of the precepts of the Druid. While Roderic was overwhelmed with disappointment and despair, he seized the wand of the magician, and with irresistible vigour wrenched it from his hand. He struck it with violence upon the ground, and it burst into a thousand shivers. The castle rocked over his head. Those caverns, which for revolving years had served to hide the iniquity and the cruelty of their possessor, disclosed their secret horrors. The whole stupendous pile seemed rushing to the ground. A flood of lightning streamed across the scene. A peal of thunder, deafening and tremendous, followed it. All now was vacancy. Not a trace of those costly scenes and that magnificent architecture remained. The heaven over-canopied the head of Edwin. The clouds were dissipated. The light of innumerable stars gave grandeur to the scene. And the silver moon communicated a milder lustre, and created a softer shade. Roderic and his train, full of pusillanimity and consternation, had fled from the direful scene, and vanished like shadows at the rising of the sun.
No mortal, but our lovers, had ever entered the enchanted mansion without having their characters disgraced, and their hearts thronged with all those hateful and dissolute passions, which distinguished the band of Roderic. No mortal was there, but our lovers, of the numerous inhabitants of this bad edifice, who had not shrunk from the earthquake and the solemnities that accompanied its sub-version. Edwin and Imogen were alone. The shepherdess had listened to all the horrors of the scene with a gloomy kind of satisfaction. "What new wonders," cried she, "are now to be disclosed? What purpose are they intended to answer! The amendment, or the destruction of my betrayer? But it is well. Though the elements mix in inextricable confusion, though the earth be destroyed, yet has innocence no cause to fear. Alas, though I myself should be buried in the ruin, why should I apprehend, or why lament it? I was happy; untaintedly, uninterruptedly happy. But I am miserable. I am confined here in a loathsome, detested prison. Even my conduct is shut up with difficulties, and my bosom disquieted with the conflict of seeming duties. Even Edwin, the swain to whom my heart was united, and from whose memory my integrity derived new strength is corrupted, depraved and base. Let then destruction come. I will not lament the being cut off in the bloom of youth. I will not shed one tear, or feel one fond regret, but for the calamity and disappointment of my parents."
But however the despair of Imogen armed her courage against the concussions of nature, she yet felt that delicacy of constitution which characterises the most lovely of her sex, and that amiable timidity which often accompanies the most invincible fortitude. When the thunder roared with so fearful violence, when the mansion burst in ruins over her head, she stood, trembling and breathless, at the tumult around her. Her safety was the first object of the attention of Edwin; and when she recovered her recollection she found herself in the arms of her lover. "\emph{My fair one, my Imogen}," cried he, "have I recovered you through so many obstacles, and in the midst of so numerous dangers? Oh, how must our affection, the purest, brightest, that ever lighted a human breast, be endeared by our mutual calamities! But virtue is ever triumphant, virtue is never deserted of the watchful care of heaven. My trials, my lovely shepherdess, have been feeble indeed, when compared with yours. Your integrity is unrivalled, and your innocence has surpassed all that the bards have sung in their immortal lays. Come then, oh, dearer, far dearer than ever to this constant heart, come to my arms! Let delay be banished. Let the veil of virgin bashfulness be laid aside. And let us repair together to the presence of your parents to ask an united blessing."
While Edwin thus poured forth the raptures of his heart, Imogen turned towards him a languid eye, full of soft and silent reproach. She retired from him with involuntary horror. "No, shepherd," cried she, and waved her hand with graceful indignation. "Like you I approve the justice of the Gods in the banishment of Roderic. But I think that justice would have been more complete, had it included in its vindictive appearance the punishment of the base, degenerate Edwin. Unworthy Edwin, to how vile and earth born sentiments has your heart been conscious! But go. Hence from my sight! The very spectacle of that form which I had learned to love is mildew and contagion to my eyes. Oh, Edwin, for your sake I will distrust every attractive form and every ingenuous appearance. The separation, my swain, is hard. The arts of Roderic came not near my soul, but your baseness has fixed an indelible wound. But think not—cherish not the fond mistake—that I will ever forget your ungenerousness in the hour of my distress and forlornness, or receive that serpent to my heart again."
As she pronounced these words, she hastened to fly from her imaginary enemy. Edwin detained her by a gentle violence. With much intreaty and a thousand soft blandishments, he wrung from her the story of her indignation. He related to her the tale of Madoc, and told her of the magic arts of his rival. He fully explained the scene of the pretended repentance of Roderic, and the seduction he had attempted to practise under the form of Edwin. As she listened to the wondrous story, Imogen trembled at the unknown dangers with which she had been environed, and admired more than ever the omnipotence of that virtue which had been able to lead her safely through them all. The conviction she received of the rectitude and fidelity of Edwin was to her, like the calm breath of zephyr, which succeeds the tremendous storm upon the surface of the ocean; and like that sovereign balm, which the sage Druids pour into the wounds of the shepherd, and restore him at once to salubrity and vigour. The amiable pair repaired with speed, and arrived with the dawn of the sun to the cottage of Imogen. At the sight of them the venerable Edith reared her drooping, desponding head, and the cheeks of the hoary father were bedewed with the tears of transport. Such were the trials of our lovers, and of correspondent worth was the reward they received. Long did they dwell together in the vale of Clwyd, with that simplicity and attachment which no scenes but those of pastoral life can know. Their happiness was more sensible than that of the swains around them in that they had known a reverse of fortune. And their virtue was the purer and the more benevolent, in that they had passed through the fields of trial; and that only through the ordeal of temptation, and an approved fortitude, they had arrived to the unmixed felicity, and the uninterrupted enjoyment they at length possessed.
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The Anarchist Library
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Anti-Copyright
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\begin{center}
William Godwin
Imogen
A Pastoral Romance
2005
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https:\Slash{}\Slash{}www.gutenberg.org\Slash{}ebooks\Slash{}9152
\bigskip
\textbf{theanarchistlibrary.org}
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\[m=\begin{cases}(3x_{1}^{2}+a)/(2y_{1}),&P_{1}=P_{2},\\
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\[\mathbf{J}_{\frac{1}{2}}\left(z\right)=-\mathbf{E}_{-\frac{1}{2}}\left(z\right%
)\\
=(\tfrac{1}{2}\pi z)^{-\frac{1}{2}}(A_{+}(\chi)\sin z+A_{-}(\chi)\cos z),\]
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\[\mathop{\Psi_{2}\/}\nolimits\!\left(0,y\right)=\begin{cases}\sqrt{\ifrac{\pi}{%
y}}\left(\mathop{\exp\/}\nolimits\!\left(\tfrac{1}{4}i\pi\right)+\mathop{o\/}%
\nolimits\!\left(1\right)\right),&y\to+\infty,\\
\sqrt{\ifrac{\pi}{|y|}}\mathop{\exp\/}\nolimits\!\left(-\tfrac{1}{4}i\pi\right%
)\left(1+i\sqrt{2}\mathop{\exp\/}\nolimits\!\left(-\frac{1}{4}iy^{2}\right)+%
\mathop{o\/}\nolimits\!\left(1\right)\right),&y\to-\infty.\end{cases}\]
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\bibitem{Comisso+Asenjo2014} Comisso, L., \& Asenjo, F. A. (2014). Thermal-Inertial Effects on Magnetic Reconnection in Relativistic Pair Plasmas. \textit{Phys. Rev. Lett.}, \textit{113}(4), 5 pp.
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\item Alm\'assy Gy.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Nagy Z.$^{2}$: {\it COLORIMETRIC MICRODETERMINATION OF VANADIUM/V/ BY AN ACTIVATED REACTION.} Acta Chimica{ \bf 6} (1955)339-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Alm\'assy Gy.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Straub J.$^{3}$: {\it 28Ni40:.} Acta Chimica{ \bf 7} (1955)253-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Alm\'assy Gy.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Nagy Z.$^{2}$, Straub J.$^{3}$: {\it COLORIMETRIC MICRODETERMINATION OF URANIUM/VI/ WITH MORIN.} Acta Chimica{ \bf 7} (1955)317-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Alm\'assy Gy.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Nagy Z.$^{2}$: {\it SEPERATION OF TITANIUM/IV/, CIRCON/IV/ AND THORIUM/IV/ BY PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY. QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE EVALUATION OF CHROMATOGRAMS.} Acta Chimica{ \bf 7} (1955)326-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Alm\'assy Gy.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Kov\'acs E.$^{3}$: {\it TITRIMETRIC MICRODETERMINATION OF CHROMIUM/VI/ AND CHROMIUM/III/ BY A CATALYTIC REACTION.} Acta Chimica{ \bf 8} (1955)1-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Alm\'assy Gy.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Vigv\'ari M.$^{3}$: {\it AZ UR\'AN/VI/ PAPIRKROMATOGR\'AFI\'AS ELV\'ALASZT\'ASA.} Magyar K\'emiai Foly\'oirat{ \bf 61} (1955)10-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Alm\'assy Gy.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Dezs\H o I.$^{3}$: {\it A R\'EZ PAPIRKROMATOGR\'AFI\'AS ELV\'ALASZT\'ASA A T\"OBBI F\'EMT\"OL.} Magyar K\'emiai Foly\'oirat{ \bf 61} (1955)158-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Alm\'assy Gy.$^{2}$$^{+}$: {\it AZ UR\'AN/VI/ KIMUTAT\'ASA SZALICIL-ALDOXIMMAL.} Magyar K\'emiai Foly\'oirat{ \bf 61} (1955)404-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Barka T.$^{3}$, Posalaki Z.$^{3}$, Kert\'esz L.$^{2}$$^{+}$, T\"or\"o L.$^{3}$, Szalay S.$^{2}$$^{+}$: {\it THE DISTRIBUTION OF TRACED BI2S3 COLLOID IN ORGANIC OF CHICKEN-EMBRYO WITH PARTICULAR INTEREST TO THE STORAGE BY LIVER.} Acta Morphologica Hungarica{ \bf 5} (1955)171-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Barka T.$^{3}$, Kert\'esz L.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Posalaki Z.$^{3}$, Aros B.$^{3}$: {\it CHANGES IN RETICULOENDOTHELIAL STORAGE DURING ONTOGENESIS WITH PARTICULAR REGARD TO STORAGE IN THE LIVER.} Acta Morphologica Hungarica{ \bf 5} (1955)171-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Ber\'enyi D.$^{2}$$^{+}$: {\it Gamma-spektroszk\'opia.} Fizikai Szemle{ \bf 5} (1955)131-138./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Csikai Gy.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it KISM\'ERET\"U VILLANO /FLASH/ L\'AMPA.} Magyar Fizikai Foly\'oirat{ \bf 3} (1955)417-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item D\'ezsi Z.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Horv\'ath M.$^{3}$, Szalay S.$^{2}$$^{+}$: {\it VIZSG\'ALATOK A KRYPTONNAK LEVEG\"OB\"OL \"UZEMI KINYER\'ESE ALKALM\'AVAL FELD—SUL• R\'ADIOAKTIV SZENNYEZ\"OD\'ES\'ERE VONATKOZ•LAG.} Magyar Fizikai Foly\'oirat{ \bf 3} (1955)279-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item F\'enyes T.$^{1}$$^{+}$: {\it A R\'ADIOAKTIV ALFA-BOML\'AS ELM\'ELET\'ER\"OL.} Fizikai Szemle{ \bf 5} (1955)10-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Kert\'esz L.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Barka T.$^{3}$, Posalaki Z.$^{3}$, Aros B.$^{3}$: {\it ADATOK A RES-T\'AROL\'AS ONTOGENESIS ALATTI V\'ALTOZ\'AS\'ANAK VIZSG\'ALAT\'AHOZ, K\"UL\"ON\"OS TEKINTETTEL A M\'AJ T\'AROL\'AS\'ARA.} Kis\'erletes Orvostudom\'any{ \bf 7} (1955)314-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Medveczky L.$^{2}$$^{+}$: {\it PO-BE Neutronforr\'as energiaspektrum\'anak vizsg\'alata fotoemulzi\'os modszerrel.} MTA Matematika Fizika Tudom\'anyok Oszt\'aly\'anak K\"ozlem\'enyei{ \bf 5} (1955)481-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Medveczky L.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Bujdos\'o E.$^{2}$$^{+}$: {\it S\"ot\'etl\'at\'oter\H u mikroszk\'op megvil\'ag\' \i t\'as gyors neutronok fotomulzios energiam\'er\'es\'ehez.} Magyar Fizikai Foly\'oirat{ \bf 3} (1955)129-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Nagy J\'anos.$^{2}$$^{+}$: {\it VIZSG\'ALATOK B5/ALFA, N/N7 ATOMMAG\'ATALAKUL\'ASOK GERJESZT\'ESI F\"UGGV\'ENY\'ERE VONATKOZOLAG.} MTA Matematika Fizika Tudom\'anyok Oszt\'aly\'anak K\"ozlem\'enyei{ \bf 5} (1955)199-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Nagy Z.$^{2}$: {\it G\'AZKOROM KIS MENNYIS\'EG\"U BORTARTALM\'ANAK MEGHAT\'AROZ\'ASA SZAKASZOS /SZUKSZESZIV/ HOZZ\'AAD\'ASSAL.} Magyar K\'emiai Foly\'oirat{ \bf 61} (1955)351-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Szalay S.$^{2}$$^{+}$: {\it SZOVJET KUTAT\'ASOK AZ ATOMENERGIA B\'EK\'ES FELHASZN\'AL\'ASA IR\'ANY\'ABAN.} Akad\'emiai \'Ertesit\"o{ \bf 62} (1955)340-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\item Szalay S.$^{2}$$^{+}$, Ber\'enyi D. Id.$^{3}$: {\it SZOKATLAN R\'ADIOAKTIVIT\'AS MEGFIGYEL\'ESE A DEBRECENBEN 1952. \'APRILIS 22.-1953. DECEMBER 31. K\"OZ\"OTT LEESETT CSAPAD\'EKBAN.} MTA Matematika Fizika Tudom\'anyok Oszt\'aly\'anak K\"ozlem\'enyei{ \bf 5} (1955)89-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
\\ {Hivatkoz\'asok:}
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\item Kov\'acs I.$^{3}$,...: $^{\rm SCI}$Acta Physica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae {\bf 29} (1970)399.
\end{list}
\item Ujhelyi Cs.$^{2}$$^{+}$: {\it SZENEKBEN EL\"OFORDULO KIS MENNYIS\'EG\"U UR\'AN MEGHAT\'AROZ\'ASA.} Magyar K\'emiai Foly\'oirat{ \bf 61} (1955)437-X./ 0.000$^{ 0}$
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\begin{center}
\vskip 1cm{\LARGE\bf
The Asymptotics of Factorials, Binomial \\
\vskip .1in
Coefficients and Catalan Numbers
}
\vskip 1cm
\large
David A. Kessler\\
Department of Physics\\
Bar-Ilan University \\
Ramat Gan, 5290002\\
Israel \\
\href{mailto:[email protected]}{\tt [email protected]} \\
\ \\
Jeremy Schiff \\
Department of Mathematics\\
Bar-Ilan University \\
Ramat Gan, 5290002\\
Israel \\
\href{mailto:[email protected]}{\tt [email protected]}
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\begin{abstract}
We present a variety of not-well-known asymptotic series for
factorials, binomial coefficients and Catalan numbers, all
having only even or odd powers. We discuss the significance of this property
in terms of the asymptotic evenness or oddness of the underlying quantities.
\end{abstract}
\section{\label{sec1}Introduction and statement of results}
Probably the best-known asymptotic series in existence is Stirling's series for $n!$ \cite[Equation \dlmfeq{5.11}{3}]{DLMF}:
\begin{equation}
n! \sim \sqrt{2\pi}n^{n+\frac12}e^{-n}\left( 1 +
\frac1{12n}+\frac1{288n^2}-\frac{139}{51840n^3}-\frac{571}{2488320n^4} +
\cdots \right). \label{nf}
\end{equation}
There is no simple explicit formula for the coefficients in this series, but
the more fundamental object is the corresponding series for $\ln n!$ \cite[Equation \dlmfeq{5.11}{1}]{DLMF}, which takes the form
\begin{equation}
\ln n! \sim \ln\left( \sqrt{2\pi}n^{n+\frac12}e^{-n} \right)
+ \sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{B_{2i}}{2i(2i-1)n^{2i-1}},
\label{lnnf}
\end{equation}
where $B_i$ denotes the $i$th Bernoulli number.
Note the sum in Eq.~(\ref{lnnf}) involves only odd powers of $n$, making it easier
to use than Eq.~(\ref{nf}). Stirling's series can be used to derive asymptotic series for many
functions related to the factorial, such as the central binomial coefficients
\begin{equation}
{\rm CBC}(n) = {2n \choose n}
\sim
\frac{4^n}{\sqrt{\pi n}}\left(
1 -\frac1{8n} + \frac1{128n^2} + \frac5{1024n^3} - \frac{21}{32768n^4}
+ \cdots \right),
\end{equation}
and the Catalan numbers \cite[Section 7.2.1.6, Formula (16)]{2},
\begin{equation}
{\rm Cat}(n) = \frac{(2n)!}{n!(n+1)!}
\sim
\frac{4^n}{\sqrt{\pi n^3}}\left(
1 -\frac9{8n} + \frac{145}{128n^2} - \frac{1155}{1024n^3} + \frac{36939}{32768n^4}
+ \cdots \right).
\end{equation}
We note that
as a direct result of the ``odd powers only'' series for $\ln n!$ there is also an
``odd powers only'' series for $\ln {\rm CBC}(n)$
\begin{equation}
\ln {\rm CBC}(n) \sim \ln\left(\frac{4^n}{\sqrt{\pi n}} \right)
+ \sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{B_{2i}}{i(2i-1)n^{2i-1}}\left(\frac1{2^{2i}}-1\right)
\label{lnCBC1}.
\end{equation}
The aim of this paper is to present a variety of alternative asymptotic
series to the standard ones just presented, and some generalizations,
including some very surprising results
which have barely appeared in the literature.
For example, it turns out that when the central binomial coefficients
are expanded in powers of $n+\frac14$, and when the Catalan numbers are expanded
in powers of $n+\frac34$, they have asymptotic expansions involving only even powers, viz.:
\begin{align}
{\rm CBC}(n)
&\sim
\frac{4^n}{\sqrt{\pi \left(n+\frac14\right)}}
\left(
1 - \frac{1}{64\left(n+\frac14\right)^2} + \frac{21}{8192\left(n+\frac14\right)^4}
-\frac{671}{524288\left(n+\frac14\right)^6}
+ \cdots \right) \label{CBC}\\
{\rm Cat}(n)
&\sim
\frac{4^n}{\sqrt{\pi \left(n+\frac34\right)^3}}\left(
1 + \frac{5}{64\left(n+\frac34\right)^2} + \frac{21}{8192\left(n+\frac34\right)^4}
+\frac{715}{524288\left(n+\frac34\right)^6}
+ \cdots \right) \label{Cat}
\end{align}
Each of these results is remarkable in its own right: There would seem, {\em ab initio},
to be no good reason to expand
the central binomial coefficients in terms of $n+\frac14$ and the Catalan numbers
in terms of $n+\frac34$. But the results are even more outlandish in juxtaposition:
the $n$th Catalan number is just the $n$th central binomial coefficient divided by $n+1$.
But, somehow, this act of division morphs a series involving only even powers of
$n+\frac14$ into one involving only even powers of $n+\frac34$.
Using the formulae
$$ {\rm CBC}(n) = \frac{4^n \Gamma(n+\frac12)}{\sqrt{\pi} \Gamma(n+2)}, \qquad
{\rm Cat}(n) = \frac{4^n \Gamma(n+\frac12)}{\sqrt{\pi} \Gamma(n+1)}, $$
the series (\ref{CBC}) and (\ref{Cat}) can be obtained as special cases of an asymptotic expansion in even powers
of the ratio of two gamma functions obtained by Fields \cite{3} and mentioned in the book of Luke \cite[Section 2.11, Equation (14)]{4}
and in the DLMF \cite[Subsection \dlmfsec{5.11}]{DLMF}.
However, given the importance of central binomial coefficients, and, in particular, the Catalan
numbers \cite{5}, the series (\ref{CBC}) and (\ref{Cat}) merit being better known in their own right.
We thank P. Luschny for the observations in this paragraph, bringing references \cite{3} and \cite{4} to
our attention, and publicizing the series (\ref{CBC}) and (\ref{Cat}) on the website \cite{6}.
There are corresponding series for $\ln{\rm CBC}(n)$ and $\ln{\rm Cat}(n)$ for which
there are explicit expressions for the coefficients, viz.:
\begin{align}
\ln{\rm CBC}(n) &\sim \ln\left( \frac{4^n}{\sqrt{\pi \left(n+\frac14\right)}} \right)
+ \sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{E_{2i}}{4^{2i+1}i\left(n+\frac14\right)^{2i}} \label{lnCBC2} \\
&= \ln\left( \frac{4^n}{\sqrt{\pi \left(n+\frac14\right)}} \right)
- \frac{1}{64\left(n+\frac14\right)^2}
+ \frac{5}{2048\left(n+\frac14\right)^4}
- \frac{61}{49152\left(n+\frac14\right)^6} + \cdots ; \nonumber \\
\ln {\rm Cat}(n) &\sim
\ln\left( \frac{4^n \sqrt{n+\frac34} }{\sqrt{\pi} \left(n+\frac12 \right) (n+1)} \right)
- \sum_{i=1}^\infty\frac{E_{2i}}{4^{2i+1}i\left(n+\frac34\right)^{2i}} \label{lnCat}\\
&=
\ln\left( \frac{4^n \sqrt{n+\frac34} }{\sqrt{\pi} \left(n+\frac12 \right) (n+1)} \right)
+ \frac{1}{64\left(n+\frac34\right)^2}
- \frac{5}{2048\left(n+\frac34\right)^4} \nonumber \\
& \quad + \frac{61}{49152\left(n+\frac34\right)^6} + \cdots , \nonumber
\end{align}
where $E_i$ denotes the $i$th Euler number.
There are several well-known variations on the original Stirling series, for example
the convergent version of Stirling's series \cite{1a} and the Lanczos approximation \cite{7,8,9}.
Another often overlooked series is the expansion of $\ln n!$ in powers
of $n+\frac12$. Of course, any asymptotic expansion in (negative) powers of $n$
can be rewritten as an asymptotic expansion in powers of $n+a$ for any constant
$a$. The remarkable fact about the expansion of $\ln n!$ in powers
of $n+\frac12$ is that like the standard expansion (\ref{lnnf}), it only contains
odd powers of $n+\frac12$. Explicitly, we have
\begin{equation}
\ln n!
\sim
\ln\left( \sqrt{2\pi }\left(n+\frac12\right)^{n+\frac12}e^{-n-\frac12} \right)
+ \sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{B_{2i}}{2i(2i-1)\left(n+\frac12\right)^{2i-1}}
\left( \frac1{2^{2i-1}} - 1 \right) .
\label{lnnf2}
\end{equation}
Writing
$$ \ln{\rm CBC}(n) = \ln \left((2n+1)!\right) - \ln (2n+1) - 2 \ln\left( n! \right), $$
and using the series (\ref{lnnf}) to expand the $\ln \left((2n+1)!\right)$ factor and
the series (\ref{lnnf2}) to expand the $\ln\left( n! \right)$ factor,
gives an
``odd powers only'' series for $\ln{\rm CBC}(n)$ in powers of $n+\frac12$:
\begin{equation}
\ln{\rm CBC}(n) \sim
\ln\left(\frac{4^n}{\sqrt{\pi \left(n+\frac12\right)}} \right)
+ \sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{B_{2i}}{i(2i-1)\left(n+\frac12\right)^{2i-1}}
\left(1-\frac1{2^{2i}}\right).
\label{lnCBC3}\end{equation}
This is the third different series we have seen for $\ln{\rm CBC}(n)$;
Eq.~(\ref{lnCBC1}) and Eq.~(\ref{lnCBC3})
have only odd powers and Eq.~(\ref{lnCBC2}) has only even powers. As we shall see in the sequel,
the fact the coefficients in the two ``odd powers only'' series (\ref{lnCBC1}) and (\ref{lnCBC3})
are ``opposite and equal'' gives rise to the existence of the ``even powers only''
series (\ref{lnCBC2}). Other binomial coefficients also have asymptotic expansions
with only odd powers. We will show that for any integer $m$
\begin{equation}
\ln {2n \choose n+m} \sim
\ln\left( \frac{4^n}{\sqrt{\pi\left(n+\frac12\right)}} \right) +
\sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{2^{-2i}B_{2i}+B_{2i}(m)-2^{1-2i}B_{2i}(2m)}{i(2i-1)\left(n+\frac12\right)^{2i-1}}\
\label{evenbc} \end{equation}
and
\begin{equation}
\ln {2n-1 \choose n+m } \sim
\ln\left( \frac{2^{2n-1}(n-m)}{\sqrt{\pi n}(n+m) } \right) +
\sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{2^{-2i}B_{2i}-B_{2i}(m)}{i(2i-1)n^{2i-1}},
\label{oddbc} \end{equation}
where $B_j(x)$ denotes the $j$th Bernoulli polynomial \cite[Section \dlmfsec{24}]{DLMF}. The series (\ref{lnCBC3}) is obtained from
the case $m=0$ of (\ref{evenbc}) using the result $ B_j(0) = B_j$.
Having stated our main results (the series (\ref{CBC})--(\ref{oddbc})),
the rest of this paper proceeds as follows: in Section \ref{sec2} we discuss what it means when
an asymptotic series has only odd or only even terms, and show how to prove the existence of
such series. In Section \ref{sec3}
we present proofs of the explicit forms of the various ``odd powers only'' results listed above.
In Section \ref{sec4} we do the same for the ``even powers only'' series, including a generalization.
Throughout the continuation of this paper we extend the factorial, CBC
and Cat functions beyond integer values by replacing $n!$ by $\Gamma(n+1)$, and defining
$$ {\rm CBC}(n)= \frac{\Gamma(2n+1)}{\Gamma(n+1)^2} , \qquad
{\rm Cat}(n)= \frac{\Gamma(2n+1)}{\Gamma(n+1)\Gamma(n+2)}.
$$
Whenever necessary (for the definition of $\ln$ and fractional powers) we use a branch cut
along the negative real axis in the complex $n$-plane. All the series we have given above
are valid in any sector of the complex $n$ plane with ${\rm arg}(n)$ bounded away from $\pi$.
\section{\label{sec2}What does it mean for an asymptotic series to have only odd or only even powers?}
The fact that the standard series (\ref{lnCBC1}) for $\ln\Gamma(n+1)$ has only odd powers is usually
thought of as related to the fact that all the odd Bernoulli numbers vanish except
$B_1=-\frac12$. But in fact it is a statement about the function $\ln\Gamma(n+1)$. If the Taylor
or Laurent series
of a function consists of only even or only odd powers, then the function must be even or odd.
Similarly,
if the asymptotic series of a function consists of only even or only odd powers, then the function
must be even or odd, modulo exponentially small terms. Thus the absence of even powers in the series
in Eq.~(\ref{lnnf}) indicates that the function
$$ f(n) = \ln\left( \frac{ \Gamma(n+1)e^n}{\sqrt{2\pi}n^{n+\frac12} } \right)
$$
is odd modulo exponentially small terms, i.e., that $f(n)+f(-n)$ is exponentially small, at least
whenever the asymptotic series for $f(n)$ and $f(-n)$ are valid (which in this case means in any sector
of the complex plane with ${\rm arg}(n)$ bounded away from $0$ and $\pi$). To check this is straightforward:
because of the choice of branch cut along the negative real axis, for ${\rm Im}(n)>0$ we have $(-n)^{-n+\frac12}
=e^{i\pi\left(n-\frac12\right)}n^{-n+\frac12}$, and thus
\begin{align*}
f(n)+f(-n)
&=
\ln\left( \frac{ \Gamma(n+1)\Gamma(1-n)}{2\pi n e^{i\pi\left(n-\frac12\right)} } \right) \\
&=
\ln\left( \frac{ \Gamma(n)\Gamma(1-n)}{2\pi e^{i\pi\left(n-\frac12\right)} } \right) \qquad
{\rm (using~} \Gamma(n+1)=n\Gamma(n)) \\
&= - \ln\left( 2 e^{i\pi\left(n-\frac12\right)} \sin\pi n \right) \quad
{\rm (using~} \Gamma(n)\Gamma(1-n)=\frac{\pi}{\sin\pi n}) \\
&= - \ln\left(1-e^{2\pi i n}\right),
\end{align*}
which is exponentially small if ${\rm Im}(n)>0$.
As further examples of this technique we have the following:
\begin{theorem}\label{th1} \leavevmode
\begin{itemize}
\item[(a)] For every integer $m$, the quantity
$\ln\left( \frac{\sqrt{\pi\left(n+\frac12\right)}}
{4^n} {2n \choose n+m}\right)$
has an asymptotic expansion involving only odd powers of $n+\frac12$. (See (\ref{evenbc}).)
\item[(b)] For every integer $m$, the quantity
$\ln\left( \frac{\sqrt{\pi n}}
{2^{2n-1}} \frac{n+m}{n-m} {2n-1 \choose n+m}\right)$
has an asymptotic expansion involving only odd powers of $n$. (See (\ref{oddbc}).)
\item[(c)] For every integer $k$, the quantity
$\ln \left( \frac{\sqrt{\pi} \left(n+\frac14+\frac{k}{2}\right)^{k+\frac12}}{4^n}
\frac{(2n)!}{n!(n+k)!} \right)$
has an asymptotic expansion involving only even powers of $n+\frac14+\frac{k}{2}$. (The special
case $k=0$ gives the series (\ref{lnCBC2}). The special case $k=1$ gives the series (\ref{lnCat}). Since
the property of being an even series is preserved under exponentiation, these in turn give rise
to the even series (\ref{CBC}) and (\ref{Cat}).)
\end{itemize}
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
The proofs of (a) and (b) are similar so we omit (b).
\begin{itemize}
\item[(a)] Here we want to show that
$$ f(n) = \ln\left( \frac{\sqrt{\pi\left(n+\frac12\right)}}
{4^n} \frac{\Gamma(2n+1)}{\Gamma(n+m+1)\Gamma(n-m+1)} \right) $$
is ``almost odd'' as a function of $n+\frac12$. Define
$$ g(n) = f\left(n-\frac12\right) =
\ln\left( \frac{\sqrt{\pi n}}
{4^{n-\frac12}} \frac{\Gamma(2n)}{\Gamma\left(n+m+\frac12\right)\Gamma\left(n-m+\frac12\right)}
\right). $$
For ${\rm Im}(n)>0$ we then have
\begin{align*}
g(n)+g(-n) &=
\ln\left(
\frac{-4i \pi n\Gamma(2n)\Gamma(-2n)}
{\Gamma\left(n+m+\frac12\right)\Gamma\left(n-m+\frac12\right)\Gamma\left(-n+m+\frac12\right)\Gamma\left(-n-m+\frac12\right)}
\right)
\\
&= \ln\left( \frac{2i\sin\left(\left(n+m+\frac12\right)\pi \right) \sin\left(\left(n-m+\frac12\right)\pi \right)
}{\sin 2n\pi} \right) \\
& \quad {\rm (using~the~reflection~formula~3~times)} \\
&= \ln\left( \frac{2i\cos^2 (n\pi) }{\sin 2n\pi} \right) \\
&= \ln\left( \frac{1+e^{2in\pi} }{1-e^{2in\pi}} \right),
\end{align*}
and the latter is exponentially small.
\item[(c)] Here we want to show that
$$ f(n) =
\ln \left( \frac{\sqrt{\pi} \left(n+\frac14+\frac{k}{2}\right)^{k+\frac12}}{4^n}
\frac{\Gamma(2n+1)}{\Gamma(n+1)\Gamma(n+k+1)} \right)
$$
is ``almost even'' as a function of $n+\frac14+\frac{k}{2}$. The calculation is simplified
if we first exploit the duplication formula for the gamma function
$\Gamma(2z) = \frac1{\sqrt{\pi}}2^{2z-1} \Gamma(z)\Gamma\left(z+\frac12\right)$
to write $\frac{\sqrt\pi}{4^n}\frac{\Gamma(2n+1)}{\Gamma(n+1)}
=\Gamma\left(n+\frac12\right)$. Then
we have the simplified formula
$$ f(n) =
\ln \left( \left(n+\frac14+\frac{k}{2}\right)^{k+\frac12}
\frac{\Gamma\left(n+\frac12\right)}{\Gamma(n+k+1)} \right).
$$
Define
$$ g(n) = f\left(n-\frac14-\frac{k}{2}\right) =
\ln\left( n^{k+\frac12} \frac{\Gamma\left(n+\frac14-\frac{k}{2}\right)}{\Gamma\left(n+\frac34+\frac{k}{2}\right)}
\right). $$
For ${\rm Im}(n)>0$ we have
\begin{align*}
g(n)-g(-n) &=
\ln\left( e^{i\pi\left(k+\frac12\right)}
\frac{\Gamma\left(n+\frac14-\frac{k}{2}\right)\Gamma\left(-n+\frac34+\frac{k}{2}\right)}
{\Gamma\left(n+\frac34+\frac{k}{2}\right)\Gamma\left(-n+\frac14-\frac{k}{2}\right)}
\right) \\
&=
\ln\left( e^{i\pi\left(k+\frac12\right)}
\frac{\sin\left(\pi\left(n+\frac34+\frac{k}{2}\right)\right)}
{\sin\left(\pi\left(n+\frac14-\frac{k}{2}\right)\right)}
\right) \quad {\rm (using~the~reflection~formula~twice)} \\
&= \ln\left(
\frac{1-qe^{2 \pi i n}}{1-q^{-1}e^{2\pi in}} \right),
\end{align*}
where $q=e^{i\pi\left(k+\frac32\right)}$. The answer is clearly exponentially small.
\end{itemize}
\end{proof}
It should be emphasized that in all the calculations above we assume that ${\rm arg}(n)$ is bounded away from
$0$ and $\pi$. As the real axis is approached the functions will no longer exhibit ``almost odd''
or ``almost even'' behavior (there are singularities on the negative real axis).
The technique we have used in the theorem is sufficient to prove the absence of odd
or even terms in all of the series given in the introduction. But the technique
does not give explicit expressions for the coefficients. This requires
some further calculations and we now turn to these.
\section{\label{sec3}Some series with only odd powers}
\begin{proof}[\it Proof of (\ref{lnnf2}).]
The proof of the alternative series (\ref{lnnf2}) for $\ln n!$ is very simple.
From the duplication formula for the gamma function we have
$$ \Gamma(n+1) = \frac{\sqrt\pi}{2^{2n+1}}\frac{\Gamma\left(2\left(n+\frac12\right)+1\right)}
{\Gamma\left(\left(n+\frac12\right)+1\right)}.$$
Applying the logarithm to both sides and using
the standard series for $\ln\Gamma(z+1)$ twice on the right clearly yields a series
for $\Gamma(n+1)$ in powers of $n+\frac12$, which is precisely (\ref{lnnf2}).
The series can also be obtained directly. We
recall that the standard series for $\ln n!$ can be obtained from the Euler-Maclaurin
summation formula \cite[Section 14, Equation (18)]{13}
$$ \sum_{i=1}^n f(i) \sim
\int^n f(x) dx + C + \frac12 f(n) +
\sum_{j=1}^\infty \frac{B_{2j}}{(2j)!} f^{(2j-1)}(n) , $$
by setting $f(x)=\ln x$. The alternative series can be obtained from the ``midpoint
version'' of the Euler-Maclaurin summation formula \cite[Section 14, Equation (19)]{13}
$$ \sum_{i=1}^n f(i) \sim
\int^{n+\frac12} f(x) dx + C' +
\sum_{j=1}^\infty \frac{B_{2j}\left(\frac12\right)}{(2j)!} f^{(2j-1)}\left(n+\frac12\right)
. $$
Note that $B_{2j}\left(\frac12\right)=B_{2j}\left(2^{1-2j}-1\right)$ \cite[Equation \dlmfeq{24.4}{27}]{DLMF}.
\end{proof}
\begin{proof}[{\it Proof of (\ref{evenbc}) and (\ref{oddbc}).}]
The proofs of (\ref{evenbc}) and (\ref{oddbc}) are similar, so we give full details just
for the latter, and an outline for the former.
We start the proof of (\ref{oddbc}) by writing
\begin{equation}
\ln { 2n-1 \choose n+m} =
\ln\left( \frac{n-m}{2n} \frac{(2n)!}{(n+m)!(n-m)!}
\right).
\label{thing}\end{equation}
We now apply the standard expansion (\ref{lnnf}) of $\ln z!$ to this expression 3 times.
Each application gives a ln term (the leading order term) and an infinite series.
Ignoring the three infinite series for now gives the leading order term
\begin{align*}
&
\ln\left(
\frac1{\sqrt{2\pi}}
\frac{n-m}{2n} \frac{(2n)^{2n+\frac12}}{(n+m)^{n+m+\frac12}(n-m)^{n-m+\frac12}}
\right)
\\
&=
\ln\left(\frac{2^{2n-1}}{\sqrt{\pi n}} \frac{n-m}{n+m} \right) +
\ln\left(
\frac1
{\left(1+\frac{m}{n}\right)^{n+m-\frac12}\left(1-\frac{m}{n}\right)^{n-m+\frac12}}
\right)
\\
&=
\ln\left(\frac{2^{2n-1}}{\sqrt{\pi n}}\right)
- \left(n+m-\frac12\right) \ln\left(1+\frac{m}{n}\right)
- \left(n-m+\frac12\right) \ln\left(1-\frac{m}{n}\right).
\end{align*}
Using the Taylor series $\ln(1+x)=\sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{(-1)^{i-1}}{i}x^i$
to expand the logarithms in the second and third terms, we find the leading
order term of (\ref{thing}) is
\begin{equation}
\ln\left(\frac{2^{2n-1}}{\sqrt{\pi n}} \frac{n-m}{n+m}\right)
+ \sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{m^{2i-1}(i-m)}{i(2i-1)n^{2i-1}}.
\label{cont1}\end{equation}
We now have to incorporate the correction terms (the infinite series coming
from the 3 applications of (\ref{lnnf}) to (\ref{thing})). These are
\begin{align*}
& \sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{B_{2i}}{2i(2i-1)}
\left(
\frac1{(2n)^{2i-1}} - \frac1{(n+m)^{2i-1}} - \frac1{(n-m)^{2i-1}}
\right)
\\
&= \sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{B_{2i}}{2i(2i-1)n^{2i-1}}
\left(
\frac1{2^{2i-1}} - \left(1+\frac{m}{n}\right)^{1-2i} - \left(1-\frac{m}{n}\right)^{1-2i}
\right).
\end{align*}
Using the binomial theorem ${(1+x)^{1-2i}=\sum_{r=0}^\infty{2i-2+r\choose r}(-x)^r}$
twice and rearranging the sums, this can be written
\begin{align}
& \sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{B_{2i}}{2i(2i-1)(2n)^{2i-1}}
- \sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{B_{2i}}{2i(2i-1)n^{2i-1}} \sum_{r=0}^\infty{2i-2+r\choose r}\left( \left(-\frac{m}{n}\right)^r + \left(\frac{m}{n}\right)^r \right)
\nonumber \\
&= \sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{B_{2i}}{i(2i-1)(2n)^{2i-1}}
- \sum_{i=1}^\infty\sum_{s=0}^\infty \frac{B_{2i}}{i(2i-1)n^{2i-1}} \frac{(2i-2+2s)!}{(2i-2)!(2s)!} \left(\frac{m}{n}\right)^{2s} \nonumber \\
&= \sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{B_{2i}}{2i(2i-1)(2n)^{2i-1}}
- \sum_{j=1}^\infty\sum_{i=0}^{j} \frac{2 (2j-2)! B_{2i} m^{2(j-i)}}{(2i)! (2(j-i))! n^{2j-1}} \nonumber \\
&= \sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{B_{2i}}{2i(2i-1)(2n)^{2i-1}}
- \sum_{i=1}^\infty\sum_{j=0}^{i} \frac{(2i)! B_{2j} m^{2(i-j)}}{i(2i-1) (2j)! (2(i-j))! n^{2i-1}} \nonumber \\
&= \sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{1}{i(2i-1)n^{2i-1}} \left( \frac{B_{2i}}{2^{2i}}
- \sum_{j=0}^{i} {{2i}\choose{2j}} B_{2j} m^{2(i-j)} \right). \label{cont2}
\end{align}
Here between the first and second line in the double sum we have replaced $r$ by $2s$ as only even values of $r$ contribute; between
the second and the third line we have replaced the index $s$ with a new index $j=i+s$; and between the third and fourth
lines we have switched the indices $i$ and $j$.
Combining the dominant terms (\ref{cont1}) and the correction terms (\ref{cont2}) we have
\begin{align*}
\ln { 2n-1 \choose n+m } &\sim
\ln\left(\frac{2^{2n-1}}{\sqrt{\pi n}} \frac{n-m}{n+m} \right) \\
&\quad +
\sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{1}{i(2i-1)n^{2i-1}}
\left( (i-m)m^{2i-1} +
\frac{B_{2i}}{2^{2i}} - \sum_{j=1}^i B_{2j}{2i\choose 2j}m^{2(i-j)}
\right).
\end{align*}
At this stage we observe that since $B_0=1$, $B_1=-\frac12$ and all the other
odd Bernoulli numbers vanish,
$$
\sum_{k=0}^{2i} B_k{2i\choose k}m^{2i-k}
=
m^{2i} - im^{2i-1} +
\sum_{j=1}^i B_{2j}{2i\choose 2j}m^{2(i-j)},
$$
and thus our result so far can be written in the simpler form
$$
\ln { 2n-1 \choose n+m } \sim
\ln\left(\frac{2^{2n-1}}{\sqrt{\pi n}} \frac{n-m}{n+m} \right)
+
\sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{1}{i(2i-1)n^{2i-1}}
\left(
\frac{B_{2i}}{2^{2i}} - \sum_{k=0}^{2i} B_k{2i\choose k}m^{2i-k}
\right).
$$
To obtain the final result (\ref{oddbc}) it just remains to use the standard fact
about the Bernoulli polynomials \cite[Equation \dlmfeq{24.2}{5}]{DLMF}
$$ B_s(x) = \sum_{k=0}^s {s\choose k} B_k x^{s-k}. $$
For the proof of (\ref{evenbc})
we start by writing
$$ \ln { 2n \choose n+m} =
\ln\left(\frac1{2n+1} \frac{\left(2\left(n+\frac12\right)\right)!}{(n+m)!(n-m)!}
\right),
$$
but we now expand the factorial in the numerator using the standard series (\ref{lnnf})
and the factorials in the denominator using the alternative series (\ref{lnnf2}).
The leading order terms become
$$
\ln\left(\frac{4^{n}}{\sqrt{\pi \left(n+\frac12\right)}}\right) +
\ln\left(
\frac1
{\left(1+\frac{m}{n+\frac12}\right)^{n+\frac12+m}\left(1-\frac{m}{n+\frac12}\right)^{n+\frac12-m}}
\right),$$
and the correction terms become
$$
\sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{B_{2i}}{2i(2i-1) \left(n+\frac12\right)^{2i-1}}
\left(
\frac1{2^{2i-1}}
- \frac{\frac1{2^{2i-1}}-1}{(1+\frac{m}{n+\frac12})^{2i-1}}
- \frac{\frac1{2^{2i-1}}-1}{(1-\frac{m}{n+\frac12})^{2i-1}}
\right).
$$
Both of these expressions are easily expanded in inverse powers of $n+\frac12$
and combined to give (\ref{evenbc}).
\end{proof}
A final comment in this section concerns the existence of two odd-power expansions for
$\ln{\rm CBC}(n)$, Equations (\ref{lnCBC1}) and (\ref{lnCBC3}). The coefficients in the series
are ``opposite and equal''. Denoting the series (of odd powers) in (\ref{lnCBC1}) by $s(n)$ we
have
$$
\ln {\rm CBC}(n) \sim \ln\left(\frac{4^n}{\sqrt{\pi n}} \right)
+ s(n) , \quad
\ln{\rm CBC}(n) \sim
\ln\left(\frac{4^n}{\sqrt{\pi \left(n+\frac12\right)}} \right)
- s\left(n+\frac12\right).
$$
Averaging these two results gives
\begin{align*}
\ln {\rm CBC}(n)
&\sim \ln\left(\frac{4^n}{\sqrt{\pi} \left(n\left(n+\frac12\right)\right)^{\frac14}} \right)
+ \frac12 \left( s(n)- s\left(n+\frac12\right) \right) \\
&\sim \ln\left(\frac{4^n}{\sqrt{\pi} \left(n\left(n+\frac12\right)\right)^{\frac14}} \right)
- \frac12\left( s(-n)+s\left(n+\frac12\right) \right) \\
&\sim \ln\left(\frac{4^n}{\sqrt{\pi} \left(n\left(n+\frac12\right)\right)^{\frac14}} \right)
- \frac12\left( s\left(\frac14-\left(n+\frac14\right)\right)+ s\left(\frac14+\left(n+\frac14\right) \right)
\right).
\end{align*}
The last expression is evidently an even function of $n+\frac14$. Thus we see there is
a direct connection between the existence of two ``opposite and equal'' odd power series
for $\ln {\rm CBC}(n)$ and the even power series for $\ln {\rm CBC}(n)$.
\section{\label{sec4}Some series with only even powers}
The remaining results from the introduction that need to be explained are the explicit
forms of the coefficients in the even power series for $\ln{\rm CBC}(n)$ and
$\ln{\rm Cat}(n)$, (\ref{lnCBC2}) and (\ref{lnCat}).
In greater generality, part (c) of Theorem \ref{th1}
stated that for any integer $k$ the quantity
$$\ln \left( \frac{\sqrt{\pi} \left(n+\frac14+\frac{k}{2}\right)^{k+\frac12}}{4^n}
\frac{(2n)!}{n!(n+k)!} \right)$$
has an asymptotic expansion involving only even powers of $n+\frac14+\frac{k}{2}$.
We now show the following:
\begin{theorem}\label{th2}
For any integer $k$
\begin{equation}
\ln \left( \frac{(2n)!}{n!(n+k)!} \right) \sim
\ln \left( \frac{4^n}{\sqrt{\pi} \left(n+\frac14+\frac{k}{2}\right)^{k+\frac12}}\right)
- \sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac1{i(2i+1)
\left(n+\frac14+\frac{k}{2} \right)^{2i}} B_{2i+1}\left( \frac14-\frac{k}{2} \right),
\end{equation}
where $B_j(x)$ denotes the $j$th Bernoulli polynomial. The series (\ref{lnCBC2})
is obtained from the case $k=0$ using the result \cite[Equations \dlmfeq{24.4}{31} and \dlmfeq{24.2}{7}]{DLMF}
$$ B_{2i+1}\left(\frac14\right) = - \frac{(2i+1)E_{2i}}{4^{2i+1}} , \qquad i=1,2,\ldots . $$
The series (\ref{lnCat}) is obtained from the case $k=1$ using the result \cite[Equations \dlmfeq{24.4}{3} and \dlmfeq{24.4}{31}]{DLMF}
$$
B_{2i+1}\left(-\frac14\right) = \frac{(2i+1)(E_{2i}-4)}{4^{2i+1}} , \qquad i=1,2,\ldots
$$
and the Taylor series for $\ln\left(\frac{1+x}{1-x}\right)$.
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
As in the proof of part (c) of Theorem \ref{th1} we write
$$ f(n) =
\ln \left( \frac{\sqrt{\pi} \left(n+\frac14+\frac{k}{2}\right)^{k+\frac12}}{4^n}
\frac{(2n)!}{n!(n+k)!} \right) $$
and $g(n)=f\left(n-\frac14-\frac{k}{2}\right)$. Our task is to compute the
asymptotic expansion of $g(n)$ in inverse powers of $n$. As before we obtain
$$ g(n) =
\ln\left( n^{k+\frac12} \frac{\Gamma\left(n+\frac14-\frac{k}{2}\right)}{\Gamma\left(n+\frac34+\frac{k}{2}\right)}
\right). $$
Writing $x=\frac14-\frac{k}{2}$ we now proceed as in the proofs given in Section \ref{sec3}:
\begin{align*}
g(n) &=
\left(1-2x\right)\ln n +
\ln \Gamma\left(n+x\right) - \ln \Gamma\left(n+1-x\right) \\
&\sim
\left(1-2x\right)\ln n +
\left(n+x-\frac12\right)\ln \left(n+x-1\right) -
\left(n+\frac12-x\right)\ln \left(n-x\right) \\
&\quad + (1-2x) + \sum_{j=1}^{\infty}\frac{B_{2j}}{2j(2j-1)}
\left( \frac1{\left(n+x-1\right)^{2j-1}} - \frac1{\left(n-x\right)^{2j-1}} \right) \\
&=
n \left( \ln \left(1+\frac{x-1}{n}\right) - \ln \left(1-\frac{x}{n}\right) \right) \\
&\quad +\left(x-\frac12 \right) \left( \ln \left(1+\frac{x-1}{n}\right) + \ln \left(1-\frac{x}{n}\right) \right) +(1-2x) \\
&\quad + \sum_{j=1}^{\infty}\frac{B_{2j}}{2j(2j-1)n^{2j-1}} \left( \left(1+\frac{x-1}{n}\right)^{-2j+1} - \left(1-\frac{x}{n}\right)^{-2j+1} \right) \\
&= n \sum_{r=1}^\infty \frac{(-1)^{r+1}}{r} \left( \left(\frac{x-1}{n}\right)^r - \left(\frac{-x}{n}\right)^r \right) \\
&\quad + \left(x-\frac12 \right) \sum_{r=1}^\infty \frac{(-1)^{r+1}}{r} \left( \left(\frac{x-1}{n}\right)^r + \left(\frac{-x}{n}\right)^r \right) +(1-2x) \\
&\quad + \sum_{j=1}^{\infty}\frac{B_{2j}}{2j(2j-1)n^{2j-1}} \sum_{r=0}^\infty (-1)^r \frac{(2j+r-2)!}{(2j-2)!r!}
\left( \left(\frac{x-1}{n}\right)^r - \left(\frac{-x}{n}\right)^r \right) \\
&= \sum_{r=2}^\infty \frac{(-1)^{r+1}}{rn^{r-1}} \left( (x-1)^r - (-x)^r \right)
+ \left(x-\frac12 \right) \sum_{r=1}^\infty \frac{(-1)^{r+1}}{rn^r} \left( (x-1)^r + (-x)^r \right) \\
&\quad + \sum_{j=1}^{\infty} \sum_{r=0}^\infty \frac{(-1)^r B_{2j}}{n^{2j+r-1}} \frac{(2j+r-2)!}{(2j)!r!} \left( (x-1)^r - (-x)^r \right).
\end{align*}
Since $B_i=0$ for $i$ odd and greater than $1$, we can rewrite the sum on the last line as
\begin{align}
& \sum_{k=2}^{\infty} \sum_{r=0}^\infty \frac{(-1)^r B_{k}}{n^{k+r-1}} \frac{(k+r-2)!}{k!r!} \left( (x-1)^r - (-x)^r \right) \nonumber \\
&= \sum_{s=1}^\infty \sum_{k=2}^{s+1} \frac{ B_{k}}{n^s} \frac{(s-1)!}{k!(s+1-k)!} \left( (1-x)^{s+1-k} - x^{s+1-k} \right). \label{dc2}
\end{align}
where in the double sum we have replaced summation over $r$ by summation over $s=k+r-1$.
Furthermore, recalling that $B_0=1$, $B_1=-\frac12$,
a straightforward but rather lengthy manipulation of the terms on the penultimate line of the calculation of $g(n)$ shows that they
are exactly the terms required to increase the range of summation over $k$ in (\ref{dc2}) to start from $0$. Thus we obtain
\begin{align*}
g(n) &\sim \sum_{s=1}^\infty \frac{1}{s(s+1)n^s} \sum_{k=0}^{s+1} {s+1\choose k} B_k \left( (1-x)^{s+1-k} - x^{s+1-k} \right) \\
&= \sum_{s=1}^\infty \frac{1}{s(s+1)n^s} ( B_{s+1}(1-x) -B_{s+1}(x) ).
\end{align*}
Finally, using the symmetry property of the Bernoulli polynomials \cite[Equation \dlmfeq{24.4}{3}]{DLMF}
$$ B_n(1-x)= (-1)^n B_n(x) $$
we see that the contribution to this sum from odd values of $s$ vanishes, and writing $s=2i$ we have
$$ g(n) \sim - \sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{1}{2i(2i+1)n^{2i}} B_{2i+1}(x) , $$
from which the result in the theorem follows.
\end{proof}
\paragraph{Notes}
\begin{enumerate}
\item The series appearing in the $k=0$ and $k=1$ cases, i.e., the expansions
(\ref{lnCBC2}) and (\ref{lnCat}), have identical coefficients. As mentioned in the introduction, there
is an obvious relation between the CBC and Cat functions, namely
$$ {\rm Cat}(n)=\frac{{\rm CBC}(n)}{n+1}. $$
This does not make the passage between the expansions (\ref{lnCBC2}) and (\ref{lnCat}) obvious.
There is, however, a second relation between the functions
$$ {\rm CBC}\left(n+\frac12\right) {\rm Cat}(n) = \frac{2^{4n+1}}{\pi \left(n+\frac12\right)(n+1)}, $$
which can easily be established using the duplication formula for the gamma function. Using this, it
is easy to pass between the series (\ref{lnCBC2}) and (\ref{lnCat}).
\item The previous note concerned the relation between the cases $k=0$ and $k=1$ in the theorem.
Other cases can also be related. For example we now explain how to pass from the case $k=0$ to the
case $k=2$. The $k=0$
result tells us about the expansion of
$$ {\frac{(2n)!}{\left(n!\right)^2}}$$ in powers
of $n+\frac14$. Shifting $n$ by $1$, this tells us about the
expansion of
$$\frac{(2n+2)!}{\left((n+1)!\right)^2} = 2 \frac{(2n+1)!}{n!(n+1)!}
= 2 {2n+1\choose n} $$
in powers
of $n+\frac54$. Dividing by $4(n+\frac12)(n+2)=4\left(n+\frac54\right)^2-\frac94$, which is an even function of
$n+\frac54$, this tells us about the expansion of
$\frac{(2n)!}{n!(n+2)!}$ in powers of
$n+\frac54$, i.e., we obtain the result of the theorem for $k=2$.
\end{enumerate}
\section{\label{postscript}Postscript}
This paper is a slightly updated version of a paper originally posted by one of the authors on a personal website in 2006.
It is being submitted for publication in 2021 as the aforementioned website is about to be closed. The original
paper has been cited by Luschny on the website \cite{6} and in entries \seqnum{A220002}, \seqnum{A220422} and \seqnum{A239739}
in the
{\it On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences},
by Elezov\'ic in \cite{14}, and by others.
\begin{thebibliography}{10}
\bibitem{DLMF}
F. W. J. Olver, A. B. Olde Daalhuis, D. W. Lozier, B. I. Schneider, R. F. Boisvert, C. W. Clark, B. R. Miller, B. V. Saunders, H. S. Cohl, and M. A. McClain, eds.,
\newblock NIST Digital Library of Mathematical Functions,
Release 1.1.2 of 2021-06-15. Available at
\url{http://dlmf.nist.gov}.
\bibitem{2}
D. E. Knuth,
\newblock {\it The Art of Computer Programming}, Volume 4, Fascicle 4,
\newblock Adison-Wesley, 2006.
\bibitem{3}
J. L. Fields,
\newblock A note on the asymptotic expansion of a ratio of gamma functions,
\newblock {\it Proc. Edinb. Math. Soc.} {\bf 15} (1966) 43--45.
\bibitem{4}
Y. L. Luke,
\newblock {\it Mathematical Functions and their Approximations},
\newblock Academic Press, 1975.
\bibitem{5}
R. P. Stanley,
\newblock {\it Catalan Numbers},
\newblock Cambridge University Press, 2015.
\bibitem{6}
P. Luschny,
\newblock Approximation formulas for the factorial function $n!$,
\newblock {\url{http://www.luschny.de/math/factorial/approx/SimpleCases.html}.}
\bibitem{1a}
G. Nemes,
\newblock Generalization of Binet's gamma function formulas,
\newblock {\it Integral Transforms Spec. Funct.} {\bf 24} (2013) 597--606.
\bibitem{7}
C. Lanczos,
\newblock A precision approximation of the gamma function,
\newblock {\it SIAM J. Numer. Anal.} {\bf 1} (1964), 86--96.
\bibitem{8}
J. L. Spouge,
\newblock Computation of the gamma, digamma and trigamma functions,
\newblock {\it SIAM J. Numer. Anal.} {\bf 31} (1994), 931--944.
\bibitem{9}
G. R. Pugh,
\newblock {\it An Analysis of the Lanczos Gamma Approximation},
\newblock Ph.D.~thesis,
University of British Columbia, 2004.
\bibitem{13}
J. F. Steffensen,
\newblock {\it Interpolation},
\newblock 2nd edition, Dover, 2006.
\bibitem{14}
N. Elezovi\'c,
\newblock Asymptotic expansions of central binomial coefficients and Catalan numbers,
\newblock {\it J. Integer Sequences} {\bf 17} (2014),
\href{https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/journals/JIS/VOL17/Elezovic/elezovic5.html}{Article 14.2.1}.
\end{thebibliography}
\bigskip
\hrule
\bigskip
\noindent 2010 {\it Mathematics Subject Classification}:
Primary 05A10; Secondary 30E15, 41A60.
\noindent \emph{Keywords: }
factorial, binomial coefficient, Catalan number, asymptotic expansion, Stirling's formula.
\bigskip
\hrule
\bigskip
\noindent (Concerned with sequences
\seqnum{A220002},
\seqnum{A220422}, and
\seqnum{A239739}.)
\bigskip
\hrule
\bigskip
\vspace*{+.1in}
\noindent
Received April 11 2021;
revised versions received August 9 2021; August 13 2021.
Published in {\it Journal of Integer Sequences}, August 14 2021.
\bigskip
\hrule
\bigskip
\noindent
Return to
\htmladdnormallink{Journal of Integer Sequences home page}{https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/journals/JIS/}.
\vskip .1in
\end{document}
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\section*{Blog - the color of night}
This page is a [[Blog articles in progress|blog article in progress]], written by [[Tim van Beek]].
In [[a quantum of warmth]], we refined our zero dimensional energy balance model that treats the Earth as an ideal black body, and separated the system into a black body surface and a box containing the atmosphere. In [[good vibrations]] I tried to explain that it is possible to understand the aborption and emission spectra of the molecules of the atmosphere with quantum mechanics.
With the help of quantum mechanics we saw that only very special components of the atmosphere react to infrared radiation. Not the main components $O_2$ and $N_2$, but minor components with more than two atoms in a molecule, like $H_2 O$, $O_3$ and $CO_2$. With the help of this knowledge, it is possible to calculate the effect these gases have on incoming radiation, if certain parameters are known:
\begin{itemize}%
\item the pressure,
\item temperature and
\item the concentration of each gas.
\end{itemize}
Therefore, we will need to calculate thermodynamic properties of the atmosphere, at least approximately, to determine the molecular emission spectra.
If you get into a balloon an start climbing, what would you expect to experience? Does it constantly get cooler? Just under 200 years ago, Edgar Allan Poe tried to scare his readers by a story of a man who reached the moon this way, in the (Wikipedia). Meanwhile, we know that things look a little bit different than Poe imagined:
As you can see, it is possible to discern certain areas according to their temperature profile:
[[Tim van Beek]]: Short explanation of each layer.
If you are into natural sciences and someone shows a schematic picture to you, as I have done, you are probably curious as how this looks like in actual measurements, so here we go:
In case you are interested in the sources and more details, both pictures are taken from this book:
\begin{itemize}%
\item Vardavas, Taylor: ``Radiation and Climate'', Oxford University Press, International Series of Monographs on Physics, 2007
\end{itemize}
According to the authors, the last graphic shows
[[Tim van Beek]]: Adiabatic lapse rate and why this does not explain the 33 kelvin gap?
What about the dependency of emission and absorption on the concentration of infrared active gases?
[[Tim van Beek]]: Explanation of the log dependency.
[[Tim van Beek]]: Equations of radiation transfer of the atmosphere (at least a simple approximate version of it). Why it is too complicated to solve by hand.
Calculating the DLR on a sheet of paper, even with the use of a pocket calculator, would quickly turn out to be quite a task.
We could start by making some assumptions about the different layers of the atmosphere. We would also need to look up molecular spectra. Thankfully, for this task there is some help: The database. HITRAN was founded by the US air force. Why? I don't know, but I guess that they needed the data for air craft design, for example. Look out for the interview with Dr. Laurence Rothman for some background information about HITRAN; there is a link to it on the home page.
But anyway: We see that this task is complicated enough to justify the effort to write computer code to handle it. But we are lucky: Not only have others done this already for us. In fact you can find a survey of some of the existing software programs on Wikipedia:
\begin{itemize}%
\item page , Wikipedia
\end{itemize}
A kind soul has provided a web interface to one of the most prominent software programs, , for us to play around with:
\begin{itemize}%
\item MODTRAN:
\end{itemize}
Now that we have some confidence in the theory behind DLR, we are ready to look into measurements.
To measure DLR and check that it is really the energy flux coming from infrared active components of the atmosphere and not some strange artifact, we have to
\begin{itemize}%
\item point some measurement device to the sky, to measure what goes down, not what goes up and
\item check that the spectrum we measure consists of the characteristic molecular spectra of $CO_2$, $H_20$ etc.
\end{itemize}
The kind of measurement device we could use for this is called , for pyr = fire and geo = earth.
For starters we should look for conditions where there is minimum radiation from other sources, no clouds and only a small amount of water vapor. What would be a good place and time on Earth to go to? A dedicated team of scientists decided to weather the grim conditions of the antarctic during polar night for this purpose:
\begin{itemize}%
\item Michael S. Town, P. Walden, Stephen G. Warren: .
\end{itemize}
[[Tim van Beek]]:
Also:
\begin{itemize}%
\item Dan Lubin, David Cutchin, William Conant, Hartmut Grassl, Ulrich Schmid, Werner Biselli: , online .
\end{itemize}
Also:
\begin{itemize}%
\item ``Measurements of the radiative surface forcing of climate'', online .
\end{itemize}
[[Tim van Beek]]: I would like to add radiation measurements, maybe some can be found here:
\begin{itemize}%
\item \href{http://www.arm.gov/}{Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Climate Research Facility}
\end{itemize}
Als
\begin{itemize}%
\item Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN) .
\end{itemize}
Just to have a number, the flux of DLR (downwards longwave radiation) is about 300 $W m^{-2}$.
Some physicist collegues of mine have written that something has to be wrong with the theory of atmospheric radiation since none of this stuff is to be found in any physics textbooks. That is true because it is not part of the usual physics curriculum as far as I know it, but there are of course textbooks for majors in meteorology and related fields of study. I have already mentioned this book:
\begin{itemize}%
\item Vardavas, Taylor: ``Radiation and Climate'', Oxford University Press, International Series of Monographs on Physics, 2007
\end{itemize}
But this one is also a good read:
\begin{itemize}%
\item Grant W. Petty: ``A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation'', Sundog Publishing, 2nd ed. 2006
\end{itemize}
category: blog, climate
[[!redirects The Color of Night]] [[!redirects The Color of the Night]]
\end{document}
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\input zb-basic
\input zb-matheduc
\iteman{ZMATH 1994e.00493}
\itemau{Schwill, A.}
\itemti{Functional programming with CAML. (Funktionale Programmierung mit CAML.)}
\itemso{Log In 13, No. 4, 20-30 (1993).}
\itemab
Der Artikel gibt einen Ueberblick ueber die funktionale Programmierung mit CAML. Er zeigt,wie nahe diese Art dem Funktionsbegriff der Mathematik steht. Der Leser sollte dazu Vorkenntnisse allgemeiner Art ueber verschiedene Programmierstile mitbringen. Aus diesem Ueberblick leitet der Artikel einige Vorteile von CAML fuer den Schulunterricht ab.
\itemrv{~}
\itemcc{P40}
\itemut{}
\itemli{}
\end
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$\Psi_{{1,2}}=z^{2}+\lambda z+a,$
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\documentclass[a4paper,10pt,french]{article}
\input macrodwicky.tex
\geometry{verbose,letterpaper,tmargin=0.5cm,bmargin=0.5cm,lmargin=2cm,rmargin=2cm}
\begin{document}
\pagestyle{empty}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% Cadre jaune
\textbf{Nom : }$\dots\dots\dots\dots\dots$ \hfill \textbf{Pr\'enom : }$\dots\dots\dots\dots\dots$ \hfill Classe :$\dots\dots$\\
\psframebox[linestyle=solid,shadow=true,framearc=0.5,fillcolor=vert!30]{
\begin{minipage}{17cm}
\begin{center}
\vspace{1mm}
\textsc{\textbf{ Correction de l'interrogation n$^{\circ}11$ }\hfill \textbf{Sujet A}}
\end{center}
\vspace{-3mm}
\end{minipage}
}
\setcounter{section}{1}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% Interro
\begin{center}
\textit{\textbf{On prendra soin de coller le sujet sur la copie. La note tiendra compte de la qualité de la rédaction et des justifications.}}
\end{center}
\begin{exoi}\hfill \textbf{10 points}\\
\begin{footnotesize}
On considère le nombre complexe $$ z=1-\sqrt{3}+i(1+ \sqrt{3})$$
\end{footnotesize}\begin{enumerate}
\item {\footnotesize Ecrire $z^2$ sous forme algébrique}
$$ z^2=\left(1-\sqrt{3}+i(1+ \sqrt{3})\right)^2=\left(1-\sqrt{3}\right)^2+2i(1-\sqrt{3})(1+ \sqrt{3})-(1+ \sqrt{3})^2=\left(1-\sqrt{3}\right)^2-(1+ \sqrt{3})^2+2i(1- 3)$$
c'est-à-dire :
$$ z^2=(1-\sqrt{3}+1+\sqrt{3})(1-\sqrt{3}-1-\sqrt{3})-4i=-2\times 2\sqrt{3}-4i=-4\sqrt{3}-4i$$
\item {\footnotesize Déterminer le module et un argument de $z^2$}
$$ |z^2|=|-4\sqrt{3}-4i|=\sqrt{(-4\sqrt{3})^2+(-4)^2}=\sqrt{48+16}=\sqrt{64}=8$$
Un argument $\theta$ de $z^2$ vérifie $\cos\theta=\dfrac{-4\sqrt{3}}{8}=\dfrac{-\sqrt{3}}{2}$ et $\sin\theta=\dfrac{-4}{8}=-\dfrac{1}{2}$. Par conséquent :
$$ \theta=-\dfrac{5\pi}{6}+2k\pi\qquad \text{avec} k\in\mathbb{Z}$$
\item {\footnotesize Indiquer le signe de la partie réelle de $z$ et celui de la partie imaginaire, puis, à l'aide des propriétés sur le module et l'argument, déterminer le module et un argument de $z$.}
$1-\sqrt{3}<0$ donc la partie réelle de $z$ est négative, tandis que $1+\sqrt{3}>0$ donc la partie imaginaire de $z$ est positive.
Nous savons que $|z^2|=8\Longrightarrow |z|^2=8\Longrightarrow |z|=\sqrt{8}=2\sqrt{2}$.
De plus $$arg(z^2)=-\dfrac{5\pi}{6}+2k\pi \Longrightarrow 2arg(z)=-\dfrac{5\pi}{6}+2k\pi\Longrightarrow arg(z)=-\dfrac{5\pi}{12}+k\pi$$
Ainsi il existe à deux $\pi$ près deux arguments qui conviennent $arg(z)=-\dfrac{5\pi}{12}$ ou $arg(z)=-\dfrac{5\pi}{12}+\pi=\dfrac{7\pi}{12}$.
Comme $-\dfrac{\pi}{2}<-\dfrac{5\pi}{12}<0$, si l'argument de $z$ valait $-\dfrac{5\pi}{12}$ la partie réelle et la partie imaginaire de $z$ serait négative.
Par conséquent $arg(z)=\dfrac{7\pi}{12}+2k\pi$ avec $k\in\Z$.
\item {\footnotesize Déduire de ce qui précède $\cos \dfrac{7\pi}{12}$ et $\sin \dfrac{7\pi}{12}$ puis $\cos \dfrac{\pi}{12}$ puis $\sin \dfrac{\pi}{12}$}
$$ \cos \dfrac{7\pi}{12}=\dfrac{1-\sqrt{3}}{2\sqrt{2}}\qquad \text{et}\qquad \sin \dfrac{7\pi}{12}=\dfrac{1+\sqrt{3}}{2\sqrt{2}}$$
De plus $\dfrac{7\pi}{12}=\dfrac{\pi}{2}+\dfrac{\pi}{12}$ donc :
$$ \cos \dfrac{\pi}{12}=\sin\dfrac{7\pi}{12}=\cos \dfrac{7\pi}{12}=\dfrac{1+\sqrt{3}}{2\sqrt{2}}\qquad \text{et}\qquad \sin\dfrac{\pi}{12}=\cos \dfrac{7\pi}{12}=\dfrac{1-\sqrt{3}}{2\sqrt{2}}$$
\end{enumerate}
\end{exoi}
%
%\begin{exoi}\hfill \textbf{5 points}\\
%\begin{enumerate}
%\item \begin{enumerate}
%\item {\footnotesize Déterminer le module et un argument de $z_1=1-\sqrt{3}i$.}
%
%$$ |z_1|=\sqrt{1+(-\sqrt{3})^2}=\sqrt{1+3}=\sqrt{4}=2$$
%
%Si $\theta=arg(z_1)$ alors $\theta$ vérifie
%$\cos\theta=\dfrac{1}{2}$ et $\sin\theta=\dfrac{-\sqrt{3}}{2}$, par conséquent $arg(z_1)=-\dfrac{\pi}{3}+2k\pi$ où $k\in \mathbb{Z}$.
%\item {\footnotesize Déterminer le module et un argument de $z_2=-\sqrt{2}+\sqrt{2}i$.}
%
%$$ |z_2|=\sqrt{(-\sqrt{2})^2+\sqrt{2}^2}=\sqrt{2+2}=\sqrt{4}=2$$
%
%Si $\theta=arg(z_2)$ alors $\theta$ vérifie
%$\cos\theta=\dfrac{-\sqrt{2}}{2}$ et $\sin\theta=\dfrac{\sqrt{2}}{2}$, par conséquent $arg(z_1)=-\dfrac3{\pi}{4}+2k\pi$ où $k\in \mathbb{Z}$.
%\end{enumerate}
%\item \begin{enumerate}
%\item {\footnotesize Déterminer la forme algébrique du nombre complexe $z_3=\dfrac{1-\sqrt{3}i}{-\sqrt{2}+\sqrt{2}i}$.}
%
%$$ z_3=\dfrac{1-\sqrt{3}i}{-\sqrt{2}+\sqrt{2}i}\times \dfrac{-\sqrt{2}-\sqrt{2}i}{-\sqrt{2}+\sqrt{2}i}=\dfrac{-\sqrt{2}+\sqrt{6}i-\sqrt{2}i-\sqrt{6}}{2+2}=\dfrac{-\sqrt{6}-\sqrt{2}i}{4}+i\dfrac{\sqrt{6}-\sqrt{2}i}{4}$$
%\item {\footnotesize En déduire les valeurs exactes de $\cos \theta $ et $\sin \theta$ où $\theta$ désigne un argument de $z_3$.}
%
%Notons que $|z_3|=\left|\dfrac{z_1}{z_2}\right|=\dfrac{|z_1|}{|z_2|}=\dfrac{2}{2}=1$
%\end{enumerate}
%\end{enumerate}
%\end{exoi}
\pagebreak
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% Cadre jaune
\textbf{Nom : }$\dots\dots\dots\dots\dots$ \hfill \textbf{Pr\'enom : }$\dots\dots\dots\dots\dots$ \hfill Classe :$\dots\dots$\\
\psframebox[linestyle=solid,shadow=true,framearc=0.5,fillcolor=vert!30]{
\begin{minipage}{17cm}
\begin{center}
\vspace{1mm}
\textsc{\textbf{ Correction de l'interrogation n$^{\circ}11$ }\hfill \textbf{Sujet B}}
\end{center}
\vspace{-3mm}
\end{minipage}
}
\setcounter{exer}{0}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% Interro
\begin{center}
\textit{\textbf{On prendra soin de coller le sujet sur la copie. La note tiendra compte de la qualité de la rédaction et des justifications.}}
\end{center}
\Exoi{\hfill \textbf{10 points}\\
\begin{enumerate}
\item \begin{footnotesize}
Résoudre dans $\C$ l'équation $z^2+2\sqrt{2}z+4=0$. \\
On appelle $z_1$ et $z_2$ les solutions de l’équation, $z_1$ ayant une partie imaginaire positive.
\end{footnotesize}
\\
$\Delta=8-4\times 4=-8<0$ donc l'équation $z^2+2\sqrt{2}z+4=0$ admet deux racines complexes conjugués que voici :
$$ z_1=\dfrac{-2\sqrt{2}+2\sqrt{2}i}{2}=-\sqrt{2}+\sqrt{2}i\qquad \text{et}\qquad z_2=-\sqrt{2}-\sqrt{2}i$$
\item {\footnotesize Placer, dans le plan, muni d'un repère orthonormal direct $(O; \overrightarrow{e_1}, \overrightarrow{e_2})$ (unité graphique : 2 cm), les points : $A$ d'affixe $2$, B et C d'affixes respectives $z_1$ et $z_2$, et $I$ le milieu de $[AB]$.}
\item \begin{footnotesize}
Démontrer
que le triangle $OAB$ est isocèle.
\\ En déduire une mesure de l'angle $(\overrightarrow{e_1}; \overrightarrow{OI})$.
\end{footnotesize}\\
$OA=|z_A|=2$, $OB=|z_1|=\sqrt{(-\sqrt{2})^2+\sqrt{2}^2}=2$ donc le triangle $OAB$ est isocèle. Le triangle $OAB$ étant isocèle et $I$ étant le milieu de $[AB]$ alors :
$$(\overrightarrow{e_1}; \overrightarrow{OI})=(\overrightarrow{e_1}; \overrightarrow{OB})/2=arg(z_1)/2$$
Si on note $\theta=arg(z_1)$ celui ci vérifie $\cos\theta=\dfrac{-\sqrt{2}}{2}$ et $\sin \theta=\dfrac{\sqrt{2}}{2}$ et $\theta=\dfrac{3\pi}{4}+2k\pi$ et donc :
$$(\overrightarrow{e_1}; \overrightarrow{OI})=(\overrightarrow{e_1}; \overrightarrow{OB})/2=arg(z_1)/2=\dfrac{3\pi}{8}+2k\pi$$
\item {\footnotesize Calculer l'affixe $z_I$ de $I$, puis le module de $z_I$.}
$$ z_I=\dfrac{z_A+z_B}{2}=\dfrac{2-\sqrt{2}+\sqrt{2}i}{2}$$
$$ |z_I|=\dfrac{\sqrt{(2-\sqrt{2})^2+\sqrt{2}^2}}{4}=\dfrac{\sqrt{6-2\sqrt{2}}}{4}$$
\item {\footnotesize Déduire des résultats précédents les valeurs exactes de $ \cos \dfrac{3\pi}{8}$ et $\sin \dfrac{3\pi}{8}$}
\\
$\dfrac{3\pi}{8}$ étant un argument de $z_I$ il suit que :
$$ \cos \dfrac{3\pi}{8}=\dfrac{\frac{2-\sqrt{2}}{4}}{\frac{\sqrt{6-2\sqrt{2}}}{4}}\qquad\text{et}\qquad \sin \dfrac{3\pi}{8}=\dfrac{\sqrt{2}}{\sqrt{6-2\sqrt{2}}}$$
\end{enumerate}
}
%\Exoi{
%Le plan complexe est rapporté à un repère orthonormal direct \Ouv.
% \\
%On considère l'application $f$ du plan dans lui même qui, à tout point
%$M$ d'affixe $z$, associe le point $M'$ d'affixe $z'$
%telle que : $z' = z^2$.
%\\
%Déterminer l'ensemble $\Gamma_2$ des points $M$ d'affixe $z$ tels que l'affixe $z'$ du point $M'$ soit un nombre imaginaire pur.
%}
\end{document}
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https://git.sysmocom.de/sysmocom/openwrt/raw/commit/693458a4bd16eb7e0434852405f6a77fc736d768/docs/network.tex
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The network configuration is stored in \texttt{/etc/config/network}
and is divided into interface configurations.
Each interface configuration either refers directly to an ethernet/wifi
interface (\texttt{eth0}, \texttt{wl0}, ..) or to a bridge containing multiple interfaces.
It looks like this:
\begin{Verbatim}
config interface "lan"
option ifname "eth0"
option proto "static"
option ipaddr "192.168.1.1"
option netmask "255.255.255.0"
option gateway "192.168.1.254"
option dns "192.168.1.254"
\end{Verbatim}
\texttt{ifname} specifies the Linux interface name.
If you want to use bridging on one or more interfaces, set \texttt{ifname} to a list
of interfaces and add:
\begin{Verbatim}
option type "bridge"
\end{Verbatim}
It is possible to use VLAN tagging on an interface simply by adding the VLAN IDs
to it, e.g. \texttt{eth0.15}. These can be nested as well. See the switch section for
this.
\begin{Verbatim}
config interface
option ifname "eth0.15"
option proto "none"
\end{Verbatim}
This sets up a simple static configuration for \texttt{eth0}. \texttt{proto} specifies the
protocol used for the interface. The default image usually provides \texttt{'none'}
\texttt{'static'}, \texttt{'dhcp'} and \texttt{'pppoe'}. Others can be added by installing additional
packages.
When using the \texttt{'static'} method like in the example, the options \texttt{ipaddr} and
\texttt{netmask} are mandatory, while \texttt{gateway} and \texttt{dns} are optional.
You can specify more than one DNS server, separated with spaces:
\begin{Verbatim}
config interface "lan"
option ifname "eth0"
option proto "static"
...
option dns "192.168.1.254 192.168.1.253" (optional)
\end{Verbatim}
DHCP currently only accepts \texttt{ipaddr} (IP address to request from the server)
and \texttt{hostname} (client hostname identify as) - both are optional.
\begin{Verbatim}
config interface "lan"
option ifname "eth0"
option proto "dhcp"
option ipaddr "192.168.1.1" (optional)
option hostname "openwrt" (optional)
\end{Verbatim}
PPP based protocols (\texttt{pppoe}, \texttt{pptp}, ...) accept these options:
\begin{itemize}
\item{username} \\
The PPP username (usually with PAP authentication)
\item{password} \\
The PPP password
\item{keepalive} \\
Ping the PPP server (using LCP). The value of this option
specifies the maximum number of failed pings before reconnecting.
The ping interval defaults to 5, but can be changed by appending
",<interval>" to the keepalive value
\item{demand} \\
Use Dial on Demand (value specifies the maximum idle time.
\item{server: (pptp)} \\
The remote pptp server IP
\end{itemize}
For all protocol types, you can also specify the MTU by using the \texttt{mtu} option.
A sample PPPoE config would look like this:
\begin{Verbatim}
config interface "lan"
option ifname "eth0"
option proto "pppoe"
option username "username"
option password "openwrt"
option mtu "1492" (optional)
\end{Verbatim}
\subsubsection{Setting up static routes}
You can set up static routes for a specific interface that will be brought up
after the interface is configured.
Simply add a config section like this:
\begin{Verbatim}
config route foo
option interface "lan"
option target "1.1.1.0"
option netmask "255.255.255.0"
option gateway "192.168.1.1"
\end{Verbatim}
The name for the route section is optional, the \texttt{interface}, \texttt{target} and
\texttt{gateway} options are mandatory.
Leaving out the \texttt{netmask} option will turn the route into a host route.
\subsubsection{Setting up the switch (broadcom only)}
The switch configuration is set by adding a \texttt{'switch'} config section.
Example:
\begin{Verbatim}
config switch "eth0"
option vlan0 "1 2 3 4 5*"
option vlan1 "0 5"
\end{Verbatim}
On Broadcom hardware the section name needs to be eth0, as the switch driver
does not detect the switch on any other physical device.
Every vlan option needs to have the name vlan<n> where <n> is the VLAN number
as used in the switch driver.
As value it takes a list of ports with these optional suffixes:
\begin{itemize}
\item{\texttt{'*'}:}
Set the default VLAN (PVID) of the Port to the current VLAN
\item{\texttt{'u'}:}
Force the port to be untagged
\item{\texttt{'t'}:}
Force the port to be tagged
\end{itemize}
The CPU port defaults to tagged, all other ports to untagged.
On Broadcom hardware the CPU port is always 5. The other ports may vary with
different hardware.
For instance, if you wish to have 3 vlans, like one 3-port switch, 1 port in a
DMZ, and another one as your WAN interface, use the following configuration :
\begin{Verbatim}
config switch "eth0"
option vlan0 "1 2 3 5*"
option vlan1 "0 5"
option vlan2 "4 5"
\end{Verbatim}
Three interfaces will be automatically created using this switch layout :
\texttt{eth0.0} (vlan0), \texttt{eth0.1} (vlan1) and \texttt{eth0.2} (vlan2).
You can then assign those interfaces to a custom network configuration name
like \texttt{lan}, \texttt{wan} or \texttt{dmz} for instance.
\subsubsection{Setting up the switch (swconfig)}
\emph{swconfig} based configurations have a different structure with one extra
section per vlan. The example below shows a typical configuration:
\begin{Verbatim}
config 'switch' 'eth0'
option 'reset' '1'
option 'enable_vlan' '1'
config 'switch_vlan' 'eth0_1'
option 'device' 'eth0'
option 'vlan' '1'
option 'ports' '0 1 2 3 5t'
config 'switch_vlan' 'eth0_2'
option 'device' 'eth0'
option 'vlan' '2'
option 'ports' '4 5t'
\end{Verbatim}
\subsubsection{Setting up IPv6 connectivity}
OpenWrt supports IPv6 connectivity using PPP, Tunnel brokers or static
assignment.
If you use PPP, IPv6 will be setup using IP6CP and there is nothing to
configure.
To setup an IPv6 tunnel to a tunnel broker, you can install the
\texttt{6scripts} package and edit the \texttt{/etc/config/6tunnel}
file and change the settings accordingly :
\begin{Verbatim}
config 6tunnel
option tnlifname 'sixbone'
option remoteip4 '1.0.0.1'
option localip4 '1.0.0.2'
option localip6 '2001::DEAD::BEEF::1'
\end{Verbatim}
\begin{itemize}
\item{\texttt{'tnlifname'}:}
Set the interface name of the IPv6 in IPv4 tunnel
\item{\texttt{'remoteip4'}:}
IP address of the remote end to establish the 6in4 tunnel.
This address is given by the tunnel broker
\item{\texttt{'localip4'}:}
IP address of your router to establish the 6in4 tunnel.
It will usually match your WAN IP address.
\item{\texttt{'localip6'}:}
IPv6 address to setup on your tunnel side
This address is given by the tunnel broker
\end{itemize}
Using the same package you can also setup an IPv6 bridged connection:
\begin{Verbatim}
config 6bridge
option bridge 'br6'
\end{Verbatim}
By default the script bridges the WAN interface with the LAN interface
and uses ebtables to filter anything that is not IPv6 on the bridge.
This configuration is particularly useful if your router is not
IPv6 ND proxy capable (see: http://www.rfc-archive.org/getrfc.php?rfc=4389).
IPv6 static addressing is also supported using a similar setup as
IPv4 but with the \texttt{ip6} prefixing (when applicable).
\begin{Verbatim}
config interface "lan"
option ifname "eth0"
option proto "static"
option ip6addr "fe80::200:ff:fe00:0/64"
option ip6gw "2001::DEAF:BEE:1"
\end{Verbatim}
|
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