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{"datasets_id": 448, "wiki_id": "Q4033902", "sp": 30, "sc": 124, "ep": 30, "ec": 704} | 448 | Q4033902 | 30 | 124 | 30 | 704 | American Champion Citabria | 7KCAB, Citabria "B" Package | spring steel main gear legs. The major differences between the7GCAA and 7KCAB were in the fuel system and the engine oil system. The engine was replaced with a Lycoming IO-320-E2A of 150 horsepower (110 kW), while a header tank of 1.5 gallons—located beneath the instrument panel—was added to the fuel system. In addition, the carburetor was replaced with a fuel injection system, and a Christen Industries inverted oil system was fitted to the engine. All of these changes were made in order to allow for extended inverted flight, a mode not possible in the earlier models. |
{"datasets_id": 448, "wiki_id": "Q4033902", "sp": 30, "sc": 704, "ep": 34, "ec": 458} | 448 | Q4033902 | 30 | 704 | 34 | 458 | American Champion Citabria | 7KCAB, Citabria "B" Package & Citabria Pro | Bellanca continued production of the 7KCAB as the Citabria "B" Package (a designation apparently begun by Champion). Citabria Pro The Citabria Pro was tested by Champion in 1968, but was never put into production at Champion nor by Bellanca which acquired the company and designs only a short time later. The Citabria Pro was based on the 7KCAB, but with a vertically shortened fuselage, a wing of semi-symmetric airfoil mounted in a parasol configuration, and a unique engine, the Lycoming IO-360SPL. While it was flown as a single-seat, there was a second set of controls and room for |
{"datasets_id": 448, "wiki_id": "Q4033902", "sp": 34, "sc": 458, "ep": 34, "ec": 880} | 448 | Q4033902 | 34 | 458 | 34 | 880 | American Champion Citabria | Citabria Pro | a second seat. The design changes were intended to produce an aircraft capable of more complex maneuvers and better performance in inverted flight. Sources conflict over whether the Citabria Pro was assigned model number 8KCAB or 9KCAB. Since the 8KCAB designation ultimately belonged to the Decathlon design, which was in development at Champion at the same time, it is unlikely that it was used for the Citabria Pro. |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 6, "ec": 666} | 449 | Q8676 | 2 | 0 | 6 | 666 | American Civil War | Overview | American Civil War Overview In the 1860 presidential election, Republicans, led by Abraham Lincoln, supported banning slavery in all the U.S. territories. The Southern states viewed this as a violation of their constitutional rights, and as the first step in a grander Republican plan to eventually abolish slavery. The three pro-Union candidates together received an overwhelming 82% majority of the votes cast nationally: Republican Lincoln's votes centered in the north, Democrat Stephen A. Douglas' votes were distributed nationally and Constitutional Unionist John Bell's votes centered in Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. The Republican Party, dominant in the North, secured a plurality |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 6, "sc": 666, "ep": 6, "ec": 1335} | 449 | Q8676 | 6 | 666 | 6 | 1,335 | American Civil War | Overview | of the popular votes and a majority of the electoral votes nationally; thus Lincoln was constitutionally elected president. He was the first Republican Party candidate to win the presidency. However, before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies declared secession and formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, with an average of 49 percent. Of those states whose legislatures resolved for secession, the first seven voted with split majorities for unionist candidates Douglas and Bell (Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%), or with sizable minorities for those |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 6, "sc": 1335, "ep": 6, "ec": 2021} | 449 | Q8676 | 6 | 1,335 | 6 | 2,021 | American Civil War | Overview | unionists (Alabama with 46%, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, and South Carolina, which cast Electoral College votes without a popular vote for president). Of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession.
Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession. Outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincoln's March 4, 1861, inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war. Speaking directly to the "Southern States", he attempted to calm their fears of any threats to slavery, reaffirming, "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 6, "sc": 2021, "ep": 6, "ec": 2653} | 449 | Q8676 | 6 | 2,021 | 6 | 2,653 | American Civil War | Overview | interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so." After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed and both sides prepared for war. The Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on "King Cotton" that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America.
Hostilities began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter. While in the Western Theater the |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 6, "sc": 2653, "ep": 6, "ec": 3289} | 449 | Q8676 | 6 | 2,653 | 6 | 3,289 | American Civil War | Overview | Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive during 1861–1862. Later, in September 1862, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of its western armies, and seized New Orleans. The successful 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lee's Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg. Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grant's command of all Union armies in 1864. Inflicting an |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 6, "sc": 3289, "ep": 6, "ec": 3938} | 449 | Q8676 | 6 | 3,289 | 6 | 3,938 | American Civil War | Overview | ever-tightening naval blockade of Confederate ports, the Union marshaled the resources and manpower to attack the Confederacy from all directions, leading to the fall of Atlanta to William Tecumseh Sherman and his march to the sea. The last significant battles raged around the Siege of Petersburg. Lee's escape attempt ended with his surrender at Appomattox Court House, on April 9, 1865. While the military war was coming to an end, the political reintegration of the nation was to take another 12 years, known as the Reconstruction era.
The American Civil War was among the earliest industrial wars. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships, |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 6, "sc": 3938, "ep": 10, "ec": 23} | 449 | Q8676 | 6 | 3,938 | 10 | 23 | American Civil War | Overview & Causes of secession | and iron-clad ships, and mass-produced weapons were employed extensively. The mobilization of civilian factories, mines, shipyards, banks, transportation, and food supplies all foreshadowed the impact of industrialization in World War I, World War II, and subsequent conflicts. It remains the deadliest war in American history. From 1861 to 1865, it is estimated that 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers died, along with an undetermined number of civilians. By one estimate, the war claimed the lives of 10 percent of all Northern men 20–45 years old, and 30 percent of all Southern white men aged 18–40. Causes of secession The causes of secession |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 10, "sc": 23, "ep": 10, "ec": 664} | 449 | Q8676 | 10 | 23 | 10 | 664 | American Civil War | Causes of secession | were complex and have been controversial since the war began, but most academic scholars identify slavery as a central cause of the war. James C. Bradford wrote that the issue has been further complicated by historical revisionists, who have tried to offer a variety of reasons for the war. Slavery was the central source of escalating political tension in the 1850s. The Republican Party was determined to prevent any spread of slavery, and many Southern leaders had threatened secession if the Republican candidate, Lincoln, won the 1860 election. After Lincoln won, many Southern leaders felt that disunion was their only option, fearing |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 10, "sc": 664, "ep": 14, "ec": 545} | 449 | Q8676 | 10 | 664 | 14 | 545 | American Civil War | Causes of secession & Slavery | that the loss of representation would hamper their ability to promote pro-slavery acts and policies. Slavery Slavery was a major cause of disunion. Although there were opposing views even in the Union States, most northern soldiers were mostly indifferent on the subject of slavery, while Confederates fought the war mainly to protect a southern society of which slavery was an integral part. From the anti-slavery perspective, the issue was primarily about whether the system of slavery was an anachronistic evil that was incompatible with republicanism. The strategy of the anti-slavery forces was containment—to stop the expansion and thus put slavery |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 14, "sc": 545, "ep": 14, "ec": 1195} | 449 | Q8676 | 14 | 545 | 14 | 1,195 | American Civil War | Slavery | on a path to gradual extinction. The slave-holding interests in the South denounced this strategy as infringing upon their Constitutional rights. Southern whites believed that the emancipation of slaves would destroy the South's economy, due to the large amount of capital invested in slaves and fears of integrating the ex-slave black population. In particular, Southerners feared a repeat of "the horrors of Santo Domingo", in which nearly all white people – including men, women, children, and even many sympathetic to abolition – were killed after the successful slave revolt in Haiti. Historian Thomas Fleming points to the historical phrase "a |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 14, "sc": 1195, "ep": 14, "ec": 1791} | 449 | Q8676 | 14 | 1,195 | 14 | 1,791 | American Civil War | Slavery | disease in the public mind" used by critics of this idea, and proposes it contributed to the segregation in the Jim Crow era following emancipation. These fears were exacerbated by the recent attempt of John Brown to instigate an armed slave rebellion in the South.
Slavery was illegal in much of the North, having been outlawed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was also fading in the border states and in Southern cities, but it was expanding in the highly profitable cotton districts of the rural South and Southwest. Subsequent writers on the American Civil War looked to |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 14, "sc": 1791, "ep": 18, "ec": 641} | 449 | Q8676 | 14 | 1,791 | 18 | 641 | American Civil War | Slavery & Territorial crisis | several factors explaining the geographic divide. Territorial crisis Between 1803 and 1854, the United States achieved a vast expansion of territory through purchase, negotiation, and conquest. At first, the new states carved out of these territories entering the union were apportioned equally between slave and free states. Pro- and anti-slavery forces collided over the territories west of the Mississippi.
With the conquest of northern Mexico west to California in 1848, slaveholding interests looked forward to expanding into these lands and perhaps Cuba and Central America as well.
Northern "free soil" interests vigorously sought to curtail any further expansion of slave territory. The |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 18, "sc": 641, "ep": 18, "ec": 1281} | 449 | Q8676 | 18 | 641 | 18 | 1,281 | American Civil War | Territorial crisis | Compromise of 1850 over California balanced a free-soil state with stronger fugitive slave laws for a political settlement after four years of strife in the 1840s. But the states admitted following California were all free: Minnesota (1858), Oregon (1859) and Kansas (1861). In the Southern states the question of the territorial expansion of slavery westward again became explosive. Both the South and the North drew the same conclusion: "The power to decide the question of slavery for the territories was the power to determine the future of slavery itself."
By 1860, four doctrines had emerged to answer the question of federal |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 18, "sc": 1281, "ep": 18, "ec": 1961} | 449 | Q8676 | 18 | 1,281 | 18 | 1,961 | American Civil War | Territorial crisis | control in the territories, and they all claimed they were sanctioned by the Constitution, implicitly or explicitly. The first of these "conservative" theories, represented by the Constitutional Union Party, argued that the Missouri Compromise apportionment of territory north for free soil and south for slavery should become a Constitutional mandate. The Crittenden Compromise of 1860 was an expression of this view.
The second doctrine of Congressional preeminence, championed by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party, insisted that the Constitution did not bind legislators to a policy of balance—that slavery could be excluded in a territory as it was done in the |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 18, "sc": 1961, "ep": 18, "ec": 2631} | 449 | Q8676 | 18 | 1,961 | 18 | 2,631 | American Civil War | Territorial crisis | Northwest Ordinance of 1787 at the discretion of Congress; thus Congress could restrict human bondage, but never establish it. The Wilmot Proviso announced this position in 1846.
Senator Stephen A. Douglas proclaimed the doctrine of territorial or "popular" sovereignty—which asserted that the settlers in a territory had the same rights as states in the Union to establish or disestablish slavery as a purely local matter. The Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 legislated this doctrine. In the Kansas Territory, years of pro and anti-slavery violence and political conflict erupted; the congressional House of Representatives voted to admit Kansas as a free state in |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 18, "sc": 2631, "ep": 18, "ec": 3306} | 449 | Q8676 | 18 | 2,631 | 18 | 3,306 | American Civil War | Territorial crisis | early 1860, but its admission in the Senate was delayed until January 1861, after the 1860 elections when Southern states began to leave.
The fourth theory was advocated by Mississippi Senator Jefferson Davis, one of state sovereignty ("states' rights"), also known as the "Calhoun doctrine", named after the South Carolinian political theorist and statesman John C. Calhoun. Rejecting the arguments for federal authority or self-government, state sovereignty would empower states to promote the expansion of slavery as part of the federal union under the U.S. Constitution. "States' rights" was an ideology formulated and applied as a means of advancing slave state |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 18, "sc": 3306, "ep": 22, "ec": 248} | 449 | Q8676 | 18 | 3,306 | 22 | 248 | American Civil War | Territorial crisis & States' rights | interests through federal authority. As historian Thomas L. Krannawitter points out, the "Southern demand for federal slave protection represented a demand for an unprecedented expansion of federal power." These four doctrines comprised the dominant ideologies presented to the American public on the matters of slavery, the territories, and the U.S. Constitution before the 1860 presidential election. States' rights The South argued that just as each state had decided to join the Union, a state had the right to secede—leave the Union—at any time. Northerners (including President Buchanan) rejected that notion as opposed to the will of the Founding Fathers, who |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 22, "sc": 248, "ep": 26, "ec": 78} | 449 | Q8676 | 22 | 248 | 26 | 78 | American Civil War | States' rights & Sectionalism | said they were setting up a perpetual union. Historian James McPherson writes concerning states' rights and other non-slavery explanations:
While one or more of these interpretations remain popular among the Sons of Confederate Veterans and other Southern heritage groups, few professional historians now subscribe to them. Of all these interpretations, the states'-rights argument is perhaps the weakest. It fails to ask the question, states' rights for what purpose? States' rights, or sovereignty, was always more a means than an end, an instrument to achieve a certain goal more than a principle. Sectionalism Sectionalism resulted from the different economies, social structure, customs, |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 26, "sc": 78, "ep": 26, "ec": 773} | 449 | Q8676 | 26 | 78 | 26 | 773 | American Civil War | Sectionalism | and political values of the North and South. Regional tensions came to a head during the War of 1812, resulting in the Hartford Convention, which manifested Northern dissastisfaction with a foreign trade embargo that affected the industrial North disproportionately, the Three-Fifths Compromise, dilution of Northern power by new states, and a succession of Southern presidents. Sectionalism increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the North, which phased slavery out of existence, industrialized, urbanized, and built prosperous farms, while the deep South concentrated on plantation agriculture based on slave labor, together with subsistence agriculture for poor whites. In the 1840s and |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 26, "sc": 773, "ep": 30, "ec": 100} | 449 | Q8676 | 26 | 773 | 30 | 100 | American Civil War | Sectionalism & Protectionism | 1850s, the issue of accepting slavery (in the guise of rejecting slave-owning bishops and missionaries) split the nation's largest religious denominations (the Methodist, Baptist, and Presbyterian churches) into separate Northern and Southern denominations.
Historians have debated whether economic differences between the mainly industrial North and the mainly agricultural South helped cause the war. Most historians now disagree with the economic determinism of historian Charles A. Beard in the 1920s, and emphasize that Northern and Southern economies were largely complementary. While socially different, the sections economically benefited each other. Protectionism Slave owners preferred low-cost manual labor with no mechanization. Northern manufacturing interests |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 30, "sc": 100, "ep": 30, "ec": 741} | 449 | Q8676 | 30 | 100 | 30 | 741 | American Civil War | Protectionism | supported tariffs and protectionism while southern planters demanded free trade. The Democrats in Congress, controlled by Southerners, wrote the tariff laws in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, and kept reducing rates so that the 1857 rates were the lowest since 1816. The Republicans called for an increase in tariffs in the 1860 election. The increases were only enacted in 1861 after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress. The tariff issue was a Northern grievance. However, neo-Confederate writers have claimed it as a Southern grievance. In 1860–61 none of the groups that proposed compromises to head off secession raised the tariff |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 30, "sc": 741, "ep": 34, "ec": 590} | 449 | Q8676 | 30 | 741 | 34 | 590 | American Civil War | Protectionism & Nationalism and honor | issue. Pamphleteers North and South rarely mentioned the tariff. Nationalism and honor Nationalism was a powerful force in the early 19th century, with famous spokesmen such as Andrew Jackson and Daniel Webster. While practically all Northerners supported the Union, Southerners were split between those loyal to the entire United States (called "unionists") and those loyal primarily to the southern region and then the Confederacy. C. Vann Woodward said of the latter group,
A great slave society ... had grown up and miraculously flourished in the heart of a thoroughly bourgeois and partly puritanical republic. It had renounced its bourgeois origins and elaborated |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 34, "sc": 590, "ep": 34, "ec": 1268} | 449 | Q8676 | 34 | 590 | 34 | 1,268 | American Civil War | Nationalism and honor | and painfully rationalized its institutional, legal, metaphysical, and religious defenses ... When the crisis came it chose to fight. It proved to be the death struggle of a society, which went down in ruins.
Perceived insults to Southern collective honor included the enormous popularity of Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) and the actions of abolitionist John Brown in trying to incite a slave rebellion in 1859.
While the South moved towards a Southern nationalism, leaders in the North were also becoming more nationally minded, and they rejected any notion of splitting the Union. The Republican national electoral platform of 1860 warned that Republicans regarded |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 34, "sc": 1268, "ep": 38, "ec": 238} | 449 | Q8676 | 34 | 1,268 | 38 | 238 | American Civil War | Nationalism and honor & Lincoln's election | disunion as treason and would not tolerate it: "We denounce those threats of disunion ... as denying the vital principles of a free government, and as an avowal of contemplated treason, which it is the imperative duty of an indignant people sternly to rebuke and forever silence." The South ignored the warnings: Southerners did not realize how ardently the North would fight to hold the Union together. Lincoln's election The election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession. Efforts at compromise, including the "Corwin Amendment" and the "Crittenden Compromise", failed.
Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 38, "sc": 238, "ep": 38, "ec": 869} | 449 | Q8676 | 38 | 238 | 38 | 869 | American Civil War | Lincoln's election | the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction. The slave states, which had already become a minority in the House of Representatives, were now facing a future as a perpetual minority in the Senate and Electoral College against an increasingly powerful North. Before Lincoln took office in March 1861, seven slave states had declared their secession and joined to form the Confederacy.
According to Lincoln, the people had shown that they can be successful in establishing and administering a republic, but a third challenge faced the nation, maintaining a republic based on the people's vote against an |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 38, "sc": 869, "ep": 42, "ec": 563} | 449 | Q8676 | 38 | 869 | 42 | 563 | American Civil War | Lincoln's election & Secession crisis | attempt to overthrow it. Secession crisis The election of Lincoln provoked the legislature of South Carolina to call a state convention to consider secession. Prior to the war, South Carolina did more than any other Southern state to advance the notion that a state had the right to nullify federal laws, and even to secede from the United States. The convention summoned unanimously voted to secede on December 20, 1860, and adopted the "Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union". It argued for states' rights for slave owners in |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 42, "sc": 563, "ep": 42, "ec": 1250} | 449 | Q8676 | 42 | 563 | 42 | 1,250 | American Civil War | Secession crisis | the South, but contained a complaint about states' rights in the North in the form of opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act, claiming that Northern states were not fulfilling their federal obligations under the Constitution. The "cotton states" of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed suit, seceding in January and February 1861.
Among the ordinances of secession passed by the individual states, those of three—Texas, Alabama, and Virginia—specifically mentioned the plight of the "slaveholding states" at the hands of northern abolitionists. The rest make no mention of the slavery issue, and are often brief announcements of the dissolution of |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 42, "sc": 1250, "ep": 42, "ec": 1920} | 449 | Q8676 | 42 | 1,250 | 42 | 1,920 | American Civil War | Secession crisis | ties by the legislatures. However, at least four states—South Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia, and Texas—also passed lengthy and detailed explanations of their causes for secession, all of which laid the blame squarely on the movement to abolish slavery and that movement's influence over the politics of the northern states. The southern states believed slaveholding was a constitutional right because of the Fugitive Slave Clause of the Constitution. These states agreed to form a new federal government, the Confederate States of America, on February 4, 1861. They took control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries with little resistance from |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 42, "sc": 1920, "ep": 42, "ec": 2522} | 449 | Q8676 | 42 | 1,920 | 42 | 2,522 | American Civil War | Secession crisis | outgoing President James Buchanan, whose term ended on March 4, 1861. Buchanan said that the Dred Scott decision was proof that the South had no reason for secession, and that the Union "was intended to be perpetual", but that "The power by force of arms to compel a State to remain in the Union" was not among the "enumerated powers granted to Congress". One quarter of the U.S. Army—the entire garrison in Texas—was surrendered in February 1861 to state forces by its commanding general, David E. Twiggs, who then joined the Confederacy.
As Southerners resigned their seats in the Senate and |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 42, "sc": 2522, "ep": 42, "ec": 3160} | 449 | Q8676 | 42 | 2,522 | 42 | 3,160 | American Civil War | Secession crisis | the House, Republicans were able to pass bills for projects that had been blocked by Southern Senators before the war. These included the Morrill Tariff, land grant colleges (the Morrill Act), a Homestead Act, a transcontinental railroad (the Pacific Railroad Acts), the National Bank Act and the authorization of United States Notes by the Legal Tender Act of 1862. The Revenue Act of 1861 introduced the income tax to help finance the war.
On December 18, 1860, the Crittenden Compromise was proposed to re-establish the Missouri Compromise line by constitutionally banning slavery in territories to the north of the line while |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 42, "sc": 3160, "ep": 42, "ec": 3799} | 449 | Q8676 | 42 | 3,160 | 42 | 3,799 | American Civil War | Secession crisis | guaranteeing it to the south. The adoption of this compromise likely would have prevented the secession of every southern state apart from South Carolina, but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected it. It was then proposed to hold a national referendum on the compromise. The Republicans again rejected the idea, although a majority of both Northerners and Southerners would likely have voted in favor of it. A pre-war February Peace Conference of 1861 met in Washington, proposing a solution similar to that of the Crittenden compromise, it was rejected by Congress. The Republicans proposed an alternative compromise to not interfere with |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 42, "sc": 3799, "ep": 42, "ec": 4433} | 449 | Q8676 | 42 | 3,799 | 42 | 4,433 | American Civil War | Secession crisis | slavery where it existed but the South regarded it as insufficient. Nonetheless, the remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy following a two-to-one no-vote in Virginia's First Secessionist Convention on April 4, 1861.
On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called any secession "legally void". He had no intent to invade Southern states, nor did he intend to end slavery where it existed, but |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 42, "sc": 4433, "ep": 42, "ec": 5033} | 449 | Q8676 | 42 | 4,433 | 42 | 5,033 | American Civil War | Secession crisis | said that he would use force to maintain possession of Federal property. The government would make no move to recover post offices, and if resisted, mail delivery would end at state lines. Where popular conditions did not allow peaceful enforcement of Federal law, U.S. marshals and judges would be withdrawn. No mention was made of bullion lost from U.S. mints in Louisiana, Georgia, and North Carolina. He stated that it would be U.S. policy to only collect import duties at its ports; there could be no serious injury to the South to justify armed revolution during his administration. His speech |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 42, "sc": 5033, "ep": 42, "ec": 5655} | 449 | Q8676 | 42 | 5,033 | 42 | 5,655 | American Civil War | Secession crisis | closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union, famously calling on "the mystic chords of memory" binding the two regions.
The South sent delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with Confederate agents because he claimed the Confederacy was not a legitimate government, and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government. Secretary of State William Seward, who at the time saw himself as the real governor or "prime minister" behind |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 42, "sc": 5655, "ep": 46, "ec": 248} | 449 | Q8676 | 42 | 5,655 | 46 | 248 | American Civil War | Secession crisis & Battle of Fort Sumter | the throne of the inexperienced Lincoln, engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed. President Lincoln was determined to hold all remaining Union-occupied forts in the Confederacy: Fort Monroe in Virginia, Fort Pickens, Fort Jefferson and Fort Taylor in Florida, and Fort Sumter – located at the cockpit of secession in Charleston, South Carolina. Battle of Fort Sumter Fort Sumter was located in the middle of the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Its garrison recently moved there to avoid incidents with local militias in the streets of the city. Lincoln told its commander, Maj. Anderson to hold on until fired |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 46, "sc": 248, "ep": 46, "ec": 955} | 449 | Q8676 | 46 | 248 | 46 | 955 | American Civil War | Battle of Fort Sumter | upon. Confederate president Jefferson Davis ordered the surrender of the fort. Anderson gave a conditional reply that the Confederate government rejected, and Davis ordered General P. G. T. Beauregard to attack the fort before a relief expedition could arrive. He bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12–13, forcing its capitulation.
The attack on Fort Sumter rallied the North to the defense of American nationalism. Historian Allan Nevins underscored the significance of the event:
"The thunderclap of Sumter produced a startling crystallization of Northern sentiment. ... Anger swept the land. From every side came news of mass meetings, speeches, resolutions, tenders of business support, the |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 46, "sc": 955, "ep": 46, "ec": 1625} | 449 | Q8676 | 46 | 955 | 46 | 1,625 | American Civil War | Battle of Fort Sumter | muster of companies and regiments, the determined action of governors and legislatures."
Union leaders incorrectly assumed that only a minority of Southerners were in favor of secession and that there were large numbers of southern Unionists that could be counted on. Had Northerners realized that most Southerners favored secession, they might have hesitated at attempting the enormous task of conquering a united South.
Lincoln called on all the states to send forces to recapture the fort and other federal properties. The scale of the rebellion appeared to be small, so he called for only 75,000 volunteers for 90 days. The governor of Massachusetts |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 46, "sc": 1625, "ep": 50, "ec": 109} | 449 | Q8676 | 46 | 1,625 | 50 | 109 | American Civil War | Battle of Fort Sumter & Attitude of the border states | had state regiments on trains headed south the next day. In western Missouri, local secessionists seized Liberty Arsenal. On May 3, 1861, Lincoln called for an additional 42,000 volunteers for a period of three years.
Four states in the middle and upper South had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures, but now Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina refused to send forces against their neighbors, declared their secession, and joined the Confederacy. To reward Virginia, the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond. Attitude of the border states Maryland, Delaware, Missouri, and Kentucky were slave states that were opposed to both secession and coercing |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 50, "sc": 109, "ep": 50, "ec": 754} | 449 | Q8676 | 50 | 109 | 50 | 754 | American Civil War | Attitude of the border states | the South. West Virginia then joined them as an additional border state after it separated from Virginia and became a state of the Union in 1863.
Maryland's territory surrounded the United States' capital of Washington, D.C. and could cut it off from the North. It had numerous anti-Lincoln officials who tolerated anti-army rioting in Baltimore and the burning of bridges, both aimed at hindering the passage of troops to the South. Maryland's legislature voted overwhelmingly (53–13) to stay in the Union, but also rejected hostilities with its southern neighbors, voting to close Maryland's rail lines to prevent them from being used |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 50, "sc": 754, "ep": 50, "ec": 1403} | 449 | Q8676 | 50 | 754 | 50 | 1,403 | American Civil War | Attitude of the border states | for war. Lincoln responded by establishing martial law and unilaterally suspending habeas corpus in Maryland, along with sending in militia units from the North. Lincoln rapidly took control of Maryland and the District of Columbia by seizing many prominent figures, including arresting 1/3 of the members of the Maryland General Assembly on the day it reconvened. All were held without trial, ignoring a ruling by the Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Roger Taney, a Maryland native, that only Congress (and not the president) could suspend habeas corpus (Ex parte Merryman). Indeed, federal troops imprisoned a prominent Baltimore newspaper |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 50, "sc": 1403, "ep": 50, "ec": 2088} | 449 | Q8676 | 50 | 1,403 | 50 | 2,088 | American Civil War | Attitude of the border states | editor, Frank Key Howard, Francis Scott Key's grandson, after he criticized Lincoln in an editorial for ignoring the Supreme Court Chief Justice's ruling.
In Missouri, an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union. When pro-Confederate Governor Claiborne F. Jackson called out the state militia, it was attacked by federal forces under General Nathaniel Lyon, who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state (see also: Missouri secession). In the resulting vacuum, the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the Unionist provisional government of Missouri.
Kentucky did not |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 50, "sc": 2088, "ep": 50, "ec": 2778} | 449 | Q8676 | 50 | 2,088 | 50 | 2,778 | American Civil War | Attitude of the border states | secede; for a time, it declared itself neutral. When Confederate forces entered the state in September 1861, neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its Union status, while trying to maintain slavery. During a brief invasion by Confederate forces in 1861, Confederate sympathizers organized a secession convention, formed the shadow Confederate Government of Kentucky, inaugurated a governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy. Its jurisdiction extended only as far as Confederate battle lines in the Commonwealth and went into exile for good after October 1862.
After Virginia's secession, a Unionist government in Wheeling asked 48 counties to vote on an ordinance to |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 50, "sc": 2778, "ep": 52, "ec": 8} | 449 | Q8676 | 50 | 2,778 | 52 | 8 | American Civil War | Attitude of the border states & General features of the War | create a new state on October 24, 1861. A voter turnout of 34 percent approved the statehood bill (96 percent approving). The inclusion of 24 secessionist counties in the state and the ensuing guerrilla war engaged about 40,000 Federal troops for much of the war. Congress admitted West Virginia to the Union on June 20, 1863. West Virginia provided about 20,000–22,000 soldiers to both the Confederacy and the Union.
A Unionist secession attempt occurred in East Tennessee, but was suppressed by the Confederacy, which arrested over 3,000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union. They were held without trial. General |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 52, "sc": 7, "ep": 58, "ec": 92} | 449 | Q8676 | 52 | 7 | 58 | 92 | American Civil War | General features of the War & Mobilization | features of the War The Civil War was a contest marked by the ferocity and frequency of battle. Over four years, 237 named battles were fought, as were many more minor actions and skirmishes, which were often characterized by their bitter intensity and high casualties. In his book The American Civil War, John Keegan writes that "The American Civil War was to prove one of the most ferocious wars ever fought". Without geographic objectives, the only target for each side was the enemy's soldier. Mobilization As the first seven states began organizing a Confederacy in Montgomery, the entire U.S. army |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 58, "sc": 92, "ep": 58, "ec": 684} | 449 | Q8676 | 58 | 92 | 58 | 684 | American Civil War | Mobilization | numbered 16,000. However, Northern governors had begun to mobilize their militias. The Confederate Congress authorized the new nation up to 100,000 troops sent by governors as early as February. By May, Jefferson Davis was pushing for 100,000 men under arms for one year or the duration, and that was answered in kind by the U.S. Congress.
In the first year of the war, both sides had far more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip. After the initial enthusiasm faded, reliance on the cohort of young men who came of age every year and wanted to join was not enough. |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 58, "sc": 684, "ep": 58, "ec": 1336} | 449 | Q8676 | 58 | 684 | 58 | 1,336 | American Civil War | Mobilization | Both sides used a draft law—conscription—as a device to encourage or force volunteering; relatively few were drafted and served. The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for young men aged 18 to 35; overseers of slaves, government officials, and clergymen were exempt. The U.S. Congress followed in July, authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers. European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland.
When the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863, ex-slaves were energetically recruited by the |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 58, "sc": 1336, "ep": 58, "ec": 1947} | 449 | Q8676 | 58 | 1,336 | 58 | 1,947 | American Civil War | Mobilization | states, and used to meet the state quotas. States and local communities offered higher and higher cash bonuses for white volunteers. Congress tightened the law in March 1863. Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or, until mid-1864, pay commutation money. Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home. There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, especially in Catholic areas. The draft riot in New York City in July 1863 involved Irish immigrants |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 58, "sc": 1947, "ep": 58, "ec": 2570} | 449 | Q8676 | 58 | 1,947 | 58 | 2,570 | American Civil War | Mobilization | who had been signed up as citizens to swell the vote of the city's Democratic political machine, not realizing it made them liable for the draft. Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted.
In both the North and South, the draft laws were highly unpopular. In the North, some 120,000 men evaded conscription, many of them fleeing to Canada, and another 280,000 soldiers deserted during the war. At least 100,000 Southerners deserted, or about 10 percent. In the South, many men deserted temporarily to take |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 58, "sc": 2570, "ep": 58, "ec": 3195} | 449 | Q8676 | 58 | 2,570 | 58 | 3,195 | American Civil War | Mobilization | care of their distressed families, then returned to their units. In the North, "bounty jumpers" enlisted to get the generous bonus, deserted, then went back to a second recruiting station under a different name to sign up again for a second bonus; 141 were caught and executed.
From a tiny frontier force in 1860, the Union and Confederate armies had grown into the "largest and most efficient armies in the world" within a few years. European observers at the time dismissed them as amateur and unprofessional, but British historian John Keegan concluded that each outmatched the French, Prussian and Russian armies |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 58, "sc": 3195, "ep": 62, "ec": 493} | 449 | Q8676 | 58 | 3,195 | 62 | 493 | American Civil War | Mobilization & Women | of the time, and but for the Atlantic, would have threatened any of them with defeat. Women The number of women who served as soldiers during the war is estimated at between 400 and 750, although an accurate count is impossible because the women had to disguise themselves as men.
Women also served on the Union hospital ship Red Rover and nursed Union and Confederate troops at field hospitals.
Mary Edwards Walker, the only woman to ever receive the Medal of Honor, served in the Union Army and was given the medal for her efforts to treat the wounded during the war. |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 62, "sc": 493, "ep": 66, "ec": 436} | 449 | Q8676 | 62 | 493 | 66 | 436 | American Civil War | Women & Motivation | Her name was deleted from the Army Medal of Honor Roll in 1917 (along with over 900 other, male MOH recipients); however, it was restored in 1977. Motivation Perman and Taylor (2010) write that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years:
Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology, holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty, Union, or state rights, or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery. Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight, such as the |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 66, "sc": 436, "ep": 70, "ec": 266} | 449 | Q8676 | 66 | 436 | 70 | 266 | American Civil War | Motivation & Prisoners | defense of one's home and family, or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men. Most historians agree that no matter what a soldier thought about when he went into the war, the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes altered his reasons for continuing the fight. Prisoners At the start of the civil war, a system of paroles operated. Captives agreed not to fight until they were officially exchanged. Meanwhile, they were held in camps run by their army. They were paid, but they were not allowed to perform any military duties. The system |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 70, "sc": 266, "ep": 74, "ec": 361} | 449 | Q8676 | 70 | 266 | 74 | 361 | American Civil War | Prisoners & Naval tactics | of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners. After that, about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons during the war, accounting for nearly 10 percent of the conflict's fatalities. Naval tactics The small U.S. Navy of 1861 was rapidly enlarged to 6,000 officers and 45,000 men in 1865, with 671 vessels, having a tonnage of 510,396. Its mission was to blockade Confederate ports, take control of the river system, defend against Confederate raiders on the high seas, and be ready for a possible war with the British Royal Navy. Meanwhile, the main riverine |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 74, "sc": 361, "ep": 78, "ec": 302} | 449 | Q8676 | 74 | 361 | 78 | 302 | American Civil War | Naval tactics & Modern navy evolves | war was fought in the West, where a series of major rivers gave access to the Confederate heartland. The U.S. Navy eventually gained control of the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers. In the East, the Navy supplied and moved army forces about, and occasionally shelled Confederate installations. Modern navy evolves The Civil War occurred during the early stages of the industrial revolution. Many naval innovations emerged during this time, most notably the advent of the ironclad warship. It began when the Confederacy, knowing they had to meet or match the Union's naval superiority, responded to the Union blockade |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 78, "sc": 302, "ep": 78, "ec": 1021} | 449 | Q8676 | 78 | 302 | 78 | 1,021 | American Civil War | Modern navy evolves | by building or converting more than 130 vessels, including twenty-six ironclads and floating batteries. Only half of these saw active service. Many were equipped with ram bows, creating "ram fever" among Union squadrons wherever they threatened. But in the face of overwhelming Union superiority and the Union's ironclad warships, they were unsuccessful.
In addition to ocean-going warships coming up the Mississippi, the Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats. Shipyards at Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis built new boats or modified steamboats for action.
The Confederacy experimented with the submarine CSS Hunley, which did not work satisfactorily, and with building an ironclad |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 78, "sc": 1021, "ep": 78, "ec": 1647} | 449 | Q8676 | 78 | 1,021 | 78 | 1,647 | American Civil War | Modern navy evolves | ship, CSS Virginia, which was based on rebuilding a sunken Union ship, Merrimack. On its first foray on March 8, 1862, Virginia inflicted significant damage to the Union's wooden fleet, but the next day the first Union ironclad, USS Monitor, arrived to challenge it in the Chesapeake Bay. The resulting three hour Battle of Hampton Roads was a draw, but it proved that ironclads were effective warships. Not long after the battle the Confederacy was forced to scuttle the Virginia to prevent its capture, while the Union built many copies of the Monitor. Lacking the technology and infrastructure to build effective warships, |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 78, "sc": 1647, "ep": 82, "ec": 583} | 449 | Q8676 | 78 | 1,647 | 82 | 583 | American Civil War | Modern navy evolves & Union blockade | the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Britain. Union blockade By early 1861, General Winfield Scott had devised the Anaconda Plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible. Scott argued that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy. Lincoln adopted parts of the plan, but he overruled Scott's caution about 90-day volunteers. Public opinion, however, demanded an immediate attack by the army to capture Richmond.
In April 1861, Lincoln announced the Union blockade of all Southern ports; commercial ships could not get insurance and regular traffic ended. The South blundered in embargoing cotton |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 82, "sc": 583, "ep": 86, "ec": 143} | 449 | Q8676 | 82 | 583 | 86 | 143 | American Civil War | Union blockade & Blockade runners | exports in 1861 before the blockade was effective; by the time they realized the mistake, it was too late. "King Cotton" was dead, as the South could export less than 10 percent of its cotton. The blockade shut down the ten Confederate seaports with railheads that moved almost all the cotton, especially New Orleans, Mobile, and Charleston. By June 1861, warships were stationed off the principal Southern ports, and a year later nearly 300 ships were in service. Blockade runners British investors built small, fast, steam-driven blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Britain through Bermuda, Cuba, |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 86, "sc": 143, "ep": 90, "ec": 200} | 449 | Q8676 | 86 | 143 | 90 | 200 | American Civil War | Blockade runners & Economic impact | and the Bahamas in return for high-priced cotton. Many of the ships were designed for speed and were so small that only a small amount of cotton went out. When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were condemned as a Prize of war and sold, with the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen were mostly British, and they were released. Economic impact The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war. There were multiple reasons for this: the severe deterioration of food supplies, especially in cities, the failure of Southern railroads, the loss |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 90, "sc": 200, "ep": 90, "ec": 850} | 449 | Q8676 | 90 | 200 | 90 | 850 | American Civil War | Economic impact | of control of the main rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the seizure of animals and crops by Confederate armies.
Most historians agree that the blockade was a major factor in ruining the Confederate economy; however, Wise argues that the blockade runners provided just enough of a lifeline to allow Lee to continue fighting for additional months, thanks to fresh supplies of 400,000 rifles, lead, blankets, and boots that the homefront economy could no longer supply.
Surdam argues that the blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy, at the cost of few lives in combat. Practically, the entire |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 90, "sc": 850, "ep": 90, "ec": 1479} | 449 | Q8676 | 90 | 850 | 90 | 1,479 | American Civil War | Economic impact | Confederate cotton crop was useless (although it was sold to Union traders), costing the Confederacy its main source of income. Critical imports were scarce and the coastal trade was largely ended as well. The measure of the blockade's success was not the few ships that slipped through, but the thousands that never tried it. Merchant ships owned in Europe could not get insurance and were too slow to evade the blockade, so they stopped calling at Confederate ports.
To fight an offensive war, the Confederacy purchased ships from Britain, converted them to warships, and raided American merchant ships in the Atlantic |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 90, "sc": 1479, "ep": 94, "ec": 293} | 449 | Q8676 | 90 | 1,479 | 94 | 293 | American Civil War | Economic impact & Diplomacy | and Pacific oceans. Insurance rates skyrocketed and the American flag virtually disappeared from international waters. However, the same ships were reflagged with European flags and continued unmolested. After the war, the U.S. demanded that Britain pay for the damage done, and Britain paid the U.S. $15 million in 1871. Diplomacy Although the Confederacy hoped that Britain and France would join them against the Union, this was never likely, and so they instead tried to bring Britain and France in as mediators. The Union, under Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. Seward worked to block this, and threatened war if |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 94, "sc": 293, "ep": 94, "ec": 946} | 449 | Q8676 | 94 | 293 | 94 | 946 | American Civil War | Diplomacy | any country officially recognized the existence of the Confederate States of America. In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war to get cotton, but this did not work. Worse, Europe developed other cotton suppliers, which they found superior, hindering the South's recovery after the war.
Cotton diplomacy proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860–62 crop failures in Europe made the North's grain exports of critical importance. It also helped to turn European opinion further away from the Confederacy. It was |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 94, "sc": 946, "ep": 94, "ec": 1623} | 449 | Q8676 | 94 | 946 | 94 | 1,623 | American Civil War | Diplomacy | said that "King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton", as U.S. grain went from a quarter of the British import trade to almost half. When Britain did face a cotton shortage, it was temporary, being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and India. Meanwhile, the war created employment for arms makers, ironworkers, and British ships to transport weapons.
Lincoln's administration failed to appeal to European public opinion. Diplomats explained that the United States was not committed to the ending of slavery, and instead repeated legalistic arguments about the unconstitutionality of secession. Confederate representatives, on the other hand, were much more |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 94, "sc": 1623, "ep": 94, "ec": 2381} | 449 | Q8676 | 94 | 1,623 | 94 | 2,381 | American Civil War | Diplomacy | successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for liberty, their commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy. The European aristocracy was "absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed. European government leaders welcomed the fragmentation of the ascendant American Republic."
U.S. minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams proved particularly adept and convinced Britain not to boldly challenge the blockade. The Confederacy purchased several warships from commercial shipbuilders in Britain (CSS Alabama, CSS Shenandoah, CSS Tennessee, CSS Tallahassee, CSS Florida, and some others). The most famous, the |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 94, "sc": 2381, "ep": 94, "ec": 3047} | 449 | Q8676 | 94 | 2,381 | 94 | 3,047 | American Civil War | Diplomacy | CSS Alabama, did considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes. However, public opinion against slavery created a political liability for politicians in Britain, where the antislavery movement was powerful.
War loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. and Britain over the Trent affair, involving the U.S. Navy's boarding of the British ship Trent and seizure of two Confederate diplomats. However, London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln released the two. In 1862, the British considered mediation between North and South, though even such an offer would have risked war with the United States. British Prime Minister |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 94, "sc": 3047, "ep": 96, "ec": 15} | 449 | Q8676 | 94 | 3,047 | 96 | 15 | American Civil War | Diplomacy & Eastern theater | Lord Palmerston reportedly read Uncle Tom's Cabin three times when deciding on this.
The Union victory in the Battle of Antietam caused them to delay this decision. The Emancipation Proclamation over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France's seizure of Mexico ultimately deterred them from war with the Union. Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris. After 1863, the Polish revolt against Russia further distracted the European powers, and ensured that they would remain neutral. Eastern theater |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 98, "sc": 0, "ep": 110, "ec": 26} | 449 | Q8676 | 98 | 0 | 110 | 26 | American Civil War | Eastern theater & Western theater & Background & Background | The Eastern theater refers to the military operations east of the Appalachian Mountains, including the states of Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, the District of Columbia, and the coastal fortifications and seaports of North Carolina. Western theater The Western theater refers to military operations between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River, including the states of Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, North Carolina, Kentucky, South Carolina and Tennessee, as well as parts of Louisiana. Background The Trans-Mississippi theater refers to military operations west of the Mississippi River, not including the areas bordering the Pacific Ocean. Background The Lower Seaboard theater |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 110, "sc": 26, "ep": 118, "ec": 141} | 449 | Q8676 | 110 | 26 | 118 | 141 | American Civil War | Background & Pacific Coast theater & Conquest of Virginia | refers to military and naval operations that occurred near the coastal areas of the Southeast: in Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Texas) as well as southern part of the Mississippi River (Port Hudson and south). Union Naval activities were dictated by the Anaconda Plan. Pacific Coast theater The Pacific Coast theater refers to military operations on the Pacific Ocean and in the states and Territories west of the Continental Divide. Conquest of Virginia At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, and put |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 118, "sc": 141, "ep": 118, "ec": 753} | 449 | Q8676 | 118 | 141 | 118 | 753 | American Civil War | Conquest of Virginia | Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of total war and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war. This was total war not in killing civilians but rather in taking provisions and forage and destroying homes, farms, and railroads, that Grant said "would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion. This policy I believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end." Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 118, "sc": 753, "ep": 122, "ec": 127} | 449 | Q8676 | 118 | 753 | 122 | 127 | American Civil War | Conquest of Virginia & Grant's Overland Campaign | entire Confederacy from multiple directions. Generals George Meade and Benjamin Butler were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General Franz Sigel (and later Philip Sheridan) were to attack the Shenandoah Valley, General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the sea (the Atlantic Ocean), Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture Mobile, Alabama. Grant's Overland Campaign Grant's army set out on the Overland Campaign with the goal of drawing Lee into a defense of Richmond, where they would attempt |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 122, "sc": 127, "ep": 122, "ec": 767} | 449 | Q8676 | 122 | 127 | 122 | 767 | American Civil War | Grant's Overland Campaign | to pin down and destroy the Confederate army. The Union army first attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles, notably at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor. These battles resulted in heavy losses on both sides, and forced Lee's Confederates to fall back repeatedly. At the Battle of Yellow Tavern, the Confederates lost Jeb Stuart.
An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the Bermuda Hundred river bend. Each battle resulted in setbacks for the Union that mirrored what they had suffered under prior generals, though unlike those prior generals, Grant fought |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 122, "sc": 767, "ep": 126, "ec": 266} | 449 | Q8676 | 122 | 767 | 126 | 266 | American Civil War | Grant's Overland Campaign & Sheridan's Valley Campaign | on rather than retreat. Grant was tenacious and kept pressing Lee's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. While Lee was preparing for an attack on Richmond, Grant unexpectedly turned south to cross the James River and began the protracted Siege of Petersburg, where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months. Sheridan's Valley Campaign Grant finally found a commander, General Philip Sheridan, aggressive enough to prevail in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Sheridan was initially repelled at the Battle of New Market by former U.S. Vice President and Confederate Gen. John C. Breckinridge. The Battle of |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 126, "sc": 266, "ep": 130, "ec": 175} | 449 | Q8676 | 126 | 266 | 130 | 175 | American Civil War | Sheridan's Valley Campaign & Sherman's March to the Sea | New Market was the Confederacy's last major victory of the war, and included a charge by teenage VMI cadets. After redoubling his efforts, Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at the Battle of Cedar Creek. Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia. Sherman's March to the Sea Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John Bell Hood along the way. The fall of Atlanta on September |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 130, "sc": 175, "ep": 130, "ec": 810} | 449 | Q8676 | 130 | 175 | 130 | 810 | American Civil War | Sherman's March to the Sea | 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as president. Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the Franklin–Nashville Campaign. Union Maj. Gen. John Schofield defeated Hood at the Battle of Franklin, and George H. Thomas dealt Hood a massive defeat at the Battle of Nashville, effectively destroying Hood's army.
Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman's army marched with an unknown destination, laying waste to about 20 percent of the farms in Georgia in his "March to the Sea". He reached the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah, Georgia in December 1864. |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 130, "sc": 810, "ep": 134, "ec": 354} | 449 | Q8676 | 130 | 810 | 134 | 354 | American Civil War | Sherman's March to the Sea & The Waterloo of the Confederacy | Sherman's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; there were no major battles along the March. Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south, increasing the pressure on Lee's army. The Waterloo of the Confederacy Lee's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant's. One last Confederate attempt to break the Union hold on Petersburg failed at the decisive Battle of Five Forks (sometimes called "the Waterloo of the Confederacy") on April 1. This meant that the Union now controlled the entire perimeter surrounding Richmond-Petersburg, |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 134, "sc": 354, "ep": 138, "ec": 307} | 449 | Q8676 | 134 | 354 | 138 | 307 | American Civil War | The Waterloo of the Confederacy & Confederacy surrenders | completely cutting it off from the Confederacy. Realizing that the capital was now lost, Lee decided to evacuate his army. The Confederate capital fell to the Union XXV Corps, composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west after a defeat at Sayler's Creek. Confederacy surrenders Initially, Lee did not intend to surrender, but planned to regroup at the village of Appomattox Court House, where supplies were to be waiting, and then continue the war. Grant chased Lee and got in front of him, so that when Lee's army reached Appomattox Court House, they were surrounded. After an initial |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 138, "sc": 307, "ep": 138, "ec": 939} | 449 | Q8676 | 138 | 307 | 138 | 939 | American Civil War | Confederacy surrenders | battle, Lee decided that the fight was now hopeless, and surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at the McLean House. In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse, Traveller.
On April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth, a Southern sympathizer. Lincoln died early the next morning, and Andrew Johnson became the president. Meanwhile, Confederate forces across the South surrendered as news of Lee's surrender reached them. On April 26, 1865, |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 138, "sc": 939, "ep": 140, "ec": 16} | 449 | Q8676 | 138 | 939 | 140 | 16 | American Civil War | Confederacy surrenders & Slavery as a war issue | General Joseph E. Johnston surrendered nearly 90,000 men of the Army of Tennessee to Major General William Tecumseh Sherman at the Bennett Place near present-day Durham, North Carolina. It proved to be the largest surrender of Confederate forces, effectively bringing the war to an end. President Johnson officially declared a virtual end to the insurrection on May 9, 1865; President Jefferson Davis was captured the following day. On June 2, Kirby Smith officially surrendered his troops in the Trans-Mississippi Department. On June 23, Cherokee leader Stand Watie became the last Confederate general to surrender his forces. Slavery as a war |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 140, "sc": 16, "ep": 142, "ec": 627} | 449 | Q8676 | 140 | 16 | 142 | 627 | American Civil War | Slavery as a war issue | issue While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting to preserve slavery, most of the officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee's army had close family ties to slavery. To Northerners, in contrast, the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery. Abraham Lincoln consistently made preserving the Union the central goal of the war, though he increasingly saw slavery as a crucial issue and made ending it an additional goal. Lincoln's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation angered both Peace Democrats ("Copperheads") and War Democrats, but energized most Republicans. By warning |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 142, "sc": 627, "ep": 146, "ec": 290} | 449 | Q8676 | 142 | 627 | 146 | 290 | American Civil War | Slavery as a war issue & Emancipation Proclamation | that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the 1862 elections, but they did not gain control of Congress. The Republicans' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with the Democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the northern state of Ohio when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment. Emancipation Proclamation The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African-Americans, both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army. About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 146, "sc": 290, "ep": 146, "ec": 952} | 449 | Q8676 | 146 | 290 | 146 | 952 | American Civil War | Emancipation Proclamation | for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery.
During the Civil War, sentiment concerning slaves, enslavement and emancipation in the United States was divided. In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, and that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game." Copperheads and some War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union.
At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont (in Missouri) and David |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 146, "sc": 952, "ep": 146, "ec": 1585} | 449 | Q8676 | 146 | 952 | 146 | 1,585 | American Civil War | Emancipation Proclamation | Hunter (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his gradual plan based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected. But only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln's gradual plan, which was enacted by Congress. When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat". Lincoln laid the groundwork for |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 146, "sc": 1585, "ep": 146, "ec": 2262} | 449 | Q8676 | 146 | 1,585 | 146 | 2,262 | American Civil War | Emancipation Proclamation | public support in an open letter published in abolitionist Horace Greeley's newspaper.
In September 1862, the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity, and the subsequent War Governors' Conference added support for the proclamation. Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, and his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. In his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong ... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling ... I claim not to have controlled |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 146, "sc": 2262, "ep": 146, "ec": 2997} | 449 | Q8676 | 146 | 2,262 | 146 | 2,997 | American Civil War | Emancipation Proclamation | events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me."
Lincoln's moderate approach succeeded in inducing border states, War Democrats and emancipated slaves to fight for the Union. The Union-controlled border states (Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia) and Union-controlled regions around New Orleans, Norfolk and elsewhere, were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. All abolished slavery on their own, except Kentucky and Delaware.
Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President's war powers, it only included territory held by Confederates at the time. However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union's |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 146, "sc": 2997, "ep": 150, "ec": 322} | 449 | Q8676 | 146 | 2,997 | 150 | 322 | American Civil War | Emancipation Proclamation & Texas v. White | definition of liberty. The Emancipation Proclamation greatly reduced the Confederacy's hope of getting aid from Britain or France. By late 1864, Lincoln was playing a leading role in getting Congress to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment, which made emancipation universal and permanent. Texas v. White In Texas v. White, 74 U.S. 700 (1869) the United States Supreme Court ruled that Texas had remained a state ever since it first joined the Union, despite claims that it joined the Confederate States; the court further held that the Constitution did not permit states to unilaterally secede from the United States, and that |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 150, "sc": 322, "ep": 154, "ec": 467} | 449 | Q8676 | 150 | 322 | 154 | 467 | American Civil War | Texas v. White & Reconstruction | the ordinances of secession, and all the acts of the legislatures within seceding states intended to give effect to such ordinances, were "absolutely null", under the constitution. Reconstruction Reconstruction began during the war, with the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, and it continued until 1877. It comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the outstanding issues of the war's aftermath, the most important of which were the three "Reconstruction Amendments" to the Constitution, which remain in effect to the present time: the 13th (1865), the 14th (1868) and the 15th (1870). From the Union perspective, the goals of Reconstruction were |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 154, "sc": 467, "ep": 154, "ec": 1131} | 449 | Q8676 | 154 | 467 | 154 | 1,131 | American Civil War | Reconstruction | to consolidate the Union victory on the battlefield by reuniting the Union; to guarantee a "republican form of government for the ex-Confederate states; and to permanently end slavery—and prevent semi-slavery status.
President Johnson took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865, when each ex-rebel state repudiated secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment. Radical Republicans demanded proof that Confederate nationalism was dead and that the slaves were truly free. They came to the fore after the 1866 elections and undid much of Johnson's work. In 1872 the "Liberal Republicans" argued that the war |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 154, "sc": 1131, "ep": 158, "ec": 107} | 449 | Q8676 | 154 | 1,131 | 158 | 107 | American Civil War | Reconstruction & Post-War Politics | goals had been achieved and that Reconstruction should end. They ran a presidential ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated. In 1874, Democrats, primarily Southern, took control of Congress and opposed any more reconstruction. The Compromise of 1877 closed with a national consensus that the Civil War had finally ended. With the withdrawal of federal troops, however, whites retook control of every Southern legislature; the Jim Crow period of disenfranchisement and legal segregation was about to begin. Post-War Politics The Civil War would have a huge impact on American politics in the years to come. Many veterans on the both |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 158, "sc": 107, "ep": 162, "ec": 468} | 449 | Q8676 | 158 | 107 | 162 | 468 | American Civil War | Post-War Politics & Memory and historiography | sides were subsequently elected to political office, including five U. S. Presidents: U. S. Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes, James Garfield, Benjamin Harrison, and William McKinley. Memory and historiography The Civil War is one of the central events in American collective memory. There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books and archival collections. The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, in the war's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war. The last theme includes moral evaluations |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 162, "sc": 468, "ep": 162, "ec": 1102} | 449 | Q8676 | 162 | 468 | 162 | 1,102 | American Civil War | Memory and historiography | of racism and slavery, heroism in combat and heroism behind the lines, and the issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an "Empire of Liberty" influencing the world.
Professional historians have paid much more attention to the causes of the war, than to the war itself. Military history has largely developed outside academia, leading to a proliferation of studies by non-scholars who nevertheless are familiar with the primary sources and pay close attention to battles and campaigns, and who write for the general public, rather than the scholarly community. Bruce Catton and Shelby Foote are among |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 162, "sc": 1102, "ep": 162, "ec": 1782} | 449 | Q8676 | 162 | 1,102 | 162 | 1,782 | American Civil War | Memory and historiography | the best-known writers. Practically every major figure in the war, both North and South, has had a serious biographical study. Deeply religious Southerners saw the hand of God in history, which demonstrated His wrath at their sinfulness, or His rewards for their suffering. Historian Wilson Fallin has examined the sermons of white and black Baptist preachers after the War. Southern white preachers said:
God had chastised them and given them a special mission—to maintain orthodoxy, strict biblicism, personal piety, and traditional race relations. Slavery, they insisted, had not been sinful. Rather, emancipation was a historical tragedy and the end of Reconstruction |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 162, "sc": 1782, "ep": 162, "ec": 2430} | 449 | Q8676 | 162 | 1,782 | 162 | 2,430 | American Civil War | Memory and historiography | was a clear sign of God's favor.
In sharp contrast, Black preachers interpreted the Civil War as:
God's gift of freedom. They appreciated opportunities to exercise their independence, to worship in their own way, to affirm their worth and dignity, and to proclaim the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man. Most of all, they could form their own churches, associations, and conventions. These institutions offered self-help and racial uplift, and provided places where the gospel of liberation could be proclaimed. As a result, black preachers continued to insist that God would protect and help him; God would be their rock |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 162, "sc": 2430, "ep": 166, "ec": 577} | 449 | Q8676 | 162 | 2,430 | 166 | 577 | American Civil War | Memory and historiography & Lost Cause | in a stormy land. Lost Cause Memory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the "Lost Cause": that the Confederate cause was a just and heroic one. The myth shaped regional identity and race relations for generations. Alan T. Nolan notes that the Lost Cause was expressly "a rationalization, a cover-up to vindicate the name and fame" of those in rebellion. Some claims revolve around the insignificance of slavery; some appeals highlight cultural differences between North and South; the military conflict by Confederate actors is idealized; in any case, secession was said to be lawful. |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 166, "sc": 577, "ep": 170, "ec": 245} | 449 | Q8676 | 166 | 577 | 170 | 245 | American Civil War | Lost Cause & Beardian historiography | Nolan argues that the adoption of the Lost Cause perspective facilitated the reunification of the North and the South while excusing the "virulent racism" of the 19th century, sacrificing African-American progress to a white man's reunification. He also deems the Lost Cause "a caricature of the truth. This caricature wholly misrepresents and distorts the facts of the matter" in every instance. Beardian historiography The economic and political-power determinism forcefully presented by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard in The Rise of American Civilization (1927) was highly influential among historians and the general public until the civil rights movement of |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 170, "sc": 245, "ep": 170, "ec": 915} | 449 | Q8676 | 170 | 245 | 170 | 915 | American Civil War | Beardian historiography | the 1950s and 1960s. The Beards downplayed slavery, abolitionism, and issues of morality. They ignored constitutional issues of states' rights and even ignored American nationalism as the force that finally led to victory in the war. Indeed, the ferocious combat itself was passed over as merely an ephemeral event. Much more important was the calculus of class conflict. The Beards announced that the Civil War was really:
[A] social cataclysm in which the capitalists, laborers, and farmers of the North and West drove from power in the national government the planting aristocracy of the South.
The Beards themselves abandoned their interpretation by |
{"datasets_id": 449, "wiki_id": "Q8676", "sp": 170, "sc": 915, "ep": 174, "ec": 458} | 449 | Q8676 | 170 | 915 | 174 | 458 | American Civil War | Beardian historiography & Battlefield preservation | the 1940s and it became defunct among historians in the 1950s, when scholars shifted to an emphasis on slavery. However, Beardian themes still echo among Lost Cause writers. Battlefield preservation The first efforts at Civil War battlefield preservation and memorialization came during the war itself with the establishment of National Cemeteries at Gettysburg, Mill Springs and Chattanooga. Soldiers began erecting markers on battlefields beginning with the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861, but the oldest surviving monument is the Hazen monument, erected at Stones River near Murfreesboro, Tennessee, in the summer of 1863 by soldiers in Union Col. |
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